PLES = AO { | aot ai “tl =< & Darn) ja \ea 8 |) )) = Zi. a a ' Ry . 4 e ' y "7 at Po a La 7 ae J bra ai FURS aie Dtate of Gonnecticrct PUBLIC DOCUMENT No. 18 THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SEGRE TARY OF THE Connecticut Board of Agriculture I gO | LIBRARY NEW YORK BOT ANICAL GARDEN PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE LEGISLATURE Hartford Press The Case, Lockwood & Brainard Company 1902 TO His EXCELLENCY GEORGE P. MCLEAN, Governor of the State of Connecticut : In accordance with the provisions of the Act creating a State Board of Agriculture, I have the honor to present the Report for 1901. JAMES F. BROWN, Secretary. NORTH STONINGTON, December 31, 1901. STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. SOOT OUP. His ExceLLeNcy GEORGE P. McLEAN, ex officio. APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNOR AND SENATE. Cuar.es L. TuTTLe, JAMEs F. Brown, CHARLES E. CHAPMAN, Iverson C. FANTON, Term expires. Hartford, : ; z . 1905 North Stonington, . : 2 L905 Westbrook, A - ; 2 4903 Westport, . : ? : . 1903 APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY. Hartford County, . New Haven County, New London County, Fairfield County, . Windham County, Litchfield County, Middlesex County, Tolland County, EpMUND HALLADAY, Suffield, : . 1905 D. WALTER PaTTEN, North Haven, - 1905 James B. PALMER, Jewett City, . 1» S905 SEAMAN MEAD, Greenwich, . : . 1905 N. G. Witiiams, Brooklyn, . 2 . 1903 EpwIn G. SEELEY, Roxbury, ‘ . 1903 E. D. Hammonp, Cromwell, . : =) 903 CHARLES A. THompson, Melrose, . . 1903 OFFICERS OF THE BOARD. GOVERNOR GEORGE P. McLean, President ex-officio. Epwin G. SEELEY, jJAmes F. Brown, CuHas. A. THOMPSON, Dr. E. H. JENKINs, Dr. W. C. Srurcis, Prof. B. F. Koons, Ne Ss ee LAT I SEAMAN MEap, D. WALTER PATTEN, Rexbury. . Vice-President. North Stonington, Secretary. Melrose, : - Treasurer. New Haven, A Chemist. New Haven, : Botanist. Storrs, . : . L£ntomologist. New Haven, : Pomologist. Auditors. CuaAs. E. CHAPMAN. REPORT. AGRICULTURAL FAIRS IN CONNECTICUT, ror. WirH VISITING DELEGATES FROM BOARD oF AGRICULTURE. Name. New London County Windham County Beacon Valley Berlin Branford Chester Clinton Danbury East Granby Farmington Valley Granby Guilford Harwinton New Milford Newtown Orange Putnam Park Asso’n Rockville Fair Asso’n Simsbury Southington Stafford Springs Suffield Union (Monroe, etc.) Union (Somers, etc.) Waterbury Driving Co. Wethersfield Willimantic Fair Ass'n Woodstock Wolcott Conn. Hort. Soc.* Conn. Dairymen’s Ass. Conn. Pom. Society Place. Date. Norwich Sept. 17-19 Brooklyn Sept. 10-11 Naugatuck \Oct. 1-2 Berlin Sept. 18 Branford Sept. 18-20 Chester Sept. 25 Clinton Oct. 2 Danbury Oct. 7-12 East Granby Oct. Collinsville Sept. 25-26 Granby Sept. Guilford Sept. 2-5 Harwinton Oct. 8 New Milford Sept. 11-13 Newtown Oct. 1-3 \Orange Sept. 11-12 Putnam Aug. 27-29 Rockville Sept. 24-26 Simsbury Oct. 2-3 Southington Sept. 2-3 Stafford Springs|Oct. 1-3 Suffield Sept. Huntington Sept. Broad Brook Oct. 2 Waterbury Sept. 17-20 Wethersfield Sept. 24-26 Willimantic Sept. So. Woodstock |Sept. 16-18 Wolcott Oct. 16 Hartford Hartford Hartford Delegate. N. G. Williams J. B. Palmer I. C. Fanton Seaman Mead E. D. Hammond N. G. Williams C. E. Chapman Seeley and Hammond C, E. Chapmans J. F. Brown E, Halladay C. A. Thompson D. W. Patten E. G. Seeley Mead and Seeley I. C. Fanton E. Halladay C. L. Tuttle C. L. Tuttle N. G. Williams C. A. Thompson D. W. Patten J. B. Palmer C. A. Thompson D, W. Patten E. Halladay J. B. Palmer J. F. Brown E. D. Hammond C, E, Chapman Jan., 3d w’k\Seaman Mead C. L. Tuttle * April, June, July, September, November. N. Stonington, Aug. 25, 1901. Jamgs F. Brown, Secretary Conn, Board of Agriculture. 8 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., FARMERS’ INSTITUTES IN 1901. During the year, as appears from records in the office of the Secretary, Institutes were held as follows: Windsor, Jan. 23; Colchester, Jan. 29; Enfield, Feb. 12; Middlebury, Feb. 13; Shelton, Feb. 13; Guilford, Feb. 19; South Britain, Feb. 26; Woodbridge, Mar. 20; Cheshire, Mar. 27; Prospect, Mar. 21; Newtown, Mar. 22; Chester, April 23. The Prospectus for 1902 hereto annexed has been widely distributed to Granges, Farmers’ Clubs, Agricultural Soci- eties, and others interested in rural pursuits throughout the state, and all have been urged to avail themselves of the gra- tuitous services of any of the distinguished speakers on the list. The Prospectus has been prepared by a committee of the Board in codperation with representatives of the Experiment Stations, and the object has been to secure the best talent available in a wide range of subjects, that would be adapted to the needs of all sections of the state for both entertain- ment and instruction. It has been the aim of the committee to provide speakers who could present the latest results of scientific investiga- tion in their special fields of research in a thoroughly practi- cal manner so as to be available and useful in the everyday work of the field and farm. How far their work has been successful must be left to the decision of those in whose interest it has been undertaken, and it is hoped that early and frequent calls for speakers will give the people in all parts of the state opportunities to form an intelligent opinion upon the merits of the Prospectus submitted to their consideration. PROSPECTUS. Farmers’ Institutes under the auspices of the Connecticut State Board of Agriculture for 1901-1902. The committee on Farmers’ Institutes of the Connecticut State Board of Agriculture respectfully submit the following list of speakers and sub- jects for the winter of 1901-02. 1902. | FARMERS’ INSTITUTES FOR IQOI—I902. 9 Granges, Farmers’ Clubs, or any association of individuals who may desire an Institute should make early application to the Secretary for such speakers as they wish. It is the earnest desire of the Board that applications for Institutes should be made early and often, and it is hoped that at least three may be held in each county during the winter. The Board pays for printing and traveling expenses. The service of the speakers is rendered without cost. It is expected that places applying for Institutes will furnish a suita- ble hall, local transportation for speakers and visitors, music if desired, and entertainment by collation or otherwise, unless there are convenient hotel accommodations. When application for Institutes is made, four speakers and subjects may be selected from the list, and two of them may be expected to meet the call, but each speaker has the privilege of sending a substitute in case of disability from illness or otherwise. Applications for Institutes should be made to the Secretary at an early date, giving post-office, name of R. R. station, name of hall, and distance from R. R. station. Signify the day of the week preferred. ‘The Secre- tary should have two weeks’ notice to send the speakers. Attention to these details will save much delay in correspondence. As good speakers are offered, the responsibility of securing a good attend- ance must rest with each locality. Local speakers, especially ladies, will be welcomed at these Institutes. An exhibit of fruit and flowers is solicited. The Question Box will be an important feature, allowing the introduc- tion of any topic pertaining to agriculture. A large choice of speakers and subjects is offered, but if we are obliged in some cases to send substitutes we trust this will prove no dis- appointment. Some other speakers have been solicited, so that some may be sent as substitutes who are not on the list. After a Grange or Farmers’ Club or neighborhood has decided to apply for an Institute, a committee should be appointed with whom all of the local arrangements should rest. This committee should designate the place for holding the meeting, appoint one or two local speakers, pro- vide music, arrange for transportation, collation, and otherwise enlist local interest. LIST OF SPEAKERS AND SUBJECTS. CoNNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION. E. H. JENKINS. Farm Sanitation. Disposal of Sewage. Fertilizers for Tobacco. The Raising of Sumatra Tobacco under Cloth. How to Buy Commercial Fertilizers. Io BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. A. L. Worrrox, : Agriculture in Other Lands.* How Plants Eat, Drink, and Grow.* The Adulteration of Foods. W. E. Brirrox, State Entomologist. The Lives and Habits of Insects. Scale Insects and How to Destroy Them. Insects Injurious to Field and Garden Crops. Fruit Insects. Mr. Britton will illustrate any of his papers with a small stereopti- com and lantern slides, if desired. For this purpose it is necessary to darken the audience room. When tllustrated, the lectures are specially adapted for evenings sessions. Watrer Muirorp, State Forester. Forestry, its Aims and Methods.* The Farmer’s Wood Lot as a Source of Income. Connecticut Forestry and What is being Attempted for its Development. Srorres Exrsrmenr STATION. Dr. W. QO. ArwarTsr. The Farmer and his Food. Prof. C. S. Puszps, B.S. Home-grown Feeds for the Dairy Herd. Sources and Value of Protein for Dairy Cattle. Home mixing of Fertilizers. Irrigation for Small Fruits amd Vegetables. Forage Crops for Summer Feeding and for Silage. W. A. Srocaine, Jz.. B.S_A., Dairy Experimenter. How can we Improve the Quality of Milk? The Work of Bacteria on the Farm. Connszcricur AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. Acting President, R. W. Srmwson, A.M, B.D. The Connecticut Agricultural College. Agricultural Education in some of the Northern Agricultural Colleges. * Iiustrated with Stereepticon. 1902. | Prof. B. F. Prof. A. G. Prot, e. Prof. C. L. Prof. H. S. Prof. E. H. Prof: Ho oR: FARMERS INSTITUTES FOR IgOI—Igo2. II Koons, Px.D. Insects in their Relations to Disease. Insects and their Economic Relations to Man. Soils: Their Origin and Composition. Yellowstone National Park. Illustrated with the Stereop- ticon. Alaska. Illustrated with the Stereopticon. GuLtey, M.S. Arranging and Planting Home Grounds. Why Apple Growing is not more Profitable. CHAMBERLAIN. The Rock Problem. Agriculture as an Art. Beacu, B.Aer., B.S. The Selection of the Dairy Cow. Observations from the Experience of the Elimination of Tu- berculosis from our Dairy Herd. What Advantages are Offered by the Dairy School? PATTERSON. The Relation of the Mechanic Arts to Agriculture and Com- merce, and the Importance of All to the Prosperity of a Nation. The Origin and Development of the Arts and Sciences, par- ticularly as applied to Architecture and Sculpture. Illus- trated with the Stereopticon. 12,000 Miles through the Dominion of Canada. The Rela- tion of Canada to the United States. LEHNERT, B.S., D.V.S. The Horse’s Foot and Diseases. Hygiene of Farm Animals and How to Prevent Disease. Stable Ventilation. Horses, Sound and Unsound. Sanitary Stable Construction. Monteiru, B.A. Constitutional History of Connecticut. Roads and Taxes. The Trolley Car and the Country Towns. The District School. The Connecticut Town. 12 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., C. A. MEseErve, Pu.D. Food Adulterations. Foods: Relative Values and Costs. Common Life as Influenced by Bacteria. Commercial Fertilizers. Farm Sanitation. . Energy, with Chemicat Experiments. Mrs. Marcia G. GreeNnoucu, A.B., Pu.B. Out of Bondage. The Evolution of the 2zoth Century Woman. Woman : Her Educational Advantages of the Past and the Present. Prof, ALBERTA T. THOMAS. The Meaning and Import of Domestic Science Training for the Country Girl. Household Arts in Country Schools. How they may be in- troduced. The Value of Household Science to the Coming Home- maker. Prof. Frep H. STONEBURN. General Management of Poultry. The Production of Eggs. Poultry Buildings. E. C. Birce, Southport. Intensive Dairy Farming. Home Manufacture of Farm Machinery. The New England Farmer’s Manure Heap. Mrs. C. S. PHELps. Old Industries. Local History and Tradition. The Preparation and Serving of Fruits. Ferns: A Talk on those Native in Connecticut. COMMITTEE ON FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. CoNNECTICUT BoARD OF AGRICULTURE. JAmrs F. Brown, Secretary, North Stonington. EpmunpD HAtLvapay, Suffield. N. G. Wi11ams, Brooklyn. D. WALTER Patten, North Haven. E. G. Srrtey, Roxbury. James B. Parmer, Jewett City. C. E. CuapMan, Westbrook. I, C. Fanton, Westport. . C. A. THompson, Melrose. 1902. | FARMERS’ INSTITUTES FOR IQOI—I902. CoNNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION. Dr. E. H. Jenxins, Director, New Haven. ConNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. Acting President, R. W. Stimson, Storrs. 13 AGRICULTURAL CONVENTION. AT BRIDGE- BORI The annual mid-winter meeting of the Board was held at Bridgeport Dec. 17th, 18th, and 19th, and was largely at- tended by those interested in agriculture from all sections of the State. The interest which was fully aroused by the brilliant opening address of the Governor was fully maintained dur- ing the entire three days’ session. Every speaker was punctually present at the appointed hour, and each presented in clear and forcible style the latest results of practical experiment and scientific investigation in his special line. The thanks of the Board are due to all who contributed to the success of the meeting, but they are specially due to the officers of the Connecticut and Storrs Experiment Sta- tions and of the Connecticut Agricultural College, whose services, gratuitously rendered, added materially to the in- terest which was everywhere manifest. Grateful acknowledgment is also made to the musical talent of Bridgeport, which lightened the more serious work of the Convention with repeated entertainments that were greatly appreciated. Mr. N. S. Platt, the Pomologist to the Board, submitted a report of the various exhibits, which will be found near the close of this volume. The meeting was conducted in accordance with the fol- lowing program, which contains a complete list of the speak- ers with their subjects : Tuesday, December 17th. 10.30 A. M. INVOCATION. ADDRESS OF WELCOME. By His Honor Denis Mulvihill, Mayor of Bridgeport. 16 10.30 11.30 2.00 2.30 7.30 10.00 II.00 2.00 2.30 3.00 7-39 8.00 wy Ex . M. . M. . M. ae Ls BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., RESPONSE TO MAyor AND INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS. By Hits Excellency George P. McLean, Governor of Connecticut. AppreEss — ‘‘ Good Roads.” By James H. Macdonald, State Highway Commissioner. ApprEss — ‘‘ Farm Sanitation.” By Professor C. A. Lindsley, M.D., Secretary Connecticut State Board of Health. AvpprREss — ‘‘ Farmers’ Institutes.” By Mr. H, W. Collingwood, Editor of Zhe Rural New Yorker. Appress — ‘‘ The Farmer as a Citizen.” By Col. James Wood, Mount Kisco, N. Y. Wednesday, December 18th. ‘The Connecticut Agricultural College.” By Acting President R. W. Stimson. ‘‘Diseases and Insects Injurious to Orchards and Field Crops.” By Professor S. A. Beach, Horticulturist New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. AvDpREss — ‘‘ Business Methods in Buying Fertilizers.” By Prof, E. 1, Jenkins, Director of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. ‘Forestry for the Farmer, and what the Station is doing for its Encouragement.” By Mr. Walter Mulford, Of the Station Staff. ‘‘Flavoring Extracts, What they Are and How they are Adulterated.” By Mr. A. L. Winton, Of the Connecticut Experiment Station. “The Yale Forest School and its Purposes.” By Professor H. S. Graves, Director. ‘‘Insects and their Relation to Agriculture.” Illustrated with Stereopticon. : By Mr. W. E. Britton, State Entomologist. 1902. | AGRICULTURAL CONVENTION AT BRIDGEPORT. t7 Thursday, December 19th. 10.00 A. M. ApDDRESS— ‘‘ Agricultural Lessons from the Pan-American Exposition.” By Professor C. S. Phelps, Of the Connecticut Agricultural College. 11.00 A, M. ADDRESS—‘‘ Poultry as an Adjunct of the Farm.” By Dr. Cooper Curtice, Biologist of Rhode Island Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. 2.00 Pp. M. ‘* The Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station and its Work in Dairying.” By Dr. W.O. Atwater, Director, and Dr. H. W. Conn. 8.00 Pp. M. ApDDREsS— ‘‘ The Education of Books and of Nature.” By Mrs, Alice Freeman Palmer, Cambridge, Mass. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, has signified his inten- tion to be present if possible at some session of the Convention. A Question Drawer will be provided for the presentation of subjects that may be profitably discussed as time will permit. The following have already been suggested : (1) Can the Farmers’ Institute be made a feature of the Agri- cultural Fair? (2) Are we in danger of over-production ? (3) Should the elements of Agriculture be taught in the public schools? Ample facilities will be afforded for the display of sthe products of Connecticut farms, and it is hoped there will be a generous exhibit of Fruits and Flowers, Grain and Vegetables, Butter and Cheese —the growth of this first year of the new century. Mr. N.S. Platt, Pomologist of the Board, will give personal attention to this part of the program. Articles for exhibition may be sent by express at the expense of the Board to the Secretary at Bridgeport, to arrive on Monday, December 16th. RAILROAD ARRANGEMENTS. The N. Y.,N. H. & H. R. R. has provided certificates which, when countersigned by the Secretary, will entitle the holder to return over any of their lines at half rates. These certificates must be shown when pur- chasing half tickets at railroad station in Bridgeport. AGR. —2 18 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., HOTEL ACCOMMODATIONS. Atlantic Hotel, American plan, : Windsor Hotel, a : P : ‘ y 2) 250 Arcade Hotel, European plan, 1.00 to 2.00 $2.50 per day. ae A committee of the Board will be at the Atlantic Hotel to furnish such other information as may be required. Gov. GEORGE P. McLEAN, EDWIN G. SEELEY, JAMES F. BROWN, Committee. NortTH STONINGTON, Nov. 25, Igo. REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE Raricuftural Convention AT BRIDGEPORT, CONN., December 17, 18, and 19, 1901. MORNING SESSION. BRIDGEPORT, Conn., December 17, 1901. Convention was called to order by Hon. James F. Brown, Secretary, at the Park' Theatre, 10.35 a. M. The Secretary. Ladies and Gentlemen: According to custom, we invite you to join in the opening exercises, — prayer by the Rev. Mr. DePeu of this city. Rey. Mr DEPpu © Meth us, unite any prayer: ©) God, Father of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, and who art’ our Father in heaven, the author of our being, and the giver of every good and perfect gift. We bless Thee for the many favors and gifts which thou hast bestowed upon us thy children; for the rain in its season and for fruitful harvests. We bless and thank thee, O God, for the fullness of our lives. We bless thee for the health and prosperity which thou hast granted unto the sons and daughters of this our beloved commonwealth. We bless thee, O Lord, for the broadening intelligence among our people that thou has brought about within our borders, and that thou hast granted to humanity and to thy sons and daughters everywhere, and we thank thee, O Lord, for the blessed privilege of being made over into the likeness of Jesus Christ; which has been ours in the 20 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., years that have passed. We bless thee for our heritage and for our present opportunities. We bless thee, O God, for the government under which we live, and for the peace and concord in which we dwell, and that our efforts ‘have gone out into the ends of the earth, bringing bread to the hungry, food to all those that have wandered in ignorance, raising them up, and thus making us an influence for the betterment of man- kind. We beseech thee, O God, that thy blessing may rest upon this society, and especially upon these men who are to speak to this gathering upon this occasion. May the spirit of wisdom rule us. May we have minds open to instruct us so that we may understand all the laws by which thou bringest about the seasons of fruitfulness, and how the earth may be made rich and beautiful as a habitation for thy children. May we know how to overcome evil and difficulties that may beset us in the prosecution of that work that is so closely allied to thine own created doings. Give unto those who are to speak the ability to speak wisely and well, and unto those who shall hear an understanding of all that may be said, and guide us all to the end that thine own glory may be magnified, through our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, in whose name we make all of our petitions. Amen. The SECRETARY. I have the pleasure now of introducing to you, ladies and gentlemen, His Honor, Mayor Mulvihill ot this city. Mayor Mutvinitt. Mr. Chairman, Governor McLean, and gentlemen of this assembly: I have much pleasure in meeting here with this body of the State Board of Agriculture, a body created by law for the advancement of agricultural edu- cation and the general promotion of the farming industry throughout the State. So important are those interests, and the duties of your Board, that His Honor our Governor has been made by law one of your members, and it affords me much pleasure to welcome him and you to the Park City. Our State owes much to the farmer. Farming has ever been one 1902. | INRODUCTORY ADDRESS. 21 of the most useful and honorable of industries. When the farmer is prosperous, it means general prosperity. The merchant, the artisan, and the professional man is also pros- perous. Our State is what the farmers have made it. They occupy a very responsible place, and especially so at the pres- ent time. They have the power in their hands at the present time to do much for the weal or woe of our people. In the great convention which is soon to assemble to make amend- ments to our constitution, the farmers of this State have our destiny in their hands. Upon their wisdom and progressive- ness much of the future welfare of this State depends. As one taken from the workshop, and as one of the people of this great city, put into my present position by an election to office, I certainly deem it a great pleasure and honor to wel- come you and the Governor to our city, and to thank you all for coming here to hold your annual mid-winter session. I wish, gentlemen, I had the eloquence of Governor McLean, that I might extend to you a suitable welcome, and do full justice to the occasion, but my life has been cast in a different mold. The workshop has been my school, and I will not attempt to do the impossible. In looking over the program I see there are many interest- ing papers to be read, and many eloquent men here to address you. I trust that your meeting here will be most pleasant and profitable, and that you will carry with you, gentlemen, to your homes pleasant memories of the city of Bridgeport and her people. The SecrETARY. I have the honor now to present to you one who needs no introduction to this audience, His Ex- cellency the Governor of the State of Connecticut, Hon. George P. McLean. Gov. McLean. Mr. President, ladies and gentlemen, and his Honor the Mayor of Bridgeport: I want to say to his Honor the Mayor, first, that an honest purpose is more eloquent and elegant than any language in the world. (Ap- 22 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., plause.) I think I can safely say on behalf of the Board of Agriculture and the gentlemen present attending this session, that they keenly appreciate the hearty welcome extended by the reform mayor of Bridgeport. And I think I can as safely say that while we are here we shall endeavor to do nothing that will interfere with the continuation of his reform. I think it will be easy for us to do this, for the propensities of the farmer are always law-abiding. My subject is rather of an indefinite one, and is stated on the program to be an introductory address. I shall feel, therefore, free, for the few minutes that I occupy your atten- tion, to discuss almost anything that I feel inclined to. I look to this day in the Old Farmers’ Almanac and I read that this is the time of the year for inside work. I congratulate you all upon having come together for a little inside work and en- joyment: there is a time in every man’s life when he likes winter better than he does summer. That age usually runs, I think, from four to fourteen. Then there is a time when he likes the city better than he does the country. I think that, in my case, ran from eighteen to thirty. Then there comes again a time when he likes the summer better than the winter, and the country better than he does the city. I think that is about the age am at now. I own alittle piece of the country, but I do not pretend to be a farmer, for I am not, and I do not pretend to like farming, for I do not. My first ancestor in Connecticut’is said to have owned a very large portion of Windham county, which he exchanged very soon for a rifle and a horse, his reason being that he would rather fight Indians than farm it. I am afraid that I take after that an- cestor. Still, I want you to understand that there is no reason in the world why I should not sympathize with the farmers of Connecticut, for I do. I know that their row is a hard one to hoe, and many times a most discouraging one to dig, for they find in some cases but little in the hill. I appreciate that fact, and I want to say to you freely that there is not an in- 1902. ]. INRODUCTORY ADDRESS. 23 cident in the farmer’s life that I do not thoroughly understand. From the first hum of the bee in April to the first chill flakes of snow in November, and from that tremendous dinner on Thanksgiving day, through the long New England winter, ’ of buckwheat cakes and sausage, to the first run of shad in the spring, there is not a duty, nor a sorrow, nor a joy in the life of the farmer’s boy of thirty years ago that I have not ex- perienced. Iam proud to testify that I have held the hoe and the plow and the scythe, and the dull cradle (for that is all the boy got), and the milk pail, and the old New England primer, and the wooden-covered spelling book. I have helped dip candles, mow away hay; I have ridden horse bareback in stony fields until my legs became permanently shorter than they ought to be. I have mowed away hay, set hens, run down roosters, and lived on hasty pudding. I had a sled and a pair of skates, and a dog and a gun, and a pair of cow- hide boots that I couldn’t get off when I got them on (ap- plause), and could not get on when I had got them off. I had all these things in due season, and I had plenty of bread and milk and ginger snaps all the time, and I was happy. I didn’t have much money, but I had some things that money cannot buy, I had good health, and a good time, and good parents. (Applause.) Since those days it has been my lot to sound some of the shoals and depths of other walks in life, and experience, if it has taught me anything, has taught me that the Connecticut farmer has as much independence and as much happiness, and as much respect for his Creator, and can have as much respect for himself as any other class of men in the world. I know that the farmer’s life is a rather discourag- ing one in New England. I know that there are fewer crops today than there used to be, perhaps, that can be raised at a profit. I know that expenses have increased. It is not for me, perhaps, to advise you. The distinguished gentlemen who come after me will do that, and I have no doubt they will give you good advice. But I thoroughly believe that the 24 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., farmers of Connecticut have about served their forty years in the wilderness, and that Canaan is almost in sight. I do not know whether it is tent-grown tobacco, or angora goats, or fruit culture, or something else that is to solve the problem, but I thoroughly believe there is dawning a new and better day for the farmers of Connecticut. I have had some ex- perience myself. When I got possession of my grandfather’s farm, I was told that the thing to do was to keep a dairy. I invested ina dairy. I got as good a one as I could buy, and I tell you I paid prices for everything that I got. I couldn’t get money enough from my products to pay the grain bill, and I got rid of the dairy. Then they told me the thing to do was toraise hay. I plowed and harrowed and sowed. I gota fine crop of hay. I had a market right in the town in a livery stable. The livery stable keeper bought it all. He fed it all out to his horses, and one time when I was away from home I got word that he had left town, and had gone into insolvency. Then I thought I would try orcharding. I set out an orchard of apple trees and peach trees. The peach trees died the first winter. Of the apple trees some of them lived two years, but the third year the borers fixed those that were left, and that was the end of that plan. Of course I had a garden. I raised most every living thing on earth but vege- tables in that garden; but I am not discouraged. I am satisfied that the reason is that the old ways of farming don’t pay. I am satisfied that there is another reason, as given to me by a farmer the other day. When I said to him that “ he who at the plow would thrive, himself must either hold or drive,’ he replied, ‘““ Yes, you have got to hold and drive both in these times to get a living.” I am not discouraged at the outlook for Connecticut farming. I do not think there is any occasion for discouragement. I believe that every rod of land in Con- necticut five years from now will be worth twice what it is today. Great, indeed, have been the changes in Connecticut within 1902. ] INRODUCTORY ADDRESS. 25 the memory of many of us, and especially since our fathers were born. In 1820 Hartford had a population of 6,901; New Haven had a population of 8,327, if I remember the figures correctly. The public square in New Haven had no sidewalks. It was grown up to bushes, and the people of the city did not believe that it would ever pay to lay a pavement. The city of Bridgeport did not exist in 1820. Waterbury had decreased in population during the twenty preceding years. There was no manufacturing of any kind there; nothing worthy of the name. Here and there a gristmill or a fulling mill or a tannery, or a little cotton factory. The shoemaker and the blacksmith and the tailor and the housewife did nine- tenths of the manufacturing that was done to meet the ne- cessities of the people. It took ionger to transport merchan- dise across the State of Connecticut than it does now to carry it to San Francisco, and for the purposes of trade communica- tion Bridgeport is not as far from San Francisco today as it was from New Haven in 1820. For many years thereafter the changes were very slow. Hartford, from 1840 to 1850, ten long years, gained 732 people. The average population of 123 towns in the year 1820 was 2,237, and there were only seven towns in Connecticut that had a population of 2,000 above that average. -In the last decade Hartford has gained 26,601, more people than there were in Hartford, New Haven, Bridgeport, Waterbury, and Middletown combined in 1820; more people than there are in the whole of Tollanu county. Right in Bridgeport, where in 1820 there was a little dock and four or five lone houses, there are 70,000 people today, more people than there are in Tolland and Windham counties combined. Now, my friend, his Honor, the Mayor, in his address suggested something about constitutional reform. I am not quoting these figures as a preface to an argument in favor of constitutional reform, but as he has suggested that subject, I want to say to the farmers present, whose views upon that subject may not coincide with mine, this: you be- 26 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., lieve in town representation, and so do I; you believe in local self-government, and so do I most thoroughly. Our fathers believed that the State of Connecticut should be governed by the people of Connecticut, and I agree with them. In 1818 every town in Connecticut had one representative or more, and the General Assembly represented the people of this State. No tax could be laid, no law passed unless approved by the representatives representing a majority of the people. Today, owing to this increase in our larger towns, it is pos- sible for less than twenty per cent. to tax and make laws for the other eighty per cent. Now, it seems to me, that that is not in accordance with the notions that our fathers had. Occupying the position that I do, the servant of the people of Connecticut, it is my duty to act for the people where I am qualified to do so. I believe in local self-government, and in town representation. No man believes in it more thoroughly than I do, but I believe that the people of this State believe that the present apportionment of representa- tion is unfair, and I believe that it is so unfair that the farmers of Connecticut should avail themselves of the opportunity they will have this winter to save what is sacred to them, or what is their right, and, at the same time, give to Connecticut a constitution that will be fair to the people. I do not believe that the rumor that the farmers are afraid of the people is true. What does this great increase and growth of Con- necticut mean? It means safety, and not injury to the farm- ers; it means that in this great industrial democracy and union of states there are forty-two states larger than Connecticut territorially, and thirty-three states smaller than Connecticut commercially. It means that Connecticut, by reason of her ingenuity, her industry, her honesty, and her public spirit, has kept Connecticut to the very forefront in the union, and that today she weighs more in the industrial balance than Texas. It means progress and civilization and happiness; it means honest employment and homes for thousands of our men and 1902. | INRODUCTORY. ADDRESS. 27 women, and our boys and girls; it means good roads in the sparsely settled districts of this State at the expense of the whole State; it means a market for the farmer and a high school for his children. If Torrington were as large as New Haven today, and Torrington is larger than New Haven was eighty years ago, and growing twice as fast proportionately,— if Torrington were as large as New Haven today, it would not be a danger to the farmers of Litchfield county. If Rockville and Willimantic were cities like Hartford, and they are today larger than Hartford was one hundred years ago, could it be said that they would be a danger to the agricultural interests of Windham or Tolland counties? Ithink not. The farm has surely been the salvation of the cities, and the cities have been the stay of the farms. They always will be. I want to say to you that there is not a mechanic at his bench, nor a banker at his counter, nor a clerk at his desk that does not love the country, and wish the farmer prosperity and happiness. (Ap- plause.) And I want to continue now, perhaps, with a word of encouragement. It seems to me that these times are much better than the old times. Doesn’t the farmer have more money and more comforts today than he did sixty years ago, and isn’t it due somewhat to the ingenuity and the industry of the mechanic and the inventor? When I contemplate what our fathers had to live in and walk on, and eat and wear, and to do with and do without, and my recollection carries me back far enough to know, I think that many of you will agree with me that these days are far better than the old days. I believe that the State of Connecticut in all its diversity of industrial progress has become a much more comfortable State to live in than it was fifty years ago. While Connecticut has ever been at the forefront in the past, and in all her labors for Christianity and charity and morality, building the first asylum for unfortunates at Hartford that was ever built in America, giving more men and money to the cause of morality and the cause of Christianity in the colonial times than any other 28 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., equal number of people in America, I still believe that there are more tolerant hearts and more generous men in Connecti- cut today than ever before in her history. (Applause.) Why should there not be? Why should there not be, my fellow citizens? Why should there not be, with the lessons we must constantly read, with the marvelous revelations of nature, teaching us more and more of the love and omnipotence of nature’s God, and every experience, every example, every in- stinct, and every page in the book of success and happiness teaching us that honesty is the best policy to the individual? And if there be any signs in these times to be noticed with great care, do they not point to that day not very far distant when the great combinations of capital will realize that in an . honest government, by and for an honest people, there will be no room for dishonest corporate control or management? (Applause.) Connecticut in the past has had some mighty good men to help her at home and abroad. As the great historian Ban- croft says, the history of Connecticut may be called a history of the nation. Always at the forefront in the march of prog- ress, how much of it is due, I ask you, to the education those men got upon the farm? The president of Harvard College said a short time ago: “I do not know which is worth most to a man; his barefoot days on the farm, or his college educa- tion afterwards. But one thing is certain, you combine them both, and they make an irresistible combination.” I have occupied your attention now much longer than I expected to. That was a cold and cheerless home, that old New England home, and the rain of trouble descended upon it, and the winds of discord blew, and the floods of temptation descended, but it fell not, because it was founded upon God’s eternal masonry, faith and courage. (Applause.) And in that rain and wind and flood was tempered the sword of the republic, that it might save the union in her time of need, and thereafter stand against the world. And it is my prayer and 1902. | GOOD ROADS. 29 my belief that the farmers in these new days will keep the faith their fathers had, and bravely and successfully win new laurels for themselves, and better times for themselves and the State of Connecticut. (Great applause.) The Secretary. We are much obliged to the Governor, especially in view of the inconvenience to which he has put himself for our pleasure by coming here, and we regret that he cannot stay with us and be our presiding officer during this convention ; but official business calls him away, and I there- fore have the pleasure of introducing to you Mr. Seeley, the vice-president of the Board, who will preside in the absence of the Governor. The PrestpENT (Mr. Seeley). Ladies and gentlemen: I take the chair because I have been asked to do it. I was very anxious that the Governor should fill it, and conduct the session this morning, because there is a degree of monotony where one individual goes through with all these many sessions which we have for several days. I hope you will all listen to our next speaker. He is an enthusiast on good roads, and I am sure we are very much in need of good roads in our country towns. There is nothing that will be more interesting or anything that we shall like to hear more than how we are to have good roads. Mr. MacDonald, our High- way Commissioner, is here to speak to us upon this interest- ing subject. He will tell us all about it today. GOOD ROADS. By Hon. James H. MacDonatp, State Highway Commissioner. Mr. President and gentlemen of the State Board of Agri- culture: There are two reasons why this occasion is especially pleasant to me. The first is that it is a gathering of a great many of the dear friends I have had occasion to meet in my Official capacity in my travels throughout the State; and the second is that my subject is always a pleasant 30 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., one for me to talk about. Speaking of friends, we all delight in having a large circle of them, but we classify them. We discriminate in regard to our friendships. We have our business friends, that we meet in a business way, and after the business transaction is done we separate and only meet again when we have more business to transact ; then we have our social friends, whom we meet for the purpose of passing a pleasant hour in a social way, and when the social function has been discharged we separate and only meet again upon a similar occasion; and then we have the near and dear friends, those that share our joys and mingle their tears with ours, who stand heart to heart, shoulder to shoulder, and hand to hand in the day of trouble; these are our near and dear friends. I have in my mind at this moment a gentleman, one of the many friends of the good roads movement, and this one in particular is a near and dear friend to me and ought to be to every lover of the good roads movement. I remember very well as a special mark of his friendship in 1897, when the whole of the State was shaken from founda- tion to turret with opposition to the good roads movement, at which time it seemed as if every man had his hands set against this great movement, when, like the whistle of Rod- erick Dhu, “wild as the scream of the curlew, from crag to crag the signal flew,” and when the opposition was fast and furious, this friend I have named came to the rescue with goodly advice and sweet counsel, drew to the support the large circle of friends he had, and thus assisted signally in wresting victory out of what seemed almost sure defeat, thus contributing very materially to the re-establishment of this movement upon a firmer foundation than it ever occupied before. I remember again when, a few years later, a dis- criminating public selected this gentleman from amongst the honorable walks of citizenship and placed him in the highest office within its gift, that no document that came before him for his official signature was signed more cheerfully or quickly than the one which bore upon its face the largest appropriation ever enjoyed by the State since the beginning of the movement. I have reference to your honorable Presi- dent and our Governor, the Hon. George P. McLean. (Ap- plause.) I am very glad to be at this session. It has not been my 1902. | GOOD ROADS. 4 privilege to be at many sessions of this State Board of Agri- culture. I feel that I have lost a great deal by that fact. I am often somewhat amused in my work to hear people talk about the backwardness of the farmer; about how far in the rear the farmer is in everything, in relation to his work, in relation to the arts and sciences, in manufacturing, in business and the professions. Some of them seem to think that of all the neglected things there are in the world the beginning and the end is the shortcomings of the farmer. I do not believe that is a fact. I think I speak advisedly when I state that no man in the State of Connecticut has the opportunity of meeting more people, or of being more conversant with the farmers of the State, to a greater extent than I have; and knowing the farmers of the State as well as I do, and being so much a part of their every-day life, I am satisfied from my own observation and experience, that in the condition of farming affairs throughout the length and breadth of the land that the farmer is quite up to and even with the advances made in other pursuits or professions. If we consider what has been the obstacles to be overcome by the farmer, and the high privileges enjoyed by others, and what the farmer has done, compared with the other business and professional pur- suits, it will be found that the comparison -will be quite friendly to the farmer, and that he is fully up to and equal with the times. There are other things that remain unfin- ished quite as much as the things that the farmer has to do, with today. As Mr. Kay in “Success ” puts it: The sweetest song has not been sung, _ Nor has the loudest bell been rung; The brightest jewel still lies deep, The fairest rose is still asleep; The greatest ship has not been sailed, The highest mountain is unscaled; The largest house of break and beam Is but the vision of a dream; The richest mine is still unknown, And the air ship is but a monstrous drone: The locomotive too has yet to show What it can do. The telegraph is still afraid To span the wide world without aid. 32 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Point out the man who will say to you All the electric mind can do. The greatest city yet shall rise; Ah, who can solve the mystic skies ? Niagara’s falls are still unchained, The Arctic’s shores have not been gained. The steamer submarinely plied Is anchored fast in fancy’s tide; The world’s great plans have not been heard, And peace today is but a word, Think then, ye men of little worth, Who say today there’s naught to do on earth. So that there are other things to be done by the professions, arts, mechanics, and every business pursuit. But admitting all of these things that I have enumerated, in my judgment this great question of good roads is of far more importance to each citizen of this State and of the United States than all the rest of the things enumerated. I fully remember all four laws under which we have worked. It was not expected that the first law, the law of 1895, under which the work began, would be perfect. In- deed, there is no law upon the statute books of the State but what has been found, after due trial and working under, to need amendment, as in the use of a law all its shortcomings are developed and amendments are found to be necessary. Indeed, I found, although coming into the office of Highway _ Commissioner with a business training which I thought suffi- cient to carry on the work of the State, that I knew very little with all that training to cope with the conditions by which this great question was surrounded; in fact, I know very little today, gentlemen, in comparison with the knowl- edge I ought to have as Highway Commissioner. I am learning, incon er, am going to school every day, and the experience I gain from day to day is furnishing me with a new equipment to carry on this great work. The law of 1895 was drafted for the sole purpose of bringing about some- thing from the chaotic condition by which the State was sur- rounded in the character of its roads. After two years’ trial it was found that the law would not satisfy the conditions by which the State was surrounded, and the law of 1897 was drafted. This law was an improvement because it reached 1902. ] GOOD ROADS. 33 down into those things which we needed. It gave us a larger opportunity in the disbursement of money to assist the towns, and it gave a wider scope to the officer in charge of the work, so that he might use his judgment to a better advantage in the interest of the towns. The law of 1899 went still further, and instead of saying the Highway Commissioner should be circumscribed in his work, should be narrowed down and forced into some particular class or standard method of con- struction, it opened up a wider door and removed that clause, which was so objectionable to the town, in which it said that we should build a road that would be smooth, firm, and con- venient for travel at all seasons of the year. That description called for one of the finest roads that could be built, and the time wasn’t ripe for that; it is not ripe today when that defi- nition can be carried out in the State of Connecticut. We must make haste slowly. The law of 1899, in all the powers conferred upon the commissioner and in the liberality it exercises towards the town, was a good law. It was a vast improvement in many respects over the law which had been in force before. I am familiar with every law upon the statute books of the country leading up to State control, and I am satisfied that there is no law in the United States that is a better law, that so nearly reaches all of the conditions that are to be found in our State, and in the caretaking and control of this great movement than the law under which I work today. A great many people have thought, and, indeed, I find it so understood in many of my recent town meetings, that the State requires a macadam treatment, or that class of road, to be built in every town, and unless every town in the State builds macadam roads they cannot enjoy State aid, but I think that this misapprehension is fast disappearing. I think it is true that a great many towns remained outside State aid because of their misunderstanding of the attitude of the State along the lines suggested, and this misapprehension was only removed when the commissioner has had an opportunity to meet with the townspeople in their town and explain the law and the real attitude which the State exercises towards towns. I think it is very generally understood in the State today that this law under which we now work embraces in its intent the reaching down into, and the meeting of whatever condition a AGR.—3 34- BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. _ [Jan., town is surrounded by, either in the character of the work or its finances. The wide scope of road reformation as prac- ticed today is in the removing of boulders from the road, in reclaiming the marshes, furnishing a good solid footing at all seasons of the year, the building of earth roads, the construc- tion of gravel roads, also of macadam and Telford, the re- duction of grades, the taking care of watercourses, and what- ever in any way leads up to a permanency in the condition of the road over that which has been found to exist so many years. One of the best features of the law under which we work is that the towns in this State are allowed the privi- lege of accepting State aid only on their petition, thus pre- serving all town rights and maintaining the sovereignty of the town in allowing them to take the initiative rather than forcing the movement. Added to this, towns are allowed to do their work with their own townspeople, using their own machinery, and practically in their own way, under a proper State specification.. I believe that this is wise. After my experience of the last seven years, I am satisfied that the growth of sentiment will be largely established by introduc- ing the methods of improvement that will most nearly meet the requirements of the town. In the main this is found to be a question of direction, a question of grade, and with a close attention to financial conditions. I picked up a magazine the other day and saw a picture under which it said, “ Where the city ends and the town begins.” The picture itself, without what it said by way of explanation, would have told its own little story. It showed on one side a hillside, and in the near foreground a small tree, a road and a fence, no houses; this represented the town. On the other side was shown houses, sidewalks, curbs, trees, and churches, representing the city. Of course it told its own story. I find that in towns today there is not so much of that as formerly. At one time it was never very difficult to know where the borough line ended and the suburban part of the town began by the character of the road. Now, it may be possible that it was for some other reason than the one given by many people in a town that the splendid condition of. the roads close to the village or near the center was to secure votes to retain the official in his office, and that was the reason why very little of the town money went to the 1902. | , GOOD ROADS. 35 isolated districts to improve the highways of those districts. Men had been paying their taxes year after year only to find that the principal part of the money was used near to, or at the large voting centers. I find that this criticism has beefit in many cases just, and perhaps one of the reasons why the law has been so drawn under which I now work as commissioner; so that the decision rests with the State upon what section of:the main highway State money shall be used. It has been found that it is not a difficult matter for any man who is at all popular, either in a city or town, to gather around himself a few kindred spirits and arrange for certain things to be done in town meeting or caucus whereby the public may be saved the trouble and annoyance of arranging those things, so that when the public comes together in those meetings they have nothing to do, practically, only to confirm what has been arranged for them beforehand. With the decision resting with the State we find that the advantage accrues to the people in the introduction of, and in the providing for, our continuous system of highways in a better way than leaving the matter to the decision of the town meeting. A great many people have offered a criticism that it is not wise to lay a section of highway in any town independent of other sections. I do not agree with them. In my ex- perience I have found that it is manifestly wise to so do; so long as the town has the right to take the initiative and ex- press its desire for State aid I certainly believe that with the State contributing the large share of money used in the making of an improvement in any town that the State should always have the right to say where that money should be expended. I am certain that if the general plan of making these improvements in different districts in the town had not been a practice on the part of the State we would not have 162 towns out of a total of 168 in this movement. We have placed this money into different districts, and it has cer- tainly been shown to be popular and of great benefit to the towns in which there have been improvements. You must make a beginning somewhere. I do not think it wise to use force or to be arbitrary in any way, but I do think it for the best interests of the people to assume the control outside of local influences in the disbursement of State money 36 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., upon highway improvement. I know of no other system than that of which I have spoken that will so immediately give to the people of the State pleasant and safe conduct to and from, not only each particular section or district of the town, but also the market place. If you have a bad stretch of road in your town it should be fixed first, and the State is only too happy to help you do it. I believe it is wise if your roof leaks to repair it. If it rains in in forty or fifty places and you haven’t the money to buy the shingles necessary to put on a new roof, and can only buy one bundle of shingles, buy that bundle and put it on as far as it will go, or buy enough to stop the rain coming in, and then when you get the money, buy enough shingles to fix the whole roof. This system of improving sections in isolated districts gives a ready and quick access not only to the centers but also to the market places, so that the back-lying farms may be put in easy communication with those places as speedily as possible. It is certainly for the benefit of the town that this should be done. A town that has this in mind will speedily grow in riches by the develop- ment and opening up of these isolated districts, and will gradually grow into that condition whereby it can finally obtain the money it wants to improve all the highways. I believe that this policy is wise and sound. We are at work in the State now in 159 towns under the old appropriation. I do not know a single section in this State, and if I did I should be frank and truthful enough to say so, in which one single dollar of that money has been unwisely spent. (Applause.) Indeed, I do know, in fact have in my possession in my Office as a curiosity, a petition signed by forty residents of a town asking me to come into that town and take the material that had been taken off a hill and put it back again. I resurrected it the other day, and I am happy to say that I have lived long enough to see that town, which had under its first appropriation $600 or $700, come in with a new petition asking the State to extend to the town the full appropriation of $9,000, and that was done last August. They have evidently changed their minds, as we find the minds of the people all over the State have been changed in regard to the former attitude of the State. When | started to tell about that picture, I dwelt only 1902. | GOOD ROADS. 37 upon one phase of it. My subject is broad enough to take in the cities. I find that the condition of the public works in many of our large cities is not very far ahead of the farmer in regard to the handling of road improvement. I want to tell you a few things I have seen in my own city and in other cities of the State, showing that the farmers of the State of Connecticut, with the few men they have to do their work upon the roads, and the poor financial condition of their treasury as a rule, and lacking access always to a scientific knowledge of how to improve their roads to the highest de- gree of perfection, are not in many respects behind the cities. I do not find the country towns are one whit behind any one city in the State of Connecticut, nor are they deserving of any more condemnation or censure for all that they have done than are the cities in the conduct of their work. I have seen in a city men employed by the city, carrying a hoe on their shoulder, start for the supply house, from a mile to a mile and a half distant, at half past four in the afternoon. To say the least, there must have been one hundred men at work in different parts of the city, and it is safe to say that the same practice is carried on by all of them, the city paying at least fifteen cents an hour. Now, multiply that amount of time and the money required to pay for it one hundred times, and extend that into nine months in the year, and you will find that a very large sum was involved, when a toolbox arranged conveniently near the work would have saved that expendi- ture of money. I have seen a cart sent three miles out to the crusher for stones to repair a fracture on city streets and return with two-inch stone, scatter it on the top of the road, and the first team that came along disturbed the stone and the wheel rolled it along a little further. God sent his rain a little later and washed it to the gutter, and the next week, perhaps, the same team was sent along to clean up the stone out of the gutter and cart it off to the dump. By this method of repairs thousands of dollars are annually wasted in our large cities by improper ways of repairing upon our city streets. I have seen in a city an asphalt pavement about to be laid, and for half a mile a splendid Macadam pavement plowed up, when it was necessary in the plowing to use a Springfield plow behind a steam roller and a number of men As, | 38 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., before it could be disturbed, and after it had been disturbed it was carted away and a cement concrete base was put down; when all that was necessary to accommodate the proposed improvements was to put on some small stone saturated with a little tar to lift up the inequalities of the old Macadam road and put the asphalt upon the top, thus saving thousands oi doliars in the handling of this work. I have also seen a bus- iness pavement laid on a residential street and a residential pavement laid on a business street, simply because the resi- dents who were on that street wanted a smooth and pleasant pavement, when common sense would have suggested the re- verse. I have seen sprinkling carts going through the streets with a heavy vertical spray of water pouring down upon the Macadam, and with every stream that was poured on to the pavement was washed away hundreds of dollars’ worth oi good wearing material, making a permanent injury to the pavement. It seemed to make no difference in the volume of water whether the street lay in the sunshine or in the shadow, the lever never was closed, and the cart passed along, and every man who knows anything about a pavement knows that when you make it so wet and damp in the shadow it rots your pavement. I have seen streets which have been improperly laid. I have seen streets altogether too narrow for the business they are called upon to carry, when any business mind would have suggested that the concentration of travel required a more permanent pavement than that already laid. So it goes all through this question of pavements. What we want all over the State of Connecticut, whether in the city or in the town, is practical men to handle this matter. You say, ““ How are we to get practical men to do this work?” My answer is, “ The laborer is worthy of his hire.” You cannot buy a gold dollar for eighty cents. You will have to select your men, select them with reference to their quali- fications for the office you desire to have them fill. When you get a man who has the necessary qualifications for such work, clothe him with full official authority. It is not neces- sary to get a man who is wealthy, so that he will be removed from any pecuniary desire to use his office for his-own en- richment. We don’t believe in plutocracy in America. Neither is it necessary to secure a man who has no ambition, 1902. | GOOD ROADS. 39. so that official acts may be suborned in catering to his desire to acquire a new prominence. Nor is it necessary to secure a man without any friends, so that he may be induced to prostitute his official position, in any way, for their advance- ment. We don’t want a man of necessity who is wealthy, who has no ambition, and has no friends, because such a man would be a poor stick in any place you might put him. The proper gauge in the selection is to pick out your men and put only those in official power who have a special fitness for the duties to which they may be assigned. I do not think it wise in city or town matters to be too prodigal, nor at the same time to be too illiberal. It took a great many years to find out that the older brother of the much-talked-about prodigal son was quite as bad as his unfortunate brother. The world has since found out that one can sin quite as much in illiberality as in prodigality. There are too many people in the world who expect that a great deal can be accomplished with a very little money. I have never found this to be true. I have disposed of for the State of Connecticut, when this appropriation is exhausted, nearly two millions of dollars, and up to the present time I have found that if we want any- thing well done we have to pay the price. There are too many people in the world like the old lady who was a little deaf. She came into a dry goods store one day and said, “How much are those stockings?” The clerk said, “ One and six pence.” ‘Oh,’ said she, “ Two and six pence? I'll give you two.” “No, madam,” the clerk said, “I said one and six pence.” “Qh,” replied the old lady, “I'll give you one.” It don’t make a great deal of difference with some people what a thing costs, they are always looking to see if they cannot get it for just a little less. There are always some who have an idea they can do just a little bit better. The best way for a city or town to do is go right in and select your men, and then pay them a fair price for their services, according to their competency. Our selectmen in the State are not well paid. If they were to depend upon their salary from the town they would have but very little as a recompense for their labors. It averages up but very small pay for the time expended in the service of the town. The Lord generally blesses the selectmen of our State with large families, and they naturally love their children and 40 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., desire to do the best they can for their families, and it is a good deal of a sacrifice for many of them to devote the time they do for so little money. Many of the towns have a large mileage of roads to look after, and if they were to devote the whole of their time in looking after the roads of their several towns with the compensation offered them I am very much afraid that their families would very soon become a town charge. The selectmen of the State, I find, in the main, are careful, hardworking, painstaking, and always poorly paid officials, but they do remarkably well considering the many disadvantages they have to work under. There are faults I find to exist in the country towns and in the cities. I find as a rule that most of the improvements are made in the centers of the large cities, just the same as improvements have been made in the boroughs or villages of our country towns. I do not hesitate to say right here that, as a rule, the center of the city gets the best pavement and outside they get very little. Now, I believe that if the city is to grow it is to grow by the suburban parts of it, or by the increase of manufacturing. And I know this, that if you improve the outside portions of a city, pave the streets, curb them, put down walks, put in sewers, and gas and water, and all the modern conveniences, it invites people to settle in the outskirts, and thus helps to build up the city. The same thing holds good with the towns. If you improve the highways you invite building, shorten the distance to market, decrease the expense of repairs for the farmer, build up the grand list, and the town will thus eventually have more money with which to make improvements. There is another evil in the cities, and it has grown to be quite a custom. I have seen city after city where mile after mile of splendid pavements have been put down, and very soon after, the next day or the next week, some corpo- ration or artisan has entered upon the streets to make con- nections, simply because someone in authority had been thoughtless and had not seen that at the proper time con- nections were made with the service pipes in the streets. In many of our cities there is no inspector of sewer, water, and gas pipes, and the surface is ripped up and the pavement ruined. It is true that the little towns have had a sort of affinity ; whether it is by force of custom, lack of money, or 1902. | GOOD ROADS. 41 whatever the case, they have followed in small, but equally as bad, errors in the management of highways, but perhaps on a little different line than that pursued in the cities, and it is quite true that the mistakes, folly, and waste, in matters of construction or improvement, either in the city or town, are about equally divided. Both the cities and the towns have made serious blunders in their public improvements. I want to say a word now about construction. The State of Connecticut has in its care six particular features or prin- ciples of construction under which the Highway Commis- sioner’s department is working. The first is earth roads; the second is gravel roads; the third is Macadam; the fourth, Telford ; the fifth is the question of grade reduction; and the sixth is the taking care of the surface water and under drain- age. During the last storm, as Mr. Seeley, your President, rightly said, it was attended with a great loss of money, thousands of dollars, because of the manner in which some of our earth roads have been built. Down in one little town I was called to treat eight miles of road, and I found a loss of $30,000 in a downfall of rain that lasted only two and one-half hours. I found, when I looked at the bridges, fourteen in number, that there wasn’t one that had a good footstone. The construction was very poor, and as a result the roads were gullied out in many places forty feet deep and fifty feet wide, when a little care, with the addition of a little more money, would have made a construction suit- able to have withstood the onset of the elements and saved the major portion of this loss. I think it is only fair to say that the selectmen in charge of this town at this time were not responsible for the work that was done by their prede- cessors. Some of our towns work under a series of disad- vantages with regard to the improvement of their roads ; some of them are so situated that it is impossible for them to import materials, access by rail being denied. In addition to this, the town treasury is not able to respond to a very large out- lay, so that the only recourse they have very many times is to lay an earth road. My department, however, can be of great assistance even here by removing boulders from the toad, by straightening the watercourses, and by taking out these twelve-foot toy bridges and making them eighteen feet wide, and in numerous other ways their unfortunate condition 42 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., can be very much helped by the State. I have many times seen a dirt road that has been properly rounded up and the water turned into its proper channel, and the road made a very passable road for the ordinary travel of the town. We would like to lay gravel construction all over the State if we could, but one difficulty has been to find proper gravel. I have always been known as a great believer in q gravel road. There is no more pleasant road to drive over, if it is properly made, than a well-constructed gravel road. The great trouble is in finding suitable gravel so that a good road can be constructed. The most difficult feature in the selection of gravel is to find a gravel that has good bonding qualities. Pit gravel is of practically no use except for bot- tom courses. I don’t believe I have found in the State of Connecticut a good gravel that answered every purpose re- quired where it was taken from a pit. The best gravel that we have found in the State has been on the slope of a hill- side, but I have rarely, if ever, found a pit gravel that was worth laying upon a road. The general rule that our de- partment has observed in regard to gravel, in its selection, is that if we find it in a bank it will generally make a good gravel to use on a road and bond in well, but there are not very many places in the State where you can get this kind of gravel. Another difficulty has been the question of crushed stone. I believe that this whole matter would be very much simplified if the State, in connection with the letting of contracts to the towns to do their own work, would crush the stone for them. In my last report I spoke of it being wise in my judgment for the State to own some portable crushers. I think three or four crushers with a suitable crew of men going from town to town where there is an improvement to be made in the highways, in towns situated as I have named, those that are remote from the railroads, and crushing stone for the towns, would assist very materially in providing for a splendid stone construction where none now can be had. This would tend . to eliminate the question of expense of crushed stone, and especially for long cartage in those towns remote from the railroad. I think the farmers could do something in this line themselves to assist in cheapening the cost. Pending the coming of the State crusher, the farmers could assemble the 1902. | GOOD ROADS. 43, stone in piles in the different districts and have it ready for the crusher; then the town officials, with the assistance of the farmers, could take their own time and opportunity in placing it upon the roads. As I have been around this last year I have become more and more convinced that if we are to con- duct the system of State highways, the State will have to own its own crushers. We cannot produce this stone at a low cost without a traction engine to draw the crusher and the necessary tools. A portable crusher can be set up in- side of two or three hours, and these machines can be used to crush the stone where it is needed, leave this stone in lieu of an appropriation, and then proceed to another town and do the same thing there. I believe that the whole question of improvement to the highways of the State will be much simplified by something in this direction. Perhaps I ought to say in case there may be somebody in this audience who has assisted in the building of. gravel roads, and is not acquainted with our method of construction, that the system employed by this State is to lay our best gravel road in three courses, two three-inch courses and one two-inch course, putting the larger stone at the base, a smaller grade of stone on the next course, and then a layer that will go through a one-inch ring on the top. Every course should be graded up, with the first and second courses of eighty per cent. gravel and twenty per cent. bonding ma- terial. The top or finishing course should be sixty per cent. gravel and forty per cent. bonding. A good, firm rolling should be given to each course. Unless care is taken in properly constructing your road you will have one of those gravel roads which walk up to the buggy and shake hands with you. A good rule to observe in the selection of all gravel from the bank is found in taking only that gravel from the bank which requires a pick to dislodge it. We spend a great deal of our State money for Macadam roads. I have often thought if John Macadam had the op- portunity we have in laying stone roads what a happy man he would have been. It generally took three months to get a road which John Macadam built, in the early days of Mac- adam construction, in a suitable condition for travel. He had no crusher or screens to properly reduce the stone to the size required, and the only way that he had of reducing the stone 44 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., was the recourse to hammer, so the roads he built resolved themselves into simply a case of wearing down the road and getting it into shape by travel. The principle employed by the State today is practically the same as that used by Mac- adam, certainly in the assembling of the different-sized stone in the construction of the road. Macadam is quoted as saying that no stone should be used larger than that which would go into a man’s mouth. We use in Connecticut entirely the mixed stone method, and we have found that this system has given very general satisfaction. I have been taken to task many times because of the fact that I don’t allow the use of sand as a bonding material in place of the dust had from the stone. The simple reason is that I find there is no bond in sand. Sand used for a filler or wearing surface simply makes, when it is moist, a little wedge. It is all right when it is moist, but when the road becomes dry in the heat of the summer and the impact of the hoof takes place, and the jar of the wheel on the surface of the road, it shakes down through to the subgrade and breaks its bond and the stones come to the surface. Now, the process of bonding a road is very much the same as the process used in making paper. If any of you have ever assisted in making pulp paper you know how it comes down on to the roll and then it comes out at the other end finished. It is just the same principle in the bonding of a road. The water is charged with the dust and is carried down through the dif- ferent courses. The rough sides or faces of the stone re- move the dust from the water, making a perfect filtrate. The dust adhering to the sides of the stone, having a cementic property, unites or assembles the stone in a perfect union; the longer a road is in use, the stronger the bond when dust from the stone is used for the bonding material; while, on the other hand, the sand possesses no cementic property. If it had a cementic property within itself it would not be neces- sary to use lime or cement in the making of mortar; it would not require it. So it has been very plain to me that sand is not the proper material to use for bonding the stone in the several courses of the construction of our State roads, and, knowing this fact, it has been impossible for me to.accept it. I know in my own city years ago we undertook to bond our roads with sand, and they have been an endless bill of ex- 1902. ] GOOD ROADS. 45 pense ever since. We have been all of these years since the introduction of sand as a bonding principle repairing our road, with very little success. The bonding has been broken, the roads have raveled, and we have been going on continu- ously spending money trying to keep these roads in proper shape. If the people of the State of Connecticut could only be made to understand how much it means to take that little stitch in time on a Macadam road it would save a great deal of money. It is foolishness, and it is a great waste of public money, to allow a pavement to go on day after day without giving it proper attention. A Macadam pavement should never be allowed to go one moment longer before it is treated than the moment the stone begin to appear on the surface of the road, and then no screenings should be ever put on, be- cause a road once bonded is bonded forever. It should have just a light application of one-half-inch cubes put on about three-quarters inch deep and let the travel wear them down. If that is done, the road will come back into its original splen- did condition. I firmly believe if the cities wherein so much Macadam treatment has been had would only exercise more attention to this question of repair in time, so essential and so necessary in keeping a pavement in order, they would see a great saving result from that policy, and I am certain they could then make a favorable comparison between a road so treated and one that has been neglected so long that it has to be practically ripped up and laid over again. A great many people say that in the three-quarters-inch treatment it is a little unpleasant to travel over. This may be true for a short time, but the unpleasant part of this method is more than compensated in the saving of money over the old system. Now, in conclusion, I want to say this: I believe a great future is in store for the State of Connecticut. I believe that anyone who goes over the State today and is acquainted with the roads, and will make a comparison with what they were before the commencement of State assistance and what they are now, will be forced to admit that, while we have expended a great deal of money, there is a marked change in the char- acter of our roads, and that the improvements show the money well invested. Certainly a very great improvement has been made in very many ways over that which has pre- vailed upon our highways before the beginning of State 40 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., appropriations. We have improved under State assistance, directly and indirectly, about five hundred miles, and I be- lieve that if all which can be traced to the good done by the State since the beginning of the movement was shown, we would have nearly one thousand miles. Some of our little towns where only a small amount of money was used have improved the poorest sections, such as a bad hill which had formerly existed; have reclaimed the swamps, and made in this way a first-class highway for a little money. I don’t be- lieve, as some people have taken occasion to say, that it will take fifty years to get this State into a fair condition with respect to its roads. I dare say that if the State makes the same wise discrim- ination that it has made during the last ten years, in the next ten, our little State will be in good condition with respect to its highways, and fully as much so as any State in the Union. In conclusion, I desire to add my tribute to the work of former Boards of Agriculture, and also to the present Board, for their earnest efforts and self-denial in the work placed in their hands. The PRESIDENT. It is very possible that you may wish to ask some questions of our commissioner before he retires, and you have the privilege of doing so now. Mr. Hinman. The commissioner knows that I am a missionary in good roads. When I heard Governor McLean in his introductory address I thought, as I believe every one here has thought who has attended conventions of this kind for the last thirty-six years, that that was one of the finest ad- dresses we have ever heard. There is one thing about road building in our country towns, and that is, you must understand when you go out into the highway in the back towns, you must figure within a thousand dollars. Their means are limited, and you must get your estimate within three figures. Now, I have built a little road which has worn remarkably well. I want this con- vention to understand that everybody, big men and little men, appreciate a good road. I happen to hold here some testi- 1902. | DISCUSSION. 47 monials which I think the convention will pardon me for reading. They refer to this road which I built a little while ago, and they go to show how a good gravel road can be constructed and give the public good satisfaction at a very reasonable cost. The first is: “In delivering milk from my farm, we have had to go over a piece of gravel road made by R. S. Hinman more than a year ago, and have found it every day in the year a first-class road in every respect. — Pat Lynch.” The next is from a man who has been hauling wood over that road: “I have had from one to three teams hauling wood in good weather daily, except Sundays, over a section of gravel road constructed by R. S. Hinman in the fall of 1900, and have found it at all times in excellent condition. — Chas. E. Knorr.” The next is from no less a man than the chief justice of our Supreme Court; he says: “ During the past season I have been with my bicycle several times over the gravel road made by you on the single-track plan on a part of your river road, and never without invoking blessings on your head, and wondering why hundreds of miles of our country roads are not made in like manner, since the cost as compared with the benefit is a mere bagatelle. You have converted part of an execrable road through a beautiful valley into a good ridable road. In behalf of all bicyclists and draft animals everywhere, I tender you a vote of thanks. May the good work go on.” That is signed by David Torrance, the chief justice of our Supreme Court. That road cost four hundred dollars a mile. It is my im- pression when I go out over the hills of the country that you must get below a thousand dollars a mile in order to make very much progress with good road building in the back - towns. I believe it is practical to build these gravel roads in most of the towns. While the right kind of gravel may not be plenty everywhere, I can find a gravel in my neighborhood that will make a good road, and I believe it is possible to go 48 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., over the State of Connecticut and find suitable material out of which thousands of miles of excellent road can be con- structed at less than $500a mile. I believe it is practical to go right out through many of the towns and construct good practical roads for travel of all kinds, either for bicycles or heavy travel, within three figures to the mile. This road of mine is used for bicycle riding or for heavy travel, and for any kind of travel that goes over our average country roads. The highway commissioner says that we have got to be care- ful to get the best gravel. I have got the best gravel on earth. I have got also poor gravel, but I have had experience enough in the last twenty-five or thirty years, so I do not take poor gravel, and I am fully of the opinion it never should cost, tak- ing one mile with another, more than $500 a mile for roads built upon that plan. The VicE-PRESIDENT. Are there any further questions relative to this subject, or have any of you any opinions to express relative to this matter? If there is no further discus- sion in regard to the matter the time has arrived for adjourn- ment. The SEcRETARY. Before we leave this hall, I think it is due to the people of Bridgeport that we express our apprecia- tion of the courtesy they have extended to us in inviting us here. Bridgeport has been unwilling to receive guests with- out placing them in her guest chamber. We had a comfort- able hall, but in receiving the distinguished speakers we have here this morning, the city of Bridgeport has offered us the use of this hall entirely gratuitously, and I desire, Mr. President, to offer a motion for a vote of thanks on the part of the State Board of Agriculture to the citizens of Bridge- port, who have so kindly extended to us the use of this theater for our exercises. Motion seconded and unanimously passed. The PRESIDENT. Our session this afternoon and there- after will be held in the hall in the Atlantic Hotel. Convention adjourned to 2 P. M. 1902. | ‘ FARM SANITATION. 49 AFTERNOON SESSION. 2p.M., Tuesday, December 17, 1901. Convention called to order at 2.10 P. M. Vice-President Seeley in the Chair. The VicE-PRESIDENT. You will notice on your programs that at two o’clock this afternoon there was to be an address by Prof. C. A. Lindsley, secretary Connecticut State Board of Health. Unfortunately Dr. Lindsley is unable to be here, but he has sent his paper, and the Rev. Mr. DePeu will read it for us. Rey. Mr. DEPEv. I am very grateful, Mr. President and gentlemen, for this opportunity to appear before and be of service to this gathering. I will very gladly read this paper at the request of your chairman. “ Farm Sanitation,” by Dr. C. A. Lindsley, secretary State Board of Health. FARM SANITATION. By Dr:'C:. A. LINDSEEY, Secretary State Board of Health. Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: I feel that my first duty is to express my appreciation of the honor of an invitation to address a body of farmers and their wives, a body which represents in large measure the intelligence of the State, and upon whose thrift and enterprise, more than upon any other single class, the best interest and prosperity of the State depends. Health is not an article of commerce to be bought and sold by weight or measure. It is in large degree a product. It is something to be protected, cultivated, and thoroughly guarded. No one should understand this fact in a more practical way than the farmer. He knows, or ought to know, that his live stock are vigorous and healthy under cer- tain conditions, and under others are sickly and feeble. AGR.—4 50 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., The health of ourselves and families are in like manner subject to the influences which surround us. We are taught in Holy Scripture that more than four thousand years before the Christian era it was recognized that the health of man depended upon his conduct and his surroundings. And Moses laid down a code of sanitary laws that have never been excelled at any subsequent period. It has formed the foundation of all modern sanitary legis- lation. It is due to the observance of these laws that the Jewish people, in all countries, under the most diverse con- ditions of climate and social relations, a broken, wandering, outcast nation, have maintained such wondrous health and vitality as to outlive in the race of years all other nationalities in every part of the habitable globe. It is also to be observed that the sanitary code of Moses is in no respect in conflict with the sanitary science of the present day. It may therefore be assumed, as the unvarying experience in all forms of civilized life, that the great boon of good health is a possession which is very much under control. IT am to talk to you of “ Farm Sanitation.“ My theme scarcely involves a consideration of sanitary methods of agri- culture. I shall not be expected to describe any hygienic way of planting potatoes or plowing your corn, although I may have something to say of the sanitary ways of treating your live stock. But I assume that the topics upon which you expect me to speak relate more particularly to your homes, your house and its surroundings, and to your do- mestic life. We think of the interior of the house as the home. The many hours of the day spent within doors and the closer intimacy of the family while in the house make it the very center and heart of home. That is sufficient to emphasize the importance of giving attention to its sanitary condition. There is too a permanency and stability about the farmer’s home that in these latter days scarcely pertains to any other class of citizens. The tendency to the centralizing of popu- lations in cities and the consequent condensation of commun- ities in temporary lodgings, in parts of houses, in flats, in boarding houses, and in clubs, and again the incessant activity of commercial and manufacturing enterprises with the social and financial fluctuation incident thereto, are all 1902. | FARM SANITATION. 51 impediments to a settled family life, and more and more it is true that parents rear families flitting from place to place, without once establishing what could rightfully be called a home. The home of the farmer differs from that of the resident of the town, in being almost wholly independent of the co- operative action of his neighbors on many important con- cerns. He is not taxed in common with them for any elabo- rate sewer system or public water supply. His neighbor’s cesspool is too far away to contaminate his well. His hog pen too remote to offend his nostrils. In fact, the farmer makes in large measure his own environment. He is therefore individually more responsible for the sani- tary situation about his dwelling than the occupant of a brick block on a city street. This fact has not been as generally appreciated as it deserved to be. The considerations which have controlled the farmer, in the arrangement and disposition of those appurtenances to his house which have always been found necessary, have been based upon accessible convenience rather than upon a just estimate of their relation to sanitation. The well is an absolute necessity, and its proximity to the kitchen an important matter. It matters not how near, if good water is available. Some place for the waste discharges from the kitchen and laundry is imperative. Frequent observation assures me that a slop puddle near the kitchen door or a hole in the ground not far away provides that accommodation. A small building often called as it is a “necessary” cannot be too distant from the house to serve its purpose satisfactorily. The hogs must be fed, and, as their food is largely from the refuse of the kitchen and dairy, the same idea of conven- ience often locates the hog pen in too close proximity to the executive office of the establishment, the kitchen; and the swill barrel, which is a commissary department to the pigstye, is too commonly beside the kitchen door. The barnyard and stables with their accumulations of polluting material may be more distant, but too often so located that the drainage from them is towards the house and well. It is not many years ago that the conditions I have described were not at all uncommon and were not re- 52 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., garded as specially objectionable. I am happy to testify that they are growing less frequent. But it is worth while to inquire in what way they may influence unfavorably the health of the family. Four or five hundred years before Christ, Hippocrates, the father of medi- cine, announced the cardinal requisites of a healthy situation to be “ Pure Air, Pure Water, and Pure Soil.” No one since has ventured to dispute his statement. You have read and heard a great deal about ventilation and the necessity of having the air in our houses renewed frequently. But there might be a doubt of the benefit of the change, if the air we admit from the outside is laden with the unfragrant odors of the swill barrel, the cesspool, the privy, and the hog pen. It is true that offensive smells are not of themselves capa- ble of causing smallpox or diphtheria, or other infectious diseases, unless they are associated with the germs of those diseases. But a bad air of itself is depressing in its effect, it lowers the standard of health, diminishes the powers of resistance to disease, causes headaches, sore throats, loss of appetite, and a general feeling of malaise. It is a direct vio- lation of the principle laid down by Hippocrates and con- firmed by the experience of more than two thousand years. To enjoy the best health we must have pure air. In order to get a practical idea of the impurities in the house it is only mecessary to darken any room in your house after sweeping it and then admit a beam of sunlight through any small crevice in the window and note the myriads of floating particles made visible by that ray of light. This is commonly called dust, but a careful study of its true char- acter determines that a large portion of this dust is in fact composed of living germs — microscopic organisms — bac- teria. Scientists have a way of estimating their number in a given volume of air. By exposing in such a room for a few minutes a plate covered with any material upon which such germs will feed and grow (usually some preparation of gelatine in a moist condition), so that the dust as it falls upon it will adhere to it, then putting the plate aside, properly covered in a warm place, it will be found that these germs so planted will have grown so as to be visible to the naked eye. Each germ that has found lodgment upon the germ food will 1902. | FARM SANITATION. 53 grow rapidly, and about it will be formed a colony of the same kind of germs. So, by simply counting the colonies, you fix the number of germs in the original planting. Now, the number and character of such germs will vary under varying conditions. They will always be more abun- dant in the presence of decaying organic matter, which is the same thing as saying in the presence of hog pens, cess- pools, garbage heaps, swill barrels, etc., because such ma- terial affords their food. They are not all disease producing germs, but if disease germs are present they find already at hand the conditions best adapted for their propagation and multiplication. Another point about house air. It never is and never can be kept as pure and wholesome as the air outside the house. Every good housekeeper, which is the same as say- ing every Connecticut farmer’s wife, knows how difficult it is to get the dust out of the house. Her practice is, period- ically, to take all her carpets, rugs, curtains, cushions, and movable articles of that kind out of doors and hang them on a line. The first blow of the broom handle or switch reveals in a cloud the quantity of dust they contain, notwithstanding while in the house they had been swept and dusted daily. What is the significance of this fact when you reflect upon it? You have had your doors open and your windows open every day. You have tried to have abundant ventilation, and yet it is a fact that there is more dust in the air of your house than in the outside air. How can it be explained? The solution of the mystery is simple. Your house is an air filter. During the night or at any time when the house air is still the dust brought in from without settles by gravity upon whatever surfaces it falls upon. It attaches itself so closely upon loose textures and fabrics of every kind that it is not dislodged by an inflow of outer air. The ventilation which you have practiced, although in- dispensable to health, yet has added each time its quota to the accumulation of dust already there. Your attempts by sweeping and dusting to cleanse the filter has been but an imperfect and partial success. Hence I repeat that the house air is never so pure as the air out doors. And also the importance of providing that the at- 54 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., mosphere that surrounds your house shall be as much as possible protected from impurities. Let us turn now for a brief consideration to another of the essentials of health claimed by Hippocrates—a pure soil. As that is so intimately connected in its sanitary rela- tions with pure water we will discuss them together. All the water which is used for domestic purposes comes from the clouds. When the rain falls upon the earth it dis- appears in three ways. Some of it is evaporated from the surfaces it has wetted. Some of it is rapidly absorbed in the interspaces of the ground, and what is not disposed of in these ways runs upon the surface in the direction of least resistance and forms rivu- lets, brooks, and rivers, and finally reaches the ocean. Of the last mode of disposal we are at present only concerned when it may occasion the pollution of the farmer’s well or cellar, by the drainage from his barnyard, his pigstye, etc. What I desire particularly to call your attention to is the impurities in the soil caused by the soakage into it of the filth accumulated in the ground by the special accessible conven- iences which have been provided by the farmer’s personal direction, to wit: the cesspool, the privy, the slop puddle, etc. That is, the filth produced in the process of housekeeping and purposely deposited in the ground immediately about the house. From an ordinary family of five or six persons it would amount to several tons annually. It is a question of serious import whether or not this gross contamination of the ground close about his dwelling may affect his health. And if so, how? When the farmer digs a posthole, unless the weather has been very dry, he finds the soil below the surface to be moist. If he digs a larger hole and deeper, he comes in time to a depth where as fast as he removes the earth the cavity fills with water. This is called ground water, and he has dug down to its level. Anywhere at that level he will find the same condition. This ground water is the water that has percolated through the strata of soil above it, until it has reached an impervious stratum below. In short he has dug a well, and the water which constitutes the well has soaked through the ground above it. Now, water is the most universal solvent known in nature. 1902. | FARM SANITATION. 55 If it passes through a portion of soil highly contaminated with filth, it will dissolve a portion of such filth and hold other portions in suspension, and so the ground water is liable to be polluted by the same filth as the soil through which it has passed. Just here it is proper to call your attention to the differ- ence which results from the different ways of putting filth in contact with the soil. If the filth is applied upon the surface or only a few inches below the surface, not in masses nor in excessive quantities, it will speedily be disposed of without being in any way injurious to health or offensive to our senses. A French scientist once filled a bottle with dry garden loam. He first made a little hole in the bottom of the bottle. Then he slowly poured into the bottle a quantity of very dark, bad-smelling effluent from a dung heap. After a while it began to leak out through the little hole in the bottom of the bottle, and he was much surprised to find it free from odor and almost free from color. A remarkable transformation had occurred in the offensive liquid which he had poured into the bottle. The State Board of Health of Massachusetts, by the ex- periments on the purification of sewage which it has been conducting for several years, has explained the mystery. All organized matter which has been endowed with life, whether animal or vegetable, eventually dies and the substance of which it was composed becomes disorganized and resolved into the original elements of which it consisted. It has been ‘determined that at the surface of the ground, where waste material would most naturally be found, nature has provided an army of scavengers, innumerable in number and micro- scopic in size. They inhabit the few inches of the soil imme- diately below the top, where some degree of light and the atmosphere can penetrate. They are some of the many forms of bacteria. They seize promptly upon all dead organic matter and disintegrate and tear its constituent elements apart, using such as they need for their own maintenance and setting free the rest in such forms as to be available for the use of other living things, that is, as food for new organizations. Under these conditions decomposition of organic matter takes place inoffensively and practically without soil pollu- 56 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., tion. That is one form provided by nature for the disposal of filth or the decomposition of dead organic matter. A very different process follows if filth is deposited in masses so deep in the ground that the light and air are ex- cluded and where the little scavengers before mentioned can- not live. The dissolution and disintegration, however, takes place just as certainly, but under the action of other kinds of bac- teria. This latter form of decomposition is called putrefac- tion, and in a sanitary sense is exceedingly objectionable. The mass of matter becomes liquefied and putrid, generating disgusting and noxious odors and numerous solid, liquid, and gaseous products which permeate the soil and produce poi- sonous results dangerous to human health. It is said that ptomaines produced by putrefaction are as active and dan- gerous as any poisons known. This sort of filth disposal always takes place in cesspools and privy vaults. When filth is stored in masses under- ground, shut out from air and light, putrefying action with its consequent products is inevitable. The putrid liquids fall by gravity to the water level and pollute the water of your well. Prof. Vaughan has said that bad water has killed more people than bad whisky. The gases find their way to the surface and mingle with the atmosphere. But there are conditions when their ready escape upward is prevented. This is particularly true when the ground is frozen and impervious. This is the common situation during Connecticut winters. But down below the frost in your filth pits the production of toxic gases goes right on unhindered, seeking an outlet somewhere, the nearest and most available being the cellar of your house. That is not frozen. There is no impediment to the passage of gases through its bottom, nor to their con- tinuous passage up through the rooms above. The air in the house being warmer than the outside air, the house acts as a chimney to the ground air, and, as we say of a chimney, it draws well and sucks in the defiled ground air from a space all around the house. Thus our putrid filth pits become another very serious source of house air pollution. It should be remembered that about one-third of the space above the level of the ground water is occupied with air. It is also true 1902. | FARM SANITATION. 57 that the ground breathes. It inspires air from above and ex- hales it again through its surface. In the winter time when the outdoor ground is frozen, the chief breathing places are the cellars of our warm houses. Through the warm cellars and still warmer rooms of our dwellings the vile vapors gen- erated in the subterranean storehouses of corruption find exit, while the solids and liquids from the same sources sink downwards to contaminate our wells. These special and peculiar contrivances so well adapted to produce an impure air, impure water, and an impure soil are devices of our own invention and construction. Now, if the pale horse and his rider enter our homes and our loved ones are borne to their last resting place, with what propriety can we reverently say, it is the dispensation of an all wise Provi- dence? The minister may offer consolation in the words “Whom He loveth He chasteneth.’”’ Loving friends may re- solve that “ Whereas it has pleased Almighty God to remove, etc.,” but is not such language a libel upon the loving kind- ness and wisdom of the great Lawmaker? And is it not more in accordance with the facts to recall the words of Moses to the rebellious Israelites, “ Behold ye have sinned against the Lord; and be sure your sin will find you out’? The late Col. G. E. Waring said the most objectionable of all unsanitary conditions “ about isolated buildings is the noisome and death-dealing cesspool, which is, facile princeps, the great sanitary curse of the country.” The unsanitary conditions which I have described in terms not too emphatic are in the present light of sanitary science inexcusable and in many cases criminal. There has been many a grief stricken family where should have been written on the death certificate homicide or suicide as the contribu- tory cause. There is no practical difficulty in protecting a well or spring from surface drainage. It is an unpardonable offense against the established laws of health to permit the existence of a cesspool on a farm whose broad acres afford ample facili- ties for the safe and profitable disposal of sewage. The privy vault is a disgraceful relic of a past and more barbarous age, when even a privy was unknown and the public street was the common receptacle of all manner of refuse and filth. : <8 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., It is evident from what has been said that the salubrity of our homes is eminently dependent upon good air and good water, and that good air and good water depend upon our own attention to protecting both air and water from exposure to impurities. It is a law of nature that “every living thing, be it plant or animal, is injured if its own excretions be allowed to ac- cumulate about it.’ — Prof. Vaughan. Science has shown how nature has provided for the prompt, successful, and safe disposal of waste material by a proper application of it to the surface of the ground, and how she punishes us for permitting the accumulation of dead organic matter in masses underground, by the development in such masses of products poisonous and dangerous to life. There are many other subjects pertaining to farm sanita- tion of which I might speak did not time forbid. Much might be said about the proper location of the house, as to the character of the soil it stands on, the facilities for drain- age, etc.; also the construction of the farm house, with some pointed remarks about the false economy of little bedrooms. The rooms in which so much of the time of-the farmer’s family is spent should be large, because in small rooms the air becomes rapidly polluted with the exhalations from their persons. The living rooms should have abundance of sun- shine. The subject of milk production is of the highest sanitary import. An eminent sanitarian has said “ Milk is a deadly drink.” And, on the other hand, it is recognized as the most indispensable of all articles of diet. There is nothing ap- proaching its value as a substitute. And again, it contains more germs than any other natural liquid. It has been the means of spreading many fatal epidemics. Other topics closely associated with the sanitation of the farnr readily occur to mind, but the time forbids more than a bare mention of them. Perhaps no part of a farmer’s house is more frequently neglected than the cellar. Too often it is damp and the walls are mouldy. It is dark and badly ventilated, may be the re- ceptacle of decaying vegetation, with the resultant noxious gases to invade the rooms above. A word might be said about improved methods of cooking were it not that the 1902. ] FARM SANITATION. 59 farmers’ wives of Connecticut are everywhere distinguished as cooks, Another topic not often mentioned is the dangerous pres- ence of the common house fly. The ordinary and necessary appurtenances of the farmhouse — the stable, the swill barrel, etc. — are prolific breeding places of flies, and the fly is rec- ognized of late as a ready and frequent carrier of disease in- fection. Hence the great importance of preventing its access to the food supplies. I will mention only one other subject that deserves a more extended notice. It is not peculiar to the farmer’s family, but is a widely-extended evil. I mean the practice of dosing with patent medicines. The consumption of quack medicines is enormous. Never in the history of civilization was there a time when quack nostrums were so widely used as now. Like Milton’s fallen angels, they are “Thick as autumnal leaves that strew the brooks of Vallombrosa.” A large majority of these drugs contain opium or alcohol, or are inert. The drink habit and the opium habit in thousands of instances have been acquired by this irrational and dan- gerous practice. The condition of the homes of a community is an index of its rank in civilization. It is within the opportunity of the farmer, far beyond the ability of the city resident, to make his home a model one in a sanitary sense, and a realization of what was in the poet’s mind when he wrote “ Home, Sweet Home.” . The strongest attachments to home are found among those whose boyhood and youth have been spent upon the farm. To such the word “home” always calls up memories of the old kitchen and its great fireplace, the old keeping room, its old-fashioned furniture, and the good old folks. There is an influence exerted by the home upon the char- acter of the boy and the youth that is permanent, and a guiding factor in all his after life. This I think is specially true of the home on the farm. It will be realized if we look about upon the leading men who are most prominent as mer- chants, manufacturers, professional men, scientists, states- men, and soldiers, and observe how large a proportion of them have graduated from the farmer’s home. 60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., The PreEsIDENT. I am sure we are all very much obliged to Mr. DePeu for reading this essay, and we are very much obliged to Dr. Lindsley for sending it on here; it is, indeed, a very valuable contribution to the subject. The Secretary. I think Dr. Lindsley deserves more than the thanks of the chairman, I think he deserves the thanks of this audience for having sent from his sick bed such a paper as this for our entertainment. I move, therefore, that the thanks of this audience be extended to Dr. Lindsley for the paper which has been read. Motion seconded and unanimously passed. The PrestpENT. There are a great many questions liable to be asked, or that you will wish to ask, and I will ask any who have questions if they will write them out and bring them forward and put them in the question-box. Just get those questions ready and let them be brought up and put into the box here, and somebody will answer them to your satisfaction, or tell you they cannot, one of the two. You will see by looking on your programs that we are to have a rural New Yorker speak to us. I am a kind of rural New Yorker myself. I know they raise some mighty good men over there, and I am very glad to introduce to you Mr. H. W. Collingwood, editor of the “ Rural New Yorker.” I am sure he will give us something which will be well worth hearing on the subject of “ Farmers’ Institutes.” Mr. Chairman and ladies and gentlemen: I do not pre- tend to be familiar with the system of conducting farmers’ institutes in Connecticut. Iam rather glad that I know noth- ing about it, because I may say something that will hurt the corns of some one, or say something that you will not agree with, and when I sit down you will have at least the chance to say that that man did not do that intentionally. I have studied some of the methods of conducting farmers’ institutes in Massachusetts and other states, but I have purposely left Con- 1902. ] DISCUSSION. 61 necticut alone so far as I could, and haven’t studied into your system here. It will not do to say that all methods are alike. It would be a foolish thing to say that some of the plans for whooping up farmers’ institutes in Kansas, Nebraska, or Min- nesota would work here. They are satisfactory to your cousins, in those western sections, because your uncles went West and your cousins have grown up amid new methods and surroundings. Your uncles went West because they did not know when they had a good thing, and the result was that when they went west of the Allegheny mountains new methods were suggested by new conditions, and while those methods will suit your cousins, they will not suit you, because your fathers had sense enough to stay here, and taught you how to grow up with the country as they ought to have done, and, of course, it is not to be expected that you will adopt western methods. I will tell you, however, what you can do, and in this connection I am reminded of the story of the young minister. There was a minister who was a very young man, in fact he was troubled with youngness ; that was the difficulty with him. Be- fore he graduated from the seminary he was invited to preach a Thanksgiving sermon way back among the hills of New Hampshire, where the people have been voting for Andrew Jackson for forty years and never skipped a year. The young minister felt that it was his duty to preach them a political sermon with reference to civil service reform, and all the other reforms that a man could think of. When he came down out of the pulpit he noticed that nobody referred to his sermon at all. He thought that he must have been very deep. They took him home to old Uncle John’s to dinner, and when they all gathered around the table, loaded with the big cranberry pies, and the turkey, and the “ punkin ” pies, and all the other etceteras of the New England Thanksgiving dinner, the young minister supposed that he, of course, would be asked to say grace, but he was not. The lady of the house stood up, and rapping on the sideboard, said she would say grace, and here 62 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., was the way she ended up: ‘“ We thank Thee for this sermon that has been preached by thy servant here today. We are thankful that he preached it with courage and said just what he believed, but more especially than for anything else are we thankful that what he said ain’t so.””. Now, then, you can apply that to what I say here. If you do not feel that you can be thankful, you can be thankful that it isn’t so. Now, in the first place, my friends, I think we can fairly ask what the farmer’s institute is, what it is intended to be, and what it should be. In some places, I regret to say, the farmers’ institute has come to be known as a sort of a social gathering, as a time for a picnic, a big dinner, a general good time, and a catering to the bodily and physical wants of man, rather than to the intellectual side of him. In my judg- ment, that is an entire mistake. I say that without any reserva- tion. I do not care how much you may wish to contradict me. That is my honest opinion on that subject. A farmers’ institute is really a traveling high school for the farmer. That is what it was intended to be, and that is what I think it ought to be made. It is an educational institution pure and simple, and should be held to that, and made so if possible. It seems to me a fatal mistake to attempt to make it a place of entertainment, or to have it degenerate into a social club. I will admit that when the farmers’ institute comes into our neighborhood it is a wonderful temptation to be able to say that our little girl is going to speak a nice piece, or that our boy is going to have a place on the program. That is very satisfactory to one’s pride; to be able to say what a great man am I. I admit that is a wonderful temptation to turn the farmers’ institute into a sort of a tableaux, but, my friends, that is not what the institute is for, and in my judgment that is a mistake. That is not what the farmers’ institute is in- tended to be. It is not and never should be a literary and social entertainment. It is true that it may be often neces- sary to provide some form of entertainment in order to draw 1902. | DISCUSSION. 63 a crowd, but it is also necessary that the true object and pur- pose of the institute should not be lost sight of in placing such features upon the program. I know that Mr. Doyle of New York told me at one time that he seriously considered the plan of hiring two vaudeville actors, and announcing that they were going to sing, and I don’t know but dance and speak pieces. He said that he seriously considered that prop- osition in order to attract a crowd, if he could not obtain it in any other way. I do not think he has done it, and I do not believe he ever will, but at one time he was so discouraged at the fact that he could not call out a large audience that he seriously considered that plan and putting their names on the program by the side of the professors. Just imagine such a thing! Just imagine Dr. J. H. Hale, the noted peach king, appearing upon a farmers’ institute program by the side of an announcement that John Jones, slipper and clog dancer, will appear tonight. And the unkindest cut of all would be that perhaps seventy-five per cent. of the people present would come to see the clog dancer, rather than to hear the peach king. So I say that, while it may be necessary to sometimes put in these entertainment features in order to draw a crowd, yet even then the true object of the meeting should not be for- gotten, but it should be so conducted that those who come to laugh should remain to pray. Those who come simply to have fun should be forced to remain and listen to the facts that are of vital interest and importance to them in their business. Now, as I look at it, there are three things absolutely neces- sary and essential, either in Connecticut or in California, in order to provide a perfect farmers’ institute. The first is a good speaker, the second a good audience, and third, a good and helpful topic for discussion. It is the speaker, the audi- ence, and the topic that make the successful meeting. Some people think that if they have got a good farmers’ institute manager, the whole thing is done. That is a mistake. It is 64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., all right if the manager will pay strict attention to these three essentials. Now, in the first place, what about the speaker? Who is a proper man? How can I picture the ideal speaker at the farmers’ institute? He is hard to find and he is hard to de- fine. In one sense it seems to me that the man who goes traveling about the country from one institute to another should not only be a social man, but he ought to be as wise as Solomon, as strong as Sullivan, he ought to have the diges- tion of an ostrich, he ought to have the patience of Job, and he ought to have the curiosity of the Queen of Sheba. There are but few men of that quality, but that, to my mind, is the ideal institute worker. We cannot hope to get all of those qualities in one man. Another important question is, should that man be scien- tific or practical? That is a great question before the mind of farmers’ institute managers — should that man be a prac- tical man or a scientist? There are other questions. Should he be old or young? Should he attempt to be funny, or should he try to be serious? As a first requisite, I say that that man should know just exactly what he is going to talk about and he should be a man who talks through his head, and not through his hat. I find in most states that the man best suited to meet the demands of the situation is one who is not only a practical farmer, a man of affairs upon the farm, but one who has just exactly enough science so it will not be dangerous. You know a little learning is mighty dangerous. The practical man, the man who has had the plow handles in his own hand, and who knows enough of science, and the application of scientific principles, so that he will not be dangerous to the others who listen to him, that man is probably the best insti- tute worker on the whole, and especially so if he combines certain other qualities I have referred to. On the whole, then, I think that man is about as good as the people can get hold of. 1902. | DISCUSSION. 65 It has occurred to my mind that sometimes our institute managers make a mistake in racing after what I may call very prosperous men to come to the institute. I do not believe that the exceedingly prosperous man, one of those men in a million, one of those men who by strong natural ability and by force of will have pushed themselves head and shoulders above the crowd —I do not believe, my friends, that those men are the best farmers’ institute workers. I believe they are for the large gatherings. Some of them are ideal speak- ers, but for getting down close to the masses, down to the people, down to the hopeless, discouraged man back on the farm, there is too wide a jump. There is too great a gap be- tween them. That is the class that our farmers’ institutes ought to be designed to reach, and the man who can come to them with an inspiring story of improvement is, in my judg- ment, a far better farmers’ institute speaker than the exceed- ingly prosperous man, who stands on a pedestal, and who, whether rightly or wrongly, justly or unjustly, is separated from his audience by a certain feeling, by a gap which mili- tates against his usefulness as a speaker. The speaker should be a man who should be able to talk about my work, my farm, or my wife’s farm, my cow, and my profits, and who should know these things from actual practical experience and every- day contact with them. You want a man who is able to talk about “ my success ” or about “ my failure ” in a certain line, and who can talk it so that they will understand just what that success was, and how it was attained, or just what that failure was, and how it came about. He wants to be able to talk it so the common farmer will understand him. Then, too, the speaker ought to be known in his neighbor- hood as a good farmer. What a mistake it is for a man to go before an audience of farmers and inspire them, and build them up in spirits with a wonderful story of his success, and invite them to come and see him, and then some day, when one of those men who have listened to him takes it into his AGR. — 5 66 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., head that he will hitch up old Bill and drive across the country to visit that wonderful man, only to finfi that his farm is practically a byword in the neighborhood where he lives; that his fences are down, the boards are off the barn doors, and the holes in the barn roof, and weeds in the fields where the crops ought to be. I say, therefore, that a man should never go on the stump at a farmers’ institute unless he is known as a good farmer at home. I am not speaking, of course, now of a scientific man. I am speaking of those who pretend to be practical men, and who go out in talk. Possibly I am using hard words. But I tell you, my friends, you cannot afford to toler- ate that sort of thing for a minute. Possibly that is not so in Connecticut. Whether it is or not, I have known of such in- stances, and that is the very kind of man that should be kept off the platform at the farmers’ institute. And the man who knows it all, leave him at home to tell his big stories there to his own horses and cows, or to his neighbors and friends who have sized him up fifty times and among whom he can do no mischief. Leave the “ know-it- all”? man at home. Put the practical man on the platform, and the man who has the courage to stand up and say “I don’t know ” when it is the truth. It seems to me marvel- ously strange that a man shrewd in other respects, a good farmer and business man, does not have the sense to say when they are asked about something which they do not know very much about, “I don’t know.” How much more manly and how much more straightforward it is for a man to say hon- estly and fairly “ I do not know,” when something of this kind is asked of him, than to go into an attempt at a labored ex- planation. He makes himself ridiculous. The chances are ten to one that there are practical farmers right in his audience who do know, and who could get up and answer the question and tell all about it if they only had assurance upon their feet. So I say, do not send the “ know-it-all” man out on your 1902. | DISCUSSION. 67 institute platforms if you value the future success of the meet- ings. Keep him at home, and make him stay there. And the man with the big story, make him take a back seat until he can carve his stories down to somewhere in the range of rea- sonableness. Also keep at home the gloomy man and the pessimist. The man who can see nothing but failure and darkness in the work of the common farmer, hang him up until some of our friends, the scientists, can inoculate him with hope, and then send him out to see if he cannot do some- thing to uplift, rather than to discourage. I could give you dozens of illustrations of what I niean by this. Three years ago at an institute in New York there was a common, everyday-looking farmer got up and asked a question. 1 knew that man had been sitting for some time, trying to get up courage so as to stand on his feet and ask that question. He did not like to get up on his feet because he was not in the habit of talking in public. He finally did so, and he said: ‘How much can I afford to pay for wood ashes a ton?” Now, wouldn’t you think that the man on the platform could have simply said “ Nine dollars,’ or whatever the number of dollars was? But instead of that the speaker was simply bursting with wisdom. He is only the example of a class. You have all seen it, in all probability. He gets up and buttons his coat and clears his throat, and he says: “ I am very glad that this question has been asked. It is a very im- portant question. Now wood ashes represent the residue when wood of any kind is burned. As we all know oxidation goes on in the wood, and when the wood is burned the greater part of it passes away into the air and leaves a very small pro- portion of ashes. Now, what does that represent? That represents what is left when the wood is burned. A ton will contain five per cent. of potash, about two per cent. of phos- phoric acid, and about two per cent. of lime.” And so he goes on. In one instance I knew a man who went on that way for about fifteen minutes. That is what I call the “ know-it- 68 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., all” man. Instead of answering his question he simply puzzled him. If that man had said “ Eight or nine dollars,” and explained in five or ten words just what he meant, it would have been a good thing, but he spoiled the effect of it all by going into this labored and irresponsive and technical ex- planation. Now it is strange what some men who go about talking to our farmers tell them. I suppose I have had a dozen or fifteen letters from a man who said that electricity is the thing we have been looking for all these years, won’t you tell us about it? He had been told that. I traced it down, and in one place I found that a man actually went around telling the farmers that the time was coming when they could fertilize by means of dynamos running electricity into the soil. That it could be used as a fertilizer instead of manure. Now, is it not a heart-breaking thing that men go about doing that, and that there are men who will not listen for five minutes when you try to explain a principle of scientific agriculture, and yet will tumble all over themselves and spend five or ten dollars chasing up such a thing as that? If I understand it right the farmers’ institute speaker is the man who has the faculty to explain, frankly and clearly, the subject he is discussing, and to put it in such shape that men will understand and know what he is talking about. He should be a man who will excite attention and interest and draw out questions from his listeners. Now, would I shut off the scientific man? I have explained the practical man, but would I shut off the scientific man from the platform of the farmers’ institute? No. But I would force him to make his science understandable, so that when it gets into a man’s head he will understand what he has been told, and it will not rattle around loose like a piece of brick in a basket. The scientific man may perhaps be called the “ why ”’ man, and we might call the practical man the “ how ” man, because he should tell how things are done, but I would have the 1902. ] DISCUSSION. 69 ’ ‘ 5 “how” man come first, and I would have the “why” man follow it up so as to make a clean job of it. I would per- sonally put the “ how” man — the practical man — first, and let the scientific man — the “ why ” man — follow him, if I may put it that way. I understand that is not the program mapped out in many of our farmers’ institutes, but I believe that the “ how ” man should have the right of way, he should go ahead and let the scientific man, or the “ why ” man, follow him. I will grant that the average farmer is in great need of information, and in need of scientific information, but one difficulty of the scientific man, or the “ why ” man, is that he seems to forget that he is talking to a kindergarten class in science. Consequently he talks away up over the heads of his audience. We do not live among the stars. We hope to some day, but at present we are all down on the ground. I have seen men go away from an institute with their heads fairly bursting with technical scientific information, and, at ‘ the same time, in a condition which reminded me of the story of the darkey who went into the town with the entire proceeds of sale of his cotton crop in his pocket. A traveling agent for a carriage factory got hold of the man, and do you know when he got through the carriage man had the darkey’s money, and the darkey had a first-class high-top buggy. The darkey had no horse, and so he got between the thills of the carriage and walked away hauling that top buggy after him. It has seemed to me sometimes when I have listened to a scientific man talking to an audience of common farmers that they went away from that meeting almost like that darkey, hauling the high-top buggy himself, because that information as it was put to them was almost useless in their everyday life and work upon the farm, the same as that high-top buggy was to the darkey. The most useful speaker is the one who succeeds in interesting his hearers and eliciting honest ques- tions. Then is when you find out what the farmers want. Shut off the man who talks too much, and give every man an 70 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., opportunity to get up on his feet and demand an answer to some question that has troubled him in his work. To my mind that is the most useful kind of an institute. Where the speaker so interests his audience as to cause them to ask ques- tions freely, it is of the highest value and interest. Now, the man who needs the help of an institute is not, and never will be, the prosperous quick-brained farmer who has been taught to think and to act for himself. I believe that fact, and every year that I live convinces me more and more that that fact is true. I can stand here and look into your faces today and I see that probably ninety-five per cent. of you do not need the farmers’ institute. You have gotten your educa- tion in other ways. It is the man outside, the man back on the little farms, back on the hillsides, the hopeless, dis- couraged man, who needs this thing carried to him, and you men who have had the advantage of better educational facili- ties, it is your duty to go out into the byways where the lame and the halt and the blind of farming are helplessly waiting for you to compel them to come in. If they will not come in any other way, bring them in; make them come in. They must have this education if they are to be uplifted. I regret to say that the institute in most states has not been run in the interest of this class of farmers. They have too often been run in the interest of the class which does not have so great a need for them. ‘They are the men who are best able to take care of themselves, and they ever have been able to draw the institute in their direction, and away from the common every- day farmer who needs it the most. I claim that ninety-five per cent. of the energies of the institute speaker and manager should be devoted to the work of getting hold of the men who at present never go to these meetings. The up-to-date farmers are not the men to look out for. They are able to take care of themselves. They know where to get and how to get their agricultural information and education, and they have been able to get it. But wherever I go I find it is the tend- 1902. | DISCUSSION. 71 ency to cater most to the prosperous and the well-to-do, and a failure to preach the true gospel of agriculture to those men who need it most. “You will pardon me if I say this plainly and bluntly to you men here today, but I am not afraid to say it, or to look any man in the face and say it. It is an unfortunate fact in my opinion that the prosperous and well-to-do of agriculture have not gone out of their way, as they should have done, to reach the little farmers back upon the farms in the hills. It seems to me, however, desirable for the practical man and the scientist to travel together, if you can get them to do so. The “why” man and the “how” man, get them to go together: one to tell why a thing is done, and the other to tell how. But let these men know their limitations. Do not let them stray over into each other’s territory and get themselves mixed up. Let the scientific man and the practical man understand each his own limitation, so that each will keep to his own territory, and then they will work together. Now let me say that no man should ever talk at a farmers’ institute who is afraid of his own voice. This country is full of mumblers who are walking up and down attempting to teach the people, while the people in the seats do not hear half they say. For the sake of the deaf man, for the sake of those men who do not hear easy, speak up. Do not send out the mumblers and the grumblers onto your institute plat- form, or those who are afraid to exercise their voices. They will not make a good impression because the people cannot hear what they say. Those of us who are going to listen ap- preciate a clear, distinct, musical voice. I am not sure, but I think I have seen somewhere that sixty-five per cent. of the people of this country, over thirty-five years of age, have lost part of their hearing, and for the sake of those, for the sake of that large percentage in the audience with defective hearing, let the speaker be a man who will speak up, and not be afraid to make himself heard. 72 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Now, for the audience: With the best speaker in the world some work has got to be done to secure an audience. Now, first, where shall we go for the audience? I believe that there is more actual good to agriculture by going away out of the way from the larger towns and holding your institute out in the little bits of places back from the railroad. That is an old story; it is an old story in the West, I suppose it is here, but it works admirably. In Wisconsin this plan has worked very successfully. They attempt to give a small prize list. They get the merchants and the business men interested in the matter and offer small prizes for small products. That brings in the people. It makes a little competition and excites their interest. I see no reason why that plan should not work well in Connecticut. In Maine quite an elaborate system was followed. When they have decided where to hold their institutes they try to get a man that travels among the farmers to advertise the institute. They generally are able to get him. If they can- not, they hire men. Those men drive around all over the country, saying to the farmers, “Are you going to the institute? Have you heard about it? John Smith and Sam Jones are going to be there.” They tell the farmers all about it. In that way they send these men traveling all over the country talking the institute wherever they go. As one of these men goes over his route, he picks up a list of names of all the farm- ers. Sometimes he gets four or five hundred. The list is then sent down to Mr. True at Augusta, and he sends a printed postal card, giving each one of those men a personal in- vitation to attend the institute. Every man anywhere around in the neighborhood where the institute is held gets one of those cards. A pleasant, cordial invitation from the Hon. Mr. True down at Augusta to come to the institute. Mr. True says that that plan works admirably. When the farmer gets the card, he thinks there must be something in it, especially as he has received an invitation from the Hon. 1902. | DISCUSSION. 73 Mr. True, and he will come to find out. In places where no such list can be obtained, the cards are sent to the local post- master, and he is requested to put one in the farmer’s mail. That plan gives great satisfaction in Maine. It has brought in hundreds of farmers to attend the meeting who would not have attended without some such invitation. If somebody had not gone to them like that they never would have come. Now there are some people in this world who seem dis- posed to think that these farmers’ meetings ought to be run as a sort of a close corporation, and as much of a personal family matter as they can be. That isa mistake. You never can have a good institute when it is run in that way. Some- times they have allowed the impression to go out that men who are not well dressed are not wanted. Sometimes they have said: ‘ We do not want any man to come to our meeting with his rubber boots on. We do not want a man to come just as he has cleaned up his cows.” I tell you, gentlemen, that is the kind of man you do want. That is just the class of men you do want. The chances are that after those men have attended three or four times they will take off their rubber boots. If they come, no matter if they do come in their rubber boots, if they come with an honest purpose to learn, they are just exactly the men you want. I know there are those people that seem disposed to think that a farmers’ in- stitute should be run as a close corporation, or as a family matter, but I think they are wrong. They claim that by bringing in the lame and the blind and the halt of agriculture we are simply educating them to produce better and larger crops, and thus increase the competition of these properous men who are now producing good crops. That is an argu- ment I have heard people make. I do not know what you think about that; maybe you hold to the same opinion, but if you do, Ido not. Personally you cannot make me believe in any such theory. You cannot make me believe, and I refuse to believe, that any class of farmers can ever be permanently 74 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., benefited by the degradation of any other class. You might as well say it is a good thing for me that that left hand of mine has been forced by lack of training to refrain from doing the things that my right-does. You might just as well say that. I never will believe it. I do not believe it is a good thing because it gives more utility to my right hand. I do not believe it is a good thing to keep any class of farmers down so that those who are shrewd and prosperous can do better. I do not believe it, I never have believed it; and I never will. I do not care who believes it. I say that those who through ignorance and lack of ambition fail to do their full duty as farmers, and to take advantage of the opportunities for education, will always prove a dead weight in agriculture, so heavy that all the uplifting forces of modern education and organization can hardly help to raise American agriculture to the place it ought to fill. Therefore I say that the institute speaker should go down to the root of things; down past the grange, down past the farmers’ club, down past every known organization of agriculture, away down to those men, and build a fire under the men who are frozen in their indiffer- ence, thaw them out, and make them lift their feet out of the conditions that hold them down. Now it appears also that it is always best to hold an in- stitute in a hall where the people are in the habit of attending. It goes without saying that the hall should be made comfort- able so the people will want to come again. They should not have to sit there and be frozen. You must give the people a comfortable hall, or, at least, a place where the people who do come will not be uncomfortable. Then you should make the place known. Sometimes I have gone to a town where there was to be an institute in the afternoon or evening, and have tried to find out where it was to be held, without good success. I went to Trenton, N. J., once, and in that great city of 60,000 people I traveled up and down trying to find out where the State convention of the prohibition party was to be 1902. | DISCUSSION. 75 held. I could understand, perhaps, why so few knew, but when I go into a town where a farmers’ institute is to be held, and I go from one man to another and ask where the place is, and they tell me they never heard of it, I realize that the in- stitute has not been advertised. That is a mistake. I know there has been a mix-up somewhere. It reminds me of the marf out in Colorado. He undertook to take a trip on an automobile, and the thing broke down, just as it always does. He went to his kit of tools, and he had no wrench. He traveled on foot for half a mile until finally he came to a little house by the side of the road. He knocked at the door, and a Swede woman came to the door, and he said: “ My friend, can you tell me where I can find a monkey wrench? ” and, pointing, she said: “There is a sheep ranch, and there is a cattle ranch down on the river, but there is no man around here who has been blame fool enough to start a monkey ranch.” Now just one thing more about the topic: I have dis- cussed the speaker and the audience, and now the topic. Even if you get a good speaker and a good crowd the institute will be a failure unless the topic is one of interest to local farmers. There are people in this world who assume to know what the farmer ought to be told. To my mind treating the American farmer like a child in his A, B, C is perfectly ridiculous. My experience with the American farmer is that he usually has a pretty clear idea of what he wants to know. He is bashful, and at times seems to have a lack of appreciation, but it is be- cause he does not like to come forward with his question. Down in his heart he is all right, and my experience goes to show that he has a clear idea of what he would like to be told. It goes without saying that what he is told should be told in plain language, and so he can understand it. To illustrate what I mean, a farmer listened to a scientific lecture on fertilizers, and afterwards wrote me, and he says: “ Please do not publish my letter, but reply to it personally. A man 76 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., came here and delivered a lecture, and will you please tell me the difference between nitrogen and nitrate of soda?” One of the ablest of our scientific men lectured for an hour upon fertilizer, and then that man came to me and asked me if I would tell him the difference between nitrogen and nitrate of soda. It was not made plain or clear to him. The talk was over his head. It is a fact that at the New York State Dairymen’s Convention last fall they had Congressman Grout and Mr. Flanders and Major Alvord talking about oleomar- garine and the Grout bill. They talked it all to pieces, but it is a fact that a farmer who was there afterwards asked me to tell him what this Grout bill was. He wrote: “ Will you please tell me what this Grout bill is?’? Now I want to tell you prosperous men right here, you assume too much. You assume that the average farmer knows half as much as you do. That was the case in those meetings. Those speakers talked over the head of that man. The successful institute speaker must come down to the level of his audience. It doesn’t do to say that if he does not know as much as you do he is - ignorant, and, therefore, you should let him alone. I say no. I say it is your duty to talk to him so he can understand. It is your duty to talk in such a way that his ignorance and prejudice can be pulled out by the roots, and so that new thoughts and aspirations can be put into him. After more than twenty years of'continual experience with agriculture and American farmers I am convinced that the most businesslike way of conducting a farmers’ institute is by the use of a method which will induce the farmers to ask ques- tions. That opens his mind to the speaker. It shows what is going on in it, and what he means; it then enables the speaker to help him. His state of mind can be gauged by the questions which are asked. I believe that is the most effective way. Do not be afraid to get right down close to them. Make the answer as simple as possible. Answer the questions simply and seriously and plainly. It seems to me absurd to 1902. | DISCUSSION. 77 suppose that a scientist or a newspaper man or the prosperous farmer, either one of them, can block out a line of educational work that will help the discouraged man back on the mort- gaged farm. You must goto him. You must get into close touch with him. The best way I know of to do that is through the institute speaker. You must lead that man’s mind into new channels and towards better methods before you can help him. You can open his mind only through his questions. Then is the opportunity to plant a new mental sprout, and to teach him how to encourage it to grow. Do not send men out on the institute platform that will pull that out by the roots, and leave nothing there in its place. Now just one more illustration and then I am done. I refer to this to show how sometimes a farmer will listen to a scientist and fail to apprehend the point. There was a certain State in this country where an entomologist went up and down talking to the farmers a few years ago, and one day I got a letter from a man in that section. It came with a special delivery stamp on it. It said that there was a certain bug eating up the strawberries there. He caught the bug running away from the strawberry, and he sent me three samples and asked me to tell him what it was, and what he could do. He also sent some of the strawberry plants, so I could see the work of this bug. The bugs were the common Croton water bug. The strawberry plants had been eaten by a well-known grub. At first thought that seems like a ridiculous thing, that a common water bug would eat strawberry plants, but that was as close as that man had got into the habit of observing. He saw those little bugs running over the ground, around or away from the plants, and he pulled up the plant and found that something had eaten off the bottom of it. He jumped to a conclusion. He put those two things together. I am glad to say that I spent the best part of half an hour writing that man and trying to show him what he wanted to know. That shows the way in which you have got to get right down 78 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., close to these men in order to do them good. They have not been taught to observe closely. They jump into conclusions instead of reasoning to them. Now, ladies and gentlemen, I am very glad of the oppor- tunity and the privilege to come before such an audience as I see before me, but I never leave the subject, no matter what it may be, until I have tried to make some moral application of it. I want to make this application in this instance. I believe you have no business to send men out on your farmers’ institute work unless those men feel down in the depths of their hearts a real interest in their work, and that they ought to do something to help to restore and build up the abandoned farms of Connecticut. The restoration and the building up of those abandoned farms is as much a moral development as a physical one. I tell you my friends you have got to go out and deal with people who are hopeless. Many of these men back on the farms have made a hopeless struggle to climb away from their environment. The institute is one of the greatest means to help them to get away from that, to inspire them with new courage, to build up their spirits and help them to adopt new methods for their improvement. Many of them have made a short struggle to get away, to do better, and have then fallen back, and unless some new means is taken to rouse them to renewed efforts they will never make any prog- ress. You must go to those men and make them understand that it is a part of your duty and mine to bear upon our shoulders a fair share of the burden of sorrow and trouble that God has put in this world. Tell them that a man may carry his share like a millstone about his neck if he will, but that when others help him all his life’s prospects undergo a change. In that way, and in that way only, I believe, can we uplift these people and raise American agriculture to the height that it should attain and must attain. The Vice-PREsIDENT. Now, gentlemen, you have heard a good deal relative to farmers’ institutes. Some of you may 1902. ] DISCUSSION. 79 have some ideas which the speaker has not brought out, or some question to ask, which will be of interest to us all. Now what have you to say about this? Brother Hale, what have you to say about the farmers’ institute in Connecticut? Mr. J. H. Hate. Mr. Chairman: I haven’t anything in particular to say about the farmers’ institute in Connecticut. I do not think I ever attended but one, and I have forgotten when that was, it was so long ago, but I have some interest in the farmers of Connecticut, as well as other states, and have had the privilege of addressing them and studying their work. I have been particularly interested in the talk of my friend Collingwood. I think there are several just criticisms to be made of the way the average farmers’ institute is car- ried on. Some of them Brother Collingwood has referred to here today, but there is still another, and that is the lack of proper advertising to get the people out. The Maine plan which he has referred to is an admirable one, but a better one is a plan which they pursue in the West. In one case I know of, they lay out their work a year ahead. They decide six or eight months ahead just what they are going to do. They decide in the early spring where all the institutes shall be held the following fall and winter, and then they arrange with the local committee to hire a hall and furnish a certain amount of music. They plan during the summer for speak- ers, and they also arrange during the summer months to get the names and post-office address of the farmers in each of those localities where they are going to hold institutes. Two weeks before the institute meets, a circular is sent to all of those farmers. Two days before the institute meets, another is sent. That is to say, a special postal card is sent, calling attention to the meeting and giving from the board itself a special invitation to attend the institute, and to bring their neighbors with them. It is surprising how well that works in some Western communities. In a little back country town they sometimes get an audience of four, six, and even 80 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. | Jan., eight hundred. Those people come to the farmers’ institute because it is advertised as thoroughly and as well as a circus would be. New York State is pretty well advertised. Mas- sachusetts is very well advertised. Massachusetts arranges its institutes so that every agricultural society shall hold three, and the list of speakers is sent to those societies and they pick out whoever they want, and then they do the local advertising. Sometimes the meeting is well advertised and they get a good audience, and sometimes it is scarcely adver- tised at all, and the audience is small in consequence. In our own State — you asked me to say a word about it, Mr. Chairman, and I think the President of the Board will excuse me for making what I believe is an honest criticism — in our own State there has not been any system whatever, or practically none. There has been no plan mapped out and no systematic plans followed out for holding institutes. Never, so far as outsiders are concerned, has there been any systematic plan carried out for holding these. meetings. I believe there has been a committee on institutes, and if some- body wanted you to hold a meeting somewhere, why a meet- ing has been arranged. And then another trouble has been, instead of having Prof. Jenkins or Prof. Somebody-else ad- vertised to speak, it has been reported that they were expected to be there, and some of them have got there and some of them have not. So that, while there has been a reasonable number of institutes held, I think there has been no sys- tematic plan, no carefully-worked-out plan, for carrying them on. I say this, of course, only from general observation. Now, Brother Collingwood made a criticism that he wanted only practical men to go out. He said that he did not want any theorists. He said that he wanted only prac- tical men and practical farmers to go out and talk to the people. Do you realize that he publishes a newspaper which is one of the best agricultural newspapers in the State where 1902. | DISCUSSION. " 81 he lives? I think there is a good deal of practical worth in this theory of his, and if we could have more such theorists it would be a mighty good thing for the farmers of the country. The PrestipENT. Who is the next man to talk about these farmers’ institutes? Mr. R. S. Hinman. Mr. Chairman: I do not want to say much about the farmers’ institutes, except that I think one suggestion that Mr. Collingwood made was very good, and that is that we ought to give the farmers more of a chance to ask questions. J have been to quite a number of institute meetings, and I have seen many who were disposed to ques- tion the speakers that were there, but I never have been to one where there seemed to be any time for that. There usually seemed to be more speakers than there was leisure for, and the result was that there was not much opportunity to ask questions. Now, I do not know that it would be entirely proper to contrast the agricultural conventions of today with those of 1869, but I want to say that one of the most valuable reports that I have seen, and one of the most valuable reports that was ever issued, was the one for that year. It was a four days’ session, and the first day opening up for public discus- sion in the evening. That was continued for three days. In that time there were but three lectures. You cannot buy the book. In looking it over I noticed there were some communications sent in, and as the result of one of those communications there follows seventeen pages of questions and answers and discussions. That was taken part in by such men as ex-Gov. Hyde, P. M. Augur, J. J. Webb, Mr. Day of Windham, and men of that character from all over the State. Moreover, the discussions that occurred in the meetings of those days were published in the newspapers all over the State. Now, it seems to me that most of the farm- ers who attend these conventions and the institutes would AcrR. —6 82 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., ask more questions, and that there would be a greater in- terest if there was more opportunity given for that to be done. I doubt whether we will get much chance at this meeting to discuss these various subjects among ourselves, because I see by the program there are fifteen addresses before this con- vention in place of the three that they had then. I suppose when we close there will be some resolutions, but Mr. Collingwood will not be with us then. He has given us one of the very best and most practical addresses I ever heard, and I wish that we might give him a vote of thanks before he goes home, so that he will know yhat we have done, and not have to wait to get it by and by from our secretary. I move him a vote of thanks. Motion seconded and unanimously passed. The VicE-PRESIDENT. One word relative to the farmers’ institutes back in 1888 and ’89. My attention was first called to the farmers taking an interest in them in the State of New York. I was then president of the Five States’ Milk Asso- ciation, and consequently spent a good deal of time in New York. I was invited to attend one of these institute meet- ings, and I was perfectly surprised at what I saw. They had the most learned men in the place there. They had the best men there were, and, on the other hand, they had the young- est children in the place, the boys and the girls, all who were old enough to go. The old and the young, they all had a part in it. There was no class left out, and they all asked questions. And there were papers that were read by the ladies which were most excellent, and some by girls in their teens. Some of the finest papers that I ever heard read were from girls attending school. If there is anything that will add to the interest of such an occasion, and help to bring out the young men, the farmers’ boys, to the institute, better than any other, it is to let it be known that Mary Smith or Susan Jones is going to read such an article or such a paper on such a topic at such a time. The boys will 1902. ] DISCUSSION. 83 all be there, sure enough, and so will their fathers and mothers. That is just what is needed. You need all kinds. You need not only to have the farmers themselves inter- ested, but we need to rouse a general interest; to interest the farmers’ wives, and the boys and the young men, so as to get them interested in farming and keep them on the farms. Mr. Pratt. Mr. Chairman: In relation to holding in- stitutes, I suppose that the reference that has been made here refers more particularly to general purpose institutes among the farmers. Some of our societies, like the Pomological Society and the dairymen, have held institutes in this State, where they have sent personal notice to their members in the neighborhood that the meeting would be held, and per- haps to others, but, at any rate, to their members, and in advertising the meeting in that way a much greater interest has been created in these particular institutes. These insti- tutes have also been held in the separate parts of the State. They have been quite successful. I believe it is a good plan to send notice to individuals by way of advertising. That has been done by these societies, Mr. Chairman, so I do not think the criticism which has been made of the method of running institutes in Connecticut refers to these separate societies so much. ; A Memper. Mr. Chairman: I would like to ask if these separate societies do not show a tendency to work along on their particular line, and if it would not be a good thing if we worked more together. Would there not be a little more fellowship if we worked more together? Is not the State of Connecticut suffering in this respect because we are not working together? Mr. H.C. C. Mizes. Mr. Chairman: I think the speaker has hit upon a point which has a good deal in it. I believe it would be a good plan to get together these divided inter- ests if it can be done. It has been my pleasure to arrange for some of the fruit growers’ institutes in the State, and I \ 84 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., have found that in localities where there was more interest in dairying than in other lines of agriculture the dairymen would have appreciated an opportunity to hear something from speakers in their line, and where the fruit growers were more numerous, there, perhaps, speakers on the various branches of pomology would be more welcome, and also in sections where the people were interested in poultry, speakers on poultry culture would have been welcome. So it seems to me that the entire thing should be in the hands of the State Board, so as to bring these divided interests together. I really think there is an immense amount of money spent for these various interests which is too much scattered, and if these interests could be drawn together under some special head or some special head have charge of the matter, so that the different localities of the State could be given what they need, it would be an improvement. Mr. Potter. Mr. Chairman: I was much pleased at hearing what Mr. Collingwood said in his remarks about taking these institutes into our country places more. It was a grand suggestion. If these meetings are going to be of use or interest to the common farmer, we must go back and hold the meetings where they can attend. You know that the farmers, or a majority of them, are so situated in the winter that they cannot well attend such an interesting meet- ing as this, and that is especially the case of farmers in distant portions of the State. If we can go out into these country towns with good speakers and with some little entertainment, I know that it will interest them, and we shall do something that will help them, and something which will be appreciated by the boys and girls that are growing up on these back farms. I believe it is our duty to do all we can to make farm- ing agreeable to the boys and young men, so that they will be content to stay upon the farms. We ought to do all*we can to teach them to love farming just as much as they will enjoy any other calling in life. 1902. | DISCUSSION. 85 The SecreTARY. Gentlemen, on our program there is a topic suggested that comes in very prettily with this dis- cussion. “Can the Farmers’ Institute be Made a Feature of the Agricultural Fair?” Our agricultural fairs are not what they were within the memory of the majority of this audience. They do not inspire the interest they did twenty- five years ago. Can the farmers’ institute be engrafted upon the agricultural fair so as to make an agricultural fair an educational institution? That is the object of this question, and no doubt there are gentlemen in this audience who can give us points on that which will be well worth listening to. A Memeser. I think that the agricultural fair, the old- time agricultural fair, as a means of advancing the cause of agriculture, has had its day long past; that the work that this Board of Agriculture took up in its early days, broad- ened out throughout this State, and it has been further ex- tendered by the dairymen’s association, by the grange, and by the experiment station, and by various works of that kind, and it is doing more and better work for agriculture than the old-time fairs ever did. All of these elements are contribut- ing to do a much higher grade of work and much better work. I cannot see in my own mind how there is to be any agri- cultural fair in the future that is going to be of any great advantage to the interest of agriculture. It seems to me that it would be an impractical thing to attempt to tie up the institute with it. When people go to a fair, as they go now- adays, they go for fun. That is about the only purpose now. If you are going to an agricultural fair you do not think now of going to do serious educational work, as you do when you go to an institute. I think what money is appropriated in our State at the present time to go to the so-called agri- cultural fairs is money pretty fairly wasted. Fifty per cent. of it would do more good if spent on some carefully-systema- tized plan of holding institutes than the whole of it as now expended. 86 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Mr. Wooprurr. The gentleman has never been to the Orange fair. If he will agree to come down we will send him a complimentary ticket, and, after he has attended, I feel pretty sure that his ideas will change. And just at this point I want to call your attention to a lot of photographs which | illustrate a very few of the good things which were sent out voluntarily at the Orange fair last fall. We should be very glad to have all the people here, and in fact all in the State, know that there is one up-to-date agricultural fair which is still conducted in this State, and which is making money. I believe that the money is well spent in conducting such a fair as we have. I think there will be a move made to get more money out of the State for the agricultural fairs, and if they are well run they ought to be a help to agriculture. The trouble with the agricultural fair is a good deal of the same nature that we have had with the abandoned farms. The young fellows have left the farms, but when you take hold of them right we have found out that there are things which are adapted to them so that there is a chance to make them a credit to the State. It is just the same way with the agri- cultural fairs. You let the right people get hold of them and manage them in.an up-to-date way and there is no question in my mind about their being a credit to the State and a benefit to agriculture. Secretary Brown. That is not the only one. I have attended fairs in the State of Connecticut that were agricul- tural fairs and nothing else. There was no vaudeville. They were purely and simply agricultural fairs, which were profit- able and interesting. Now, in reply to what the gentleman said, I think that the best agricultural fair that I have ever known is the agricultural fair that is conducted at Kingston, R. I. Perhaps Mr. Hale has attended it. It is one of the best agricultural fairs in New England, and one of the best things connected with that fair for years was the public address of the Hon. Rowland Hazzard, who, notwithstanding 1902. | DISCUSSION. 87 his large commercial and manufacturing interests, devoted time and labor and strength to making and giving an annual address which was considered the most important thing in the whole three days of the fair. That helped to build up that fair. There is no doubt if we could secure the services of so eminent a gentleman as Mr. Hale to attend the fairs of Connecticut, he would not only elevate the tone of those fairs, but make them the means of instruction, make them educa- tional and profitable. Mr. Sepewick. Mr. Chairman: I think it would be a mistake to allow the erroneous impression to go out from this meeting that our State Board of Agriculture has out- lived its usefulness. Looking back, as I do, thirty years, to the time when I first attended meetings of this Board, and when there was probably not over fifteen or so at the first day’s meeting, and having attended most of the meetings within the last thirty years, except perhaps five or six, and noticing as I have the growth of agricultural sentiment in this State, which this State Board has fostered, and the good work which this Board has carried on, has resulted in very great benefit to the State, and is doing much today and much more than ever before. I say, therefore, it would be a great mistake if the idea should go out from this meeting that the Board as at present constituted was not fulfilling its useful- ness or doing its duty. Now, sir, say what you will about the best speaker practically filling the bill of fare of the Board, and there not being opportunity for discussion, the fact of the matter is thatea great deal of the good which comes from these meetings comes from the association of the farmers who are present, and the good that we get between the meet- ings, as well as the good that we get when we hear the speak- ers, is certainly something of very great value. By coming together and meeting each other, mind strikes mind, and much knowledge is given and imparted. The one who is interested in horticulture finds here his brother farmer in 88 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., the same line, and others interested in other special lines do the same. A man may be interested in more than one line, and if so, he finds plenty here to talk with and gains much useful knowledge thereby. Now, I do not doubt but What the usefulness of this Board would be vastly strengthened if it could arrange for haying meetings in each county in this State in the course of the year. Because more time is devoted to lectures than to discussion, to my mind is no sign of any loss of value in the meetings of this Board, and I wish that that value might be extended so that more could take advantage of it. I have long thought that if an arrangement might be made whereby this Board could hold day meetings in different sections of the State, where the farmers could easily attend, it would vastly increase its usefulness. The truth of the matter is, there are not many farmers, even if they have the means, who can come and spend the time to attend a three days’ meeting of the Board at once place. It imparts its great usefulness to those who can come, but the vast majority of the farmers cannot come, and it is the duty of the State to take this means of education to the farmers, and not the duty of the farmers to come to this source of knowledge. There is a point which I think is well worth consideration, and if our legislators, or the management of the Board, could arrange a program, a one day program, in the different counties of this State, at some central point, and advertise it in the way which has been suggested by Brother Hale, so that our farmers could attend, it seems to me that better returns will be mage in that way than any other. A MemBer. I want to take exception to the idea of Mr. Hale, that the county fair has outlived its usefulness. If he will come down to Guilford some time, I think he will see enough that will cause him to change his mind. If he should come down there to speak on some day when the stock is on 1902. | THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. 89 exhibition, he wouldn’t get a corporal’s guard that day to hear him. 14 Convention adjourned to 7.30 P. M. EVENING SESSION, 7.30 P. M. Convention called to order at 7.30 P. M., Vice-President Seeley in the chair. The PRESIDENT. If you will all look at your programs you will see that we are to have an address this evening upon ‘“ The Farmer as a Citizen.” I do not know of anybody who is better fitted to speak upon that topic than the gentleman, who is himself a farmer, and whose father and grandfather were farmers, and who was brought up and bred in a farming community. I have no need to say anything in particular about him, for he has spoken before our Board at the annual meeting several times, but it gives me great pleasure to intro- duce to you again Col. James Wood of Mt. Kisco, N. Y., who will speak to you this evening upon THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. Mr. JAMES Woop. Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen: As your Chairman has said, I have addressed the meeting of the Connecticut State Board of Agriculture for a number of years past, and I can say that it has always given me very great pleasure to meet with you. Indeed, it has been one of the pleasantest experiences of the year in time past, and it gives me very great pleasure to be with you again this evening. The subject upon which I am asked to address you is one with which you are all familiar, and about which it is quite impossible for me to say anything new, but perhaps it may do no harm to recall to your memory some of the many things that you may know very well already. The subject is “ The Farmer as a Citizen.” A citizen is a person who has the rights and privileges of citizenship. That presupposes that go BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., he understands what these rights and privileges are, and that with the understanding of what they are he has also an appre- ciation of the duties and responsibilities inseparably asso- ciated with them. Citizenship in the State of Connecticut today, and in the United States today, presupposes intelli- gence. Our several states, especially the states of New Eng- land and many of the Middle States, have, for generations past, made such provisions for universal education, for the education of all the children within their limits, that a good degree of intelligence, so far as it is dependent upon educa- tion, has resulted, unless the people have wasted their oppor- tunities. Now, intelligence is based upon two things: First, upon the natural faculties with which we are endowed, and second, upon the use we have made of those faculties, their improvement and cultivation. It is not necessary to refer to natural faculties in the State of Connecticut, because citizens of the State of Connecticut have inherited them from a long ancestry second to none in intelligence in the whole country. Furthermore, your educational system here has guaranteed to your people a high degree of intelligence, so far as that is dependent upon education. The time is past when a successful farmer can be an ignorant person, or, to put it the other way, when an ignorant person can be a successful farmer. In these latter days, when there are so many lines of farming, a high degree of intelli- gence is absolutely necessary, a great stock of information also,-and in applying that information great intelligence is necessary in order to achieve practical results. There is much that requires the exercise of this intelligence. We have insect enemies never known before. We have attacks of ~ fungous growths of many kinds and other enemies to meet, and which must be met, and there is certainly failure before us unless we have a great amount of information, most of which was not obtainable fifty or one hundred years ago; and the intelligent application of that information also is neces- sary in order that we may be kept from being overwhelmed by this class of the farmers’ enemies. That presupposes much intelligence on the part of a farmer as a citizen. The term “citizen” is a very comprehensive one. It includes a great deal more than simply voting at town meetings, or voting at a general election, or anything of that sort. It is 1902. | THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. gI true that the right to vote is one of the particular rights of citizenship, and a person is not a citizen fully and entirely unless he has the right to vote, but the mere act of voting is only one of the things pertaining to citizenship. A person may be a very bad citizen and yet always vote right perhaps. He may be an injury to the community in which he lives, but that is quite apart from his exercise of the right of suffrage. A good citizen is a person whose relations are correct and proper and useful with all those with whom he comes in con- tact. Every relation in life must be good and beneficial to those with whom he comes in contact or he is not a good citi- zen in the highest and best acceptation of the term. The good citizen is a good man in his family. He is a good man in the neighborhood in which he lives. He is a useful man in the township where he resides. He is useful and benefi- cial so far as all of these relations of life are concerned. A good citizen can be nothing else. Now, you cannot have a good citizen without having a good man. It is utterly im- possible to have something out of nothing, and it is utterly impossible that a man shall be a good citizen unless he is personally a good man. You cannot conceive of the thing. Now, there are two things that go to make up the man. The man is the resultant of two things, of two powers that have been at work. One is the power of heredity, that which he is because of what his father and grandfather and his whole line of ancestors were. Somebody asked when the education of a child should begin, and the answer was, “ Five hundred years before he is born.” About one-half of the men, taking the average men of the world, about one-half of us are what we are from the force of heredity; what we have inherited from our ancestors. The character and disposition, mental and moral characteristics, all these come to us from our line of ancestry, and the other half is made up by our environ- ment — where we are placed, what our surroundings are, and the influences that every day are affecting us. Now, these two things, the force of heredity, and the influence of envi- ronment, act very differently upon different individuals. A person of strong character, a person who has descended from a long line of vigorous ancestors, is but comparatively little influenced by environment. He moulds his environment to suit himself. That is one of the characteristics of the Anglo- 92 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Saxon race as compared with all other races or peoples upon the globe. The home of the Anglo-Saxon, of course, is in Great Britain. The Anglo-Saxon is made up of a mixture of people from different portions of Northern Europe, but we speak of him commonly as he has developed and mani- fested himself in the island of Great Britain. That is the Anglo-Saxon. Wherever he goes he shapes his environment to suit himself. He is stronger than his environment. Half of the life of the Anglo-Saxon is not made or controlled by an environment, and yet much is determined by his environ- ment, because some have not the vigor of others. So it comes down to individuals. Some are so strong by heredity that they control their environment and others, being weak, they have come down from past generations shaped almost entirely by that. So that what a man is is due to those two forces, the force of heredity and the force of environment. If that be true, the farmer has an advantage over any other man, because more than any other man he shapes his environ- ment, he controls his environment. His environment is made up of two things, or, rather, his development is influenced in this respect in two ways: First, he lives in direct contact with nature; that is, he lives in the first place amid an environ- ment as God made it. The Creator has made the world beautiful and bright, and the farmer is right face to face with it, and his environment is more directly from the hand of God than the environment of any other man. So far, then, so good, because God’s works are always good. In the sec- ond place, he makes up his own environment himself more completely than any other man. What has a man who lives up this street got to do with his environment? How can he influence it to any great extent? He lives amid influences and surroundings that he cannot control, and which he can- not influence in any way whatever, or scarcely in any way, whereas the farmer in his home controls his environment. He can put around him those things which he likes to a great extent, and he can remove those things which he does not like. He does not get up in the morning and, as he looks about him, say, “I wish that was not so,” or that this thing or that thing is bad. If he looks out and sees something that is not as it ought to be he can go to work and make it as he wishes, if he will. He can control his environment. There- 1902. THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. 93 fore, so far as the farmer as an individual, the man, is con- cerned, he makes his environment more completely and more fully than any other man in the world, I don’t care where he is. His environment is made in the first place by nature, which God has made beautiful and rich, and in the second place by the surroundings which he himself chooses to place around him. So that the farmer has a big advantage in this fundamental thing in what goes to make up the good citizen by this control which he has of one of the influences which determine what he shall be himself. Now, as I said before, the fundamental thing in the makeup of a good citizen is a good man. Now, what makes the man? Have you ever stopped to inquire what makes a good man and a bad one? It is a very interesting study. And when you come to analyze it, and get right down to the bottom of it, the fact is this: the man is what he thinks. In the Good Book, in one of the Proverbs, it reads this way: “As the man thinketh in his heart, so is he.” What we think determines what we are. And so every person has the power of making himself. Some one has said, “ Plant a thought and you will reap an act. Plant an act and you will reap a habit. Plant a habit and you will reap character. Plant character and you will reap des- tiny.” And that is all there is of you. You are destiny, and it all comes from a thought. I do not know where this comes from, but some one has said this. Many people or persons go on ignorantly and thoughtlessly thinking things that make for their destiny. The president of Yale University delivered a sermon to the students two or three years ago that I read with very great interest. He said: “ Young gentlemen, avhat you shall be in the future you yourselves will determine by what you think. There is not a criminal in the prison of the State of Connecticut but what is there because of what he or she thought. They committed an act, and the law laid its hand upon them, and the court sentenced them to a just punishment to be shut away from society, and put them behind the prison bars because of the act which they com- mitted, and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred I will venture to say that that act was all thought out before it was com- mitted. The act was reached by a process of thought, step by step the imagination had run on, and on, and on, until the act was committed.” And so it is with every one of us. We 6 94 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., have the power to control our thoughts, and that is a power that nobody knows about until they have exercised it. Many, if not the majority of people, simply allow their thoughts to run away with them. They think about whatever happens to come into their minds, and they think about hundreds of things sometimes in a hundred minutes, yes, a hundred things in one minute, and the more they think that kind of thinking the weaker they grow, and it goes on, and on, until they be- come almost demented. But we have the power to control our thoughts. God has not only given us the power of think- ing, the power of reasoning, but we can control our thoughts, and that control is just in proportion to the habit of control. It may be difficult at first, but as we continue to do it we can control our thoughts more and more, and when our thinking calls out something that leads to evil we should arrest it, and turn our attention to something which is better; and we can, by this control of our thoughts, shape our destiny, and control our acts, and with the control of our acts control our lives. So we have this power of doing it by this control of our think- ing, and of what we shall think about. So that a man to be- come a good citizen must exercise this power, and must grow from this basis of thought. Now a great many persons are governed by a certain type of thought. Dr. Henry Van Dyke said this: ‘“ Be governed by your admirations and not by your disgusts.” We have all known people who were governed by their disgusts. They had taken a dislike to an individual, and they constantly thought and talked about this one that they disliked, and un- consciously, perhaps, they were all the time being influenced by this dislike. They were all the time being influenced by the things that they were disgusted with, instead of looking up, and being influenced by the things that they admired. We have all known people of that kind. Such a life as that is always dark and cheerless. Now you take a man who is con- trolled by his admirations, and he is always getting higher, always growing better and higher all the time. And, why? Because he is always looking up at something which is high and good. His standards are high because they are the things that he admires. That is one of the most beautiful things about the Christian religion. It gave us the perfect pattern of a man — Jesus — while here upon the earth, and he who 1902. | THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. 95 lives the closest to him lives in admiration of that pattern, and consequently grows more like him. We always grow like the things we love or admire. We can control our admira- tions and our affections, and grow like the things we admire, and like the things we love, and get away from the things that disgust us, because our backs are always towards them, our faces are in another direction, and we always go in the way we look, and away from the things behind us, forgetting those things behind us, and pressing towards those things that are before if we are to run for the prize of the high calling of God. A man to be a good citizen has got to think about the right sort of things. If you will just examine yourselves, and ex- amine your acquaintances, you will find the truth is just what I have been saying. So that here is the fundamental thing about good citizenship— good thought. That is followed by good acts, and they are followed by good habits, and they are followed by good character, and character is all there is to any of us. We may weigh one hundred and seventy-five or two hundred and seventy-five avoirdupois, we may be rich, or we may be poor, yet, after all, all there is of any of us is our character; positively nothing else. That is all there is, and that character fixes our destiny for time and eternity. That is all fixed by our character. Now, then, if a man starts out right by thinking right, his first relation when he goes outside of himself is to that unit of civilization — the family. Now, the good citizen, in alli the relations of his citizenship, in exercising his duties as a good citizen, he first of all must begin at home. You cannot con- ceive of a good citizen, in the highest acceptation of the term, who is not the right sort of a man in his own family. He has got to begin at home. And when I say “ family,” I mean his own family. I do not mean when he is living with his mother, or with his sister to keep house for him; that is not his family. He may own the farm, and he may support everybody in the house, but, if his mother keeps house for him, or his sister keeps house for him, or some dear, sweet old maiden aunt keeps house for him, it is not his family. The family is based on the marriage relation, and that is not a family which is not based or which does not have its foundation in the married state. And, so, begging the pardon of all the old bachelors in the room, I will say that the very fundamental idea of 96 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., good citizenship is to be a good husband. You cannot get out of it. Now there may be some of the best old bachelors in the world here in the State of Connecticut, and I have no doubt there are, but they are good in spite of the fact that they are old bachelors; they cannot help it; they probably were made that way; they are not entitled to any credit, but the good citizen presupposes matrimony. God made us that way, and for that purpose, and we are not living up to the object Of our creation in being placed here on the earth unless we become married; that is a fundamental fact. It is a fact, and nobody can dispute it. It is a fact that marriage is one of the institutions upon which good citizenship in the United States of America is based, and he who does not marry does not take one of the most important steps towards good citizenship; that is one of the first steps towards good citizen- ship. And then, when he does get married, he must be a good husband. He must court that wife of his Monday, and Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday, and Sunday; he must court her all the time. J have no use for any husband who is not perpetually courting his wife. The finest flowers that he finds in the fields he should bring in to her, and the first and finest fruits of the orchard are hers by right. The very first strawberry that Mr. Hale picks I know he sends in to Mrs. Hale. He has got to do it; he cannot help it. If he wants her good will he wants to make her know he is after it all the time, and that is what he has got to do. Over in our section once there was a group gathered around the old-fashioned stove in the village store, and they were talking how they would live differently if they had their lives to live over again. One said: “If I was going to live my life over again I would do so and so differ- ent from.what I did,’ and another said he would do so and so, and there was a man there who in his young days had married one of the most beautiful girls in that part of the country, and one of the group said to him: “ Look here, George, you have been listening to this talk all this while, and you haven’t said a word; what would you do if you had your life to live over again?” ‘ Well, now,” he says, “ I'll tell you: I know what I would do about all this miserable business you have been talking about. If I had my life to live over again I would court and marry Polly as soon as I could.” That is 1902. | THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. 97 the kind of talk I like to hear: “I would court and marry Polly every time.” Now, while I am talking about being good husbands, there is one thing that I want to talk to your farmers right here: I have been a good deal over the world, and a good deal over the United States of America, and one of our greatest evils today is the fact that our farmers’ wives work too hard. Come right down now to sober business, it is a fact that our farmers’ wives work too hard, and they are injuring their children by being overtaxed in work. It is one of the serious facts connected with our American life. Go where you will, as a rule you will find the American woman living on a farm overtaxed by work. She is working beyond her strength. Her life is shortened by it. The good citizen ought to look out for that thing. You will say, of course, that the situation on the farm is such that she cannot lead a life of ease; that this work must be done. Let me say to you, if you are intelligent enough to run a farm these days you are intelligent enough to find some way to run it without killing your wife. If you cannot find some better way than that you had better give it up. Success in farming is not worth while if it is to be obtained at that cost. We must always sit down and count the cost of what we are doing, and if the cost of success in running the farm is the premature death of your wife it costs more than it’s worth; it does not pay at that price. There is an old English proverb that runs something like this: ‘‘ Man’s work is from sun to sun, but woman’s work is never done.” It is three meals a day, the dishes to wash, the house to keep in order, and the house to clean once in so often. And by the way, there is where I have a little sympathy for the farmer ; in those two instances, in the spring and in the fall, when the house is all pulled up and in dis- order; it’s terrible; better stay in the barn. But, at any rate, there is this continual round of work for the woman, be- ginning with breakfast in the morning for the family, and getting breakfast and coffee for the hired men. And right there, do you know, I would have to be pretty poor to make my wife run a boarding-house for the hired help; do not do it. I cannot conceive of being poor enough for that. And then there is dinner and supper to get, and those miserable stockings to be darned, which keeps her busy until away into the night before she can retire to obtain the much-needed AGR.— 7 98 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., rest for the morrow. And what do most of you do in the meanwhile? Do we read to her, and make this time pleasant, or do we get hold of a newspaper and bury ourselves in that? We don’t hear her stitch, stitch, stitch all the evening until the time comes when she cannot keep awake any longer, and then with the work only half done, and she knows there is that breakfast to be got early in the morning. She has worked steadily all day; she has hardly had a minute to herself to rest. I tell you it is one of the very worst things in our American life, and it ought to be remedied. The farm- ers have got to remedy it. There is some improvement. The race is rising; it is improving. Men and women are stronger and better than they ever were before from the creation of the world. There is no record in history where men ever did more, or women ever did more than they can do in these days, but statistics show that that improvement is going on more rapidly in the villages than it is in the country. A record has been kept of all the young women who go to college. 1 hap- pen to know about this because I happen to be a trustee in one of the largest female colleges in the country. Study these records, and what do you find? Why, that the girls are bigger and stronger and better than they ever were before in the world. . Now, then, there is something more to the family than simply the husband and wife; the idea of the family pre- supposes children. And, do you know, it is one of the saddest things about our American life, along with this other thing that I have been talking about, and one of the very worst is the fact that our American families do not have the children that the law of God and the interests of the republic demand. There is something wrong about it. When we take the statistics of births and deaths we find the families of children that are growing larger are the families of foreigners; that is not so on the other side, it is not so in England. I remem- ber very well being at dinner at a gentleman’s house in England some years ago, and the hostess asked my wife how many children we had. She told her, and our hostess remarked that that was a very small family. My wife said in bringing them up she thought it was a pretty large one. (Laughter.) Our hostess did not agree to that. She said: “ Why, we have fifteen, and so-and-so has ten, and so-and-so has twelve, of 1902. | THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. 99 the people who are at the table.” There was not a married couple at that table, and they were all as old as we were, that had less than ten children. The Anglo-Saxon race would not have been what it is, and it would not have dominated the world as it has if that had not been the case. One of the most remarkable things in the history of the human race is the in- crease in English-speaking people since the reign of Queen Elizabeth. There were only a comparative few of them, ac- cording to the best knowledge we have, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. But, now look at them, not only in the British Islands, but all over the world. Look at them here. Sta- tistics show this: that taking all the people of the world speaking different languages the Germans have increased eight per cent., the French have fallen off ten per cent., the Spanish have done the same thing fifteen per cent., whereas the English-speaking people have increased two hundred and seventeen per cent. That is speaking from the beginning of the last century. That comes from various causes, but the principal cause in this country, aside from the large emigra- tion which has taken place from Europe, and from different countries, has been the strength of the race. This increase has been something phenomenal, and it is due to the strength of the race, and shows, primarily, that more children have been born of that race in proportion than of any other. That has been the case in generations past, but, unfortunately, it is not so here today. I believe in good-sized families. But, if you are going to have children in the family, what is the good citizen going to do with them? There are some families whom I have seen who simply feed and clothe their children, and, perhaps, send them to school, and that is about all they do. I cannot think of anything else. They hardly ever speak to them, and never take any interest in any of their doings. Those children are not getting any advantages ; they are going back. And do you suppose that men who will make good citizens can be reared in that way? No. It is absolutely impossible for them to be. Don’t do it; don’t, don’t, don’t. To my mind the good citizen will take part with his children in their play; he will take an interest in everything that the children take an interest in. He cannot get along without it; he will play with them himself, and he will not forget one thing. Do you know what is the distinguishing characteristic 100 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., above all others of human beings, that differentiates, that separates them from all the animals on the earth? One will say reason, and another will say this thing, and another will say that thing, but when you come to analyze it down, it is a power which God has ‘given to man, and which he has given to no other being in the world. Other beings approach to us in other respects. Talk about reasoning? Why a dog can beat us sometimes. I have seen dogs do more abstract reasoning that most men are capable of. But the distinguish- ing thing about man, which God has given to him and to no other being, is the power to laugh. Man is the only creature on this earth which can laugh. Many of the other creatures can do everything else that he can do, but they cannot laugh. They talk about the laughing hyena, which is an animal you find in western Asia. I have lain awake in my tent in Pales- tine, and listened to the laughing hyena, and it is no more like the human laugh than that steam clicking in the pipes there. It is a sound, and that is about all you can say about it. God has given to man the power to laugh, and what do you suppose he gave it to us for? Didn’t he give it to us to. be exercised? Why, he never gave us anything that he did not intend that we should use. He gave that great gift to the children to use and exercise. If we do not let our children laugh I think we are committing a sin; let them laugh; let them make a noise; let them blow the house up; they will be the better for it. Don’t stop them; let them laugh, and make them happy. They need it all to develop them for future use- fulness in life. Now, so much for the family. Now, if a man is.a good citizen he will not only be right in his family, but he will be in his neighborhood. He will take an interest in all his neighbors. The good citizen is reaching out beyond himself; he wants to benefit somebody else; whatever his neighbors are interested in, he is interested in. If they are going wrong he is interested to turn them, and if they are going in the right way he is interested still, and he takes a part in what is going on in the neighborhood. He doesn’t shut himself in; it doesn’t cost anything to be neighborly, and be generous with your neighbors. Why, generosity is the best policy if you put it on the lowest ground imaginable. It pays to be generous to your neighbors; some of them, of course, will want to borrow about everything 1902. | THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. IOI there is on the farm. I have had a good neighbor say to me: “Won't you lend me a watermelon?” (Laughter.) What if they do? You must not remember all those little things. It pays to be generous with everybody about you, and you will be the better for it yourself. Most farmers live in a country school district, and the farmer, if he wants to be a good citizen, has got to take an interest in the district school. Now a person cannot pay any attention to a public school in a city. The educational sys- tem is different there from what it is in the country districts, but it pays everybody in the country to take an interest in the school whether he has children going there or not. Visit the school occasionally. It does the teacher lots of good. If you can do a little something for that school once in a while, do it; it will not hurt you in the end to do something for it. The good citizen not only takes an interest in the schocis, but there is another institution in the community he has got to take an interest in if he is of the best sort: he has got to take an interest in the church. I do not say but what there are good citizens in the State of Connecticut, as I know there are in New York, who are not members of the church, but I know one thing, and that I do say, and you know it to be true, and that is, that the best average of citizenship is the Christian citizenship. You may find good men in all other relations, good men and true men in all their relaticns to their fellow men, but you must admit that the average of citizenship is better among those who believe in and try to practice Christianity than the average among those who do not. It is the average that determines every question. It is the aver- age which determines the thing. The best citizen takes an interest in the church, and if he belongs to any particular denomination I like to see him try to do everything he can to build up that particular denomination. J have no use for any of your milk and water business in the church. I tell you what it is, when you find a man a Methodist I want him to bea Methodist, and to believe that John Wesley was the greatest man who has lived since the Apostle Paul, and to believe in Methodism all the way down. And if he is a Presbyterian I want him to believe in John Calvin and John Knox, and go it the full length right straight through. If he is an Episco- palian I want him to stand up for the church, and believe in 102 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., it, and work for it. And why do I want this? Why? I will tell you why: I have known a lot of people who said that one church was just as good as another, and they went bobbing around from one to another, but do you know I have never known one of those men who ever did anything for Chris- tianity, or for anything pertaining to it that amounted to any- thing. And people will not do it where they take such a posi- tion. It is against the law of our nature. We do things for the things we believe in and have faith in, and are willing to stand up and fight for. ' Now, to go a step further, the good citizen not only takes an interest in these things, but he takes an interest in the town- ship in which he lives, and also an interest in what is going on beyond the township in which he lives. The boundary line of the township often encloses more to him than any other boundary line, or that around any other township in his State, because his interests are there, and because it is his home, but more particularly and chiefly because it contains the people that he is associated with,.and has a common interest with. I tell you this community of interest is one of the greatest things he can have; necessarily then the township must be more to him. The township where he lives must be more to him than any adjacent township, or any other division of territory, and if he is a good citizen he will take an interest in everything pertaining to that township. You in the State of Connecticut have an interest in the township different from what we have in the State of New York, because under your present constitution your townships have representation in your legislature, whereas with us an assembly district, com- prising a large number of townships, sends a single repre- sentative to our general assembly. So the good citizen as he is reaching out from his family to his school district, and his neighbors and the community about him, must take an inter- est in the township, and then he has reached out so that he comes in contact with a still greater community of interest, the State to which he belongs, and here is where we come to the general acceptation of what the term “citizen” means. It means our position in relation to the State of which we are citizens, and in which we reside. Now, right here comes in an interesting question: Our system of government is based on political parties; political parties are a part of our 1902. | THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. 103 political system, and not only sanctioned by custom and usage, but are a part of the law of the land. We may dep- recate parties. We may say it is mischievous that the people will ally themselves to parties, and say: ‘“ Why cannot they, when a question comes up, just vote according to their con- victions without having caucuses and conventions beforehand to determine what we shall do, or what we shall not do, and all that sort of thing?” I will tell you: The experience of all the republican governments in the world has determined that you cannot run a representative government without a political party. They have never been able to do it in England. They have never been able to do it in any country in the world where they have representative government, or where the people have a voice in selecting the lawmakers of the land. We may deprecate the heat of political strife in this country, but we are not in it at all as compared with some countries. If any of you have ever seen an election in Eng- land you will never talk about political heat in this country. In one of the counties in England I saw a sign upon a store where eggs were sold, and this was about the way the sign read: ‘ Perfectly fresh eggs, so much a dozen; good fresh eggs, so much a dozen; cooking eggs, so much a dozen; fresh rotten eggs, so much a dozen, and eggs for political purposes, so mucha dozen.” There is no demand, I am glad to say, for that class of eggs in this country. Such eggs have no value in America, but the highest-priced eggs in Eng- land are those used for political purposes; they have a rich- ness and flavor which, like old wine, it takes time to develop. It takes time to develop that quality which makes them de- sirable for the purposes for which they are used. When they are just right they command a high price. Now, do you know that I am such a man that I cannot conceive of this man we are talking about, this good citizen, being a man who does not belong to a political party. Well, but, perhaps, some of you say that is not necessary. Cannot a man be a mug- wump and be a good citizen? No, I do not think so. I am sorry to say that I can’t. I know a lot of them who are very respectable people. I do not believe a man can be a mug- wump and be a good citizen. I do not believe there are any mugwumps here, but I would say the same thing if the room was full of them. Look around among your acquaintances 104 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., and find a mugwump, and then just examine him. It is al- ways easier to examine some other fellow than it is yourself. Just examine him and see what kind of a fellow he is. I was talking a little while ago about people being controlled by their disgusts. Did you ever know a mugwump who was not controlled by his disgusts? The truest thing ever said about a mugwump was that he was a man whose mission was to make virtue odious. That is exactly it. A mugwump can only see the darkest side of everything; he is constitu- tionally against everything; that is the mugwump. I have no use for that type of human being. I want a man to be a Democrat or a Republican, or to belong to some other party that is formed on definite lines, and I don’t care now what it is. Let him be a member of it, and let him stick to it, and let him fight its battles out in the caucus. I do not care what party a man belongs to. But when he has made his choice let him stick to it, and help fight its battles in the caucus or anywhere else. I do not believe in a man belonging to a party, and not going to its caucuses. ‘That is just the source of one trouble that we have had. We have let the caucus go to the devil, and the devil has run the caucus. ‘The citizen who does that has got no right to say afterwards: “Its pretty bitter to vote this ticket.” Now I hope you will understand me. I am not holding myself up as a model citizen; not at all; but I draw that general division; I attend the caucus; I do not always vote, but I would not miss a caucus for anything in the world. I want to know what the boys want, and what they are think- ing about, and what they propose to do. I want to be one of them. I want to talk it over with them, and advise with them. It does no good many times to find fault with nominations after they are made. The thing for the good citizen to do is to attend the caucuses, and help to see that good nominations are made. If you do not go you are not a free citizen; you are controlled by some other power. No foreign potentate could do it any more effectually if you were under his juris- diction. You are not a freeman in the highest and best sense if you do not attend your caucuses. It does not always make so much difference whether you vote or not, but go to the caucuses unfailingly. Do it every time. The caucus con- trols our government. You cannot have it in any other way. You may use bad language about this, and express your feel- 1902. | THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. 105 ings as much as you choose, it will not alter the situation; the fact is the caucus rules. In America it has got to do it. Go to your caucuses; it is your duty. In our country districts about ten good farmers will control the caucus every time. That is the fact of the business. The boys that go to the caucuses are not bad, but they get misled, and they need the older heads there. Of course, I am talking about the ideal citizen in all these relations. Now, the relation of the citizen to the State, and in that connection I want to call your attention to some of the things the farmers of this country have done. Do you know that the farmers of this country have controlled the policy of this government in some of the greatest crises we have had in our business history? Let me illustrate it: One of the great questions that has been agitated during our lifetime has been the question of protection—the question of protection to American industries. Now, what does this amount to when you come to simmer it down? It amounts to this: The manufacturers, as a rule, got the benefit of protection; that is, the immediate and direct benefit went to him who manu- factured the goods; duties are laid upon foreign goods; duties are laid upon those goods that we hope to manu- facture in this country. We want to stimulate the manu- facture of those articles here. Now, who would you naturally expect to vote for protection, and who would you naturally expect to vote against it? If they were controlled simply and solely by their selfish interests in the matter, who would you naturally expect to vote for and against it? Why, you would say that you would expect the manufacturing towns, and the cities where these manufacturers are carrying on their busi- ness, and where the people get the benefit of good business would vote for it, and that the farmer who wants to buy manufactured goods at the least cost possible would vote for free trade. That is what you would naturally say, and there does not seem to be any room for disputing that; that the natural voters for protection would be the voters in the cities, and the towns where there are manufacturing industries, and the natural voters for free trade would be those who live in the rural districts, who sell their goods in the markets of the world anyhow, and want to buy manufactured goods just as cheaply as possible. What is the fact about it? Here it is: 106 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., The farmers of this country have taken such a broad view of this great question before the public, broader than any other class of citizens has taken in all this land, that he has said that “ Although my immediate interests will be advanced by free trade, still I am a citizen in a common country, and the inter- ests of my country will be advanced by the protection of these industries even though it goes against my personal interest,” and the farmer has voted for protection. It is one of the grandest things in our political history that the farmers voted for protection. I do not say whether protection is good or bad. I am not discussing the merits of the question. I am only talking about the way the farmers have acquitted them- selves in times past. What is the result? You know that our financial policy is controlled by the committee of ways and means of the House of Representatives at Washington. And do you know that the chairman of that committee, the man who has more to say than any other man on the com- mittee, represents a purely agricultural district in the State of New York. There is not a city in his district — Sereno E. Payne. He represents nothing but farmers, yet he con- trols the financial policy of this government -in connection with that great committee. The last tariff bill was enacted by Congress under the leadership of the chairman of the ways and means committee, Dingley of Maine, a man who repre- sented the district away down in the eastern corner of the State. There is not a city in it. He represented it until his untimely death. He represented nothing but farmers and fishermen. No manufacturing, or but comparatively little, in all his district, and yet he was the author of the Dingley tariff bill. And the man who was the author of the tariff bill preceding that was a man who represented an. agricultural district in the State of Ohio, William McKinley. Now the farmers in these matters, like good citizens, have looked away from their immediate interests, and taking in the situation in ‘the whole country at large, have said: “ Let our immediate interests be what they will, our greatest interest is the com- mon interest of the whole land,” and so the farmers have de- termined this policy. I might speak of many other things that the farmers have done in these matters of citizenship, but this illustrates the point. There is, however, one thing further in regard to the 1902. | THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. 107 citizenship of our farmers that you will pardon me if I touch upon. With the process of time various changes have come about. A State finds it is desirable to change its fundamental law, or the constitution under which it is operating. J am told that the able and accomplished Governor of your State today, in addressing this convention, referred to the fact that you are about to revise your State Constitution. Now, I do not know much about it, but I have long understood that your system of representation to which I alluded a few moments ago, that your system of representation has been quite differ- ent from ours in the State of New York, and that your agri- cultural communities have a much larger representation in your General Assembly than your city communities do, and that it is proposed to change all this. I freely admit that the fundamental idea of representation is one of entire equality, but let us see what this thing is? Let us examine it. And I hope that it may be that the idea I am about to advance is one that has been considered here in the State, and one with which you are entirely familiar, but that is something which, of course, I do not know anything about, whether you are or not; but I want to tell you how I look at it. What does it take to make a State? A State is made up of two things. It is made up of territory, a given amount of territory, which is land, and the people who live upon that land; in other words, a State is: a dual political body which is made up of two separate and distinct parts — territory and population — and each of these parts is entitled to consideration in the matter of representa- tion. Now you must protect your territory. You must con- serve the interests of your territory as well as the interests of the people of your State. Now, a farmer sent to either house is a double representative. He is a part of the popula- tion of the State, and he is also the representative of its terri- tory as nobody else is. What territory does a man represent who hires a flat on the fifth floor of some house in the city? Can you tell what connection he has with the territory of the State of Connecticut? Now, they propose to say, as I under- stand it, that he represents just as much as the farmer who has one or five hundred acres of land; he does not do it. He has not the interests at stake, and he is not entitled to the voice in representation that the farmer is entitled to. He only represents one part of the State — population — while the 108 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., farmer represents both parts, both of the integral parts of the State. I have always admired the fact that the State of Con- necticut has recognized that principle as much as you have. It is quite different here in that respect from what it is in some other states. Of course I have no personal interest in the matter, but as a matter of abstract justice and right I should hope in your approaching Constitutional Convention this question should not be entirely lost sight of, but that the territory of the State should have representation as well as the people of the State. Now, speaking in general the farmer has a greater inter- est in the State than any other man, and he has a greater inter- est because of the fact that I have told you. Then, also, he has a greater interest because his interest is of a more per- manent character than that of any other man. The manu- facturer, if there is a strike of his employees, or there is a change in transportation facilities so that he can do better somewhere else pulls up in a week, and goes out of your State. He.goes to some other place. A corporation, a bank, or an insurance company can move out if they wish. There is nothing permanent about them; they make a great show-in the tax list while they stay, but that connection is liable to be terminated in a week. With the farmer the case is different. The farm- ing interest is inseparable from the State. It cannot be moved out of the State, and, therefore, the farmer is entitled to more consideration than any other man. Then, too, he is entitled to consideration for another reason. A high moral consideration. In the history of this country there have been great crises. There have been times that tried men’s souls, and when it seemed as though the destinies of the nation were hanging in the balance, and when, if a mistake was made, inevitable ruin must surely come. These great issues have come up on one occasion or another. I have seen a number of them in my day. Going back of the Civil War there was the great question of slavery, and the dissolution of the Union. There were the great questions in regard to the reorganiza- tion of the Union, and the great question in regard to the currency of the country. Great questions of one kind and another where men have felt anxious about the result. In every case who has saved the country? The agricultural vote; that cannot be denied by any historian. The cities have 1902. | THE FARMER AS A CITIZEN. 109 been fluctuating. The cities, as a rule, have voted against the final determination of these questions as the country has determined them. The country has determined them by a majority of its votes, and that majority was because of the agricultural vote. It was the agricultural vote that elected Abraham Lincoln; it was the agricultural vote that elected William McKinley; it was the agricultural vote of the State of New York that elected Theodore Roosevelt Governor, and made it possible for him to be President of the United States. If Theodore Roosevelt had not been elected Governor of the State of New York, all of you will admit that he would not have been President today. So it has not only been so with men, but it has been so with great interests; it has been the farming interest that has determined what the final verdict should be, and it has always been right. The wisdom and the correctness of those verdicts is not questioned; they are certified to by history. Therefore, the farmer as a citizen has performed services for this republic greater than any other man has performed. And not only so, but when the at- tempt to dissolve the Union was made, when it appeared as though the old Union was to be rent in twain, and the people of the North rose up in such multitudes to put down the re- bellion, after all where did the regiments that bore the brunt of that great contest come from? Look over the rec- ords and you will find that from the agricultural districts of the country came those steadfast regiments that could not be moved, and who carried victory before them upon their ban- ners. And so the farmer as a citizen is entitled to the highest consideration from every point of view if he is a good man, and he cannot be a good citizen unless he is a good man. To be a good citizen he must be a good husband, a good father, and a good member of the neighborhood in which he lives. He must look at the issues of the State from a broad, high point of view, deciding them in a broad and comprehensive way as he has done in times past, and as I believe he will continue to do in time to come. To be a good member of society he must take an interest in the affairs of the township where he lives, and of the State of which he is a citizen, and in the manner I have stated. He has been the corner-stone of the republic in times past, and may God grant that this virtue of steadfastness may endure so long as our country 1@ fe) BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., shall remain. He has been the corner-stone of the great struc- ture of the republic, and the rains have descended upon it, the winds have blown, and they have beaten upon that house, and it has fallen not, because it was founded on a rock. The Presipent. The convention will now stand ad- journed until ten o’clock tomorrow morning. MORNING SESSION. Wednesday, December 18, 1got. Convention called to order at 10 A. M., Vice-President Seeley in the chair. The PrResipENT. When I was a boy if you had-told my good old grandfather that we were going to have a Connecticut Agricultural College in the State of Connecticut he would have said: “ Well, my little boy, I guess you do not know what you are talking about. Farmers’ boys do not need any college to go to. If they can learn to read and write, and learn a little about arithmetic so that they will know enough to keep from being cheated, and learn how to raise a good crop of corn and potatoes, I guess that is about all the college that the farmers’ boys will get.’ Well, you know times change, and we have had some wonderful changes in the last fifty years in the State of Connecticut. We have got an agri- cultural college, and what is rather strange, even today, is that we have not some gray-headed man like myself to introduce as the president of that college. But we have a young man who is the acting president of that college today, and I am very happy to introduce this young man, President Stimson, who will address us at this time. 1902. | THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 1) THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. By Actinc PresipenT R. W. STIMSON. Mr. Chairman, and ladies 4nd gentlemen: It gives me the greatest pleasure to stand here as the representative of an in- stitution which is working for the betterment of the farmer and his family, the Connecticut Agricultural College. That Connecticut farming presents a field for improvement is beyond question. The trouble is that the average farmer finds the task of improvement too difficult, if not impossible. My father is a New England farmer, and so was his. My mother’s father was a farmer. Go back in any direction you please along the lines of my lineage, stop at any of the fire- sides of my early people, and you will find that my ancestors have been agriculturists. It is no secret to me, therefore, as it is no secret to you, that the routine of the farmer is unceas- ing, that the duties of the seasons are heavy, that the days are short and the nights mere nothings, and that the strife for a competence grows fiercer every day in proportion as the standards of living become higher. The instituition I repre- sent stands, nevertheless, for knowledge and skill in agri- culture; and knowledge and skill, no matter how difficult they may be of attainment, must be had if the farming of Con- necticut is to prosper. How to get knowledge and skill, scientific ideas and the best methods of their application, this is the problem of the farmer. Your presence here today is an indication of your appreciation of that fact. The bulletins of the agricultural experiment stations which you apply for, which you study, and which your neighbors find you turning to account upon your farms, are other proofs of your interest and determination to advance. But how many of the farmers of this State are getting all they would like to get out of the valuable scientific papers that come to their hands? And is it not true that probably the best that these meetings of the State Board of Agriculture will be able to do for you will be to give you in- spiration rather than fact, the awakening touch rather than the guiding hand? It is not much studying that a man can do when the spring and summer work comes on; and it is not long of a winter evening after working in the fierce cold all day that a man can fight sleep from his eyelids, once the warm 112 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., lamps are lit, and the hot fire is roaring. It is the best-edu- cated man who has the advantage here, the man whose early training has prepared him to catch the truth of a page at a glance; and even he finds the task difficult enough. The boy at home has scarcely a chance. On the whole, taking the farms of Connecticut all to- gether, I believe there never was so bright a future before the agriculture of the State as there is today; but just as certainly I believe that that future will be determined not so much by the men as by the boys of today, by the boys who are given a good education. At the Connecticut Agricultural College we stand for the betterment of the farmers themselves so far as they will give us the opportunity to distribute among them the benefits we have in our gift; but primarily we stand for the higher education, the thorough discipline and instruc- tion of the farmers’ boys. What the farmer’s home and what the country school cannot give we undertake to supply: we work to give the boy who desires to be a farmer as good a chance to succeed in his vocation as the village and city schools and other academic institutions give to their students who are to undertake other occupations in life. The other day I drove over to Columbia to address a meet- ing of farmers. As I was climbing a hill in South Coventry— almost in the shadow of the Nathan Hale monument — ab- sorbed in the college and its work, I was suddenly disturbed by a little piping sound. It was a small boy standing in his dooryard and crying out to me with the utmost earnestness and interest: “My pants are all right now, my pants are all right.” A man in a top-buggy thinking about agriculture, a child on the ground thinking about his trousers. What a perfect example of our diversified life it was! Men are capable of absorption in their own interests, they feel enthusiasm for their own causes. We do well here today to be asking whether or not our agricultural pants are all right, and if not, what will make them so? And in the warmth and glow of our confident thinking we may be permitted to forget for the mo- ment all other interests save our own. But when a hail comes from the roadside men are also capable of listening, and of lending their interest, their sympathy and their support to causes not peculiarly their own. These, I take it, are the 1902. | THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. II3 good citizens, men such as were held up last night for our ad- miration and imitation by Colonel Wood. A day or two ago I looked over the list of the objects for which appropriations were made by our legislature last year, and was astonished quite as much by their variety as by the sums devoted tothem., You are farmers, but you are interested in something besides agriculture. Many a cause not your own you championed last winter, when as a General Assembly chiefly agricultural you voted thousands upon thousands of dollars for the general welfare and progress of the State. American citizens the country over readily respond to such appeals as that just now placed in their hands by President Roosevelt in his first great message. Our nation presents to the world a most extraordinary variety of interests and activities. And there are few men who in their hearts are not ready to yield up that quota of their income and energies which the advancement of our nation as a whole may at any time demand. It is from the good citizenship of our nation as a whole and of this State in particular, as weil as from that of a few individuals, that the Connecticut Agricultural College has sprung. Therefore in pledging the best efforts of this institu- tion to agricultural education for the immediate betterment of our farmers and their families, I would have this most distinctly and nobly understood. And I would urge upon every man in this audience, whether he be a farmer or not, that it is with an institution in some real and deep sense his own that I am dealing, as I now attempt to unfold something of the history, nature, and needs of this college that I repre- sent. The principal sources of information in searching out the history of our college are the reports of the institution which have been issued regularly since its founding. And a careful study of these reports has brought to light a few facts worthy of note. To begin with, the Connecticut Agricultural College had its start in the philanthropic interest and enterprise of two men born on a Connecticut farm in the town of Mansfield, and afterwards successful New York merchants. These men never lost their interest in farming. One of them was Mr. Augustus Storrs, and the other Mr. Charles Storrs. Mr. AGrea—= 5 114 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Augustus Storrs, until his death, maintained a small farm in the town of Mansfield, and devoted himself for many years to the breeding of Shorthorns, his favorite cattle. He be- came interested in agricultural education because he saw that to carry on farming successfully a man must be scientific. After a time in the immediate vicinity of his farm a building became available, which had been built for school purposes ; and he, with his brother, formed the idea of starting an agricultural school. They decided that they would give a considerable sum of money, land, and buildings, provided the State would take charge of the school, and provide an annual sum of money for its support. The matter came before the General Assembly, and, as is shown by the report for 1881, the General Assembly passed the following act: “The Storrs Agricultural School is hereby established for the education of boys whose parents are citizens of this State in such branches of scientific knowledge as shall tend to in- crease their proficiency in the business of agriculture.” The controlling body of the institution was to be a board of trustees. Six of these were to be appointed by the senate, their regular period of office to be a term of four years. One was to be elected annually by the Connecticut Board of Agri- culture. The director of the Connecticut Agricultural Ex- periment Station was to be ex officio a trustee. The Governor of the State was to be ex officio president of the board. And since that time another trustee has been added by an act of the General Assembly, to be elected by the graduates of the in- stitution. Of the first board of trustees you may like to have a per- manent record. I therefore give the names: Governor Hobart B. Bigelow, J. P. Barstow, J. M. Hall, S. O. Vinton, Je M. Hubbard} TT! S.°Gold; J.B: Olcott, EH Hyde, and Professor S. W. Johnson, residents respectively in the towns of New Haven, Norwich, Willimantic, Eagleville, Middletown, West Cornwall, South Manchester, and New Haven. The General Assembly voted an annual appropriation of $5,000 for three years, on condition that lands, buildings, and other property to the amount of $15,000 should be given by private persons. These private subscriptions or gifts were made by the Storrs brothers. The farm and buildings were 1902. | THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 115 put in charge of a committee consisting of J. P. Barstow, E. H. Hyde, and S. O. Vinton, and the organization of the school was intrusted to T. S. Gold, J. B. Olcott, and S. W. Johnson, who were authorized to visit the agricultural school at Guelph, Ont. In 1881 the first prospectus of the school appeared. It was issued in July and widefy distributed. The school year was to consist of three terms of twelve weeks each, beginning the last Wednesday in September, with two weeks out for vaca- tion during the holidays and one week in April. The terms of admission were that the students must be citizens of this State, or the sons of citizens, and at least fifteen years of age, that they should bring with them a certificate of good character, and that they should be subjected to an examination in reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, American history, geography, and practical agriculture. The full course as it was mapped out was to occupy two years, and a tuition fee of $25 was to be charged, except that the charge might be removed in exceptionally worthy cases. The statement issued early in September shows that the course of study in agricul- ture included the handling of crops, the management and care of farm machinery, agricultural science, including agricultural chemistry, physics, mechanics, botany, zodlogy, the correct writing and use of the English language, arithmetic, and ele- mentary geometry, together with simple carpentry and smith work. Here is the routine of the day in the school when it was first started: Rising bell at 6.30 a. M., breakfast at seven, prayers before recitations, lectures and recitations from eight to twelve, dinner at 12.15 Pp. M., compulsory work on the farm from two to five P. M., supper at six, and study hours from seven to nine. The first officers in immediate charge of the school were Mr. Solomon Mead, principal and professor of agriculture; H. B. Armsby, Ph.D., vice-principal and professor of agri- cultural chemistry, and B. F. Koons, Ph.D., M.A., professor of natural history. The first commencement exercises were held in June, 1883, and six students had parts that day. The report of nine years later, or of 1890, shows that the whole number of students was 51, the whole number of 116 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., students receiving instruction in the institution since its organization 160, and the number of graduates 64. The library in 1890, that is, in round numbers, ten years after the starting of the school, contained sixteen hundred books and pamphlets. The courses of study had been modified some- what. Another year was added to the first two years required for the completion of the course when the school was first started. In the middle year were placed the sciences which lie at the base of agriculture, namely, physics, chemistry, and botany. In the senior year came the practical application of the sciences to agriculture. And a course in horticulture seems only just to have been added at this time. In 1892 a new departure was made: Young women were admitted to the institution. There was no extra charge for instruction on account of the increased number, it being be- lieved that the spirit, if not the letter, of the law would be complied with by furnishing education for both sexes. At first the girls seem to have boarded at home. In 1893 the General Assembly changed the name of Storrs School to “ Storrs Agricultural College,” and opened the in- stitution formally to young ladies. It also appéars that that year the General Assembly made an appropriation of $20,000 for the use of the college. Some of you will remember the litigation which was set on foot when it became a question whether the national appro- priation should continue to go to Yale, or be diverted to Storrs Agricultural College. In the report of 1894 it is stated that the General Assembly in January, 1893, gave the Congressional appropriation of 1890 to Storrs Agricultural College, and also the future interest on the fund of $135,000 | which up to that time Yale had received since 1863. Yale sought an injunction to restrain the payment, but you know the successful outcome of the suit in favor of the State college. In the report of 1895 a still further modification in the courses appears. One of the most valuable features of our courses today had just been added, namely, the short summer term of about six weeks. From the State Comptroller in 1895 the institution received $25,000. About this time a so-called “ Extension Department” was established for the benefit of farmers who wished to make progress by reading at home. 1902.] THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. TET And those who have the old catalogues and reports of the institution will find a brief outline of the history of the college from its foundation in the report of 1895. In 1896 a new winter course in dairying was offered, and the work of the extension department was said to have been successful beyond all expectation, although very high ex- pectations were had of its usefulness. We find in the later reports some accounts of additions in the way of equipment and buildings. And, by the way, you may like to know something of the buildings and additions which had been made previous to 1895. You may like to know just when they were made, and just what they were. The new chemical laboratory and barn were reported in 1887. Appropriations had been made for these at previous legis- latures, and the buildings are reported as nearing completion. The cost of the barn was $3,000, and the cost of the laboratory $7,000. In 1889 the last General Assembly is reported as having appropriated $50,000 for new buildings. In 1890 the dormitory with thirty rooms for students is reported to have been opened about December first. The completion of the main building had been somewhat deferred, but it was expected to be occupied in the spring. The question of a proper water supply was a serious one at the outset. The problem was solved by driving a well six inches in diameter, some eight hundred feet deep, and capable of supplying fifteen gallons of water a minute. There can be no question as to the effectiveness and value of the water supply thus secured. This well is near the main college build- ing. The main building was occupied December 2, 1891, and in 1891 the water-tower tank and windmill are reported as completed. In the report of 1895 it appears that the General Assembly appropriated $12,000 for the girls’ dormitory, and it is clear that from this time on the young ladies had a somewhat different education from that of the young men. They had some of the general sciences and literature, but while the young men took agriculture they took practical housekeep- ing. Some of the instruction was of course the same for both. In 1896 the building of the blacksmith shop is reported. This includes forges, anvils, and other apparatus necessary for the proper appointment and equipment of such a shop. 118 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., In 1898 the extension department held its first, and I may almost say its last, commencement. I think Mr. H. C. C. Miles, who is here present, graduated on that day from the extension department of Storrs College. In our last year’s catalogue you will find a report of the number of students. There were in attendance the preced- ing year 110 students. ‘This catalogue is a trifle misleading. Our annual report, as required by law, covers the calendar and fiscal year, instead of the ordinary college year from Septem- ber to June. So that one class appears here which under ordinary circumstances would not be included in a college catalogue. But, taking the report for just what it is, it appears that 110 students had been in attendance on the courses of the college at some time or throughout that year. It may interest you to know how many graduates we have had. The total number of graduates up to 1902 is 191, of whom 22 are women. It also may interest you to know the occupations into which some of these students have gone, because sometimes the question has been raised as to what we fit students for. Agriculture leads the list of those we know about-with 69, — 69 of our students have gone into farming. Besides we have eight manufacturers, four in trade, one buffer, one express agent, two lawyers, three veterinary surgeons, one in medicine, one real estate dealer and broker, three bookkeepers, two archi- tects, nine teachers, one mechanic, eight salesmen, five clerks, one dentist, one in the employ of the signal service, one elec- trician, three civil engineers, one lecturer, one liveryman, one nurse, eleven who have gone on to post-graduate studies, and seven housekeepers. Of some we have no record. The PresipentT. Do those housekeepers answer for all the others? Prof. Stimson. We, of course, have had a smaller num- ber of young women than of young men. Some of the young women, I think, are figured among the clerks and book- keepers. It may interest you in passing to know who have been the heads of the institution from its beginning. The first prin- cipal, as I have said, was Mr. Solomon Mead. His name 1902. | THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 12 fe) appears in the first prospectus, but he seems to have disap- peared from the school during the first year. The first or second year, I do not know which, Dr. Armsby was made acting principal. Prof. B. F. Koons appeared as principal in the report of 1883, and he held the position of principal and president until 1898, a period of sixteen years of honorable service. In 1898 Mr. George W. Flint was appointed to the presidency, and held his position for three years. And on the night of September 12th this last fall I received a telegram saying: “ You are president pro tem. Come down.” And believing that to “come down” was to come up, I responded to that telegram. These, then, are a few of the most salient facts in the de- velopment of the institution from its beginning. But you would make a mistake if you went away from this hall with the notion that this college is nothing but a State institution. It started, as I have said, in private philanthropy, and it has been fostered by the State from the first year of its existence until the present; but since 1893 by far the larger proportion of its regular annual income has come from the national government. From that date until the pres- ent the Connecticut Agricultural College has been a State college, but it has also been a land-grant college; and as a land-grant college it is one of a large number of similar in- stitutions. ‘There are sixty-five such institutions in the United States, each of the states and territories having one with the exception of Alaska. These colleges were founded by an act of Congress which was formulated and passed under the advice and leadership, and in fact almost wholly through the instrumentality of the Hon. Justin F. Morrill of Vermont, for a long time United States Senator from that State, as most of you know. On july 2, 1862, in the midst of our Civil War, and all the storm and stress of that critical period, Congress appropriated to each of the states certain amounts of income to be derived from the sale of public lands. These sums were to g% to the different states, were to be securely invested, and their income at a specified rate was to become a perpetual fund which the states accepting the terms of the national govern- ment guaranteed to maintain. That income, or those funds, according to the conditions of the grant, cannot be diminished by any process whatsoever. 120 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Starting with that act, or starting with the acceptance by our legislature of the annual income provided by that act, we have stood no longer as a private enterprise, or as an in- stitution peculiar to our State, but we commenced then and stand today in a certain sense a national institution, one whose interests are expanded beyond the borders of our State. And, more than that, we stand to a certain degree independent of the vacillating suffrages of some of our somewhat inconstant friends. That the wisdom of founding the land-grant colleges was great, and that the money has been well expended, we have proof, you know, in the fact that in 1887 there was passed an act founding the agricultural experiment stations of this country. There was a proof that the experiment in agri- cultural education had proved to be wise in the judgment of Congress. And we as colleges have still further national assistance. On August 30, 1890, an act was passed by Congress appropriating to each State a fixed sum. The annual appropriation at first was to be $15,000, and that was to be increased at the rate of $1,000 a year until it reached the amount of $25,000. Last September, if I remember the date, we received $25,000 in one lump from the national government to be applied to instruction in the Connecticut Agricultural College. We also received during the year, in round numbers, $7,500 from the land-grant act. So that alto- gether we have from the national government, entirely in- dependently of this State, an income of nearly $33,000, — thirty-two thousand and a half. Every salary of the teaching force of our institution is paid from funds provided by the national government. Sometimes questions are asked relative to our courses of study. It has been queried whether we have the right, or whether it is the proper policy for us to teach anything besides agriculture. Let me tell you once for all that we are under bonds, moral and legal, to the national government to teach the fhechanic arts; to teach Greek and Latin if a student wants them, to teach French and German, to teach mathematics, and to teach engineering, as well as the sciences immediately connected with agriculture. I want you to appreciate that, be- cause it is a tremendous fact. 1902. | THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. I2I The PRESIDENT. You are required to do that by the national government? These grants from the national govern- ment were predicated upon those facts, were they? Prof. Stimson. Yes, sir; under the act of 1862 the money appropriated was to be devoted to the endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college where the leading object should be, without excluding other scientific and classi- cal studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts. Let me repeat that: We are to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the me- chanic arts. Without excluding scientific and classical studies we are to teach such branches of learning as are re- lated to agriculture and the mechanic arts in such manner as the legislatures of the states may respectively prescribe in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the in- dustrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life; that is the broad language of the act itself. As a matter of fact there has been a great diversity in the development of these different land-grant institutions. Some have developed very strongly in the direction of liberal educa- tion, like the State universities, the University of Tennessee, for example. Others, like the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky, have developed strongly in the direction of mechanics. Others, like the Massachusetts Agricultural College, have confined themselves principally, though not en- tirely, to instruction in agriculture. You may like to be told something of the special interests in the different states to improve which special studies are provided: For instance, I find that in Wisconsin dairying is perhaps the leading interest, and Wisconsin is famous for its dairy school. In Mississippi there has been developed what is said to be the finest textile school in the world, because Mississippi is strongly a cotton State. In the University of Nebraska there is a sugar school; there is a course in grape culture and wine making in the University of California. and there is a course in hydraulics and irrigation in the University 122 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., of Arizona. Thus, you see, there is the greatest diversity in the development of these institutions. And when the president of the Connecticut Agricultural College placed upon our last year’s catalogue, not the name that our legislature gave to this institution, but the name which pleased him best, and said that it was the “ Connecticut College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts,” he was seeking, I suppose, to place before the thoughts of the people of the State a dual responsi- bility, that thereby your attention might be called to the acts of Congress I have referred to, and you might become aware that you have, indeed, not merely a dual responsibility, but a manifold responsibility towards this institution. Now, then, what are we going to do in this State? Weare face to face with this condition: We have a number of classical institutions, probably a sufficient number of such institutions, which are strong in memories, fine in old traditions, and rich in the flavor of classical learning as well as efficient in me- chanical and scientific training. , Now, then, I repeat: what are we going to do? Your legislators, it appears, looked over the situation and said: ‘“ There is one class of people in this State that is being tobbed, comparatively speaking, of education. Therefore, we will create a school which shall have for its leading object the giving of education in scientific and practical agriculture,” and, as the result, we have the Connecticut Agricultural Col- lege. At that college today we are better equipped for giv- ing instruction in agriculture than in anything else, but we are well equipped for giving instruction also in engineering. And we are well equipped for giving education in business courses, including typewriting and stenography, in business laws and practice, in spelling, bookkeeping, and commercial arithmetic and penmanship. If you have five boys on your farm, and you have a farm that will not support more than one when you are through with it, what are you going to do with the other four? Well, you know that farmers’ sons have become Presi- dents of the United States; and it is significant that the man who procured the passage of this bill, the Hon. Justin S. Morrill, came from a line of two generations of blacksmiths, and was himself a farmer and a successful business man. He was a man who had not had the advantage of higher educa- 1902. | THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 123 tion, and always felt the lack of it in his own case. He was one of the plain people. Furthermore, as President Harris of our American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations has just reminded us in his address at our annual meeting in Washington, it is a significant fact that the man who vetoed the first biil providing for the land-grant colleges was a gentleman of the old classical school — Presi- dent Buchanan — and it is also a significant fact that the man who approved the measure in 1862 was the rail splitter, Abraham Lincoln. We stand, therefore, for an education which is down close to the people, and we stand also for an education which will help to lift our students to the highest positions among the people, or enable them to do their quota of service in certain departments of respectable work. I wonder if you would not like to have all this impressed | on you a little more distinctly. I know when we are sitting together as listeners a pelting rain or hail of figures may be merely a source of annoyance; but since the matter is so important, and since you have employed a man to take note of what is said here, I would like to have appear in your proceedings exactly what this education is that we offer. I want you to know precisely the broad and useful kind itis. And I wish you to know and remember the royal way in which it has been and is supported by our national government and by the State as a whole. The total number of land-grant colleges in 1900 was sixty- five. Their income that year was a million and a quarter of dollars, and this sum, mind you, was entirely exclusive of two-thirds of a million dollars devoted to agricultural ex- periment station work. There have been constant additions to the funds, endowment, and equipment of these institutions. These additions in 1900 amounted to three and a quarter millions of dollars, in round numbers, including buildings, machinery, and miscellaneous apparatus. The total number of volumes in the libraries of those institutions in 1900 was 1,469,318. And the grand total of persons on the faculties of the land-grant colleges a year ago was 2,855. Three thou- sand one hundred and fourteen students, of an average of twenty-one years and ten months, were graduated from these institutions that year, these having been a part of a total number of students in attendance that year of 39,505. There- 124 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., fore, when our graduating class goes out of the college gates next commencement it will be a part of a great concourse of people more than forty thousand strong. Not far from forty- five thousand young men and young women will have been educated in and graduated from the land-grant colleges when our next commencement has been celebrated. , Now, I suppose you will be interested to see how far we can verify or prove to you the truth of the statement that our college means to start, and is starting, right down with the people, and is lifting them as high as it can. My task would be easier if you would come up to see us, look into the faces of our instructors, shake their hands, and talk with them, if you would visit our buildings and our fields, and inspect our apparatus, and thus see for yourselves what we have to do with. You have not been up, however, and I cannot be sure you will come during the year. During my four years at the college I believe I can count on the fingers of one hand the members of this audience who have visited our institution. You farmers sitting here today prove by your presence that you are interested in the promotion of agriculture, and yet almost on the fingers of one hand I can count the number of men here who have appeared on the campus to my knowledge during the last four years. It is not safe to presume that you will visit us immediately, therefore I have done the next best thing. In addition to our catalogue of last year I have put in print, so that you can see it at a glance, a circular giving a kind of birdseye view of our institution as a whole. On another sheet you will find our faculty labeled with all their degrees, so that you can become familiar with the new names, and judge from their degrees what the preparation of each has been for the instruc- tion he is now giving. Also I have put in print information as to our short courses and special courses of study. This short dairy course, for example, has been highly successful, and we mean to continue it. We have erected a modern dairy building, which is said to compare favorably with the best dairy buildings in the country in its plan and equipment. It is said that there are but few dairy buildings which can stand the test of comparison with it. It is very finely adapted for two things, because there are two distinct industries in 1902. | THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 125 Connecticut dairying —the making of butter and the pro- duction of milk. We are prepared to teach the most sanitary and economic method of producing and delivering milk. In Connecticut there are two kinds of butter-making: the making of butter in private dairies, and the making of butter in creameries. Therefore our dairy building is in two departments, one de- voted to power machinery such as you will find in model creameries, and the other devoted to hand machinery; so that the student who comes to take our course in this specialty may choose what he will have, that is, whether he will have train- ing in creamery practice and management, or training in private dairy practice and management. A short course in pomology has been projected. Of course you know that is a subject difficult to teach in winter, but we shall undertake to teach the science and principles of pomology, and give to business men and fruit growers who cannot afford the time at any other season of the year a chance to acquire the principles of fruit growing, and to become familiar with the best literature on the subject, with the best and most practical thought. An educational institution which does not educate, of course, is a contradiction, an anomaly, and good for nothing to the people; therefore, I wondered how it would be pos- sible to bring to your notice such portions of all the education we have as you could reach, and not lay up before you a fine array of kinds of education that you would feel you could not possibly hope to get. Consequently, this winter we are offering ten-day courses of study in different subjects. Mem- bers of the faculty were requested to look over what they had at hand to see if they could not arrange some ten-day courses of study. I hope that every one of you who has not received them will send very soon for copies of this circular in which you will find these different courses described. We have twenty ten-day courses. You can leave home on Monday, and you can get back a week from the next Saturday. You can come up to the college and get a rest from your custom- ary routine, taste of our college life, see what we are doing, and convince yourselves, not from a hasty examination of fifteen minutes or fifteen hours, but from an experience of ten or fifteen days; convince yourselves regarding the scope, 126 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., character, and efficiency of the institution. We have no de- sire to masquerade under any false guise. I believe that we can stand the test of the closest scrutiny, and if we cannot it is high time that you discovered that fact. The PReEsIDENT. How old boys do you take for these courses? Prof. Stimson. From fifteen to one hundred and fifteen. Boys and girls both, by the way. The PRESIDENT. If we boys are coming we want the girls there too. Prof. Stimson. Oh, yes; of course; but I suppose the girls ought not to be over thirty. In addition to these I have indicated I want you to look at the other circulars. I may tell you about them all here, but you may forget, and I want you to see the circulars them- selves. If you have not received copies of them, and if none are sent you within a few days, I hope you will drop me a card, for I shall be only too happy to send you all the informa- tion I can. Now, you may like to know something of the efficiency which is attained by our students, and in what estimation our training is held. Actions speak louder than words, and I give you two or three incidents as nearly as possible up to date. Last week I received a letter from a teachers’ agency asking if I would recommend a man for the position of farm superintendent and instructor in an agricultural school. Last Friday, and this is the other side of it and not the agricultural, a gentleman from the Derby Gas Company drove up to our institution. He came into my office, and said: “ We have one of your graduates in our vicinity who has proved to be successful in the work of engineering. Now, the Derby Gas Company wants to get a good man who is thoroughly reliable, and who is well equipped for the work I indicate. Cannot you recommend a man for this place? If you can I would like to take him home with me today.” Well, our graduates, of course, are not all there on the grounds, but, inside of two hours, I recommended him two men, either one of whom 1902. | THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 127 would be a prize if he could get him. And, if he could have given me a little longer time, I am confident that this number could have been multiplied many times. We are judged at the college not only by the announce- ments we make, but also by our graduates, and by the people who come there and decide that they want to send students there. I am very sorry that a gentleman who visited me last week is not here today. He is a doctor here in Bridgeport, a suc- cessful practitioner; the doctor has a son who is interested in farming. The doctor is not a farmer, but his son has been out in the country, and has a taste for farming; that is, he thinks he would like to be a farmer. MHis father, therefore, like any wise father, came to the institution to discover whether it would be wise to send the boy up there. He came up expecting to stay an hour or two, and then drive back to Willimantic, but he found that he had made a mistake in the time of his trains, and could not get home that day. He, therefore, accepted my invitation to stay with us that night, and while with us devoted part of his time to going into our classes. None of our instructors knew that he was coming, of course. Things were in just the same situation in this re- spect as when the executive committee of the State Grange came up last fall to look us over. Nota man on the faculty knew that that committee was coming. They went into our classes, and you have their report of what they found. A few letters have been forwarded from my office today, and among them is one from this doctor, which I have ob- tained his permission to read. It is as follows: “ Bridgeport, Conn., Dec. 16, 1901. “'R. W. Stimson, President. .““My Dear Sir: Allow me to thank you for the cordial courtesy extended to me while at your college this week. I did not intend or expect to become a pensioner upon your bounty. My plan was to arrive at the college about three P. M., and drive down to Willimantic for the evening train. I had, however, miscalculated. Your hospitality, therefore, gave me one of the most enjoyable little vacations which | have had for many days. The hours spent in the recitation rooms with the various classes were greatly refreshing; I almost be- 128 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [ Jan, came a pupil again, and, indeed, I did once or twice find my- self just audibly answering the professor, or forming a ques- tion. “ Kindly convey to Professor Monteith an expression of my satisfaction and pleasure. His spirit and realism in the class room are actually contagious. No wonder the pupils were interested and vivacious. “T wish to express to you the satisfaction which I had in my tour of the various departmental buildings. Professor Meserve was exceedingly kind, and I regretted greatly the in- trusion upon his time. Before we had completed the round of calls I was wishing myself a boy again. Make my com- pliments, not only to him, but to all who made my visit so pleasant. I wish, indeed, as you suggested, that I could also have had the time for a call upon the senior class while at work. “As to the boy? Well, we have discussed the matter at ‘home, and he has immediately begun a review of geometry under his tutor, and he will, I believe, be ready for work with ‘you at the opening of the next term. It is plain to me, after my visit, that he ought to find himself in the sophomore class, and if it shall appear so to you, it will greatly facilitate matters. “ Kindly allow me an opportunity to confer with you when here this week; and, also, will you do me the favor to dine or lunch with me at your convenience on the day of your con- vention? “With most cordial appreciation of your kind courtesy, I am, “ Sincerely yours, oy We Garlick. Now, what in the world can I add to convince you, in ad- dition to what I have already said, that this institution is a good institution, and worthy of the support of the people, and of the appropriations and appreciation of the people? In looking over the appropriation list of the last General Assembly, if I am not mistaken, you will find that you gave to the industrial schools for boys and girls more than $100,000 a year, while you gave to the Connecticut Agricultural Col- lege $15,000. Our task is purely educative, not reformatory; and you expect us to make it a model institution. 1902. | THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 129 We cannot use our national funds for things that are going to do the State credit, except for instructors and certain facilities for instruction. If you want new buildings, if you want the brush cut, if you want the stones upon the farm blasted and cleared away, if you want to keep the water on the outside of the buildings when the east wind blows, if you want to keep tight roofs, if you want a model horse barn and a model cow barn, if you want dormitories that will provide more pleasant. homes for your sons, and increased accommodations for your daughters, you must give us more money. You must do it! We are going to consider this matter pretty carefully, and decide slowly, but when we go before your committee on appropria- tions at the next General Assembly we want you to hold up our hands in the reasonable demands which we shall make at that time for new buildings, for appropriations which shall enable us to do something more than live along from hand to mouth, and which shall give us the means for making some permanent improvements. I am sorry that the gentleman whom I referred to, and who came from this city to visit us, is not here to speak for himself, as he thought he might be able to do. Before he went away from the college that day I asked him to give his candid judgment about our institution. I said to him: “You have said some good things about it; now, what is the worst thing you can say?” He replied: “It is no dis- credit to you, but it is a discredit to the State: [I am aston- ished,” he said, “ to find that the State of Connecticut has an institution within its borders for which it has been responsible for more than twenty years, and which has been allowed to get into the condition upon the exterior in which the Connecticut Agricultural College finds itself today.”’ Why, we had just had a heavy rain storm, and the water came through into what ought to be our best-looking room — the President’s room, the room where we receive our guests. The water had come in all along the ceiling, and it is all marred and streaked, and what in the world we are going to do before summer, I do not know. He saw that, and that is one of the things which he referred to. Some of our build- ings shake badly in the wind. I have heard one of our gradu- ates say, —I never have verified the matter, — that the boys AGR. —9 130 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., have taken a glass and filled it with water to within a quarter of an inch of the top, set it on a heavy table in the mechanical drawing room in the second story of the main college building, and have known a high wind to shake the building so violently that the glass of water slopped over. Some of our present buildings need attention, and we need some new, substantial structures. We had a rousing address yesterday on “ Citizenship,” and we were urged to be controlled not by our disgusts, but by our admirations. As citizens we need to get a new ideal of what the Connecticut Agricultural College ought to be. It is a State college. In its merely State aspect the citizens of Connecticut ought to take pride enough in it to support it, and care for it properly. Add to the idea that it is a State college your ideal of what a State college ought to be, and add to that the fact that it is one of the national land-grant colleges, and that it is receiving equal sums of money with the largest states in the Union under the last Morrill act. Take those facts and your ideal, and consider what you ought to do under the circumstances. Probably you have a boy or a grandson who ought to go there to be educated at some- time. Take that fact also into account, and consider what you ought to do to make that college an ideal institution. It’s a perfectly easy thing to tear things down; it’s a com- paratively easy thing to find fault, but I challenge any man here to point out the man, or the body of men, who, at some- time or other, has not made mistakes in this life; we are all fallible; the faculty are liable to make mistakes. I think they would not claim that they have any large degree of infallibility ; but I believe that you can trust the faculty that you have there now to make as few mistakes as any faculty in this country. I believe that you can trust the board of trustees, and trust them absolutely., I am not going to enlarge upon the unfail- ing courtesy those gentlemen have shown the present ex- ecutive, and the earnest attention they have bestowed upon the best interests of the institution, or say anything of the change affecting the policy of that institution previous to or upon the date of September 12th last; but I am glad to be able to say, in the teeth of the agitation and argument that we have heard, that this college is not a political institution, the mere sport of spoilsmen, that I have never seen politics 1902. | THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 131 so much as show its nose inside the college door. I am not going to call your attention to the fact that we have a perma- nent institution much further than I have already done. It is true that we could run that institution after a fashion if you did not give us another dollar; but we could not run it as the citizens of Connecticut must desire, or as the nation expects, the nation which says that you have made a contract that you will run the college creditably. I am not going into those things any further. But I want you to come and see us, get a first-hand knowl- edge of the institution, and then pronounce your judgment upon us. Come and see what we need, and hear the reason why we shall ask for the means to meet those needs. I am not going to name the figure, but I think I can promise you, ladies and gentlemen, that at the next session of the General - Assembly we shall make a call for an appropriation which will go down deep into your pocket-book. Now here is another thing, and with that Iam done. It has been said that the farmers of Connecticut, taken one by one, consider the State college a very good institution for the other man’s boy. Mark my words, you must make that in- stitution an educational institution for your own boy if it is ever to amount to anything. Send your boys up there, and if we make mistakes tell us where we are wrong. We have some gray-haired men, and some men with a sprinkling of gray hairs, as members of the faculty, but there is not a man among them who is not young enough to take a common-sense sug- gestion. And I ask you to believe that the common sense of the State is not confined to the people outside altogether of the State college. Give us your suggestions. Do not give them to each other, but give them to’ us. We want to use them, and we will use them if you will give us the opportunity. Do not go around and say to other people that this, that, and the other thing is. not as it should be; but come straight to the executive. I do not care whether you come to the acting president this year, or go to the president next year, or when- ever he may be appointed; it is safe to guarantee, — supposing that you were in that position, —it is safe to guarantee that any sane man in that position will be glad of suggestions. Give us your advice; help us all you can in that way, and go hand in hand with us in an effort to make this institution a suc- ¥32 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., cess. You yourselves can help us in that way. But, more than anything, we want your sons and daughters for students, because, as I have said before, an educational institution which is doing nothing to educate is a contradiction in terms, and must be to the end of time. The PRESIDENT. You will have an opportunity later to ask questions of Professor Stimson. We will now proceed to the next topic, which is “ Diseases and Insects Injurious to Orchards and Field Crops.” Professor S. A. Beach will speak to us on this topic. DISEASES VAND:. ; INSECTS; -INJURIOUS.. TO 40h CHARDS-AND | FIELDICRORS: By Pror. S. A. BEAcH oF GENEVA, N. Y. Mr. President, and ladies and gentlemen: Years ago Connecticut was noted all through New York State, and I suppose to some extent throughout the nation, for a peculiar agricultural product—the nutmeg. We always knew of Connecticut as the ‘Nutmeg State.” In the year 1875 Con- necticut gained agricultural distinction in another way, which was by establishing the first agricultural experiment station in the United States. We have today fifty-five agricultural experiment stations in the United States, not counting those in the insular possessions, and the beginning which was made here in Connecticut in 1875 was the forerunner of the move- ment which has spread throughout the nation, and which is today one of the strong, vital forces which are lifting up the agriculture of the United States to the foremost position in agriculture of any nation of the world. Today there is a broad, world-wide scientific movement, and agriculture is re- ceiving the benefit of that movement, and the agricultural experiment stations are doing a great deal for the uplifting of agriculture everywhere. They are the logical outgrowth of the agricultural colleges established by the land-grant act. When the professors of agriculture and horticulture got their courses organized to start out in that new field of effort they found that there were many things concerning which they 1902. | DISEASES AND INSECTS, ETC. 133 needed fundamental knowledge. Starting out to teach rela- tive to some question concerning the propagation of plants or the fertilization of the soil, they were confronted with ques- tions which science had not yet given an answer to, and so the demand c&me from the agricultural colleges for the agri- cultural experiment station, and the first one which was estab- lished in 1875 was established not as a national institution, but was started partly by private generosity, and partly by the State, and was established in connection with Wesleyan Uni- versity in Connecticut. In 1887, however, the movement had gained such headway that Congress appropriated funds for the establishment of an agricultural experiment station in con- nection with every land-grant college in the United States. So you see, today, Connecticut has the honor of starting this movement in America, which has exerted such an untold influence toward the elevation and permanent prosperity of agriculture. I have been very glad to listen to the remarks of President Stimson as to the condition of your college in Connecticut, and I bespeak for him your cordial support in what he may pre- sent to you later. You realize, of course, that the funds which are given by the United States government are not used, and cannot be used to any extent for buildings and repairs. What- ever each State has in that regard it provides for itself. Secretary Brown wrote me some weeks ago asking me to speak to this meeting upon the subject of “ Diseases and Insects Injurious to Orchard and Field Crops” with up-to- date methods of treatment. Some people have written a whole book on that subject, and then have not exhausted it. I was foolish enough, perhaps, to consent to address you on that subject, provided he would allow me to limit it in one way, and that was to present it from the standpoint of the horticulturist, and, as we made a bargain on that point, the result is I am here to address you upon the subject as an- nounced. Of course I cannot cover every portion of the field which this topic opens, and I have arranged my paper for the purpose of giving you a general survey of the topic, trusting that if you have a question-box you may bring out by your questions the points which most interest you if I fail to touch upon them. It is now generally understood by fruit growers, farmers, 134 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., and gardeners that many plant diseases, as, for example, the rusts, smuts, mildews, and molds are caused by parasitic fungi. We also know that some are caused by insects, as, for example, the leaf-spot of carnation called “ stigmonose,” which results from puncturing the leaves by plant lice or by mites; the root galls of some plants, which are caused by eel worms, and those of others, which are caused by root lice. Some diseased conditions of plants are also found which can- not be attributed to any of the causes just named, but which re- sult from what may be spoken of in a general way as unfavor- able environment, as, for example, the tip burn of leaves of lettuce, and other plants, and the dropsy of tomatoes in forc- ing houses. Finally, there are some plant diseases, the cause of which has not been determined. Peach yellows stands as a prominent example of this class. Those who have had experience in growing plants, and watching the progress and distribution of plant diseases, know that the character of the season has much to do with the prevalence of certain diseases. While it is true, for in- stance, that the apple scab results from the attacks of a parasitic fungus, it is very abundant in some seasons, while in others it is but little in evidence. Likewise, the conditions which prevail in certain locations favor the growth and spread of the scab, while in other locations the prevailing conditions are much less favorable to its development. Then, too, there are certain varieties of the apple which are peculiarly sus- ceptible to the attacks of the scab fungus, while other varieties are comparatively immune. In all these characteristics apple scab is typical of many other fungous diseases. We have, then, in considering these diseases, first to know the nature of the particular parasitic organism which may cause it, if it be due to a parasitic organism, and, secondly, we need to study the kind of diseases which are favored or retarded in their develop- ment in many cases by the location. So that we can do a great deal, therefore, by the selection of varieties, and by the selection of locations favorable to these varieties, in com- bating diseases. It is my purpose, however, to speak more particularly of other lines of treatment, and to speak now of the diseases which are caused by parasitic fungi. Great ad- vances have been made in recent years in successfully and economically treating fungous diseases. In order, however, 1902. | DISEASES AND INSECTS, ETC. 135 to intelligently comprehend the philosophy of such treatment it is necessary to know something of the nature of the para- sitic fungi, their manner of living, and of propagating their kind; also the conditions which are favorable or unfavorable to-their development. The simplest forms of vegetable para- sites which cause specific plant diseases are called “ bacteria.” They are exceedingly simple in structure; they consist of an outer covering, which is the cell wall, and an inner soft living substance called “ protoplasm.” That is all there is of them. There are no separate pieces of the body, or anything of that kind. They propagate in an exceedingly simple manner. During active growth they simply divide into two parts, each of which is altogether alike, and performs all the functions of the original or parent cell. Under favorable conditions growth is rapid. One cell soon separates into two, the two soon become four, the four eight, the eight sixteen, and con- tinuing in that ratio the number of individuals rapidly becomes enormous. Bacteria represent among fungi what quick grass stands for among weeds. As every joint or node of the root- stocks of quick grass is capable of developing into a separate plant, so also every bacterial cell is capable of reproducing a separate independent individual. It is not strange, therefore, that it has been found very difficult to treat bacterial plant dis- eases successfully. Among the diseases of this class are the fire blight of the pear, quince, and apple, the stump-rot of cabbages, and the wilt disease of melons and cucumbers. These diseases are very hard to control. They do not seem to be amenable to treatment by spraying, and other methods have to be adopted. * More complex in structure than the bacteria are the fila- mentous fungi, in which the vegetative cells remain attached to each other, and by continued growth form filaments or threads, in some cases simple; in others branched. Among the more highly organized fungi there is a division of labor. Certain parts of the plant structure are developed for the special purpose of reproducing and disseminating the species, while other parts perform simply vegetative functions. Thus, in the case of the fungus which causes the disease commonly called “ potato blight ” or “ mildew,” the vegetative part of the parasite consists of the threads or filaments of the mildew. It penetrates the inner tissues of the potato plant, and absorbs 136 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., from them, and appropriates to its own use the food materials which are found there. The fungus passes the winter in in- fected seed potatoes. When such diseased potatoes are planted the fungus grows up through the stalks and into the leaves. Through the natural pores of the leaves it sends branching threads which appear on the under side of the leaf in patches of white mildew. These bear minute roundish cells called by botanists “spores.” The “spores” are functionally the seed of the fungus, but being much more simple in struc- ture than the seeds of the higher orders of plant life, they are designated as spores. The spores being very minute may be carried in the air like dust, and are thus distributed to other plants. Under favorable conditions of temperature and moisture the contents of the spore divides into little bodies, each of which eventually sends out a germ tube or filament. This, if it happens to be on a potato leaf, penetrates into the tissue of the leaf, and once having gained entrance to the plant the fungus may spread even to the tubers. If it gains entrance to the tubers it can be then kept through the winter. There are many different methods of spore formation found among the different classes of fungi. Many species form summer spores which in function, though not in form, are similar to those of the potato mildew. They vary very greatly in size and shape, and in the way they are born on the different fungi. These are produced under favorable growing conditions, and serve for the immediate and rapid distribution of the fungus. There may also be produced the mature form of the fruit of the fungus in the shape of thick-walled spore cases in which winter spores are finally developed. The winter spores retain their vitality through periods unfavorable to growth, and when conditions again become auspicious they germinate, and start new centers of growth for the fungus. Thus the mature form of the apple scab fungus passes the winter in the fallen infested leaves of the apple. When the leaves decay in the spring these are spread, and some of them lodge upon the apple foliage, and start the dis- ease anew. ‘The fungus of the black-rot of the vine passes the winter in the dried diseased grape berries, and that of the plum black-knot in the pustules, which develop in the plum knots. The winter-form of the spores, which are produced in these pustules, you cannot see with the naked eye on the surface of the knot. 1902. | DISEASES AND INSECTS, ETC. 377) It has been found that by the application of certain poisons the spores may either be killed or their germination prevented. One of the cheapest and most effective of these fungicides is the well-known Bordeaux mixture. It should not be regarded as a cure for, but as a preventive of fungous diseases. Treat- ment with the Bordeaux mixture rests upon the philosophy that where this fungicide is present on the surface of foliage, or stem or fruit, fungous spores which alight there, are pre- vented from further development. After the fungus has gained entrance to the inner tissues its progress cannot be arrested by applications of Bordeaux mixture to the surface. In fact, anything of a nature sufficiently corrosive or toxic to destroy the deep-seated portions of the fungus would like- wise destroy the host. The investigators at experiment sta- tions may publish detailed instructions as to when and how the fungicides should be applied. Such instructions set forth general lines of treatment which should be adapted to meet the conditions which vary with different seasons. From what has been said concerning the habits of growth and reproduc- tion of fungi, and the philosophy upon which the treatment of fungicides is based, it is evident that some knowledge of the life history of the particular fungus which is to be combated, the period when it becomes active, its habits of spore-bearing, the kind of environment which most favors its rapid develop- ment, and also that which is unfavorable to its progress, is necessary to intelligent, economical, and efficient treatment of the disease. The limits of this paper will not permit particular features to be considered in detail. It will serve our present purpose if the plant diseases may be classed according to the accepted methods of treating them. Let those which may be best con- trolled by using the Bordeaux mixture or some similar fungi- cide be considered first. Among the diseases in this class which prey upon either the fruit or the foliage of the apple, or both, are the bitter rot (Gloeosporium fructigenum, Berk.), the fly speck (Leptothyrium pomi, Mont. and Fr., Sacc.), the leaf spot (Phyllosticta sp.), the scab (Venturia inequalis, Cke., Aderh.), and the sooty blotch (Phyllachora pomigena, Schw., Sacc.). Among pear diseases, the leaf blight (Entomosporium ma- culatum, Lev.), the leaf spot (Septoria piricola, Desm.), and the scab (Venturia pirina, Aderh.). 138 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Among quince diseases, the leaf blight, and fruit spot (Entomosporium maculatum, Lev.). Among apricot diseases, the fruit rot (Monilia fructigena, P.) and the leaf spot (Cylindrosporium padi, Karst.). Among cherry diseases, the fruit rot (Monilia fructigena, P.) and the leaf spot (Cylindrosporium padi, Karst.). Among peach diseases, the fruit rot (Monilia fructigena, P.) and the leaf curl (Exoascus deformans, Berk., Eckl.). Among the plum diseases, the fruit rot (Monilia fructigena, P.) and the leaf spot (Cylindrosporium padi, Karst.). Among grape diseases, the anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum, D. By.), the black rot (Laestadia bidwellii, Ell., V. & R.), the brown rot or downy mildew (Plasmopora viticola, B. & C. Berl. & De T.), and the powdery mildew (Unicinula spiralis, B. & C.). Among currant diseases, the leaf spots (Septoria ribes, Desm.), and Cercospora angulata, Wint.). Also anthracnose (Gloeosporium ribis, Lib., Mont. & Desm.). Among gooseberry diseases, the leaf spots (Septoria ribes, Desm.), and Cercospora angulata, Wint.). The gooseberry mildew is better controlled by use of liver of sulphur than by the Bordeaux mixture treatment. Among diseases of vegetables amenable to the Bordeaux mixture treatment are: The early blight of the potato (Al- ternaria solani, E. & M., J. & G.), the late blight of the potato (Phytophthora infestans, D. By.), the mildew of the cucumber (Plasmopora cubensis, M. B. & C.), the leaf blight of celery (Cercospora apii, Fres.), and the leaf spot of celery (Septoria petroselina, Desm., var. Apii, Br. & Car.). It must not be inferred that proper treatment with Bor- deaux mixture proves equally successful in controlling each of the diseases named, nor that such treatment is always profit- able. It has been demonstrated, for example, that the ripe rot of fruits, which is caused by Monilia, cannot always be kept under satisfactory control by practical treatments; also that raspberry anthracnose may be successfully treated with Bor- deaux mixture, but the expense of the treatment outweighs the advantages of the treatment which are gained. It is profitable, therefore, for one who undertakes to treat a plant disease with the Bordeaux mixture, to post himself as to the particular treatment which the case in hand demands. 1902. | DISEASES AND INSECTS, ETC. 139 There are other diseases which may be prevented by either disinfecting the seed, or the soil in which the seed is planted. To this class belong onion smut (Ustilago cepulz, Frost); barley smut (U. hordii, P., Kell. & Sw., and U. nuda, Jens.); rye smut (Urocystis occulta, Wallr., Rabh.); oat smuts (Ustilago avene, P. Jens., and U. levis, Kell. & Sw. Magn.); wheat smuts (Tilletia foetens, B. & C., Schrt.; T. tritici, Bjerk., Wint., and Ustilago tritici, P., Jens.); and potato scab (Oospora scabies, Dhax.): The potato scab may be prevented by soaking the seed potatoes either in corrosive sublimate or in formalin. This destroys any of the scab fungus which may be attached to them. In the cases of the various smuts just mentioned, it has been found that the smut fungus gains entrance only when the host plant is very young. This peculiar habit in the life history of these fungi is taken advantage of in preventing their attacks. Two successful methods in combating the onion smut are in use. The first is by starting the seedlings in soil free from . smut germs, and then transplanting them when they are large enough to resist the entrance of the smut fungus, which is when they are about the size of an ordinary lead pencil. The second is by drilling a mixture of lime and sulphur into the furrow when planting the seed. No successful treatment for the smut of corn (maize) has been found. The corn smut fungus gains entrance only when the host plant is very young and tender, as do the other smuts just named, but also after the corn plant is large. For this reason the treatment which is effective in preventing the other smuts referred to fails to prevent corn smut. Oat smuts and the other grain smuts, which have been mentioned, are successfully treated by soak- ing the seed either in hot water or in formalin. The latter is gaining favor among farmers because it appears easier to manipulate. _ Against some diseases the best known methods of warfare are the saw, pruning knife, and fire. In this class is the black knot of plum and cherry. The knots should all be cut out and burned early in the winter, and when the summer knots begin to appear they must be treated in the same way. Spray- ing with fungicides may sensibly decrease the depredations of the fungus, but cannot be depended on to keep it under control. Peach yellows is combated in a similar way, except that the 140 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., entire tree is cut and burned instead of the small portion which is visibly affected, as in the case of the black knot. In treating apple canker, badly diseased or dying branches may be cut back to healthy wood and grafted at once with scions of the same variety. In this way the larger wounds which are neces- sarily made in cutting out the diseased parts may be healed most rapidly. Spraying with fungicides probably has some effect in reducing the amount of the disease. Washing the trunks and branches with a mixture of lime, wood ashes, soap, and copper sulphate has been tried, and recommended by some. The value of such washes has not yet been satisfactorily de- termined. The treatment for some injurious insects may be combined with the treatment for fungous diseases, thus saving the expense of separate applications of the fungicide and the in- secticide. Since Prof. Britton is to present the subject of in- sects in their relation to agriculture this evening, we will con- sider at this time only those injurious insects which may be fought by these combination treatments. Paris green or some equivalent arsenical poison may be used against the potato beetle in combination with the Bordeaux mixture when that is being applied for potato blights. This treatment also, to a large extent, prevents the attacks of flea beetles, which it ac- complishes, not by poisoning the flea beetle, but by rendering the foliage distasteful to them. In spraying currants with an arsenical poison to destroy the saw-fly larve, commonly called currant worms, Bordeaux mixture may be applied at the same time for leaf spot and anthracnose. In fighting the grape-vine flea beetle the first treatment with the arsenical poison is made in spring just be- fore the buds begin to swell. You will remember that formerly hellebore was quite largely used in fighting currant worms, but those who are growing currants largely now are coming to use paris green, or some arsenical compound, spraying the plants before the fruit becomes large enough to be spotted’ by the spray. It is very effectual and more satisfactory. Bordeaux mixture may be used at the same time for the grape anthracnose; and succeeding treatments, after the foli- age appears, may be made with the arsenical poison, when the Bordeaux mixture is used against the grape mildews and the black rot. 1902. | DISEASES AND INSECTS, ETC. I4I In combating the scab, leaf blight, leaf spot, and canker disease of the pear with the Bordeaux mixture an arsenical poison may be used at the same time for the codling moth and leaf-eating insects in general. In spraying the apple for the codling moth, and also for the bud moth, case bearer, canker worm, tent caterpillar, and various other leaf-eating in- sects, the Bordeaux mixture may be used at the same time for the scab, canker disease, and leaf spot. : We have not yet spoken of the strength at which either the fungicides or the insecticides are to be used. As might naturally be expected, their strength, and also the number of applications, may be varied to meet the necessities of the par- ticular case in hand. Particular directions on these points may be found in publications of experiment stations, and of the United States Department of Agriculture. For most orchard diseases which are amenable to treatment with the Bordeaux mixture, this preparation, if properly applied, is efficient, even when made as weak as one pound of copper sul- phate to eleven gallons of the mixture. This is called the one-to-eleven formula. It has been found that it is not best to use it weaker than this for orchard diseases. Some prefer a mixture as strong as one to eight. In treating the potato blight the one-to-eight, or even the one-to-seven formula is recommended. Paris green may generally be used success- fully on foliage at the rate of one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of water, or of Bordeaux mixture. It is often used stronger than this, but it is then more liable to injure the foliage, and perhaps in this way do more harm than good. Except when it is combined with the Bordeaux mixture it is best to add lime to prevent injury to the foliage. The fact is, though, that in cases of emergency it is often used as strong, as, for example, where early treatment for the canker worm has been neglected, orchardists have used it as strong as one pound to one hundred gallons, and even stronger than that. There is danger, however, in using it so strong of doing injury. And it should be remembered in this connection that the foliage of stone fruit trees is more susceptible to injury from arsenical insectitudes than that of the apple, pear, or quince. Peach foliage is especially liable to injury from spraying mixtures. Even with Bordeaux mixture, which would do no injury on apple trees, it will be very liable to injure the peach tree. I 142 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., would advise you to use caution, therefore, and get the quantity of mixture which it is best to use by trying it on a few trees first rather than to go ahead on some general recommendation and make a general treatment of the whole orchard. The PRESIDENT. Are there not some substances that can be used rather than these arsenical poisons on peach trees, and which will do the same good? Prof. Beacu. There are a few insects that infest peach trees that we treat by the use of an arsenical spray, but I had in mind the spraying for fruit-rot fungus which blights the young and tender plants, and which sometimes later causes leaf spot of the peach or leaf curl. Now, in treating leaf curl, it has been demonstrated that the effective treatment is one which is made before the buds start, although some spray for leaf curl after the leaves are out. The most effective treatment, however, is made before the buds start. After that I prefer not to make any treatment with the spraying mixture in the orchard, unless, possibly, in unfavorable seasons when the fruit rot is developing very rapidly we may apply a solu- tion of copper sulphate. That sometimes gives excellent re- sults in checking the spread of the fruit-rot fungus. I mean an ammoniacal solution of copper sulphate. The PRESIDENT. Is this disease prevalent in cherries? Prof. Beacu. Yes, sir; and the use of this preparation when the fruit is ripening may be beneficial. ) The PRESIDENT. What can we do with these early peaches that begin to rot? I have sometimes seen a whole tree full of them. Prof. BeacH. Well, I believe the best way would be to grow some other kind. That falls under the head of those that I referred to that are not resistant to the disease. I have had cases reported to me, although I have not conducted any experiments myself, but there have been cases reported to me where it has been held back by the use of this ammoniacal solution on peaches. This solution, which is copper sulphate dissolved in ammonia, does not spot the fruit, while the Bor- deaux mixture does. I will not attempt to give you the formula. I do not remember now so as to be sure I am right. 1902. | DISEASES AND INSECTS, ETC. 143 Paris green long held front rank as an arsenical insecti- cide. It is decidedly more expensive than other arsenical poisons, and some of these are now being substituted for it in many places, and in increasing quantities. Prominent among these may be mentioned a green arsenite of copper which represents about the same amount of arsenous oxide as Paris green, and is used pound for pound in place of that substance as an insecticide. It has the advantage of being much cheaper than Paris green, and it is also better adapted for use in a spray mixture, because, being an amorphous, im- palpable powder instead of crystalline, it stays much longer in suspension in liquid mixture than does Paris green. A good many of you can remember back to the time when the potato beetle started from its home in the Rocky Moun- tains and commenced its travels across the intervening stretch of territory 1,800 miles to the Atlantic coast. You will remember how its progress was heralded from time to time. I remember well the first specimens that were passed around. The farmers were very much alarmed, and naturally so, but it resulted in putting into our hands Paris green as an insecticide against leaf-eating insects generally, and from the use of Paris green we have passed to the use of other arsenical poisons, and so from what appeared at that time to be a calamity has come a blessing, as has been shown over and over again in our experiments. I have already spoken of the green arsenite of copper, but there is a still cheapef and equally efficient arsenical insecti- cide in a homemade preparation of sodium arsenite. It is made by boiling white arsenic in sal soda (sodium carbonate) until it dissolves. It may then be bottled or otherwise kept from evaporating, and may be used in all formulae in place of Paris green. So much of the liquid as represents one pound of white arsenic is taken in place of two pounds of Paris green. Milk of lime should be added to prevent injury to the foliage unless it is combined with Bordeaux mixture. The experiments of the Massachusetts gypsy moth com- mission have established arsenate of lead as one of the most desirable of arsenical insecticides. It is less liable to injure the foliage than Paris green. Its color is such that it shows plainly where it has been applied. It remains in suspension in water so well that there is no difficulty in applying it at uni- form strength. 144 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., When the value of Paris green as an insecticide was first demonstrated the conditions were such as to force the ex- tension of its use for the protection of various crops in field, orchard, and garden. Various kinds of apparatus for the application of this and other poisons of similar form soon be- gan to be devised. An exhibition now of these really prim- itive appliances would remind one of a museum of weapons and armor of ancient and medizval ages, so completely have they been replaced among progressive agriculturists and horti- culturists by improved apparatus. The application of insecticides in liquid form in most cases gradually displaced other methods, but it was not until after the introduction of Bordeaux mixture that spray pumps came to be an article of farm and garden machinery in common use. The Bordeaux mixture was at first used as a thick, heavy mixture. Repeated experiments afterwards demon- strated that when diluted so as to pass readily through force pumps and spray nozzles it could thus be applied most rapidly and effectively. Then the spraying apparatus which had al- ready been developed for applying Paris green and such in- secticides was at once pressed into service for the application of the Bordeaux mixture._ As the merits of Bordeaux mix- ture became better known the demand for spraying machinery naturally increased. ‘This, in turn, led rival manufacturers to strive to bring out the best appliances which they could put on the market at reasonable prices. Improvements in spray- ing apparatus have kept pace with thé demand for spraying machinery. There was, at first, quite naturally among farm- ers and fruit growers a greater demand for the less expensive spray pumps of comparatively small capacity. But as the practice of spraying became more thoroughly established among them, the bucket pumps, knapsack sprayers, and the weaker types of barrel pumps quite largely gave place to the stronger types of hand pumps, or to pumps driven by hand power or steam. In barrel pumps an important improvement was made when those of the type of the so-called Eclipse and Pomona were introduced. In this type of apparatus the pump is placed near the bottom of the barrel or tank, so that it is not necessary to lift the liquid the length of the barrel before it can be forced through the pump, which must be done with pumps which are mounted outside the barrel or tank! 1902. | DISEASES AND INSECTS, ETC. 145 Horse-power sprayers are coming more largely into use among fruit growers now than formerly. One of the best recent devices of the class is fitted with a very large air chamber, and has a hand pump near the driver in addition to the horse-power pump. In passing from one tree to another enough pressure is obtained from the horse-power pump to run the spray for several minutes. Ifa large tree is to be sprayed, however, the pressure may go down before the spraying is completed. A pressure gauge shows the driver when the pressure is low, and he immediately operates the accessory hand pump till the tree is sprayed. Steam spraying outfits are being used in the larger or- chards, and also by the park departments of cities and towns, with satisfactory results. Some of these are fitted simply with steam pump, and depend upon horse power taken by means of sprockets on the wagon wheel for running the agitator. Others have an engine which runs both the pump and the agitator, and mounted on the wagon which carries the pump. Some use kerosene or gasolene for fuel; others burn coal. One of the recent designs in spraying apparatus which is worthy of notice provides for the use of compressed air for spraying. Upon a two-wheeled cart is mounted one tank for holding the compressed air, and another for the Bordeaux mixture, the two being connected with one-fourth inch pipe. A steam guage shows the amount of pressure. When a spray is desired a valve is opened so that the compressed air forces the Bordeaux mixture out in a fine spray. The amount of pressure admitted to the liquid is regulated by the extent to which the valve is opened. One horse takes the spray cart even over rough hillside vineyards without upsetting, and the spray continues uniform regardless of the position of the liquid in the tank. No agitator is used, and if the spraying is interrupted, and the mixture properly prepared, none seems to be needed. The outfit consists of two carts like the one de- scribed, and a gasolene engine and air pump for supplying the compressed air. While one cart is being used the tanks on the other are being filled, one with compressed air and one with Bordeaux mixture, so that on the return of the first cart the second is ready to be used. The engine and air pump are mounted on a one-horse wagon so that they may readily AGR. —I0 146 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., be moved to any place most convenient to the field of opera- tions or where water for the spray mixtures may be obtained. This outfit gives the owner excellent satisfaction. It does the work well and easily. So far as I know, no apparatus of this kind has yet been put upon the market by any manufacturing concern. The owner has purchased the various parts and constructed the apparatus himself. This device is doubtless the forerunner of a new type of spraying apparatus for orchard use, in which compressed air tanks will supply spray pumps. The idea of using compressed air for spraying is not new. Some years ago, apparatus for vineyard use was put upon the market in France, but the machine which has been de- scribed above is the first compressed air sprayer which I have seen constructed in America for orchard use. It will com- mend itself to the commercial orchardist because it does away with the labor of working a spray pump. Secretary Brown. Prof. Beach alluded to me in stating why he is here today. This program was not formed by acci- dent. I was in pursuit of the best man I could find, whether he was on this side of the water or the other side, to address this convention. I consulted all the scientific journals and the agricultural bulletins, and every other paper that I could get at, and I found in the London. Royal Horticultural Jour- nal an article that at once commanded my attention. I found that the author was Prof. S. A. Beach, whom you have just been listening to, and I secured him for this convention. This is my side of the contract to which he referred in his opening. To supplement this lecture, Prof. Britton, the State Entomologist, will this evening give you a lecture upon a related or supplemental subject. The PRESIDENT. We shall not have any time to devote to questions at this morning session. There will be opportunity later to question Prof. Beach, and also Prof. Stimson. Convention adjourned to 2 P. M. 1902.] BUSINESS METHODS IN BUYING FERTILIZERS. 147 AFTERNOON SESSION, 2 Pp. mo. Convention called to order at 2 Pp. M., Vice-President Seeley in the chair. The PreEsIDENT. You will notice on our program this afternoon that we are to have an address entitled “ Business Methods in Buying Fertilizers,” by one of our own scientists, in whom we all have the highest confidence. I am very happy to introduce to you Dr. E. H. Jenkins. BUSINESS METHODS IN. BUYING FERTILIZERS. By Dr. E. H. Jenxins, Director of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. Business methods are the results of educated and alert common sense applied to business. They are the ways in which successful business of any kind is managed. It is common to think or speak of farming as something quite distinct from business. We often hear expressions like this: ‘One son stayed on the farm, the other went into bus- iness ”; as if the two things were quite distinct. Now, staying on the farm is one thing, but successful farming at the present day is a wholly different thing, and farming is business. Farming is just as real a business as making cotton cloth or selling steel. The underlying principles are alike, the general methods are alike, the causes of success or failure are the same, whether we produce and sell peaches or armor plate. The same things which take most attention in any factory business are exactly the things needed for successful farming: Knowledge of what the market wants, and when it wants it; running machinery, or other productive forces, at fullest ca- pacity whenever it can be done at any profit; fixing exactly the cost of production; buying stock at the lowest rates, by paying cash when possible, by taking advantage of any com- petition, and by buying in as large quantity as is practicable ; use of all waste or by-products, and selling products where there is most demand and least supply. 148 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., These are just the things which the business farmer, as distinguished from the mere tiller of the soil, must study and must determine in order to make a success. The man who masters these things is, I believe, as likely to succeed in farming today as in any other business. The one who will not or cannot master them is bound, sooner or later, to fail. Long ago we were working unexhausted soils, we had a constantly widening market, and little competition. The art of agriculture was, pure and simple, the art of growing crops, of sowing and reaping. Now it is the art of meeting competi- tion in our home markets from lands scarcely known to our forefathers, the art of lessening our cost of production, of finding out just what our cost of production is, and the study of market conditions to decide what we can and cannot profit- ably raise. To lessen our cost of production and to improve the quality of our products are the two main avenues to suc- cess in farming today, as in any other business. Of one way to lessen the cost of production I wish to speak here, and that is, in the matter of commercial fertilizers. There is room for a great improvement in the usual way, both of buying and of using them. In Connecticut we are yearly paying over one million dollars for commercial fertilizers ; that is, about one per cent. of the gross value of our farm products. The proportion is not too large perhaps. I be- lieve that all the fertilizer used in Connecticut could be used profitably, and more beside, but that not nearly all of it is so used. The loss does not come to any degree from worthless or fraudulent fertilizers —they have been driven out and are kept out — but in two different ways: First, in using com- mercial fertilizers where they cannot be used to a profit, and secondly, from an unbusinesslike way of buying, which par- ticularly profits no one, but worries both the manufacturer and the farmer, and is likely to cause misunderstanding and bad feeling between them. In the first place, some of us have a wrong idea regarding the use of fertilizers. It needs to be remembered that they are not a medicine, a cure-all. As a rule they do not favor- ably change the physical quality of the soil, and on unsuitably prepared land they are worse than useless. They are no substitute for drainage, or for thorough tillage, for rain or sunshine. All these other things we must have before we 1902. | BUSINESS METHODS IN BUYING FERTILIZERS. 149 have commercial fertilizers, and when we have them all in proper amount we are sure of a reasonable crop without any other fertilizers than farm manure. Boughten fertilizers are the last thing to be used, and only after all the rest has been well done. They just put the razor edge on the natural fer- tility of the soil, which tillage and drainage or irrigation, as the case may be, have made the most of. They are, I think, chiefly useful in getting a full stand and an early and vigorous start for crops. They are one source of plant food, but, after all, our main reliance must generally be on the natural plant food in the soil, to be made available by the plow and the cultivator. I am, as I have said, a firm believer in commercial fer- tilizers, and in the profitableness of their use and in the ex- tension of their use. But extravagant ideas of the necessity of them and a wrong use of them may check this extension of their use, as the senseless claims of some of those who first used silage put off the day of its final triumph. But now, assuming that our land and our market are in condition to warrant the use of commercial fertilizers, and that we have decided about how much plant food we want to buy, and of what kinds — how do we buy it? Some of us, many of us, buy it to good advantage. Others of us buy it in this way: When it is about time to put in our crop, we go to our neighbor, who is a local agent, and buy through him of some fertilizer factory as many bags of factory mixed goods as we think we need. We don’t pay for it when we take it; we don’t give a note for it. A good many of us don’t even pay for it by the first of the next November, but at that time we grudgingly give a note for four months with interest, but usually without an indorser as security. And some of us, when the note comes due, can’t pay it, but have it extended. This is not fanciful. It is a true statement of the way in which a good deal of the fertilizer business is going today. The fertilizer manufacturer is doing two very distinct kinds of business, and one of them very much against his will. Firstly, he is making and selling fertilizers; that is his legitimate business; he likes it; he is well fitted to do it; his factory and equipment and trade connections are suited to that business. 150 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Secondly, he is doing a banking business, for which he is not prepared, and he does not like it. He virtually loans money (the price, that is, of the goods which he sells) to a farmer whom he scarcely knows, for an indefinite time, six months, perhaps, without a note, without security and with- out a formal charge for interest. He waits ten or twelve months or even longer for the money which he paid for the raw materials and the labor which went into their mixing and manufacture. But the money thus virtually lent, in a most unbusinesslike way, to some of his customers, he himself bor- rows at the bank. He pays interest on it, he gives adequate security to the bank for it, and he must pay his notes on the day they come due, or he must stop doing business. Now, the manufacturer simply must be reimbursed for all this. His risk is considerable, the time of payment is uncer- tain, and so the payment, when it does come, must cover all. That is fair. It is not defrauding or crowding the farmer; it is proper and it is necessary. Now, this payment for doing a banking business comes in, most unostentatiously, in the price — the time price — of the goods, which ranges from five to ten or more per cent. above the spot cash price. Of course, when competition is sharp, a selling agent may cut this percentage somewhat, but he cannot, as a matter of business, afford to cut it much. This time price is a matter which is .often misunderstood and sometimes causes hard feeling. But it is very simple. It should be clearly under- stood that the difference between a spot cash price and a time price is practically an interest charge. To pay it is to borrow money to buy fertilizers at a high rate from a somewhat un- willing lender. This is bad business. For one thing, it is demoralizing. It is like the install- ment plan clothing business. “ You wear the clothes while you pay for them,” says the advertisement. In other words, you “travel on your uppers.” It is expensive, for another thing. I do not believe the business of farming will stand it. It is very unsafe, in the third place. The cash return to the farmer for commercial fertilizers must generally come, if at all, in the crop following their use. If he cannot meet his fertilizer bills with the same season’s harvest, he is in quick- 1902. | BUSINESS METHODS IN BUYING FERTILIZERS. I5I sand. A sharp call from a bank for money loaned might show him his danger and stop him, but with only an indefi- nite promise to pay he may go on trusting to luck instead of sound business methods. I am coming to think that, as a rule, commercial fertilizers do not and cannot pay unless they are bought for cash and at the lowest possible rates. The extra time price goes far towards eating up any surplus crop which the fertilizers themselves produce. I have not been describing the general state of the fer- tilizer trade in Connecticut. There are many farmers, and an increasing number, who buy their fertilizers on the very best terms. They buy for cash and in the cheapest market and under guarantee, for they are business farmers. This talk is not for them. And there is a larger number whose methods are not as slack as those which I have described. But there are too many who have not an idea of business sense in the matter. I have spoken so far of the dangers of buying fertilizers in the way that some of us buy them. Of course, what has been said applies equally to feed or other supplies. Now, look at the chief positive advantages of buying for cash. They are two. First, a very large number of competing firms are willing and anxious to do business with the man who buys for cash. They do not wait for him to come. They hunt him. Cash is what they are after. They solicit; they call his attention to anything they have which is or looks like a bargain; they will give him the very best terms they can in order to get and keep his trade. He does not need to be per- sonally known to them. They have little concern about his credit, for he pays cash. He can deal not only with local fer- tilizer agents who know him and his family and his church connections to the third and fourth generation, but with man- ufacturers and with New York fertilizer brokers as well. He can take advantage of any temporary break in the market and he can get the best terms from competing concerns. The second advantage of buying for cash is this: Farmers who do it can bunch their orders and buy what each needs, whether a half ton or a ton or five tons, in car l6ts, thus getting their freight at car rates, and also wholesale rather than retail rates for their fertilizers, both of which things re- duce the cost of fertilizers remarkably. 152 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., To illustrate: The ruling price of nitrate of soda last spring was $45, but several farmers bought it in mixed car lots for $42.50, a saving of five and one-half per cent. Dissolved South Carolina rock sold from $14 to $20, or about $16 a ton on the average, but it was bought in the way named for $12, a saving of twenty-five per cent. Muriate of potash ruled at $45. One farmer got his supply for $39, a saving of thirteen per cent. In these instances farmers paid spot cash and bought through New York brokers in car lots. Another gain in buying together, apart from the direct saving of money, is that it is a step towards trade organiza- tion, towards association for trade purposes. It fosters the idea of some unity of trade interest among farmers rather than a complete isolation of feeling, which is too common. This movement towards combination is going on in all forms of business, to the evident advantage of those concerned. The trust, the pool, the selling agreement among employers, and the trade unions among laborers, however much we resent their abuses and hardships, are yet facts. They have -~ much of good in them and represent’a change in business methods and a reaction from the reign of cut-throat competi- tion. The evils of trusts result chiefly from combinations whose object is to increase the market value of stocks, rather than from such combinations as increase productive eff- ciency by lessening cost of production, cost of distribution, selling, etc. As farmers, we cannot afford to miss the lesson that, while we are competitors of each other, we also have very much in common, and for a common interest which benefits us as a class, and the general public also, it may pay and will pay all private competitors to combine. The whole thing is easy except the first step: buying fer- tilizers for cash. It is always the first step that counts. The time for planning next year’s work has come and the season for good resolutions is almost here. Let us carefully consider whether we cannot, within the next two months, squeeze out enough cash to buy what fer- tilizers we need in 1902. If not, consider the possibility of fertilizing with the cul- tivator aad of dropping boughten fertilizers for a year. Clean out the hedgerows and scrawny headlands, cut and burn every worthless bush and tree that bears black knot, casts a-shade, 1902. BUSINESS METHODS IN BUYING FERTILIZERS. I 3 or draws fertility from the cultivated soil. Haul out the farm manure and spread it through the winter as fast as it is made, if it is leaching and running to waste in the stable yard. In any case, save and use all of it. When summer comes, keep the cultivator going oftener than ever before, not wholly to keep down weeds, not wholly to keep the moisture in the soil, but to tickle fertility out of the soil particles and to make the land mellow. Let no weeds go to seed, kill them in their helpless infancy and let the crop have all the plant food. Has any one of us tried clean farming, weedless land, and incessant cultivation, with all the manure on the farm carefully saved and applied, and found it a failure without commercial fertilizers? I think not. Under favorable conditions the man who farms it as I have described, next year, putting business methods into his work, in 1903 is more likely to have cash to buy fertilizers and land better fitted for their successful use than the man who pays time prices for his fertilizers and tries to make them do part of the work of his cultivator. But, on the other hand, are there in your grange a number of men who can and will put up cash for fertilizers, even with some scraping and pinching, and will take them from the car or boat as soon as they come? Let each name the kind and amount of chemicals or of mixed goods which he wants in a written, signed statement like this: “T agree to take the following fertilizers, in the quanti- ties named, as soon as notified of their arrival. “T also agree to pay for them to ——_——— ————— the price agreed upon by a majority of those who may join in this order, promptly on his call. aa Then let the one chosen as agent send a printed dote to every maker of fertilizer, and also to New York fertilizer * brokers, running somewhat as follows: “Members of this grange will buy, on the best terms ob- tainable, ——— tons of fertilizers and fertilizer chemicals, to be delivered at ——-———— railroad station between February 15th and March ist. The materials and minimum guarantees are as follows: “Two tons nitrate of soda (15.6 per cent. nitrogen). “Ten tons dissolved rock phosphate (14 per cent. soluble and reverted phosphoric acid). 154 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., “One ton high grade sulphate of potash (49 per cent. actual potash and not over 1.5 per cent. of chlorine). “Four tons pure bone meal (75 per cent. to pass sieve with mesh one-fiftieth inch in diameter, 3.25 per cent. nitro- gen, and 19 per cent. of phosphoric acid). “Seven tons of mixed fertilizer, containing 4 per cent. of nitrogen, 7 of phosphoric acid, and 8 of potash in form of muriate, the nitrogen to be wholly in form of blood, meat, or bone tankage, fish, or cotton seed meal.” And so on. Quotations should give the price of each article separately per ton, whether the amount called for is larger or smaller. TERMS. All goods to be delivered in bags containing even weights. The determination of the composition of the goods delivered is to be made by the Connecticut Agricultural Station, and its report shall be final. If the percentages found in the materials, or any one of them, are less than the guarantee, a rebate shall be made by the seller of $3 for each unit of nitrogen, 90 cents for each unit of phosphoric acid, and $1 for each unit of potash there found lacking. One-half of the seller’s bill is to be paid on arrival of the goods, in apparent good order, and the balance due to be paid on receipt of the station analyses and, in any case, within thirty days of the first payment. Here is a business proposition. It holds buyer and seller equally to a strict performance. It does what our fertilizer law does not do, but what is quite essential; it prescribes just what rebate or allowance must be made if — for any rea- ‘son — the goods are not of the quality represented. Now, such a proposition as that, calling for a car lot or even a half car lot, is a refreshing sight to a manufacturer or broker and will meet a ready response. The station will promise to send an agent to sample the goods as soon as they come and report their analyses within a week. I believe there are in many of our granges today enough men who are able and willing to buy fertilizers in this way to make the plan successful. There ought to be, and there is, 1902. ] QUESTION-BOX. 155 enough organizing ability to start and carry through a plan of this kind. It is not any new or untried scheme. It is done in other states. The members of one grange in New Jersey, for instance, have often bought hundred-ton lots to- gether, with a very large saving to the members. Why can we not do it? If the first order is not a large one, its results, if well managed, will serve as an object lesson and commend the plan. Now is the time to begin. The station will continue to give all the help which it can. In a few days we shall put in your hands the fertilizer report of 1901. A careful study of it will pay you. And do not confine your attention to the columns of cost and valuation, nor to the analyses of mixed fertilizers. What we want to know chiefly is the cost in market of plant food: of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. Then we can figure for ourselves whether we can do better by buying them ready mixed or by buying and mixing at home. — The PresipentT. Are there any who would like to ask the doctor any questions? This paper has been so clear and forcible, and so easy to understand, and so practical in every way, it seems to me when we have that paper to read in our report we can get the whole matter. Secretary Brown. Mr. President: I have a letter from the superintendent of the Bridgeport Public Library — which I have duly acknowledged with thanks of the Board —in which he says that it gives him much pleasure to place the library reading-room at the disposal of those attending this meeting of the Board during their stay in the city. In ac- cordance with the invitation, I hope the members of the Board with their friends, and the delegates, will make use of the library. Now, if it is agreeable, I would like to submit a few ques- tions taken from the box. The first is, “ What has military science to do with education in agriculture at the Connecticut Agricultural College?” Prof. R. W. Stimson. Mr. President: I thought prob- ably you had enough of me this morning, and probably most 156 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [ Jan., of you did have, but let me briefly try to answer that ques- tion. We undertake to give scientific and practical agricul- tural education up there. That is to say, we do not give theory and nothing else. We do not give practice and noth- ing else. We give both theory and practice, and in military science we do the same thing. We have three hours a week given to military tactics and drill. Now, in order to make that most effective we give the boys some practice in scouting and outpost duty. The other night outposts were thrown out on three sides of the main college building and a scouting party was sent off two miles. It was a dark night, and that party was instructed to attack the building. They were to storm and take the building by force if they could. We had some lively firing on the skirmish line. Well, that incident got into the Hartford Courant, and then a Mid- dletown paper, the Penny Press, got hold of the Hartford account and reprinted it. And then the editor said that the people of the State of Connecticut would like to know what military science had to do with agricultural education. I mention this because this question may be an echo of that question, and if the people of the State of Connecticut want to know I should be glad to tell them. Now, we have no alternative. We are obliged to give instruction in military drill. And that is a part, one of the provisions, one of the far-seeing provisions of Senator Morrill in the land-grant college act. You remember on the out- break of the Civil War, recruits were drafted, and volunteers were enlisted, and we had a big army on our hands that was officered by men who did not know how to handle men at all. We did not have enough men who had been drilled as soldiers to get them into shape. The consequence was a great loss of life, and Senator Morrill, in projecting the land-grant col- leges, said, we will associate with these colleges military drill, so that throughout the country, in every State and Territory which chooses to avail itself of the benefits of the land-grant 1902. | QUESTION-BOX. 157 act, we shall have a body of men being trained in military science. Then, in times of war, we shall not have the spec- tacle we have seen in this outbreak, but we shall have an effective body of men ready to go to work at once. The results have justified his prediction. In the Spanish war a large body of volunteer troops was drilled by land-grant college graduates. In our own State of Connecticut six graduates of the Connecticut Agricultural College were made noncommissioned officers and drilled troops for use in case of need. These men were sergeants and corporals, and one of them, gentlemen, died in his country’s cause. We have a tablet on our Chapel to his memory. The PRESIDENT. That question has been well answered, I am sure. Secretary Brown. I have another question which I have taken from the box. “ What modification, if any, do you think could well be made in the courses of study in order to increase the number of students, and thus make the college more profitable to the farmer?” Prof. R. W. Stimson. I told you this morning some of the things we had done. Perhaps I did not ‘make it suffi- ciently clear that one of the very important features of the present policy of the Connecticut Agricultural College is this: We have taken the college from a position just a little out of reach of the common schools and have put it back right at the door of the common schools. That seemed to be the first step toward making it more useful to the farming classes. Now, if you have a boy fifteen years of age who has had the advantage of an average common school education he will be admitted to our regular four years course, and he will. be graduated and given the degree of Bachelor of Agriculture or a suitable diploma of graduation.. We have done this one thing in the way of modifying our courses, that instead of making a preparatory course a prerequisite to admission, and then a four years course on top of that, and then sending 158 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., the boys back to the farm; we now make a four years require- ment as they come from the common schools at the age of fifteen years. In some institutions the agricultural course is only three years. Our institution started out with a course only two years long. But experience seems to show that a short course is a damage to the farm. That is to say, we can- not depend on the common schools to give us boys who have had the kind of preparation we would like. Therefore we have to do a good deal of educating ourselves, and even a four years course is all too short a time in which to com- plete, on top of the average education received in our public schools, the education which we think is necessary. As a matter of fact, though, we have really shortened our course for many students to three years. That is to say, under the present plan a boy will be back again on the farm at eighteen or nineteen, whereas before he would not be back until he was nineteen or twenty. This is a modification which I think is well calculated to promote the efficiency of the institution and increase the number of students. Suppose you live in a town where you have a good high school. Or suppose you have a boy who has a scientific bent, one towards agricultural science in particular. To what institution is he to go in order to get that special scientific training if he does not go to the Connecticut Agri- cultural College? Of course, I am confining the matter to this State. He could go to some other agricultural college and get that training, and students have been in the habit of doing that, and such students have been placed to the credit of these other institutions. It was high time to change all that. So we said if there is a boy in one of our high schools who is inclined toward agricultural science he can be admitted at any point in our course where he is fit to enter. Suppose he is fifteen when he graduates from a four years course in the high school, and has been well trained there. The probability is that such 1902. | QUESTION-BOX. 159 a boy could enter one of our advanced classes. He might be able to enter our Junior class. Beginning with the Senior year we give three elective courses, one in agriculture, one in horticulture, and one in general science. The one in agri- culture is calculated to fit a man to go back to the farm and make general farming successful, the other is to educate him with a view to fruit growing and to make him successful in that, and the general science course is to enable him to go on, to prepare him to go into experiment work, for work in the Department of Agriculture in Washington, for teach- ing, or for any of the higher scientific activities. Suppose he came to us at the beginning of our Senior year. He might choose the specialty that fitted him best, and he could go on from that. We propose to lay out in our catalogue courses starting with our Junior year and leading up to the degree of Bachelor of Science. We recognize clearly that our institution is the same as all these colleges are, a combination of the agricultural high school and of the agricultural college. Our degree, Bachelor of Agriculture, is not altogether a happy one, but so long as we keep that it will stand in part for agricultural high school work and in part for college work. On top of that we propose to give two years more of thor- ough-going college grade instruction in agriculture, which will compare favorably with the Bachelor of Science courses given anywhere in this country. We think that these are modifications which will do very much to make the college more profitable to the farmer. Furthermore, I have already directed your attention to the circulars which will show our short courses. I think these are calculated to increase the number of students — the number of students certainly in those courses. I am not sure that any other modifications of the courses would be calculated to ensure better results in our educa- tional development, but we are willing to gain light and to 160 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., do anything in the way of modifications which will be bene- ficial. Secretary BRown. “ What can the farmer do to help the college?” A Voice. Send his boy there. Dr. Jenkins. I should like to say a word or two, as Trustee, on that. There are a lot of other things he can do, and one of them is to give the college loyal support, so that public sentiment may be built up in its favor. The President and faculty of the institution speak with some feeling, I sup- pose, on the subject because there has been some unjust criticism. The Board of Trustees, or, in fact, anyone con- nected with the college, has no objection to criticism. Fair criticism is helpful to all parties concerned. If the farmer wishes to criticise the institution let it be intelligent criticism, and let it be honest criticism. Criticise the institution when those who are connected with it and responsible for it are present and can hear the criticism. Let them hear it first. Say it to their faces. That is the way to do business. Tella man to his face what you think of him and what you think of his work and then you can get along. Prof. PHetrs. I should like to say one or two words on that point myself. One of the things that the farmer can do to help the institution is to come and see us, and see what we are doing, and get acquainted with us. I can point you to dozens of instances where we have had men rather opposed, or at least lukewarm towards us, but when they have come up on the hill and looked us over they have gone away our friends. And eighty per cent. of the farmers of this State who have not done that would go away our friends if they would pay us a-visit. So I say to you, come and see us. Come and stay with us and see what we are doing. If you cannot come and stay so as to see all we are doing, come and visit us anyway, and let us do you some good if we can. Come and give us the opportunity. ; 1902. | FORESTRY FOR THE FARMER. 161 The PresipENT. That is good advice, and I hope there are a good many here who will accept the invitation. A Memser. I think such a talk as we have had today about the Connecticut Agricultural College will have a strong tendency to strengthen its hold upon public confidence and support. I wish all the farmers of the State could have heard what has been said here today about the college. It gives everybody a better understanding of its foundation, purposes, and aims. The PrestpENnT. I do not like to cut this off right here, but I think we shall have to take up our regular program. We will now listen to an address on “Forestry for the Farmer, and what the Station is doing for its encourage- ment,’ by Mr. Walter Mulford of the Station staff. FORESTRY FOR THE FARMER, AND WHAT THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SPATION’ IS DOING “FOR ITS, ENCOURAGE MENT. Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen: If a text were in order at such a meeting as this I should take as mine, words spoken by Professor Brewer at the State board meeting last year: ‘‘ Forestry proper is not a modern sentimental fad.” What is forestry? This term is still somewhat unfamiliar to the average American, and usually fails to leave a clear-cut impression on his mind. In few words, “forestry is the rational management of a forest in such a way as to best subserve man’s needs.” To meet the demands of our civilization for wood materials of all kinds; to regulate our water supply; to protect our soil, and also, if you will, to satisfy the demands of our public for health, beauty, and pleasure — for these reasons it must be ad- mitted that the forest is a necessity, not a luxury nor an im- pediment. As such it should be cared for. Forestry aims to give it this care. It aims to manage our woodland property in such manner as to perpetually fulfill the demands made AGR. —II 162 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., upon it. Forestry includes the establishment of a forest, and its care and protection. But it goes further, and herein is where it is widely misunderstood. I have said that forestry is “the rational management of a forest in such a way as to best subserve man’s needs.” Except in those regions where a forest must be maintained intact for purposes of protecting the soil, or where game and fish or natural beauty are the only objects sought, this definition requires that there be a utiliza- tion of the product. The tree must be cut when it is ripe, just as a stalk of wheat must be. Timber will come to be regarded as a regular crop and managed as such. On the other hand, forestry is not lumbering. The lumber- man as a rule cuts ruthlessly, and then goes elsewhere. The forester cuts carefully in such a way as to obtain a perpetual income from one piece of property. Forestry does not say: ‘Woodman, spare that tree.” It says cut that tree when it is ready to serve the purposes for which it was designed, and then see to it that another tree replaces the one you have cut. Forestry is a business, and must be made to pay. This is not mere theory, for it has been made to pay in other countries. The ideal forester must be a good business man. He must be a student of nature and of human nature. But, it will be said, how does all this concern the farmer? Granted the forest is a necessity and should be cared for. Will present conditions justify the farmer or small timber holder in giving more attention to his wooded property than he now does? Should not experimentation in this direction, if you will call it such, be left to governments and large capitalists? W4ull it pay? That is the relentless question which must be squarely faced. Shall the Connecticut farmer go out and put good meney into planting bare land in order that fifteen, thirty, fifty, or one hundred years hence some one else may reap what he has sown? No, certainly*not on lands which are adapted to better paying purposes, and not on other poorer lands if he sees no profit in it, though the indications are that the day will come when many will to good advantage thus utilize their waste lands. Mr. Jones owns a farm somewhere, anywhere, in the state. On that farm is some tillable land, some good pasture land, 1902. | FORESTRY FOR THE FARMER. 163 and a wood lot. Also, perhaps, a tract of open land which is yielding him nothing, or, possibly, if used for pasturage, scarcely enough to pay taxes. Mr. Jones has $100 in the savings bank, a sure investment bringing him three and one- half per cent. Shall he withdraw the money and expend it in sowing or planting trees on that waste land? If we can judge from conservative estimates and from actual experiences by some planters, this would in many cases pay him well in the end. Evidently, however, there are very few farmers at pres- ent who are willing to try it. But there is another aspect of the question, which should appeal to the Mr. Joneses all over the State. There is that wood lot of his. From it he gets his own supplies. Probably it is so large that he has more than enough to meet his own needs. In that case there comes.a time when he sells the timber, and a steam saw mill comes in and strips it clean. The wood lot is then left to itself to make of itself whatever it can. The result is very many times disastrous, usually poor, often, to be sure, fair. But, whether cut by the saw-mill man or simply culled out by the owner as he needs wood supplies, it is very rarely that the lot comes anywhere near doing what it might do with care and protection. Perhaps Mr. Jones’ lot has escaped fire. Perhaps it has not been cut for some time, and the trees have reached a fair size. Perhaps it would be called a good lot. But look care- fully through it. Estimate what proportion of a dense stand of trees is there, what proportion of what might be grown on that lot. Notice whether the mixture of species present is that best adapted to fill the local market and the farmer’s home consumption. What proportion of the trees will be of inferior kinds? How much white pine, the king of American timbers, will you find? Count on a single acre the openings in which one or many valuable timber trees might be grown, each opening representing just so much idle capital, so much lost opportunity, so much waste of nature’s resources. And all for the want of a little knowledge, a slight amount of care, a trifling expense, and perhaps largely too because of Mr. Jones’ lack of initiative. There Mr. Jones’ lot stands; burned over or not, old growth or young, taxes must be paid on it. Interest on the capital represented ought to be paid on it. It is probably poor 164 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., or rough land which would not pay for clearing. Forestry asks of Mr. Jones that he expend a little care and thought on the improvement of that lot. Not for the purpose of better- ing the conditions of stream flow, not for esthetic reasons, not for providing a health resort for city cousins (though in some sections this aspect of forestry is considered profitable, by the way). These reasons will not appeal to the average farmer. No, but forestry asks Mr. Jones to do this for the sake of his own pocketbook. In most cases he can make his wood lot yield him a good return for intelligent care and at- tention, a better return than he gets from many of his lines of effort. Much of the work that is necessary to bring about this result can be done at times when most farmers are idle, when their time counts as almost nothing. Let him leave his hundred dollars in the savings bank if he wishes. But let him make out of his wood lot another savings bank which in all reason should yield him a steady and reasonably secure income. Forestry does not ask Mr. Jones to give up his regular farming for the sake of his wood lot. It does ask him to increase his revenue by the addition of a timber crop, bestow- ing on it rational, systematic care, such as he would give his tobacco or his dairy. In a meeting such as this I do not need to more than re- mind you that up to within a comparatively few years most farming has been little more than a mining of the soil. Year after year crops have been taken off. Usually little has been returned to the soil, and not much thought taken for the future. Recently better methods have been gaining ground. In the production of grains and fruits and animal products we are striving to replace soil-mining by agriculture. In the realm of wood production this mining has gone on almost unchecked up to the present moment. Now the nation is rapidly awaking to the fact that unless we change our methods this constant drain on nature’s bounties, without due precautions for what is to come after, is fully as disastrous on the wooded acre as on its plowed neighbor. Agriculture has been striving, more or less successfully, to make a man raise his sack of wheat, his barrel of apples, his tub of butter, not mine them, raise them in such a way that the soil does not grow the poorer for having fulfilled its duty to mankind. 1902. | FORESTRY FOR THE FARMER. 165 Forestry aims at making a man raise his skid of logs and his pile of cordwood, not mine them, raise them in such a way as to obtain a steady revenue at the same time that he is increas- ing, instead of lessening, the value of his land. Many a farmer has recognized the wisdom in the newer agricultural methods. And it would seem the day should come soon when some of these same men will begin to make forestry a part of their agri- culture. Some day let us hope in every farmer’s meeting to hear something, not only of Ben Davis and York Imperial, of Jersey and Guernsey, but also of white pine and chestnut, of cedar and oak. : But, you say, forestry is different from agriculture. We give our land better tillage, and it responds almost imme- diately, repaying us in better crops, which are harvested and turned into cash very quickly. But is not wood a crop of such slow growth that expense bestowed on the wood lot is a sowing where we will not reap? Suppose it is, suppose Mr. Jones does not cut a stick of timber himself; suppose he has no children to leave it to, or does not believe in amassing dollars for them to spend, yet, day and night, whether he works or plays, that timber is growing. And as it grows his farm is increasing in value. Mr. Jones is a richer man for it even if he never cuts a log himself. But, under most conditions, given a fair wood lot to start with, he should be able to himself cut enough more timber to well repay the added care he has given it, and he will have the increased value of his timber land as profit. Even should he have to start all his trees from seed, it is in many localities very far from improb- able that he should himself cut the trees at a good profit. The Hon. Augustus Pratt of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture planted thirteen acres of bare land to white pine, which, forty years from sowing the seed, he sold at a stump- age value of about $160 per acre.* A pretty good life insur- ance, considering the smallness of the annual premium paid in the shape of taxes. Suppose Mr. Jones goes out, looks over his wood lot, and decides he will try to do something to improve it, if it can be done without much expense, and at times when he is not rushed with other work. What shall he do? * J. D. Lyman in ‘‘ The Forester’’, Vol. VII, No. 8, page 2or. 166 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., It is impossible in a short paper of this kind to go into de- tail. A few general principles and hints only can be given, but the Station staff gladly offers whatever help regarding details it may be in their power to give to anyone who is in- terested. Let us consider, then, a few suggestions as to first steps which might be taken to improve that wood lot. First. Try to give the property better protection from fire. A whole afternoon could be taken up with discussion of this point alone. There is time now for only two hints. Avoid as much as possible all fire-tempters, such as piles of brush left from lumbering. With proper care these can be safely burned at certain seasons, so-as not to furnish food for a larger uncontrollable conflagration. And if the property adjoins other woodlands keep a narrow strip next those prop- erties cut clear of all woody growth. Such fire-lanes may be used to cut up your property into sections if your tract is large, so as to prevent accidental fires from gaining much headway. The fire-lanes should be burned over under care once a year so as to prevent the accumulation of inflammable material. In many sections of the State they can be easily kept open by plowing. Second. Practice improvement cutting; that is, instead of favoring poor trees by continually cutting out the best species and the best specimens of those species for supplies of secondary importance, such as cordwood, try cutting in such a way as to favor the best trees with light and growing space until such time as they make good timber. Remove first the unsound and poorly shaped trees and such as from having had too much room when young are very knotty. Remove the less valuable kinds, the “tree weeds,’ and give the better kinds a chance to grow and reproduce their kind. Hurtful changes in the composition of a forest are only too easily brought about by indiscriminate cutting. Try to maintain a good variety of the useful native species. Third. Practice thinning out of even the valuable trees when they are crowding one another injuriously. Experi- ence only can determine how much this is to be done under any given set of conditions. As a general principle, go slow. Remember that a tree lays on wood largely in proportion to the amount of light it receives. Cutting out one tree will thus 1902. ] FORESTRY FOR THE FARMER. 167 give another more chance. But if the openings are made too large, the sun gets at the soil unduly, and causes a loss in that most important of factors in the growth of a forest, moisture. If the openings are too large it also means that the forest is more exposed to the uprooting power of the wind, and that light is being lost, which might be utilized in the production of wood. The trees should be kept more crowded when young to induce a good height growth instead of lateral development, and to free the lower parts of the trunks from branches, each of which means a knot in the lumber. An excellent sign that you have thinned too severely is the appearance of such grasses and weeds as need considerable light for their development. Fourth. Try some planting in the open places in the woods. Sowing seeds suffices in some cases; in others small seedlings are set out to best advantage. But keep ever in mind that in the ideally managed woodland the axe is gener- ally the only planting tool needed, paradoxical as this may seem. If the owner is skillful in so thinning out his trees as to incite those left standing into seed-bearing by the stimulus of the light admitted, and if he has so managed that the soil is in good shape to make a seed bed for receiving the seeds ' as they fall, nature will generally do the rest. Only the ac- cidentally-failed places need then be planted or sown arti- ficially. Fifth. Harvest carefully. When a tree is ripe for’ the purpose for which you want it, cut it. But in doing so have some regard for the younger trees around it, which are to take its place, and save them as much as possible. More or less _of the young growth is bound to be killed or injured, but much can be done by care and skill to reduce such injury to a minimum. Sixth. Keep a wind mantle around the woodland; that is, a narrow strip where the trees are left standing very close to- gether. This is of great benefit in preventing the drying out of the soil by wind. The moisture conditions of the soil are more important to forest growth than its chemical make-up. Seventh. Use some care in cutting those trees from the stumps of which vigorous sprouts are wanted. Make a smooth cut, so that the bark is not torn from the wood, and the formation of the sprout thus injured. Slant the cut down- 168 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., ward, so that water will not collect so readily, and decay be thus furthered. Cut low, so that the sprout may send down roots of its own into the soil. If there are certain trees from which you do not wish sprouts, cut the trees in summer, when the stumps will be more apt to die. I am sure such a brief reference to these scattered points in forestry practice is as unsatisfactory to you as it is to me to have to touch upon them so hastily. But it may at least have served to give you some insight into a few of the aims and methods of forestry. Let us now look for a moment at what is being done by the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station for the en- couragement of this work. There are two lines of effort, in- dependent in origin, but both carried on by the Experiment Station. First, from the income of a private bequest experi- ments in forest planting are being started. A tree nursery was started near Hartford last spring, and as soon as the young trees are old enough (one to three years according to the species) experimental planting will be begun on “ plains” land in the vicinity belonging to the station. Along with this work every opportunity is taken of giving such owners of woodlands as may desire help all the advice, practical assist- ance, and encouragement possible, whether it be in the plant- ing, or the care and protection, or the careful harvesting of timber land. And if opportunity permits, it is hoped a care- ful study may be made of the woodlands of some portion of the State. This will be with the idea of determining the extent and condition of the wooded areas and of the waste lands, how best they can be improved and managed with most profit to their owners, and with the greatest benefit to the general public. The second line of work is the proposed peeablichancett of a State park. At the last session of the legislature a small sum was appropriated for the purchase of lands for such a park, these lands to be bought by and to be under the man- agement of a State forester appointed from the staff of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. Steps are now being taken toward procuring the lands, which when secured will be deeded to the State of Connecticut. Calling it “ State Park” is perhaps misleading to many people. The idea at present is not that it shall be primarily a game or fish preserve, 1902. | FORESTRY FOR THE FARMER. 169 or a place of great natural beauty, but that it shall be used as a demonstration area for giving object lessons in the practical working of the principles of forestry. “It is to be managed in such manner as to secure as rapid and profitable a growth of timber as possible.’”* Improvement cutting, thinning, planting, and protection from fire are some of the forestry measures which it is ex- pected will be practiced. “It is hoped that this undertaking may be practically useful in restoring to forest production some lands at present nearly worthless, and that such land may be so tended as to serve as an object lesson in tree- planting and in the proper management of woodland, thus leading to a more rational and consequently more profitable handling, by their owners, of the cordwood lands and timber lands of Connecticut.” In short, it is hoped to give a dem- onstration that timber can be and should be treated as a regu- lar crop—cared for, protected, harvested, and reproduced as such. The effort will be to bring home to the owners of the wood land that by a little trouble and expense the wood lot may be made to yield a reasonably sure, if perhaps not very large, rate of interest on the investment. Let me close with the statement with which we started: “ Forestry proper is not a modern sentimental fad.”” Forestry means business. The New Haven Experiment Station pro- poses to do what it can to show that forestry on a small scale is practicable for the Connecticut farmer. I thank you for your attention. The PrestpENT. This has been a very interesting sub- ject, and if there are any questions to ask the professor we will stop for a short while to give him a chance to answer. We are a little bit behind time, however, and we like to keep to our program as nearly as possible. If there are no ques- tions I will call on Prof. A. L. Winton, who will tell us all about flavoring extracts. 1 Circular sent out by the State Forester, Oct. 1gor. 170 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., FLAVORING EXTRACTS — WHAT THEY ARE AND HOW THEY ARE ADULTERATED. By Pror. A. L. WINTON, Of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. Mr. Chairman, and ladies and gentlemen: After Mr. Collingwood had delivered his address yesterday I began to wonder what kind of a man I was. First, I naturally sup- posed I was a “ Why man,” but on thinking the matter over I came to the conclusion that perhaps I ought to be in a class by myself. And I think, perhaps, the name for me is the “Oh, my” man, because of the exclamations which some of these curious things have called out from the people. Now, it has been a question with me whether the ‘ Oh, my” man belongs in’ a farmers’ meeting. I wanted to ask Mr. Collingwood about this, but I had no opportunity. Some- times I have thought that perhaps I did not belong here, and that perhaps this subject was not suited to an agricultural gathering, but on second thought I came to the conclusion that the farmer was as much interested as any other citizen in what foods were on the market, and that, in addition, he was specially interested because many of these adulterated prod- ucts compete with his own products. I think he is more interested for the second reason than the first. It is not my purpose to go through this whole subject of food adulterations. You have heard it many times at these meetings. When we first undertook this work it was possi- ble in a single short paper to describe about all we knew on the subject, but now we find it is necessary to confine our- selves in a short paper to one branch of the subject, and I have selected for this occasion a branch which is not perhaps, and in fact I know it is not, one of the most important branches; indeed it is one of the least important of the sub- jects which we have to meet, but I have selected it somewhat for the same reason that a storekeeper puts his best-looking goods in his window, and because the products belonging to this class are more striking than some of the others. If I can interest you in some of the more striking forms of adultera- tion I think perhaps you will take the trouble afterwards to 1902. | FLAVORING EXTRACTS. 171 look a little more into the work which we have done in this line. Foods, as a rule, owe their agreeable taste not to the nutritive elements which they contain, but to small amounts of flavoring principles which are of no food value whatever. The nutritive elements of foods belong, as you know, in three classes, namely: the proteids, the fats, and the carbohy- drates. So far as we know, the proteids and fats, when in a state of absolute purity, are without taste or odor, and the same is true of the carbohydrates, with the exception of the sugars. The distinctive and highly appetizing flavors of meats, grains, vegetables, fruits —in fact all foods — are due to minute quantities of substances which take no direct part in building up our bodies. Nature has given us the sense of taste and has mixed the nutritive elements with agreeable flavors in her products, in order that we may know what to eat, just as she has given us the sense of pain as a warning against dangers. Civilization has, however, carried this baiting of the appe- tite a step further than nature intended. She has educated our sense of taste to demand delicacies which nature does not offer ready-made, and to keep pace with our whims has made culinary art a high science. Not only has the earth been searched for delicacies, but also for flavoring substances to make other foods more acceptable to the palate. Of the articles of commerce which have themselves no appreciable food value but serve to make foods proper more acceptable, spices and flavoring extracts are the most im- portant. They come to us from the four corners of the globe — pepper, cinnamon, and nutmegs from tropical Asia and the islands of the Pacific; red pepper from Zanzibar, India, Hungary, and Mexico; cloves from various parts of Asia and Africa; ginger from the West Indies, India, Cochin China, and Africa; vanilla beans from Mexico, South America, and the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans; lemon and orange oils from Sicily and other Mediterranean countries ; and so on. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, owing to the im- perfect means of communication with the East, some of the spices were so rare in European countries that they were literally worth their weight in gold and were considered ap- 172 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., propriate gifts for royal personages. Venice and Genoa se- cured their commercial supremacy chiefly by their control of the routes over which spices were brought from India to European ports, and later the Portuguese, by the discovery of the water route to the spice countries, around the Cape of Good Hope, undermined the wealth of the rival Italian cities and ruled for a time the market. At the present time the spices do not command such fabulous prices as formerly, but they are still more expensive than most articles of diet, owing to the cost of transportation from distant countries, custom duties, and frequent change of hands. Vanilla beans, and some other products used for flavoring, are now more valu- able than the spices and are sources of considerable wealth to the countries producing them. The best grades of vanilla beans are today literally worth more than their weight in silver and the flavoring matter of these vanilla beans is worth more than its weight in gold. Whether or not all these flavoring materials add to or de- tract from the wholesomeness of our foods is an open ques- tion. Agreeable flavors, like pleasant surroundings, are con- ducive to a contented mind, and a contented mind promotes digestion, but, on the other hand, some of these flavors, such as oil of cloves and other essential oils, are antiseptics which may to some extent interfere with the proper action of the digestive fluids. Without entering further into this discussion, most of us will agree that while over-seasoning renders foods distasteful and unwholesome, the increase in palatability gained by the judicious use of flavors more than counterbalances their pos- sible injurious action. One of the chief drawbacks to the use of spices and flavor- ing extracts is the gross adulteration to which they are sub- ject, which not only increases their expense to the consumer, but also very greatly diminishes their strength and flavor. Attention has been called to the adulteration of spices at previous meetings of this Board and on other occasions, as well as in the food reports of our Station, but as some here present may not be familiar with these frauds, a word may not be inappropriate at this time. According to a conservative estimate, the people in our little State spent during 1896, the year the pure food law went 1902. | FLAVORING EXTRACTS. 173 into effect, about $200,000 for spices, of which amount, judg- ing from the results of our examination of numerous samples, fully one-quarter (or $50,000) went for fraudulent mixtures. It is stated on credible authority that about 600 tons of cocoanut shells, obtained from the mills where shredded cocoanut is prepared, are annually powdered for use in spices. After simple grinding, the powder is mixed with ground all- spice, which it resembles very closely. By cautious roasting the color of ground cloves and nutmegs is matched, and by roasting at a higher temperature a charcoal is obtained which, mixed with a lighter colored material, such as cracker waste, is a very good imitation of black pepper. Buckwheat by- products-are also utilized. The black hulls, ground with a little of the starchy matter, make a very good-looking black pepper. The middlings, which consist of the inner seedcoats and some starchy matter, serve as a basis for white pepper, and, when dyed, for other spices. In addition, sawdust, lin- seed meal, mustard hulls, almond shells, biscuit crumbs, and by-products from wheat, corn, rice, and other grains, as well as many other waste products, are used for adulterating the various spices. These spurious mixtures are sold, for the most part, in bulk or in packages without the name of the grinder. During the first four years of the enforcement of the pure food law 332 samples of spices sold in bulk were examined, of which 127 (or thirty-eight per cent. of the whole number examined) were grossly adulterated. During the present year 217 samples of bulk spices were examined, of which fifty-three (or twenty-four per cent.) were spurious. From these figures it can be seen that the adulteration of spices has been and still is carried on to an alarming extent, but it should be noted that the percentage of adulterated samples in the whole number examined has decreased from thirty-eight to twenty-four per cent. during the past six years. This decrease, we believe, is due to our efforts in exposing these frauds, and we hope that ere long fraudulent spices, which have been sold in Connecticut since the days of wooden nutmegs, may be driven entirely from our market. As bulk spices are still liable to adulteration, the purchaser is strongly advised to buy only in sealed boxes bearing the name of a reputable dealer. 174 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Spices are used, for the most part, whole or powdered, but liquid extracts may also be obtained. These liquid ex- tracts have the advantage over the solid spices that the flavors, being already extracted, blend at once with the food to which they are added. The essential oils of cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, and other spices obtained from the spices by distillation, alcoholic solu- tions of these oils, and alcoholic extracts of the spices them- selves have been used for many years in medicine, and to some extent in foods, and recently a complete line of acetic acid extracts have been placed on the market by Squibb, the well-known drug manufacturer. The alcoholic extracts are quite expensive, owing in large degree to the alcohol which they contain, but are suitable for all purposes where the spices themselves are used. The acetic acid extracts, on the other hand, are comparatively cheap, but, owing to the acid, are suitable only for pickles, catsups, and other meat sauces. Acetic acid extracts of pepper, cinnamon, ginger, cloves, nutmeg, coriander, celery seed, and garlic may be seen in the exhibition case. The flavoring extracts of the grocery and drug trade are, however, for the most part, alcoholic solutions and other preparations of vanilla, lemon, orange, strawberry, raspberry, banana, pineapple, almond, rose, pistachio, etc. Of these, vanilla and lemon extracts are by far the most popular. Genuine vanilla extract is prepared from the so-called vanilla bean, the fruit of a vine belonging to the orchid family, a native of Mexico, but now cultivated in South America, Réunion, Mauritius, Java, Tahiti, and other tropical coun- tries. The term “bean” is a misnomer, as the plant is not a legume and neither the fruit nor the seeds resemble beans. The elongated fruit pods are from five to eight inches long and about as big around as a small lead pencil. They are black, glossy, and somewhat wrinkled on the surface, and contain thousands of exceedingly minute black seeds. The grades of vanilla beans sold in the United States are the Mexican (whole, $6.75 to $11; cut, $5.75 to $11 per pound), the South American ($5 to $7), the Bourbon ($3 to $6.75), and the Tahiti ($1.45 to $1.50). This range in price from $1.45 to $11 per pound is due to the great difference in the delicacy, not the amount, of flavor in the beans from different localities. 1902. ] FLAVORING EXTRACTS. 175 The chief flavoring principle of the vanilla bean is a white crystalline substance known as vanillin, of which the beans of commerce contain from 1.5 to 2.5 per cent. Vanillin, iden- tical in chemical composition with that from the beans, is now prepared by a highly scientific process from oil of cloves and is quoted at from 70 cents to $1 per ounce. This artificial vanillin is extensively used in extracts in place of the beans. The Tonka or Tonquin bean is the seed of a large tree grown in Guiana. As the tree belongs to the legume family, the seeds are well named “beans.” They are dark colored, almond shaped, more or less wrinkled on the surface, and from one to one and a half inches long. The flavor some- what resembles vanilla, but is much ranker. Tonka beans are quoted at from thirty to eighty-five cents per pound. Coumarin, the flavoring principle of the Tonka bean, a white crystalline substance, is, like vanillin, prepared by arti- ficial means and sells from thirty to thirty-five cents per ounce. The vanilla extract of the United States Pharmacopcea is prepared from vanilla beans, sugar, and sixty per cent. alcohol, without addition of coloring or any other ingredient. One pound of beans makes about five quarts of extract. The liquid is of a deep brown, almost black, color, and has a de- lightful perfume and flavor. Sixty-five brands of vanilla extract bought during the past year in various parts of Connecticut have been examined at the Station. Of this number, twenty were probably made from vanilla beans without addition of any other flavoring substance or any coloring. The remaining forty-five brands, or over two-thirds of the whole number, were various mix- tures flavored with artificial vanillin, extract of Tonka bean or coumarin, and colored usually with caramel. The cost of the vanilla beans for a quart of extract pre- pared according to the United States Pharmacopcea varies from 40 cents to $4, whereas the cost of artificial vanillin for a quart of extract of approximately the same strength is only four or five cents. You will ask why such an ‘extract made from artificial vanillin is not just as good as one made from the vanilla bean, if it is true, as I have stated, that the vanillin of both is the same substance. My answer is that, while it is true that 176 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., vanillin is the chief flavoring substance of the vanilla bean, other flavors are present, although in quantities too small to be detected by chemical means, which give to the extract a delicate bouquet which cannot be equaled in a purely artifi- cial extract. Nature follows secret processes in her labora- tory which the chemist cannot exactly copy. Artificial vanil- lin, artificial indigo, and artificial wintergreen oil are now made cheaply from chemicals, but the products made in the old-fashioned way have not yet been equaled and still are demanded by the best trade. The addition of Tonka bean extract or artificial coumarin to vanilla extract increases its strength and reduces its price at the expense of quality. Some, however, appear to prefer a little Tonka flavor in their vanilla, just as some prefer a mixture of coffee and chicory to pure coffee. In matters of taste, each man must be a law unto himself, and the pure food law, by requiring the proper labeling of such extracts as “compounds,” should assist the individual in getting what he likes under its true name and at a fair price. Cheap extracts containing artificial vanillin, Tonka bean extract, or coumarin certainly should be sold for what they are and not allowed to compete unfairly with the more ex- pensive and better-flavored extract made from the vanilla bean. Oil of lemon is made in Sicily and other Mediterranean countries from the rind of lemon, the best grades by simple expression and clarification, the cheaper by distillation. It is quoted at from eighty-five to ninety-five cents per pound at wholesale.’ Extract or essence of lemon, prepared according to the United States Pharmacopcea, is a five per cent. solution of the oil in strong alcohol colored with lemon peel. The materials for a quart of good extract cost about seventy-five cents — sixty cents for the alcohol and fifteen cents for the oil and peel — or about two and one-half cents per ounce. Since an ounce bottle usually costs at retail at least ten cents, there is a margin of about seven and one-half cents to cover cost of manufacture, cost of package, and labels and profits. One would suppose this to be a fair margin, but the extract manufacturers, like Oliver Twist, are always call- ing for more. As four-fifths of the cost of a good extract is 1902. ] FLAVORING EXTRACTS. ig for the alcohol, the manufacturer naturally strives first to re- duce the amount of this ingredient. But he cannot do this without reducing the amount of oil of lemon to almost noth- ing, as the latter is almost insoluble in weak alcohol. If you dilute a good lemon extract with half its bulk of water the liquid becomes cloudy from separation of oil and finally the oil rises to the surface. (This, by the way, is a reliable test for lemon extract. If the oil does not come out by dilution it is because the extract does not contain an appreciable amount.) In cutting out the alcohol the manufacturer must also cut down the lemon oil almost entirely. That he actually goes to this extreme is shown by our analyses. Thirty-five ‘out of sixty-five brands which we have examined contained less than 0.25 per cent. of lemon oil, and all but ten less than five per cent., which is the amount a good extract should contain. To cover up the fraud, the bogus extracts were colored a beautiful golden yellow or orange yellow with a coal-tar or aniline dye. These dyes, by a simple process, may be extracted from the extract and fixed on woolen cloth, dye- ing the latter fast yellow colors. An ounce of such an ex- tract selling for ten cents contains material costing but a fraction of a cent, and almost worthless at that. The red lemonade of the circus blushes because of its sins, but these worthless yellow liquids stare at the public with brazen impudence from their perch on the grocer’s shelf, to the mortification of the self-respecting lemons in the grocer’s baskets. Orange oil is prepared from orange peel by the same pro- cess as has been described for lemon oil, and genuine orange extract is made by dissolving this oil in alcohol. The ex; tract is adulterated in the same way as lemon extract. Strawberry, raspberry, peach, pineapple, and other fruit juices are used in large quantities in good soda water, ice cream, etc., but it is impracticable, if not impossible, to make from these juices a concentrated extract. The so-called ex- tracts of these fruits contain no real fruit extract, but are arti- ficial, both as to their flavor and their color. They are used in artificial soda water syrup, cheap ice cream, candies, and pastries. The flavoring substances of these extracts are mixtures of chemicals known as ethers, each of which has its own AGR. — 12 178 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., peculiar odor and taste. Artificial extracts of strawberry, raspberry, peach, and pineapple have sickening odors which would never for a moment be mistaken for the odors of the real fruits. Taken internally they produce nausea and in- testinal disturbances. The so-called extract of banana is a more clever imitation, but none the less objectionable. The coloring substances are usually coal-tar or aniline dyes, such as are now so extensively employed in dyeing cloth and leather, making inks, wood stains, etc. We have in our collection in New Haven numerous sam- ples of soda water syrups, jellies, jams, catsups, cordials, flavoring extracts, etc., colored with these dyes, and also brilliantly colored pieces of wool cloth which we have dyed with the colors extracted from these food products. True almond extract is made from the bitter almond, but much of the extract sold under that name is made from peach pits. Extracts of rose and pistachio are commonly artificially colored, the one with red and the other with green dyes. From what has been said it is evident that the purchaser of extracts should be on his guard against frauds. The pub- lication in our reports of the analyses of the brands found on sale in the State, with the names of the manufacturers and dealers, will serve as a warning to the offenders and as a guide to the purchaser. Samples of pure and adulterated extracts, and also some of the materials used in making them, may be seen in the exhibit of the Station. a Secretary Brown. At this point I would like to ask one or two questions, because I know we have with us at this time gentlemen who are quite competent to answer. The first is, “ Are trap lanterns of any use in destroying injurious insects ’’? Prof. Brirron. In regard to trap lanterns. You have probably all seen the advertisement of a certain trap lantern made out in Missouri. It has been advertised in many of the papers. It is claimed for this that it destroys a great many 1902. | QUESTIONS. 179 injurious insects, especially those in the orchard, if it is left there through the nights of the early summer. There is no question but what it will destroy quite a large number of in- jurious insects, but the claims made for it are altogether too great. Not only does it destroy some of the injurious in- sects, but it also destroys their parasites, which are beneficial to us. Prof. Steadman of Missouri has been the unfortunate victim of these lantern manufacturers. A lantern was sent to him to be tested and he gave it a very careful test and sub- mitted his report to the manufacturers. The manufacturers then proceeded to cut out certain parts of the report and published the rest, making it appear that he endorsed the lantern for destroying nearly all of our injurious insect pests, which was something which Prof. Steadman did not do. He did endorse it for some species of caterpillars, and he endorsed it for the squash vine borer and a few others. In all of his experiments he failed to catch more than two or three speci- mens of the Codlin, and this was one of the insects which the manufacturers said could be controlled by the use of the lantern. Moreover, the manufacturers claimed that it would kill a great many other things, among which was mentioned one which has proven to be a parasite of some of the injurious species, and therefore should not be killed. Prof. Steadman thought that the indiscriminate use of the lantern at all times and in all places did more harm than good. Secretary BRown. From the same source I get this ques- tion: “ What is the best treatment for orchards infested with the San José Scale?” Prof. Brirton. The experience of Connecticut, as well as other states, shows that all worthless or badly injured trees should be cut out at once. They are not worth treating. Where you have good varieties, however, and the trees are not very badly injured, the best treatment seems to be to spray them thoroughly in the spring, just before the buds open, with either a mixture of kerosene and water containing 180 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., from twenty to twenty-five per cent. of kerosene, or spray with crude petroleum having a specific gravity of not less than forty-three degrees on the scale. If the application is made on a bright sunny day, just before the leaves appear, the in- jury is so very slight to most of our trees compared to the injury which the scale may do if left to multiply upon the trees that it is hardly worth mentioning. Whale oil soap has been used to some extent, but that is an expensive application, and in order to kill the scale it must be used very strong, about two pounds in one gallon of water, and it is hard to dissolve it in this proportion so it will go through any ordi- nary spray nozzle easily. The cheapest’remedy unquestion- ably is the water and oil applied through one of these pumps which mixes the two liquids under pressure. The crude oil has one advantage, in that it remains upon the twigs and branches for about four months, or long enough to prevent the establishment of a great many of the young insects. We cannot hope with a single application to kill them all. Ifa few are left they will multiply through the season very rapidly. If the crude oil is used, the bark remains covered with the substance and the young insects do not settle upon it as they otherwise would. Secretary Brown. “Is the sale of adulterated foods in Connecticut increasing?” Prof. Winton. I think, Mr. Secretary, we can furnish very conclusive proof that the sale is decreasing. When we first started in our work we examined a number of food prod- ucts and ascertained their condition as to adulteration, and then afterwards came back to those same products and made another examination, and we found in almost every case that the percentage of adulteration was much less. Take, for ex- ample, coffee. When we first started, nine-tenths of the sam- ples we collected were adulterated, but when we came to examine coffee again we found only one-tenth of our samples were adulterated, a change from nine-tenths adulterated to e -' 1902. ] QUESTIONS. 181 nine-tenths pure. I think the adulteration of food products is steadily decreasing. Secretary Brown. “ Why is it that storekeepers will not purchase from farmers’ wives at reasonable prices pure home made jellies and preserves?” Is that true? A Voice. They are too high-priced. Prof. Winton. I think,’ Mr. Secretary, it is very true that they will not. } Secretary Brown. Can you give us the reason for it? Prof. Winton. Storekeepers say, in the first place, that the farmers’ wives charge too much, and, in the second place, they say that the goods do not keep well. In the third place, they say that the goods do not look so well as others, and the grocerymen are entirely right in all these statements. They do cost more, and they do not keep as well, and they do not present such an attractive appearance as those that come from a factory. The reason why the factory goods sell so cheaply is because they are, in many instances, artificial mixtures. That is one reason why they cost less, and then, another thing, they keep better because they put in these artificial dyes and salicylic acid. This coloring matter gives the goods a better appearance, and they take the market. Even though the farmer’s wife comes in with an honest product that tastes better, the dishonest product gets the market many times because of those qualities. Mr. Hate. One of the answers of the grocerymen to the housewife who brings in such goods for sale, as stated by the gentleman who has just preceded me, is that the goods do not look so well. Now, the attractiveness of the package, and the way it is put up, is one of the largest factors in the sale of almost any product. You must catch the eye first if you are going to open the pocketbook, and then if you are going to keep it wide open you must give them a good thing. You must give your goods a good appearance first, and that will: do much to help the sale, and if the housewife will make a J 182 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., business of putting up her goods in fine, attractive-looking packages, and with some distinctive style of label, and follow it up year in and year out, making the preserves as good as she can, there is a market in this country for that class of goods, and a market at high prices. I have in my mind a lady who, through financial reverses,. was obliged to earn her own living, and she began canning fruit in the very best pos- sible manner, and putting it up in good style. When she went out hunting for trade she found that it came slowly for a number of years, but she was a persistent woman and kept at it, and I know that last year she sold of the very highest grade of canned fruit more than $25,000 worth to Park & Til- ford, one of the leading grocery firms of New York, and she is selling to the leading grocers and families all over the United States. She makes a business of it. She buys only the choicest fruit that she can find, and even though she buys the very best that the market affords, the faintest suggestion of inferiority in what she gets is sufficient to cause her to reject a large part of it. She will buy and pay a thousand dollars for a shipment of fruit and throw away $600 worth of it into the refuse market if the other $400 worth will only give her the grade she wants. She wants only the very choicest, and she will not buy any other. She has made a business of it, as I say, and she has built up a handsome in- come that many a Connecticut farmer would be mighty glad to have. Secretary Brown. “Are cattle foods adulterated to the same extent as human foods?” Prof. Winton. I do not think they are anything like to the same extent, but they are adulterated to some extent. For example, we find cotton seed meal in which too many hulls appear. In several of this class of foods the hulls are used to help out, and while this may not be, strictly speak- ing, adulteration, yet they are inferior goods. We have only recently, during the last few days, found a kind of adulteration 1902. } QUESTIONS. 183 of feed that is an adulteration in every sense of the word, and that is the use of ground corn cob in wheat bran. We found during the past week two samples of wheat bran which con- tained about twenty-five per cent. of ground corn cob, an almost worthless material. This, I am afraid, is a very seri- ous adulteration, and every farmer should be on his guard this winter when the prices of all feeds have gone so high. Secretary Brown. “Does grass land gather nitrogen from the air?” Dr. JENKINS. Generally speaking, grass land does not gather nitrogen in the way we usually speak of gathering nitrogen from the air. Clover, of course, and many other plants of that class, will gather atmospheric nitrogen and hold it, but grass will not gather in any nitrogen as it is gathered by such plants. During the late fall, and, in fact, within a week, we have had weather when the grass was growing. The surface of the soil was not frozen. So, when it is grow- ing, if there is any available nitrogen in the soil it will assimi- late that, but without covering it,would be wasted and be lost into the drainage waters. .That is one of the great ad- * vantages of a green crop during the winter, in that it holds on to the nitrogen of the soil, and keeps it for the next crop if it is turned under in the spring. Secretary Brown. “Can kainit or other chemicals be profitably used to keep stable manure from loss in the stable or in the heap?” Dr. Jenkins. I think, Mr. Chairman, that it is pretty safe to say that it can be used economically and profitably. The whole matter is being studied into in great detail by German investigators, and, as near as I can make out from what has been published, they are not agreed among them- selves and have not reached any very definite conclusions. Kainit is of some use in the stable, as it will keep down the ammonia arising from decomposing manure, but the best means we know of for keeping manure, if it must be kept, is 184 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., to put it under cover, and put it into a heap so that it can be stamped down compact and solid. It then becomes a kind of manure ensilage. When it is packed solid in that manner the decay is slow, but as soon as it becomes light and fluffy the air gets into it and then you have a large loss of nitrogen. I believe myself that the best way to handle manure is to get it out on the field just as soon after it is made as possible, if the fields are anywhere near the manure pile, and leave it in either small heaps or just spread out a little during the winter season, and plow it under in the spring. It is then out of the way; it is not wasting; it is not injuring anything, and it is in position for use when you are perhaps pressed with other work in the spring. Manure, or any decomposing material, is never so safe, as regards the matter of sanitation, as when it is spread thin on the soil. Convention adjourned to 7.30 P. M. EVENING SESSION. ‘Wednesday, December 18th. Convention called to order at 7.40 P. M., Vice-President Seeley in the chair. The PresipENT. I now have the pleasure of introducing Prof. H. S. Graves of Yale University, who will speak of the work of his Department in Forestry. THE: YALE, FOREST SCHOOLAND Tis: PURPOSES: By Pror. H. S. Graves, DIRECTOR. Until recently the efforts of American foresters have been principally directed toward the education of the people to the necessity of the practice of forestry in the United States. This preliminary work has been well accomplished, and the whole country is now awakening to the realization that a conserva- tive management of our forest resources must be brought 1902. | YALE FOREST SCHOOL AND ITS PURPOSES. 185 about at once. We have ample proof of this in the frequent articles in the magazines and newspapers and in the active interest in forestry all over the country. It is highly signifi- cant that the President in his first message to Congress dis- cussed at some length the problem of forestry, which he regards as one of the most important questions before the public, emphatically declaring the preservation of our forests to be an immediate business necessity. It is no longer necessary to discuss the value of preserv- ing a forest cover at the headwaters of our streams. The in- fluence of forests on stream flow is now generally recognized, and, while we have not yet solved the practical problem of the management of such forests, there is but little question that our rivers can best be regulated by a forest cover at their sources. Nor is it necessary to speak of the danger of a wasteful use of our forest resources in view of a probable shortage of timber in the future. Political economists and theorists are not the only ones who see an exhaustion of certain kinds of timber. Lumbermen now see that our virgin forests. will soon be cut over, and that we shall have to use second growth timber and kinds of trees which a short time ago were con- sidered valueless. Original white pine has almost entirely been cut from the forests of Maine, Pennsylvania, and Mich- igan. Black walnut and cherry now exist only in remote parts of the South. Prime white oak is becoming scarcer every year, and yellow poplar is rapidly disappearing in the South like the white pine of the North. Note the growing popularity of such trees as red gum, which but a few years ago was looked upon as a forest weed. Note the use in the South of second growth old field pine, which has hitherto been considered as brush, and absolutely worthless. Note again the tremendous increase in the price of hardwood lum- ber, such as yellow birch and maple, the use of balsam fir for paper, the outlook for California red wood as a substi- tute for cedar in the manufacture of pencils, and the general tendency to find substitutes for kinds of timber formerly con- sidered an absolute necessity, but now rapidly becoming ex- hausted. Then again we are using smaller and coarser timber than formerly. Compare, for instance, the white pine logs at the mills with what were used fifteen years ago. The whole 186 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., tendency is to cut closer, as the lumbermen say; that is, to use small and younger trees and cut further up into the tops, thereby wasting less timber. Nearly every month we read in the lumber journals of the shutting down of mills, especially in the Lake states, on account of the exhaustion of white pine, and their removal to the South or far West. In Maine the spruce industry is today no longer a lumber industry, but one controlled by the paper interests. Pulp manufacturers can use smaller timber than the saw-mill men, and they can use coarser and less perfect logs. In consequence they can pay a higher price for the logs, and now the saw-mill men are being crowded out and are obliged to turn their attention to other classes of timber. But lumbermen are not alone in being embarrassed by the exhaustion of certain species of trees. In many places of central New York the stumpage price of cord wood is as high as $2.50 per cord, and a farmer is considered fortunate who has a wood lot of ten acres. In southern Michigan and Ohio, where there were formerly extensive hardwood forests, even the farm wood lots are now very small and decreasing in size every year. New Englanders often complain -of the stony soil and poor farming land, not realizing how fortunate they are in the possession of abundant wood land. Though set- tled nearly three hundred years ago, we have in our New England states sixty per cent. of wood land, and at the pres- ent time this percentage is probably increasing. In New England there is a large amount of land more suitable for the growth of trees than for agriculture; while in central New York, in Michigan, in Ohio, and in many other sections of the country, much of the land covered with timber can be used for agriculture; and the wood lots are remnants of the virgin forest rather than second growth, as with us. In Ohio and Michigan the wood lots are not as a rule repro- ducing themselves rapidly. They are used for pasturage, young growth is kept down, and each year the farmer clears a little more and plows it. In New England, however, the wood lot is usually on land which can be used for no other purpose, and when it is cut off it is replaced by a second growth. The question which is now before the public is no longer whether forestry is desirable, but how can it be practically 1902.] YALE FOREST SCHOOL AND ITS PURPOSES. 187 applied. The problems which must be solved by the Ameri- can forester are diverse and often difficult, and they cannot be solved until there are trained men to do the work. Arti- cles in magazines and newspapers urge lumbermen and other forest owners to adopt the methods of forestry and to employ expert foresters, but lumbermen will certainly not need the services of foresters until they are sure that they can secure well-trained and experienced men. At Yale we are endeavoring to train men to fill these places. The Yale Forest School is based not merely upon what we believe theoretically a forester should know, but upon our knowledge of the kind of work which foresters must do in this country. Just what this work is and the kind of training we believe that an expert forester should have will be of in- terest to every owner of trees or woods, and forms the theme of my talk tonight. The forests of the United States are owned in part by the federal government, in part by the states, in part by lumber- men and lumber companies, cooperage companies, wood acid companies, turpentine companies, etc.; also in part by large private concerns, such as railroads, hunting and fishing clubs, and large private estates; and there are some 200,000,000 acres owned by small proprietors, chiefly farmers. The forest problems which confront the federal govern- ment and the states are somewhat similar. They hold their forests for a different reason than that of most private owners. They do not seek primarily a money return, but such a man- agement of their forests as will secure the greatest good to the people inthe long run. Of the great public domain in the far West, the government has already set aside nearly 50,- 000,000 acres of forest land for national parks and forest re- serves, and it is certain that very large additions will be made to this area in the near future. The lands selected for national parks and forest reserves are in the high mountains at the headwaters of the rivers, and their primary use is to con- serve the waters in these streams. A large part of the timber in these parks and reserves is not of much commercial value, and they will therefore never play a very important part in the production of timber to meet the wants of the people. Local markets will be supplied, but the general lumber cen- ters will probably receive comparatively little timber from these public forests. 188 BOARD. OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., The chief value of these forests lies in their influence on the water supply and the protection they afford to the irriga- tion interests of the farmer. They should therefore be under the most careful management and be protected from fire and excessive lumbering. As their chief value is derived from their protection of the mountain slopes, they should be kept as dense as possible, and where large openings have already been made in them hy fires and lumbering, provision should eventually be made to restore them to their original state. But in many cases the people living in and near the reserves require a great deal of wood and timber for lumber, mine props, ties, and fuel. Unless these forests are well managed, excessive lumbering is sure to take place to the detriment of the forest conditions. These reserves should be placed under the management of experts who understand how a forest may be profitably lumbered, and, at the same time stocked with desirable species. But the forester in charge must not be a mere theorist. No theorist, pure and simple, can ever undertake successfully the management of the Western forest reserves, or, in fact, any other timber tract in this country. Foresters, in our sense of the word, are not pure theorists, although they are often so called. They have in view a certain end, namely, the continuous production of timber, and they know that the productiveness of any given forest cannot be maintained un- less certain provisions are made. These provisions are based on a scientific knowledge of the life of trees and forests, but because a man has such scientific knowledge it is not fair to assume that he is a mere theorist, nor that he is not in every way a practical man. A forester must be a practical woods- man or he can never make his forest pay. ‘This is especially true in the West where the conditions are unfavorable, much of the timber is inaccessible, and the margin of profit in lum- bering is small. The experts who should be placed in charge of the forest reserves should be men who thoroughly under- stand lumbering and who also understand the laws govern- ing the growth and development of trees and forests and the methods by which forests can be cut and reproduced at the least possible expense. Questions which involve not only practical business con- siderations, but also require a scientific training for their solu- 1902.] YALE FOREST SCHOOL AND. ITS PURPOSES. 189 tion, are constantly met by the Western forester. Take, for example, the question of sheep grazing. At the present time it is one of the most perplexing problems of the forest re- serves. Many ofthe reserves are used as public sheep ranges. Agriculturists claim that the grazing of sheep hardens the surface of the ground, destroys the undergrowth, and causes the water to run off rapidly over the surface of the ground, thereby preventing the winter rains and snows from feeding | the springs. It is claimed that, in consequence, the stream flow is less steady, and also that the irrigating ditches are filled up with silt, involving the expense of repeated cleaning. It is also claimed that sheep eat and tramp down the young growth and thus prevent the reproduction of the forest; that fires are set by the herders, and that altogether sheep grazing is a curse to the community. Wool growers, on the other hand, maintain that sheep do not interfere with the repro- duction of the forest, and that the herding of sheep does not influence the flow of water, but benefits the forest by keeping down the undergrowth, thus preventing forest fires. Forest- ers are now endeavoring to determine the exact effect of sheep grazing upon forest growth. For the study of this problem and other similar problems, a thorough scientific knowledge of all the laws governing the life history of trees and forests is required. But the government and the states have still another class , of work which must be done. At the present time the sci- ence of forestry is in its formative stage. As yet we know comparatively little about the life history of our different species. Take, for example, our native Connecticut trees. We know in general that within thirty or forty years we can grow a chestnut telegraph pole, but there is no one in this room who can tell me what can be produced on land of a cer- tain character and of a certain density of stocking with certain kinds of trees within certain definite periods of time. A man comes to me and says, I wish to buy a certain tract of land covered with a young growth, say of white pine. Will it be a profitable investment in view of the future production of timber? Without a definite knowledge of the capabilities of white pine forests under different conditions it is impossible for me to give him an answer except in terms too vague and general to satisfy a business man. A lumberman comes to 190 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., me and says, I have 100,000 acres of longleaf pine and I wish to supply my mill for an indefinite period with 10,000,000 feet a year. Have I enough land to do this? I cannot answer his question unless I know the productive power of pine under different conditions. These and similar questions have not been determined except with regard to a very few of our trees and in restricted localities. This suggests merely something of the character of the scientific study of our trees and forests - which must be carried on by the government and by the states, and it is one of the important problems of forestry to be worked out in the near future. I have intimated that the timber supply of the country will not be much influenced by the timber cut from federal or state reserves. For our timber supply we must rely mainly on forests owned by private concerns and individuals. Private forests will not be managed conservatively until it is shown that such a conservative management is profitable, and this showing can be made most quickly with the assistance of the federal government and states by means of scientific research and experiment. There must be in the different states men who can not only do executive work in connection with the management of forest reserves, or other forest tracts, and who can carry on the scientific study of the growth and characteristics of trees and forests, but who can also lead in influencing public opinion, and, if necessary, draft intelligent bills to be brought before the legislatures of the states. We recognize at Yale that there are two kinds of foresters needed in this country. First, those who can undertake any work which a forester may be called upon to do, whether it be to cruise timber lands and estimate standing timber for a lumberman, to locate and superintend cuttings in mature timber, or to plant waste places with the right species of trees, or to carry on a scientific study of the growth and production of certain trees, or to study the distribution of trees as influ- enced by a geological formation, or to determine whether grazing should be allowed in a certain reserve, and, if allowed, how it should be restricted, or to canvass a specified region to arouse interest in forestry and to explain its purposes and practical application, or to take a position at the head of the forest interests of a state and to develop an intelligent forest 1902.] YALE FOREST SCHOOL AND ITS PURPOSES. I9I policy in that State, manage the State forests, and assist pri- vate owners by advice, or lead in federal forest matters, or to take a position in a forest school or a college to give instruc- tion in technical branches of forestry. This is the kind of work which at the present time an all-around expert may be called upon at any time to do and he must be prepared in every branch of forestry. We believe that the sufficient pre- liminary technical training can be given in two years, pro- vided the student has previously received a thorough general education. Our aim is to attract graduates of universities and agricultural colleges and other collegiate institutions of high standing. We recognize also that there is room for a large number of men who require only a special training along certain lines. Thus to carry out the details of managing a forest a complete technical training, such as we design to give in New Haven, is not required. A course such as is given in many of our agricultural colleges, and particularly a course such as we give at our summer school at Milford, Penn., is really all that is necessary to start with; the rest is common sense and prac- tical experience. Thus a farmer does not need an extensive technical training in forestry to manage his wood lot prop- erly. What he most needs is to study how to care for his woods as intelligently as, for instance, his corn field or his silo. There is no question that the average farm wood lot is not managed nearly as well as it should be, and as the farmer is capable of caring for and managing it. But I have seen wood lots as intelligently managed by farmers as by any expert for- ester I ever saw. A farmer must be his own forester, and the average New England farmer can be a very good forester if he will only give the subject his attention. Our instruction at the Yale Forest School is divided into two sections: the classroom work and the practical work in the field. During the first year of the two-years course these two branches of work are carried on together in New Haven, but about a third of the second year is spent in the forests in different parts of the East. The technical course includes first of all a botanical study of the different species. The students are required to be able to identify not only the trees and shrubs growing in the vicinity of New Haven, but, by 192 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., laboratory study, to know the trees and shrubs in other re- gions. This is of great importance, for a forester may be called to Texas, or to California, or to Montana, or to other regions, and he must, of course, be familiar with the trees in advance. In connection with this course in forest botany and with the course in silviculture the students study all the natural laws which influence the growth and development of trees, and in fact every factor which has to do with the life of the forest. A careful study is thus made of the habits and characteristics of all the American trees and forests, including their behavior in different regions and under different condi- tions of soil and situation, of light and growing space, in association with different trees; and as affected by fire, ex- cessive lumbering, wind, and other adverse conditions, so far as knowledge of these exist. In the first year a course is given in forest measurements, which includes the methods of estimating wood and timber and of studying the growth and production of trees. In the first year students are also instructed in the whole subject of tree planting and-in the ways of making thinnings for the general improvement of- the forest and for reproduction. In the second-year the sub- ject of the business management of forests is taken up, includ- ing, in addition to a study of our conditions, a consideration of the methods used in Europe, where forestry has been prac- ticed for over a century. The second year men are trained also in the study of the commercial woods, both in the iden- tification of dressed lumber and in the study of their technical properties and commercial uses. They are given courses also in forest insects, diseases of trees, methods of lumbering, his- tory of forestry, forest law, and the principles of forest admin- istration on large tracts and in government and state service. But all of this work would be of comparatively little value except for the continual practice in the woods. At the pres- ent time the first year men are making thinnings in a forest of about 400 acres near New Haven. The trees are now being marked under my own supervision by the students, and at least a part of the timber will be actually cut and piled into cord wood by the men. At the present time our second year class is in the lumber woods, a part being in the lumber camps in northern Maine and the remainder in the camps of northwestern Pennsylvania. In the spring term the whole 1902. | INSECTS — RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 193 work of the second-year men is transferred to the field, and during the coming spring we shall probably be engaged in practical forest work on a large tract of about 20,000 acres in southeastern New York. «This brief sketch will give you an idea of the kind of work we do in New Haven, and especially of our point of view. It is our aim not only to acquaint the students thoroughly with the principles and methods of forestry, but to produce effective men who have already had enough practical experience to undertake the work for which there is at present so great a need. The PRESIDENT. Are there any questions which you would like to ask the professor? If not we will proceed to listen to an illustrated lecture by Prof. Britton on “ Insects and their Relation to Agriculture.” INSE GIS “AND THEIR RELATION "LO “AGRICUE- TURE. By Mr. W. E. Britton, State Entomologist. The popular idea of insects seems to be that, as a class, they are injurious, though such is hardly the case. Howard* has shown that of the many families of insects, 116 are in- jurious, 113 beneficial, while 71 families contain forms both injurious and beneficial or their habits have not been de- termined. Insects are found all over the earth, even in the arctic re- gions, but are most abundant in the tropics. In early times their outbreaks were regarded as plagues sent by the Al- mighty, and against which nothing except Divine interposi- tion could avail. It was not then considered, as now, to be a question of the struggle for existence among species, nor that man had the right or power to wage war against those animals that destroyed his crops. Insects are called injurious because they devour plants, stored grains, foods, books, clothes, etc.; because they annoy * Address of the retiring President of the Biological Society of Washington, Jan. 18, 1899, printed in Science, Feb. 17, 1899. AcR. — 13 194 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., man and the domestic animals, and are carriers of disease. We consider them beneficial when they feed upon noxious insects and plants; when they pollinate our cultivated plants; and when they furnish products that we can use for food, for clothing, and in the arts. Undoubtedly the greatest benefit which mankind derives from the insects as a class comes through the role which they perform in carrying pollen from one plant to another while gathering nectar from the flowers. We fail to appreciate the importance of this fact. If it applied only to the little wild blossoms of the field and meadow it would have no special interest to the farmer. It would make little difference to him whether these plants continued to exist or not — except so far as he may be led to enjoy them for nature’s sake—they hold no important place in the economy of his agricultural operations. But when we con- sider that the vast fruit interests of this country and of the world depend upon small insects to pollinate the flowers of trees and plants, this group of animals assumes a position of tremendous importance to agriculture. Furthermore, many of our vegetables, especially those consisting of the seed pods or fruits of plants, like cucum- bers, squashes, etc., are pollinated almost wholly by insects. Let us review, briefly, some of the great discoveries which have made clear the relation that insects bear to agriculture. In the year 1787 Sprengel decided that the nectar in flowers was secreted for the sake of insects. Two years later further study led him to conclude that certain species of plants are unable to exist without insects to fertilize them. Spren- gel’s work seems to have passed unnoticed for nearly fifty years, when Darwin, recognizing the truth of it, began his long series of investigations which have so completely revo- lutionized our ideas of plant pollination and shown the mutual adaptations that exist between the organs of plants and in- sects, and enabled him to formulate the law that “nature abhors perpetual self-fertilization.” Darwin published a list of plants which are sterile with their own pollen, but it does not include any of our fruits.* It was not until 1894, twelve years after Darwin’s death, that the United States Department of Agriculture gave to the world the results of some experiments by Mr. M. B. * Bailey, ‘‘ The Survival of The Unlike,” page 347. 1902. | INSECTS — RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 195 Waite which showed that some of our common varieties of pears are wholly unable to fertilize themselves and require pollen not only from another tree, but from a different variety, in order to become fruitful. Mr. Waite was working with the “fire blight,” a’ well-known disease of pear orchards. He found that the germs were carried from flower to flower by insects, whereupon insects were entirely excluded from access to the tree, with the result that the tree set no fruit. This revelation of the fact must be regarded at least to agri- culture and horticulture as one of the most important dis- coveries made during the latter part of the nineteenth century. Later observations have shown that many varieties of apples, pears, cherries, peaches, apricots, and nearly all the plums and grapes are self-sterile. Even if not self-sterile, insects are the principal agents in carrying pollen from one tree to an- other, and the scarcity of apples this year is, I doubt not, due in large measure to bad weather at blooming time, so that the insects could not visit the flowers. The following figures based upon conservative estimates will give us some idea of the great losses caused to agriculture by injurious insects. In 1854 the wheat midge, in New York, caused injury to the amount of $15,000,000. In 1874 the ravages of the Rocky Mountain locust occasioned a loss of $100,000,000 in the four states of Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Illinois, and the chinch bug caused a loss of $60,000,000 throughout the United States in 1877. Dr. Riley estimated that the total amount of damage to the agricultural products of the United States aggregates between $300,000,000 and $400,000,000 annually, caused by the depredations of noxious insects. Even in 1899 the total loss to farmers and truck gardeners along the Atlantic coast caused by the destructive green pea louse was estimated at $3,000,000. The first half of the nineteenth century produced several students of insects in America, among which the names of Thomas Say and Thaddeus William Harris were especially prominent. The injurious insects were studied by Harris, and his report on the “ Insects Injurious to Vegetation,” first published in 1841, has passed through several editions and still remains a classic, though many of our present methods of combating insect pests were, in Harris’ time, unknown. 196 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., New York was the first State to employ an entomologist with a definite salary, and it is said that Dr. Fitch’s reports saved $50,000 annually to the farmers of New York. B.D. Walsh was made State entomologist of Illinois in 1860 and in 1868 Dr. C. V. Riley was appointed to a cofresponding position in Missouri. Now nearly every State in the Union, either by a special act of the legislature or through its experiment sta- tion, employs an entomologist who is prepared to investigate insect outbreaks and advise treatment. We cannot give too much credit to these pioneer workers in the field of economic entomology. Much of the work which they did was so well done that their reports form an important part of the litera- ture of the subject today. But conditions are ever changing, and insects that were not injurious yesterday may become so tomorrow. Sometimes introduced species may be combated most suc- cessfully by importing their natural enemies to keep them in check. One of the most striking examples of this is found in the case of the cottony cushion scale insect (Jcerya purchasi), which was introduced into California in 1869. It attacked orchard trees and garden plants, but was especially injurious to orange trees. For a long time no one knew where the pest came from, but careful investigation showed that it had been brought to California from Australia on the Acacia. In 1886 the pest had spread to eight different counties of the State. Dr. C. V. Riley, who was then entomologist of the United States Department of Agriculture, realized the benefit that might result from studying the insect in its native habitat and introducing into America such parasites as might be found effective in holding the scale in check. He urged that Congress either make a special appropriation or make avail- able a portion of the regular appropriation to the Division of Entomology for the purpose. But Congress failed to act upon the matter. The Melbourne exposition in 1888 afforded the desired opportunity, and on the suggestion of Dr. Riley, supported by many other advocates of the enterprise, Secre- tary Blaine appointed a trained entomologist to go to the exposition as an agent of the State Department, with the understanding that he might employ his spare time in study- ing the cottony cushion scale and its parasites. Mr. A. Koebele was appointed, and during the season several con- 1902. | INSECTS — RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 197 signments of parasites and predacious insects were sent to California, where an agent of the department cared for them and colonized them upon scale-infested trees under closed tents. A ladybird beetle (Novius cardinalis) at once demon- strated its ability to devour immense numbers of the scales. About 127 specimens of these ladybird beetles were received and, after colonizing, these multiplied rapidly, as food was abundant. When the numbers had increased to.a sufficient extent they were distributed throughout the infested region, and it is said that from the progeny of those 127 beetles Cali- fornia was practically cleared of the cottony cushion scale in about eighteen months. The scale has since appeared in Florida, and the ladybird beetle has recently been transported to Florida from California and seems to be doing effective work in checking the spread of the scale. We are looking and hoping for some equally beneficial results from the recent investigations concerning the San José scale.* Last spring the Department of Agriculture sent one of its entomologists, Mr. C. L. Marlatt, to Asia to find if possible the original habitat of this insect. After searching Japan for five months Mr. Marlatt decided that the scale was not in- digenous to that country, but that it had been introduced into Japan from America at several different points and at different times. Proceeding to North China, Mr. Marlatt found a region near Pekin and the Great Wall where the scale occurs scatteringly on native fruit trees and shrubs. No fruits have ever been imported into this region. The scale has a natural enemy in the form of a ladybird beetle (Chilocorus similis), and many specimens have been collected and shipped to Washington, where measures will be taken to acclimatize and establish the species. An account of the fig industry of California is of remark- able interest. Though figs had been grown in America for nearly two hundred years, the varieties were of inferior quality. An attempt was made in 1882 to grow the Smyrna fig in Cali- fornia, but the fruit dropped before maturing. More trees were set in 1886, and again in 1888 and 1889, and still later, in 1891, without success. It was finally ascertained that in order to produce Smyrna * Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1gor, p. 96. 198 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., figs of good quality the flowers must receive pollen from the wild fig or caprifig. In Smyrna this pollination is performed by a minute insect known as Blastophaga, and there were many unsuccessful attempts to introduce this insect into California. Finally in the spring of 1899, after many unsuccessful ship- ments, Mr. W. T. Swingle, who was traveling in Southern Europe, gathering seeds and plants for the Department of Agriculture, sent to this country eight boxes of caprifigs, which were taken to California, cut open, and placed under the tented tree to allow the Blastophaga insects to emerge and work upon the flowers of the tree. After weeks and months of close study and observation it was seen that the insects had become established in California, and a few Smyrna figs of good quality were produced that season. The little insects have survived the winters and have multiplied to such an extent that for the present season the crop of California amounts to nearly seventy-five tons of choice Smyrna figs. The presence of certain kinds of mosquitoes in certain re- gions have an important bearing not only upon agriculture, but upon a still larger question — that of the public health. That persons are infected with malaria and yellow fever chiefly, if not entirely, through mosquito bites has now been established beyond question. The mosquitoes act not merely as carriers of the germs, but as secondary hosts of the disease parasites. In other words, the organism must develop a cer- tain stage inside the mosquito before it is possible for man to contract the disease. The yellow fever germ is found only in connection with mosquitoes belonging to the genus Stego- myia, which live in the tropics, and the genus Anopheles is wholly responsible for harboring and transmitting the ma- larial parasite. Of course species of Anopheles occur in many parts of the country where malaria is unknown, but malaria does not occur habitually in localities outside the range of Anopheles. This malarial mosquito, then, which is a common one here in Connecticut, can exist quite as well without the malarial parasite; but if it bites a person suffering with the disease it receives in the blood some malarial germs which go through their development inside the insect, and after a certain stage has been reached, if the mosquito bites another person who is not immune this person may contract the dis- 1902. | - INSECTS — RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 199 ease. These mosquitoes breed in stagnant water, either fresh or brackish, and to some extent in the damp marshes. They do not fly great distances, though sometimes are driven by winds, but usually breed in the immediate vicinity of their attacks. Draining stagnant pools and marshes is therefore recommended, and when that cannot be done the insects may be prevented from breeding by keeping the surface of the water covered with a thin film of petroleum. Experience in other places shows that localities may become comparatively if not entirely free from mosquitoes in this way by a little effort. A tub of water about the homestead may breed enough mosquitoes to supply a whole neighborhood, and, while this kind of mosquito will not give us malaria, it is safe to say that we do not really enjoy the presence of even the harmless Culex pungens. Communities may, by concerted action and small expense, greatly improve their surroundings by preventing the breeding of mosquitoes, and in malarial districts it would seem a legitimate work for the boards of health. It must be apparent to everyone that this subject of insects is an important one, and, to the farmer at least, its importance will increase as time goes on. Our ocean steam- ships that sail around the globe unite with our transconti- nental railway trains in carrying produce to the very “ends of the earth.” They have been, and are, carrying species of insects from one country to another. In a new environment, if food is abundant, the insect generally exceeds its former rate of multiplication because its natural enemies have been left behind. It can start in business free from all incum- brances like a merchant who has gone through bankruptcy and is cleared from his debts. Frequently it is a much greater pest than in its native habitat. Then as forests are destroyed and waste lands reclaimed, and their natural food supply cut off, insects are forced to attack the cultivated plants. We and not the insects are responsible for the changed conditions. In fact, to a large extent the record of our own development and civilization is the record of the increase of insect pests. He who dances must pay the fiddler. Connecticut at the last session of its legislature made pro- vision for the study and dissemination of knowledge concern- ing insects in this State, by appropriating to its experiment 200 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., station at New Haven a sum of money for this purpose. The work naturally falls into two divisions — that of experiment and study in order to acquire new facts about the structure and habits of insects and the effect of treatment under Con- necticut conditions, and, through published matter, corre- spondence, and lectures, to place this information within reach of the farmers, gardeners, and fruit growers of the State. By aid of the stereopticon we will now consider in detail a few of the species which are found in Connecticut. The San José Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comst.). This is the worst pest in Connecticut fruit orchards. It was brought into the Eastern states about thirteen years ago upon nursery stock from California. It was first discovered at Charlottesburg, Va., in 1893. Soon after this it was found in Florida, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New Jer- sey. In 1895 it was found in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York. It is now probably present in nearly every State of the Union, except, perhaps, some of the extreme northern ones. It was first discovered in Connecticut at New London in June, 1895, by Dr. W. C. Sturgis, then botanist of the State Experiment Station. At that time it had already killed several peach trees which had been planted for four or five years. It was probably introduced on nursery stock from New Jersey in 1890 or 1891. Since then it has been discov- ered in many different localities in the State and has been found in many of the large orchards and nurseries. This insect does not lay eggs like most of the scale in- sects, but the female brings forth living young. There are three broods each year, with a possible fourth brood, if the cold weather holds off well into the fall. The trees are in- jured by being covered over with this minute scale insect which sucks the sap from them, not only on the twigs, but it gets on the leaves and the fruit as well. It is very small, scarcely ever reaching a diameter of one- eighth of an inch when full grown. It is circular in outline with a raised portion or nipple in the center, with a few rather indistinct concentric markings between this and the outside. At birth the young insect crawls about for twenty-seven or twenty-eight hours upon the bark, or until it finds a suit- able place to establish itself. It then begins to suck the sap of the tree through its proboscis, which it inserts into the tissues, and does not travel afterwards. 1902. | INSECTS — RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 201 At first the insect is provided with legs, and antennae, eyes and mouth parts, and shortly after it settles upon the bark a number of white waxy filaments are thrown out upon its back, and these melt down and the insect casts its skin. These filaments, together with the cast skin, form the ex- ternal covering of the scale. Soon after this the legs and antennae disappear. The insect also loses its eyes. The mature female has no legs, eyes, antennae, but has the mouth parts and reproductive organs very strongly developed. With the male insect these organs do not all disappear, but the adult goes forth with very large antennae, and with wings, legs, and eyes. He has, however, no digestive system, and therefore cannot take food. The shell or armor of the male differs from that of the female in being elongated, with the nipple near one end. When mature the male comes forth from under the shell and flies away. The insect passes the winter in a half-grown state, and does not begin to reproduce until the last of June in this latitude. After that the females continue to bring forth living young for a period of about six weeks and then die. These young reach maturity in about a month, when they also pro- ceed to reproduce, and, as the season advances, the number of young increases. During the first of the season less than 150 young are born from each female, but late in the fall, however, a single female has been known to give birth to nearly 600 young. This gives us some idea of the remark- able reproductive powers of the species. It is necessary to use drastic measures in fighting so seri- ous a pest. Orchardists are now spraying their trees with undiluted crude oil, with kerosene mixed with water in vari- ous proportions, and with whale oil soap, two pounds in one gallon of water. The cheapest remedy is kerosene mixed with water by means of a pump made for the purpose. Twenty to twenty-five per cent. of kerosene will scale if ap- plied just before the leaves come out in the spring. It must be used on a bright clear day or there will be danger of in- juring the trees. Crude oil has this advantage, that it remains on the tree for several months, making it nearly impossible for the young insects to establish themselves upon the bark. Whale oil soap is rather difficult to dissolve and to spray in the proportions named, and it thickens very quickly upon cooling. 202 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., In nurseries, fumigation is now practiced in Connecticut. This requires a tight box, room, or tent in which the trees are placed. The materials used are cyanide of potash, sul- phuric acid, and water. An earthenware dish may be used as a vessel in which to generate the gas. For each one hun- dred cubic feet of space take twenty-five drachms, or four- fifths of an ounce of strong cyanide of potash, one and one- fourth ounces of sulphuric acid, and two ounces of water. Place the acid in the generating vessel and pour in the water slowly with a constant stirring. This jar, or vessel, should be placed inside the fumigating house within easy reach of the door, the house having been filled with the nursery stock to be fumigated previously. The cyanide should then be dropped into the jar quickly and the door closed, and the person should withdraw at once. The trees should be left in the house for thirty minutes, when the house may be opened from the outside and aired thoroughly before anyone enters. This gas is extremely poisonous and may cause death if one breathes it. . It would be well if our orchardists would demand that all their nursery stock be fumigated before being sent to them from the nurseries. The oyster shell bark louse (Mytilaspis pomorum, Bouche). This pest has long been present upon our apple trees as well as upon the young birch, ash, and poplar trees in our fields and forests. There is only one generation annually of this insect. It passes the winter in the egg stage, and if we lift the armor at this season of the year (February) we will find a mass of white oval eggs beneath. These eggs hatch about June first in this latitude. The young insects crawl about for a short time and then locate upon the bark and begin to suck the sap. The armor or shell is elongated and narrow at one end, and is often curled, curved, or twisted. It is usually about the’same color as the bark when found upon apple trees. It grows on large apples trees usually and is seldom found upon young nursery trees. It is very hard to kill this insect during the egg stage, or in fact at any time of the year except just after the eggs hatch. If we spray the trees thoroughly the first or second week in June, using any of the common contact insecticides, like common soap and water, one pound in eight gallons, or whale oi! soap and water, we can kill them readily. 1902. | INSECTS — RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 203 The scurvy bark louse (Chionaspis furfurus, Fitch). This is a very common scale insect. Unlike the oyster shell bark louse, this is seldom found upon large orchard trees, but commonly occurs on young trees in the nursery or upon newly-set trees in the orchard. Apple and pear trees are most commonly infested. The life history of this species is very similar to that of the oyster shell bark louse, except that the eggs hatch a few days earlier, usually hatching the latter part of May. The eggs are oval in shape and purple in color. The armor or shell is broader than that of the oyster shell bark louse, and is of a light gray color and sometimes nearly white. The armor of the female is broad and pear shaped, while that of the male is smaller and is nar- rower. On account of the color of this insect they are very conspicuous upon the bark. The tomato worm (Protoparce celeus). This is a common insect attacking the tomato and tobacco plants of Connecticut. It is from three to four inches in length when fully grown, and has a curved horn on the pos- terior extremity. It injures the plants by eating the foliage. It is the caterpillar of one of the sphinx moths which fly about at dusk and sip honey from the flowers. The moth has a large body with long narrow wings which are gray in color and marked with black lines. The body has a row of orange spots on each side. Hand picking is commonly practtced among the tobacco growers of the State, though in Kentucky the tobacco plants are sprayed with Paris green. Any of the arsenical poisons will preserve the plants from the attacks of this insect. The green pea louse (Nectarophora pist). During the season of 1899 the pea crop was severely in- jured throughout the Atlantic states by the depredations of a small plant louse, known as the green pea louse. It had never occurred in destructive numbers before. It was not known to American entomologists, but investigation showed it to be identical with the European species, and it had been introduced into America. It lives through the winter upon the clover plant, either upon the crimson or red clover. It leaves this plant about the first of June and goes on to the pea vines in a garden or field, both the sweet peas and garden varieties being subject to its attacks. In the canning dis- 204 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., tricts of Maryland and Delaware this insect caused a loss of many thousands of dollars, and methods for holding it in check were so expensive that many growers preferred to sac- rifice the crop rather than to make an attempt to destroy the insect. It is almost impossible to spray pea vines, because the spray solution does not adhere to the leaves, and the in- sects are on the under side of the leaves to a large extent. Spraying proved so expensive that the large growers were compelled to abandon it. It was found, however, that upon brushing the vines a large proportion of the insects fell to the ground, and that by brushing two adjacent rows the in- sects could be brushed into the space between the rows in such a manner that they could be killed by going through with a horse and cultivator, thus crushing some and burying others. It was found that by practicing this method very few of them succeeded in getting back upon the pea vines. If the vines were too large to admit of cultivation, a long shallow pan containing kerosene can be drawn along between the rows and the lice brushed into it. By repeating this about twice a week a fair crop of peas can be obtained. The early varieties, however, are nearly mature before this insect leaves the clover plant, so that growers are now raising early peas and paying less attention to the later varieties. Wherever the late varieties are grown, however, it is necessary to fight the insect. During 1900 the insect was nearly as abundant as during 1899, but during 1901 it was a good deal less abun- dant, and we have reason to expect that it may not annually be a serious pest in our fields and gardens. The celery caterpillar (Papilio asteris). We have all noticed this curious green and black cater- pillar feeding upon the celery, parsley, and fennel in the garden. This insect is striped transversely, and puts forth a pair of yellow hornlike appendages from the head when disturbed. It is known as the celery caterpillar and is the larva of one of our commonest swallow-tail butterflies. The butterfly is nearly black, with yellow spots along the edges of the wings and blue markings upon the hind wings. It has two taillike appendages upon the hind wings which give it its name of the swallow-tail butterfly. The female lays eggs upon the leaves of the celery, and the caterpillar begins as soon as hatched to feed upon the plant. Hand picking or poisoning of the plants is the remedy. 1902:] INSECTS — RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 205 The Codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). The common apple worm, or Codlin moth, is a serious pest in the orchards. The adult is a pretty brown moth which lays eggs upon the young apples soon after the blossoms appear. The eggs are usually placed upon the young fruit, but may be deposited upon the leaves. At this time the young apples stand upright and the calyx is wide open. If we spray the trees with poison at this time we are sure to put some of the poison into the calyx cup, and the young caterpillar, wherever hatched, usually goes to this part of the apple to make his tunnel into it. The presence of the poison there will prevent injury to the apple and gill kill the larvae that try to tunnel into it. A week or ten days after the blos- som falls this calyx cup begins to close up so that it is im- possible then to place any poison in it, and still later, when the apple is perhaps half grown, it hangs down so that the poison would not remain in this calyx if put upon the fruit. The insect tunnels inside the fruit, usually in the region of the core, until full-grown, when it eats a hole to the outside of the apple and goes to the ground or to the trunk of the tree and makes its cocoon. Spraying the tree with Paris green, one pound to 150 pounds of water, isa common remedy. At least three pounds of lime should be slacked and added to this mixture to pre- vent injury to the foliage. Orchardists are now spraying their trees with Bordeaux mixture to prevent injury from the various blights and fungi attacking the trees and fruit, and as this mixture contains a large quantity of lime the Paris green may be added to it directly without injury. The gypsy moth (Porthetria dispar). I wish to call attention to the fact that the State of Massa- chusetts has discontinued fighting the gypsy moth. Nearly one million dollars have been expended during the past ten years in fighting this insect by that State, but at the last legislature the appropriation to continue the work was re- fused, and we may now expect that the insect will be brought into our State. This insect was introduced into America in 1868 by a man who was experimenting with silk culture. He had hopes that this species might prove of value. A few in- sects accidentally escaped and, though nothing was seen of them for several years, and it was thought that they had all . 206 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., perished; it proved to have established itself in the region near Boston, and finally spread over a territory of over 200 square miles, mostly to the north and northwest of Boston. I have been informed by men connected with the work of extermination that had the appropriation been granted, and the work continued for a while longer, extermination would have been possible, but since the work was discontinued the insect has now spread and reached the former maximum limit of distribution. Moreover, a colony has been found in Prov- idence, R. I. This insect devours the foliage of all kinds of fruit, shade, and forest trees, coniferous trees even being not excepted. As @his insect’s larva crawls under rubbish to make its cocoons, it will not be at all strange if some of them are brought upon railway trains into the surrounding states. This seems a question of national importance and almost too large for a single State to grapple with. It is well to be on the lookout for it in Connecticut, and if discovered early prompt measures may be able to exterminate the first few colonies, though it is only a question of time when it will be established here and distributed over the State. Maple borer (Plagionotus speciosus). Our shade trees are injured by a borer which cuts a tunnel partly in the bark and partly in the sap wood, often girdling the tree. The tunnel is usually cut in a spiral form, going upward and around the tree. The eggs are deposited upon the bark in July by a handsome beetle about three-quarters of an inch in length, being black with bright yellow markings. These beetles may be found during the first part of July upon the trunks and branches of maples. The sugar maple and the silver maple are both attacked. The life history of this insect has not been thoroughly worked out. It has merely been found that the larvae after being hatched from the eggs begin to tunnel in the manner already described, and in that way cause severe injury to the trees. Some trees even have been injured to such an extent that they have died. We can nearly always find this insect, if present in a tree, by the chips or sawdust thrown out from the borers. Whenever we find these if we look we will find a small opening into the bore where the larvae begin to work. If an oil can be filled with bisul- phide of carbon and the nose inserted into this bore, and a few drops placed inside and then the burrow stopped up at once, / ‘ 1902. | LESSONS FROM THE PAN-AMERICAN. 207 the fumes will kill the borer. We can also accomplish some- thing by capturing the beetles when we find them and by dressing over any wounds on the tree caused by the borers. Large dead spaces on the trunk are sometimes formed and the bark peels off. In such cases a coat of paint will prevent decay and prolong the life of the tree. A word about lady beetles. Nearly all of the lady beetles are our friends and should not be destroyed. All except two species in the Northeastern states feed upon other insects, mostly plant lice and scale insects, and have proven to be an important factor in holding some of the injurious species in check. The dragon flies that dart about so swiftly in the meadows and along the roadside, though they often terrify young children, yet they are perfectly harmless and are among our best friends. The larva of the dragon fly lives in the water, and subsists almost entirely upon the larvae of mos- quitoes. The adult insect, which is often known as the devil’s darning needle, catches many mosquitoes in its flight and de- vours them. It has very large wings and is able to fly long distances with a quick and strong motion which enables it to turn quickly in the air and capture its prey. Though many of these insects do not seem to us of very great importance, they exert a powerful influence in holding in check some of the noxious species, and thus make the world pleasanter for us to live in. MORNING SESSION. Thursday, December roth. Convention called to order at 10 A. M., Vice-President Seeley in the chair. The PRESIDENT. We propose to open our session this morning by singing the good old national air “ America,” and we want everybody to join. When we have done that, Prof. Phelps is going to give us some lessons drawn from the Pan-American Exposition. “America” sung by the audience. The PRESIDENT. Now I have the pleasure of introducing 208 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., to you this morning Prof. C. S. Phelps of the Connecticut Agricultural College, who will, as I said a moment ago, give us some lessons drawn from the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo. AGRICULTURAL LESSONS FROM THE PAN- AMERICAN EXPOSITION. By Pror. C. S. PHELPS. The holding of great expositions has become an estab- lished custom in this country. We began with the great exposition known as the “ Centennial” in 1876, which was followed by the Southern Exposition at New Orleans in 1885, and the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, and still later by the Southern Exposition at Atlanta, and then the present year came the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo and the Charleston Exposition, which is now in progress. These expositions surely afford a valuable means for keeping people posted as to our progress as a nation, and particularly as to the special features common to different parts of the country. It is always interesting to point out some of the salient features of these expositions. As I look over the ground it seems to me that the first exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 represented this nation as a nation of manufacturers. The progress we had made as a manufacturing people was probably more clearly shown at that exposition than any other one thing. When we come to the exposition at New Orleans in 1885, the most prominent feature seems to have been the industrial advantages of the South. The benefits derived from that are seen in the great growth that has been made in the industries of the South during the past fifteen years. Now some of the largest cotton plants are located in that Southern land, to the advantage of the parties engaged in those industries. The product which they wish to manu- facture is near their doors, while coal, the source of motive power, also is found close at hand. It seems probable that that exposition helped more than any one thing to build up the industries of the South. When we come to the considera- tion of the Columbian Exposition it seems as though that 1902. | LESSONS FROM THE PAN-AMERICAN. 209: helped to establish our place among other nations, first, as a manufacturing nation, with ability to compete with the other nations of the world, and secondly, it showed our ability to supply the world with needed agricultural products. When we come down, a few years later, to the exposition at Atlanta, it set forth more strikingly than anything else the agricultural possibilities of the South and the importance of the negro race in the development of those possibilities. The display in agricultural lines made by the negro as a race and the great work that has been done by two or three institutions for the uplifting of the negro were set forth most prominently at that exposition. In a similar way the exposition at Buffalo this past summer illustrated our growth and our capacity as a nation in one particular line, electrical engineering, and the industries that have been the outgrowth of electrical invention and en- gineering. - In a like manner these great expositions have helped to establish our possibilities as an agricultural nation, and espe- cially to show the agricultural resources of the different parts of the country. For example, that vast tract of land in the valleys of the Mississippi and its tributaries is noted for the production of cereals; and the exhibits from the states located in that region helped to substantiate their reputation in this line. On the other hand, they could not keep pace with the Eastern states in the exhibits of vegetables and fruits. These ‘special products showed the line of agriculture for which the Eastern states are adapted. In a way similar the Southern states were able to show what they could do in special lines of agriculture. Some of the Southern states outstripped many of the Northern states, especially in the excellence and variety of their products. This was at first surprising to me, but when I stopped to consider I soon saw the reasons. I was particularly impressed with the wonderful variety of products exhibited from Louisiana, but after a moment I thought, “ Louisiana is favored in the matter of climate.” For example, she can grow everything that we can grow, and a great many things we cannot grow, because of our peculiar climate. She can raise sugar cane, sorghum, and alfalfa to good advantage. She can grow a large number of products which are particularly adapted to warm climate, and which AcR.—14 210 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., could not be grown in the North at all. In the same way we studied different parts of America. Canada, for instance, showed her capacity as a great dairy region. She showed it in the fact that she supplied to the great Model Dairy two of the leading breeds of cattle. All of the Jerseys and Ayrshires that were entered in that competition came from across the borders; and these breeds certainly made a good showing. Canada also showed her capacity in the line of dairy products. If you went to the Dairy building you were impressed with the cheese exhibit from Canada, especially with the high and uniform excellence of the product. Then if you considered a little and asked what position Canadian cheese held in the markets of the world you would find, upon a little inquiry, that England takes a good share of the cheese which is ex- ported from Canada, in preference to that which is made in the United States, simply because that made in our country cannot be depended upon. We are told that much of our cheese is found to be made of skim milk, while others contain a yellow oil that never came from milk. Further, we are told that some cheese can be gotten in the United States which is first-class, but the quality is not maintained, and as a result the English people prefer to get their cheese from Canada, where they have very strict laws regarding the placing on the market of skim milk cheese or filled cheese. Now, you can draw your own agricultural lesson from that little fact. Canada, too, represents a tract of country which is open- ing up new territory, and especially in one of her provinces, Manitoba. At the present time the old adage which I believe is ascribed to Horace Greeley, “Go West, young man,’ is being changed a little, and they are saying “ Go Northwest, young man, and you will find rich territory, with plenty of opportunities for raising the leading cereals or for keeping a dairy; you will find the agricultural opportunities generally superior to those in the states.” I am inclined to think that this is true, because the best of our agricultural lands within the states have been taken up, and most of the available lands now are those that require artificial watering to make them productive. Possibly more general interest was shown by farmers in one particular feature of the fair than any other, and that was the Model Dairy. And I thought perhaps it would be 1902. | LESSONS FROM THE PAN-AMERICAN. Zk proper for me to take a little time to speak to you about it. It was unfortunate that this great enterprise was diverted from its main purpose and was made a test between the breeds. It was a battle of breeds —a thing it never was designed to be by the original promoters. The original plan was to make it simply a great model dairy, a gathering together of fine specimens of the leading breeds of dairy cattle and keeping them under model conditions of stabling, care, and feeding. When these animals were brought together the repre- sentatives of the different breeds were anxious that their par- ticular breed should make as good a showing as possible against other breeds, and the outcome was an effort through- out the test to see which breed would excel. Whoever makes a careful study of the results of this test is sure to be disap- pointed if he considers the leading lesson to be which breed gave the best results. First, because there were only five cows representing each breed, and so small a number cannot properly represent. any one of our large and important breeds of dairy animals. Secondly, the conditions under which the ‘ animals were kept were not such as to cause them to do their best. You may say that that doesn’t necessarily affect a com- parison between the breeds. Possibly that is true, but the conditions were not such as to affect each breed alike. For instance, some of the breeds of cattle are naturally nervous and excitable in temperament, and, being shut up as they were for a period of six months, scarcely being let out at all except as they might get a little opportunity at night, they could not do their best. Thirdly, it should be remembered that for at least seven or eight hours of the day large crowds were trooping through those stables. Most of our cows are not accustomed to being disturbed in that manner, and those breeds which have a naturally nervous and excitable tempera- ment would be most seriously affected by this condition. In other words, the different breeds would not be affected alike by these unnatural surroundings. The fourth point is that two of the breeds of cattle did not thoroughly represent our American breeds. The Ayrshires and Jerseys came entirely from Canada, and most anyone will admit that a fairer and better representation of these two breeds could have been obtained if the breeds were selected from the United States as well as from Canada. For these reasons I think the test could not be considered a fair one between the breeds. 212 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., At the same time there are lessons which we can draw from this great model dairy test which are of some value to us as dairy farmers. One feature that occurred to me in con- nection with the test, and one which I think can be pointed to as an agricultural lesson, was the cleanliness of the stables and their surroundings. This was remarked upon by a great many people. Ladies who went through the barns would remark, ‘‘ Why, this does not seem like a stable; I do not get any stable odors here.” That is a lesson that every farmer can take home to himself. If he wishes the highest grade of products, those which will command the highest prices, whether of milk, or butter, or cheese, he has got to take this lesson into consideration and put its teachings into practice on his own farm. The test showed, too, that all the good animals do not belong to the same breed. It showed that there are very many valuable animals in each breed, and it showed equally as clearly that there are some poor animals in each of the breeds. If we take the fifty animals representing the ten breeds and place them in their order of excellence in profit for butter, and then pick out the best cow and the poorest cow of each of the leading breeds, we find this condition: the best Guernsey, in point of profit for butter, ranked No. 1 in the total herd of fifty cows, while the poorest Guernsey ranked No. 43; the best Jersey ranked No. 4 and ‘the poorest No. 29; the best Ayrshire ranked No. 8 and the poorest Ayrshire No. 28; the best Holstein ranked No. 6 and the poorest No. 33; the best Red-Polled ranked No. 2 and the poorest No. 40. Another illustration will show the same point. If we select the ten best cows in the herd of fifty we will find that of those ten three are Guernseys, three are Ayrshires, two — are Jerseys, one is a Red-Polled, and one is a Holstein. | If we make a close study of the individuals within a breed we find the conditions which help to explain this particular point. By comparing the general build and type of the cows with their productiveness we find that the animals that con- form most closely to what is now being adopted as the dairy type were, without regard to breed, the most productive. Another point which seemed to be clearly shown was that if you are keeping cows for butter production chiefly you should make your selection from certain breeds. If you are 1902. | LESSONS FROM THE PAN-AMERICAN, 213 keeping cows for milk production, without very much regard to the quality of the milk, you should select from certain other breeds. For example, if you are sending milk to New York, Boston, or Providence, and the trade doesn’t care very much what the quality of the milk is, provided it meets the requirements of the local standard, you would find among the Holsteins and Ayrshires cows that are more productive and which would, consequently, give you more quarts and prob- ably more dollars than you would find among the Jerseys and Guernseys. On the other hand, if you are producing butter and want to get the largest quantity of butter fat and market- able butter from your cows, you would find more animals among the Jerseys and Guernseys that would answer that requirement than among the Holsteins and Ayrshires. So much for the dairy test. Now, it may be of some interest to you if I take a little time in telling what part Connecticut took in this great Pan- American Exposition, and how she helped to make it a suc- cess. Her exhibits extended all the way from wooden nutmegs to the longest ears of corn that were shown from any State in America. The horticultural exhibit and the agricultural exhibit made generous displays of wooden nut- megs, and we had a number of very interesting inquiries for this product. For example, a woman came along one day and said she wanted to see some of the wooden nutmegs that grew in Connecticut. These were shown to her. She looked them over carefully, but seemed a little puzzled, and finally she asked, “ Cannot you show me the bushes that they grow on?” In the horticultural exhibit they had quite a lot of them, and overhead was a placard reading, ‘“ Product of Con- necticut forests.” Our friend, Mr. Eddy, improved that a little by adding to it so that it read, “ Product of Connecticut forests; ripened by machinery.” That seemed to puzzle people more than any other thing in the exhibit. As I said a moment ago, many of the states were noted for showing some special product which represented their special agricultural industry, and Connecticut had at least one or two products which were not excelled by those of any other country or State. The product from our State which attracted as much attention as anything was the tobacco. According to the opinion of experts this was not surpassed by the tobacco from any other State or country. 214 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Connecticut showed one product in the dairy line that could not be equaled by any other part of the country, and that was her pineapple cheeses. This cheese is made in Goshen, Conn., and received at the fair a score of ninety- eight and one-half points, which is a very high score for any dairy product. The horticultural exhibit was noted for the great variety of products that were shown. This exhibit was in general charge of Prof. Gulley, and he kept up quite a full display throughout the season of everything in the line of fruits. Not only were the fruits themselves shown, but the blossoms of many of them in their season, so that the people could see the characteristics of the plant, and its manner of flowering, as well as the fruit in its season. I think Connecticut could well claim the distinction of displaying the greatest variety of fresh fruits throughout the whole season. Possibly California may have shown a greater variety, but they were mostly canned fruits. Our exhibit of apples was good up to June, but from June to the middle of August we had no apples, be- cause there were not enough put into cold storage to keep up an exhibit throughout the whole season. The small fruits, which are hard to ship, could not be gotten there in sufficient quantities to keep the exhibit up to its fullest extent, and there was a period when the tables were not fully covered. But at the same time there was a showing of everything in its season. Later on, when the larger fruits came into bearing, the apples and the pears and the peaches, we had a full ex- hibit. Connecticut’s peaches certainly attracted a great deal of attention during the month of September, and were highly praised for their general excellence. The dairy exhibit from Connecticut was of good quality. A large number of our creameries sent samples of their prod- ucts at different times. These exhibits were supposed to have been made at one period during the month, with the excep- tion of July and August. The exhibit in May was below what it would have been, on account of the building not being prepared, but the exhibits in June, September, and October, from all of the various states, were quite large, and Connecti- cut did her full share toward making this special feature a success. The exhibit of creamery butter was larger in the total 1902. | LESSONS FROM THE PAN-AMERICAN. 215 quantity of the products exhibited, but there was a larger number of individuals who exhibited butter than of the cream- eries. It seems to me that as farmers and dairymen we should have taken a greater interest in the matter of a full exhibit of our dairy products. The size of the exhibit of Connecticut dairy. products was not on a par with those of other large dairy states, and dairying certainly is one of our leading in- dustries. Its general excellence compared well with the ex- hibits from other states, but the quantity exhibited and the number of exhibitors were so limited that they were not in proportion to our standing as a dairy State. Probably many of our creamery managers would say that there was no advantage to be gained by exhibiting; that there is a ready market for all the dairy products of our creameries, and that there is no advantage in trying to get a high score or a prize at such a fair as the one at Buffalo. It strikes me, however, that our farmers and our creamery managers ought to have enough State pride in such a matter to have the State well represented as compared with other dairy states, even if they do not get anything out of it from a pecuniary point of view. Connecticut did not attempt to make a mammoth exhibit in any line. The general agricultural exhibit was not a large one. The amount of space which was given to the State was not large enough to admit making a mammoth exhibit, but, at the same time, the general quality of the exhibit from Con- necticut was very high, and received much praise from officers of the fair who made a close study of it, and by visitors who took pains to carefully examine the products. The exhibit of corn from this State was greater in variety than from any other State. Of course, there were greater displays of corn than we made, but in so far as the number of carefully selected and named varieties was concerned, Con- necticut could not be excelled. The exhibit of vegetables during the fall of the year was fair. The exhibit of potatoes was not up to what we have been able to show in many years in our State at our local fairs. The reason for this is apparent to all who attempted to grow potatoes during the last season. The potato crop in general throughout the country, and particularly in Con- necticut, was of rather poor quality, and so the exhibit in 216 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., this line could not be up to the standard of a good potato season. We had a very fine exhibit of seeds from three of our lead- ing seed growers, and this went a great way toward filling up the space and making a creditable exhibit, and it helped to show a great variety of products grown in our State. Possibly a few suggestions would not be out of place here. There is a great deal of hard work in connection with the management of exhibits at a fair like that at Buffalo, and very little glory or compensation. From the experience which I have had at two of these great expositions, I think, perhaps, what I shall say will be of some advantage to some one at some time. The first suggestion, which is the out- growth of the last exposition, is this: Whenever you go before your committee of the legislature with a bill making an appropriation for an exhibit of agricultural products, I would advise you to word the bill so that the funds will be available as needed, instead of after the money is expended. Attempting to be a banker for the State and carrying on the work of preparing and caring for the exhibits are two things which do not go well together. I found that trying to be a professional banker for the State, and spending my own funds for the work of the State while the same were needed for the support of myself and family, was not altogether convenient. If a man has a large bank account and is perfectly willing to loan it to the State without compensation, that method of receiving and using the appropriation may be all right; but my suggestion would be that the appropriation be made avail- able as needed. The next point was strongly impressed upon me at the time of the World’s Fair. Just about that time, as you may remember, we had a deadlock in the legislature in this State, so that no appropriation could be made for the fair until the meeting of the legislature just before the opening of the fair. That meant, of course, that there was practically no work done toward getting the products ready for the exposition until the season that the fair occurred. This was a decided disadvantage, as very little material had been saved over from the crops of the year before that could be used for this pur- pose. We were thus unable to get the decorative part of the exhibit into proper shape until along in July, when the grains, 1902. | LESSONS FROM THE PAN-AMERICAN. 217 grasses, clovers, and such products came into full growth. The consequence was that the general effect of the exhibit was not up to what it should have been in the earlier part of the fair. In the case of the Buffalo Exposition we were a little more fortunate, because the Board of Agriculture, seeing the necessity of starting this work early, came forward and made an appropriation so that we could have the materials ready for fitting up our space at the opening of the fair. This proved to be a decided advantage, because a considerable amount of work was done previous to the year of the fair, and considerable material was stored up and gotten into shape to use, so that a very good display was made from the begin- ning. The next suggestion that I would make is that the man- agement of the different exhibits should select in different parts of the State farmers, young farmers preferably, who would be active and enterprising in assisting to engage and collect the products for exhibition in their local communities. I have found that the farmers, as a rule, are a class of people difficult to reach by correspondence. If I can get hold of a man and talk to him, telling him what I want, I can generally make some arrangement with him. But if I have to write to a farmer about-such matters, as a rule he is a pretty hard fellow to deal with. If he replies to your letter, the chances are, about nine times out of ten, that the reply will not be re- ceived inside of three or four weeks. If, on the other hand, there are two or three bright and enterprising young farmers in each county to assist whoever has general charge of a par- ticular line of exhibits, in ‘arranging for the growth of the products that will be of interest, and then in arranging for the collection of these products at the proper time, and the packing and shipping of the same, it would help greatly in keeping up a full display throughout the season. These two points have come to my mind particularly as being of some interest in connection with the work of the Columbian and the Pan-American Expositions, and I hope they may be of value to some one in the future. President SEELEY. I would.like to inquire how those young farmers would be compensated for their time and trouble in collecting and arranging those exhibits. 218 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Prof. PHeLps. By the State of Connecticut if the State did its duty. These remarks are those which I thought would be of most interest to our farmers. Of course, all that one saw there would be hard to describe. It would be hard to pick out the points which would be of the most interest to different individuals, but in this brief talk I have endeavored to give some things which I thought would be most interesting to you as Connecticut farmers. Of course, there were other lessons of greater interest to us as American citizens, as mem- bers of a great nation, and those lessons must have been deeply impressed upon each one who was fortunate enough to look over those great exhibits. When we went into the Manufacturing building we were at once impressed by the great array of products, and if we went into the Machinery Hall we were impressed by the array of machinery at work turning out products — machines that seemed almost to think as they went on in their operations of turning out beautifully finished products. Then if we went over into the Govern- ment building we were impressed by our strength as a nation. If we studied closely the agricultural exhibit of the United States government we were impressed by our advantages as an agricultural nation. If, in looking over that exhibit, we were not impressed with the agricultural future of this nation, it would be strange indeed. But the thing which impressed me as showing the mag- nitude of this nation and the greatness of its growth more than any other one feature was the electrical display. After going the round of the exposition buildings, after studying the beauty of the exhibits and buildings, the grand floral dis- play, and the general layout of the whole fair, you went quietly to supper and then, as twilight was coming on, you would notice that the general trend of the whole crowd was out into the great court, where, if you were fortunate enough, you would get a position to view the great electrical illumina- tion of the evening. This, it seemed to me, was the most impressive feature of the whole fair. The lights about you would all be gradually turned down, and you would stand there and notice the dim outlines of the buildings in the dis- tance; and then presently Sousa’s, or some other band, would strike up “ America.” Watching the great electrical tower, 1902.] POULTRY AS AN ADJUNCT OF THE FARM. 219 very soon you would see lights opening out from the base, and gradually opening up and growing brighter as the tower was lighted toward the top. Then all the buildings on each side of the great court would be lighted up, and soon every- thing would be in full glory and splendor, and one could not help turning away with a feeling of pride and admiration that he was a member of a great nation which could make such a marvelously wonderful display. ' The PRESIDENT. Now we will listen to our next speaker, Dr. Cooper Curtice of Rhode Island, who is to speak to us on “ Poultry as an Adjunct of the Farm.” FOULETRY AS AN ADJUNCE OF RHE PAR. By Cooper CURTICE, Biologist, Rhode Island Experiment Station. An editorial in the Rural New Yorker of 1896 stated that the value of farm poultry in the United States exceeded two hundred and ninety millions of dollars, a sum far more than twice the production of gold and silver for that year. This value was more than three times the amount of the interest on mortgages for the same year. It exceeded the value of either the cotton, wheat, swine, oat, potato, or tobacco crop. May we not be pardoned if we entertain the opinion, in the light of these figures, that poultry ranks as a staple crop rather than in the unimportant role of an adjunct crop popularly assigned to it? Behold, the hen that lays the golden egg is with us, richly repaying for any slight attentions she receives by the blessings she adds to our table, either directly through her products or indirectly through the results of the barter of those products. Were the proceeds arising from farm poultry to be de- voted to paying the mortgage interest, a surplus would be left to reduce the principal or meet the taxes. Since the mort- gages still exist and the mortgagors still have to depend on the dividends from the staple crops for paying the interest, we may infer that the poultry money is absorbed otherwise; and is it not a well-known fact that mankind is not only de- pendent on poultry for a portion of their daily bread, but 220 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., for a portion of the table luxuries? Broilers for breakfast, roasts for dinner, salads for supper, turkey for special feast days, goose for Christmas, ducks when we can afford them, and eggs all the year round is the bill of fare our poultry offers. In the past, and, I venture to offer, in the present, the chicken and the egg have been the ever ready means of barter which has secured the ever needful tea, coffee, and their sweetening. What necessaries that could not otherwise be bought from the income on the staple crops has the house- wife not purchased with her pin money furnished by the hen? Until the last few years, when a comparatively few men, envious of sharing with the farmers’ wives part of the untold millions donated by hens to the public wealth, have com- menced keeping poultry in spite of the derision of their neighbors, the poultry business, being despised as being be- neath the dignity of a farmer’s attention, has been wholly in the hands of the already overworked housewife, and carried on with the investment of a gift of a setting of eggs, an un- used corner in some shed, some scraps from the table, and a little grain that has scattered or never would be missed from the granary. If farm poultry produces the wealth it does under these conditions, with the slight attention it now receives, may we not reasonably expect that with some forethought the pro- duction may be doubled, trebled, or even quadrupled without perceptibly adding to the burdens of the farm? On what farm could not the food and shelter capacity be increased to accommodate double the number now on it? Ancient fable tells us that the hen that laid the golden egg was killed in the lust of the owner for more gold. In seeking to double the amount produced, the suggestion arises as to whether the market, the demand, would be such that prices would not fall below profitable production. With beef con- tinually going higher, with its prices controlled by the Chi- cago market, some substitute that can be cheaply produced within the reach of the working people must be supplied. The albuminous constituent of our daily ration is indispensa- ble, and if not provided in one form must be sought in an- other. The smaller animals, sheep, swine, and poultry, are destined to take the lead. If the farmer cannot supply the want, the villager, using the grains produced on the farm, 1902.] POULTRY AS AN ADJUNCT OF THE FARM. 221 will. To the specialist, the poultry man who has studied the , market, there is but one order: “ Better poultry, more poul- try; fresh eggs, more eggs; we will take all you will furnish.” Dr. D. E. Salmon, in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 14, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, of recent date, says: “ An increased supply of poultry products of the highest class would un- questionably lead to an increased consumption.” Do not the prevailing prices of poultry and eggs the year round mean that the limit of consumption is far from being reached? Do not the high prices of fall and winter mean in part that there may be an increased output to meet that trade? If eggs rise to fifty cents per dozen it does not mean that it costs that to produce them, but rather that there are few of the desired quality to be obtained. Poultry keeping is now growing most rapidly near the large markets on the small farm, and for the most part is carried on by those who have to buy a large part of the prov- ender fed. Does it not seem reasonable to expect that this growth will extend to the larger farms, and that the poultry will be used to convert the grains raised, the grass, and much that otherwise would become waste, into meat and eggs? The staple crops are more cheaply grown on the large farms of the West, but poultry can be made to convert a share of the grains grown at higher cost on Eastern farms into meat at a profit. With every convenience at hand, with insects, grass and seeds going to waste in summer time, with grain produced in summer looking for a market, with perchance boys or girls just longing for an opportunity to make their pin money, and with nearby markets paying highest prices, can there be more favorable opportunities for raising poultry than on our New England farms? The value of farm poultry as.an educator of the young must not be overlooked. It attracts them, and when they are allowed to take either full charge or share in profits makes enthusiastic workers. From the first setting of the eggs to the final rearing of birds which command the blue ribbon of their class in county, State, or national poultry show the care of the poultry demands continuous thought on the part of the attendant. The great problems of life are ever present, forethought for the cares of the day, the season, and even a term of years’ work is encouraged; application, 222 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., that quality which makes successful men, comes from the ‘regular attentions which growing animals must have; and love, patience, and fidelity to the dumb creatures which give up their lives for their owner’s comfort will surely make a deep impress on their growing characters for the better. The boy’s profits will help to clothe or educate him, or pos- sibly be laid aside for the future successful business life that the poultry business has trained him into. What man among us has not had a touch of the “chicken fever”? The boys’ turn has come. Let them improve it. Being a man, I naturally speak of the boy’s chance first. The boys need letting into the business; the girls have always been in. If we encourage the boys by giving them a start, in houses, land, and well-appointed outfit, should we not give the girls the same chance? We must remember that the girls and their mothers have built up the business on no capital. What success will they not have when they are permitted to turn back a portion of their earnings as capital? Can not a portion of the funds ordinarily devoted to starting the boys in lines already overcrowded be loaned them for a time? They will pay it back. Can not the hired man be spared to them at regular intervals to do the heavy work? Would not a successful poultry plant make the daughter independent and keep her from trying to crowd into one of the many lines now overcrowded by her sisters should the occasion un- fortunately require? Will she not be the better fitted by the business details of poultry keeping fof the housewife’s duties? The enormous reproductive powers of the hen as com- pared with those of the other domesticated animals renders the stocking of a poultry plant comparatively easy and in- expensive. The number of young and adults that can be cared for with the housing and labor at hand determine the size of the poultry plant. The food supply of the farm is usually a secondary matter. There is sufficient stock now on our farms to increase the numbers to any desirable capacity should all eggs be saved and the usual proportion hatched, but, remembering that better quality must be gained to en- large and hold the market, there may be some delay in im- proving it. There is also sufficient thoroughbred stock in breeders’ hands to allow of any moderate expansion that may reasonably be expected. 1902. | POULTRY AS AN ADJUNCT OF THE FARM. 223 The stock should be chosen to suit the market or the taste of the poultryman. Observation of the farms of New England show that the American breeds are in the greatest abundance; yet the Asiatic and European breeds have their admirers and special uses. Perusal of the entries of any large poultry show will soon reveal the popular breeds in order, and popularity is a test of merit. Having decided to breed for meat, egg, or meat and egg, choose the type and color adapted for the purpose. Should it be found inconvenient to purchase eggs for the new stock, buy cockerels and use them with the hens already owned. Kill off all the old cocks which do not conform to the standard chosen, and at least separate all the small hens during breeding time. The selected pullets from this mating ‘will furnish half-bred stock for the next season. By breeding the yearling cocks to their pullets a flock of pullets three- fourths in the strain of blood of the cockerels first bought will be produced, and this will serve for the basis of future breeding. Cockerels for the third year’s season may be procured either by purchase from the yards that the first cockerels came from or by purchase of eggs from those yards the preceding season. By selecting some well-established strain and working the flock up to the best in that strain, much more will be accomplished than by promiscuous se- lections of stock about the country. In building up the flock, market off all the grade cockerels and inferior pallets before breeding them. If in addition to the cockerels a few eggs are purchased the first year, it is probable that a thoroughbred flock can be raised which would entirely replace the "aaee in the third or fourth year if desired. The mating of thoroughbred stock requires more thought and experience, and each should profit by the direction of the older breeders. For the best success, all eggs should be set in an incubator and the young brooded artificially during the first two years; afterwards either raise by the hen or brooder as is desired. Young chickens should not be put into any henhouse or yard before it has been entirely disinfected of its vermin by a free use, once a week for three weeks, of kerosene, either crude or pure. Clean everything out first, then use the kerosene. Use slaked lime on the floor. Move the house, if possible, to fresh ground. 224 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., The incubator is a gateway between the old methods and the new, between sickness and health. It is the Stygian river beyond which communicable diseases and pests cannot go. The present flocks must furnish the eggs, the incubator hatch the young, the brooder raise them, the uninfected fields harbor them. The old flocks, having reproduced their kind, must be kept on limited grounds and finally killed off, not one being allowed with the new. If there must be mixture for breeding purposes, then the younger must be confined with the older and sacrificed when the eggs of the season are secured. What is accomplished by this? Lice and commu- nicable diseases are surely left behind and the chickens grow up, barring the noncommunicable diseases, healthy. If the proper attention is paid to housing and feeding, still another and the larger proportion of the remaining loss will be cut off. Since incubation and brooding is largely a matter of per- sonal experience and requires constant attention, a new field is opened in each community for him or her who will under- take to supply chicks for the surrounding farms. Such work requires skill, intelligence, little capital, is light, and should prove fascinating. The chicks could be supplied forty-eight hours, three weeks, or six weeks old, depending on the cir- cumstances of the purchasers. Since every mischance from. incubation to six-weeks-old chick means increase in the price of production, those most successful $n these branches will produce the chicks most economically. Early maturity, too, being so often’desirable, makes early hatching of chicks under conditions not everywhere available absolutely necessary. In the last report of the R. I. Experiment Station, experi- ments in raising young broilers have been described at some length, and those who wish to raise a few chicks may find some available suggestions by sending for it. The specializ- ing of incubation and brooding in the hands of experts will reduce the cost of production of the young chicks and enable all to increase their flocks by a definite number of chicks that will grow thriftily and mature at any desired season, at less expense than by the same methods independently pursued. The housing of chicks is important and discussed by every poultry writer. The probability of any expense entailed for building is sometimes sufficient to deprive fowls of sufficient protection. On many farms, however, there are convertible 1902.] POULTRY AS AN ADJUNCT OF THE FARM. 225 outhouses which, with a little ingenuity, will house many times the number now carried. If there were not, would not the value of the live stock to be carried in them justify con- siderable outlay of capital? If thirty chickens, a number sufficiently large to be kept together, are worth thirty dollars, it is probable that they will yield thirty dollars through the year. This sum is ten per cent. of three hundred. If any considerable share of this is devoted to buildings, the re- turns will be high and go far toward ensuring health of the flock. Much more can be spared than is usually the case. On the other hand, some quite large poultry plants seem to be handicapped in the beginning by a too excessive expendi- ture for buildings. Permanent houses, long apartment coops which open into prisonlike runs, seem to be the style most generally adopted, but seem out of place on the farm. Portable colony houses which can be drawn afield in summer and into some protected sunny place in winter seem the better. They place the fowls nearer the food, remove them from contaminated ground, and allow free range. This system is used with great suc- cess in eastern Rhode Island. A rotation of the feeding grounds is as necessary for chickens as a rotation of crops for most successful production. Allowing the chickens to run in the cornfield or in nearby pastures in summer carries them cheaply through with but little additional feeding, with- out harm to the crops. Furthermore, protection from the sun and hawks is gained. For general farm purposes but one breed of hens should be kept and no wire fences except that around the garden and small chicken department. The orchard, the hedge row, and the brush lot are fine places for chickens, and should be utilized. The barnyard should harbor the best and sufficient to keep down all the flies that would otherwise hatch from the manure piles. Concerning methods of feeding them, little need be said here. A regular supply of any of the variety of grains that may be produced on the farm with the addition of meat scraps, cut clover, and green bone will mature the chicks in fall and winter and make the hens lay. Mashes of mixed grains, together with an alternation of grain feedings, will prove more than sufficient when insects are plenty. On most AGR.—I5 226 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., farms gravel stones for grit are plentiful, but on some may be supplied. Plenty of water in clean basins is relished. A horse, a sled, one or two tubs make a very convenient outfit to distribute the rations to the colonies. The hen probably gets a balanced ration in summer when insects are plenty, but in winter not unless fed meat. The very narrow ration 1:4 has been found to favor egg production best. By handling the poultry as above outlined many losses heretofore met with will be avoided. When a doctor speaks of poultry it is always expected that he will give a number of recipes for the cure of diseases. Of all unsatisfactory bus- iness, the doctoring of hens for communicable diseases and meantime permitting them to spread them to others is the most unsatisfactory. If poultry men cannot succeed in rais- ing hens free from disease by using incubators and brooders, they may not expect to do better while freely exchanging their products from yard to yard. “Repeated disinfections of houses by kerosene and of yards by air-slaked lime is necessary when old houses and yards are to be used. By beginning with a separate flock this year, labor and anxiety will be spared in the future. For dietetic troubles, change the food, avoid fattening too fast except when the market is to be met. When fat, market; otherwise the weakened animal may die. Such troubles are rare in summer and will not occur in winter when free range is allowed. To market the crop successfully one has to plan before the eggs are set. This is indeed counting chickens before they are hatched. For example, eggs in fall must come from early hatched pullets, usually of American breeds; eggs in summer from Leghorns. January broilers must be set in September and October; June broilers in February and March. All sorts of trade must be met in their season, and a variety of trade makes steady employment. Then, too, the quantity should be considered. Restaurants, hotels, and dealers look for a constant, sufficient supply of fresh products, uniform in color, shape, or weight and appearance. To meet such demands, communities should co-operate, pool their products, sort them, and make the most of them. By such co-operation professional handlers of poultry could be em- ployed and every device used to market in most tempting 1902. | DISCUSSION. 227 shape and appearance. At present the middleman prepares the goods. In the future shall not the producer look for all the profit there is in it? Co-operation in marketing will re- sult in co-operation in purchasing supplies. Both may be done by the same agent of the society. Purchasing in bulk not only secures wholesale rates, but cheapens freight. In the prospective increase of the poultry industry may we not hope to see our farmers taking greater interest in striving with the fanciers for the two-hundred-egg hen, the quickest maturing broilers, the plumpest roosters? May we not hope to see more of that friendly co-operation which will yield him more of the profits of his labors? May we not hope to find him marketing the finished products packed in the most compact space and sharing with the Western beef packer the trade in meats for our table? As the day ap- proaches, every consumer whose table he will supply more economically will wish him God speed and rise to call him blessed. Secretary Brown. Mr. Chairman: It is well known that the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station stands at the head of the experiment stations in this country in the poultry business. Dr. Curtice is a specialist in a par- ticular line, and that is in the breeding and raising of poultry for market. Now, if there are any questions which you wish to ask him I hope you will feel perfectly free to do so, and you may be sure that your questions will be most carefully answered by one who is an expert in his line. Mr. T. S. Gotp. I want to take this opportunity to re- late an incident which occurred to me in my travels about the State, and which, it seems to me, contains a suggestion in reference to this subject. Many years ago I spent the night at a farm house in this State, and in the morning when I got up I noticed the finest flock of turkeys I think I had even seen about the grounds of the house. As I came down to my breakfast I spoke with the lady of the house, the mother, and she said that her daughter had raised those tur- keys that summer. She said the young lady’s health had 228 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. . [Jan., been very precarious, and that they were much concerned about her, and her doctor advised that she have some pleasant employment that would lead her out into the open air during the season. The young lady decided that she would under- take the raising of turkeys, and from the day that she began that enterprise, and commenced to go out every day in the air, her health had commenced to grow steadily better, and the result of her summer’s labors was there. Instead of in- curring a doctor’s bill, she had been bringing a sum of money to the farm, and she had regained her health at the same time. She had been out in all weathers attending to the flock, and her devotion and care of the flock had brought a splendid result not only to the farm but to herself. The health and happiness that was brought into that family by this experi- ment in raising turkeys was worth more than the dollars that came to them from the poultry flocks. Mr. Nicuots. I would like to inquire regarding the size of those portable Rhode Island poultry houses. Dr. Curtice. They are about ten by ten, or possibly ten by twelve on the ground. Perhaps with the double slope gable roof I should say an average of six feet, or perhaps five feet nine. The roosts are in one end. Mr. Nicuois. How are they moved? Dr. Curtice. One plan has been to put two heavy planks under the bottom and move them on them. Another plan is to move them on a low wagon. If they are made rather heavy, it is perhaps a little difficult to move them on the planks, and if they are moved on a low wagon, of course you must have the wagon on the farm. In some of them the roofs are fastened up with hooks so they can be removed. I have seen such houses put up entirely by hooks, but of course the joints are not so tight as they should be sometimes. For summer houses that works very well; that would be ample, but for winter houses I think not. Prof. PHeLps. Can they be moved in sections? 1902. | DISCUSSION. 229 Dr. Curtice. Well, as I said, the parts can be put up in sections and hooked together with a hook and staple, and then the top put on and fastened in place with hooks and staples. Such a house as that can be moved in sections. Perhaps it is easier to move the larger sized houses that way, but most of the farms have the apparatus to move the large houses, or they can be moved on low wagons that can be found in the vicinity. Ifthe farmer has not got one he could probably borrow one for just that day. Question. How many fowls are kept in a house of this description, usually? Dr. Curtice. About thirty. From twenty-five to thirty. That is about as high as it goes. These can be moved out into a field and put in a row, or arranged to suit the farmer. It depends upon the taste of the farmer and the size of the field. I have seen two thousand chickens in a single field. The chickens at first will not confine themselves to their par- ticular house, but if they are confined for a few days, after that they will return to them. They get mixed up at first. Of course, I am speaking of houses where there are no fences between. Question. How far apart do they usually put those houses? Dr. CurticeE. They set them about sixty feet apart. How they are placed depends on the room that you have got. I know of a poultry house, a long one, where twelve hundred chickens are kept with great success without fencing between. Mr. SEELEY. Do you approve of a large number of fowls roosting together in the same house, or in the same place, for along time? For instance, if.a farmer has a hennery and he keeps there from a hundred to a hundred and fifty hens right along, is not the chance for disease to get among the flock much greater? Dr. Curtice. You have got two propositions mixed up. One is the existence of possible disease in the flock, or being 230 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., brought in, communicable disease, and the other is the long usage of a house by poultry. I think if you take poultry which is free from communicable disease and arrange it so that you do not buy any, or bring any unhealthy poultry in with disease which can be spread, if you keep it reasonably clean you will have no trouble. I think this, though, that the longer the time a farmer keeps hens under those conditions, he does not always keep the place as it should be as to cleanliness, and disease is apt to get in, and when disease does get in he is apt to lose them in a hurry. Without great care to guard against communicable diseases, where fowls are kept in identically the same house, and on the same ground for a considerable length of time, you cannot be sure of perfectly healthy birds, and that is the reason that I regard the incubator and the brooder as the salvation of the chicken industry. It does not carry any communicable disease. Now, I want to speak a moment on that point that the gentleman brought up, the matter of health. Some of our most successful poultrymen have gone into the business on account of their health, and, being good business men, have made it a success. We know of women also who have re- gained their health through the care of poultry, through hav- ing this stimulus outside of their day’s work, and through the opportunity it gives them to breathe some fresh air. The gentleman also brought up another feature, the tur- key industry. I debated some time whether I should lengthen out my paper by presenting anything but the hen. In addi- tion to the hen, however, on every farm where they can be kept it is a good plan to have some ducks or geese or turkeys. Every farmer should have a few. In the United States:Agricultural Report of the Rhode Island Station there will be an article on the “ Blackhead in Turkeys.” It seems to me that all of you who are trying to raise turkeys, or who are going to raise turkeys, should at least see the article, no matter whether you approve of it or 1902. | DISCUSSION. 231 not. Blackhead is said to be one of the serious causes of damage to our Rhode Island tyrkeys, and I believe that the disease has now spread over the border into the eastern part of Connecticut. It has been found in New York, in Iowa, and in other places in the West, and it would not be surpris- ing if it was soon found in the western part of Connecticut. Secretary Brown. Dr. Curtice, has the Rhode Island Station been able to find a remedy for the blackhead in turkeys? Dr. Curtice. I think the remedy was pointed out in an earlier work, but I do not think it has been emphasized sufficiently. In a work which was published by the Agricul- tural Department of the United States Dr. Smith and Dr. Moore determined the cause to be a parasite which is directly transmitted through the faeces of the turkey, in the droppings. Both of these gentlemen hesitated, because they were scien- tists, I suppose, in saying that that was the only way. But, being personally acquainted with both of them, I think they are satisfied that it is the only way, but being scientific men they wanted to hedge a little, as, possibly there may be an- other way, but it is probable, as we view things from a prac- tical standpoint, that there is no other way, and if we will exclude the direct way in which they show that the disease is transmitted we can raise turkeys healthfully. The common hen and the incubator is again the gateway through which we must pass from infected turkeys to healthy turkeys. You must hatch the turkey eggs not under the turkey hens, but under the hens of the barnyard, and not allow those hens and little turkeys to go where other turkeys have been or are. If you have no turkeys you are favorably situated to begin. It is a good business, as turkeys brought a good price last year, and will next. QvueEsTION. How does this disease affect the turkeys? I have never heard of it before. Dr. Curtice. Excluding the deaths due to wet grass 232 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., and neglect at times in wet seasons, if the gentleman has kept turkeys, or if his neighbors have kept them, and they have had the blackhead he will have noticed that about the time they are ready for market they begin to drop off. This black- head is only a symptom of the disease. If the blood runs slow, the arterial blood, and it shows up blue in the circula- tion, there is a clogging in the circulation, and the animal becomes diseased. The head will get darker in color, and the animal will droop like any other sick animal. I may say, however, that nearly every symptom we may give may come from some other disease which causes a low condition, but if you examine the liver upon opening the bird you will find in the blackhead animals a condition which you cannot fail to notice. Upon opening a part of the intestine called the secum large yellowish spots will be seen, varying in size from the size of a pinhead up to that of a five or ten cent piece. These seca are two little blind tubes attached to the lower end of the intestines, and the ends hang over the same as the vermiform appendix in man. I make that minute ex- planation so that some of you, when you look again, will notice them. About these spots it will have a whitish ap- pearance. This condition of the liver is characteristic of the blackhead disease, and we believe whoever has it has one of the great causes of loss in young turkeys. Now, if there be other diseases of a communicable char- acter in turkeys, I believe that the same treatment will keep it off, because the external parasites of turkeys are not usually found on hens, excepting by chance, and the internal para- sites are not parasites of the turkey. Question. When a turkey has this disease which has just been described, can it be determined by the character of their droppings, or by the color, or in any such way as that? Dr. Curtice. I want to broaden that question a little. Judgment of disease in chickens and fowls generally upon the character and color of the droppings can be made. If 1902. | DISCUSSION. 233 hard and firm it indicates constipation; that is, if very dif- ferent from the normal in that direction. If too fluid, then diarrhoea. It is often thought when chickens have the cholera, and perhaps turkeys, that the presence of a great amount of white and yellow material in the droppings indi- cates cholera or diarrhcea. It only indicates that no food has passed through the intestines. Of course, the different foods affect this also. When we feed bran and other things we can see the character of the diet in the droppings. When chickens eat insects and grain we note still another kind of droppings. It is more compact. Mr. Hinman. I should like to ask if this disease which has killed our turkeys when they have been about as large as partridges for the last ten or fifteen years has any relation to what is called the “blackhead”? Twenty-five years ago there were a thousand trukeys grown over in the part of Connecticut where I live (Oxford) where there are ten grown now. It seems impossible to raise them. Most of us over in my section have become so discouraged that we do not try to raise them, as they never get to be of marketable size. They die when they get to be about four or five pounds in weight. Dr. Curtice. I believe I said in beginning to talk, that this disease being a communicable disease, we could cut it off by hatching the eggs under the common hen and keeping the young away from infected flocks. Now if we can cut off this disease by this process we can cut off others at the same time. To get rid of this disease, or to prevent young tur- keys from being affected by other communicable diseases you must get eggs somewhere and start on a farm that has not had turkeys which have been affected upon it, or if there are affected turkeys upon it, set the eggs under a hen, and then not allow the young turkeys to mix up with the others, or run where they have been, and not buy any improved stock elsewhere, but buy the eggs. I think for the first two 234 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. : [Jan., or three years we have got to resort to those methods. After that, if we know of somebody that has raised some turkeys without allowing them to mix up with old turkeys we can exchange with them, but we want to be sure of our ground, so that we shall not introduce the trouble again from old infected birds. We want to exercise a quarantine over the disease, and practice disinfection by keeping the young birds away from the infected flocks, and from the grounds that they have run over. It may be that one year will stamp it out. I am pretty sure that two years will do it. We want to try some practical experiments in regard to it in Rhode Island at the station, but we have not the land to do it. IJ think the State will give it to us by-and-by, and then we shall be able to try it on a practical scale. The PresipENT. The time has arrived for adjournment. A Memser. Mr. President and Ladies and Gentlemen: I suppose you all know of the sad death of one of the dele- gates to our Convention, Mr. Thompson of East Haven, and it seems to me that it would be fitting that we should express to the family of Mr. Thompson and the members of Foxon Grange our sincere sympathy in their bereavement, and I would, therefore, present the following resolution for your adoption: Resolved, That the sympathy of this assembly be extended to the family of Henry Thompson of East Haven, Visiting Delegate to this Convention from Foxon Grange, in their sudden bereavement by the removal of our brother. They, through the inscrutable wisdom of an overruling Providence, have lost a devoted husband and a fond father, and we a worthy patron. Resolution duly seconded and unanimously passed. Secretary Brown. Mr. President, I would like to be- speak for Dr. Atwater and Dr. Conn a prompt attendance this afternoon. We have not placed Dr. Atwater and Dr. Conn at the close of this program from choice. It was im- 1902.] STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 235 possible, on account of their duties, for those gentlemen to be present at any other time. Their subjects and the men are worthy of your attention. The subject, as you will see from the program, is “ The Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, and its Work in Dairying.” I understand they have been doing some original work in this line up there, and that they wish to present before this Convention the results of their labors. JI hope we shall have a prompt and full attend- ance. The PREesIDENT. I second that most heartily. The Con- vention will now stand adjourned till 2 o’clock. AFTERNOON SESSION. Thursday, December 19th, 2 P. M. Convention called to order at 2 P. M., Vice-President Seeley in the chair. The PRESIDENT. Now if you will please come to order Dr. Atwater is ready to give us his address. A gentleman as well known as Dr. Atwater of our Connecticut Experiment Station hardly needs introducing, but it is still a great pleas- ure to me to introduce to this audience now Dr. W. O. At- water of Middletown. THE STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA- TION AND ITS WORK IN DAIRYING. By Dr. W. O. ATWATER. Mr. Chairman, and Ladies and Gentlemen: I am to speak to you this afternoon of the Storrs Experiment Station and its work. In so doing I desire to tell you something of the history of the Station, its organization, its past and present work, and its plans for the future. First of all, however, allow me a few words about the experiment stations in general. . 236 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Some of you who were at Middletown a year ago last November, when the 25th anniversary of the establishment of the first experiment station in the United States was cele- brated, heard then how the first of these institutions began its work in Connecticut at Middletown in 1875, how the enter- prise has grown, how.other states followed our example. until twelve years after the beginnings in Connecticut, some fifteen or sixteen stations were in operation, and how, in 1887, Con- gress made the enterprise national by providing for the estab- lishment of agricultural experiment stations in every State and Territory in the Union. If you will take the pains to ex- amine the last report of the Director of the Office of Experi- ment Stations in Washington, which, as you know, is the center of the whole system, you will see that there are no less than fifty-seven of these institutions in different states and territories subject to the United States, including not only one in Alaska, but one in Hawaii, and one in process of es- tablishment in Porto Rico. You will see, furthermore, that the ‘Secretary of Agriculture has recommended to Congress the establishment of a similar institution in the Philippines. I think that is a little interesting. We have talked about war, and talked about conquest, but is it not an interesting thing that in the beginning of this twentieth century the first thing that follows conquest, the thing that produces the con- quest almost, is the effort which is being made to look out for the higher physical, intellectual and moral welfare of the people in our new possessions? Is it not an interesting thing that we are preparing to carry on all kinds of benevolent enterprises, hygienic, educational, and scientific, in our new possessions, and that the people of the United States second the demand for these enterprises, and that even in the distant islands of the Philippines they will probably soon have an agricultural experiment station? Experiment stations have been in operation in the United States for a little over twenty-six years (it being twenty-six years since the first one was established in Connecticut), and that being so it may seem a little strange that I should men- tion the fact that we have two stations in Connecticut, but I find a great many of my intelligent fellow citizens who do not quite understand about our experiment stations in Con- necticut, and I want to explain to them that there are two: 1902.] STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 237 the State Experiment Station, which is located at New Haven, and which is under the charge of a board of control appointed in accordance with an act of our Legislature, and the Storrs Station, which is under the management of the Board of Trustees of the Connecticut Agricultural College at Storrs. Like other states and territories of the Union, Connecti- cut receives $15,000 per annum from the U. S. Government for experiment station purposes. By act of our Legislature this sum is divided equally between the two experiment sta- tions in the State. The State Legislature has also given considerable sums for grounds, buildings, and equipment of the State Experiment Station at New Haven. It also gives annually, I believe, $12,500 a yéar to that station to be used in various ways which are indicated by specific legisla- tion. Besides this the station has other resources, including certain sums to be devoted to the analysis of fertilizers and other special subjects, and also some income from a magnifi- cent testamentary gift from a former resident of the State, so that with grounds, buildings, and endowments in addition to appropriations from the State and general Government our station is well equipped for its useful work. Its annual in- come is somewhere near $20,000. Our State Experiment Station is not only the oldest, but it is one of the best in the United States. Its work is appreciated as well, | was about to say, outside of Connecticut as it is in the State. It is an honor to the State and to agricultural science. I can perhaps say that with more grace concerning the Storrs Station, since my only connection with that is that of a member of the board of control, but the fact is that all over the world, wherever people are interested in agricultural science, as well as in Connecticut, our station stands very high indeed. As compared with the experiment stations throughout the United States the Storrs Station is a small institution, and with very limited resources. Since the time of its establish- ment in 1888 it has received annually from the general Gov- ernment $7,500, the other $7,500 of the $15,000 appropriated to Connecticut, as I said before, going to the State Station. For the past six years it has also received annually from the State of Connecticut $1,800, which is specifically appropriated for specific purposes, such as the study of the food nutrition of man and dairy bacteriology. Its total yearly income thus 238 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., amounts to $9,300. In addition to that there are some small receipts from miscellaneous sources. When it is considered that of the fifty-seven experiment stations in the United States, but one other receives regularly from public sources less than $15,000, and while some have annual incomes of $25,000, $50,000, and even more than that, and that further-. more the resources of the Agricultural College with which the station is connected are such as to permit it to furnish but very limited aid to the station in the form of buildings, laboratories, libraries, and land, and while a large number of other stations enjoy very extensive facilities of this sort through their connection with well equipped and well en- dowed colleges and uffiversities, it is evident that the Storrs Station could not compete with its sister institutions in either the quality or the quantity of its work were it not for some special advantages. Now right here, and incidentally, let me call your atten- tion to what some of the states are doing. New York, a great State, of course, has two. One of them has an income of about $75,000. It is the largest experiment station in the world. Illinois has stood well by its station, and aside from the resources which that station has from the U. S. Goy- ernment, and the great advantages which it received from being connected with a large university, it receives $54,000 a year of special appropriations from the State for the study of special narrow questions. I believe one is the cultivation and raising of corn. They have learned there that it is wise to devote large sums of money to the study of what seemed to be very simple and very narrow questions. The farmers of the State of Illinois have persuaded their fellow citizens that it is wise to be thus generous in giving aid from the public funds to such institutions. To return, however, to the Storrs Station. I said it would not be possible for the Storrs Station to compete with some of its sister institutions were it not for some special advan- tages. Such a fortunate advantage is found in the fact that through the generosity of the trustees of Wesleyan University the chemical and biological researches of the station are con- ducted in the laboratories of that institution, so that the station has certain opportunities of this sort which are shared only by the most fortunate stations elsewhere. Furthermore, -1902.] STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 239 the station co-operates with the United States Department of Agriculture in its investigations into the food and nutrition of man, and is thus enabled to increase its efficiency and use- fulness. For assisting in its work in that line the station re- ceives a certain share of the general appropriation made by Congress, and which is distributed in the different States for the purpose of promoting inquiries into food nutrition. The station is thus able to increase greatly its influence and effi- ciency, and I may be permitted to remark incidentally, in that connection, that the Storrs Station receives a pretty large share of the United States money. It happened that it seemed wise to the Secretary of Agriculture, to whom Con- gress assigns the responsibility for the proper expenditure of that money, to put the management of that into the hands of the Director of the Storrs Station, who is a Connecticut man, and who is able to see to the work. I felt justified in asking for a pretty large and liberal share for use right in this little Connecticut Station, and it was not denied. Now it would hardly be fair to omit mentioning that gifts received from private sources, which, though small, have amounted to considerable in the aggregate, have helped on the good work. Thus it is that aneinstitution with so small a revenue from public sources has been able to carry on the amount of inquiry undertaken by the Storrs Station. As director of the station I have been frequently called upon to explain why it was with so little money as we claimed to receive we were able to do so much work. I have given you the explanation. Now what does the station do? It has been the policy of the station ever since its establishment to concentrate its energies upon certain lines of inquiry as nearly parallel as practicable, and to continue on those lines from year to year as long as circumstances warranted. The two stations in the State, though separate in their organization, are pretty closely interlaced. A number of gentlemen are on the boards of management of both. They come together and talk things over, and the result is the two work together as well as one. They are pulling together. While not forgetting the ultimate practical ends the Storrs Station does not forget that its purpose is to serve the people and the farmer. At the same time, it is a recognized fact which has been fully understood by some of the friends of the station in Connecticut, and it is 240 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. (Jans, a fact which, fortunately, is coming to be more generally understood and appreciated, namely, that often the inquiry which on the surface appears to be the least practical is actually the most useful. The success of the Connecticut Experiment Station has been made possible by the recogni- tion of that principle. It has, therefore, devoted itself to the higher research which has had for its object the discovery of the laws which underlie the right practice of agriculture. In so far as the station has been successful in this way will its work have a lasting value. Some of the investigations undertaken by the station in its early years were carried on only a short time, and were then given up in order that more attention might be given to other work which seemed more important. On the other hand, some lines of inquiry have been continued from year to year since the station was established. Thus for the most part the investigations of each year form part of a consecu- tive series. The principal inquiries that have been thus continued and are still in progress have to do with various problems regarding the nutrition of plants, animals, and man, and with the bacteriology of the dairy. .Some account of the nature, object, and methods.of these inquiries has been given in these meetings from year to year. I trust, however, that you will pardon me if I refer to some of the things which have been cited in this place before in order to give you a general view of the work of the Storrs Station. Such a gen- eral view may be found in the report of the station for the year 1899. I read: “The principal inquiries now being conducted by the station have to do with the nutrition of plants, animals, and man, and with the bacteriology of the dairy. During the year 1900 they have included experiments on the effects of fertilizers upon the growth and composition of plants, studies of the rations fed to milch cows, experiments upon the ripening of cream, studies of bovine tuberculosis, and investigations on the food nutrition of man.” The field and pot experiments included tests with ferti- lizers, soil tests, especially nitrogen experiments, and ex- periments with forage crops. In reference to the dairy we have conducted experiments on a variety of subjects of which I will speak more in detail later on. Some features of that work constitute a new departure of the station to which I wish to call especial attention. 1902. | STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 241 You have heard something before regarding the experi- ment in bovine tuberculosis. The cows constituting the herd which has been kept since 1896 were all sold during the past year, and some of the calves which were being fed with the milk from tuberculous cows were kept for several months under close observation. I will not go into the details of the results of that experiment, but here was a case where a subject or line of inquiry has been followed through a course of years. Let me say this, however, with respect to that subject, that the scare that we have had about bovine tuber- culosis, and the getting of human tuberculosis from it, was perhaps somewhat exaggerated. Prof. Conn is here and perhaps will tell you more about it. The danger is not as great as some of us feared at one time of human beings tak- ing the disease from cattle. My own impression is that the danger to herds of cattle, and the danger to the farmers and the dairymen, is certainly very large, and will continue to be until you get rid of tuberculosis in your herds. Then we have had feeding experiments with dairy herds about which Prof. Phelps has told you from time to time, and which have brought out some very interesting results regarding the need of a well balanced ration for cows, and the need of rations rich in protein. Experiments on the food and nutrition of man have been carried on by the station, as I said before, in co-operation with the U. S. Department of Agriculture, including an analysis of different food materials in order to determine their digestive value, and the study of the digestive value of dif- ferent kinds of food in order to learn more about their value for nutriment. These studies have been carried on so that we might get an idea of the relation existing between the amount of food which a man buys for his family’s use, and the amounts which are eaten or thrown away and wasted on the one hand, and the relation between the actual amount of nutrition obtained and the cost of same. Then we have car- ried on studies of the food of many different classes, including not only our own experiments, but co-operative experiments have been made in other states, in other institutions, uni- versities, and colleges literally from Maine to California, and from Manitoba to Alabama. The result of this has been to bring together a very large amount of accurate and useful in- Acr. — 16 242 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., formation regarding the food of man. These investigations culminate, scientifically, in the work with the Respiration Calorimeter of which you have heard. At least, you have heard about our putting a man in a box and keeping him shut up for a period of time. There have been some very strange stories told sometimes about it. I will not presume to take your time by going into a detailed description of it at this time, but in brief let me say that with the development of the apparatus we have obtained a method by which we can measure the income and outgo of the body expressed in terms of the chémical elements; that is, we can measure the energy which we take into our bodies and utilize to give us strength for work, as well as that which we utilize to keep our bodies warm. We have been able to devise an apparatus and methods by which the energy, as well as the material received and given off from the body, can be measured, and thus we have the means for studying the fundamental laws of nutrition, not merely for man, but for the domestic animals as well. The same methods, and practically the same form of apparatus, are being used elsewhere in this country and in Europe, for the study of these higher but intensely practical problems. Now, besides these studies in the food nutrition of man, we have made meteorological observations, and we have had exhibits of the station at Paris, and at Buffalo, and we have had considerable to do by way of correspondence, and the publication and dissemination of the information which we have obtained. But let me speak of two or three of the special subjects which the station has been investigating. Those of you who have followed the work of the station know that one of the chief themes of the experimentation and teaching of the station has been the relation of nitrogen to the growth of plants, and the nutrition of animals. Prof. Phelps has talked to you about one and another phase of this inquiry from time to time. It has been pointed out that what was needed in our farming was more nitrogen in the soil for plant food, more nitrogen in plants in order to make better food for animals and man, and more nitrogen in the food of man. The station has constantly endeavored to discover the best means of economizing nitrogen on the farm. Much of 1902.] STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 243 its work in this line has been in the development of principles already understood, but some of it is new. That to which it has the largest claim to a measure of originality is the work upon the acquisition of nitrogen by leguminous plants, and especially the effect of nitrogenous fertilizers in increasing the proportion of nitrogen in grasses and cereals. This is all more or less familiar to you now, and you have learned that there are certain plants like the clovers and others which absorb nitrogen from the air, but when I first began to talk to you in-this board I used to tell you, and I thought it was right, because the other chemists thought so too, that in order to get nitrogen into your plants you must either have a store of it in your soil or you must put it in through your fertilizers, as the plants could not get it anywhere else. We were a little mistaken about that after all. Some of you re- member how we used to discuss that, and how from investi- gations made by our own station, and from far more liberal and extensive ones made in Europe, the results of which were gradually established, so that today we know that the leguminous plants do gather nitrogen from the inexhaustible store in the air, and store it up in their own tissues so that the farmer has it there without money and without price. The experiments made by the station along these lines have helped to bring out more clearly the ways in which the farmer can increase the nitrogen supply for his soil, his crops, and his stock. The simplest way is for the farmer to grow legum- inous crops, like clover, cow peas, soy beans, and ordinary beans and peas, as among the earliest experiments of the station were those by which it was shown that these crops gather their nitrogen from the air. These crops the farmer may utilize in different ways in order to get nitrogen. He may plow under his clover, and thus store away nitrogen for a future crop, or he may gather his crop and use it as fodder, and by so doing he accomplishes a double purpose; as he passes out this fodder it is a food which is richer in protein, and he gets a manure which is richer in nitrogen, and he puts that back into the earth, and thus continues to enrich the land, but he also gets an increased product of milk. The roots and the stubble which are left on the land when the crop is cut also contain a considerable amount of nitrogen which goes back to enrich the soil. 244 BOARD OF ‘AGRICULTURE. _ [Jan., Another way to increase the nitrogen on the farm is to buy it in concentrated nitrogenous feeding stuffs, like gluten feeds, bran, linseed, and cottonseed meals. In this way the farmer obtains the supply of protein necessary to make well balanced rations with the coarse fodders, and thus improves the rations and increases the yield of milk, butter, and flesh of the animals. At the same time it increases the value of the manure; for, especially where the manure is taken care of, it will contain about three-fourths of the fertilizing in- gredients in the feeds. The nitrogen in the manure increases the yields of the grasses and grain crops, and the proportion of protein in them, and thus improves their feeding value. Perhaps the most important work which the station has done lately in this line is to bring out a principle which is really new, namely, that certain crops are increased, not only in their total yield, but in their percentage of nitrogen and of protein, by nitrogenous fertilizers, while the leguminous crops, like the clovers, cow peas, soy beans, and others, which are the ones which gather nitrogen from the air, do not re- spond to that treatment. That is, you do not get so much increase of yield, and hence you do not get much increase in the richness of nitrogen or protein. You take crops which respond to the action of nitrogen in the soil in their yield, like grasses, oats, wheat, and corn, and the yield, of course, is increased more or less by the addition of nitrogen to the fertilizer. It also increases the proportion of nitrogen in the plant, so that if you increase the yield from one to two hundred pounds you increase the amount of protein by more than that, because you increase greatly the percentage of protein. Some of our farmers are getting hold of this idea. It is one that needs to be understood better. I commend to you a perusal of the report of the Storrs Experiment Station on this subject. The experiments which have been carried on at Storrs in this line have shown how the farmer may in- crease the nitrogen of his farm by buying such fertilizers as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, etc. These materials, though, as I have just pointed out, are of but little use for leguminous crops, yet they will materially increase the growth of grasses and grain crops, and at the same time increase their proportion of nitrogen. Thus the value of the fodder is im- proved, yields of milk and butter are increased, and the manure is enriched. 1902. | STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING., 245 One of the most important branches of the work of the station, and the second most important to my mind, is our dairy studies. I think that our most important work is this study of the nutrition of animals and man with the Respira- tion Calorimeter. Not so immediately practical, perhaps, but, in the long run, the most important and useful. Next to that, however, I think our most important work has been the study of the bacteriology of the dairy. It would be very unseemly for me here to tell you how very enthusiastic some of tis are getting over some of this work. My enthusiasm would probably get the better of me and you might charge me with blowing my own trumpet, especially if I were to talk the way I feel. But I believe it all the same. The sta- tion has been the pioneer among all the experiment stations of the United States in this kind of inquiry. When the sta- tion first started, my colleague, Prof. Conn, at Wesleyan, was interested in biology and bacteriology, and I suggested that he should try some experiments. He did so with a little aid from the station, and has kept at the work ever since, and you know more or less of what he has done by way of prog- ress in that line. We have learned that one of the most im- portant questions that the farmer or dairyman has to deal with today arises from these little organisms — bacteria. It is becoming more and more clear that success in the handling of milk and making of butter and cheese is largely a matter of the management of bacteria. In other words, the successful dairyman needs to be a practical bacteriologist. The milkman must know how to control the bacteria and prevent their becoming too numerous and active in the milk he sells. The butter maker must keep the wrong ones out of the cream, and make sure that it contains the right ones, if his butter is to have the best flavor, and bring the best price. How he shall do this the science of bacteriology is be- ginning to show him. If he is careful to keep his stable, his cows, his milk vessels, and his dairy scrupulously clean, the bacteria which get into the milk and cream will generally help him to make tolerably good butter. But he cannot al- ways be sure that it will be the best, and at times it is apt to be damaged, in spite of the best care, unless he has some way of definitely controlling the bacteria. For a considerable number of years Prof. Conn and his 246 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., assistants have carried on investigations in dairy bacteriology in behalf of the station, especial attention being devoted to the important question of cream ripening. This part of the process of butter making is now known to be one of fer- , mentation affected by the bacteria which grow in the cream. These bacteria come from various sources in the air, dairy, and barn. One of the especial objects of the investigations is to obtain information concerning the species of bacteria that are more common in Connecticut dairies, their sources, and especially their effects upon milk and cream, and upon butter made from cream which is ripened under their in- fluence. The latter work includes both co-operative creamery investigations and experimental inquiry in the laboratory at Middletown, and has been devoted to experiments upon the actual bacteriological changes which take place in the nor- mal ripening of cream in ordinary dairies and creameries. In these experiments special reference has been made to the changes which take place in the bacteriological contents of cream during the ripening process, the purpose being to find out what types or type of bacteria produce cream ripening under normal conditions. Now let me read to you some- thing from the report issued by the station, something which, as it seems to me, is of great interest, and something new as I understand it: “It is found that the bacteria which get into milk during the milking are quite numerous in variety. Of those which are present in milk and cream at the outset there are only very few which produce lactic acid, while there are large numbers of other miscellaneous bacteria. During the first twelve hours or more the miscellaneous bac- teria increase somewhat rapidly. The few lactic bacteria which are present at the outset find the milk such a favorable medium for growth that they multiply more rapidly than the others, and soon surpass in numbers all the miscellaneous bacteria which at first were so much more abundant. The lactic bacteria continue to grow during the ripening, for about 24 to 36 hours, while the miscellaneous bacteria be- come less and less abundant. By the time the cream is properly ripened the lactic bacteria comprise usually 98 per cent. of the whole, and in many cases they seem to have totally destroyed all other species. If the cream is allowed to ripen for two or three days the number of these lactic bac- 1902.] STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 247 teria continues to increase until it frequently reaches one and one-half billion per cubic centimeter.” You see it’s a struggle for existence. A case of the sur- vival of the fittest and strongest. One and a half billion in a cubic centimeter, which is a space equal to about one-fifth of an inch. Prof. Conn. Multiply that by four. Dr. Atwater. Six billion. Six thousand million of them in that space of about the fifth of an inch. Six thou- sand millions of them in a space about as big as the end of my finger. “After this they begin to decrease rapidly in numbers until only a few are left in the cream.” The experiments thus far have not indicated which of the types of these organisms are most concerned in their effect upon the milk, but there are reasons for believing that the miscellaneous bacteria are of great importance in determin- ing the character, flavor, and aroma of the ripened product. The study of that problem is to be continued by the station. Now I want to say a word about our co-operative experi- ments with farmers. One method adopted by the station for making practical application of science to farming is in co- operative experiments with farmers. For instance, a means for determining the lack of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash in a given soil, and the particular needs of plants for these ingredients, is found in experiments known as soil tests. The station has not only carried on these tests on its own lands ever since its establishment, but for a number of years was at pains to introduce these among farmers in dif- ferent parts of the State, and to aid them in testing their own lands and crops. The outcome of a large number of these co-operative experiments on soils of various kinds in different parts of the State was summarized as follows in the report of the station for 1892: . Soils cannot be cultivated to the greatest profit without a knowledge of their deficiencies as regards plant food. Soil tests with fertilizers seem to be the best practical means for ascertaining these deficiencies in particular soils. It appears that on the farms where the experiments have been made heavy clayey soils need to be supplied with large amounts of phosphoric acid in the fertilizers used; while light, 248 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., sandy, and loamy soils are generally, though not uniformly, helped by potash fertilizers. The teachings of the experiments thus far made in Con- necticut indicate that nitrogen has been most beneficial on the light class of soils. Soluble fertilizers, as nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, have generally been used with profit on light loam soils, but have not proved of much value for corn on heavy soils. For heavy soils it would seem that nitrogen should be supplied in some organic form, as stable manure, dried blood, etc. The wide differences found in soils afford a strong argu- ment in favor of home-mixed fertilizers. The special needs of different soils cannot be considered by the manufacturer who prepares his fertilizers for general use. The farmer may, however, prepare such mixtures as will meet both the defi- ciencies of his soil and the requirements of his crops. I wanted to say something to you about the results of our co-operative experiments in the feeding of cattle, but I shall have to desist, as I wish to tell you before I close some- thing special about the future work and development of the station. The more experience we have the more are we im- pressed at the station with two facts: one is, that of the dif- ferent kinds of inquiry which our experiment station can carry on, that which is most needed, in the present condition of our experiment stations, and their development in the United States, and which will be, on the long run, the most useful, is that which consists of the search for and the dis- covery of the laws which underlie the right practice of farm- ing. In this view I think the work which we are doing with the respiration calorimeter is by far the most valuable of all. The other thing that we are coming to see more and more clearly is the need of restricting our inquiries to a compara- tively small number of special lines, and developing those as thoroughly as possible. Accordingly, it has seemed best, both to the board of trustees and the director, that our in- quiries in the line of dairy bacteriology should be more fully developed. In the course of the development of the college at Storrs a new dairy building has been put up, and it has a good equipment. Now, then, why should we not use that build- ing? We have got to the point in this inquiry where we can 1902. | STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 249 make good use of such a dairy establishment, and the college has placed at our disposal the necessary conveniences, and we are engaged in the work and shall make it more of a specialty hereafter. We are fortunate in having at the college Mr. Stocking, who has been associated with the college as student and officer, and who also, for some time, was a student at Cornell in the agricultural department of that university. An ar- rangement has lately been made by which Mr. Stocking gives his full time to the station, and he is working with Prof. Conn in the application of bacteriology to dairying. When Mr. Stocking was first appointed the question was, what should be his title, but we finally settled.on a very simple, and still a very expressive one, “ Dairy Experimenter.” The subjects which we hope to develop more particu- larly in this way are, in the first place, the action of starters on the ripening of cream. We want to know more about that. In the next place we want to know more about what vou might call “ the hygiene of milk.” You know what a lot of trouble the milkmen have in getting their milk to town and keeping it in good condition. We know very well that it is bacteria that is at the bottom of the trouble, but we want more definite information on the subject than we have at present. That is one of the subjects to which we shall give special attention during our work in this new field of effort. The PRresIpDENT. This does not mean that we are not to hear any more upon this subject. We have had a most inter- esting talk from Dr. Atwater, and I am now happy to intro- Guce to you Prof. Conn, who will speak to us along the line which is indicated upon our program. THE STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA- TION AND ITS WORK IN DAIRYING. By Dr. H. W. Conn. Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: I am in a some- what embarrassing position this afternoon from the fact that instead of doing as Prof. Atwater has done, and speaking of the past, I am obliged to speak about that rather indefinite 250 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., future, which may or may not develop along the lines that I have to speak about —the dairy work of the station — the subject which Prof. Atwater has asked me to say a few words about. So far as the station is concerned directly the amount of dairy experimentation in the past has been small. There has been some, however, that has been done at Storrs, but most of the work that Prof. Atwater has spoken of has been done in my own laboratory at Middletown. As has been in- dicated, however, there has been this year a determination upon the part of the trustees of the college that dairying at Storrs shall receive more attention in the future than it has in the past. I cannot, therefore, under these circumstances speak of dairying at the station with regard to what has been done. All I can do is to take a little time to call your atten- tion to some of the thoughts, and to some of the principles and plans that lie in our minds, and in regard to which we are planning experimentation at the station. The results of what I have to say may not be practical. They may not appeal to you. They may appeal to you as being extremely useless, and yet they are the thoughts which must control the development of the future along these particular lines. Now, in the first place, 1 want to call your attention to this: the farmer who understands that conditions change, and who tries to adapt himself to the new conditions, is the farmer who makes a success. It is just as true here as in any other line of business. The farmer who thinks that his father did well enough, and that all he has to do is to follow along in the same lines that were followed by his father or grand- father, is the farmer who is constantly under a burden of debt, and a man who is telling other farmers that farming does not pay, and that it’s a hard, dog’s life. The conditions of agricultural life are changing just as rapidly, or almost as rapidly, as they are in any form of industrial life. No man can go into business today, as did our fathers before us, with any hope of succeeding, no man can go into agriculture to- day with any hope of succeeding, if he follows just the same path that our fathers followed. New conditions demand new knowledge and new applications of that knowledge. One or two or perhaps three generations ago the farm was a little independent kingdom on which the farmer raised pretty nearly everything that he needed; even perhaps to the wool 1902. | STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 251 which was made into his clothing. That was the farm of the last century, but you, all of you, know, of course, that the opening up of that wonderfully fertile land in our western territories and states has completely changed the position of the eastern farmer. Those immense farms of the west producing their wheat, not by the acre, but by the thousands of acres, have produced such a change that the farmer has absolutely been forced to face an entire change of conditions in his farming life. I think we can recognize two stages of the farming life in our country in the past, and may clearly see, I think, a third one which is rapidly coming. First, there was a small individual independent farm and farmer who raised everything that he needed. That was followed by a tendency to make a great farm like our western ranges. Now I think we can see that there is more or less of a change going on in which again the small farm is coming to the front, but not the small farm of our fathers. It is a small farm, but it is a farm devoted to specialties, or as we sometimes say, in- tensive farming. He will turn the whole land into raising cucumbers, tomatoes, or something else of that sort. A specialty. And why shouldn’t he? The Connecticut farmer has a market right at his door. With the great city of New York, a city that is rapidly becoming the largest city in the world and asking for things from our farms, why should we not furnish materials for that market, and take full advantage of the situation instead of trying to compete on the lines that our fathers competed when transportation was not so cheap as it is now from the farms of the west. I remember a few years ago there was a farmer visiting in the house next to mine. I got into conversation with him, and I asked him where he lived. He said that he lived within fifteen or twenty miles of New York city. He was a farmer who was one of these men who are groaning under the conditions of the day; one of these men who says that farming is a dog’s life, that it does not pay and that you can’t make a living at it. J asked him what he raised on his farm, and he said he raised a little corn and a little potatoes, and a little beef, and a little wheat, and a little of that and a little of the other, just exactly as his father and his grandfather and hfs great-grandfather did. I said to him: ‘“ Did you ever try to raise something special for the New York market?” 252 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., VOR mo” “Why not?” But he had no reason to give me, and he went on to tell me how he found farming very hard work. Finally, I said to him, “ Are there not farmers in your vicinity that are succeeding? ” “Well,” he said, “ there are some Germans over there that have recently bought some farms and they are making a go OF ik” “What are they doing?”’ I said. And then I found out from his conversation that they were raising things for the New York market and doing exactly the thing that he would not do, because he thought that was not farming. These Germans had discovered the secret of intensive farming. They had discovered the secret of success in farming, which is to find a want and then fill it. And they had found a want in the New York market and were trying to fill it. Now, does that apply to the Storrs dairy work? It does. Dairying is one of the largest, if not the largest, industry in Connecticut, and there is a rapidly growing intensive dairy- ing just as there is intensive farming. The dairyman who is content to do what his father has done is having a hard time of it in these days, especially in view of the high prices of feed during this present winter. A very hard time of it. But there are dairymen who have been wise enough to see that there are certain wants which need to be filled and who are trying to fill them. Now let mel! give you one illustration. There is a gentleman who is secretary of the State Dairymen’s Association, who, a few years ago, saw a want and set out to fill it. That want was ice cream. He has developed that interest on his farm until I think he is probably making a greater success than almost any other dairyman, because he found something that was needed, and he learned how to fill that want and how to fill it well. Our dairymen, if they will use their wits and open their eyes, I feel sure will see in their neighboring villages, or in the neighboring cities, or even in the distant villages and cities, some kind of a want which they can fill. One of these wants is a better kind of milk. I suppose you all know that all over this State, and all over New York State, they are starting up, here and there, special farms devoted to sending milk to the city under special brands, and with a special seal, and selling it for a special price. That is a want that is being filled. 1902.] STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 253 Now may I refer you to one other thing here, perhaps a little out of the way, but I do this for a special purpose. We have been told by the experiment stations that the skim milk that comes from our butter making industry is, from the standpoint of food, almost as valuable as the new milk. So far as the nutritive quality is concerned, a skim milk is very valuable, and it has been to a very large extent a waste product, and one of the wants of our dairymen at the present time is a means of making use of this waste product so that they may get some proper return for it. Now I want to say in the presence of this company, and to refer to one thing which possibly may be of some value in some sections of the State. There has been recently invented a method by which this skim milk can be made use of in unlimited quantity. The method in brief is to dry the skim milk, making a powder of it, which can then be shipped all over the world just the same as you can ship flour. It is a new process and apparently a very successful one. I have been for some time trying to find a place where this could be tried in Connecticut. I have been unable to do so because J cannot find skim milk enough. If any of you can find a place where skim milk can be obtained in large quantities, I think there is a possibility of your get- ting a large return through this suggestion I have in mind. If any of you know where a large amount of skim milk can > be obtained I wish you would communicate with me and let us see what can be done in the matter. That is not particu- larly a part of the subject I have to consider this afternoon, but I have mentioned this because I consider it* one of the duties of the Storrs Experiment Station to discover, if pos- sible, some of these wants, and point them out to you so you can make use of them. If we can show you any place or any way where you can improve your dairying, or show you any method by which you can get a return from what are now waste products, we shall have done more for Connecticut farming than in almost any other way. With the great New York market within a stone’s throw almost of our Connecticut farms, there is an unlimited market for a great variety of dairy products which Connecticut dairy- men have never touched or improved. That, however, is not the particular subject which I ought to dwell upon. The Storrs Experiment Station, naturally enough, in developing 254 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., the dairy work at the station has been trying quite a number of experiments. Now what lines of experimentation have you been undertaking? What lines of experimentation have we in mind? The first question perhaps that may occur to your minds is this: Are the experiments that this station is conducting in dairying going to be of any practical use? Many farmers do not care much about scientific experiment- ing unless it has some practical value, and in fact most people can see no use in an experiment that does not aim to be, or to disclose something which will be, distinctly practical. Let me say a few words just on that very point. The most suc- cessful experimenting is the kind of experimenting that goes the deepest, and that turns its back entirely upon the ques- tion of practical results; letting the practical results come if they will. Therefore we do not embarrass ourselves at the outset by any notion as to whether practical results are to flow from a given line of experimentation or not. We let that alone. The kind of experimentation that succeeds is the kind that says to itself: “ Here is a problem which should be solved; let us solve it, whether there is any practical value in it or not.” Hence, we never can tell what the practical re- sults are going to be. We never know whether a line of ex- perimentation is of any practical value until we are through. Nine times out of ten that is the case. When our friend Prof. Atwater began to publish great long columns of figures on the analyses of food, it wasn’t worth much, was it? No- body thought so. Nobody read those figures, and I do not believe Prof. Atwater has ever looked them over since he published them. Have you, Prof. Atwater? Prof. ATWATER. No, and I never expect to. Prof. Conn. There was no use whatsoever, was there, in analyzing food, to see how much carbohydrate or protein there was in it, things that the farmer didn’t know anything about a few years ago? I know well enough that the farmers of that day shook their heads over that sort of work, but let me ask you this: is there a person here today that does not know that that resulted in some of the most practical and use- ful conclusions that have ever resulted from the experiment station work? You cannot today feed your cows properly without making use of just those tables; not the individual 1902.] STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 255 ‘ ‘ figures, but the result. Prof. Atwater did not know whether he was going to get anything practical when he set out upon that line of work. He did not know whether anything prac- tical would come out of it or not. Take another illustration. Some fifty years ago a Frenchman, a little bit of a crank, at least so the people thought, began a line of curious experi- ments by taking glass bottles and putting some meat juice into them, or sometimes a little juice and boiling it, and then plugging up the bottles and letting them stand on the shelf for a few weeks to see what would happen, to see whether anything would grow in it after he had closed it up. He was trying to investigate a subject that was just beginning to interest scientists. That is, he was trying to find out whether living things would appear spontaneously, and without hav- ing fathers or mothers, he was trying to find out whether they would grow in these bottles. That ‘was all there was to it. It was purely a scientific investigation without the slightest conceivable practical result likely to come from it. And yet, little did Pasteur in those days think that he was starting a line of experimentation that was going to lead to the germ theory of disease, and which would revolutionize modern civilization. j Now, to go a little bit closer. I remember twelve years ago giving a paper before the Board of Agriculture of Con- necticut, at a meeting in Birmingham. I think the subject of that paper was “ Bacteria in Milk.” I do not know whether there was any person in that audience that did not think I was a crank, and a young fellow who was trying to make some sort of a sensation to rouse the farmers, but I know most of them looked rather doubtful when I talked to them about those little living things in cream and milk and butter, but I know there were one or two of them that thought there might be something in it. Now that paper was, I think, the first address that was given in this country upon the subject of bacteria in milk. If it was not the first, it was one of the first, and whatever may have been the result of that paper, there is no one here today that does not know that the subject that was there broached as a purely scientific investigation, and which did not necessarily have anything practical in it, yet was a subject, the later developments of which have, to a large extent, revolutionized ‘modern dairying. None of you 256 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., who are acquainted with the conditions, and who understand the method of furnishing milk to cities like New York, New Haven, or Boston, or any of the larger cities, but what know that the methods that are pursued, or which are employed, are based from the cow to the table upon a knowledge of bacteria. The whole system of the industry is permeated and controlled by the facts that have been developed in the last fifteen years in connection with this little microscopic organism which is capable of so much good, and capable of doing so much evil. Every year, and we may almost say every day, there are new applications in the milk industry of our big cities of the facts that have arisen out of the scientific study of bacteria in milk. The practical results which have followed have been enor- mous, and yet when the subject was first taken up it was not taken up with any practical thought that there was any prac- tical value in it. So now, when we come to the question of dairy experimentation at Storrs, if you ask me why we are doing so and so, I should have to tell you that I do not know. But we are investigating scientific problems with a hope, or with a confidence, with a belief that the results are going to be practical somewhere, but we are not going to bind our- selves to promise you at the start that we are working out practical questions, or even that we shall get practical re- sults from the lines of experimentation which we have ini- tiated. We hope that we shall, but we cannot promise what the results will be. We hope, as Prof. Atwater has already intimated, to get at some of the underlying laws that regulate the phenomena in connection with this subject. There is a vast necessity of getting at these underlying laws. The prob- lems which lie before the dairy bacteriologist are complex beyond any conception. The complexity of the problem is indicated, perhaps, a little, by this number, six billion, that we were talking about a little while ago. Perhaps I ought to make a little correction on that. It should not be understood that six billion is a common number for us to find. We usually do not find as many as that. I have known of milk where the bacteriologist said he had computed as high as twenty- five billion in a cubic centimeter. These numbers do not mean anything to the mind. They are too vast for compre- hension. These facts, however, indicate a little of the com- plexity of the problem with which we are concerned, but it is 1902. | STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 257 vastly greater than that, and to illustrate it allow me to use a somewhat crude figure which will serve, perhaps, to call your attention to some of the kinds of problems which we have be- fore us. Suppose any one of you should take a ten-acre lot and plow it up, and then harrow it, and pulverize the ground as much as you can, and then you go over it with a rake, and follow that up with a fine toothed comb and comb out every single trace of plant life there is in it, and so that you will leave absolutely nothing, not even a blade, or root, or piece of grass, or a weed, or anything of that sort. Nothing but dirt. You will have a ten-acre lot absolutely deprived of everything in the way of plant life. Then you let that lot alone. Puta fence around it, and keep things out of it so far as you can, and you let it alone for fifty years. What is going to happen? Are any of you wise enough to tell what will be the condition of that lot fifty years from now? No one in the world could tell, but you know very well, in general, what would happen. You know that after a few weeks vegetation would spring up all over it from the seeds in the soil, and from those which were carried there. First there would be plants of certain kinds, and then, in a little while, some others, of different kinds would spring up, and would crowd the first ones out of existence, and that would go on all during the first season or summer. The next season some of those that happened to last through the winter would spring up, and so the thing would go year after year. These different plants that spring up would fight for a rooting in the soil, and for the water of the soil, and for the light and air so as to grow and live. Some would crowd the others out of existence, and so they would fight it out week after week and month after month, and none of you could tell at any particular time, if you should look at that field, what it would be in five years. It would very likely be quite a different field from what it would appear now, and at the end of fifty years nobody could pre- dict what there would be in that field. And, moreover, if you had two fields, each prepared in the same way, and you allowed them to stand for fifty years in that way, the proba- bility is that at the end of the fifty years there would not be much similarity between the plants in the two lots. Now you can see, perhaps, the complexity of attempting to solve that kind of a problem. The American Indian and all early pas- AGR.—17 258 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., toral peoples depended for all of their fruit from the soil upon just this process that I have been referring to in this ten-acre lot. That is, they did not do anything to keep out the weeds, or to stimulate the growth of'the kind of crops they wanted. They let things grow, and then they wandered around and picked off the fruit, and if they got it, it was all right with them, and if they could not they starved to death. The modern agriculturist, however, designs to manipulate that ten- acre lot in such a way as to keep out of it the things that he does not want there, and to put into it the things that he does want there, and by means of rakes and cultivators, and by means of insecticides, and by this, that, and the other means he succeeds in pushing up the kind of things he wants, and in holding back what he does not want, and the result is he can depend on his crop. The Indian cannot do that. He is dependent upon luck. One depends upon the practice of agriculture and the other does not. Agriculture is the ma- nipulation of the soil in such a way as to make it produce the crop you want. Now the problem that the dairy bacteriol- ogist has before him is quite parallel with that. The milk which comes from the cow is the ten-acre lot without a plant in it, without a seed in it when it first comes from the mam- millary gland. By the time the milk gets into the milk pail it is quite parallel to the lot which has had the plant life raked out of it; but as the field still has plant seeds in it, so quite a number of living things: get into the milk from the air, and from the dirt, from the hairs on the cows’ legs, from the milker’s hands, and from the milk pail itself. Now the number of living things that get into the milk in that way is quite considerable, I assure you. The number that is present, even in milk immediately after being drawn from the cow, runs up pretty high, so that a lot of milk is very much like the ten-acre lot with a lot of seeds in it. What is going to happen? Nobody knew anything about it five years ago. And this particular problem which Prof. Atwater has referred to in his talk, is the problem which we are trying in a very feeble way to touch a little bit around the edges. Although I have been working on the subject for three or four years, yet the problem is so big that in that time it has simply been established what the problem is. Now we find that there are all sorts of things going on 1902.] STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 259 in the milk, and that there is, indeed, a struggle for existence going on between the various forms of bacteria. There are a good many of them there. Some of them begin to grow, and grow rapidly for a while, and then they disappear. Forty- eight hours so far as the bacteria in milk are concerned is a longer time than forty-eight years in your uncultivated lot. Bacteria in forty-eight hours produce more generations of descendants than the plants in your lot would in forty-eight years. The problem, then, in the milk, for the first forty- eight hours is a big problem, and a bigger one than as to what goes on in that ten-acre lot in forty-eight years. At least that is the way it appears at present. Bacteria grow and die very rapidly. Some finding the conditions in the milk favorable to their growth increase very rapidly and gradually crowd others out of existence. They are fighting with each other hour after hour, and we never can tell what is going to happen. We do not find in any two samples that the same thing happens. Let me give you an illustration. In some of the experiments that Mr. Stocking has been carrying on, some very extraordinary results have been obtained. For instance, in one case we started with two lots of milk. One furnished us about three thousand bacteria per cubic centi- meter, and the other furnished twenty-eight thousand. A while later we looked at the samples again, and the one with three thousand had increased to two billion and a half, and the other to nowhere near that number, and yet those samples had been kept under absolutely the same tempera- ture, and in absolutely the same manner. That shows quite clearly the bigness of the problems which are confronting us in the study of this particular question. I do not know how to explain it. I am completely at a loss to understand it. Some day we shall know. Now, in our ten-acre lot we could be pretty sure that after a few years the lot would be covered with grass. There might be other things there, perhaps some kinds of shrubbery, but we could be pretty sure that at some time or other during the course of the fifty years the ground would be covered with grass. Not simply because grass seed is everywhere, but more due to the fact that grass is a hardy plant and can ‘grow under conditions which other plants find unfavorable, and the grass when it once gets into the soil is likely to 260 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., crowd out many other things. So that we might be sure that at some time during the fifty years the ground would be covered with grass. At some time the grass would get the best of other things and cover the ground. So also with these bacteria in milk. We have found in our work thus far that we can depend upon certain kinds of bacteria at some stage in the battle getting the best of it. For instance, the lactic bacteria at a certain stage get the better of the others, and that is the reason that the milk sours. Most of the bac- teria in milk will not sour it. If we take those three thousand bacteria that we found in that sample of milk at the start, and the great majority, probably eighty or ninety per cent. of them, would not sour the milk at all. It is only a very few of them that have that power. This small number we call lactic bacteria, and they are like the grass in our ten- acre lot. They get hold in some way, and little by little crowd the others back, and get ahead of them, and very soon the milk sours. Usually by the time the milk is forty-eight hours old these are in abundance. That is one of the results of this struggle for existence by the bacteria of milk, and an almost universal result. Are these results of any practical value? I do not know yet as to this particular result, but that the problem of bacteria in milk is one of immense prac- tical value to dairying I do know. Why? Because your method of handling your milk, your method of handling your butter, and your method of making your cheese are all de- pendent upon the proper handling of these little micro- organisms. And I know another thing: I know that this general problem is of immense importance to the public health. Whereas, many of these bacteria are harmless, and many of them are distinctly beneficial, and probably beneficial even to health, yet some of them are injurious. There is no dairyman, I suppose, in Connecticut who knows anything of modern dairying that does not know that the problem of dairy bacteria in milk is the problem that the health boards of our big cities are working over, and which they are trying to solve in one way or another. So that upon the solution of the problem presented by this struggle for existence going on among the bacteria in milk for the first twenty-four hours is dependent much that is fraught with the greatest significance both to the dairy business and to the public health. Whether 1902. | STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 261 the particular work which we shall take up at Storrs proves to be of great value or not can only be told after we have solved the problems. That is the difficulty with scientific work. The scientist never knows whether he is going to get anything out of his work of practical value or not. He may work on week after week, and month after month, upon a certain line only to find that no practical results will come from it, and another time he will come upon results that are worth enough to pay for all the disappointments elsewhere. And so, whether the particular lines that we may undertake at Storrs at first are to be useful or not can only be told in the future. This kind of work at Storrs is new. Apart from the work that has been done in my own iaboratory we have only been at work about two months, and the work that has been there I am going to ask Mr. Stocking to give you a little account of. We have started upon this line of investigations, and the conclusions that he may give you are conclusions which, per- haps, may not be borne out by future work, but they will indicate to you something of what we are, in a measure, try- ing to do. Now, I want to say in conclusion that the purpose we have in view is simply to benefit the dairymen of Connecti- cut, and the benefit of the dairy interest in general. We want your co-operation. Above all things, we would like to know what your problems are that you would like to have solved. If there are any subjects which seem to have a connection with the dairy interest in Connecticut and which can be prop- erly brought to our attention we should be very glad to have you do so. We want your co-operation in that way. The station will do its best to serve you in any way it can if you will let us know what the questions are that are troubling you in this regard. There are many problems that we have in mind to solve if we can, and it may be that some of you who are prac- tical dairymen can suggest to Mr. Stocking or myself some- thing that will be of more use to us at the experiment station and to the dairymen of Connecticut than anything we might think of ourselves. You have the practical side of dairying in your own hands, and can therefore look at these subjects from a different standpoint. I am not a butter maker, or a 262 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., cheese maker, and my knowledge of the practical side of these matters must be obtained partly from observation and partly from my association with the farmers of Connecticut, but it must come largely from hints and suggestions which come from you dairymen directly. May I then ask for the station in its dairy work the co-operation of all dairymen in Connecticut, ask for your suggestions, and ask your careful consideration in the future of the results that we may have to announce? Now, I think if we can call on Mr. Stocking for a word or two to indicate the line of work which we began through the first few weeks of the fall, that perhaps will round out what we ought to say at this time regarding the dairy work of the station. The PRESIDENT. We are very glad that Mr. Stocking is present. If he will come forward we will be very glad to hear from him. Mr. Stocxinc. Mr. President and Ladies and Gentle- men: I am glad that Dr. Conn gave me the introduction that he did, because I thoroughly agree with him that what I have to give you in a very few words is nothing that is very definite; nothing that as yet you, as practical business men and dairymen, who are running the dairy farms, would be justified in putting in practice. When the station undertook this new line of work last fall it did not take very long to decide upon a subject for its beginning. The subject seemed to present itself—in fact it had been crowding itself upon the minds of a great many who were interested in dairy work for some time — and that was the question of how to produce a better grade and a better quality of milk. That, then, was the problem that we undertook to solve at the beginning. It is, I believe, in milk just as it is in any other line of pro- duction, the people are coming to demand a better grade. A few years ago milk was milk. It made no difference to the consumer whether it contained two per cent. of butter fat or whether it contained five; whether it contained impurities from the stable, or whether it was pure and sweet; whether it would keep twelve hours from souring or whether it would keep fifty hours. It all was milk when sold at the same price. But people are beginning to learn that there is a difference 1902.] STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION — DAIRYING. 263 in milk just as they have learned that the Ben Davis apple is not the New England-grown Baldwin or the sickel pear. Milk is not always milk, and in some cases, at least a few, and I am glad to say that these are getting less and less, where milk is being put upon the market to be used as food it is being returned to the seller through whose lax methods it derived a part of its flavor. So far as I know, no one has ever made any special scien- tific study in regard to the amount of filth and other dirty stuff that is contained in milk. That is the first problem that we undertook to get some light upon, and the first thing to do was to find some method whereby we could tell what a certain quantity of milk contained. The first method that was tried was to place a certain quantity in a tall glass cyl- inder with straight sides, and let it stand for a number of hours until the particles of dirt contained in the milk had had time to settle to the bottom, and then by means of a little rubber tube the upper part of the milk was syphoned off, the cylinder again filled with water, this in turn allowed to stand for a certain number of hours, and then again syphoned off and the cylinder refilled; this washing or diluting process going on long enough to remove the cream and fat and to make the liquid thin enough so that it could be washed through filter paper, where the dirt might be collected and dried and weighed. This process did not prove to be very satisfactory, because it was found that the particles of dirt would stick to the sides of the cylinder and would not sink to the bottom. It was also found that fine particles were held near the top, being held in with the cream, so that the cream could not be taken off without carrying off some of the dirt. That process had to be abandoned. Next we tried to see if we could not throw the dirt out by using a Babcock testing machine. In this the milk was put into a bottle, the machine whirled rapidly for a few min- utes, which precipitated the dirt to the bottom, and then by means of a little rubber tube and the same washing process we got the liquid thin enough so that we could wash it through filter paper. It was found that the ordinary Babcock testing machine did not run fast enough to throw all of the dirt to the bottom. Some particles would rise up and be caught in with the fat. So that plan had to be abandoned 264 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., also. The small amount of milk that could be used in that method was also a disadvantage. The next thing we tried was an ordinary separator. A small machine was used, one of the simplest construction we could get, and a certain quantity of milk was run through this. The milk was followed through by a certain amount of warm water at the same temperature as the milk, and when we had secured a liquid of the necessary thinness this watery solution was washed through the filter paper. That, of course, separated the dirt that was contained in the sample of milk. It was found after testing this method in a number of different ways that so far as we could find out we had practically all the dirt that the milk contained and nothing else. So that the result we got, I think I am pretty safe in saying, was pretty accurate. So much, then, for the method of getting at the amount of dirt. As soon as we found that we were ready to start we se- lected two cows in the barn, standing side by side, and in order to have it uniform those cows were milked under nearly as uniform conditions as we could get. The idea was to de- termine, if possible, if we could not find a covered milk pail, or some sort of a cover which would exclude dirt in milking, and so keep it in better condition. The pail that we used for this experimental work was one which I think was de- vised by Mr. Stadtmueller of West Hartford. It is simply a tin cover placed upon the pail and fitting tightly, and on one side there is a tin cylinder soldered on, which is about four inches in diameter. At the bottom of this there is a piece of wire strainer. In that there was also placed two thicknesses of cheese cloth, so that the milk in passing into the pail had to go through these two thicknesses of cloth supported by the wire gauze. These two cows were num- bered “ one” and “ two,” and when we commenced, cow No. 2 was milked into the closed pail and cow No. Isinto the open pail. Samples were taken from the milk and immediately taken up to the laboratory and run through the separator and the amount of dirt determined from each one. The next day the test was reversed, cow No. 2 being milked into an open pail and cow No. I into a closed pail, and the same thing gone through with. This work was carried on for quite a long time, alternating each day with the two cows, so that 1902. | DISCUSSION. 265 at the end we had a series of results which could be, I think, compared with a fair degree of accuracy. The results of these experiments were in some respects quite marked. The amount of dirt getting into the closed pail was very much smaller than that getting into the open pail. I have brought along two or three samples of the filter papers on which we collected the dirt, thinking possibly you might be interested in looking at them and making a com- parison between the two. Secretary Brown. Would you be willing to tell right here how large the samples of milk were from which you got the amount of dirt as shown on these filter papers? Mr. Stocxinc. Just a trifle over a quart. I would say, however, that the cows that those samples were taken from were giving at the time these tests were taken about seven pounds of milk at a milking, so that, of course, to get the amount of dirt in one milking that would have to be multi- plied. Question. Were those cows kept as clean as possible, or were they kept the same as the ordinary farmer would keep his cows? Mr. Stocxinc. They had the same ordinary care that all the cows in the barn had. A Memeper. They were not, then, thoroughly ‘cleaned and groomed twice a day? Mr. Stocxinc. Of course, during the time that they were out to pasture they were not groomed. Some of these tests were taken at that time. Question. Was that milk, from which the samples were taken, strained through cloth, or strained in any other way? Mr. Stocxinc. No sample was strained at all. These filter papers show the amount of dirt that got into the milk at the time of milking; that is, that got into the samples from which this dirt was gathered. That is what we were after. I might also say that the barn in which these cows were kept was probably cleaner than eight out of ten ordinary farm 266 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., barns through the State. I have been through a great many, so I think I know the condition, and I know that this barn is in better condition than about eight out of ten ordinary farm barns. Question. When did you get these samples? Night or morning? I suppose that would make some difference with the amount of dirt? Mr. Stocxinc. These samples on these papers were taken from milk samples selected in the morning. Of course, there would be naturally a greater amount. Question. Should you think that the milk would have been cleaner than that if it had been milked into a strainer? Mr. Stocxinc. We took the milk from one cow, milked into an open pail, and then a sample was taken from the milk, and then the rest of the milk was strained through a strainer that was used in the milking, and two thicknesses of cheese cloth and then another sample taken, and the two tested in the same way. The result showed that while a great deal of dirt was taken out of the strainer after the milking, yet a good deal of the finer part, a large part of that, went through and was collected in the milk. Of course, the coarser parti- cles of dirt were kept out by the strainer. Question. Was any special attempt made to have the cows perfectly clean when they were milked, or any atten- tion paid to the dress of the milkers? 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OFFICIAL DIRECTORY OF THE CONNECTICUT PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY, FOR 1902. FFICERS OF CONNECTICUT STATE GRANGE. Master, B. C. Parrerson, Torrington. Overseer, Iverson C. Fanron, Westport. Lecturer, Frank S. Hopson, Stratford. Steward, J. B. Biiven, New London. Asst. Steward, Roperrt W. AnpDrREws, New Britain. Chaplain, Rev. F. Counrryman, North Branford. Treasurer, N. S. Pratt, New Haven. — Secretary, Henry E. Loomis, Glastonbury. Gate-Keeper, E. H. Wricut, Clinton. Ceres, Miss GerTRUDE W. BraDLey, Waterbury. Pomona, Mrs. Sasra M. Kesey, Higganum. Flora, Mrs. Hartiz J. Wetton, Plymouth. Lady Steward, Mrs. Arice L. Porrer, North Woodstock. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. J. H. Hare, South Glastonbury, Term Expires, 1903 H. F. Porrer, North Haven, as st 1904 Orson §. Woop, Ellington, “s ar 1905 B. C. PATTERSON, e% Officio, a te 1904 H. E. Loomis, ex officzo, se ‘ 1904 FINANCE COMMITTEE. H. C. Dunnam, Middletown. R. R. Wotcortr, Wethersfield. P. B. Sistzey, Danielson. 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Aoudoig ‘uey[oYUg *O UIP “O[[TAUAIIG MA “IOUpPIBD “FT Mog “STINIV S.[oqduwy ‘wouuey ‘qT aqor ‘UMOISI[LH “OMOIg *f BINT “SIT “AN ‘olwsse ‘pao “qd “A Arua *£IWUGAOD YINOS ‘10}9}0d ‘N “WL ‘UDABTT MON Sy “BIg ‘fusodg * yUvI YT “yqooiqajop ‘doaqyioN ually *S “BAI ‘PAONV.YG ‘MayQoBaW es1004) *IOSOYO[OH ‘SuONY “fC WIV “SA “MOULTO “BHVAN “AH PLOW ‘ioAopuy ‘urwMdy Alvy_ ssi “AIjU9A0D “TIVH “0 'O ‘SIN *10},O JOJSOTOULAA ‘YANOMBpOCH “"T “MM *PAOTTUN, “SPINAL “O ‘O “H ‘Tanow AT ‘WouP A, PIV “£Inqi9yw Ad ‘yuodsotg [[VH VUUuy “s1yT *£lNGIOUBH “OG “YAV[D “N TAIT “‘puByjoog ‘SULsSvH “V UIIPA Sstin *[JPMULOID ‘preqqny "W 338 SsuW “‘QIIOMSUL [TY ‘o[oUleg “( [PAO'T ‘uosdmoyy, ‘Ae’, “y oulydesor ‘sip ‘'s1u0}g ‘snstaey "T A1ie Ay *PISBOIPPIN “GU “A BAB[O SstjT *O[[TASUT][OH ‘ssB[onog “A ‘IW ‘S17 UOsUIQGY ‘iedpeg_ vuuy “BIYT *plosqsug ‘qiOy "V UR “S21 *yoorqAeg ‘oy ‘7, WOMBAT S8ITT *plOjAVET ‘AA “WOJULING *O ‘*sByO “Aq “19j89YO[OD ‘SUILITIEAA “O'S *ployeys ‘pl '£ eqqV ‘SI ‘OT[TAISeIO,T ‘AOPHON “A WwAVG ssip TTANOIBL ‘ANN “CW “SAW ‘AIPA Yuquingyy “g “‘svyO ‘UMO)O[ PPI SUBUIpIvOg “qT ‘LOIS ‘SSIWINO UBT sary *AUVLAUON, “77 osnoyeiwM ‘mosdmoyy, ‘WW YUvsT OMUBUNTTITM ‘AUBTLL, "§ OUO “BALL yodaq Aoudeig ‘sakvy] o1ssog] Sst ill ‘Q[[IAUOMIB AA ‘TOU "e eTdoyT ‘si7T ‘yuo ‘UOJURIS O1}90'T SSI ‘UINUvYyooH ‘japuBy{ "W oul[ned ssi “XN BIUOWLY ‘O§ ‘MOlIVG “I IAL SSTIN ‘£IQUOAOD “ON ‘SULyIog AWY ‘SI ‘UOABHT ‘N SY “B18 ‘SPOOAA ‘C ‘N SSI] *YOOId [HW “@olLTy “AA sotue ¢ ‘paoyquayg ‘uosdoyy *§ WW “SAW ‘1a1S9YO[ON ‘YOUPOOH BIA “SLI ‘moOyUI[D ‘S001g “fC LIV S81] ‘aAopuy ‘MOUG *V “AA ‘BATAL ‘Kayueao0H ‘Ainqssury *f oUUBY, SSTL “‘poysurAA ‘VY WOIS ‘TOsUyoOL "Ht ‘El “PLOJTTTL “UWS “We pad ‘qqnoursy ‘MOJO MA “fF 919)BH “S11 *A1nq.103B \\"UOST1ALY “UAL ‘Kinqioluvy ‘OG ‘UBSIOJL OLUUY “SIL ‘puxjoog ‘sulysey *O JopureT ‘TTOMULOLY ‘pivQquyy sUe1O[ A “SAL ‘IIOMIUI] [TY ‘BUAV]G “ST PIARCL ‘O[[TAMOSTEM ‘pavpoo AA “fC “We ‘S1N ‘SI10}9 ‘yoveg “T sepvyp ‘PPVOIPPHN ‘Insny “Ht peasly ‘O[[IASIOeg ‘stuo00T “WO “HO}SUIGY “ANGITM OOTY ‘SV ‘projysepy ‘1oJUNd ABH “ff OdITY SST ‘oomq Avg ‘oS VON BPI “B81 ‘plo jWVH “M ‘ABC “W UeqeZ el Sa ‘snpooy ‘}JoyINL “Wl BUUY "SI ‘proypeyg ‘mangoo LAB yL SST ‘OTAueg ‘tepAy “y omno'7y ‘sry ‘OTAMOOU “UWS LW BAg “SIAL ‘aT[TIAHOOY ‘ooy uwsng ‘s1jl ‘GMOJOTPPUW ‘pavqquHy “A “Cd “Ae ‘joysiig ‘Ao[pvrg *H oppory TI Iospura “wT ‘woyySNog “7] ‘OUMUBUNITILAA “OVITT “GH soTaeyO Sodoeg souda}g ‘1epoUulg Jaoqoyy ‘proyysy ‘ivoqdusy "mM Pe ‘UONT “W0jULIS “V *V. ‘UMOISIII FT “WoIouRg *f¢ souve “XN ‘Wolu() BiuouLy ‘eayeyO "8 “¢ ‘faquaao0g Winog ‘ourptneds "¥ “WW ‘HOARE, MAN Sy "RIG ‘ssiuuvdy) "Py ‘yooiqo[op ‘hols MvyT “ PABAPEL *POJIVYS “SVAND “AA 10Q OX ‘1oSoqO[OH ‘[TeQVy “Y uoIAW ‘uojULLO ‘s3yoo1g “PT ‘0ay “1aAOpuy ‘MOUS "WM ‘£IQUOAOD SUDABT “O “AA ‘1ajUSD IOJSeTOULAA ‘YSNOUNpOOY “J, ‘pIOJAL ‘WQS uvwinay, “N ‘qynould,g ‘UO LS “y snIkO ‘f£anqioje A ‘909 *§ AIIV]T ‘AINQIOJUBH ‘OF ‘SMOLIVE “WY PABA\PAL ‘pun[joog ‘uvmuy ‘gq UA ‘TTammlorp ‘dorygy Mey 19918 AA ‘TIIOMSUT [LY ‘SU9AD}G “OD Jz0qlo EL ‘auosdmoyy, svq ‘UOsUIqoYy 1v9sO ‘g110]1§ ‘uO0si9q]¥q "Ss AlUOTT ‘PIPVOIPPIN “Insny “q sefByo ‘puvdon ‘YIM seg "0 "9 ‘1ajyUND Jorjmog ‘ssuuue fr WITT AA ‘plojysegy ‘asi0ey “yy ANT “s1qy ‘yoorqAvg ‘uosulpoIg “§ uyor ‘plOJJAVH, 199,A4 ‘SIOURLT 4 °C ‘usppBy ysvq ‘oeT “A ydosor ‘ssulldg ployei1s ‘Spouse “WW ‘¢ ‘al[LAuqeld ‘1ojyuedavp ‘gq ‘“¢ “OTITAIOOTRL “UIT “AA SO[IBYO ‘pusl[oy, ‘WoJIwopy ‘AA aygor ‘UMOP[PPUN ‘SUIN}V 'O snune ‘Toys “propARy “WL “HL “IOBPULAA SGT ‘lopl0g ‘AuouIe YT ‘proyysy UOMO “UM O48] [TET ‘yoninqa AA ‘SnVquINSuB AL ‘WOXxXO\T ‘yoouqojop ‘o1UOVBSnOy] §I9]SOYO[OD *aojyal[D ‘IOAOPUY *KIQUaaAoyn ‘To}Soyour A, ‘OAT UBIPUT ‘yqnowA[d ‘IOANT pry *KinqiajyuRy ‘joxonjoys ‘TTaMuULOID ‘TWIIOMSUITT [IM ‘ossiyRuuing) ‘pleysavN ‘PlBeLPPHN. BOING ‘ced FIOM ‘OMU'T eysdap ‘sooiq Avg “plOJ}IVH 489 AA ‘ULBpPRL ISVAL ‘pLoyynys ‘O[[AMIGI ‘MOUIa A IGN PIPUISAM ‘OUTASTUM ‘AUN LOT MELSVIT ‘CHONILNOD —’SHDONVUD AHL JO SUMOIAO GRANGE DIRECTORY. 313 1902. | our'y ‘sjatarqd “g poree “TOUIM “OGCY *O toyoIV “‘ploymeys ‘yAoyyT " YRirg ‘sayy ‘oodsorg ‘sioog ‘gq Avy] “HOLsUIAOT, SpuomMATAL “WH ssuA “S|[By. Uoovog ‘yIBlO "YW Avy “81 ‘1.0 Pleyyoo1g “Gaopuasyg * AA “T SSI “PlepUle[d “oualy *O prsd *AINQOTPPIW SPPUL “HL VIQART “BAT, UBRURD JaBe “UNIO “TW BAVTO SSTIV “MOIRYS ‘PAOFIIU AA “A OB Y SSI *TUquinay, ‘aoJME “ET O[[TAIO “POM ‘AMOI “HT . UALR AA “TOUTS XV “TUT yNUysoyH ‘AOT[N “fC BIpPwYy “MOIPYS “998A “8 “WAL ‘UMOJMON ‘doiqy1oN “e uyor ‘anURIO ‘TTassny *O “W onqnen ‘OpreAd “{ Ploieyy “AMQPOo AKON ‘souIVEy, “TT OIVIL SSI “UBBUVD YNOY ‘uOJa[pudd “WT “TT “SW “UMOJO[PPI ‘UBUTD9AT “FT “9q03T *YOOIQISA AA ‘IOUDASOIN “AA “CL “UMO}IOIB AA ‘IO500TT *O “YY ‘mayarmeg ‘und "AA souue “MOSIPLIL ‘AOS[OY “WW VIM SAT “SLLIO]Y ‘piloaly “Gf ‘0ay *P[OUMIION “UBI SINO'T “yf ‘AOI “IOATY doaq ‘AIP "WW BIO ‘SW [OIG ‘surydeg “¥ 'O AIR “SI TEL Axo0gT “PlOMsITD “VW “IW “SA "PUSIONIOA “S ‘Ps ‘SoT1AM AOTPUC. ‘dnsooyq ‘uosaopurg “Vy “WT ‘S81 “uosjorung ‘AB BI “O SSUN ‘aojdurny ysegT ‘Moug OSsINo'y "TT SST "R15 O[IAISO AA *OOOYOIH “YW PABA PAT ‘POUT “UOTLY "H 98.1004) HOABTT ISBT ‘90D “H BYR ‘BIW *‘siom10g ‘AIOAW “(7 UTMAGT “sONABSNRN ‘SsoyoIOH “VW “AW ‘sculidg proyyeig ‘euMoy, 03.1004) “‘THOMSI[A ‘Ganouspooy “iT seTID *joUNIeHO “VV ‘uung seuoNy, “WOTAMION ‘ON “CL “WE “UT ‘eSIOWT “AA “H sanqureyy ‘sporaeq “AA ABIL SstqT ‘UMOJODIOIY) ‘AolppoH spAO/'T “BAL ‘pr1ojyMB}g “107907 ‘HA VIPAT “BI ‘yoodsorg ‘SuUIpoo AA BI[OISOL ‘TOYysoy) SOM ‘TIVA ‘qT SomIBL? ‘S[[ByT WOovag ‘UdT[Y elssor ‘SIV ‘OAjTO) PPEPAOO “TYMUAS O[ON “B1]V ‘ASRIILA [RUD ‘QJasovq soudIv[O ‘ eT) 7 - ’ '? 316 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., THE AUDUBON SOCIETY OF CONNECTICUT. Mrs. JAMEs OsBoRNE WricuT, Pres’t, Fairfield. Mrs. Heen S. GLoverR, Sec’y and Treas., Fairfield. THE ,CONNECTICUT BEE-KEEPERS’ ASSOCIATION. CHartes H. Cuirrenven, Pres’¢, Killingworth. Miss Eten B. Peck, Sec’y, Clinton. CONNECTICUT STATE POULTRY SOCIETY. GrorceE B. Fisuer, Pres’¢, Hartford. R. G. Batey, Sec’y, Hartford. MERIDEN POULTRY ASSOCIATION. ly. EB. Cor, Pres'z. JosHua SHuTE, Sec’y. W. B. Hatt, Jreas. NEW HAVEN POULTRY ASSOCIATION. Epwarp A. Topp, Pres’?. W. R. Kirxwoop, Sec’y. Epw. L. Jongs, 7reas. 1902. | REPORT OF THE TREASURER. 317 REPORT OF FME EREASURER, Cuas. A. THOMPSON, 27 account with ConNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 1g00. Dr. Cr. July 2. By cashin Treasury, 3 : . $2,295.18 Aug. 2. E.D. Hammond, . 5 : ; $11.50 as ‘* Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor, : : 9.75 Be “* Case, Lockwood & Brainard Co., . é 162.95 fo 25.. Ness blatty - : : : ; 37.91 Sept. 24. C.S. Phelps,. : : ‘ : 40.00 “ (TA Vi..Osmurs : : ‘ ; 24.25 Nov. 2. E. H. Jenkins, : : : ; 28.40 et dake (Gre (EG qeillle7 : é : : 22.14 Dec. 14. W. D. Hoard, : : - : 135.00 es ‘© Seaman Mead, : : : : 15.00 “e i seth i. Moseley; . - : : 488.00 6 CeCe s.sebelps: é : 2 - 80.05 ss ‘© John A. Hull, - - : : 30.00 IgOl. Jaa, (2. . Mrs. C. W. Pickett, : ; p 25.00 “ cWe Coptureis, : 5 ‘ 3 25.00 an ar CoE. Eales 2 F , : : "27.00 a i he. GaGuuley, , : : : 4.60 ‘* to. By State appropriation, . : . 3,500.00 Lon OLY MAS CEN” F ; ‘ ‘ 3 500.00 ee ‘© James Wood, ; f ‘ : 30.05 of ‘« Seaman Mead, ; ‘ : F 29.20 2 +) jee Rothrock. : : : : 44.36 fs « .T, €, Panton, : : : ‘ 13.45 as ‘s_- CLD: eWoods, P ; F ‘ 53.29 ~ -26:,). a J.¢Maner 2 : : : A 9.96 fe “ R. S. Hinman, ; : : : 24.10 es ‘* Frederick Doolittle, : : ; 17.98 a ‘c CC’ A. Thompson, : ; : ; 36.24 Feb. 4. Chas. E. Chapman, : : : 30.60 «74. N. G. Williams, 3 ; A Z 17.64 Mar. 13. Chas. F. Roberts, . : . : 75.00 Crh 26520 Nob lattyas : : 2 ‘ 2.68 ey Ss WAS Ge Galle: : ; 3 , 8.24 as a Caos helps: : : : : 28.07 318 Mar. 30. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, N.S. Mayo, . Rufus W. Stimson, E. G. Seeley, C. S. Phelps, N.S. Mayo, . é H. G. Manchester, Conn. Agricultural College, W. A. Stocking, Jr., C. L. Beach, 4 W. M. Shepardson, . E. C. Birge, T. A. Stanley, Chas. P. Augur, F. H. Staattmueller, W. E. Britton, E. H. Jenkins, Chas. A. Wheeler, J. C. Fanton, ; Chas. A. Thompson, T. S. Gold, : Seaman Mead, N. S. Platt, Chas. E. Chapman, Case, Lockwood & Brainard Co., E. Halliday, . E. D. Hammond, Frederick Doolittle, James F. Brown, E. G. Seeley, J. H. McFarland, Hartford Engraving Co., To balance amount in treasury, [Jan., $5.50 8.32 20.00 28.43 6.60 4-43 3.80 6.90 14.00 2.40 1.80 5.00 2.00 2.26 17.40 46.60 3.96 3.40 33.27 838.65 38.60 30.75 4.70 1,162.29 18.65 11.74 11.39 56.41 5.00 20.24 15.82 1,277.46 $5,795.18 $5,795.18 HARTFORD, JULY I, Igo!. This is to certify that we have examined the accounts of the Treas- urer of the State Board of Agriculture and the vouchers for the same and find them correct. SEAMAN MEAD, FREDERICK DOOLITTLE, \ uattors. INDEX, 1901. PAGE. pied of Welcome, Mayor D. Mulvihill, ; : : 20 Good Roads, Hon. James H. MacDonald, ; 29 re Introductory, Gov. Geo. P. McLean, . 21 a The Connecticut Agricultural College, enue pee dent R. W. Stimson, . : III “3 The Farmer as a Citizen, Col. janice Wood, F 89 Agricultural Fairs in Connecticut, : ; : A F200 5 Lessons from the Pan-American Exposition, Prof, €..S. Phelps: : : : ; P 208 i Societies, Official List of, . Babine ze p 302 . ef Returns of, Finances, Receipts, . 303, 304 Analysis of Premiums and Gratuities — Farm Stock, etc., . 305-307 Animals Exhibited at Fairs, Number of, 3 308 Atwater, Dre W: -O. Phe Storrs Aci calearal Benermens Station and its Work in Dairying, . : : , 235 Beach, Prof. S. A., Diseases and Insects Injurious to Or- chards and Field Crops, . ; ; ‘ : f 132 Board of Agriculture, Official List, : : : : 5 Bridgeport, Exhibits at, . 5 204 Britton, W. E., Insects and their Relation to Aetieuteanes : 193 Business Methods in Buying Fertilizers, Dr. E. H. Jenkins, 147 Conn, Dr. H. W., The Storrs Agricultural Experiment’ Sta- tion and its Work in Dairying, . : : , : 249 Connecticut Agricultural Collese: hey 4 ‘ : ; III Agricultural Fairs in, . 309 Exhibitors at Pan- A cneciente Diplomas pce by, ; : ‘ 301 Patrons of Engebaniday: Official Dizectonn , : 310 Curtice, Dr. Cooper, Poultry as an Adjunct of the Farm, . 219 DePeu, Rev. John, Prayer by, . : f 19 Discussions, . : Pe 88, 227-235, sas Diseases and Insects Grane to lOnsnaats and Field Crops, 13 Division of Agriculture, List of Awards at Pan-American Ex- position, ‘ P . : a : 296 Horticulture, List of Awards at Pan-American Exposition, . : : ; ‘ ; 299 320 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., PAGE Education of Books and of Nature, The, Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer, 3 i : i ae . 5 278 Exhibits at Beer sort, : : , ; ; , 204 ~ Exposition, Pan-American, List of Awards at, . ; . 296-299 Farm, Poultry as an Adjunct of, Dr. Cooper Curtice, . ; 219 =) Sanitation, Or. (GC. JA. ‘indsley,.: ; : * 49 “Stock, Analysis of Premiums and Gratuities Pat, . 305-307 Farmers’ Clubs, Official List of, . : 3 ; : 315 iy Institutes in 1901, . , : : : 8 Fairs, Agricultural, in Connecticut, 3 ; 3 3 309 “Number of Animals Exhibited at, ; . : 308 Fertilizers, Business Methods in Buying, . : 4 : 147 Finances, Returns of Agricultural Sr arces. i . 303, 304 Flavoring Extracts, What they Are and How hey Ane Adulterated, ‘ : ‘ : : : : 170 Forestry for the Farmer, . é : : : 161 Good Roads, Address on. . 29 Graves, Prof. H. S., The Yale Forestry SEN OOL and AS Bue poses, : : ‘ : : ; 184 Insects and their Relation to Agriculture, W. E. Britton, . 193 Institutes, Farmers’, in IQoI, E 2 5 8 Introductory Address by Gov. Geo. P. Mic ean: ; ; 2 Jenkins, Dr. E. H., Business Methods in Buying Fertilizers, 147 Lecture, Agricultural Lessons from the Pan-American Ex- position, Prof. C. S. Phelps, . 208 o Business Methods in Buying ertilizers. De 1D, H. Jenkins, . 147 s Diseases and Tecan Ea erere to Orchards wal Field Crops, Prof. S. A. Beach, : 132 3 Flavoring Extracts, What they Are and Hist thee are Adulterated, Prof. A. L. Winton, p : 170 ° Farm Sanitation, Dr. C. A. Lindsley, . : 49 i Forestry for the Farmer, etc., Walter Mulford; 2 161 Insects and their Relation to Agriculture, W. E. Britton, . ‘ ; 193 = Poultry as an Najune: of fies Rabe Dr. Cooper Curtice | 219 yy The Education of “Boake and éf Nate: Mrs. ‘Alice Freeman Palmer, : 278 The Storrs Agricultural Bepermen’ Station and its Work in Dairying, Dr. W. O. Atwater, . : 235 Hs The same subject continued, Dr. H. W. Conn, . 249 1902. | INDEX. 321 PAGE. Lecture, The Yale Forestry School and its Purposes, Prof. Hi. “S: Graves, = ; : 3 ; 184 Lindsley, Dr. C. A., Farm Sanitation: : 3 : : 49 MacDonald, James H., Good Roads, : é . 29 McLean, Gov. Geo. P., Introductory Address, . : R 21 Mulvihill, Mayor D., Address of Welcome, . : } 20 Number of Animals Exhibited at Fairs, . : , 2 308 Officers of the Granges, . . 311-314 Official Directory Connecticut Paani of Fieebaaden : 310 List of Agricultural Societies, . : : : 302 a Board of Agriculture, , é : . ag ss of Farmers’ Clubs, . : ‘ : : 315 Palmer, Mrs. Alice Freeman, The Education of Books and of Nature, : : : 278 Pan- eS Bxnostion, Gonuechicn: Behibitors at, ; 301 se List of Awards at, . : . 296-299 Phelps, Prof. C. S., Agricultural Lessons from the Pan- American Exposition, . : ; : , 208 Poultry as an Adjunct of the Baas P : : : 219 Prayer, by Rev. John DePeu, . , : : : 19 Question-Box, : : : : : 3 . 157, 178 Report of Agricultural Fairs in Connecticut, 1901, . P 7 Resolution on death of Henry Thompson, : 234 Returns of Agricultural Societies — Finances and Recents 303, 304 San José Scale, : : ce : : : : 179 Stimson, R. W., The Connecticut Agricultural College, : III Treasurer's Report, . : f : J ; : 317 Turkeys and their Diseases, : : ‘ : : 232 Vote of Thanks, : , : : : , : 293 Winton, Proi. A. L., Flavoring Extracts, What they Are and How they are Adulterated, : : ae : 170 Wood, Col. James, The Farmer as a Citizen, . : : 890 Acr. —21 { 7 ; hom aee we) me | rat Ah: ray, Y; Perel a ys Ne ED ie RS si 42 t by " iT) oY Re a 7 ‘ i - wh Sd » PY Pf : i 7 ‘ 7 . a { > », a nan : ir : y ‘~, a , \ 4 my A CATALOGUE OF ALL Phenogamous and Vascular Cryptogamous Plants AT PRESENT KNOWN TO GROW WITHOUT CULTIVATION IN THE STATE OF CONNECTICUT BY JAMES NATHANIEL BISHOP PLAINVILLE, CONN. Partford Press THE CASE, LOCKWOOD & BRAINARD COMPANY IgOL PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. In 1885, in attempting to make a complete list of the flowering plants of the State of Connecticut, the author entered on an untrodden field. While the catalogue then produced was necessarily very imperfect it is hoped that it was not entirely without use. In 1896, the earlier edition having been exhausted, and much new material having been collected through the enthusiastic work of systematic botanists, both professional and amateur, it was deemed advisable to publish a second edition. Two years later a supplement including numerous additions and corrections was issued. Again many new facts regarding the flora of our state have accumu- lated, and there is, furthermore, an added reason for once more revising the catalogue since it is desirable to present the families in the new and more philosophical order, used by Engler & Prantl in their ‘‘ Natiirliche Pflanzenfamilien ” and now being generally adopted. In the present unsettled state of nomenclature among botanists a satisfactory selection of plant names is a matter of great difficulty. For efficient assistance in this part of his work the author is indebted to the kindness of Messrs. B. L. Robinson and M. L. Fernald of the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University. In the use of such adjectives as ‘‘common,” “‘ frequent,” ‘‘ rare,” etc., the personal equation enters to a considerable extent. However, after an experience of thirty-five years in botanizing over large areas in the state and in later years receiving assistance from nearly a hundred cor- respondents, the author is inclined toregard as common only those plants which occur in large quantities on considerable tracts throughout the greater part of the state. As correspondents are apt to consider even a rare plant as common if it chances to be locally abundant in their particu- lar region, it has seemed best to determine the relative abundance or scarcity of particular species by applying a decimal scale to their frequency over the whole state. In addition to previous acknowledgments of assistance the author is newly indebted to Charles B. Graves, M.D., of New London, E. H. Eames, M.D., of Bridgeport, Mr. A. W. Driggs of East Hartford, Mrs. Elisha E. Rogers of Norwich, Mr. E. B. Harger of Oxford, and Mr. Luman Andrews of Southington, for accurate and very complete lists of plants of their respective regions; also to many notes of new and rare plants in Rhodora, the eminently scholarly journal of the New England Botanical Club. To render due acknowledgment to all the correspondents who have contributed to the value of the catalogue would necessitate more space than can be allotted in this preface, but their names will be found throughout the following pages. It is again necessary to request the users of this list to furnish such additional information or corrections as may from time to time be noted by them. PLAINVILLE, April 1, 1900. A CATALOGUE OF ALL PHAANOGAMOUS AND VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS AT PRESENT Known to Grow Without Cultivation in the State of Connecticut By JAMES NATHANIEL BISHOP, Plainville, Conn. PLE REDOPHY TA ORDER I OPHIOGLOSSACE IL Botrychium . lanceolatum, Angstroem. Redding, Litchfield, Norfolk, West Hartford (many plants)— Driggs. Naugatuck, Trumbull — Eames . lunaria, Swartz. Oxford, West Cornwall — Harger . matricarizfolium, Braun. Sherman—Austin. Franklin (very rare) — Eames . simplex, Hitchcock. Berlin, Litchfield . ternatum, Swartz. This with several varieties occur more or less abundantly . Virginianum, Swartz. Common LI Ophioglossum . vulgatum, L. Frequent - ORDER 2 FILICES ITI Adiantum . pedatum, L. Common LV Aspidium (Dryopterzs) . acrostichoides, Swartz. common and variable . acrostichoides, Swartz; var. incisum, Gray. Occasional . Boottii, Tuckerman. Not rare . cristatum, Swartz. Common . cristatum, Swartz; var. Clintonianum, Eaton. Frequent . Goldianum, Hook. Moist woods, local . marginale, Swartz. Common . Noveboracense, Swartz. Common . spinulosum, Swartz. Common . spinulosum, Swartz; var. intermedium, Eaton. Common . simulatum, Davenport. Waterford—Graves. Oxford —Harger . Thelypteris, Swartz. Common . Marginale X cristatum, Davenport. Waterford, East Lyme — Graves. Gaylordsville — Austin V Asplentum. . angustifolium, Michx. Meriden — Andrews. Mt. Totoket— Denslow. Berlin — Cowles . ebeneum, Ait. Common . ebenoides, R. R. Scott. Canaan (one plant)—J. S. Adams . Filix-foemina, Bernh. Common . montanum, Willd. North Stonington— Dodge. East Haddam — Graves . Ruta-muraria, L. Frequent on ledges in mountainous regions. . Trichomanes, Michx. Common 33 O. 34 O. 38 P. Sie) 12. “iat 12% 43.P. 44 W. 46 W. 48 M. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., VI Camptosorus . rhizophyllus, Link. Abundant though local Vil Cystopteris . bulbifera, Bernh. Mt. Totoket, Guilford, Litchfield, Salisbury, Bozrah, Gaylordsville (abundant) — Austin. Oxford — Harger. Simsbury — Miss L. W. Smith . fragilis, Bernh. Common VIII Dicksonia . pilosiuscula, Willd. Common : IX Onoclea sensibilis, L. Common Struthiopteris, Hoffmann. Frequent locally X Osmunda . cinnamomea, L. Common . Claytoniana, L. Common . tegalis, L. Common XL Pellea atropurpurea, Link. Not rare in limestone formations XII Phegopterts Dryopteris, Fée. Mt. Carmel, Meriden, Berlin, Norfolk, East Haddam, Monroe (rare) — Harger . hexagonoptera, Fée. Common polypodioides, Fée. West Granby— Wilson. New London, Waterford, East Lyme, Ledyard—Graves. East Haddam (rare), Colebrook—C. A. Wetherby. Gaylordsville — Austin. Simsbury — Miss L. W. Smith XIII Polypodium . vulgare, L. Common XIV Pteris aquilina, L. Common XV Woodsza Ilvensis, R. Br. Common . obtusa, Torr. Frequent XVI Woodwardza angustifolia, Smith. Maltby Park, Stratford, East Haven, Orange, Waterford, North Stonington — Oxford . Virginica, Smith. Common in South Windsor — Driggs. Bridge- port, Huntington — Eames. Mt. Carmel, Berlin, Oxford, Monroe, East Hartford, West Granby, and New London ORDER 3. MARSILEACE XVIT Marstlea quadrifolia, L. Bantam Lake, Litchfield (the only known Ameri- can habitat), introduced and established in Lake Whitney, New Haven ORDER 4 EQUISETACE XVIII Equisetum . arvense, L. Common . fluviatile,L. Ditches along Shore Line R. R. East Haven, fre- quent in New London — Graves. Oxford— Harger. River marshes near tide water — Eames hyemale, L. Common 5 . palustre, L. Lyme — Graves . scirpoides, Michx. Norfolk—D. C. Eaton . sylvaticum, L. Common variegatum, Schleicher. Canaan — Robbins 1901. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 5 ORDER 5 LycopoDIACE XIX Lycopodium 56 L. annotinum, L. Norfolk 57 L. clavatum, L. Generally distributed. Frequent 58 L. complanatum, LL. Common 59 L. inundatum, L. Frequent 60 L. lucidulum, Michx. Common 61 L. obscurum, L.; var. dendroideum, D. C. Eaton. Common ORDER 6 SELAGINELLACE AX Isoetes 621. echinospora, Durieu; var. Braunii, Engelm. Litchfield, Groton, Lisbon, Thompson (rare) — Harper 63 I. Engelmanni, A. Br. Trumbull, Waterford, Groton, Lisbon (rare) — Graves. Berlin — Bishop 64 1. Gravesii, A. A. Eaton. Lyme (rare)— Graves 65 I. lacustris, L. Three plants discovered in North Stonington by Mr. Raynal Dodge, of Newburyport, Mass. XXI Selaginella 66S. apus, Spring. Common in moist meadows 67 S. rupestris, Spring. Common dry exposed rocks SPERMATOPHYTA ORDER 7 CONIFER XXIT Abtes 68 A. excelsa, D C., becoming rather a common escape. Southington — Andrews. Bristol, Plymouth — Bishop XXIII Chamecyparts 69 C. sphzeroidea, Spach., North Branford, Sherman, Saybrook, Beth- any, Killingworth, North Madison, New Fairfield, Danbury — Wolcott. Union— Roland M. Harper. Groton, Waterford, Ledyard — Graves XXIV Juniperus 7o J. communis, L.; var. Canadensis, Loud. Common in most sections 71 J. Sabina, L.; var. procumbens, Pursh. Hartford. Manchester — Driggs 72 J. Virginiana, L. Common XXV Larix 73 L. Americana, Michx. Common XXVI Picea 74 P. alba, Link. Becoming rare and extinct 75 P. nigra, Link. Bethany, Botsford, Middlebury — Harger. Litch- field Co.—T.S. Gold. Bristol, Burlington, Granby — Bishop XXVIIT Pinus 76 P. sylvestris, L. Becoming common in Southington — Andrews 77 P. resinosa, Ait. Salisbury (grass pond vicinity). Rare. Driggs 78 P. rigida, Mill. Common 79 P. Strobus, L. Common XXVIII Taxus 80 T. Canadensis, Willd. Quite frequent XXIX Thuya 81 T. occidentalis, L. East Hartford — Driggs. Norwich — Mrs. Elisha E. Rogers XXX Tsuga 82 T. Canadensis, Carr. Common 97 P. 98 P. 1oo P. Tore: Io2 P. ney) Jey 104 P. 1ro05) 2: 106 P. 107 P. 108 P. 10g P. rinitoy 12d mae ee THe 2 113 R. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., ORDER 8 TYPHACEZE AXXNXI Spargantum androcladum, Morong. Waterbury, Berlin, Bridgeport, Trum- bull, Easton, Stratford, and elsewhere — Eames androcladum; var. fluctuans, Morong. Bridgeport (rare) — Eames. W. Conn.— Gray’s Manual eurycarpum, Englm. Southbury, Hartford, Whitneyville, East Hartford — Driggs. Oxford, Derby—Harger. Housatonic Tiver, within tidal influence — Eames . simplex, Huds. Frequent AXXIT Typha . angustifolia, L. Berlin. Common near the coast . latifolia, L. Marshes. Common ORDER 9 NAIADACE& (XXIII Nazas . flexilis, Rostk. & Schmidt. Not rare . Indica, Cham.; var. gracillima, A. Br. East Lyme (rare)— Graves. Abundant at Greystone — Bishop XXXIV Potamogeton amplifolius, Tuckerman. Common . crispus, L. East Hartford — Driggs diversifolius, Raf. MHartford, Noank, Berlin, Groton, Waterford — Graves. Middlebury—Harger. Bridgeport, Milford (rare) — Eames . diversifolius, Raf.; var. multidenticulatus, Morong. Infrequent. Eames } . heterophyllus, Schreb. Common . heterophyllus, Schreb.; var. myriophyllus, Robbins. East Haven, Lake Saltonstall lonchites, Tuckerman. Saugatuck river — Eames lucens, L.; var. Connecticutensis, Robbins. Lake Saltonstall, East Haven — By the late Dr. Robbins (should be redis- covered) . natans, L. Common Nuttalli, Cham. Common = Oakesianus, Robbins. Middlebury — Harger pauciflorus, Pursh. Frequent pectinatus, L. Hartford prelongus, Wulf. New Haven, Branford —Harger. Saugatuck river — Eames pulcher, Tuck. Frequent. Eames pusillus, L. New Haven, Hartford local— Driggs. Several ponds, etc.— Eames Robbinsii, Oakes. Frequent spirillus, Tuckerman. Frequent Vaseyi, Robbins. Lake Saltonstall, East Haven (sterile) Zizii, Mertens & Koch. Plainville — Bishop zostereefolius, Schum. New Haven, abundant in Lake Salton- stall, East Haven, Lyme fluitans, Roth. Lyme — Graves XXXV Ruppia maritima, L. East Haven—Harger. Housatonic river to near tidewater (infrequent) Eames. Orange— Bishop. Lyme, Saybrook, Greenwich, Noank — Graves 1901. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 7 114 Z. 115 Z. 116 T. Tze. 118 S. 119 A. 120 S. 1218. 1228S, 123 S. 124 S. 125 8. 126 E. T27-Vi. 128 A. 129 A. 130 A. right ISN 132 A. 1g) Pate 134 A. 135 A. 136 A. 137 A. 138 A. 139 A. 140 A. 141 A. XXXVI Zanichellia palustris, LL. New Haven—Allen. Bridgeport— Eames. Water- ford, Old Lyme (rare)—Graves. ‘Tidewater Housatonic — Eames AXXVII Zostera marina, L. Common on the coast XXXVITI Triglochin maritima, L. Salt marshes. Common palustris, L. Common XXXIX Scheuchzeria palustris, L. Norfolk, Bethany, Woodbridge — Harger. Abund- ant in ‘‘ Maj. Curtiss Swamp,” Burlington — Bishop ORDER I0 ALISMACE XL Alisma Plantago, L. Common XLI Sagittaria caleycina, Engelm. Whitneyville, Old Saybrook, Old Lyme, Milford (rare) Eames Engelmanniana, J. G. Smith. Waterford (rare) Graves. Lyme — Dr. Emma J. Thompson graminea, Michx. Jewett City (quite plentiful)— M. Burleson. Norwich— Mrs. E. Rogers. Kent, East Haven (rare) — Eames rigida, Pursh. Hartford — Koeler variabilis, Engelm.; var. gracilis, S. Watson. Waterford (rare) — Graves. Oxford, Derby, Middlebury — Harger latifolia, Willd. Common, with several varieties ORDER Ir HyDROCHARIDACE ALIT Elodea (Philatria) Canadensis, Michx. Common XLITI Vatllisnerza spiralis, L. Frequent ORDER I2 GRAMINE AXLIV Agropyron caninum, Beauv. Oxford— Harger repens, Beauv. Common XLV Agrostis alba, L. Rather common alba, L.; var. vulgaris, Thurb. Common canina, L. Common intermedia, Scribn. Common, dry woodlands in the vicinity of New London — Graves. Bridgeport (frequent) — Eames perennans, Tuckerm. Southington (common)— Andrews. Bridge- port (frequent) — Eames scabra, Willd. Common XLVI Alopecurus geniculatus, L. Common in wet places. Wethersfield — Charles Wright pratensis. Wethersfield, New London XLVIT Ammophila arundinacea, Host. Frequent on the coast XLVIII Andropogon provincialis, Lam. Common scoparius, Michx. Common Virginicus, L. Frequent CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., XLIX Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. Common L Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv. Frequent LI Aristida dichotoma, Michx. Common . gracilis, Ell. Frequent purpurascens, Poir. Common tuberculosa, Nutt. Long Beach, Bridgeport, East End, Fairfield Beach (abundant) Eames. Pt. no Point. Stratford — Miss A. E. Carpenter LII Asprella Hystrix, Willd. Frequent LIITI Avena fatua, L. Kensington — Cowles sativa, L. A common escape striata, Michx. Norwich — Setchell LIV Bouteloua racemosa, Lag. Oxford — Harger LV Brachyelytrum erectum, Beauv. Frequent LVI Bromus ciliatus, L. Frequent hordeaceus, L. New London — Graves Kalmii, Gray. Oxford, Berlin, Meriden — Andrews mollis, L. Westville, New London, Waterford (rare) — Graves tracemosus, L. Norwich (rare)— Mrs. E. Rogers. secalinus, L. Frequent Tectorum, L. Not rare LVILI Calamagrostis Canadensis, Beauv. Common Nuttalliana, Stend. Common LVIUI Cenchrus tribuloides, L. Altogether too common, becoming a pest on sandy soils LXIX Chrysopogon nutans, Benth. Common LX Cinna arundinacea, L. Common pendula, Trin. Litchfield, Canaan Mt. (scarce) — Driggs LXI Cynodon dactylon, Pers. Westville LXII Dactyles glomerata, L. Common LXIII Danthonia compressa, Aust. Southington, Branford— Andrews. Water- ford, East Lyme — Graves. Fairfield, Trumbull — Eames LXIV Deschampsia czespitosa, Beauv. Norwich, East Haven, Waterford, and shores of Connecticut and Thames rivers — Graves flexuosa, Trin. Common LXV Diplachne fascicularis, Beauv. Stonington (apparently rare)— Graves LXVI Diéstichlzs maritima, Raf. Common in salt marshes 1901. ] LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 9 174 E. 175 E. 176 E. 177 E. 178 E. 179 E. 180 E. 181 E. 182 E. 183 E. 184 E. 185 E. 186 E. 187 E. 188 E. 189 F. Igo F. Igt F. 192 F. 193 F. 194 F. 195 G. 196 G. 197 G. 198 G. 199 G. 200 G. 201 G. 202 G. 203 H. 204 H. 205 H. 206 L. 207 L. 208 L. LXVII Eatonia Dudleyi, Vasey. Ledyard, Montville, North Stonington, Lyme (not rare)—Graves. Throughout the region of Bridgeport — Eames Pennsylvanica, Gray. Common Pennsylvanica, Gray; var. major, Torr. Infrequent — Eames LXVITI Eleusine Indica, Gertn. Becoming common LXIX Elymus Canadensis, L. Common striatus, Willd. East Haven, Allen Virginicus, L. Common LXX Eragrostis capillaris, Nees. Common Frankii, Steud. Oxford — Harger. East Windsor—C. H. Bissell pectinacea, Gray. Common pilosa, Beauv. Introduced, not common Purshii, Schrader. New Haven, Oxford—Harger. East Lyme, Groton, New London—Graves. Frequent in the section of Bridgeport — Eames minor, Host. Rare major, Host. Frequent reptans, Nees. Frequent LXXI Festuca elatior, L. Common elatior, L.; var. pratensis, Gray. Meriden nutans, Willd. Frequent ovina, L. Quite frequent ovina, L.; var. duriuscula, Hook. New London —Graves. Fair- field, Bridgeport — Eames rubra, L. Infrequent and local — Eames LXXII Glyceria acutiflora, Tarr. Orange, Hartford, Groton, Waterford, Lyme, Stonington, Ledyard, Montville—Graves. Norwich—Setchell. Bridgeport, Fairfield — Eames Canadensis, Trin. Common elongata, Trin. Frequent fluitans, R. Br. Frequent grandis, Watson. Common nervata, Trin. Common obtusa, Trin. North Guilford, Huntington, Stratford (rare) -- Eames. Norwich, Setchell. pallida, Trin. East Haven, Stratford (rare)—-Eames. Norwich, Setchell. Oxford (not rare) — Harger LXXIIT Heerochloe borealis, R. and S. Groton, Waterford, Lyme, New Haven (common), Milford, Fairfield, Bridgeport— Eames LXXIV Holcus lanatus, L. Common ELXXV Hordeum jubatum, L. Brackish marshes; and Berlin — Bishop LXXVI Leersia oryzoides, Swartz. Common Virginica, Willd. Common LXXVIT Lolium perenne, L. Frequent CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., LXXVITI Muhlenbergia . capillaris, Kunth. Common . diffusa, Schreber. Common . glomerata, Trin. Frequent . Mexicana, Trin. Common . sobolifera, Trin. Common . sylvatica, T. and G. Common . Willdenovii, Trin. Frequent LXXIX Oryzopsis . asperifolia, Michx. Common . Canadensis, Torr. Ledyard, Preston — Graves . melanocarpa, Muhl. Common XXX Panicum Je .amarum, Ell. Guilford, East Haven, West River, Long Beach, Old Lyme— Graves. Lighthouse Point, Milford — Harger . agrostoides, Muhl. Frequent . barbulatum, Michx. Oxford, Harger (infrequent)— Eames. Stratford—C. K. Averill. Abundant throughout this part of the state along streams, and wet meadows — Graves . capillare, L. Common . Clandestinum, L. Frequent . Columbianum, Scribner. Oxford, Harger. New London—Graves . commutatum, Schultes. Oxford, Harger . Crus-galli, L. Common . Crus-galli, L.; var. hispidum, Gray. Frequent . depauperatum, Muhl. Common . dichotomum, L. Common . filiforme, L. Common . glabrum, Gaudin. Not rare : . implicatum, Scribner. Oxford, Harger (infrequent)— Eames . lanuginosum, Ell. (rare) —— Eames . latifolium, L. Common . longifolium, Torr. Montville— Graves ’ . macrocarpon, Le Conte (frequent) -Eames. Oxford, Harger . microcarpon, Muhl. (rare) — Eames (frequent) — Driggs . miliaceum, L. Waste lots occasional . minus, Nash. Common— Eames . nitidum, Lam. Stratford, Bridgeport — Eames . proliferum, Lam. Frequent . pubescens, Lam. (infrequent) — Eames . sanguinale, L. Common . Scribnerianum, Nash. Common . spheerocarpum, Ell. Oxford, Harger (infrequent) — Eames . verrucosum, Muhl. Not rare . virgatum, L. Common LXXXI Paspalum . lave, Michx. East Haven; Norwich, Setchell . setaceum, Michx. Common LXXXII Phataris . arundinacea, L. Common. . arundinacea, L.; var. picta, Hort. A frequent escape . Canariensis, L. Frequent LXXXITI Phleum . pratense, L. Common LXXXIV Phragmites . communis, Trin. Common on edges of ponds, especially near the coast Igol.] LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. II 255 P. 256 P. 257 2. 258 P. 259 P. 260 P. 261 P. 262 P. 263 P. 264 P. 265 P. 266 S. 267 S. 268 S. 269 S. 270 8. 271 S. 272 S. 273 5. 274 8. agflspssr 2768. 2779. 278 S. 279 S. 280 S. 281 S. 282 T. zisig) Abe 284 T. 285 T. 286 Z. 287 C. 288 C. ; ELXXXV Poa alsodes, Gray. , Westville annua, L. Common compressa, L. Common debilis, Torr. Westville flexuosa, Muhl. Common pratensis, L. Common serotina, Ehrh. Common trivialis, L. Common LXXXVI Polypogon Monspeliensis, Desf. Manchester— Driggs LXXXVIT Puccinellia distans, Parl. Frequent maritima, Parl. Marshes along the coast LXXXVITI Setaria glauca, Beauv. Common Italica, Kunth. Frequent verticillata, Beauv. Occasionally seen viridis, Beauv. Common LXXXIX Spartina cynosuroides, Willd. Common juncea, Willd. Common near the coast polystachya, Willd. Brackish marshes, common stricta, Roth; var. glabra, Gray. Not rare on coast stricta, Roth; var. alterniflora, Gray. Groton— Graves XC Sporobolus asper, Kunth. (rare)—Oxford. Common along the Housatonic River — Harger heterolepis, Gray. New Haven (west rock)—Dr. Monson. Top of Snake-rock — Allen serotinus, Gray. East Haven, Monroe, Waterford, Groton (not rare) — Graves; abundant at Oxford and Middlebury — Harger vaginzeflorus, Wood. Common longifolius, Torr. Infrequent — Eames cryptandrus, Gray. Along the coast (infrequent) —- Eames XCI Stipa avenacea, L. Common XCIIL Triodia cuprea, Jacq. Frequent. purpurea, Hack. New Haven, Long Beach, New London, Waterford, Groton, Norwich, East Lyme—Graves. Bridgeport — Eames ACIII Tripsacum dactyloides, L. Local along the coast. Eames wACIV Trisetum palustre, Torr. New Haven, Waterford, Groton— Graves Oxford (frequent) — Harger ACV, Zitzania aquatica, L. Frequent ORDER 13. CYPERACE CW Carex alata, Torr. (abundant locally)— Driggs. Bridgeport (rare) — Eames albolutescens, Schwein. Waterford, Groton (locally abundant) — Graves I2 289 C. 290 C, 291 C. 292 C. 293 C. 294 C. 295 C. 296 C. 297 C. 298 C. 299 C. B00 C: store (G 302 C. BOSIC- 304 C. B051C: 306 C. BO 71es 308 C. 309 C. 310 C, Zui (Ox sate (Ce 313 C. 314 C. Byit OF Enis Oe ai (Cp 315 C; 319 C. 320 C. 321 C: ZOMG, B25C! Syl (Cy 325 C. B26, Spaz] (Oe 328 C. 329 C. B30)6.- Bepi Gy Bg21C: CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Atlantica, Bailey. Waterford— Graves. Bridgeport (not rare) — Eames bromoides, Schk. Common bullata, Schk. Voluntown, Stonington — Graves canescens, L. Common castanea, Wahl. Connecticut, Gray’s manual costellata, Britton. Lyme, Waterford — Graves cephalophora, Muhl. Common cephaloidea, Dewey. Oxford, Southbury (scarce)—Harger communis, Bailey. Meriden —Andrews. Oxford (common) — Harger communis, Bailey ; var. Wheeleri, Bailey. Middletown — Bar- rett. Monroe — Harger conoidea, Schkuhr. Frequent crinita, Lam. Frequent debilis, Michx ; var. Rudgei, Bailey. Common Deweyana, Schwein. Colebrook — Robbins exilis, Dewey. Norwich — Setchell festucacea, Willd. Waterford, Old Lyme (common)— Graves. Meriden — Andrews filiformis, L.; var. latifolia, Boeckl. Norwich flava, L. Not rare flava, L.; var. viridula, Bailey. New Haven, Berzelino cata- logue foenea, Willd. Monroe—Harger. Ledyard — Graves folliculata, L. Frequent fusca, All. Plainville— Bishop. Hamden, Oxford — Harger glaucodea, Tuckerm. North Haven, Waterford, Ledyard — Graves Goodenovii, J. Gay. Oxford (common) — Harger gracillima, Schwein. Not rare granularis, Muhl. Oxford — Harger Grayii, Carey. Lyme (rare) — Graves grisea, Wahl. Common hystricina, Muhl. Common hystricina, Muhl; var. Dudleyi, Bailey. Smales Conn.— Charles Wright interior, Bailey. Waterford, etc. (rather rare)— Graves. Strat- ford (not rare) — Eames intumescens, Rudge. Oxford (common)— Harger. Norwich — Mrs. Rogers lanuginosa, Michx. Waterford, Old Lyme—Graves. Bridge- port (not rare)— Eames laxiculmis, Schwein. Common laxiflora, Lam. Common laxiflora, Lam.; var. patulifolia, Carey. Meriden— Andrews laxiflora, Lam.; var. striatula, Carey. eriden — Andrews leptalea, Wahl. Oxford (common) — Harger. Norwich — Set- chell. Waddeeek Mi oland M. Harper longirostris, Torr. Westville, Meriden, Mt. Totoket — Harger lupuliformis, Sartwell. Infrequent. Eames lupulina, Muhl. Common lupulina, Muhl.; var. pedunculata, Dewey. Groton, Ledyard (rare)— Graves. Norwich— Mrs. Rogers. Bridgeport (com- mon) — Eames lupulina, Muhl.; var. polystachya, Schwein. and Torr. Meriden — Andrews. Waterford — Graves lurida, Wahl. Common I9oI. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 13 333 C. 334 C. Mi C. oligocarpa, Schkuhr. Guilford 426) C: 337 C. 338 C. 339 C. 340 C. 341 C. 342 C. 335 343 C. 344 C. 345 C. 346 C. 347 C. 348 C. 349 C, B501@- ois OF 352\C: 353 C. 354 C. 355 C. 356 C. 357 C. 358) C, 359 C. 360 C. 361) C: 362 C. a6g) (Oe 364 C. 265, C: 366 C. 267.C. 368 C. 369 C. B70) C. 371 C. a7 2Ae, 373 C. 374 C. 375 C. 376 C. lurida X lupulina, Bailey. Connecticut, Gray’s manual. Groton (rare) — Graves Muhlenbergii, Schkuhr. Common oligosperma, Michx. Groton (rare) — Graves pallescens, L. Common pauciflora, Lightf. Norfolk, Oxford— Harger pedunculata, Muhl. Franklin (rare) — Graves Pennsylvanica, Lam. Common ptychocarpa, Steud. Waterford— Graves plantaginea, Lam. Guilford. New Haven, Kent (rare) —C. K. Averill platyphylla, Carey. Not common polymorpha, Muhl. New Haven, East Lyme (rare) — Graves prasina, Wahl. Frequent Pseudo-cyperus, L.; var. Americana, Hochst. Common pubescens, Muhl. Frequent retroflexa, Muhl. Norwich — Setchell retrorsa, Schwein. Lyme (rare) — Graves riparia, W. Curtiss. North Guilford, Whitneyville, Oxford — Harger rosea, Schkuhr. Common rosea, Schkuhr ; var. minor, Boott. Norwich — Setchell rosea, Schkuhr; var. radiata, Dewey. Norfolk — Robbins. Plainville — Bishop scabrata, Schwein. Frequent scoparia, Schkuhr. Rather common siccata, Dewey. New Haven, Beacon Falls, Southbury — Haren silicea, Olney. Common along the shore — Graves. Beaches along coast— Eames sparganoides, Muhl. New Haven, Oxford, Reynolds Bridge — Harger squarrosa, L. Frequent sterilis, Willd. Frequent sterilis, Willd.; var. excelsior, Bailey. Coast— H. S. Clark stipata, Muhl. Common straminea, Willd.; var. festucacea, Tuckerm. Waterford, Old Lyme — Graves. Meriden — Andrews straminea, Willd.; var. invisia, W. Boott. New London along the coast (frequent)—-Graves. Marshes near the coast — Eames straminea, Willd.; var. mirabilis, Tuckerm. ° Meriden — Andrews. Bridgeport (rare) — Eames straminea, Willd.; var. tenera, Bailey. Waterford, Groton — Graves. Frequent stricta, Lam. Common stricta, Lam.; var. angustata, Bailey. Voluntown — Graves. Bridgeport —Eames stricta, Lam.; var. decora, Bailey. Waterford, Franklin — Graves styloflexa, Buckley. Lyme — Graves tenella, Schkuhr. © Norfolk — Robbins teretiuscula, Gooden. Oxford — Harger torta, Boott. New Haven, Lyme — Graves. Oxford (common) - Harger tribuloides, Wahl. Frequent tribuloides, Wahl; var. cristata, Bailey. Huntington, Oxford — Harger. Tolland— Driggs. Lyme (apparently not com- mon) — Graves triceps, Michx ; var. hirsuta, Bailey. Frequent 14 377 C. B78C: 379 C. 380 C. 381 C. 382) C: aeac. 384 C. Ba5.C. 386 C. 387 C. 388 C. 389 C. 390 C. 391 C. 392 C, 393 C 394 C. 395 C. 396 C. 397 C. 398 C. 399 C. 4oo C. gor C. 402 D, 403 E. 404 E. 405 E. 406 E. 407 E. 408 E. 409 E. 4to E. 411 E. 412 E. 413 E. 414 E. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., trisperma, Dewey. Frequent umbellata, Schkuhr. Frequent rostrata, Stokes; var. utriculata, Bailey. Norfolk, Kensington varia, Muhl. Common vesicaria, L.; var. monile, Fernald. Common throughout vestita, Willd. Frequent virescens, Muhl. Norwich—Setchell. Bridgeport (frequent). — Eames vulpinoidea, Michx. Frequent Willdenovii, Schk. East Haven — Harger xanthocarpa, Bicknell. Groton, Franklin, Lebanon— Graves xanthocarpa, Bicknell; var. annectans, Bicknell. Ledyard (rare). — Graves . XCVIT Cladium mariscoides, Torr. Monroe—Eames. Norfolk, New London (frequent)— Graves. Botsford, New Haven — Harger XCVITI Cyperus aristatus, Rottb. Frequent diandrus, Torr. Common diandrus, Torr.; var. castaneus, Torr. Bridgeport (frequent) — Eames. Berlin—Bishop. Groton, Waterford, Lyme — Graves dentatus, Torr. Not rare erythrorhizos, Muhl. Hartford— Chas. Wright. Conn. River in Lyme— Graves. Bridgeport (frequent) — Eames esculentus, L. Common filiculmis, Vahl. New London (frequent)— Graves. Norwich — Setchell. Oxford (common)— Harger. Bridgeport (frequent) Eames fuscus, L. Hadlyme, Graves Grayii, Torr. Frequent.on sandy shores of the Sound Houghtonii, Torr. This species was found in Branford in 1895, in a wooded pasture ; the loosely diverging spikelets, 10-15 flowers, and the narrowly-winged rachis were good evidence that it was this species. - Luman Andrews Nuttallii, Torr. Brackish marshes, frequent speciosus, Vahl. New Haven, Old Lyme — Graves strigosus, L. New Haven, Norwich, Setchell XCIX Dulichium spathaceum, Pers. Common . C Eleocharis acicularis, R. Br. Common diandra, Wright. Hartford —Charles Wright. East Windsor— C. H. Bissell. Lyme— Graves diandra, Wright; var. depressa, Fernald. East Windsor, C. H. Bissell Engelmanni, Steud. Common obtusa, Schultes. Frequent obtusa, Schultes; var. jejuna, Fernald. Berlin — Bishop olivacea, Torr. East Haven, Groton, New London, Waterford, Montville, East Lyme —Graves. Monroe (local) — Eames ovata, R. Br. The low farm. Hartford — Charles Wright palustris, R. Br. Common pygmea, Torr. West Haven, Montville, Groton (rare)— Graves. Stratford — Eames quadrangulata, R. Br. Guilford, West Pond Robbinsii, Oakes. Guilford, Stonington, Ledyard, East Lyme (not rare)— Graves. Monroe, Botsford — Harger 1901. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. I5 415 E. 416 E. 417 E. 418 E. 419 E. 420 E. 421 E. 422 E. 423 E. 424 E. 425 F. 426 F. 427 R. 428 R. 429 R. 430 R. 431 R. 432 S. 433 S. 434 S. 435 8S. 436 S. 437 S. 438 S. 439 S. 440 S. 441 S. 442 S. 443 S. 444 8. 445 S. 446 S. 447 S. 448 S. 449 S. 450 S. 451 S. 452 S. 453 8. rostellata, Torr. New Haven, East Haven, Hamden tenuis, Schules. Common tuberculosa, R. Br. New Haven, Waterford, Montville, East Lyme (frequent) — Graves Cl Eriophorum alpinum, L. Willington — Dr. Beardsley gracile, Koch. Not rare gracile, Koch; var. paucinervium, Engelm. Occasional lineatum, Benth & Hook. East Haven Polystachyon, L. Frequent vaginatum, L. Southington (abundant) — Andrews Virginicum, L. Common Cll Fimbristylis autumnalis, R. & S. Common capillaris, Gray. Common ~ CIII Rhynchospora alba, Vahl. Common capillacea, Torr. Norfolk — Dr. Beardsley fusca, Roem & Schultes. Groton, Waterford, East Lyme (rare) — Graves. Woodbury—Harger. Monroe— Eames glomerata, Vahl. Common macrostachya, Torr. New Haven, Stonington, Groton, East Lyme, Salem— Graves. Woodbury —Shepardson & Harger. Monroe (rare) — Eames CIV Scirpus atrocinctus, Fernald; var. grandis, Fernald. Lyme — Graves atrovirens, Muhl. Common cyperinus, Kunth. Common cyperinus, Kunth; var. Andrewsii, Fernald. Southington —C. H. Bissell debilis, Pursh. East Haven, Waterford, Norwich — Graves. Seymour—Harger. Bridgeport, Trumbull (infrequent) — Eames J fluviatilis, Gray. New Haven—Prudden. Lyme — Graves. Fairfield, Stratford — Eames lacustris, L. Common micranthus, Vahl. Bloomfield, Derby Nove-Angliz, Britton. Along the coast — Eames Olneyi, Gray. New Haven, Norwich, East-Lyme, Old Lyme — Graves. Milford (rare) — Eames pedicellatus, Fernald. Trumbull, East Lyme — Graves planifolius, Mukl. Common polyphyllus, Vahl. Common pungens, Vahl. Common robustus, Pursh. Common Smithii, Gray. Lyme (rare) — Gra subterminalis, Torr. Norfolk, Montville, Groton, East Lyme (rare) — Graves sylvaticus, L. New Haven, Berlin, Oxford (common)— Harger. Bridgeport, Milford (locally, not rare) —- Eames sylvaticus, L.; var. Bissellii, Fernald. Southington — Andrews, Bissell Torreyi, Olney. Lyme— Graves CV Scleria pauciflora, Muhl. Hartford (one station) — H. J. Kcehler triglomerata, Michx. New Haven, Monroe—Harger. Water- ford, Stonington (rare)—Grayes. Hartford (scarce) — Driggs. 16 CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., Stratford, Fairfield (not rare but local in sandy fields border- ing on salt marshes) — Eames ORDER 14 CVI Acorus 454 A. calamus, L. Common CVIT Arisema 455 A. Dracontium, Schott. Frequent 456 A. triphyllum, Torr. Common CVIII Calla 457 C. palustris, L. Frequent CLIX Orontium 458 O. aquaticum, L. Frequent CX Peltandra 459 P. undulata, Raf. Common CXT . Symplocarpus 460 S. foetidus, Salisb. Common ORDER 15 LEMNACE® CXII Lemna 461 L. minor, L. Common 462 L. trisulca, L. Frequent CXIITI Spirodela 463 S. polyrhiza, Schleid. Common CXIV Wolfa 464 S. Columbiana, Karsten. Connecticut —Gray’s Manual ORDER 16 XYRIDACE CXV Xyris 465 X. Carolinianum, Walt. Frequent 466 X. flexuosa, Muhl. Common 467 X. flexuosa, Muhl.; var. pusilla, Gray. Monroe (local,rare) — Eames ORDER 17. ERIOCAULACE CXVI Erzocaulon 468 E. septangulare, Withering. Frequent ORDER 18 COMMELINACE® CXVIT Commelina 469 C. nudiflora, L. Hartford, Bridgeport— Eames. Sandy Hook — I, Percy Blackman CXVITI Tradescantia 470 T. Virginiana, L. A frequent escape ORDER I9 PONTEDERIACE CXIX Heteranthera 471 H. graminea, Vahl. East Haven, Derby, East Hartford, etc. Common in Housatonic (seldom flowering) — Eames 472 H. reniformis, Ruiz. and Pav. Derby — Homes CXX Pontederia 473 P. cordata, L. Common ORDER 20 JUNCACE® CXXI Juncus 474 J. acuminatus, Michx. Hartford, New Haven 475 J. acuminatus, Michx.; var. debilis, Engelm. Waterford, Ledyard (very rare) — Graves 476 J. articulatus, L. Canaan, Waterford, Groton, etc. — Graves 477 J. bufonius, L. Common 1goOI. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. LT 478 J. Canadensis, J.Gay. Frequent 479 J. Canadensis, J. Gay; var. brevicaudatus, Engelm. New Lon- don (not rare)—Graves. Conn.—Gray’s Manual 480 J. Dudleyi, Wiegand. Meriden (common)— Andrews 481 J. effusus, L. Common 482 J. Gerardi, Loisel. Common in salt marshes 483 J. Greenei, Oakes and Tuckerm. Common on sandy coast 484 J. marginatus, Rostk. Frequently common 485 J. marginatus, Rostk.; var. paucicapitatus, Engelm. Kensington, Berlin, New Haven 486 J. militaris, Bigel. Guilford, East Lyme, Groton — Graves 487 J. nodosus, L, Frequent 488 J. pelocarpus, E. Meyer. Frequent 489 J. scirpoides, Lam. Litchfield, Berlin, New Haven 490 J. secundus, Beauv. Waterford, Groton (locally abundant) — Graves 491 J. tenuis, Willd. Common CXXIT Luszula 492 L. campestris, D. C. Common 493 L. vernalis, D.C. Frequent ORDER 21 LILIACE® CXQUVTTE VA letrzs 494 A. farinosa, L. Common CXXIV Allium 495 A. Canadense, Kalm. Common 496 A. sativum, L. Branford 497 A. tricoccum, Ait. Frequent 498 A. vineale, L. Common ‘XXV Asparagus 499 A. officinalis, L. Escaped frequent CXXVI Chamelirium 500 C, Carolinianum, Willd. Frequent, though local CXXVIT Clintonia 501 C. borealis, Raf. Frequent CXXVITI Convallaria 502 C. majalis, L. New Haven, East Rock, Denslow, Gaylord, etc., well established on an unhabitable ridge called Indian Neck, probably introduced, possibly native CXXTX Exrythronium 503 E. Americanum, Ker. Common CXXX Hemerocallis 504 H. fulva, L. Common escape CXXXI Lilium 505 L. Canadense, L. Common 506 L. Philadelphicum, L. Common 507 L. superbum, L. Frequent 508 L. tigrinum, Ker. A frequent escape CXXXIT Maianthemum 509 M. Canadense, Desf. Common CXXXITIIT Medeola 510 M. Virginiana, L. Common CXXXIV Melanthium 511 M. latifolium, Desrouss. Western Connecticut — Gray’s Manual ¢ CXXXV Muscarz 512 M. botryoides, Mill. Escaped (not common) 2 18 CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., CXXXVI Oakesia 513 O. sessilifolia, Watson. Common CXXXVIT Ornithogalum 514 O. umbellatum, L. A frequent escape CXXXVILII Polygonatum 515 P. biflorum, Ell. Common 516 P. giganteum, Dietrich. Frequent CXXXIX Smilacina 517 S. racemosa, Desf. Common 518 S. stellata, Desf. Frequent 5198. trifolia, Desf. Not rare CXL Smilax 520 S. glauca, Walt. Common 521 S. herbacea, L. Common 522 S. hispida, Muhl. Moist thickets, Gray’s manual, Middletown, Plainville— Bishop. Fairfield (rare) — Eames 523 S. rotundifolia, L. Common CXLI Streptopus 524 S. roseus, Michx. Mt. Carmel, Colebrook, Norfolk, Morris, Meriden, East Haddam, Monroe — Harger. New Milford —C.K. Averill. Hartland— Miss Laura B. Gaylord. Naugatuck — Eames. Gaylordsville — Austin CXLIL Trilhum 525 T. cernuum, L. Common 526 T. erectum, L. Common 527 T. grandiflorum, Salisb. Guilford. Should be found elsewhere 528 T. undulatum, Willd. Kent— Austin. Hartland—Miss Laura B. Gaylord. New Haven, Litchfield, Waterbury, Colebrook, Norfolk, West Granby, East Windsor, Canaan, Salisbury (frequent), Hartford and South Windsor (scarce) — Driggs CXLIZI Uvularia 529 U. perfoliata, L. Common CXLIV Veratrum 530 V. viride, Ait. Common ORDER 22 AMARYLLIDACEA CXLV Hypoxts 531 H. erecta, L. Common ORDER 23 DIOSCOREACE CXLVI Dioscorea 532 D. villosa, L. Frequent ORDER 24 IRIDACE CXLVII Belamcandra 533 B. punctata, Moench. New Canaan, Berlin, New Haven, Portland reservoir — Dr. Emma J. Thompson. Norwich — Mrs. Rogers. Escaped CMEVITE itis ; 534 I. prismatica, Pursh, Norwich—Mrs. Rogers. Frequent near the coast 535 1. versicolor, L. Common CXLIX Sisyrinchium 536 S. angustifolium, Mill. Common 537 S. graminoides, Bicknell. Thompson—C.H. Knowlton, East Hart- ford (frequent)— Driggs. Southington (common)— Andrews 1901. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 19 538 A. 539 A. 540 C. 541 C. 542 C 543 C. 544 C. 545 C. 546 C. 547 C. 548 C. 549 C. 550 G. 551 G. 552 G. 553 H. 554 H. 555 H. BiG Isl 557 H. 558 H. 559 H. 560 H. 561 H. 562 H. 563 H. 564 H. 565 L. 566 L. 567 L. 568 M. 569 O. OO): mat de. ged ee ORDER 25 ORCHIDACE CL Aplectrum hiemale, Nutt. Mountainous woods, local CLI Arethusa bulbosa, L. Locally, rather common CLIT Calopogon pulchellus, R. Br. Common CLITI Corallorhiza innata, R. Br. Colebrook, Litchfield, Plainville— Bishop. Nor- wich (rather rare) — Mrs. Rogers and Mr. Trumbull. Water- ford — Graves. West Granby, Manchester, Oxford — Harger . multiflora, Nutt. Common odontorhiza, Nutt. Frequent CLIV Cypripedium acaule, Ait. Common arietinum, R. Br. North Haven (very rare) — Robert Veitch. candidum, Willd. Driggs parviflorum, Salisb. Frequent pubescens, Willd. Rather common spectabile, Salisb. Salisbury, Norfolk— Robbins CLV Goodyera pubescens, R. Br. Common repens, R. Br. Rare tesselata, Lodd. Bristol— Bishop. South Windsor — Driggs: CLVI Habenaria blephariglottis, Torr. Frequent bracteata, R. Br. Generally reported, though not common ciliaris, R. Br. Frequent dilatata, Gray. Litchfield, Norfolk (rare) fimbriata, R. Br. Common, though rather local Hookeriana, Gray. Frequent hyperborea, R. Br. Salisbury, Monroe, Norfolk, Farmington, Canaan Mts. (frequent)— Driggs. Plainville —’Bishop lacera, R. Br. Common orbiculata, Torr. Norfolk, Litchfield, Hamden, Granby, Wind- sor, South Windsor, West Granby, etc.; Plainfield — Miss Sarah E. Francis psycodes, Gray. Common tridentata, Hook. Common virescens, Spreng. Common CLVIL Liparis liliifolia, Richard. Common Leeselii, Richard. Frequent CLVITL Listera cordata, R. Br. Norwich (rare). CLIX Microstylis ophioglossoides, Nutt. Berlin, Monroe, Westville, Norwich — Mrs. Rogers, Jonathan Trumbull. CLX Orchis rotundifolia, Pursh. Norfolk— Robbins spectabilis, L. Locally common CLXI Pogonia affinis, Austin. New Haven—E. S. Dana.%S. W. Conn., Gray’s Manual. Stratford — Eames and C. K. Averill ophioglossoides, Nutt. Common 5815S. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., pendula. Farmington (rare) — Bishop verticillata, Nutt. Rich woods, frequent CLXII Sptranthes cernua, Richard. Common . gracilis, Bigelow. Common latifolia, Torr. East Hartford, South Windsor, Gaylordsville — Austin preecox, Watson. East Lyme, Berlin, Kensington, New Haven, Waterbury, East Granby, Oxford (frequent) — Harger Romanzoffiana, Cham. Norfolk — Prof. Barber simplex, Gray. Oxford—Harger. Waterford, Montville, East Lyme —Graves. Stratford (not rare)—C. K. Averill. Sandy fields mostly near the coast from West Haven (rare) to South- port at least — Eames ORDER 26 SAURURACE CLXIITI Saururus cernuus, L. Derby— Beardsley. Preston, Weston, Oxford (common along Housatonic River)— Harger ORDER 27 JUGLANDACE& CLXIV Carya alba, Nutt. Common amara, Nutt. Common . microcarpa, Nutt. Rather common about Bridgeport —- Evans . porcina, Nutt. Common tomentosa, Nutt. Common CLXV Juglans cinerea, L. Common nigra, L. Occasional ORDER 28 MyRICACE CLXVI Myrica 389 M. asplenifolia, Endl. Common . cerifera, L, Common 591 M. Gale, L. Norfolk, New London County, Woodstock — Ronald M. Harper ORDER 29 SALICACE CLXVII Populus alba, L. Common balsamifera, L.; var. candicans, Ait. An occasional escape deltoides, Marsh. Frequent . grandidentata, Michx. Common heterophylla, L. East Haven (rare)— Harger tremuloides, Michx. Common GEZXGVILL Salix alba, L. Common alba, L.; var. vitellina, Koch. Southington— Andrews. Plain- ville — Bishop Babylonica, Tourn. Frequent candida, Willd. Cornwall cordata, Muhl. Common discolor, Muhl.; var. eriocephala, Anders. Fairfield (infrequent) — Eames fragilis, L. Bridgeport (rare) — Evans humilis, Marsh. Common lucida, Muhl. Common myrtilloides, L. New Haven—D.C. Eaton, Hamden 1901. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 21 608 S. nigra, Marsh. Berlin, Norwich, New Haven, New London— Graves. Oxford— Harger 609 S. petiolaris, Smith. Stratford (rare) —- Eames 610 S. purpurea, L. Whitneyville, Southington — Andrews 611 S. rostrata, Richardson. Waterford, Ledyard, Norwich— Graves. Farmington, New Haven, Meriden (rare)—Andrews. Oxford (common) — Harger 612 S. sericea, Marsh. Common 613 S. tristis, Ait. Frequent ORDER 30 CUPULIFER CLXIX Alnus 614 A. incana, Willd. Common 615 A. serrulata, Willd. Not rare 616 A. viridis, D. C. Norfolk— Beardsley CLXX Betula 617 B. lenta, L. Common 618 B. lutea, Michx. f. Common 619 B. papyrifera, Marshall. Frequent 620 B. populifolia, Ait. Common 621 B. pumila, L. Cornwall; W. Conn. —Gray’s Manual CLXXI Carpinus 622 C. Carolinianum, Walter. Common CLXXII Castanea 623 C. sativa, Mill.; var. Americana, Watson. Common CLXXITI Corylus 624 C. Americana, Walt. Common 625 C. rostrata, Ait. Common in mountainous woods CLXXIV Fagus 626 F. ferruginea, Ait. Common CLXXV Ostrya 627 O. Virginica, Willd. Common CLXXVI Quercus 628 O. alba, L. Common 629 O. bicolor, Willd. Common 630 Q. coccinea, Wang. Common 631 QO. ilicifolia, Wang. Common 632 Q. macrocarpa, Michx. Rare 633 Q. palustris, Du Roi. Frequent 634 QO. prinoides, Willd. Notrare 635 Q. Prinus, L. Common 636 Q. rubra, L. Common 637 Q. velutina, Lam. Frequent ORDER 31 URTICACE CLXXVII Boehmeria 638 B. cylindrica, Willd. Not rare : CLXXVITT Cannabis 639 C. sativa, L. Escaped frequent CEXXUIXN Celis 640 C. occidentalis, L., Common : CLXXX Humulus 641 H. Lupulus, L. Common CLXXXI Laportea 642 L. Canadensis, Gaudichaud. Frequent 22 CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., CLXXXIT Morus 643 M. alba, L. Not rare 644 M. rubra, L. Not rare CLXXXIII Parietaria 645 P. Pennsylvanica, Muhl. New Haven— Robert Veitch. Monroe — Dr. Beardsley. Collinsville—E. Wheeler. East Lyme — Graves. Haddam— Dr. Emma J. Thompson CLOT wried 646 P. pumila, Gray. Common CLXXXV Ulmus 647 U. alata, Michx. Westville— Veitch. Plainville — Bishop 648 U. Americana, L. Common 649 U. fulva, Michx. Common in mountainous woods CLXXXVI Uritzica 650 U. dioica, L. Fair Haven, Westville— Veitch. Berlin — Coleman 651 U. gracilis, Ait. Common 652 U. urens, L. Litchfield, Groton 653 Note. — Arceuthobium pusillum, Peck, of the Order Loranthacez, has not yet been reported from Connecticut, although found at several stations in New York, Pennsylvania, Maine, Vermont, and Massachusetts. It should be carefully sought for on spruces, more particularly when they are covered with ‘‘ Witches’ brooms.” ORDER 32 SANTALACE CLXXXVIT Comandra 654 C. umbellata, Nutt. Common ORDER 33 ARISTOLOCHIACE CLXXXVITI Aristolochia 655 A. serpentaria, L. Oxford, New Canaan, Monroe, North Guilford, Meriden, Woodbridge, Redding, Hartland, East Haddam (found here by Dr. Emma J. Thompson with cleistogamous flowers) ; Southington, Bridgeport CLXXXIX Asarum A. Canadense, L. Rather common A. reflexum, Bicknell. Bridgeport (infrequent) — Eames ORDER 34 POLYGONACE CXC Fagopyrum 658 F. esculentum, Moench. Common escape CXCI Polygonella 659 P. articulata, Meisn. Common on the coast CXCIL Polygonum 660 'P. acre, H. B. K. Common 661 P. acre, H. B. K.; var. leptostachyum, Meisn. Bridgeport (infre- quent) — Eames 662 P. amphibium, L. Common 663 P. arifolium, L. Common 664 P. aviculare, L. Common 665 P. Careyi, Olney. Common 666 P. cilinode, Michx. Not rare 667 P. convolvulus, L. Frequent 668 P. cuspidatum, Sieb. and Zucc. Bridgeport (rare)—Eames. New Haven (rare) — Bishop 669 P. dumetorum, L.; var. scandens, Gray. Common 670 P. erectum, L. Common 671 P. Hartwrightii, Gray. East Hartford — Driggs. Oxford — Harger 190. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 23 G720P: 673 P. 674 P 675 P. 676 P. 677 P. 678 P. 679 P. 680 P. 681 P. 682 P. 683 P. 684 P. 685 R. 686 R. 687 R. 688 R. 689 R. 690 R. 691 R. 692 R. 693 A. 694 A. 695 A. 696 C. 697 C. 698 C. 699 C. 700 C. Fou (Ss FO2IC 70 (Ce 704 C. 705 C. 706 S. 707 9. Hydropiper, L. Common hydropiperoides, Michx. Common lapathifolium, L. East Haven, Litchfield, East MHartford, Berlin, Old Saybrook, Bridgeport — Eames lapathifolium, L.; var. nodosum, Small. Bridgeport — Eames litorale, Link. Frequent along the coast — Eames Muhlenbergii, Watson. Groton (rare)—Graves. Wethersfield— Chas. Wright. Stratford — Eames orientale, L. Frequent escape Pennsylvanicum, L. Common Persicaria, L. Common ramosissimum, Michx. East Haven—Denslow. Noank, Berlin (frequent along coast) — Eames sagittatum, L. Common tenue, Michx. Common Virginianum, L. Common CXCIII Rumex Acetosella, L. Altogether too common altissimus, Wood. One specimen Farmington — Driggs Britannica, L. Common crispus, L. Common maritimus, L. Stonington—Graves. Oxford— Harger obtusifolius, L. Common sanguineus, L. Darien, New London, Waterford, Groton — Graves verticillatus, L. Frequent ORDER 35 CHENOPODIACE CXCIV Atriplex patulum, L. Salt marshes, common hastata, L. Kensington—Cowles. Along coast,etc. Milford to Fairfield, at least, more or less rare, locally in most places, but plentiful in others — Eames arenarium, Nutt. Not rare CXCV Chenopodium album, L. Common album, L.; var. viride, Mog. Bridgeport (frequent) — Eames ambrosoides, L. East Hartford — Driggs . Botrys, L. Frequent escape Bonus-Henricus, L. Hartford hybridum, L. New Haven, Berlin, Norfolk, East Hartford — Driggs. Plainville— Bishop. Infrequent along the coast. Milford, Stratford, Bridgeport, Fairfield — Eames leptophyllum, Nutt. Groton—Graves. Bridgeport (rare)— Eames. New Haven— Dr. Hall murale, L. New Haven— Patton. New London (not rare) — Graves rubrum, L. Salt marshes, frequent CXCVI Cycloloma platyphyllum, Mog. Hamden, Miss Edwards. Vide, Bull. Torr. club, x. 102, 1883. Centerville, two plants on North Hampton Division R. R. embankment — Bishop CXCVIT Suaeda (Dondia) linearis, Moq. Coast, common CXCVIII Salicornia ambigua, Michx. New Haven—Harger. Found infrequent on coast from Milford to Southport at least — Eames 24 708 S. 709 S. 710 S. Fps Se 712 A. 713 A. 714 A. 715 A. 716 A. TPG paler 718 M. Fp Se 720): 7p ED oom ogy AN. 724 A. 725 A. 726 A. 727 A. 728 A. 729 A. 730) C. maT. BQN 733 C. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., mucronata, Bigel. New Haven—Harger. Savin Rock — Bishop. Milford, Stratford, Bridgeport, Fairfield, Southport, etc. (local) — Eames herbace, L. Common on coast CXCIX Salsola Kali, L. Common on the coast Tragus, L. Coast, H. S. Clark P ORDER 36 AMARANTACEE CC Acunida cannabina, L. Salt marshes, common CCL Amaranthus grecizans, L. Common hybridus, L. Kensington —Cowles. Milford (waste grounds) — Eames hybridus, L.; var. paniculatus, Uline and Bray. Sparingly escaped retroflexus, L. Frequent ORDER 37. PHYTOLACCACE CCIL Phytolacca decandra, L. Common ORDER 38 FICOIDE-® CClII Mollugo verticillata, L. Common along the shore, and in fields in Ken- sington, East Hartford, Plainville, probably elsewhere ORDER 39 PORTULACACE CCIV Claytonza Caroliniana, Michx. Gaylordsville— Austin. Kent—C. K. Averill Virginica, L. Frequent, locally CCV Portulaca grandiflora, Gr. An occasional escape oleracea, L. Altogether too common CCVI Taléenum teretifolium, Pursh. Charles Wright . ORDER 40 CARYOPHYLLACE CCVIL Agrostemma Githago, L. Fairfield (common in fields of grain)— Eames. Plainville (frequent in grain fields)-- Bishop. New London, Groton (common)— Graves. Gaylordsville — Austin CCVITI Arenarza Groenlandica, Spring. Middletown, one colony lateriflora, L. Common peploides, L. Wethersfield —Wright. Bridgeport — Eames. Stratford — Miss A. E. Carpenter. Frequent on beaches in all the shore towns — Graves serpyllifolia, L. Common stricta, Michx. New Milford—C. K. Averill. Gaylordsville — Austin CCIX Cerastium arvense, L. Abundant on West Rock, ete. Berzelius Catalogue. nutans, Rof. Waterbury, Wilton— Miss Carpenter. Becoming frequent — Driggs viscosum, L. Frequent vulgatum, L. Common 1901. ] LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 25 734 D. 735 D. 736 D. 737 L. 738 L. 739 L. 740 L. 741 8. 742 S. 743 S. 744 S. 745 S. 746 S. 747 S. 748 S. 749 8. 750 8. Asie ASE 752 S. 753 8. 754 8. 755 S. 756 S. 7578. 758 S. 759 8. 760 S. 761 B. 762 N. 763 N. 764 N. 765 N. 766 N. CCX Dianthus Armeria, L. Common barbatus, L. “Waste ground, occasional deltoides, L. East Windsor Hill— Miss Edith S. Watson CCXI Lychuis alba, Mill. Frequent coronaria, L. Southington (two stations by roadside, not com- mon, but well established) — Andrews dioica, L. East Haven (rather rare) — Eames Flos-cuculi, L. Norwich — Mrs. E. Rogers CCXIT Sagina apetala, Ard. Monroe, Norfolk, Kensington, East Haven, Stratford — Eames decumbens, Torr. and Gray. Ledyard (rare) — Graves procumbens, L. Frequent CCXTII Saponaria officinalis, L. Common Vaccaria, L. East Hartford — Driggs. Southington —Andrews. Norwich — Mrs. E. Rogers CCXIV Stlene antirrhina, L. Common Armeria, L. Southington—Andrews. Branchville— Miss Car- penter cucubalus, Wibel. Frequent dichotoma, Ehrh. Southington, Orange, Woodmont — Andrews. nivea, Otth. Old Saybrook — Miss Sitt noctiflora, L. Frequent Pennsylvanica, Michx. Common stellata, Ait. Frequent CCXV Spergula arvensis, L. Common CCXVI Spergularia marina, J. & C. Presl. Savin Rock, Guilford. Frequent along the coast rubra, J. & C. Presl. Common CCXVIT Stellarza borealis, Bigel. Groton, Ledyard (rare)— Graves. Oxford — Harger graminea, L. Southington—Andrews. New London (quite abundant) — Miss Mary Crofton. Fairfield — Eames longifolia, Muhl. Common media, Cyrill, Common ORDER 41 NYMPHACE CCXVITI Brasenia Schreberi, Gmelin. Common CCXIX Nelumobo lutea, Pers. Lyme CCXX Nuphar advena, Ait., f. Common minimum, Smith. Windham, Naugatuck, Derby, Farmington, Norfolk, Middletown, North Haven, Reynold’s Bridge — Harger CCXXI Nymphaea odorata, Ait. Common odorata, Ait. var. minor, Sims. East Hartford, Botsford — Harger. Bristol— Bishop 26 CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., ORDER 42 CERATOPHYLLACE CCXXIT Ceratophyllum . demersum, L. Frequent . demersum, L.; var. echinatus, Gray. Bridgeport (rare) — Eames OrDER 43 ILLECEBRACE CCXXITI Anychia . capillocea, D.C. Rather common . dichotoma, Michx. Frequent CCXXIV Sceleranthus . annuus, L. Common ORDER 44 MAGNOLIACEA . CCXXV Liriodendron . tulipifera, L. Common ORDER 45 RANUNCULACE CCXXVI Actaea . alba, Bizel. Common . spicata, L.; var. rubra, Ait. Common CCOXXVIT Anemone . Canadensis, L. Oxford— Harger . cylindrica, Gray. Frequent . quinquefolia, L. Common . Virginiana, L. Common CCXXVIIT Anemonella . thalictroides, Spach. Common CCXXIX Agquilegia . Canadensis, L. Common . vulgaris. Frequent escape to roadsides CCXXX Caltha . palustris, L. Common CCXXXI Cimicifuga . racemosa, Nutt. West Haven, Westville, Allingtown, Redding, Woodbridge, Bridgeport, Bristol (rare) . racemosa, Nutt.; var. dissecta, Gray. Stratford (rare) —- Eames CCXXXIT Clematzs . verticillata, D. C. Not rare in mountainous districts . Virginiana, L. Common CCXXXIIT Coptes . trifolia, Salisb. Common CCXXXIV Delphintum . Ajacis, L. New London (a rare escape) — Graves . consolida, L. Escaped, rare CCXXXV Hefatica . acutiloba, D.C. West Granby, Litchfield, Canaan Mts.— Driggs . triloba, Chaix. Common CCXXXVI Hydrastés . Canadensis, L. Plainville— Bishop. Southington—C. H. Bis- sell CCOXXXVIT Ranunculus . abortivus, L. Common . abortivus, L.; var. micranthus, Gray. Rare . acris, L. Common . ambigens, Watson. Common . aquatilis, L.; van. trichophyllus, Gray. Frequent 1901. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 27 798 R. 799 R. 800 R. 801 R. 802 R. 803 R. 804 R. 805 R. 806 R. 807 R. 808 T. 809 T. 810 T. Sir Ee: 812 B. £13.C. 814 P. 824 A. 825 C. bulbosus, L. Common Cymbalaria, Pursh. Bridgeport — Dr. Beardsley. Montyille (rare) — Graves fascicularis, Muhl. Common Flammula, L.; var. reptans, E. Meyer. Berlin, Wethersfield, Waterbury, Norwich, East Hartford, Lyme, Waterford, Lisbon multifidus, Pursh. Locally rather abundant Pennsylvanicus, L., f. Common repens, L. Abundant over small area of grassy roadside in Fair- field — Eames recurvatus, Poir. Common sceleratus, L. New Haven Beaver meadows, Berlin, East Hart- ford septentrionalis, Poir. Common CCXXXVITI Thalictrum dioicum, L. Common polyganum, Muhl. Common purpurascens, L. Frequent CCXXXIX Trollzus laxus, Salisb. Cornwall ORDER 46 BERBERIDACEZ COAL > Beuerts vulgaris, L. Frequent CCXLI Caulophyllum thalictroides, Michx. Frequent in mountainous woods CCXLIL Podoplyllum peltatum, L. Frequent ORDER 47 MENISPERMACE-E CCXLIII Menispermum M. Canadense, L. Common ORDER 48 LAURACE CCXLIV Lindera Benzoin, Blume. Common CCXLV Sassafras officinale, Nees. Common ORDER 49 PAPAUERACEZE CCXLVI Argemone Mexicana, L. Fair Haven— D. C. Eaton CCXLVIL Chelzdontum majus, L. Common escape COXNL VEY Pagaver dubium, L. Green’s Farm station, N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R.— Miss A. E. Carpenter Rheeas, L. Stratford (rare) — Eames somniferum, L. Bridgeport (occasionally in waste grounds — Eames CCXLIX Sanguinaria Canadensis, L. Common ORDER 50 FUMARIACE ‘ CCL Adlumia cirrhosa, Raf. Frequent in mountainous woods CCLI Cordaylis glauca, Pursh. Common CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [ Jan., CCLIL Dicentra . Canadensis, D.C. Frequent . Cucullaria, D. C. Common base of mountains in woods CCLITI Fumaria . Officinalis, L. New Haven, Meriden, Danbury ORDER 51 CRUCIFER® CCLIV Alyssum . calycinum, L. Stony Creek, New Haven — Prudden . Mmaritimum, L. Bridgeport— Eames. Southington — Andrews. CCLV Arabts . Canadensis, L. Frequent . confinis, Watson. Montville, Ledyard, Thimble Islands (rare) — Graves. Oxford—Harger. West Hartford (rare) — Driggs . hirsuta, Scop. East and West Rocks, New Haven, near Zoar Bridge, Oxford —Harger. Norwich—Mrs. Rogers. Bolton — Driggs . levigata, Poir. Common . lyrata, L. Common . perfoliata, Lam. One piant in Kensington—Cowles. Several plants on top of Talcott Mt., Farmington—C. A. Wetherby. CCLVI Barbarea . preecox, R. Br. New Haven— Patton. Bridgeport (occasionally seen) — Eames . vulgaris, R. Br. Common CCLVI Berteroa .incana, D. C. Somers—Mrs. C. B. Pease. East Windsor — C. H. Bissell. Southington— Andrews. Plainville — Bishop CCLVITI Brassica . alba, Boiss. New Haven (rare), Bridgeport (rare) — Eames . compestris, L. Common . juncea, Cosson. Frequent — Eames . higra, Koch. Common . Sinapistrum, Boiss. Not rare COMIX» Cakite . Americana, Nutt. Along the coast . microcarpa, Andre. Abundant in one or two grain fields in Guil- ford. One plant Fairfield — Eames CCLX Capsella . Bursa pastoris, Moench. Common CCLXI Cardamine . arenicola, Britton. Middletown —J. Barrat. Bull. Torr. club, Xix. 220. 1892 . hirsuta, L. Common >. parviflorum, L. Frequent . Pennsylvanica, Muhl. Frequent . pratensis, L. Bristol—-W. A. Terry . rhomboidea, D. C. Common CCLXII Dentaria . diphylla, L. Common . lanciniata, Muhl. Common COLXTIT. Drake . Caroliniana, Walt. East Haven, Kensington, Waterford — Graves. Norwich— Mrs. Rogers verna, L. Common 1901. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 29 GOES esperzs 859 H. matronalis, L. Norwalk, Groton (rare)—Graves. Seymour, Milford — Harger. Bridgeport—C. K. Averill. Fairfield, Bridgeport (stations rare although abundant in small arears) — Eames CCLXV Lepidium 860 L. apetalum, Willd. Meriden (rare)— Andrews. Bridgeport (rare) — Eames 861 L. campestre, Br. Common 862 L. Draba, L. New Haven 863 L. ruderale, L. Bridgeport (rare) Eames 864 L. Virginicum, L. Common CCLXVI Nasturtium 865 N. Armoracia, Fries. Common escape 866 N. officinale, R. Br. Common 867 N. sylvestre, R. Br. Frequent 868 N. terrestre, R. Br. Common 869 N. terrestre, R. Br.; var. hispidum, Fisch and Mey. Frequent CCLXVII Raphanus 870 R. Raphanistrum, L. Common 871 R. sativus, L. Bridgeport (waste grounds)— Eames CCLAVILI = Stsymbrium 872 S. officinale, Scop. Common 873 S. Thaliana, Gand. Norwich—Mrs. Rogers. New lLondon— Graves. Oxford—Harger. Bridgeport — Eames CCLXIX Thlaspi 874 T. arvense, L. Norwich— Mrs. Rogers ORDER 52 CAPPARIDACE® CCLXX Polanisia 875 P. graveolens, Raf. Generally shores of Conn. River ORDER 53 RESEDACEE CCLXXI Reseda 876 R. alba, L. Bridgeport (waste grounds) — Eames 877 R. luteola, L. New Haven—D. C. Eaton. East Windsor— Andrews ORDER 54 SARRACENIACE-E CCLXXIT Sarracena 878 S. purpurea, L. Common ORDER 55 DROSERACE CCLXXITI Drosera g D. intermedia, Hayne. Frequent o D. rotundifolia, L. Common ORDER 56 CRASSULACE CCLXXIV Penthorum 881 P. sedoides, L. Common CCLXXV Sedum 882 S. acre, L. Fair Haven, New London, Redding, Hartland — Miss L. B. Gaylord. Stratford — Eames 883 S. Telephium, L. Common 884 S. ternatum, Michx. Middletown CCLXXVI Tillaea 885 T. simplex, Nutt. Muddy banks of Housatonic and Mill Rivers — Dr. Eli Ives 30 886 C. 887 H. 888 M. 889 P. 890 R. 891 R. 892 R. 893 R. 894 R. 895 R. 896 R. 897 S. 898 S. 899 T. goo H, gor L. go2 P. go3 A. go4 A. go5 A. go6 A. go7 A. 908 A. gog A. gio C, pein Ge gi2 C. 913 C. 914 C. gi5 C. 916 C. or7.C: CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.,. ORDER 57 SAXIFRAGACE CCLXXVIT Chrysoplenium Americanum, Schwein. Common CCLXAXVITI Heuchera Americana, L. Frequent CCLXXIX Mitella diphylla, L. Common ; CCLXXX Parnassia Caroliniana, Michx. Frequent CCLXXXI Ribes Cynobati, L. Litchfield, East Windsor — Driggs. Norfolk — Bishop. Union, Tolland—M. Harper. Hartland— Miss Laura B. Gaylord floridum, L’Her. Common grossularia, L. Stratford (rare) —- Eames oxyacanthoides, L. Common prostratum, L’Her. Taconic Mts., Norfolk, Hartland — Miss Laura B. Gaylord rubum, L.; var. subylandulosum, Maxim. Frequent uva-crispa, L. Escaped to roadsides — Graves CCLXXXIT Saxifraga Pennsylvanica, L. Common Virginiensis, Michx. Common CCLXXXITITI Tiarella Cordifolia, L. Frequent ORDER 58 HAMAMELIDA CCLXXXIV = Hamamelis Virginiana, L. Common CCLXXXV Liguidambar styraciflua, L. ORDER 59 PLATANACE CCLXXXVI Platanus occidentalis, L. Common ORDER 60 ROSACE# CCLXXXVIT Agrimonia gryposepala, Wallr. Common parviflora, Ait. Waterbury—H. F. Bassett. Fairfield — Eames pubescens, Walir. Waterford —Graves rostellata, Wallr. Groton — Graves striata, Michx. Common CCLXXXVITI Amelanchier Canadensis, Torr. and Gray. Common Canadensis, Torr. and Gray; var. oblongifolia, T. and G. Frequent CCLXXXIX Crategus coccinea, L. Common coccinea, L.; var. rotundifolia, Sargent. Frequent — Graves crus-galli, L. East Haven, Darien, Waterford, Groton, Stoning- ton (not rare)—Graves _ Hartford (common?) — Driggs intricata, Lange. Waterford (probably not rare) — Graves macracantha, Lindley. Norwich (apparently rare)— Graves Oxyacantha, L. Middletown punctata, Jocq. Occasionally seen tomentosa, L. East Rock, New Haven — Berzelius catalogue 190T. | "LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 31 g18 D. gig F. g20 F. g21 F. 922) G: 923 G. g24 G. 925 G. 926 G. 927 PB. 928 P. 929 P. 930 P. 931 P. 932 P. 933 P. 934 P. 935 P. 936 P. 937 P. 938 P. 939 P. 940 P. 941 P. 942 P. 943 P. 944 P. 945 P. 946 P. 947 P. CCXC Dalibarda repens, L. Farmington, Colebrook CCLXCI Fragaria Indica L. New London (rare) — Graves vesca, L. Common Virginiana, Mill, Common CCXCII Geum Canadense, Jacq. Common macrophyllum, Willd. Norwich— Graves rivale, L. Frequent strictum, Ait. Rather common Virginianum, L. Common CCXCIIT Physocarpus opulifolius. Maxim Pt., near Norwich CCXCIV Potentzlla Anserina, L. Common near the coast argentea, L. Common arguta, Pursh. Frequent fruticoso, L. Altogether too common, a pest Monspeliensis, L. Common palustris, Scop. Beaver Meadows, New Haven recta, L. Southington—Andrews. Bristol—W. A. Terry, Norwich school herb simplex, Michx. Common tridentata, Ait. Litchfield, Berlin, Plainville, Norfolk (rare) CCXCV Poterzum Canadense, Beuth. and Hock. Fair Haven, Monroe, Berlin, East Lyme, East Haven, Milford—Harger. Orange — Bishop CCXCVI. Prunus Alleghaniensis, Porte. Lisbon—— Graves Americana, Marshall. Frequent avium, L. A frequent escape Gravesii, Small. Groton (very rare) -—- Graves maritima, Wang. Common near coast Pennsylvanica, L., f. Meriden (rare) — Andrews pumila, L. Farmington, Bristol, Norwich, not common. Oxford (rare)—-Harger. Beaver Falls (rare)—-Eames. East Hart- ford and Poquonnock — Driggs serotina, Ehrh. Common spinosa, L. Sloe. Oxford — Harger Virginiana, L. Common The yellow variety spoken of in Gray’s manual has been discovered by 948 P. 949 P. g50 P. Os it 1Ee 952 P. 953 P. Miss Beth Whittlesey in Morris and Bantam COXCVA sPyrus Americana, D. C. Meriden--D. C. Eaton. Winchester— W. M. Shepardson arbutifolia, L., f. Common arbutifolia, L., f.; var. melanocarpa, Hook. East Hartford — Driggs. Meriden, South Windsor, Fairfield, Milford, etc. (infrequent, common in ‘Bilberry Swamp,” Huntington) — Eames arbutifolia, L., f.; var. melanocarpa, Hook. Forma pubescens vide — Rand and Redfield. Flora, Mt. Desert, Bridgeport, Milford, etc. (decidedly infrequent or local) —- Eames communis, L. Common malus, L. Common 963 R. 964 R. 965 R. 966 R. 967 R. 968 R. 969 R. 970 R. 971 R. g72 R. 973 S. 974 S. 975 S. 976 S. 977 S. 978 S. 979 S. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., CCXGC VTi wRosa blanda, Ait. Norfolk, Hartford —H. J. Koehler canina, L. Waterbury —H. F. Bassett . Carolina, L. Common cinnamomea, L. Groton—Graves. Wolcott, Bristol, Burlington (escaped to roadside) — Bishop humilis, Marsh. Bristol, Kensington, East Hartford, Oxford (common) — Harger lucida, Ehrh. Common nitida, Willd. East Hartford rubiginosa, L. Common setigera, Michx. Old Saybrook, Farmington, Stratford, Bridge- port— Eames. Bristol— Bishop CCXCIX Rubus Canadensis, L. Common cuneifolius, Pursh. Not rare hispidus, L. Common Idzeus, L.; var. strigasus, Maxim. Common nigrobascus, Bailey occidentalis, L. Common odoratus, L. Common triflorus, Richardson. Frequent villosus, Ait. Common setosus, Bigel. Bridgeport (infrequent) — Eames CCC Spirea lobata, Jacqu. Reported from Litchfield, Bridgeport, Fairfield (persisting in a few meadows, only in small quantities) — Eames Japonica, Norwich (two stations)— Mrs, E. Rogers salicifolia, L. Common salicifolia, L.; var. latifolia, Wiegand. Frequent sorbifolia, L. New London (escaped, well-established in one lot) —Graves. Bridgeport (rare)—C. K. Averill. Bridgeport (rare) — Eames tomentosa, L. Common ulmifolia, Scop. New London (roadsides) — Graves CCCL Wealdstetnia 980 W. fragaroides, Tratt. Norfolk, Colebrook — Dr. Beardsley g81 A. 982 A. 983 A. 984 B. 985 C. 986 C. 987 C. 988 C. 989 C. ORDER 61 LEGUMINOS= CCCII Amorpha fruticosa, L. Occasionally seen as an escape CCCIII Amphicarpa monoica, Nutt. Common CCCIV Afios tuberosa, Moench. Common CCCV Baptista tinctoria, R. Br. Common CGOGVLNGaSsza Chamecrista, L. Common Marilandica, L. Frequent nictitans, L. Common CCCVII Coronzlla varia, L. Escaped to roadside, becoming frequent CCCVITT Crotolaria sagittalis, L. Common I9OI. ] LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 33 990 D. 991 D. 992 D. 993 D. 994 D. 995 D. 996 D. 997 D. 998 D. 999 D. CCCLIX Desmodium acuminatum, D.C. Common Canadense, D.C. Common canescens, D.C. Frequent ciliare, D, C. New Haven, Waterford—Graves. Hartford, Manchester (scarce) — Driggs cuspidatum, Torr. and Gray. Oxford (rare)— Harger. Milford, Trumbull. Stratford — Eames Dillenii, Darlingt. Common Marilandicum, F. Boot. Not rare nudiflorum, D. C. Common paniculatum, D. C. Common rigidum, D.C. Common tooo D, rotundifolium, D. C. Common toot D. sessilifolium, T. and G. Montville, Norwich — Graves 1002 D. strictum, D.C. Frequent CCCX Gleditschia 1003 G. triacanthos, L. Frequent escape 1004 G. toos5 L. CCCXI Glycyrrhiza lepidota, Nutt. Established and spreading on a roadside in New Haven— D.C. Eaton. Fide Bull. Torr. Club, x, 102, 1883. CCCXIL Lathyrus maritimus, Bigelow. Common along coast 1006 L, palustris, L. New London, not rare CCCXIII Lesfpedeza 1007 L. capitata, Michx. Common 1008 L . intermedia, Britton. Frequent 1009 L. polystachya, Michx. Common 1010 L. procumbens, Michx. Common torr L. Stuvei, Nutt. Waterbury — Bassett. Norwich. Groton — Graves. East Hartford—C. A. Weatherby to12 L. violacea, Pers. Common 1o13 L to14 M 1o15 M 1016 M 1017 M ro1igs R IoIg R 1020 R to2r S. 1022 T CCCXIV Lupinus . perennis, L. Common CCCXV Medicago . lupulina, L. New Haven, Hartford, New London . Sativa, L. Norwich—Mrs. Rogers. New Haven, Norfolk, Plainville— Bishop. New London—Graves. Bridgeport — Eames, Becoming frequent CCCXVI Melzlotus . alba, Desr. Escaped middle and southern Conn. Becoming frequent ; . officinalis, Lam, In similar range as the above species CCCXVIT Robinia . hispida, L. East Windsor Hill—-C. A. Weatherby. Southing- ton, Berlin— Andrews. Wolcott — Bishop . pseudacacia, L. Common . viscosa, Vent. Frequently escaped CCCXVIIIT Strophostyles angulosa, Ell. Common, except in northern portions CCCXIX Tephosia . Virginiana, Pers. Frequent in sandy sterile ground 3 34 CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., CCCXX Trifolium 1023 T. agrarium, L. Common 1024 T. arvense, L. Common 1025 T. hybridum, L. Becoming common 1026 T. incarnatum, L. New London (persistent in one grass field) — Graves 1027 T. pratense, L. Common 1028 T. procumbens, L. Common 1o29 T. repens, L. Common CCCXXI Vicia 1030 V. Cracca, L. Not rare 1031 V. hirsuta, Koch. Waterbury — Patton 1032 V. sativa, L. Common 1033 V. tetrasperma, L. Common ORDER 62. GERANIACE CCCXXITLT Erodium 1034 E. cicutarium, L’Her. Norwich — Mrs. Rogers CCCXXIITI Geranium : 1035 G. Carolinianum, L. Meriden (common)— Andrews. Norwich— Mrs. Rogers. Plainville— Bishop. Stony Creek, Beaver Meadows, New Haven, Farmington, Berlin, etc. 1036 G. maculatum, L. Common 1037 G. pusillum, L. Between Windsor and Poquonock, Hartford, New Haven Green — Harger 1038 G. Robertianum, L. Common CCCXXIV Impatens 1039 I. aurea, Muhl. (I. pallida, Nutt.) Frequent 1o4o I. biflora, Walt. (I. fulva, Nutt.) Common CCCXXV Oxalis 1041 O. Acetosella, L. Colebrook, Norfolk — Beardsley 1042 O. cymosa, Small. Frequent 1¢43 O. violacea, L. Infrequent, common in Berzelius catalogue ORGER 63. LINACE& CCCXXVI Linum 1044 L. striatum, Walt. Common 1045 L. sulcatum, Riddell. Frequent 1046 L. usitatissimum, L. Escaped, not rare 1047 L. Virginianum, L. Common ORDER 64. RUTACEZ CCCXXVILT Ptelea 1048 P. trifoliata, L. Bridgeport— Eames. Ansonia—C. K. Averill. CCCXXVITI Xanthoxylum 1049 X. Americanum, Mill. Common ORDER 65. SIMARUBACE® CCCXXIX Adlanthus 1050 A. glandulosus, Desf. ‘Thoroughly escaped 1901. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 35 ORDER 66. POLYGALAGE CCCXXX Polygala 1051 P. cruciata, L. Common 1052 P. paucifolia, Willd. Common 1053 P. polygama, Walt. Frequent 1054 P. sanguinea, L. Common 1055 P. Senega, L., Gaylordsville—E. H. Austin. Kent—C. K. Averill 1056 P. verticillata, L. Common ORDER 67. EUPHORBIACEE CCCXXXI Acalypha 1057 A. Virginica, L. Common 1058 A. Virginica, L.; var. gracileus, Muell. Southbury, Norwich, New London, Groton (rare) — Graves CCOCXXXITI Euphorbia 1059 E. corollata, L. Norwich — Mrs. Rogers 1060 E. Cyparissias, L. Escaped, common around old dwelling 1061 E. Esula, L. Manchester 1062 E. glyptosperma, Engelm. Bridgeport — Eames 1063 E. hirsuta, Wiegand. Frequent by sandy roadsides — Graves 1064 E. Ipecacuanhe, L. East Windsor, Enfield— Dr. Beardsley 1065 E, Lathyris, L. Trumbull, Bridgeport - Eames 1066 E. maculata, L. Common 1067 E. polygonifolia, L. Along the coast 1068 E. Preslii, Guss. Common OrDER 68. ANACARDIACE CCCXXXITTT Rhus 1069 R. copallina, L. Common 1070 R. glabra, L. Common 1071 R. Toxicodendron, L. Common 1072 R. typhina, L. Common 1073 R. venenata, D. C. Swamps, common. ‘The most poisonous species ORDER 69. ILICINAZA COCOXZOAUVY, ez 1074 I. glabra, Gray. Waterford, Groton—Graves 1075 I. levigata, Gr. Frequent 1076 I. opaca, Ait. Milford, Wolcott, Burlington 1077 I. verticillata, Gray. Common CCCXXXV Nemopanthes 1078 N. fascicularis, Raf. Common ORDER 70. CELASTRACE CCCXXXVI Celastrus 1079 C. scandens, L. Common CCCXXXVIL Euonymus 1080 E, Europzus, L. Reported from Bridgeport 36 1o81 A. 1082 A. 1083 A. 1084 A. 1085 A. 1086 A, CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., ORDER 71. SAPINDACEAE: CCCXXXVITI Acer Negundo, L. (Negundo aceroides, Moench). Sparingly along Housatonic, Oxford—Harger. Cornwall, Gaylordsville — Austin, New Milford, Lime Rock —C. K. Averill Pennsylvanicum, L. Frequent in mountainous woods rubrum, L. Common saccharinum, L. (A. dasycarpum, Ehrh.), East Windsor, Weth- ersfield, East Hartford, etc. (common) — Driggs. New London County (river banks)—Graves. Zoar Bridge, Oxford— Harger. Several places on Housatonic from New Milford northward into Mass. —C. K. Averill Saccharum, Marsh. Common spicatum, Lam. Frequent in mountainous woods CCCXXXIX 4 sculus * 1087 42. Hippocastanum, L. Commonly planted, escaped in East Hartford — Driggs CCCXL Staphylea 1088 S. trifolia, L. Frequent 1089 C. togo R. Iogi R, 1og2 A. 1093 V. 1094 V. 1095 V. 1096 V. 1097 T. 1098 A. Iogg A. 1100 H. 1101 H. 1102 M. 1103 M. 1104 M. 1105 M. ORDER 72. RHAMNACEA CCCXLI Ceanothus Americanus, L. Common CCCXLIIT Rhamnus alnifolia, L’Her. Monroe — Dr. Beardsley cathartica, L. A few scattered trees in Guilford. Kent (rare)— C. K. Averill. Gaylordsville (swamps, not rare) — Austin ORDER 73. VITACEH CCCXLITI Anpelopsis quinquefolia, Michx. Common CCCCALIV Vatzs cordifolia, Michx. Common bicolor, LeConte. Common Labrusca, L. Frequent vulpina, L. Stratford (rare) —- Eames ORDER 74. ‘TILIACEZ CCECXLYV . Jilia Americana, L. Common CCCXLVI Abutzlon Theophrasti, Medci. Nuisance in many waste places CCCXLVII Althea rosea, Cov. New Britain (railroad tracks) — Bishop CCCXLVITI Hibiscus Moscheutos, L. Common on salt marshes Trionum, L. Sparingly escaped CCCXLXIX Malua moschata, L. Not rare rotundifolia, L. Common sylvestris, L. Common verticillata, L.; var. crispa, L. Plainville (escaped) — Bishop -1901.] 1106 H. 1107 H. 1108 H. I1og H. 1110 H. 1A al es OA reel WELSHEL 1114 H. ECS El. 1116 E. 1117 H. 1118 H. 1119 H. 1120 L. TEDT Ne. 1122 L. imag be 1124 L. TIS tL 1126 V. 27 1128 V. 120 V TON Nic ERSTE Tse". T133) V 1134 V. 1135 V. LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 37 ORDER 75. HyYPERICACE CCCL Hypericum Ascyron, L. New Milford (rare)—C. K. Averill. Canaan (abundant), Derby, Oxford —Harger. Berlin, Farmington adpressum, Bart. Lisbon and Norwich — Graves Canadense, L. Common Canadense, L.; var. majus, Gray. Groton— Graves ellipticum, Hook. Common maculatum, Walt. Frequent mutilum, L. Common 4 nudicaule, Walt. Common perforatum, L. Common Virginicum, L. (Elodes companulata, Pursh). Common ORDER 76. ELATINACE® CCOCLF -Elaime Americana, Arn. Whitneyville, Derby, Gardner’s Lake, etc., Bridgeport (plentiful) -Eames. Quashapaug, Lake Middle- bury — Harger ORDER 77. CISTACE CCCLIT Helianthemum Canadense, Michx. Common majus, B. S. P. Bridgeport (frequent)—-Eames. Waterford, Groton (frequent) Graves. Hartford (frequent)— Driggs CCCLIII Hudsonia tomentosa, Nutt. East Haven, East Lyme CCCLIV Lechea intermedia, Leggett. Hartford—Driggs and Keehler. Water- ford, Ledyard, Voluntown (rare) — Graves Leggettii, Britt. and Hall. Common — Graves major, Michx. Common minor, L. Common maritima, Leggett. Waterford, Groton, East Lyme (sea-beaches) Graves. Milford Pt. — Harger tenuifolia, Michx. Kensington, East Hartford. Common in Groton and Waterford — Graves ORDER 78. VIOLACE CCCLV Vzola blanda, Willd. Common blanda, Willd.; var. palustriformis, Gray. Morris, Meriden (rare)— Andrews. Bridgeport (frequent) Eames Canadensis, L. Colebrook —Dr. Beardsley. North Guilford Canina, L.; var. Muhlenbergii, Troutv. Common lanceolata, L. Common adorata, L. Sparingly escaped palmata, L. Frequent palmata, L.; var. cucullata, Gray. Common pedata. L. Common pedata, L., var. forma alba. Not rare 38 1136 V. 1137 V. 1138 V. 1139 V. 1140 V. II4I V. , 1142 V. 1143 V. 1144 V. 1145 O. 1146 O. 1147 D. 1148 C. 1149 D. 1150 D. TrSmo, TI152 L. TITS Seles 1154 R. TESS C- T1566) C. 1157 E. 1158 E. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., pedata, L.; var. bicolor, Pursh. Milford, Orange, Norwich, not very rare primulzefolia, L. Common pubescens, Ait. Common pubescens, Ait.; var. scabriuscula, T. and G. Not rare rostrata, Pursh. Meriden, Waterbury, Mt. Totoket, Guilford rotundifolia, Michx. Frequent in mountainous regions. Hart- land (common) — Miss Laura B. Gaylord sagittata, Ait. Common sororia, Willd. Hartford — Dr. Geo. Parmele striata, Ait. Norfolk — Dr. Beardsley ORDER 79. CACTACE CCCLVI Opuntia Rafinesquii, Engelm. Reported from Unionville vulgaris, Mill. Frequent on the coast ORDER 80. THYMELACE CECE VIE, (Dizce palustris, L. Frequent in mountains ORDER 81. LYTHYRACEA CCCLVIII Cuphea viscosissima, Jocqr. | Plainville (one large colony)— Bishop. Oxford (one small colony)— Harger. Bridgeport, Fairfield (a very local species but abundant in colonies) — Eames CCCLIX Decodon verticillatus, Ell, Common verticillatus, Ell. Forma flore pleno, a beautiful variety very abundant in ‘‘ Hamlin’s pond,” Plainville. The only known American habitat CCCLX Lythrum alatum, Pursh. Farmington— Driggs. Lakeville—John K. Goodrich Salicaria, L. New Haven—Kleeberger. Bristol — Bishop. Haddam Neck— Swan CCCLXI Rotala ramosior, Kcehne. Bridgeport (not rare locally) — Eames ORDER 82. MELASTOMACE/E COCCLAW/ *) Rhexza Virginica, L. Frequent ORDER 83. ONAGRACE4E COCERXTTIN Corc@a alpina, L. Oxford, Mt. Totoket, Reynolds’ Bridge — Harger. Norfolk, Plainville, Guilford, North Stonington, Hartland — Miss Laura B. Gaylord (frequent), Driggs. Huntington, Orange — Eames Lutetiana, L. Common CCCLXALV Epilobtum adenocaulon, MHaussk. New London (abundant) — Graves. Berlin— Cowles. New Britain— Bishop. Reynolds’ Bridge — Harger augustifolium, L. Common 1901. | 1159 E. 1160 E. 1161 E. 1162 E. 1163 G. 1164 L. 1165 L. 1166 L. £167, L: LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 39 coloratum, Muhl. Common lineare, Muhl. Common palustre, L. Botsford (rare) — Harger (rare), Bishop strictum, Muhl. New Canaan, Kensington, Fairfield, Hunting- ton, etc. (in bogs) — Eames CCCLXV .Gaura biennis, L. Becoming frequent CCCLXVI Ludwigia alternifolia, L. Common palustris, Ell. Ditches, not rare polycarpa, Short & Peter. Abundant in wet places in Hartford — Charles Wright spherocarpa, Ell. Guilford CCCLXVIIT Cnothera 1168 CE. biennis, L. Common 1169 GE 1170 1171 ® 1172 CE 1173 GE 1174 GE 1175 Gt 1176 C. Ee Ce 1178 C. 1179 H. 1180 M. 1181 M. 1182 M. ‘1183 M. 1184 M. 1185 P. 1186 A. 1187 A. 1188 A. 1189 A. t1g0 A. t19g1 A, . biennis, L.; var. grandiflora, Lindl. Frequent . fruticosa, L. Common . fryticosa, L.; var. hirsuta, Torr. and Gray. Rare— Eames . linearis, Michx. Abundant on part of Stratford meadows, generally infrequent along the coast — Eames . lacinita, Hill. Old Saybrook, East Hartford — Driggs . pumila, L. Common . Oakesiana, Britton. Wastes, not rare— Eames. New London, Groton, Lyme, Stonington — Graves ORDER 84. HALORAGE® CCCLXVIII Callitriche Austini, Engelm. Orange, thence westward fully twenty miles in small quantities at infrequent intervals. In Fairfield there are several colonies covering from one to three square rods— Eames heterophylla, Pursh. Frequent verna, L. Common CCCLATX HAzippuris vulgaris, L. Waterbury —H. T. Bassett CCCLXX Myriophyllium ambiguum, Nutt. New London, Poquonnock, Bridgeport scabratum, Michx. East Haven, Litchfield, Saybrook spicatum, L. Litchfield tenellum, Bigelow. Litchfield, Norwich (not rare) verticillatum, L. Bridgeport — Eames CCCLXXI Proserpinaca palustris, L. Common OrDER 85. ARALIACE CCCLXXIT Aralia hispida, Vent. Generally reported frequent nudicaulis, L. Common quinquefolia, Decsne and Plauch. Norfolk, Colebrook, Hart- land, West Granby, Bristol, Southington, West Hartford — Driggs. East Haddam— Graves racemosa, L. Common spinosa, L. Bridgeport — Eames trifolia, Decsne and Plauch. Common 40 1192 A. 1193 A. 1194 AL 1195 Ai 1196 B. 1197 C. 1198 C. 1199 C. 1200 C. 1201 C. 1202 C, 1203 D. 1204 D. 1105 E. 1206 F. 1207 H. 1208 H. 1209 H. T2701. 1211 O. 1212 O, 1213 P. 1214 P. 1215 S. 1216S. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., ORDER 86. UMBELLIFER® CCCLXXIIT Angelica atropurpurea, L. Frequent hirsuta, Muhl. Frequent CCCLXAXIV A-gopodium . Podagiaria, L. Morris, Hartford — Mrs. Seliger CCCLXXV Athusa . Cynapium, L. H. F. Bassett CCCLXXVI Bupeurum rotundifolium, L. Waterbury — Patton CCOGCEXAXVIDL \Garum Carui, L. Naturalized in many*places COCLEXXV ITE “Getic bulbifera, L. Frequent maculata, L. Common CCCLXXIX Contum maculatum, L. Frequent CCCLXXX Crantzia lineata, Nutt. Bridgeport— Beardsley. | Fenwick — Charles Wright. Banks of Yantic river. Montville, East Lyme, Old Lyme (not rare) — Graves CCCLXAXXI Cryptotenia Canadensis, D. C. Common CCCLXXXIT Daucus Carota, L. Altogether too common CCCLXXXIITI = Discopleura capillacea, D.C. Frequent CCCLXXXIV Eryngium aquaticum, IL. Bridgeport (sparingly introduced, probably by a circus, in a dry field, persisting for some years) — Eames CCCLXXXV Feniculum vulgare, Gertn. Windham (specimens in Torrey Botanical Club) — Herbarium CCCLXXXVI Heracleum lanatum, Michx. Common CCCLXXXVII Hydrocotyle Americana, L. Common umbellata, L. Hamden, shore of Litchfield Pond —D. C. Eaton, Oxford—Harger. Groton, Waterford —Graves. Thompson — Leland J. Spaulding COCCLXAXXVIIT Ligusticum Scoticum, L. Shores along the sound, East Lyme, Groton, Stonington—Graves. Bristol — Bishop CCCLXXXIX Osmorrhiza brevistylis, D. C. Common longistylis, D. C. Common CCCXC Pastinaca, sativa, L. Common CCCXCI Pimpinella integerrima, Gray. New Haven, Orange, Berlin CCCXCIT Sanicula Canadensis, L. Common Marylandica, L. Common 1901. ] 1217 S. 1218 S. 1219 Z. 1220 Z. 1221 C. 1222 .C: T2238 1C. 1224 C, 1225 C. m2261- 1227)C: 1228 N. 1229 A. 1230 A. 1231 A. 1232) C: ribeye AC 1234 C. 235°C; 1236 C, 1237 E. 1238 G. 1239 G. 1240 G. 1241 G. 1242 G. 1243 K. 1244 K, 1245 K. LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 4! CCCXCIII Sium Carsonii, Durand. ‘Trumbull (sev. stations) —- Eames. Cheshire — Bishop. Frequent in brooks in Waterford, Groton, Mont- ville, East Lyme, Salem, East Haddam — Graves cicuteefolium, Gruelin. Common CCOXCIV . Zreza aurea, Koch. Common cordata, D. C. Fairfield (local)— Eames. Groton (rare)— Graves ORDER 87. CORNACE GCCXGV (Gornws alternifolia, L., f. Common Canadensis, L. Frequent circinata, L’Her. Frequent florida, L. Common paniculata, L’Her. Common sericea, L. Common stolonifera, Michx. Common CCCXCVI Nyssa sylvatica, Marsh. Common ORDER 88. ERICACE CCCXCVIL Andromeda ligastrina, Muhl. Common polifolia, L. Kent, Gaylordsville—C. K. Averill. Norfolk, Danbury, Litchfield — Harger CCCXCVIIL Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Spreng. Frequent CCCXCIX Cassandra calyculata, Don. Common CCCC Chimaphila maculata, Pursh. Common umbellata, Nutt. Common CCCCI Chiogenes } serpyllifolia, Salisb. Naugatuck, Colebrook, Norfolk, ‘‘ Pines”’ in Preston, Middlebury, Bethany—Harger. Burlington — Bishop. Voluntown (frequent)— Graves GH GIMME (GUGM EAL alnifolia, L. Common CCCCIII Epigea repens, L. Common CCCCIV Gaultheria procumbens, L. Common CCCCV Gaylussacta dumosa, Torr. and Gray. Common frondosa, Torr. and Gray. Common resinosa, Torr. and Gray. Common resinosa, Torr. and Gray; var. glaucocarpa, Robinson. Water- ford, Groton (frequent) — Graves CCCCVI Kalmia augustifolia, L. Common glauca, Ait. Ridgefield, Norfolk, North Salem, Burlington — Bishop. Woodbury, Seymour—Harger. Kent— Eames and Averill latifolia, L. Common 42 1246 L. 1247 L. 1248 M. 1249 M. 1250 M, 1251 P. Tn 2p es Lip le) LE 1254 P. ras5 R. 1256 R. 1257 R. 1258 R. 1259 R. 1260 V. 1261 V. 1262 V. 1263 V. 1264 V. 1265 V. 1266 V. 1267 S. 1268 A. 1269 H. 1270 L. 1271 L. 1 alg fed My. 1273 L. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., CCCCVII Ledum Groenlandicum, Oeder. Litchfield, Norfolk, ‘‘ Neversink Pond,” Danbury CCCCVITI Leucothoé racemosa, Gray. East Haddam, Haddam, Durham — Dr. Emma J. Thompson. Stratford—Eames. Waterford, Groton, Led- yard—Graves. East Hartford (plentiful) — Driggs CCCCLIX Moneses grandiflora, Salisb. Canaan, Litchfield, Norfolk, East Windsor CCCCX Monotropa Hypopitys, L. Common uniflora, L. Common CECCAT “Pyrota chlorantha, Smartz. Frequent elliptica, Nutt. Common rotundifolia, L. Common secunda, L. Common CCCCXIT Rhododendron Canescens, G. Dan. (Azalea nudiflora of authors, in part). Common maximum, L. Winchester—W. M. Shepardson. Litchfield, Norfolk — Dr. Beardsley. Ledyard—E. E. Gaylord. Volun- town— Graves. Barkhamsted—Holcomb. Union— Driggs and H. P. King Rhodora, Dan. Frequent viscosum, Torr. Common viscosum, Torr.; var. glaucum, Gr. Monroe, Bridgeport (rare) — Eames. Oxford—Harger. Plainfield— Miss Sarah Francis. Hartford (frequent) — Driggs CCCCXITTI Vacctntum corymbosum, L. Common corymbosum, L.; var. atrococcum, Gray. Ledyard— Graves. Bridgeport (frequent) — Eames macrocarpon, Ait. Common Oxycoccus, L. Glastonbury, Burlington— Bishop. Huntington (very local) — Eames Pennsylvanicum, Lam. Common stamineum, L. Berlin, North Granby, Kent — Eames vacillans, Solander ORDER 89. PLUMBAGINACE CCCCATYV. Stazzce Limonum, L.; var. Caroliniana, Gray. Common on salt marshes ORDER 90. PRIMULACEA CCCCXV Anagallzs arvensis, L. Common CCCCXVI Hottonza inflata, Ell. Gardner's Lake —Dr. Beardsley. Bozrah, Stony Creek, Norwich, Waterford, Groton—Graves. East Haven Harger. Thompson— Leland J. Spaulding CCCCXVIL Lysimachia nummularia, L. Escaped, common, a pest in many lawns quadrifolia, L. Common stricta, Ait. Common thrysiflora, L. Rare 19OT. | LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 43 CCCCXVITI Samolus 1274 S. Valerandi, L. Common CCCCAXLIX § Stezronema 1275 S. ciliatum, Raf. Common 1276 S. lanceolatum, Gray. Ledyard, North Stonington (rare) — Graves. Bridgeport (abundant in several localities) — Eames ORDER 91, EBENACE CCCCXX Diospyros 1277 D. Virginiana, L. Lighthouse Point, East Haven ORDER 92. OLEACE CCCCXX] Fraxinus 1278 F. Americana, L. Common. 1279 F. lanceolata, Barck. Frequent 1280 F. nigra, Marsh. Mt. Carmel, Plainville (rare)— Bishop. Groton, rare— Graves. Huntington (abundant)—Eames. New Mil- ford, Kent, common—C. K, Averill 1281 F. Pennsylvanica, Marsh. Westville, Canaan, Lisbon, Bridgeport — Eames, Plainville, Farmington — Bishop CCCCXATL Ligustrum 1282 L. vulgare, L. New Haven, Cromwell, Berlin, Old Saybrook, New London (common) — Graves ORDER 93. GENTIANACEAE CCCCXXIIT = Bartonia 1283 B. tenella, Muhl. Common. CCCCXXTV Gentiana 1284 G. Amarella, L. Bristol, two specimens collected by H. F. Bassett 1285 G. Andrewsii, Griseb. Common 1286 G. crinita, Froel. Common 1287 G. quinqueflora, Lam. Bristol, Berlin, Cornwall, Litchfield, Nor- folk, Gaylordsville— Austin. North Canaan — Driggs CCCCXXV = Limnanthemum 1288 L. lacunosum, Griseb. Frequent 1289 L. nymphzeoides, Hoffm. & Link. Abundant in ‘‘ Lockshop pond,” New Britain, but in danger of extermination. Introduced by James Shepard CCCCXXVI Menyanthes 1290 M. trifoliata, L. Frequent CCCCXXVIT Sabbatia 1291 S. chloroides, Pursh. Old Lyme, Lyme, Old Saybrook, Hamburg cove — Graves 1292S. stellaris, Pursh. Groton, Lyme, Madison, Fenwick — Graves. Stratford, Fairfield — Eames 1293 S. stellaris, Pursh.; forma albiflora, Britton. Stratford (sometimes common with the type) — Eames ORDER 94. APOCYNACE CCCCXXVILI Apocynum 1294 A. androseemifolium, L. Common 1295 A. cannabium, L. Frequent 1296 A. cannabium, L. (var. hypericifolium, Ell.). New Milford, Strat- ford (rare) — Eames 1297 A. cannabium, L. (var, glaberrimum, D.C.). Along the coast, local — Eames. Frequent on river shores — Graves 44 CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., CCCCXXIX Vinca 1298 V. minor, L. A frequent escape. ORDER 95. ASCLEPIADACE CCCCXXX Acerates 1299 A. viridiflora, Eaton. New Milford (rare)— Eames CCCCXXXI Asclepias 1300 A. incarnata, L. Common 1301 A. incarnata, L. (var. pulchra, Pers.), Frequent 1302 A. obtusifolia, Michx. Common 1303 A. phytolaccoides, Pursh. Common 1304 A. purpurascens, L. Common 1305 A. quadrifolia, L. Common 1306 A. Syriaca, L. (A. Cornuti, Decaisne). Common 1307 A, tuberosa,L. Frequent 1308 A. tuberosa, L. (var. decumbens, Pursh.). South Lyme, one or two plants — Dr. F. H. Dart 1309 A. verticillata, L. Frequent, especially near the Sound ORDER 96. CONVOLVULACE CCCCXXXTT = Convolvulus 1310 C, arvensis, L. Frequent 1311 C. sepium, L. Common 1312 C. sepium, L. (var. Americanus, Sims.). East Hartford — Driggs 1313 C. spithamzus, L. Frequent CCCCXXXITT Cuscuta 1314 C. Epithymum, Murr. Kensington — Cowles 1315 C. Gronovii, Willd. Common CCCCXXXIV LIpomea 1316 I. coccinea, L. Southington, sparingly escaped —Andrews 1317 I. hederacea, Jacq. New London, a rare escape —Graves 1318 I. purpurea, Lam. Bridgeport—Eames. Southington — Andrews. New London, frequent — Graves ORDER 97. POLEMONIACE CCCCXXXV Phlox 1319 P. paniculata, L. Frequent escape 1320 P. pilosa, L. Southbury — Harger 1321 P. maculata, L. One meadow in Waterford — Graves 1322 P. subulata, L. A frequent escape, especially in or near old cem- eteries ORDER 98. HyYDROPHYLLACE CCCCXXXVI Hydrophyllum 1323 H. Virginicum, L. Farmington—Miss Willard. Waterbury— Patton CCCCXXXVIT Phacelia 1324 P. Purshii, Buckl. Short Beach, Branford — Mrs. E. J. Leonard 1325 P. viscida, Torr. Mrs. Leonard, vzde Bull. Torr. Club, X, pp. 102, 1883 ORDER 99. BORRAGINACEE CCCCXXXVITI Amsinckia 1326 A. lycopoides, Lehm. Southington, well established in one lot— Andrews ‘ 1901. ] 1327 C. 1328 C. 1329 E. 1330 E. 1331 E. T9920155 rigg}e} Up 1334 L. 1335 M. 1336 M. 1337 M. 1338 O. 1339 S. 1340 P. IAT. 1342 V. 1343 V. 1344 V. 1345 V. 1346 A. 1347 B. 1348 B. 1349 C. 1350 C, 1351 G, 1352 G, LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 45 CCCCXXATX = Cynoglossum officinale, L. Common Virginicum, L. East Haven, Guilford, Norwalk CCCCXL Echinospermum Lappula, Lehm. New Haven, Seymour — Harger Virginicum, Lehm. Common CCCCXLI Echium vulgare, L. Montville, Essex — Graves, Canaan, Washington, Lime Rock, Windsor, Norwich — Mrs. Rogers. Hawleyville— Bishop. Bridgeport, Brookfield, rose-colored variety, with type in first station — Eames CCCCXLIT Lithospermum arvense, L. Common officinale, L. Common COCCALITT ycapszs arvensis, L. Westville—E. J. Lake. Woodbridge, Oxford, Windsor, Lime Rock CCCCXLIV Myosotzs laxa, Lehm. Not rare palustris, Withering. Common verna, Nutt. Hartford—Charles Wright. Frequent in south- ern Connecticut, Meriden — Andrews CCCCXLV Onosmodium Virginianum, D.C. New Haven— Veitch. Abundant, Housa- tonic river below Bennett’s bridge—Harger, Fairfield beach (local) — Eames CCCCXLVI Symphytum officinale, L. A frequent escape ORDER 100. WVERBENACE CCCCXLVIL Phryma Leptostachya, L. Common COCCXL VILE, “Verbena angustifolia, Michx. Frequent hastata, L. Common officinalis, L. New Haven, etce.— Berzelius catalogue stricta, Vent. Manchester— Driggs. Bridgeport — Eames urticeefolia, L. Common ORDER Io1. LABIATZ CCCCXLIX Ajuga reptans, L. Escaped (frequent) CECCCE Ballota nigra, L. New Haven streets, etc.— Eaton CCCCLI Blephilia ciliata, Raf. Seymour— Harger CCCCLIT Calamintha Clinopodium, Beuth. Frequent CCCCLITI Collinsonza Canadensis, L. Common. CCCCLIV Galeopszs Ladanuum, L. Darien Tetrahit, LL. Frequent 46 CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., CCCCLV Hedeoma 1353 H. pulegioides, Pers. Common CCCCLVI TIsanthus 1354 I. coeruleus, Michx. Wethersfield — Wright CCCCLVIT Lamium 1355 L. album, L. Southbury — Prudden 1356 L. amplexicaule, L. Common 1357 L. maculatum, L. A common escape along roadsides, Southington —Andrews 1358 L. purpureum, L. Litchfield —T.S. Gold. New Haven— Veitch CCECCILVAL, PECOnUurUs 1359 L. Cardica, L. Frequent CCCCLIX Lophanthus 1360 L. nepetoides, Beuth. Meriden, Monroe, Berlin, Bristol, Farmington 1361 L. scrophulariefolius, Beuth. Milford, Waterbury, Bridgeport, Beacon Falls—Eames. Oxford, Waterbury, Thomaston — Harger. CCCCLX . Lycopus 1362 L. Americanus, Muhl. Common. 1363 L. sessilifolius, Gray. Ledyard (rare)—Graves. Middlebury — Harger. 1364 L. Virginicus, L. Common CCCCLXL Marrubtum 1365 M. vulgare, L. Escaped (not rare) CCCCLXII Melzssa 1366 M. officinalis, L. Southbury— Eaton. Northfield — Harger. Per- sists as a weed about several old farms in Ledyard — Graves CCCCLXIII Mentha 1367 M. alopecuroides, Hull. Fairfield — Eames 1368 M. aquatica, L. Kensington, Litchfield, Southbury 1369 M. crispa, L. Stratford (rare) —- Eames 1370 M. arvensis, L. Not rare — Eames 1371 M. Canadensis, L. Common 1372 M. Canadensis, L. (var. glabrata), Beuth. Southbury — Prudden. Bridgeport, and occasionally in adjoining country — Eames 1373 M. piperita, L. Common. 1374 M. rotundifolia, L. Southbury, Prudden 1375 M. sativa, L. Plainville—Bishop. Norwich—Mrs. Rogers. Fair- field — Eames 1376 M. viridis, L. Common. CCCCLXIV Monarda 1377 M. didyma, L. Frequent 1378 M. fistulosa, L. Southbury, Norwalk—Denslow. _ Berlin, Wash- ington, Wilson, Weston, Manchester, Plainfield, Groton, Mont- ville— Graves. Not at all rare— Eames 1379 M. mollis, L. Common near Moore's pond, Kensington — Cowles, Southbury, several localities — Harger CCCCLXV Nepeta 1380 N. Cataria, L. Common. 1381 N. Glechoma, Beuth. A frequent escape. CCCCLXVI Origanum 1382 O. vulgare, L. Frequent CCCCLXVII Physostegia 1383 P. Virginiana, Beuth. Frequent 1901. | 1384 P. 1385 P. 1386 P. EAS 7 1388 P. 1389 P. 1390 S. 1391 S. 1392 S. 1393 S. 1394 S. 1395 S. 1396 S. 1397 S. 1398 S. 1399 T. 1400 T. 1go1 T. 1402 T. 1403 D. 1404 D. 1405 D. 1406 H. 1407 L. 1408 N. 1409 N. 1410 P. 1411 P. T1412 P, 1413 P. 1414 P. LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 47 CCCCLXVIII Prunella basal L. Common CCCCLATX Pycanthemum incanum, Michx. Frequent lanceolatum, Pursh. Common linifolium, Pursh, Common muticum, Pers. Common verticillatum, Pers. Norwich (rare) — Graves CCCCLAX 'Saturesa hortensis, L. South Britain— Miss Mitchell CCCOLXAT. Seutetlaria galericulata, L. Common integrifolia, L. Old Saybrook — Miss Sara Sill. South Windsor, Hartford — Driggs. East Hartford, ONS plant — Weatherby lateriflora, L. Common. parvula, Michx. Stony Creek—Hawes. “Rast Haven—Dr. Beards- ley. Plainville — Bishop CCOCLAXIL Stachys aspera, Michx. Wethersfield, East Hartford, Lyme, Berlin cordata, Riddell. Westville— Harger. Farmington — Sedgwick hyssopifolia, Michx. Wallingford, Jewett City—E. F. Burleson palustris, L. Berlin, East Hartford CCCCLXXITI Teucrium Canadense, L. Rather common littorale, Bicknell. Sands along and near the coast — Eames CCCCLXXIV Thymus Serpyllum, L. Waterford, a rare escape—Graves. Norwich — Setchell. Plainville — Bishop. Manchester — Driggs CCCCLXXV Trichostema dichotomum, L. Common ; the pink variety is rarely seen ORDER 102, SOLANACE CCCCLXXVI Datura Metel, L. Southington (Ballast ground)—Andrews. Rare in waste grounds — Eames Stramonium, L. Rather common Tatula, L. East Hartford (frequent) — Driggs. Bridgeport (frequent)— Eames. Oxford (common) — Harger CCCCLXXVIL Hyoscyamus niger, L. Oxford— Berzelius catalogue CCCCLXXVITI Lyctum vulgare, Dunal. East Haven— Pease. Berlin—Cowles. New London — Graves CCCCLXXIX Nicandra physoloides, Gzertn. Common CCCCLXXX Nicotiana rustica, L. Prof. G. R. Kleeberger CCCCLXXXI Petunia nyctaginiflora, Juss. Bridgeport (infrequent) — Eames violacea, Lindl. Bridgeport (infrequent) —- Eames CCCCLXXXIT Physalis heterophylla, Nees. Common heterophylla, Nees. Var. nyctaginea, Rydberg. Bridgeport (infrequent) — Eames 48 CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., 1415 P. Philadelphica, Loux. New Canaan— Denslow. Berlin— Cowles 1416 P. pruinosa, L. Southbury— Prudden. New Haven— Eaton. Norwich — Mrs. Rogers CCCCLXXXIII Solanum 1417S. ene: L. Greenwich— Dr. Beardsley. Bridgeport (rare) — Eames 1418 S. Duleamara, L. Common 1419S. nigrum, L. Frequent 1420 S. rostratum, Dunal. East Haddam—Dr. Emma J. Thompson. East Hartford— Driggs. Wilton— Miss A. E. Carpenter. Gaylordsville — Austin ORDER 103. SCROPHULARIACEE CCCCLXXXIV = Antirrhinum 1421 A. majus, L. New Haven, etc. — Berzelius catalogue CCCCLXXXV Casitzlleza 1422 C. coccinea, Spreng. Frequent CCCCLXXXVI Chelone 1423 C. glabra, L. Common CCCCLXXXVITI Gerardia 1424 G. flava, L. Common 1425 G. maritima, Raf. Common along the coast 1426 G. pedicularia, L. Frequent 1427 G. purpurea, L. Frequent 1428 G, purpurea, L., var. paupercula, Gray. New London (frequent) — Graves. East Hartford, Hartford, Manchester, Orange, South Windsor, Stafford — Driggs 1429 G. quercifolia, Pursh. Common 1430 G. Skinneriana, Wood. Farmington— Miss C. A. Shepard 1431 G. tenuifolia, Vahl CCCCLXXXVIII Gratiola 1432 G. aurea, Muhl. Infrequent 1433 G. Virginiana, L. Common CCCCLXXXIX TLlysanthes 1434 I. atteruata, Small. Bridgeport (frequent) — Eames 1435 I. gratioloides, Beuth. Common CCCCXC Limosella 1436 L. aquatica, L., var. tenuifolia, Hoff. Not rare AGE CIS, WEL UM ETO 1437 L. Canadensis, Dumont. Common 1438 L. Elatine, Mill. Wethersfield — Charles Wright 1439 L. vulgaris, Mill. Common CCCCXCLIL Melampyrum 1440 M. lineare, Lam. Common CCCCXCIIT Micranthemum 1441 M. Nuttallii, Gray. Derby— Dr. Beardsley CCCCXCIV Mimucus 1442 M. alatus, Ait. Kensington—Cowles. East Hartford —Wetherby. Windsor — Driggs. Hartford — Clark 1443 M. ringens, L. Common 1444 M. Jamesii, T. & G. Kent— Miss Jennie T. Gregory CCCCXCV Pedicularis 1445 P. Canadensis, L. Common 1446 P. lanceolata, Michx. Common 1901. | 1447 P. 1448 P. 1449 P. 1450 P. 1451 R. 1452 S. 1453 S. 1454 V. 1455 V. 1456 V. 1457 V. 1458 V. 1459 V. 1460 V. 1461 V. 1462 V. 1463 V. 1464 V. 1465 U. 1466 U. 1467 U. 1468 U. 1469 U. 1470 U. 1471 U. 1472 U. 1473 C. 1474 E. 1475 O. 1476 P. 1477 P. LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 49 CCCCXCVI Pentstemon grandiflorus. Granby — Holcomb leevigatus, Solander. Generally distributed, not common levigatus, Sol., var. digitalis, Gray. Bridgeport, Hamden, and Milford — Eames pubescens, Solander. Frequent CCCCXCVIT: Rhinanthus crista-galli, L. Waterbury, Fair Haven, Milford, Stratford — Eames. Northfield —Harger. Milford — Setchell CCCCXCVIIL Scrophularia leporella, Bicknell. Waterford, Groton — Graves nodosa, L., var. Marylandica, Gray. Common CCCCXCIX Verbascum Blattaria, L. Frequent and increasing in frequency Thapsus, L. Common D_ Veronica Americana, Schweinitz. Common arvensis, L. A frequent escape Buxbaumii, Tenore. Oxford — Harger Chameedrys, L. New London, well established in one lawn — Graves officinalis, L. Common peregrina, L. Common scutellata, L. Common serphyllifolia, L. Common Virginica, L.7 Common ORDER 104. LENTIBULARIACEZ DI Utricularia clandestina, Nutt. Kensington— Coleman cornuta, Michx. Southington—Andrews. Bethany, Wood- bury — Harger gibba, L. Essex, Norwich, Shetucket river near Taftville, Lis- bon— Eames. Bridgeport, Fairfield—Eames. Milford, Bots- ford — Harger inflata, Walt. Bristol—Bishop. Niantic, Groton — Graves. Poquonnock, very abundant — Driggs intermedia, Hayne. Frequent, seldom fruiting minor, L. Hamden, New Haven — Eaton purpurea, Walt. Groton, East Lyme—Graves. Middlebury — Harger vulgaris, L. Not rare. ORDER 105. OROBANCHACEZ DII Conopholis Americana, Wallroth. Hamden, etc., Berzelius catalogue. Plain- ville — Bishop Dill Epiphegus Virginiana, Bart. Common DIV Orobanche uniflora, L. Frequent ORDER 106. PLANTAGINACE DV Plantago aristata, Michx. Becoming frequent decipiens, Barneoud. Common in, salt marshes. 4 50 1478 P. 1479 P. 1480 P. 1481 C. 1482 D. 1483 G. 1484 G. 1485 G. 1486 G. 1487 G. 1488 G, 1489 G. 1490 G, 149i G, 1492 G, 1493 G. 1494 G. 1495 H. 1496 H. 1497 M. 1498 D. 1499 L. 1500 L, rso1 L. 1502 L. 1503 L. 1504 L. 1505 L. 1506 L. 1507 S. 1508 S. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., lanceolata, L. Common major, L. Common Rugelii, Decaisne. Common ORDER 107. RUBIACE DVI Cephalanthus occidentalis, L. Common DVII Diodia teres, Walt. New Haven, possibly introduced. Abundant at Fairfield Beach, a few plants at Black Rock Beach — Eames. Bridgeport (rare) — C. K. Averill DVILI Galium Aparine, L. Common asprellum, Michx. Common boreale, L. Farmington— Miss Willard. Banks of Housatonic, abundant, Derby, and common, Oxford — Harger circeezans, Michx. Common Claytoni, Michx. Common lanceolatum, Torr. Common mollugo, L. Fairfield, Westport — Eames pilosum, Ait. Common tinctorium, L. Bridgeport, frequent — Eames tinctorium, L.; var. Labradoricum, Wiegand. Bridgeport, in- frequent — Eames triflorum, Michx. Common verum, L. Roadside, Plainville — Bishop DIX Houstonia cerulea, L, Common purpurea, L.; var. longifolia, Gray. East Lyme—Graves. Ox- ford, one plant — Harger DX Mitchella repens, L. Common ORDER 108. CAPRIFOLIACE DXI Diervitla trifida, Mcench. Common DXIT Linnea borealis, L. Milford, East Haven, Goshen, Cornwall, West Granby, Mt. Carmel DXI1I Lonicera cerulea, L. Plainville— Bishop. Colebrook— Dr. Beardsley. Granby, Torrington, Winsted, Stafford — Driggs caprifolium, L. Plainville, introduced — Bishop ciliata, Muhl. Norfolk—J. H. Barbour. Old Lyme (rare) — Graves. Gaylordsville (common)— Austin. Granby, Torring- ton, Winsted — Driggs glauca, Hill. Common Japonica, Thunb. Bridgeport, not rare—Eames. New Lon- don and Waterford, a frequent escape — Graves sempervirens. Ait. New Haven—Allen. Waterford, Lyme — Graves. South Windsor — Driggs Tatarica, L. Fairfield (rare) Eames DXIV Sambucus Canadensis, L. Common racemosa, L. Common in mountainous woods 19OT. | 1509 S. 1510S. rian he 1512 T. rises ied Be 1514 V. 1515 V. 1516 V. 1517 V. TSus: Ve I519 V. 1520 V. 1521 V. m522) Vis 1523 V. 1524 V, 1525 D. 1526 BE. 15279. m5281C: 1529 C. 1530 C. 1531 S. ie yh ILD 7533) lu: 1534 L. 1535 L. 1536 L. 1537 L. LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 51 DXV de eres has racemosus, Michx. Ledyard, Montville, a rare escape — Graves vulgaris, Michx. Escaped to roadsides at several points in Wa- terford, where it has become well established — Graves DXVI Triosteum angustifolium, L. Stratford, one plant in Milford — Eames aurantiacum, Bicknell. Fairfield, Kent—- Eames perfoliatum, L. Rather common DXVIT Viburnum acerifolium, L. Common alnifolium, March. Reported frequently, but is not frequent Cassinoides, L. Frequent dentatum, L. Common Lentago, L. Common nudum, L. Occasional in several stations Opulus, L. Frequent, especially in northern portions pubescens, Pursh. North Guilford, East Hartford, Mt. Carmel, Kent, seemingly not rare in northwest portions of the state — Eames prunifolium, L. Common ORDER ‘I09. VALERIANACE® DXVIII Valeriana edulis, Nutt. Bristol, Plainville— Bishop. Woodbridge — Car- rington officinalis, L. Darien — Miss A. E. Carpenter » ORDER 110. DIPsAcEa® DXIX Dipsacus sylvestris, Mill. Frequent ORDER III. CUCURBITACEA DXX kchinocystis lobata, T. & G. Becoming too frequent. DXXI Sicyos angulatus, L. Altogether too common ORDER 112. CAMPANULACEE DXXIT Campanula aparinoides, Pursh. Common rapunculoides, L. Frequent rotundifolia, L. Common . DXXITTIT Specularia perfoliata, A.& C. Common ORDER 113. LOBELIACE® DXXIV Lobelia cardinalis, L. Common Dortmanna, L. Locally frequent inflata, L. Common Kalmii, L. Salisbury, Norfolk—Dr. Beardsley. Mystic, New Milford, Gaylordsville—C, K. Averill syphilitica, L. Frequent spicata, Lam. Frequent 52 1538 A. 1539 A. 1540 A. T6441 A: 1542 A, 1543 A. 1544 A. 1545 A. 1546 A. 1547 A. 1548 A. 1549 A. 1550 A. 1551 A. 1552 A. 1553 A. 1554 A. 1555 A. 1556 A. 1557 A. 1558 A. 1559 A. 1560 A, 1561 A. 1562 A. 1563 A. 1564 A. 1565 A. 1566 A. 1567 A. 1568 A. 1569 A. 1570 A. 1571 A, 1572 A. 1573 A. 1574 A. 1575 A. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., ORDER 114. COMPOsITA DXXV_ Achillea millefolium, L. Common DXXVI Ambrosia artemisizefolium, L. Common trifida, L. Frequent trifida, L., var. integrifolia—T.&G. Bridgeport (infrequent) — Eames DXXVIT Anaphatlis margaritacea, Beuth & Hook. Common DXXVIIT Antennarta ambigens, Fernald. Bridgeport (infrequent) Eames. Groton — Graves neglecta, Greene. New London (common)— Graves. Thomp- son— Roland M. Harper. New Haven—M. L. Fernald neodioica, Greene. New London (frequent) — Graves. Parlinii, Fernald. Woodstock— Roland M. Harper Parlinii, Fernald (var. arnoglossa)—- Fernald. New Haven— M. L. Fernald plantaginea, R. Br. Common plantaginea, R Br. (var. petiolata)— Fernald DXXIX Anthemis Cotula, D. C. Common DXXX Arctium Lappa, L. Infrequent minus, Bernh. Common DXXXI Artemtsia annua, L. Bridgeport — Eames caudata, Michx. Common on the coast Stelleriana, Bess. Sandy beaches, N. London, Groton — Graves vulgaris, L. Southbury — Prudden. New Haven— Dr. A. P. Monson. Norwich, New London (rare) — Graves DXXXIT Aster acuminatus, Michx. Frequent , concinnus, Willd. Meriden — Andrews concolor, L. Berlin — Coleman cordifolius, L. Common. cordifolius, L. (var. cordifolius)— Porter. Bridgeport — Eames cordifolius, L. (var. lanceolatus)— Porter. Bridgeport — Eames diffusus, Ait. Oxford (common everywhere)—Harger. Meriden Andrews divaricatus, L. Common dumosus, L. Groton, Stonington (frequent) — Graves. ericoides, L. Common Herveyi, Gray. Groton (very rare)— Graves. Bridgeport, Strat- ford — Eames infirmus, Michx. Frequent leevis, L. Common in several forms lateriflorus, Britton (var. glomerellus)— Burgess. Bridgeport (in- frequent) — Eames linariifolius, L. Common macrophyllus, L. Rather common, macrophyllus, L. (var. pinguifolius)— Burgess. Bridgeport — Eames multiformis, Burgess. Coast —H. S. Clark multiflorus, Ait. Common. 1901. ] 1576 A. 1577 A. yf 1579 A. 1580 A. 1581 A. 1582 A. 1583 A. 1584 A. 1585 A. 1586 A. 1587 A. 1588 A. 1589 A. 15go A. 1591 A. 1592 A. 1593 A. 1594 A. 1595 A. 1596 A. 1597 B. 1598 B. 1599 B. 1600 B. 1601 B. 1602 B. 1603 B. 1604 B. 1605 B. 1606 B. 1607 B. 1608 C. 1609 C. 1610 C. T6rL-C. LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 53 Nove-Angliz, L. Common. Nove-Belgii, L. Common, especially in southern portions of the state. paniculatus, Lam. Common. paniculatus, Lam. (var. simplex)— Burgess. Along the coast — H. S. Clark patens, Ait. Common prenanthoides, Muhl. Norwalk— Morris. Bridgeport— Eames puniceus, L. Common puniceus, L. (var. compactus)— Fernald. Bridgeport (infre- quent) — Eames puniceus, L. (var. demissus)— Lindley. Bridgeport (infrequent) — Eames Radula, Ait. Pine Rock, Hamden sagittifolius, Willd. Waterbury—H. F. Bassett. Bridgeport (rare) — Eames salicifolius, Ait. Norwich (rare), New London — Graves spectabilis, Ait. Groton (very rare) — Graves subulatus, Michx, Common tardiflorus, L. East Hartford (very rare)—C. A. Weatherby. tenuifolius, L. Common Tradescanti, L. Norwich— Mrs. Rogers. East Hartford — Driggs. Berzelius catalogue gives this species as common, It certainly occurs frequently umbellatus, Mill. Old Saybrook — Miss Sara E. Sill. Norwich —Mrs. Rogers. Meriden—Andrews. Plainville — Bishop (frequent) undulatus, L. Common vimineus, Lam. Common vimineus, Lam. (var. foliosus)—-Gray. Bridgeport (infrequent) — Eames DXXXITT Baccharis halimifolia, L. East Haven—Harger. Many places about Ce- dar Creek, Bridgeport—Eames. New London— Miss Mary L. Crofton DXXXIV Bidens Beckii, Torr. Monroe— Morris. Plainville (frequent in ‘‘ Ham- lin’s Pond”)— Bishop. Lyme — Graves bipinnata, L. Frequent cernua, L. Common cernua, L. (var. elliptica)—- Wiegand. New London (not rare) — Graves chrysanthemoides, Michx. Common comosa, Wiegand. Waterford, Franklin (frequent)— Graves. Bridgeport (infrequent) — Eames discoidea, Britton. Frequent frondosa, L. Common trichosperma, Britton. Norwich — Mrs. Rogers vulgata, Greene. Bridgeport (frequent), Waterford, and proba- bly elsewhere — Graves DXXXV_ Cacalia suaveolens, L. Connecticut —Gray’s Manual DXXXVI Centaurea Cyanus, L. Escaped (rare). Seymour — Harger Jacea, L. Southington — Andrews nigra, L. New London, East Hartford, Waterbury — Mrs. C. H. Lyman 54 1612 C. Tors GC, 1614 C. rors iC. TOLONG. 1617 C, 1618 C. 1619 C. 1620 C. 1621 C. 1622 C. 1623 C. 1624 C. 1625 C. 1626 C. 1627 C, 1628 C, 1629 E. 1630 E. 1631 E. 1632 E. 1633 E. 1634 E. 1635 E. 1636 E. 1637 E. 1638 E. 1639 E. 1640 E. 1641 E. 1642 E. 1643 G. 1644 G. 1645 G. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan., DXXXVIT Chrysanthemum Balsamita, L. Wilton— Miss A. E. Carpenter. Oxford (road- side, two localities) — Harger Balsamita, L. (var. tenectoides) Southington— Andrews. Ox- ford — Harger Leucanthemum, L. Common Parthenium, Pers. An occasional escape DXXXVITI Chrysopsis falcata. Ell. Bridgeport, Fairfield beach—Eames. Milford — - Harger mariana, Nutt. Niantic — James Shepard DXXXIX Cichorium Intybus, L. Becoming too common DXL_ Coreopsis lanceolata, L. Southington, escaped — Bishop rosea, Nutt. Jewett City — E. F. Burlenson tinctoria, Nutt. Bridgeport (rare) — Eames DXLI Cnicus altissimus, Willd.; var. discolor, Gray. Hartford, brackish marshes, not rare. Common along the Housatonic river — Harger arvensis, Hoffm. ‘Too common horridulus, Pursh. East Haven, Berlin, New London — Graves. Frequent near the salt meadows lanceolatus, Hoffm. Common muticus, Pursh. Common pumilus, Torr. Common DXLIIT Crepis tectorum, L. North Stonington, ‘‘a whole field full of it” — Mrs. Rogers DXLITI Evrechtites hieracifolia, Raf. Common DXLIV Erigeron annuus, Pers. Frequent bellidifolius, Muhl. Common Canadensis, L. Common Philadelphicus, L. Frequent strigosus, Muhl. Common DXLV Eupatorium ageratoides, L. Common aromaticum, L. Common hyssopifolium, L. Old Saybrook, Lyme (rare)— Graves. Or- ange— Harger. Bridgeport, local— Eames perfoliatum, L. Common purpureum, L. Common purpureum, L.; maculatum, Darl. New London, frequent — Graves pubescens, Muhl. Waterford (rare)— Graves sessilifolium, L. Frequent DXLVI Galinsoga parviflora, Cab. New Britain—J. Shepard. Streets of New London, common—Graves. Streets, Bridgeport — Eames. Common, New Haven, Seymour, Middlebury — Harger DXELVIL Gnaphalium decurrens, Ives. Common polycephalum, Michx. Common 1901. | 1646 G. 1647 G. 1648 H. 1649 H. 1650 H. 1651 H. 1652 H. 1653 H. 1654 H. 1655 H. 1656 H. 1657 H. 1658 H. 1659 H. 1660 H. 1661 H. 1662 H. 1663 H. 1664 H. 1665 H. 1666 H. 1667 H. 1668 H. 1669 H. LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. 55 purpureum, L. Waterford, Groton, East Haddam, East Lyme, not rare — Graves uliginosum, L. Common DXLVIII Helenium autumnale, L. Common autumnale, L.; var. grandiflorum, Hart. Hartford — Prof. J. H. Barbour DXLIX Helianthus angustifolius, L. Canaan annuus, L. Frequently escaped decapetalus, L. Frequent divaricatus, L. Common doronicoides, Lam. Plainville— Bishop giganteus, L. Common grosse-serratus, Martens. Oxford — Harger rigidus, Desf. Oxford — Harger scabra. Oxford — Harger strumosus, L., Common tuberosus, L. A common escape DL Heliwopsts scabra, Dunal. Oxford—Harger. Portland—Dr, Emma J. Thompson DLI Hteractum aurantiacum, L. Becoming frequent Canadense, Michx. Common Gronovii, L. Frequent marianum, Willd. Huntington (rare)— Eames paniculatum, L. Common pratense, Tausch. Burlington— Bishop and Clark scabrum, Michx. Common venosum, L. Common DLIT Inula 1670 I. Helenium, L. Common DETTE WEE 1671 I. frutescens, L. Salt marshes, common 1672 K. 1673 K. 1674 L. 1675 L. 1676 L. 1677 L. 1678 L. 1679 L. 1680 L. 1681 L. 1682 L. 1683 M. 1684 O. DELIV Krigia amplexicaulis, Nutt. Connecticut, Gray’s Manual Virginica, Willd. Common DLV Lactuca Canadensis, L. Common hirsuta, Muhl. East Hartford — Driggs. Fairfield (rare) Eames. Oxford (scarce) — Harger integrifolia, Bigel. Frequent leucophza, Gray. Frequent Scariola, L. New Haven— Harger, Bishop DLVI Lepachys pinnata, T. & G. Oxford, ten flowering stalks — Harger DLVII Liatris cylindracea, Michx. Waterbury —H. F. Bassett scariosa, Willd. Frequent squarrosa, Willd. Waterbury —H. F. Bassett DLVIII Mtkania scandens, L. Frequent DLIX Onopordon Acanthium, L. East Haven, Waterford, Stonington, Ledyard (rare)—Graves. Norwich— Mrs. Rogers 56 1685 P, 1686 P. 1687 P. 1688 P. 1689 P. 1690 P. 1691 P. 1692 R. 1693 R. 1694 R. 1695 S. 1696 S. 1697 S. 1698 S. 1699 S. 1700 S. 1701 S. 1702 S. 1703 S. 1704 8S. 1705 5. 1706 S. 1707 S. 1708 S. 1709 S. 1710 S. 1711 S. T7129: 1713 9. 1714S. 1715 S. 1716S. 1717 S. 1718 S. 1719 8. 1720 S. 7 2TRSs 1722 S. 1723 S. 1724 S. 1725 8. 1726 S. 37 fle Pte 1728 S. CONNECTICUT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [ Jan., LDIEXG SLOT ES hieracioides, L. Southington, abundant in one field — Andrews DLXI Pluchea : camphorata, D. C. Salt marshes, common DLXII Polymnia Canadensis, L. Connecticut, Gray’s Manual DLXIII Prenanthes alba, L. Common altissima, L. Common serpentaria, Pursh. Common trifoliolata, Fernald. Bridgeport, frequent— Eames. Hartford, frequent — Driggs DLXIV Rudbeckia hirta, L. Too common laciniata, L. Common triloba, L. East Haven — Robert Veitch DLXV Senecio aureus, L. Common Balsamitze, Muhl. Norfolk— Prof. Barber. East Hartford obovatus, Muhl. Common in Southington— Andrews. Bridge- port, frequent — Eames vulgaris, L. Rare DLXVI Seriocarpus conyzoides, Nees. Common solidagineus, Nees. Frequent DLXVII Solidago arguta, Ait. Frequent asperula, Desf. Groton, Old Lyme, near shore — Graves bicolor, L. Common bicolor, L.; var. concolor, T. & G. Waterford — Graves ceesia, L. Common Canadensis, L. Common Elliottii, T. & G. Waterford—Graves. Glastonbury — Driggs juncea, Ait. Common lanceolata, L. Common latifolia, L. Common Muhlenbergii, T. & G. Common, Berzelius catalogue neglecta, T. & G. Common nemoralis, Ait. Common odora, Ait. Frequent patula, Muhl. Common puberula, Nutt. Common rigida, L. Madison, Orange Hall, Monroe — Dr. Beardsley. East Haven— Veitch. Rare rugosa, Mill. Common sempervirens, L. Common in salt marshes serotina, Ait. Common speciosa, Nutt. Frequent squarrosa, Muhl. Frequent tenuifolia, Pursh. Common uliginosa, Nutt. Norwich— Mrs. Rogers ulmifolia, Muhl. Common DILXVITI Sonchus arvensis, L. Preston, New London, Montville — Graves asper, Vill. Common oleraceus, L. Common I90I.] LIST OF UNCULTIVATED PLANTS. ry DLXIX Tanacetum 1729 T. vulgare, L. Roadsides, common 1730 T. vulgare, L.; var. crispum, D.C, Frequent DLXX Taraxacum 1731 T. officinale, Weber. Common DLXXI Tragopogon 1732 T. porrifolius, L. Southington— Andrews. Bristol, Plainville — Bishop 1733 T. pratensis, L. Norfolk, Norwich— Mrs. Rogers DLXXII Tusstlago 1734 T. Farfara, L. Canaan, Granby — Driggs. Windsor—Clark. Bris- tol, Plainville— Bishop. Meriden, Mt. Carmel, Oxford — Harger DLXXITI Vernonia 1735 V. Noveboracensis, Willd. Common DLXXIV Xanthium 1736 X. Canadense, Mill. Bridgeport, frequent — Eames 1737 X. Canadense, Mill. (var. echinatum)— Gray. New Haven — Patton. East Hartford— Driggs. Bridgeport (frequent) — Eames 1738 X. spinosum, L. New London—Graves. Bridgeport (rare) — Eames 1739 X. strumarium, L. Common. List of Orders — Pteridophytes, Orders 6, Genera XXII, Species 68 Spermatophyta, Orders 109, Genera DLV, Species 1674 Total Orders, 115; total Genera, DLXXVII; total species, 1743 ERRATUM For Carex straminea (var. festucacea) — Tuck., read C. festucacea — Willd. For Carex languinosa, Michx., read C. filiformis, L. (var. latifolia) — Boeckl. For Carex lupuliformis, Sartwell, read C. lupulina (var. polystachya) —Schw. & Torr. Erase Stachys cordata, Riddell, reported by Mr. Oscar Harger. It proves a wrong determination. ADD ORDER PoDOSTEMACE Podostemon P. ceratophyllus, Michx. Killingworth— Dr. Hall. Oxford (com- mon) — Harger Sueda S. linearis, Mog. Frequent on the coast. S. maritima, Dumort. Common on the coast Ly godium L. palmatum, Swtz. Frequently common in central Connecticut Lris I, pseudacorus, L. Norwich, two localities— Mrs. Rogers va Sp Sit 3 5185 00258 5550 een a v4) Fs a e Se + pares M7: