UMAbS/AMMtM&l 312Dbb DEflS lb32 D 5 :' I ! { R^ 11 ^^ ' 1 iJw ■ 1 Ullfi i'M^ i I ■I c Public Document No. 4 FIFTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL KEPORT OF THE SECRETARY OP THE MASSACHUSETTS State Board of Agriculture. TOGETHER WITH THE TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1910 BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTEE FEINTING CO., STATE PEINTEES, 18 Post Office Square. 1911. Approved by The State Board of Publication. TABLE OF CONTENTS. State Board of Agriculture, 1911, .... Report of the Secretary, ..... Summary of Crop Conditions, 1910, Public Winter Meeting of the Board at Northampton, Address of Welcome by His Honor Mayor Calvin Coolidge Response for the Board by Secretary Ellsworth, Lecture: New England Pastures. By Mr. J. S. Cotton, Lecture: The Production of Market Milk. By Mr. A. J. Pier- pont, ........ Lecture: The Food Value of Clean Milk; the demand for Clean Milk; the Reasonableness of it. By Prof. R. M. Washburn, Lecture: Farm Management. By Hon. N. P. Hull, Lecture: Harvesting and Curing Cigar Wrapper Tobacco. By Dr. W. W. Garner, Summer Field Meeting of the Board at Amherst, Lecture: Corn Growing in New England. By Prof. L. A Clinton, . . Essay: Corn Selection for Seed and for Show. By Prof. W'illiam D. Hurd, Essay: Growing and Marketing Asparagus. By Mr. Frank Wheeler, ......... Essay: Alfalfa as a Crop in Massachusetts. By Prof. William P Brooks, ......... Essay: Celery Growing, Storing, and Marketing. By Mr Henry M. Howard, Essay: Quince Culture. By Prof. F. C. Sears, Essay: Grape Culture. By Mr. Edward R. Farrar, Ninth Annual Report of the State Nursery Inspector, Third Annual Report of the State Ornithologist, First Annual Report of the State Inspector of Apiaries, Twentieth Annual Report of the State Dairy Bureau, Seventh Annual Report of the State Forester, . Eighteenth Semiannual Report of the Chief of the Cattle Bureau Returns of the Agricultural Societies, .... Agricultural Directory, ....... Index, .......... PAGE V vii XXX 1 3 5 7 24 47 64 75 95 98 113 121 127 136 143 151 157 165 199 219 243 297 323 333 357 State Boakd of Agricultuke, 1911. Members ex Officio. His Excellency EUGENE N. FOSS. His Honou LOUIS A. FROTHINGHAM. Hon. WM. M. OLIN, Secretary of the Commonweallh. KENYON L. BUTTERFIELD, LL.D., President Massachusetts Agricultural College. FREDERICK F. WALKER, Chief of the Cattle Bureau. F. WM. RANE, B. Aon., M.S., State Forester. J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH, Secretary of the Board. Members appointed by the Governor and Council. Term expires CHARLES E. WARD ' of Bucklarid 1911 HENRY M. HOWARD of West Newton 1912 CHARLES M. GARDNER of Weetfield 1913 Members chosen Amesbury and Salishiiry (Agricul- tural and Horticultural), Barnstable County, Blackslone Valley, Deerfield Valley, Eastern Hampden, Essex, Franklin County, Hampshire, Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden, Highland, ..... Hillside, ...... Hingham {Agricultural and' Horti- cultural), . . . . . Hoosac Valley, ..... Housatonic, . . . . . Lenox Horticultural, .... Marshfield {Agricultural and Hort'l), Martha's Vineyard, .... Massachusetts Horticultural, Massachu.setts Society for Promoting Agriculture, . . . . . Middlesex North, . . . . Middlesex South, .... Nantucket, . . . . . Oxford Plymouth County, .... Spencer {Farmers' and Mech's .\ss'n). Union {Agricultural and Hort'l), Weymouth {Agricultural and Ind'l), . by the Incorporated Societies. J. J. MASON of Amesbury, . JOHN BURSLEY of West Barnstable, JACOB A. WILLIAMS of Northbridge ERNEST W. PAYNE of Heath, . O. E. BRADWAY of Monson, FREDERICK A. RUSSELL of Methuen, CHARLES P. ALDRICH of Greenfield, HOWARD A. PARSONS of Amhenst (P. O North Amherst), FRANK P. NEWKIRK of Eastliampton, JOHN T. BRYAN of Middlefield (P. O Chester, R. F. D.), .... HARRY A. FORD of Windsor, HENRY A. TURNER of Norwcll, L. J. NORTHUP of Cheshire, N. B. TURNER of Great Barrington (P. O Housatonic), ...... ALFRED H. WINGETT of Lenox, WALTER H. FAUNCE of Kingston, . J.VMES F. ADAMS of West Tisbury, WILFRID WHEELER of Concord. N. I. BOWDITCH of Framingliam, GEO. W. TRULL of Tewksbury (P. O. Lowell R. F. D.) Worcester, ...... Worcester East, ..... Worcester Northwest {.Agricultural and Mechanical), ..... Worcester South, .... yVorcester County West, JOHN J. ERWIN of Wayland, JOHN S. APPLETON of Nantucket, . WALTER A. LOVETT of Oxford, . AUGUSTUS PRATT of Middleborough (P. O North Middleborough), .... WALTER C. BEMIS of Spencer, . SYLVESTER H. PEEBLES of Blandford, THE RON L. TIRRELL of Weymouth (P. O South Weymouth) B. W. POTTER of Worcester, . GEO. F. MORSE of Lancaster, ALBERT ELLSWORTH of Athol, WILLIAM E. PATRICK of Warren, JOHN L. SMITH of Barre, . 1912 1913 1912 1914 1912 1914 1913 1913 1912 1914 1914 1912 1912 1912 1914 1912 1913 1912 1912 1914 1914 1912 1913 1914 1913 1913 1912 1914 1912 1913 1913 1914 1 Successor not yet appointed. ®l)c ^Dtnmonrucaltl) of iilassacliuscto. THE FIFTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL EEPORT SECRETARY State Board op Ageicultuee. To the Senate and Rouse of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. During the past year there has been a remarkable devel- opment in relation to agricultnre in the New England States, atfecting that of Massachusetts probably more immediately and to a greater degree than that of the other States because of her superior markets and railroad facilities. I refer to the boom in agriculture and agricultural property in ISTew England which has been fostered by the popular magazines and periodicals, and which has also engaged the attention of business men and capitalists. With the taking up of the free lands in the west, and the consequent cutting oif of the supply of cheap lands in that part of the country, the atten- tion of the public has been turned toward the east, and the lesson has been impressed upon it that here in ISTew England, with, the finest and most accessible markets in the country, there are greater opportunities for investment in agricultural property and for profitable de^'elopment of farming opera- tions than in the more newly settled regions. This has led to a great many inquiries as to farm property, to a close study of scientific farm methods, with a view to possible profitable operations, all of which has caused a general hardening in values of farm property. What the ultimate result will be viii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. cannot as yet be foretold, but it is my belief tbat we may reasonably look to a permanent increase in values, to an increased efficiency in our agriculture, and, because of tbese factors, to a more bopeful feeling and greater expectation of profit on the part of our farming population. That such an outlook is valuable cannot be gainsaid; in the world we are very apt to achieve, in a general way, what we expect to achieve, and one of the greatest handicaps under which agriculture in jSTew England has suffered in the past twenty years has been the general pessimistic attitude of the ma- jority of those engaged in it. This the present more hope- ful feeling should, and undoubtedly will, do much to expel. Another indication of this general upward movement in agricultural conditions in ITew England is the holding of expositions and fostering interest in certain crops and classes of crops, such as the E'ew England Fruit Show of 1909 and the New England Corn Exposition of the past year. The former showed the public and the fruit growers of New England that we could produce as fine looking fruit as that of the west, the quality having long been admitted to be superior, and the latter that it was possible to establish world's records for yield of corn per acre in Massachusetts, in spite of the supposed superiority of western lands and methods for this crop. These expositions should be repeated in future years and others held covering other crops and products, so that we may know our own possibilities in as many lines as possible, and also demonstrate them to others. From the standpoint of the business farmer the year has generally been very satisfactory. The effect of the third successive year of drought was more apparent upon wells, springs, streams and ponds than upon growing crops, as timely showers brought most crops through the season with surprisingly little damage. The rains of the early season, while not giving many inches of precipitation, nevertheless resulted in an excellent hay crop. The corn crop was re- markably good, both for grain and stover, and was secured without damage from frost, while other grain crops were at least average. For these reasons, together with generally satisfactory prices, the dairymen had a prosperous year, and No. 4.] RErORT OF SECRETARY. ix came to the winter with well-filled barns and full stocks of cattle. Pastures suffered from drought, and many farmers fed both grain and hay at the barn during the summer months, thus reducing the profits of the business somewhat, as well as the stocks of hay for winter use. Grain and hay continue high iu price, though grain has receded a trifle from its highest level, and dairymen should endeavor to raise as much as possible for their own use. The increasing diffi- culty in securing good cows leads to the suggestion that profit in dairying will soon come to depend on judicious breeding of dairy stock. Many dairymen could doubtless profitably cut down their total j)roduction and give more attention to the raising of their own stock and the production of their own feeds. A good profit on a small volume of product is to be preferred to a small or vanishing profit on a large volume. The ajDple crop, though not heavy in yield, was one of the best of recent years in quality. More farmers sprayed their fruit trees than ever before and the result was an increased ]iercentage of JSTo. 1 fruit. Unsprayed fruit was also better than usual, but not to be compared with that secured where intelligent spraying was followed. The demand for New England fruit of good quality was greater than ever before, and it seems likely that the public is convinced of its superi- ority to a greater extent than we have commonly supposed. It remains for the farmers and fruit growers to hold and in- crease this demand by producing the grade of goods that is called for. The officials of the Boston & Maine Railroad report that many carloads of New England apples were sent to the middle west, where they competed successfully with those from the far west and commanded much higher prices than the native apples. This shows what may be done in the way of invading the markets of other sections, but for the present we would better bend our energies to recapturing and holding our home market, our most valuable possession and one too long neglected. Market gardeners generally had a good year, though some crops, such as celery, were very short in many sections. Prices have been good as a rule and the demand well sus- X BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. tained. Onions were a light crop, but brought good prices. Tobacco was a very good crop, with prices, as far as known, about normal. Cranberries were a light to medium crop, with the berries small. Poultry and eggs brought good prices throughout the year, and the stock of poultry kept on farms and by small poultry keepers was generally increased. Legislation of 1910. The recommendations of this Board for legislation fared well at the last session, taken as a whole. As a result of the work of the year a law was enacted relieving the milk pro- ducer from prosecution when he innocently has below-stand- ard milk in his possession, and giving him twenty days in which to bring his milk to the legal standard, thus protect- ing the consumer as well. With the standard law in force, so far as milk in the hands of dealers is concerned, the pub- lic is protected against possible fraud on their part and the farmer against the unfair competition resulting from such fraud. The law as at present relieves the innocent milk producer of the element of criminality that formed so strong an objection to the milk standard law as previously inter- preted and enforced. It has accomplished all that was hoped for it, and seems to offer a reasonable solution of the problem which has proved so vexatious in recent years. Since its enactment no milk producer has been convicted of selling below-standard milk, and the interests of the public have not suffered, as the farmers have sho^vll themselves ready to bring their milk to the standard in every case where they have been notiffed that it is below standard. Other legislation relative to agricultural interests, recom- mended by this Board and enacted into law, includes the fol- lowing: an act relative to wild deer, an act relative to State inspection of apiaries, an act providing for a special report on game birds, and an act making an appropriation for the encouragement of orcharding. These will be taken up under their proper headings and need no further comment at this time. No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xi Milk Legislation. Although the milk standard law would seem to be satis- factorily solved, for the present, at least, and fm'ther agita- tion in relation to it is to be ill timed, there remains one phase of the business on which legislation would seem to be in order at this session of the Legislature. As is well known, there is a determined effort in the making, backed by power- ful interests, to have State-wide inspection of milk produc- tion, under the control and at the expense of the Common- wealth. Such inspection has some advantages from the standpoint of both the consumer and the producer, but in any form hitherto proposed is open to certain objections which more than nullify its good features. On the one hand, it must stop at the State line, and thus discriminates against the Massachusetts producer, placing burdens upon him to which his competitors in other States are not subjected, and at the same time inadequately protects the consumer, as it leaves by far the greater part of the milk supply of Boston, at least, uninspected as to conditions of production. On the other hand, it imposes an undue burden on the producer by obliging him to help defray the bills incurred in inspecting him. It is manifestly unfair to tax the town of Petersham, for instance, to help pay for inspection of milk for the pro- tection of the people of Boston. Such a proposition catches the farmer coming and going, making it more expensive for him to produce milk and compelling him to pay for the work of making it more expensive. I do not wish to be understood as opposing proper inspection of milk produc- tion ; I simply seek some method of inspection that shall be fair to all. To my mind the best solution for the producer and consumer alike lies along the line of legislation to allow the boards of health of cities and towns to inspect the dairies that produce the milk consumed in the said cities and towns, and to forbid its sale without such inspection. It may be objected that this is impossible of accomplishment in the metropolitan district, but it has been practically accomplished in some instances, certain dairies being already set aside to furnish the supply for certain towns. This step accom- xii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. plished their inspection becomes a simple matter. Such a plan will afford the degree of protection desired by the sev- eral cities and towns, and also relieve the farming communi- ties of any additional burden of taxation for the purpose, I would recommend, therefore, that the Board submit to the Leo^islature a bill authorizing boards of health of cities and towns to issue permits for all milk or cream received, held, kept, offered for sale or sold in said cities and towns, subject to such conditions as they may make, and to forbid the sale of any milk or cream produced, transported or kept under conditions not approved by the said boards of health. Work of the Office. During the year the work of the office has increased re- markably. We had many plans for work, such as rearrang- ing and classifying the library, which we have been obliged to put over to some later time. This increase is due to a variety of causes, chief among them the wakening to the possibilities of New England agriculture, previously noticed, and the consequent demand for information, by publications or otherwise. In addition, our list of publications available for distribution has been increased, and we have taken con- siderable pains to acquaint the public with its contents. The policy of the office for the past year and more has been to answer every request, except those for a specified bulletin or publication, with a personal letter, and to go to all possible pains to obtain information for correspondents. That this policy is appreciated by the public we are well assured. Within a few days we have had on one mail no less than six letters thanking us for publications sent or information given. Careful work of this kind makes more work, as it encourages additional queries, but the citizens of Massachusetts are en- titled to it at our hands, and we are glad to extend the same courtesy to those of other States. The office library is in bad condition, containing many sets and parts of sets of bulletins and other publications which should be completed and bound, or othenvise disposed of. Many of the books and pamphlets are of no use to us, either because in foreign languages or for other reasons, and No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xiii it is our purpose to send these to the Massachusetts Agricul- tural College, or to some other institution where they may- be of service. The library should be rearranged and card, catalogued, so that additions may be easily entered up. Also, the correspondence and other office work seems likely to grow beyoud possible management by the present clerical force. An interesting comparison is offered by the amounts ex- pended for postage and for printing during the years 1905 and 1910. The former gauges the amount of correspondence and the amount of bulletins, leaflets, etc., sent out by mail. In 1005 the Board expended for this purpose the sum of $329, and in 1910 that of $G17.43. The amount expended for printed matter gauges the demand for our publications and our effort to meet it. In 1905 the Board expended for this purpose the sum of $1,023.42, and in 1910 that of $1,005.94. In addition, we were obliged to carry over bills for this purpose amounting to between $400 and $500, which could not be paid out of the appropriations for 1910. We have been obliged, during the past year, to employ consid- erable help from time to time for addressing, mailing, sten- ographic work, typewriting and multigraph work. This has been paid for from the appropriations for other clerical assistance and lectures before the Board, for the expenses of the State Ornithologist and that of the Dairy Bureau. These matters could all be handled in this office if we had a stenographer permanently in employment, and the office work so lightened that the matters above referred to could be taken up and disposed of. For these reasons I would recommend that the Board pre- sent to the Legislature a bill calling for an increase of the appropriation for extra clerical assistance and lectures be- fore the Board from $800 to $1000 per annum, so that a stenographer can be regularly employed. Wild Deer. The nuisance caused by the presence of wild deer in the State, and the great menace they form to young orchards, market gardens, nurseries and farm crops, has been pointed out too often to need repetition at this time. The agitation xiv BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. for their regulation, begun by your secretary several years ago, resulted last year in a very satisfactory law, allowing the farmer to kill them in his orchards or crops, with any weapon at hand, and also allowing a short open season in the five western counties, when they could be hunted with shot guns. Something like 2,000 deer were killed during the year by farmers and hunters, without a single fatality to human being's. The Commissioners on Fisheries and Game last year estimated, at my request, the number of deer in the State at about 8,000, and their annual rate of increase at about 40 per cent, so it will be seen that those killed were less than the natural increase. Thus the relief secured is not as great as it would appear on first consideration. There will undoubtedly be a protest against another open season. Sentimentalists will urge that the deer form a pleasing fea- ture of the landscape and should be protected at all times, but it is better for the community at large that they be kept within reasonable numbers, rather than that they be allowed to increase without check, and ravage our orchards and fields to the great detriment of agriculture. A business with an an- nual output of upwards of seventy millions of dollars deserves consideration before a mere sentiment. It will also be urged that it is cruel to allow them to be wounded with shot guns, in many instances to die in the woods, and this is to be re- gretted, but it is better that a few deer die in this manner rather than that one human being should be killed by the rifle in the hands of a deer hunter. Changes in the Board. The changes in the membership of the Board during the year came about entirely through the expirations of the terms of various members. Members retiring because of expira- tion of terms of service are: Dr. Austin Peters, formerly Chief of the Cattle Bureau, after eight years of service ; Wm. B. Avery of the Deerfield Valley Agricultural Society, after three years of service ; Henry S. Pease of the Highland Agri- cultural Society, after six years of service ; W. A. Harlow of the Hillside Agricultural Society, after three years of service, and Isaac Damon of the Middlesex South Agricul- tural Society, after eighteen years of service. No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xv Meetings of the Boaed. The Board held its annual summer field meeting at the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, on June 23, 1910. The means and methods of spraying, grass culture and alfalfa growing, swine growing and management, and the making of certified milk, were demonstrated. Prof. L. A. Clinton of Connecticut gave an interesting lecture on corn growing. The attendance was large. The second demonstration meeting was held at Ponkapoag Pond, in Canton, on August 18, 1910, with demonstrations of handling and hiving bees and combating foul brood in bees, also of budding, grafting and pruning fruit trees. The meeting was held for the people of the immediate section and was well attended. The public winter meeting of the Board was held at North- ampton, with the Hampshire, Franklin and Ilampdcn Agri- cultural Society. The programme was a strong one, the attendance large, and the interest in the lectures unusually keen. The Northampton Board of Trade gave a reception to the Board at the Draper Hotel on the evening of Wednes- day, December 7. The lectures delivered, and selections from the discussions, will be printed in the annual volume. The annual business meeting of the Board was held at Boston, on Jan. 10 and 11, 1910, and special business meet- ings were held at Amherst and Northampton, in connection with the summer and winter meetings. Agricultural Societies. The agricultural societies generally held fine exhibitions and enjoyed a prosperous year. The attendance was good and only a few suffered from bad weather, most of these being able to make receipts equal expenses. The competi- tion and interest in the agricultural exhibits at these fairs are certainly increasing. Attend any fair with which you were familiar in the past and you will find many more people looking over the stock and the hall exhibits, and a smaller proportion of the crowd gathered around the stage and other attractions. This increases the educational value of the fairs xvi BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. to a considerable degi^ee, and makes tbem well wortbj of support from the Commonwealth. The inspectors report that the societies are generally prosperous, with good grounds and buildings, and their criticisms are of details of manage- ment rather than of the general tendencies of the fairs. ISTo objectionable features were noticed by the inspectors. The societies generally responded to the request of the Board for assistance for the ISTew England Corn Exposition, the greater part contributing sums ranging from $15 to $250. The Worcester Agricultural Society also gave the use of its grounds and buildings without charge. Altogether cash con- tributions to the amount of upwards of a thousand dollars were made by the societies. Without these contributions it would have been impossible for the exposition to have come out with all bills paid, and the societies are entitled to a great deal of credit for its success. I would recommend that the Board make the same request for assistance for the benefit of the New England Fruit Show, if it shall hold an exhibition during the current year. Farmers' Institutes. The institute work has been carried on along the usual lines and with the usual success. One hundred and forty meetings have been held during the year, with 198 sessions. All the societies held 3 or more meetings, except the Hoosac Valley and Oxford societies, which asked and received per- mission to hold but 2. Nine societies held 4 or more insti- tutes, and 24 meetings were given to organizations other than incorporated agricultural societies. The attendance for the year shows a falling off, the average being but 110, as against 137 last year. 111 in 1908, 118 in 1907, 127 in 1906, 125 in 1905, and figures ranging from 94 in 1899 to 109 in 1904, for previous years. The falling off is accounted for in the main by bad weather at a time when a large number of insti- tutes were held, rain and warm weather following the heavy snows of early winter and making the roads impassable for any distance. These accidents cannot be guarded against, but probably such a general condition will not occur again for several years to come. No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xvii A circuit has been arranged for Prof. R. M. Washburn of Vermont, for the week of February 27 to March 4. Dr. Geo. M. Twitchell will again make Boston his place of resi- dence during February and the first two weeks of March, and will be available at any time during that period. The list of speakers was carefully revised by the committee on institutes and public meetings and is now stronger than ever. We shall be glad to advise with institute managers in regard to speakers and subjects suited for their special needs. We consider the advertising of these meetings of special importance, and shall be glad to assist in any way. Your secretary attended the annual meeting of the Amer- ican Association of F^armers' Institute Workers, at Wash- ington, D. C, early in K'ovember, and derived much profit from the meeting. A new feature of the work was an institute for women, held at Lowell in December of this year, with women speak- ers. The meeting was a very interesting one, but I feel bound to say that I was disappointed in one respect, in that there were more men than women in the audience. It is m.y intention to continue this line of work to a certain extent, until it is demonstrated whether there is a demand for it in Massachusetts. Owing to the demands on our appropriation for " the dis- semination of useful information in agriculture," in the way of bulletins, we were obliged to carry over bills to be paid from the appropriation for 1911. This will necessitate a cutting dowm of the work, either in publication or in insti- tutes, or both, daring the coming year, unless an increase is granted by the Legislature. This being an appropriation where the sum is not fixed by statute I have included an in- crease of $1,000 in my estimates for the year. It will not be necessary to present a bill to the Legislature, but I would recommend that the Board instruct its committee on legisla- tion to appear before the Legislature and urge the necessity of this increase. xviii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Apiaky Inspection. The Legislature at the last session passed a special bill for the appointment of an apiary inspector by this Board, to serve until March 31, 1911, with an appropriation of $500. The declared purpose of the Legislature was to allow a trial of the work, to ascertain whether it was necessary and whether what was claimed for it could be accomplished. At the special business meeting, at Amherst, the Board elected Bur- ton IsT. Gates, Ph.D., of Washington, D. C., and formerly of Worcester, as State Inspector of Apiaries. With the small sum at his command and the late date of beginning the work he could accomplish only a small part of what needed to be done. His investigations have established the presence of foul brood in all sections of the State, and have determined the fact that bees have been practically wiped out over large areas. The im.portance of this matter can be better under- stood when it is known that cucumber growers are absolutely dependent upon bees for the setting of the blossoms, and that in many cases the introduction of diseased colonies, un- able to do the work, has led to heavy losses in the greenhouses. Further, fruit growers are in a large measure dependent upon bees for cross-fertilization of fruit blossoms, and experiments have shown that many partial failures of the crop have been due to their absence. The beekeepers appreciate the fact that this work is necessary for the preservation of their in- dustry, and strongly favor its being made permanent. The details will be shown in the annual report of the Inspector of Apiaries, to be presented at this meeting, also plans for future work. I would recommend that this Board present a bill to the Legislature making this work permanent, and calling for an appropriation of $2,000 per annum. Careful estimates show that this sum is necessary for the next few years at least. ISTuESERY Inspection. The State Xursery Inspector met with many difficulties in the carrying out of the work of the year, and was only able to do so through the aid of the United States govern- No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xix ment and the nursery owners. The threatened quarantine against our nursery stock by other States, from fear of the introduction of the gypsy and brown-tail moths, has put an entirely diiferent face upon the future of the work. A greatly increased appropriation will be necessary if this in- dustry, with an annual output of over a million dollars, is to be saved to the Commonwealth. The Massachusetts' Nurs- erymen's Association, composed of the owners of nurseries within the Commonwealth, proposes to ask for legislation to that end. Owing to their vital interest in the matter they are the proper ones to make the proposition, but I would recommend that you instruct your secretary and your com- mittee on legislation to appear before the proper committees of the Legislature and urge the necessity for this legislation. Also, that 3'ou instruct your secretary to extend to Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture, an expression of our cor- dial appreciation of the great assistance he rendered this in- dustry and your ISTursery Inspector during the past year. The details of the work will be set forth in the annual re- port of the State ISTursery Inspector, to be presented at this meeting. It is sufficient to say that the work was well done by Dr. Fernald and his assistants. The privilege of the law, by which private owners can call for an inspection of adja- cent property for the San Jose scale, was availed of for the first time this year, several applications being received, and the nuisance abated under direction of the ISTursery Inspector in each case. This feature of the work seems likely to have a wider application in the future. Dairy Bureau. The work of the Dairy Bureau has been characterized by thoroughness, judgment and moderation. The number of cases brought in court, the percentage of convictions secured, the disposition of technical violations of the law by warn- ing without prosecution, and the educational work of the Bureau, all reflect credit upon its management. The mem- bers of the Bureau, with two others, appointed by the Gov- ernor, have been engaged in an investigation of the milk sit- XX BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. uation, with a view to preparing a plan for inspection of production. I am not, at this time, informed as to their find- ings, but can vouch for the thoroughness of their investiga- tion. The details of the work proper of the Bureau are given in the annual report of its general agent, which will be presented at this meeting. Cattle Bureau. A new incumbent of the office of Chief of the Cattle Bureau will present his first report at this meeting. While enter- taining the highest regard for the ability and the work of both the late and the present chiefs I would fail in my duty to the Board if I did not again point out the inconsistency of the law, which makes this Bureau a part of the Board and at the same time withholds from the Board any authority over it. The work of inspection of animals and prevention of animal diseases should be under the control of this Board ; that of the inspection of meat and of slaughterhouses more properly falls under the State Board of Health. I would recommend that the Board present to the Legislature a bill providing for such a division of the work. State Forester. The State Forester will report to you verbally, giving a short statement of the more important features of his work. His formal report, too long to be read at this meeting, will be printed in the annual volume. That he has done a large amount of valuable w^ork for the State I am thoroughly con- vinced, and I am equally certain that he deserves commen- dation and assistance. I would therefore recommend that this Board endorse the work of the State Forester, and in- struct its secretary and its committee on legislation to ren- der all the support to his recommendations for legislation that they shall deem proper and necessary. State Ornithologist. The State Ornithologist has been engaged during the year in the preparation of the report on game birds authorized by the last Legislature, along similar lines to the recent re- No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxi port on " Useful Birds and their Protection." Although this has taken the greater part of his time he has attended to his other duties as State Ornithologist, including a gi-eat deal of correspondence. The report on game birds will be issued some time during the year, and will be sold at not less than cost, the free list for the report being very small. Much of the stenographic work of the State Ornithologist can be taken over by the office stenographer if the proposed appro- priation for that purpose is granted. Few people appreci- ate the wide field which his work covers, and the great de- mand for information along these lines. The sale of " Use- ful Birds and their Protection " has apparently reached a stable basis, about thirty copies a month being disposed of, and there is a sufficient number of the third edition on hand so that a reprint will not be needed in the immediate future. The details of the work of the State Ornithologist will be given in his report, which will be presented at this meeting. Massachusetts Agricultural College. The Legislature of 1010 dealt generously with the college and the work of the institution has been greatly increased and broadened. The numbers in attendance are growing, and it would seem as though the college was about to enter upon the most prosperous period of its history. N'o par- ticular feature of the work presents itself for special com- ment, and the work of the institution as a whole is too varied and complex to be treated in this report. Continued gen- erous support for this institution is asked at the hands of the Legislature. The ISTew England Corn Exposition. This exposition was a great success. Launched a year ago, and held back one year to give right of way to the New England Fruit Show, the exposition showed the effects of the careful preparation in its exhibits and in the interest shown in them. The feature of the exposition which attracted the widest attention was the world's record for shelled corn per acre, made by a Massachusetts farmer, with New England flint corn. It showed that New England need ask no odds xxii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. of the west, even in the latter's own specialty, and that it is still possible to grow this crop to perfection on our fields. The other exhibits in the halls of the Worcester Society amply showed that quality as well as quantity was to be found here. With a remarkable corn year and a splendid crop to draw from an artistic success was assured, but the financial success of the exposition was made possible by the generous donations of the agricultural societies. I make no question that this show will be repeated in fnture years, and there is nothing that gives a greater impetus to our agriculture than the holding of such expositions. By showing others what we can do we show ourselves, and set a mark to be aimed at in the future. The IRew Englaa^d Fruit Show of 1911. The splendid fruit show held at Boston in 1909 will be repeated during the coming year, according to plans as now outlined. With the attention that is now being paid to apple growing, as well as other lines of fruit culture, and the general interest in the subject, it would be strange, indeed, if the record of a year ago were not surpassed. That this Board will co-operate is certain, that the societies will deal generously with the show I am convinced, and that the gen- eral public will respond as never before to an exposition of this sort I thoroughly believe. The Farm Cataeogije. The Legislature of 1909 authorized the Board to collect all necessary information in regard to the oj^portunities for developing the agricultural resources of the Commonwealth by the reoccupancy of idle or partly improved farms and farm lands, and cause the facts so obtained and a statement of the advantages offered to be circulated where and in such manner as the said Board considered for the best interests of the Coinmonwealth, and appropriated $1,000 for the pur- pose. Your secretary investigated the subject carefully, and became convinced that the interests of the Common- wealth were best to be served by a publication on optimistic No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxiii lines ; that it was better to put the best foot foremost rather than to present a pessimistic picture of our agriculture, and presented an outline of his plan to the executive committee of the Board. The committee approved the plan and in- structed the secretary to carry it out. The wording of the act allowed a certain amount of room foi* judgment in ex- ecuting the project. Many delays w'ere encountered in the work, owing to changes in office force, increasing work on other lines, delay of the boards of assessors and owners of farms in replying to our circulars, but the report was finally issued in November, 1910. You know how the plan was worked out and the instantaneous success of the publication. The edition was small, only 3,500 copies, owing to lack of funds, and in eleven office days these were entirely distrib- uted. The demand has continued unabated, and we have prob- al)ly a thousand calls for a possible second edition on file at this time. These are by no means local, there being many from western States. It seems probable that an edition of 10,000 copies would not more than supply the demand for the present year. Such an edition, the printers estimate, w^ould cost from $950 to $1,000, Money is also needed for postage for mailing the edition and other expenses connected with its distribution. If the work is to be continued other owners should be given an opportunity to list their farms, and a revised edition issued. There are many ways in which money could be expended which would, in my judg- ment, be of gi-eater value to agriculture, but I doubt if there is any publication which we could offer that would be so much in demand by the people of the State, and of other States, as would this publication. As the general public pays the bills, both for this publication and others of more direct benefit to agriculture, its wishes should certainly be regarded when plainly expressed. I would therefore recom- mend that the Board ask the Legislature for an appropria- tion of $3,000, to publish a second edition of this catalogue, and to revise the material therein contained and publish a third edition. xxiv BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The Excoueagement of Oechakding. A new line of work for the year was that under the appro- priation for the encouragement of orcharding, made by the Legislature of 1910. A special committee, consisting of Messrs. Bursley and Wheeler and Professor Sears, pomolo- gist to the Board, prepared a plan for the carrying out of the provisions of the act, which was accepted by the executive committee, acting for the Board. Under this plan prizes were offered for the greatest yield from any single apple tree ; for the greatest yield from any acre of apple trees, trees to be in one solid block ; for the best results from spraying, and for the best young orchard, of not less than two acres, trees not necessarily in one solid block, set in 1908 or 1909. The first three classes were awarded on sworn statements by the contestants, and the last class as the result of an inspection by Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler, acting as judge. The prizes were awarded as follows : Class 1, — first prize, $25, to Frederick A. Russell of Methuen, for a yield of 56 bushels from a Gravenstein tree ; second prize, $15, to C. W. Mann of Methuen, for 44 bushels from a Baldwin tree ; third prize, $10, to Rev. IT. B. Fiske of Danvers, for 32 1-2 bushels from a Wealthy tree. Class 2, — first prize, $50, to the Drew- Munson Fruit Company of Littleton, for 227 barrels of Baldwin ai:>ple3; second prize, $30, to Rev. IST. B. Fiske of Danvers, for 115 barrels of Baldwin apples. Class 3, — first prize, $30, to Rev. jST. B. Fiske of Danvers ; second prize, $20, to the Drew-Munson Fruit Company of Little- ton. Class 4, — first prize, $50, to Turner Hill Farm of Ipswich, with a score of 95; second prize, $30, to H. A. Hale of Colrain, with a score of 92 ; third prize, to E. Cyrus Miller of Haydenville, with a score of 91. One demonstration meeting was held under this appro- priation, at Medway, with very good results. It is planned to hold at least two meetings each year in future. Another feature to be developed during the current year is an exhibit of Massachusetts apples, in conspicuous places in Boston and other large cities. The fruit has been secured and plans are under Avay for its being shown. No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxv A very interesting feature under this work was an exhibit of apples at the offices of the Board, the third week in No- vember. No cash prizes were offered, but first and second prize ribbons for the best three specimens of the following varieties : Baldwin, Gravenstein, Hubbardston, Mcintosh Red, Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Russet, Wealthy, King of Tompkins County, Sutton, Tolman Sweet, Yellow Bellflower, Red Canada, Westfield and Winter Banana. Ribbons were awarded as follows : Baldwin, — first, to II. M. Longley of Shirley ; second, to B. L. Call of Colrain ; honorable mention, to L. A. & C. J. Lahm of Carlisle. Rox- bury Russet, — first, to Edw. A. Lunt of Newbury ; second, to L. H. Bailey of West Newbury. Northern Spy, — first, to W. H. Campbell of Wayland ; second, to L. A. & C. J. Lahm of Carlisle. Hubbardston, — first, to F. A. Russell of Methuen ; second, to C. A. Campbell of Ipswich. King, — first, to Boston Consumptives Hospital; second, to C. A. Campbell of Ipswich. Rhode Island Greening, — first, to Samuel Leeds of Woburn. Sutton Beauty, — first, to Ed- ward Farrar of Lincoln. Mcintosh Red, — first, to Edward Farrar of Lincoln. Stark, — first, to F. A. Russell of Methuen. Palmer Greening, — first, to H. M. Longley of Shirley. Winter Banana, ■ — - first to E. D. Robinson of Vineyard Haven. Wagner, — first, to E. D. Robinson of Vineyard Haven. Yellow Bellflower, — first, to Boston Con- sumptives Hospital. Schiawassa Beauty, — second, to Bos- ton Consumptives Hospital. Blue Pearmain, • — • second, to Wm. N. Davis of Hudson. The exhibit attracted a great deal of attention, and the office was thronged with visitors during the four days that the apples were on exhibition, upwards of 1,000 persons, by con- servative estimate, visiting the exhibition. The high quality of the fruit shown did much to convince the visitors, who were mainly residents of Boston and from the consuming class, that our home-grown fruit is the equal in appearance of any gTOAvn in the west, and all admit its superior quality. This exhibition is a feature which should be repeated every year in which there is not a fruit show of greater magnitude in Boston. xxvi BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Bulletins of Massachusetts Ageicultuke. Tlie demand for these publications increased during the year, and the first edition of Nos. 1 and 2, on poultry and orcharding, were entirely exhausted. Calls for them accu- mulated to such an extent that a reprint was imperative, and they were issued during November in editions of 2,500 each. These editions were revised and new matter was added, which had appeared since the publication of the first edition. As they stand to-day they are fairly complete text-books on the subjects in question. New bulletins issued during the year were, No. 3, " Grasses and forage crops," and No. 4, " Small fruits and berries," the former in an edition of 2,000 copies and the latter in one of 2,500. Bulletin No. 4 covers fruits for the home garden, — peaches, pears, plums, quinces, grapes, strawberries and cranberries, — and there is a con- stant and increasing demand for it. Bulletins should be issued as soon as possible on vegetables and vegetable grow ing, dairying, animal husbandry and beekeeping. There is a demand for information on all these lines which we cannot, at present, satisfy. This demand and the need for these pub- lications form an additional strong reason for the increase of the appropi'iation for the " dissemination of useful infor- mation in agriculture," previously referred to. Ceop Reports. The monthly crop reports were issued from May to Octo- ber, as usual. A new feature was the list of publications avail- able for distribution, included in the report for August. A supplementary list, giving those issued subsequent to the printing of the previous crop report, has appeared in each of the succeeding issues, and will be made a regular feature. The issue for September contained a list of the annual reports available for free distribution, with the principal articles available in each. The special articles included in the various issues, in order of appearance, from May to October, were: " Corn selection for seed and for show," by Prof. Wm. D. Hurd ; " Growing and marketing asparagus," by Frank Wheeler ; " Alfalfa as a crop in Massachusetts," by Prof. Wm. No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. XXVll p. Brooks ; " Celery growing, storing and marketing," by Henry M. Howard; " Quince culture," by Prof. F. C. Sears; and '^ Grape culture," by Edward R. Farrar. The editions were 6,090 for May, 6,300 for June, 6,500 for August, and 6,400 for the other months. The largest previous edition was 5,900 for September and October, 1909. A few copies are on hand for July and October, but the other months are entirely exhausted. Publications. The following publications were issued by this office in 1910, and, except those indicated, may be obtained on appli- cation : — Pages. Number. Apriculture of Massachusetts, 1909, Crop Report No. 1,' - . Crop Report No. 2,2 Crop Report No. 3 Crop Report No. 4,2 Crop Report No. 5,2 Crop Report No. 6, Massachusetts Agriculture, Bulletin No. 1 (second edition, revised), Massachusetts Agriculture, Bulletin No. 2 (second edition, revised), Massachusetts Agriculture, Bulletin No. 3 Massachusetts Agriculture, Bulletin No. 4, .... . Massachusetts: Her Agricultural Resources, Advantages and Oppor- tunities, with a List of Farms for Sale. Apiary Inspection, Bulletin No. 1, ....... . Farmers' Institute Pamphlet Nature Leaflet No. 14 (reprint), Nature Leaflet No. 28 (reprint) Nature Leaflet No. 35 (reprint) Nature Leaflet No. 36 (reprint) Nature Leaflet No. 37 (reprint), Nature Leaflet No. 38 (reprint) Nature Leaflet No. 41 (reprint), Nature Leaflet No. 43 Nature Leaflet No. 44, 6481 37 37 41 36 40 38 1.53 105 96 113 160 12 15 6 5 9 5 3 9 6 3 7 15,000 6,090 0,300 6,400 6,500 6,400 6,400 2,500 2,500 2,000 2,500 3,-500 3,500 900 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,.500 1,900 1,500 • Including twenty-second annual report of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, 2.57 pages. 2 Edition e.xhausted. XXVIU BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Number. Nature Leaflet No. 45, Nature Leaflet No. 46 Annual Report of State Nursery Inspector,',' Annual Report of ^tate Ornithologist, ',2 Annual Report of Chief of Cattle Bureau, ', ^ . The Farmer's Interest in Game Protection, - . The Culture of the Pear, 2 Varieties of Apples for Massachusetts Orchards, ^ . 5 1,800 5 1,800 8 400 25 3,000 63 500 7 300 10 300 28 600 ' Edition exhausted. ■ 2 Excerpts from "Agriculture of Massachusetts," 1909, issued in pamphlet form. Legislative Appropriatio7is, Board of Agriculture. 1910. 1911. Objects for which appropbiated. Appropri- ated. Used. Appropri- ated. Bounties to societies S18,000 00 117,754 80 $18,000 00 Salaries of secretary and clerks 6,200 00 6,200 00 6,200 00 Travelling and necessary expenses of Board, 1,300 00 1,165 10 1,300 00 Lectures before the Board, etc 800 00 762 43 1,600 00 Dissemination of useful information in agriculture, . 4,000 00 3,998 98 5,000 00 Travelling and necessary expenses of the secretary, . 500 00 366 80 500 00 Incidental and contingent expenses, including print- ing and lurnishing extracts from the trespass laws. Printing 15,000 copies of "Agriculture of Massachu- setts." Work of Dairy Bureau, including salaries, . 1,100 00 6,000 00 9,800 00 1,099 5,740 9,690 99 15 00 1,100 00 6,000 00 9,800 00 State apiary inspection, 500 00 400 04 2,000 00 State nursery inspection, 2,000 00 1,999 95 10,000 00 State Ornithologist, salary and expenses, . 1,000 00 999 92 1,000 00 Special report on game birds 4,000 00 85 00 - Collecting and circulating information relating to idle or partly improved farms or farm lauds. Poultry premium bounty 867 39' 1,000 00 867 600 39 00 1,500 00' 1,000 00 For the encouragement of orcharding. 500 00 486 88 500 00 Totals, $54,067 39 $52,217 43 $63,500 00 1 Unexi)ended balance. » Reprint. Extracts from Trespass Laws. The distribution of printed extracts from the trespass laws has been continued during the year in accordance with the law on the subject. Each post-office in the State was furnished No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxix a copj on paper, for posting. The demand continues about as in former years, and there are no features in connection with the distribution worthy of special notice. Better Farming Specials. The Board and the Dairy Bureau co-operated with the Boston & Albany Railroad in the " better farming special " which it ran over its lines last spring. Your secretary accom- panied the train throughout the trip, as did also the general agent of the Dairy Bureau, and speakers on fruit topics were furnished by the Board. The train made 18 stops, and up- wards of G,000 people availed themselves of its opportunities. Your secretary also made one day's trip with the trolley " better farming special," run by the Springiield trolley lines. The attendance and interest in this special were good, though naturally not equal to those shown in the large and better advertised railroad special. Seed Corn Distribution. A new feature which I intend to introduce during the present year, if it meets the approval of the Board, is the distribution of seed corn to farmers. The plan, roughly speaking, is to secure seed of superior strains, mainly of Flint varieties, and to give small quantities to such farmers as will agi*ee to plant and care for it properly, and to return double the amount received, for further distribution. Possibly they may also be required to exhibit a few ears in the office, in an exhibition similar in scope to our apple show of this year. Respectfully submitted, J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH, Secretary. Jan. 10, 1911. XXX BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Summary of Crop Conditions, 1910. At the close of May vegetation and farm work were con- siderably in advaDce of the normal, while early crops were not beyond normal, owing to cold and unpleasant weather. Grass started early, and although it did not make as rapid growth as was expected, promised well. Fall seeding gen- erally wintered well. The fruit bloom was generally heavy, except for peaches, and was not injured by frosts, except the early bloom of strawberries. Insects were about average in their development and nundiers. Planting was well in hand at the close of the month. There was a fair supply of farm help to be had, with wages rather higher than for the past few years, day help commanding especially high prices. There was a marked increase in the acreage of corn, espe- cially for grain, also in that of onions in the Connecticut valley. A considerable increase in interest in fruit growing was shown by the setting out of new orchards, greater atten- tion to spraying and considerable areas of new cranberry bog. Insects were not unusually numerous or injurious in June. The increase in the acreage of field corn was not as great as indicated in May, owing to failure of germination and delay in planting. The crop was very nneven, and in some cases poor in color. Haying was just beginning, with a good normal crop in prospect. The acreage of potatoes was de- creased to a considerable degree, and the crop generally backward, but promising well. Yields of early market- garden crops were not above average and good prices were received. The snpply of dairy products was fully up to the normal and prices were higher than ever before. Dairy cows were very scarce and high. Feed in pastures was in excellent condition. The strawberry crop suffered severely from rains No. 4.] MASSACHUSETTS CROPS. xxxi and good prices \yerc received. The set of fruit was not what was expected from the bloom. More farmers have sprayed than in any previous year. Little damage was reported from insects in July. Corn came forward very rapidly, and at the close of the month was near the normal. The hay crop was one of the best for years and secured in good condition. Rowen did not start well, owing to lack of rain. The usual acreage of forage crops was put in, corn and millet being the favorites. Market-garden crops were uneven, some having suffered from drought, with prices lower than of late years. Apples dropped badly, and promised poorly; pears and plums light; peaches rather better than usual ; quinces promised well ; grapes average ; cranberries not above average. Pastures were beginning to suffer from drought. Rye and oats were good crops in most sections. Barley looked well as a late forage crop. IS^ew orchards were not extensively planted in 1909 and 1910, but reports indicated that old orchards re- ceived much better care in pruning, spraying and fertilizing than ever before. Corn was greatly benefited by the light rains of August and made good progress. There was little rowen in prospect on any but newly seeded fields. Early potatoes were much below the normal, but late potatoes looked well, with a few cases of rot reported. The acreage of tobacco in the Con- necticut valley was about the same as formerly. The crop responded finely to the rains and promised to be very nearly normal. The returns indicated a light crop of apples, espe- cially winter varieties ; pears fair ; peaches rather above the average ; grapes average ; quinces fairly good ; cranberries somewhat below average. Pasturage improved with the rains of the month. Oats were an average crop for grain, but not quite as good as usual for hay and green feed. Celery suf- fered severely from drought ; other late market-garden crops backward, but growing well. September showed Indian corn matured well in almost all sections, and generally close to a normal crop, both for ffrain and stover. There was little rowen in most sections, except in southeastern Massachusetts, where it was in excess xxxii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. for the region. Feed iu pastures was green, but light at the close of the month. Very much less than the usual amount of fall seeding was done, because of drought. Onions are generally a light crop in all sections. Late potatoes would have been an average crop, except for rot, which was most prevalent in the western counties. Root crops were generally in good condition ; celery light ; late market-garden crops in general much in need of rain. Apples were a light crop and small in size ; pears good crop of good quality ; peaches light in most sections ; grapes not above the average ; cran- berries a light to medium crop, with the berries small. More spraying was practiced on apples than for many years. Sev- eral light frosts occurred, but with no appreciable damage to crops. The final report of the season, at the close of the month of October, gave the value of the corn crop as considerably above the normal, a good crop of well-matured corn having been secured in almost all sections, and the acreage harvested being much in excess of the usual average. Ensilage went into the silo in good condition as regards maturity. Root crops were generally rather below the average, except on Cape Cod. Po- tatoes suffered from drought more than most crops, and rot was prevalent almost throughout the State, so that the crop was a disappointment. Light showers kept feed green and growing in pastures, but feed was nevertheless very short from midsummer on, and milk stock and many young cattle were fed at the barns, both hay and grain. Milking stock was generally in good condition, but young stock, where not fed supplementarily, came in thin in flesh. The large hay crop enabled farmers to feed at the barn without depleting their winter stock of hay as much as would ordinarily have been the case. Much less than the usual amount of fall seeding was done, owing to the drought keeping the land in poor condition for seeding. It was perhaps rather backward where put in, but generally looking well otherwise, owing to fre- quent light rains. Prices for farm crops averaged higher than usual, despite the generally good crops, potatoes and cranberries being the only important crops where lower prices were reported. Forty No. 4.] MASSACHUSETTS CROPS. xxxiii correspondents considered prices to have been higher than usual, 67 average and 11 lower than usual. Milk, butter, eggs and meat brought high prices throughout the year. Apples generally brought better prices than usual, owing to short crop and better quality. Prices for tobacco were fully up to the normal. Sixty correspondents, slightly under a majority, considered hay to have been among the most profitable crops ; 41, corn ; 24, apples; 11, potatoes; 7, tobacco; 5, cabbages; 4, sweet corn; and 4, oats; while 71 correspondents, more than a ma- jority, and an unusually large leading number, considered potatoes to have been among the least profitable crops ; 9, apples; 6, onions; 6, cabbages; 6, cranberries (an unusually large number for this crop) ; and 4, strawberries. The season was generally considered to have been a profit- able one by the correspondents, 80 stating that it had been profitable; 16, that it had been fairly profitable; 12, that it had been an average year for profit ; while 3 held that it had not been very profitable, and 14 that it had been unprofit- able for the farmers of their sections. The crops were gen- erally good, despite the drought, and prices ruled high, which, with the good hay crop and well-filled barns, made it difficult to figure the year as anything but profitable, unless the view is adopted that no year is profitable for those engaged in farming. Crops were shortened in some instances by drought, but there was surprisingly little damage from this source when the shortage of rainfall for the year was considered. The most serious efl"ect of the drought was on the water supply, and in many sections farmers faced the prospect of drawing water from a distance throughout the winter, unless heavy rains came before the ground froze. Streams, springs and wells were reported as lower than for many years, and many of them as dry. One well which had not failed since it was dug, one hundred and fifty years ago, was reported to have dried up, and there were many instances of wells and springs which had never failed before, but which were entirely dry at the close of October. PUBLIC WINTER MEETING Board of Agriculture NORTHAMPTON. December 6, 7 axd 8, 1910. PUBLIC WlNTEli MEETING OF THE BOARD, AT NORTHAMPTON. The annual public winter meeting of the Board, for lec- tures and discnssions, was held at Carnegie Hall, Northamp- ton, on Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, December C, 7 and 8. The attendance was good, being above the average for all sessions and especially good on the second day, the lectures interesting and instructive, and the discussions well sustained and valuable. The meeting was called to order at 10 a.m.^ on Tuesday, by Secretary Ellsworth. Second Vice-President Avery pre- sided, and introduced His Honor Calvin Coolidge, mayor of ^Northampton, who delivered the address of welcome. ADDEESS OF \YELCOME, BY HIS HOINOR MAYOR CALVIN COOLIDGE. We are having an election here today and I assure you that it is a relief to leave for a few minutes and extend to your Board a most hearty welcome to our city. Northamp- ton is known throughout the L^nited States as an educational center, and for that reason it is the more fitting that you should meet here, as agriculture is becoming each year more and more the pursuit of the educated man. Also, we have recently started a school here which is devoted to the teach- ing of agriculture to our young men and women. Smith's Agricultural School and the Northampton School of Indus- tries. This school is, I believe, destined to prove of great benefit to this section in agricultural and domestic lines. We are, moreover, in the heart of a farming district, and depend- ent upon the products of the soil for our prosperity. To the north and east lie the meadows of the Connecticut valley, the most fertile section in the Commonwealth; great land for raising tobacco, onions and corn, — land that has been 4 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. noted for generations as especially fitted for agricnltural pur- suits. To the west of us tlie fruit-growing industry is developing rapidly. One man paid this year $20,000 for apples in the towns of Williamsburg, Conway, Goshen and Cunnnington, and ho did not touch the best orchards in the section, those at Ilaydenville, at all. It is estimated that in that region this year $45,000 has been paid for apples alone, and it was not a ]iarticularly good apple year. The organization known as the People's Institute, which occupies this buildiug and two others near by, is open to every one, especially to those who work in the mills, and is doing a great deal of educational work. It can provide a teacher for almost any line one may wish to study, including the domestic sciences, such as cooking, dressmaking and milli- nery. It is made use of to a large extent by our Polish people, who are coming in here and taking up land, and who are thrifty and industrious and generally good citizens. They are taking up land and doing much in an agricultural way, particularly in raising tobacco and onions, and I see in them a good deal of promise for the future agricultural development of this region. Agriculture is becoming, like all other pursuits, the pur- suit of the specialist. We have in this region the Massa- chusetts Agricultural College. — an institution which has done a great deal in developing the agricultural resources, not alone of Massachusetts, but of the other States of the I^iiion, and foreign countries as well. I hope that before you leave us you will visit Smith's Agricultural School, an institution of which we are especially proud. We want you to make yourselves at home in our city; visit our institu- tions; and we hope that you will go away feeling that you have had a pleasant and instructive gathering here, and feel- ing that as soon as you can you will visit ns again. The chairman then introduced Secretary Ellsworth, who made the following response, on behalf of the Board, to the address of welcome : — No. 4.] RESPONSE FOR THE BOARD. 5 RESPONSE FOR THE BOARD, BY SECRETARY ELLSWORTH. Much to my regret, Vice-President Biirsley is unable to be here and take this part in the programme, but I want to thank the mayor, on behalf of the Board, for his cordial wel- come. Among the many duties and undertakings of the Board, which include its publications, its institute work and its large correspondence, are these annual meetings, which are held in various parts of the State. This is the third such meeting to be held in Northampton. The first was held in 1882, when Hon. John E. Russell was secretary of the Board, and at that meeting, among other subjects discussed, were those of milk and tobacco. The tobacco question was discussed then for the first time, and since then we have always recognized that industry when we have met anywhere in the Connecticut valley. I believe that the milk question has been discussed, in some form, at every meeting we have held, as the dairy industry is our great industry, and the product the one indispensable article of food. The second meeting held here at Northampton was in 1891, w^hen Mr. Stockwell, my immediate predecessor, was secretary of the Board. At that time Booker Washing-ton was one of the speakers, and the attendance at the session which he ad- dressed set a record for these meetings. This beautiful valley, to Avhich Mayor Coolidgc re- f(M"rod, is, without doubt, the most fertile section of Massa- chusetts. While we have several other valleys in ]\fassa- chusctts, there are none quite equal to the Connecticut valley in extent, in fertility or in the beautiful farms which it con- tains. Your farms here are wonderful for tobacco, onions, corn, appl'es, and, in fact, anything that will grow outdoors in this climate. I do not want to get started on the apple questidu, but few people have realized what we can d*i in apple raising here in New Englaud. in ]\rassachusetts espe- cially. One of our mend)ers, "Afr. Fn'derick A. Russell of Mcthneu, in the orchard contest under the auspices ef tliis Board, reported a Gravenstein tree on which he grew $5G 6 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. worth of apples. If you bad 40 such trees to the acre you could very easily figure out something big in apple raising. These meetings are of immense value to those who at- tend them, and, furthermore, the lectures and discussions appear in our annual report, together with much other mat- ter of interest. Sometimes I believe that if they were not so printed we should have larger attendances at these meetings, but we certainly look forward to this meeting as likely to be one of the best which we have ever held. The CiiAiKMAN. The next item on the programme is a lecture on " 'New England pastures," by Mr. J. S. Cotton, M.S., of the United States Department of Agriculture, Wash- ington, D. C. Mr. Cotton has traveled all over the United States, looking into this question, and it gives me pleasure to present him to you. No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. NEW ENGLAND PASTUKES. BY J. S. COTTON, ASSISTANT AGKICULTURIST, UNITED STATES DEPART- MENT OF AGRICULTURE. One of the most important problems confronting the NTew England farmer to-day is the improvement of his pasture lands. These pastures have deteriorated greatly, and many of them have now reached a point where they are not pro- ducing sufficient feed to pay the taxes and the cost of main- taining the fences. As a result of their extremely low yield it is necessary to devote a considerable area of the cultivated lands in the growing of forage to supplement the pastures. In view of the present high price of grain it is important that these pastures be made to produce more feed than they are doing at the present time, and thus relieve the tillable land from growing so much forage, in order that the farmer can raise some of the high-priced grain on. his own land. These pastures were cleared of timber some forty to one hundred years ago, and were allowed for the most part to sod over by a natural process. Since that time they have been grazed from early spring until late fall at practically their highest carrying capacity. During this time very lit- tle improvement in the way of reseeding or fertilization has been practiced. At first the deterioration of these pastures was very gradual, but during the past twent}^ years they have declined much more rapidly. One of the reasons for the more rapid decline during the past few years is that, because of the enormous increase in the growth of the cities of this country, and because of better transportation facilities, the majority of farmers in this region have been specializing in the production of dairy products, and have been increasing the amount of stock that is being run on these pastures with- 8 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. out reference to their carrying capacity, and without endeav- oring to build them up in any way to sustain the increased number of cattle. It is noticeable that in the country at large nearly all of the dairy pastures have become much poorer than formerly, while pastures on which beef cattle are run are fully as good as they ever were, if they have not actually improved. There are pastures in Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia, fully as old as any in ]Srew England, that are carrying as much stock as they ever did, and are worth a hundred or more dollars per acre. In the northwestern part of ]\Iiddlesex County, Ontario, there are some three hundred thousand acres that farmers, owing to the scarcity of labor, have abandoned for farming purposes, and have seeded down to pastures, renting the land to cattle graziers. After twenty years' use these pas- tures are producing more feed than ever, and the land is in better shape to grow croj)s than it was at the time cultiva- tion ceased. This land is also valued at a hundred or more dollars per acre. In the corn l)clt men buy land that has been worn out as a result of a one-crop system, and, by putting it into grass and feeding on it, are able in about ten years' time to build that land up to • a point where it can produce large crops. Much of the land that has been built up in this manner is now selling at $:200 per acre. This comparison is made in order to show that it is not only unnecessary for pastures to decline, but, on the other hand, that land, through proper methods of management, can be built np to a high degree of productivity by the pasture method. At first glance it would seem that the difference between the worn-out eastern dairy j^asturcs and the beef pastures of the other States mentioned was one of soil conditions. How- ever, we find just as poor pastures adjoining these beef pas- tures as are found in New Eugland, while a couple of ]iastures have been found in the heart of the dairy section that, through careful management, have been maintained at as high a point as any beef pasture that has been seen, and that are remarkably productive. TIk; investigations that have been carried on by the Department of Agriculture show .r^-^'^^^s:i'9^mm I No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 9 that while soil types and climatic conditions greatly modify the carrying capacity of a given pasture, nevertheless the great difference between the dairy pastures and the beef pas- tures is one of management. The dairy farmer usually tries to get all the feed that he can from the pasture, without ref- erence to the condition in which it is left. If the pasture is grazed a little too closely he supplements it with feed grown on the tillable land, in order to help the cows, but still con- tinues the overgrazing. The beef cattleman cannot do this. The beef steer must have an abundance of feed close at hand, so that if he is to make good gains he can get all he wants to eat without much effort. As the profits are directly dependent on the number of pounds of gain that the steer puts on, the beef cattlemen have learned by experience that there must be a luxuriant growth of grass for their steers or else they will lose money. Consequently they ai-e very careful never to overgraze their pastures, and if they see that a pasture is being overstocked they immediately cut down the number of stock. There are a number of causes why these dairy pastures have deteriorated. One of the principal causes is the prac- tice of turning stock on the ]')asture too early in the year. Unless the grass plants are allowed to get a sufficient start to have a good green leaf surface they are greatly handi- capped in making much growth. A study of the structure and life history of plants shows us that there are numerous small green bodies, which l)y the way give the color to the leaves, that are known to botanists as chlorophvl bodies. It is necessary that certain kinds of the plant food absorbed by the plant go to these small green bodies and thereby manufacture substances which the plant can use in growing. If these leaves are kept grazed so close that there is not an abundance of these small green bodies the plant has very little chance to make much growth, or, in other words, produce much forage. If such a plant is kept grazed too close it will eventually be- come enfeebled and will disappear. Again, on many soils, where there is a considerable amount of clay, if stock is turned out while the ground is still wet and " punchy," the ground becomes so compacted by constant 10 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. tramping that it is impossible for the roots of the plants to penetrate among the soil particles and get the necessary plant food. I have had occasion during the past year to see one pasture that has been absolutely ruined because the stock was turned in it while the ground was still too wet. The soil has been badly compacted, until it has now reached a point where there is absolutely no remedy, and the land is not worth j^aying taxes on. Another reason, and undoubtedly the most important one, is that of overgrazing. Not only must a plant have suffi- cient green leaf surface Avith which to manufacture food for its further growth, but in case it is a perennial plant it must be allowed to store np food to be nsed the following spring in starting a sufficient growth to enable it to begin manufactur- ing its own food again. If a perennial plant is not allowed to store np this surplus food it becomes weakened and even- tually dies. In the case of annual plants, which form only a small portion of the vegetation in eastern pastures, it is ab- solutely necessary that they be given a chance to mature a crop of seed or else they soon become extinct. In both cases, as these plants disappear through misuse, their places are taken by weeds or plants that stock will not graze. Many dairymen consider that cows do not do as well where the grass is allowed to get too tall. This is true if the grass is allowed to head out and go to seed. The best stockmen have learned by exjDerience that their cattle do better when the grass is allowed to grow two or three inches high, and, as they express it, " get strong." They have also learned that when a pasture gets ahead of their cattle it is an easy matter to mow the tall grass, letting it lie on the ground as a mulch. Many farmers believe that nnless they keep their pastures closely grazed the weeds will take possession. In some in- stances this seems to be true. Pastures have been seen where, if the stock was kept off for two weeks, the weeds, especially daisies and yarrow, would take such complete possession and make so rank a growth that there would be nothing for the cattle to eat. The men using such pastures are actually losing money. If such areas cannot be reclaimed through cultivation or other practical methods the quicker they are abandoned as No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES 11 pastures and t-uiiverted into limber lots the better. In that way they can eventually be made to pay dividends. All of the feed obtained by the cow is turned into milk, flesh or into the energy necessary for carrying on her natural functions. If that cow is required to use the gi'eater part of her energy in traveling many miles over the pasture in securing her daily feed, that very act is going to result in a greatly decreased supply of milk. If such a cow were kept in the stable or barnyard all of the time, and given oidy the feeds that are used to supplement that pasture, she would produce more milk than she does after running over that field all day, and would thus become more profitable. A very con- crete instance of this came to notice near Xorth Adams, Mass. In carrying on investigations in this region two pastures were studied that adjoined each other on a hillside where the con- ditions were absolutely identical. One of these was badly overgrazed. At midday, when the cows should naturally be lying down and ruminating, all of the animals on this field were actively engaged in trying to get enough to eat. Jn the adjoining pasture, just on the other side of the stone fence, there was an abundance of feed, some of it actually going to waste. In this area the cows were lying down taking life easy. There is no doubt but that the cows in the latter pasture were giving more milk than the others, simply because they were enabled to convert the greater part of their feed into milk. While it sometimes seems as tluingh close grazing is neces- sary in order to keep down the weeds, nevertheless the funda- mental cause of those weeds taking possession was that of overgrazing. A striking illusti-ation of the fact that over- grazing is a cause of the weeds taking possession has been shown in California. Originally on the greater part of the ranges of that State there was a good covering of natural grasses that were relished by live stock. As these grasses were destroyed by overgrazing their ]ilaces were taken by ]>lants that were not relished by stock, the fact that they were not readily eaten giving them the opportunity to thrive. As the better plants disappear the live stock learn to eat the poorer quality of vegetation. As a result, this in tui-ii was 12 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. destroyed, and its place was taken by plants even more infe- rior in character. This has resulted in the carrying capacity of the California ranges being very greatly lowered. The constant close cropping of the vegetation on such a pasture means the robbing of the soil of its fertility, the loss of vegetable matter or humus being especially great. This loss of fertility will of course not be nearly as rapid as where hay is cut from a meadow and nothing replaced. IsTevertheless, it is going on all the time, and is one of the important factors in pasture deterioration. Again, where a pasture is badly overgrazed the evaporation of moisture from the soil is much more rapid. The best graziers of the country have learned by experience that if their pastures are to do well there must be a good grass cover- ing or vegetable mulch in order to tide them through the periods of dry weather. There seem to be two reasons for this: first, where the grass is kept very closely cropped the sun's rays get a more direct action on the bare ground and thus dry it out much more quickly; second, the humus, which is so necessary in the soil in order to allow plant growth, helps greatly to retain the moisture. Where this humus has been used up, the ground will naturally dry out much more quickly. There are numerous pastures throughout the l^ew England States that are situated on areas of thin, poor soil and that are on steep hillsides, where the danger of erosion is very great, which should never have been cleared of timber. Such areas, if not already allowed to revert to forests, should be replanted to timber at the earliest opportunity. Again, there are numerous pastures that are very rough and full of large boulders, in which weeds and brush have gotten nearly com- plete possession. In many instances it would cost altogether too much to attempt to clear such land. The best method of making it pay dividends is to put it into forests. It has been definitely proved that, with the present prices of lumber, the setting out of such areas to good marketable timber will be the best sort of an investment. Information as to the best methods of planting forests can be obtained from State For- ester of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, or No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 13 from the Forest Service of the United States Department of Agricultnre. The great majority of New England pastnres can, how- ever, be l)ui]t np to a point where they will ]>r()(luce mnch more feed than at the present time. There are six general methods by which snch pastnres can be bnilt np, at least one of which can be nsed on nearly every New England pastnre. First. — Prevent overgrazing. The reasons for this have already been given. Second. — Do not graze too early in the spring. In many instances if the cattle were ke])t off the pasture for two weeks longer than is the prevailing practice the pasture would pro- ut into forests; but there are many lands which are much more valuable for forest growth than No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 17 for any other purpose. White pine is a tree croj) that will grow all over the State, and will average 800 feet per acre per year from the beginning. We will not get it at first, but the increase in growth after the twentieth year will make up for it, and it will surely average 40,000 feet in fifty years. White pine is to-day worth on the stump from $7 to $12, according to its distance from market. We can all afford to study this subject carefully, and make up our minds whether our particular lands are most valuable for pasture, fruit, cultivated ground or forests. It is a simple matter to get them back into forests, if desired. Mr. Ethan Bkooks. Do you think the effect of lime on the jiasture is the same as when used on cultivated land ? Mr. Cotton. I am not much of an expert on the use of lime. Most of my time has been spent in the west, where it is not so much needed ; but in a rough way I should say the effect is the same. I would refer you to your agricul- tural department. Mr. Brooks. I have tried lime on a plowed field and on a pasture, apjJied the same day and in the same w^ay. In the first case there was a marked effect, and in the second none that I could see. This was explained to me by a chem- ist, on the ground that the plowed field was a clay soil, where the lime cut the soft stones and set potash free ; and in the pasture the stones Avere granite pebbles, on which the lime had no effect. At one time I sent my young stock to the hills to pasture; but later I tried putting the same money into cleaning up the pastures and fertilizing them, also seed- ing with a mixture containing a good deal of orchard grass and clover, and I found that it paid very well. The seeding was done in a wet time, in August, and the orchard grass is there _yet, although that was twenty years ago. We only treated the run-out portions of the pasture; a good deal of it needed no treatment. Mr. H. A. Turner. In the section of the State from which I come, the South Shore, the pastures are not as val- uable as in most sections. Part of mine I have cut over every year, and part I have let come up to wood, and it is a question whether that portion has not paid the best. What I want to 18 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. ask is, what is the best way to get rid of bushes, where the pastures are stony and rocky ? Mr. Cotton. I know of no good method, except hard work. If that costs too much, the only thing is timber. That is something each one must figure out for his own particular pasture. Professor Rake. How about sheep ? Mr. Cotton. I am recommending them very highly. I find that sheep have played a very important part in the building up of pastures. On these hillside areas it seems to me there should be more sheep. I have seen pastures in Vermont where the dairy herd had no place, — they are too steep, and make too much work for the cow and the man. The sheep kill out a great many weeds, and will keep back a good many kinds of bushes, but upon the coarser bushes they have no effect. Perhaps they might be used to keep the sprouts down after the bushes are mowed, thus saving the trouble of further mowing. Mr. J. F. Adams. I have kept sheep for some years, and my experience is that they will kill out some kinds of weeds, such as golden rod, very well, but that they will starve to death before they will feed on bushes. Mr. Turner. The bayberry bush and the blueberry bush trouble us the most. Would the shceji eat these ? Mr. Cotton. I don't think so. I am inclined to think that the blueberry biish is an indication that the land needs lime, and that liming would help the condition. Mr. P. M. IIarwood. The lecturer has covered the ground in a very comprehensive way as to the building up of our ]^ew England jiastures. There are certain por- tions of our pastures that should go back into timber. I remember a certain hilltop in my native town, where the timber was cut off years ago, the ground burned over and rye raised for several years, that has been absolutely good for nothing for pasture. It now has seeded to white ]iine, and the pines are growing well. On the other side of the wall on that same hill, where the humus was not burned off, there has been good pasture all the time. ]\fany of us have been over- cropping our pastures. The farmer in Massachusetts is No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 19 helped immensely if he has some woodland coming into market, so that he can sell some timber about once in five years. He should have his waste lands set out to timber, and the timber growing while he sleeps. I have in mind one little parcel of land of about 12 acres, that was taxed for $120 in 1876, and which was sold the other day for $2,500. In another case a man who had other resources bought a farm in the town of Petersham, some forty or fifty years ago, for $3,800. He did little real farming, but lot it grow u]i to wood and timber, and within a year it was sold for $35,000. I do not wish to be understood as advocating the policy of doing nothing and letting your farm grow up to wood, — there is reason in everything, — these are simply rather extreme illustrations of what can be got out of lands that are of little or no value, even for jjasture, when they are seeded to the proper wood growths; and that it is not wise to have all your eggs in one basket, — even the dairy basket. The lecturer has pointed out the fallacy of trying to get something for nothing out of our pastures, and we old dairy- men must, most of us, plead guilty. Take a tract of a few acres in the pasture, that is level, where the cows have been resting, and let the farmer plow it and plant corn or pota- toes, later turning it back into the pasture. That soil is rich, and he gets a good crop, and thinks it is still as good as ever for pasture. Perhaps it is, but he has been robbing the land. Mrs. J. F. Adai^is. I would like to ask Mr. Cotton how much lime it would pay us to use on our pastures on Martha's Vineyard, when we have to pay $25 freight on $30 worth of lime ? x\lso, I would like to ask Professor Eane how we can make white pine grow ? Mr. Cotton. The person owning the land will have to figure out whether he or she can afi^ord to go to the necessary expense to carry out any recommendations I may make. In your case I would try it in an experimental way at first; but you seem to be solving your problems pretty well as they arise. Professor Rane. It is certainly a problem whether white pine will grow on Martha's Vineyard. On the Vineyard and Nantucket the winds are so severe that when the trees get to a 20 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. certain height they seem to be warped to a certain extent. Nevertheless, I have seen a plantation of Scotch pine that made trees of very fair size. The conditions are different on Cape Cod than in other parts of the State ; but we find there large white pine stumps, showing that white pine once grew there. I think one reason that so little white pine is seen in that section is because it is so valuable that the owners are cut- ting it off as fast as it gets of salable size. Then, too, the fires, which are so prevalent down there, kill out the white pines by running over the ground, whereas they do not hurt the pitch pine so nnich. The poplar springs up very readily after fire, and might be valuable on the Cape. We have instances where it has grown twenty-three inches in eighteen years ; and one cabinet maker tells me that it is as valuable as white pine. Prof. W. D. lIuKD. This pasture question is a funda- mental problem, of special imiwrtance in the dairy busi- ness. These are two kinds of pastures : those of the west, to which what Mr. Cotton has said fully applies ; and those of New England, which are usually rather rough, rocky and bushy, and I have been unable to work out his suggestions on these lands. The mixture he advocated for seeding seems to me excellent for hay land; but timothy and red and alsike clovers are not, in my experience, adapted to our rough New England pastures. Kentucky blue grass, redtop and meadow grass are primarily pasture grasses. I want to ask whether he has had any experience with Russian brome grass, and whether that is not a grass that should do very well on these rough hillsides ? Mr. CoTTOx. I do not know about the Russian brome grass, but have doubts whether it would grow well here. We have experiments going on now in Maine and Vermont, from which we hope to work out the best pasture mixture for New England. The mixture I have given to-day is based on gen- eral knowledge, and may very well need modification for cer- tain regions. Mr. Geo. W. Trut>t.. I would like to ask Professor Rane whether he would advise the setting out of old pastures to forests, with the gypsy and brown-tail moths so prevalent, to say nothing of other pests and forest fires ? No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 21 Professor Rane. Tlio gypsy and brown-tail moth arc cer- tainly a great menace in the eastern part of the State. So far as white pine is concerned, we need not worry so much. The brown-tails will not touch them at all, and in a clear stand of white pine the little gypsy moth caterpillars will die before they get strong enough to feed on the needles. It is in mixed stands that these insects do the greatest damage, and they are certainly serious enough there. With such a stand I should advise cutting it as soon as infested, and using the money to set out a clear stand of white pine and to keep that free from deciduous trees, thus protecting it from infestation. Mr. H. O. Daniels. We have few pastures in Connecticut, and these we like to get into tillable land as rapidly as we can. I am now plowing some of my pasture with dynamite, and hope to grow alfalfa on it after we get it fitted. I do not want the young men to get the idea that they can get more by sitting still than they can by hustling, — that is not good doc- trine. Let them look into these old pastures, rip out the rocks, and cut the bushes and burn them. We are just begin- ning to realize the possibilities of agriculture, and in a few years they will be better known ; to-day the opportunities in that line are the best in our history. Question. What are the possibilities of the continuous use of commercial fertilizers on pastures, without stable manure ; and what do you think of putting the land in clover for a time ? Mr. Cotton. I think where the pasture is badly run down, much can be accomplished by using a green manure crop ; and I would rather depend on that plan than on the continuous use of commercial fertilizers. They are more of a stimulant than a plant food, in my judgment. Mr. Wm. E. Patrick. T have been troubled about my pastures, for, while people say that I have good pastures, I can see, when going over them, that they are not as good as they used to be. These dry seasons have played havoc with them. T would like to ask whether it would pay to sow a grass mixture over these pastures that cannot be plowed or harrowed as they stand ? Also, T have not been stocked very heavy this year, and some grasses have gone to seed; 22 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. and I want to ask if I am going to receive some benefit from that ? Some people say that the bushes grow so much faster when the pastures are not stocked fully that you lose more than yuu gain; but I have never found that the cattle kept the bushes down very much. Mr. CoTTOisr. There is no question but that you receive benefit from the grass that has gone to seed. Our experience shows that resting is one of the best methods of restoration. As to reseeding, I think that if you could use a brush harrow, as you can on nearly any piece of land, you could work the seed in and give it a better start. Give the soil a good combing when the frost goes out. If you have a dense sod, a worthless foundation, your grass seed will not catch. If the ground is comparatively bare, I believe you can reseed very successfully. In the ranges of the mountain regions — in Washington, Cal- ifornia and Montana — we have had excellent success by re- seeding right on top of the ground. We shall have more data on this question later on, through our experiment work in Maine and Xew York. Secretary Ellsworth. Seeding in rye is one of the best ways of seeding a pasture, furnishing spring feed for the cows and protecting the young grass plants. Sometimes the milk- man will complain of the quality of the milk, if the cows are allowed to eat too heavily of the rye at first ; but that can be avoided by bringing them onto it gradually, allowing them to feed on it but an hour or two at first, and gradually increasing the time. I know of no way in which spring feed can be ob- taine^l more cheaply than on rye, or of making milk more cheaply at that season of the year. Afteenoot^ Session. Secretary Ellsworth. I will introduce to you Mr. Fred- erick A. Russell of Methuen, who represents the Essex Agri- cultural Society on the State Board of Agriculture, and who will preside at this session. The CirAiE:srAX. It is a gTcat pleasure to preside at this meeting. I am very much interested in the production of milk, and have need to be interested. We have in the rear No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 23 of \ho ball a show of corn, and it seems to me that no farmer in Massachusetts can afford to raise corn unless he can turn it into milk, or some dairy product. The subject of the after- noon is one that has many phases, and we expect to get a good deal of light on some of them. I take pleasure in introducing Mr. A. J. Piorpont of Waterbiiry, Conn. 24 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. THE PRODUCTION OF MARKET MILK. BY MR. A. J. PIERPONT^ WATERBURY^ CONN. The New England cow was formerly kept by the New England farmer to transform the grass of summer, and the hay and stalks of winter, into milk, cream, butter and cheese for the family. The butter and cheese were made in June, when the succulent feed caused the milk to flow freely ; and the cow was dried off in the fall, to save the labor of milking and caring for the product through the winter. O generation of ease and simplicity, why could I not have lived and labored with you ! The rapid growth of our manufacturing cities has created a great demand for dairy products. Butter and cheese are supplied by the fertile west, but the God of the Pilgrims so constituted milk that it could not stand shipment from the west, and left the business of supplying fresh milk, for New England's increasing population, to the New England farmer. It used not to matter how much milk the cow gave ; so long as she milked easy, did not kick and was not unruly, she was a good cow. When the opportunity came to sell a few quarts of milk, the returns were clear profit. Feed cost nothing, for they raised that. Labor cost nothing, for the farmer would not be earning anything elsewhere during the time he spent in milking and caring for his cows. As the population increased, he sold more and more ; it was demanded throughout the winter. Therefore, the silo was built to supply succulent feed Ihroughout the winter. The crop-growing capacity of the farms was taxed, and western grain had to be purchased ; and gradually this grain has become a necessity, and grad- ually soared in price. Outside labor had to be employed, first at farmers' wages; but gradually the laborer found that work No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 25 ou the dairy farm means long hours, hard, constant work, no Sundays or holidays, — and he steered clear of these farms. Boards of health have passed rules, necessary to insure clean, healthful milk, that have added to the cost of production. At last the milk producer has awakened to his conditions. What seemed a profit and a road to success proved a snare. The increased cost of feed, labor and cows, the rapid depre- ciation of cows and implements, the cost of delivery, and the proper cleansing of utensils, etc., — made the milk really cost more than it brought. This fact is evidenced by the frequent auction sale of herds by those who cannot make both ends meet ; by the shabby-looking homes and farm buildings that we see in many sections; by depicted soils (a farm often grows poorer year by year, even when everything grown is fed out on the farm) ; and by the number of farmers' wives in insane asylums,- or worked to such a state that life has no pleasure. Young men are leaving the farms of their birth for easier and more remunerative employment. The President appointed a conmiission to find out what is the matter with the farmer. The trouble with the dairy industry is, that it has changed so gradually from the selling of the surplus products from the family herd into a gigantic commercial business, requiring good business methods and close study of the details. The time is here when the master dairyman cannot do his day's work of physical labor, and then rest with untroubled brow. He must study feeds and feeding, breeds and breeding ; weigh the feed given and the milk taken from each cow; determine the profit from each individual, breeding from those showing a good profit, and eradicating the boarders ; on the same prin- ciple as factories, by improved methods of bookkeeping, deter- mine the profit on every machine and on every man's work, and know to a fraction of a mill what every article he puts on the market costs him. You know how the railroad officials figure the profit or loss on each road and on each train ; and wherever there is a loss, a ti-aiii is taken off or the fare raised. Arrange the barns, and plan operations so that the best results may be obtained by a minimum amount of labor. Do you know that Massachusetts has 192,000 milch cows, averaging about 4,000 pounds per cow ? Do you know that 26 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. the prodnct of more than one-half of these cows does not pay market price for the food they consume, and the labor of car- ing for them day after day is performed for nothing ? And do you know that there are herds in this State where the net profits from the sale of milk and the sale of stock are $10,000 a year, — more than $100 per cow ? What an opportunity for improvement, and what a need of a great awakening of dairy farmers and the dissemination of dairy education ! We must learn what it costs to feed and care for our cows, and then see that every day we get at least a little profit from every cow we keep. In studying this problem, there are four factors which we must consider : man, cow, feed, market. Man. — Without the man who loves his animals, sees to their constant comfort, and feeds them all they need without overfeeding, success is impossible. The trained feeder cannot tell his man how to feed ; it must be done by the master's eye and the master's hand. Hired Labor. — The dairy hand must be a high-class laborer. A small proportion of laborers are fit to work about live stock and market milk. He must be a strong, active worker, for the work is heavy and constant. He must have good health, for human diseases are transmitted to cattle, and the milk is a ready conveyer of diseases to city customers. He must be naturally clean in all his habits, for no number of rules from the boss will force a filthy man to produce clean milk. Even smoking, which is a universal habit among all classes, is almost prohibited in the dairy. I have employed a good many men, and have had but a very few smokers. I am not a tobacco crank, but experience has taught me that the employee who wears a pipe is usually too careless to care for cows and dairy utensils. He must also be a man of quiet, gentle disposition, to get along well with dairy stock or dairy customers. He must have both science and natural skill, whether he is to feed, milk and care for cattle, or care for dairy utensils and dairy products. What other business, trade or profession demands so many requisites in one man as dairy- ing? He must also be punctual and steady, and report for work early every morning, including Sundays and holidays; No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 27 for feeding, milking, paldliiig and the details of washing and bottling cannot bo intrusted to a substitute for a single day, no, nor an hour, without costly " breaking in " or chancing serious loss. I have recently been repairing some buildings, and had occasion to employ at the same time a mason, a car- penter, a plumber and a painter. My regular men worked three hours in the morning, before these skilled artisans ap- peared ; worked with them through the day, doing the harder parts of the work, such as digging, lugging stones and cement, and the plain work that was beneath the dignity of the me- chanics ; and worked at chores two hours after the skilled men had departed. After paying the workmen Avhat they con- sidennl their due, I was almost ashamed to pay my month men, — their wages looked like such a small pittance for their long hours of steady, faithful, hard work. Costly plants, expensive operations. Golden LaSEY. I think that the lecturer has shown a fine grasp of the dairy subject, though we may not agree with him on every point. The question of cost of milk pro- duction is a vital one to the average producer, and in the past milk has sold for altogether too low a price, — less than it cost to produce it under satisfactory conditions. I believe that this is because the average farmer has not kno^^^l what it costs him to produce milk. He has given his labor and that of his family, and said that it did not cost anything, with the result that the public at large has come to believe that milk can be had for 5 or G cents a quart. They are (iTadually realiziug that they must pay more. As soon as the No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 43 producer and consunier realize what it costs to produce milk, and that the producer cannot sell it for less than cost, I be- lieve that the whole problem will work itself out. At the experiment station we have simply figured the feed cost of raising a dairy cow, and find it to Ix^, for Jersey's and Jersey grades, from $50 to $05. We feed no new milk after the first three weeks, but have dei)ended solely on skim milk and hay. We have not tried to figure the labor cost, as we are carrying on experiments, and our labor cost is necessarily high. Mv. jST. B. Turnek. In Berkshire County we have a good deal of good pasture land, though rough and rocky. My plan is to take coavs that arc milking, and are going to freshen in the fall, get them to own a calf each, and turn into an out pasture. In the fall I have a big yearling and a cow worth more tha]i when she went to pasture. The calf will work the cow harder than we would if we milked her, but she will stand it without scouring. For the next two years I should not reckon my hay and pasture as high as does the lecturer. I should be glad to take in yearlings at 15 cents a week. I should have them freshen before they are two and a half years old. I think you get a better cow that way, by letting the udder grow and expand with the cow, before her body is done gi'owing. Dr. LiNDSEY. The opinion among practical dairymen in the past seems to have been that it pays to buy rather than to raise dairy cows. Many of our dairymen depend entirely upon cows that they buy. That is one reason that cows are so high, because so many of them have been brought in and kept a year or less, and then turned into heef. I would ask the lecturer if he finds it to his advantage to raise his owi animals. Mr. PiERPoxT. I find it so, for the reason that I cannot find cows that I can buy for less than $100 that will make a profit. ^rr. E. II. FoRRTSTATX. TTow much gTain is it advisable to feed a large yearling heifer ? Is it not better to feed more heavily on grain after she has had her first calf, and get a good growth at that time ? 44 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Mr. PiEEPONT. I believe in feeding heavily the first year, beginning with 1 i)Ound a day, and increasing to 3 jwunds the latter part of the winter. I want all the size I can get the first year, as I think that is the cheapest time to get the size; and the second year I want them to eat all the ronghage they can, giving them but little grain, as my theory is that that will make a cow of large digestive capac- ity. Then the last three months before freshening, at two and a half years of age, I begin to increase the grain, so as to develop the udder. Mr. W. A. Harlow. What do you think about the milk- ing machine ? Mr. PiERPONT. I think that the milking machine may be- come practical, but that as yet it is not. The Cir AIRMAN. I will ask Mr. Jewett to tell us some- thing al)out that. Mr. W. 0. Jewett. I believe thoroughly in milking machines, but my plant is a little out of date, and I did not care to put the necessary money into fixing it up, so I am temporarily not using them. If I had a herd of heifers started on the milking machine they would never give a bit of trouble, but old cows wall sometimes hold up their milk, just as when milked by hand, and for no apparent reason. If you weigh the milk, strip the cows that do not give what they should at any milking, and keep your power regular you will have no trouble with the milking machine. I used steam, and had a great deal of trouble in keeping the power regular. Mr. TuRisrER. What do you think best, to pasture stock, or soil them and keep them in the barn ? Mr. PiERPONT. If I had a pasture I should turn the cow out to get whatever it had to offer. I do not think we can afford to bring green crops to the cow, but I do think it is economical to feed ensilage and hay nearly every day in the year, Mr. W. C. Burt. I do not want any young man here to think it costs $114 to raise calves. My experience is that it never costs over $50 to raise a good heifer. No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 45 Mr. Bridgmajst. I figure that the cost of raising a heifer is about $45, with skim milk at 33 cents a hundred pounds, and labor. You cannot get more than $5 for a good grade calf, so why charge yourself more than that for one. I have two heifers now, two and two and a half years old, that will give a good 7,000 pounds of milk the first year, and they would not sell for $100. If it really costs $100 to raise them, it is better to buy, as you can pay from $00 to $75 and get 7,000 pounds of milk the first year. I usually keep cows two years, and get considerably more milk the second year than the first. Mr. Bowman. I was looking over the dairy farms in Rhode Island the other day, and I find they arc feeding beet pulp, costing $24 a ton. Is beet pulp a good thing to buy at that price, or is it better to buy ensilage ? Dr. LiNDSEY. Dried pulp is worth more than ensilage, but it is not worth $24 a ton, — not over $16 or $17. Beets are exhausting to the soil, and unless you have plenty of room to raise all your feed I should raise corn for ensilage, raise what hay I could and then buy the rest of the hay and grain needed to make a balanced ration, in the form of cotton-seed meal, wheat bran, etc. Evening Session. An evening session was held at 8 o'clock, at which Charles W. Bosworth, Esq., of Springfield, IMass., delivered an in- teresting and eloquent address on " The horse on Massachu- setts farms." By request the lecture is not included in this volume. Second Day. Secretary Ellsworth. It is my pleasure to introduce as the presiding officer for this session the First Vice-Presi- dent of the State Board of Agriculture, Mr. John Bursley of West Barnstable. Mr. Bursley. Mr. Secretary, ladies and gentlemen, I feel that an introduction is hardly needful with many of you, be- cause I have met you on these occasions for so many years. 46 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The subject that is before lis this morning is one that has in- terested onr people throughout the State, and one in which the consumer as well as the producer is vitally interested. I am glad so many of you have gathered for instruction on the subject of clean milk, which will be presented in a very able manner by Prof. R. M. Washburn of the Vermont Agricul- tural Exj^eriment Station, Burlington, Vt. No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 47 THE FOOD VALUE OF CLEAN MILK. THE DEMAND FOR CLEAN MILK: THE KEASONABLENESS OF ir. BY PROF. R. M. WASHBURJST, DEPARTMENT OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, VER- MONT AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BURLINGTON, VT. A situation exists to-day in New England and New York, and, to a lesser extent, westward to the opposite ocean. It is more than local, though we are the first to feel it keenly. It is more than a dairyman's problem; in fact, it is more than an agricnlturist's question. It is an economic condition based upon tradition, poor memory, personal greed, and an inabil- ity and unwillingness of the average individual to read or reason. Dean Davenport of Illinois calculates that by the end of the present century there "will be about twelve hundred mil- lion people in this country. President J. J. Hill of the Great Northern Eailroad, wlicii discussing the food supply of the future, predicts that l)y the middle of the present century there will be a wheat shortage of 400,000,000 bushels. Lord Macaulay is quoted as saying: " The day will come when the multitudes of people, none of whom has had more than half a breakfast or expects to have more than half a dinner, will choose a Legislature. It is possible to doubt what sort of a Legislature will be chosen, . . . There will be, I fear, spoliation. The sjxdiation will increase the distress; the distress will produce fresh sjDoliation. . . . Either civi- lization or liberty will perish." There remains very little new laud to be taken u]); our " out west " is past, so far as extension is concerned. The nation faces a situation which is none the less real because distant a few years from us. 48 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Even if we question the accuracy of these estimates in rate of human increase and shortage of food, the fact still remains that we are coming soon to a condition where it will be im- perative that all possible of the organic-energy-carrying ma- terial about us be converted into human food in the most unwasteful fashion. Around about us there are hundreds of thousands of acres of hill and meadow lands, producing vegctal)le growth which is absolutely valueless as food for man direct; and in addition to this we find that 60 per cent of the energy-carrying mate- rial of our field crops is likewise in such form as to recpiire first being consumed by some food-producing animal before it has any food value for man. In practice, the consumption of this otherwise waste stuff limits itself down to the beef steer and the dairy cow, and close study has shown that the cow will produce about seven times as much human food per unit of feed consumed as will the steer. In fact, the corn stalks, leaves and cobs produced on one acre of good corn, if fed to a steer will provide material for about 50 pounds edible dry matter in the form of flesh, while if fed to a dairy cow about 330 pounds edible dry matter will be produced. National economy, then, would de- mand that our hill pastures and lowland meadows, as well as the coarse fodders of cultivated fields, be employed in the pro- duction of nulk. Our New England farmers are now engaged in milk pro- duction more largely than in any other branch of agricul- ture ; or, in other words, they are workiiig along the lines of greater public good in food production. Yet it is a pain- ful fact that for some reason, or many, the business can scarcely be said to be a paying one. There is now a living in it, but little more. On top of the present condition another is climbing, which is tending strongly to make it yet more difficult to so handle this most honorable of human callings as to make it profit- able for those engaged in it. I have refei-ence to the great popular demand for better milk without a corresponding bet- ter price, and the fact that our milk producers already re- No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 49 ceive such poor pay for their product that at best the euterprise holds out small inducement, indeed, to those who have capital seeking employment. The demand for clean milk is growing; it is growing rap- idly. The health authorities, aided by many of the best- informed consumers of our cities, are active throughout the land in establishing laws and rules to govern the quality of milk sold in their respective cities. Whereas formerly the milk inspectors had to do principally with the retailer of the milk, the actual producer is now becoming mcjre and more involved, so that the health regulations of Boston and New York, and of other cities, are very materially affecting the routiue work on the dairy farms throughout New Eng- land and New York. That this demand is increasing is evident to every one at all conversant with the situation. Our fii-st question is, " Is this demand a well-founded and an intelligent one ? " Amount of Milk used. — According to the latest obtain- alile figures there are i)roduced in the United States about 7,20(5,400,000 gallons of milk per year, of which practically 30 per cent, or 2,180,000,000 gallons, are used as milk. Though this figure looks large it even then amounts to only six-tenths of a jiint per day per person, whichj viewed in that light, appears small. If accurate figures could be ob- tained up to the present time, they would undoubtedly be larger than those named, for milk is being more and more consumed as its real value becomes better known. At pres- ent "milk and cream together furnish about 16 per cent of the total food of the average American family." Numher of Dependent Infants. — There are in the TTnited States approximately one and one-half million babies under one year of age at the jiresent time, about one million of whom are dependent entirely oi- largely upon cow's milk for their nourishment, and the per cent of bottle-fed ba1)ies is increasing. Although adults consume consideral)le quanti- ties of milk, infants and young children furnish the principal market for milk. What relation is there between cow's milk and the well-being of these babies ? Statistics in this country 50 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. are largely wanting on the subject, but we have reason to believe that the figures obtained from Berlin, Germany, are accurate for their conditions, and apjiroximately so for ours. In the following table we note the death rate per thousand of infants fed on different foods : — Table 1. — German Statistics, showing the Death Rate per Thousand fed on Various Foods. Fed (111 motlier's milk, 7.4 Fed on mother's and cow's milk, ...... 21.4 Fed on cow's milk, 42.1 Fed on milk substitutes, 67.7 Fed on cow's milk and substitutes, ...... 125.7 From the above we note that where 1 child dies which is being breast fed, there arc nearly G when fed on cow's milk. In some places, most notably in our large cities, the death rate among bottle-fed babies is ten times that among breast- fed. This in itself would indicate either that the cow's milk is not adapted to the human infant, or that there is a great fault somewhere in the handling of the cow's milk. In com- paring the composition of human versus cow's milk, we notice that they differ principally in the following points: the fat in the cow's milk is about 30 to 40 per cent higher than in human ; sugar in human milk is nearly twice as high as that in cow's; the protein content of cow's milk is more than three times that of human; the nutritive ratio in the case of the cow is approximately 1 :4, and approximately 1:8 in the human, with an acid reaction in the cow's milk and an alkaline reaction in the human, as indicated in the following table : — Table 2. — A Comparison of the Tivo Milks, showing their Average Relative Component Parts on a Chemical Basis {Per Cent). Water. Fat. Sugar. Protein. Ash. Nutritive Ratio. Reaction. Cow's mills, . Human milk, . 87.0 88.4 4.0 3.3 4.5 3.75 6.9 1.50 .75 .20 1:3.9 1:7.8 Acid. Alkaline. No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 51 The differences as indicated above are quite readily over- come by a method known as moditicatiou, which is simply the addition of Avatei', milk sugar and lime water in such quanti- ties as to establish in the modified cow's milk approximately the conditions present in the human. Fat V. Cleanliness. — A study of the methods of modifica- tion shows us that it is customary to start a child with a milk in which there is about 2 per cent fat, and that gradually the fat content is increased until the child, at five or six months of age, is receiving milk containing about 4 per cent fat. Un- doubtedly this fact is largely due to the popular notion that fat is the most valuable ingredient of milk, and that milk has value in proportion to its fat content, without any particular reference to the other features. That this is a mistaken be- lief is becoming known slowly, as w^e study more and more closely the value of the other constituents of the milk and the value of cleanliness. Experiments have been conducted to show the value of rich milk versus half-skimmed milk as ani- nuil food. These experiments bear out thoroughly the ex- perience of our dairy stock breeders, namely, that rich milk, that is, milk containing around 5 per cent fat, is not condu- cive to highest bodily vigor; that milk containing practically only half that amount will develop stronger, more robust and thrifty animals, whether they be pigs or calves, than will milk containing 5 per cent or more of fat ; and w^e have no reason to doubt but that it is the same with children. In fact, wc have many reasons for feeling that it is the same with chil- dren. Xot infrequently in these tests have the pigs and calves fed on rich milk died outright from acute indigestion, diarrhoea or constipation, whereas their mates, on a less fat milk, have grown vigorously and without internal troubles. The statement just nuide is not a " boost " for the IIol- steins nor a " slam " on the Jerseys. It is a statement of fact which every housewife and every physician should re- member. Moreover, the stand taken by many of our city au- thorities in regard to the fat content of milk, namely, that, whether a cow gives a 5 per cent milk or a 3 per cent milk, it must not be changed in any particular, is unwarranted. 52 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. unjust and unscientific. If a city or a State adopts a fat standard for milk, it should certainly allow all who wish to standardize their milk to that standard. If that is not to be permitted, then every retailer of milk should be allowed and compelled to set his own standard, and be held accountable only to the living up to that self-imposed standard. Jersey milk standardized to 3 per cent fat is more valuable as a food than the milk of a Hoi stein which tests only 3 per cent naturally, because there will be an equal amount of fat and a greater amount of sugar and protein in such milk ; and to forbid such standardization, and prosecute those who prac- tice it, smacks more of a desire to make a large and showy an- nual report than a wish to safeguard the health or the purse of the consumer. The absence of dirt in milk is of greater value than the presence of fat over 3 ])er cent. The cause of had milk is something which every producer, handler and consumer of milk should understand. That there is a very vital connection between the cleanliness of milk and the health of our children, no one who is informed can deny. For convenience in study, the causes of poor milk may be grouped under three heads : the cow ; the air ; bacteria. Under the first we must recognize that when the cow is out of condition her milk is also out of condition; that to a very considerable degree milk is not dead matter, but por- tions of the living mother. It is well known to producers of high-class infant-feeding milk that when cows have, for in- stance, been injudiciously fed on something like green corn, their bowels become excessively loose, which effect is trans- mitted through the milk to infants consuming such milk. Any condition in the food which would cause the opposite condition in the foster mother would cause a similar opposite condition in the child. Again^ though a cow herself be thoroughly healthy, if the food consumed is ill flavored, like rye or wheat pasture, or silage not properly made, the j^un- gent and disagreeable characters will be transmitted to the milk, and cause the sensitive child, who soon becomes an expert judge, to refuse the food it so much needs. It is No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 53 highly unjust and improper^^ however, to prohibit the feeding of silage to dairy cows altogether, for there is practically no other food which can be fed in winter which will so closely resemble snmmer footl, and which will keep the cow in such thoronghly good physical condition, to say nothing of the producers' right of say in the matter, — that of economical production. Silago made from mature corn, preserved in properly con- structed silos, and fetl in quantities not greater than 25 to 30 pounds per day, will, by keeping the cows' general system in better condition, cause a better milk to be produced than those same cows could produce under like sanitary conditions were they fed solely on some dry food. The air of the stable is too frequently close and filled with dust and disagreeable odors. That the milk, or rather the fat of it, will absorb odors, is known to all of us. The rate at which such odors are absorbed, howe\'er, has frequently been overestimated. The milk should, however^ bo removed from the stable atmosphere as soon as it can conveniently be done; and in storage, too, it should be under clean environ- ment. Independent, then, of the possibility of bacterial contamination, there is a reason for an early removal of milk from ill-flavored places. Bacte7-ia, though tiny things, are now receiving an im- mense amount of attention, and justly so, for great is their ability to do good or ill. The dairyman, too, must remember that every particle of dust is a tiny raft or airship, each carrying upon it a dozen to a hundred living things which have the power of growing and filling large space. The dandruif and hair from the cow carry with them particles of manure which introduce the organisms which are frequently the cause of the " summer complaint," colic, etc., in infants. The dust in the air also introduces molds and l)acteria from dusty hay, fodder and bedding, which injure or destroy the feeding value of such milk. I say, brother dairyman, did you ever see a farmer get up in the morning, and, without washing, take two pails of swill from the house to the hog house, handle the tools con- 54 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. taincd in the hog house; then go to the horse stable, spank the horses over, feed them their grain, curry them and pos- sibly harness them; then go to the cow stable, and, after catching and tying up a calf, sit do^\^l to milk ivitliout wash- ing his hands ? I say, did yon ever see him do all this without washing his hands ? I have, we all have ; and we all know that to milk absolutely dry handed is extremely diffi- cult on many cows, and that not infrequently the lower portion of the hands becomes well washed during the milking process. Where does that dirt go ? Into solution in the milk, and, being in solution, it cannot be strained out through any amount of cheese cloth or even absorbent cotton. Imagine with me for a moment that the good housewife beats eggs, mixes cake, kneads bread or does any other sim- ilar piece of food work regularly in so dusty and ill-flavored a place as the ordinary cow stable. How many of us, young men, would be willing to marry into that family ? Would 3^ou, Mr. Reader ? As a matter of fact, however, the det- rimental effects which could possibly result from such work, which we would immediately pronounce fearfully dirty, would be nothing of consequence, for the reason that all those foods are thoroughly baked, and thereby sterilized before being con- sumed, whereas milk is consumed raw, and that by our tender- est specimens of humanity. These are not pleasant thoughts, but they are fact thoughts, and this is not a one-sided story. Milh as a Disease Carrier. — That epidemics of conta- gious diseases have been brought about through the medium of milk as a carrier of the specific organisms causing the disease has been thoroughly well shown many times. In fact, there are on record authentic instances of 500 epidemics which have occurred within the past thirty-five years, — 317 of typhoid, which is now almost exclusively a country dis- ease, brought about by poor sanitation and flies; 125 of scar- let fever and 58 of diphtheria, all of which were traceable definitely to milk, not as a cause but as a carrier of the or- ganisms introduced carelessly or accidentally, either from close contact with a person having the disease, or from the fact that the dairy utensils have been rinsed in water carry- No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 55 ing the disease germ. Aguin 1 repeat, that witli milk tlie absence of dirt is of greater value than the presence of fat over 3 per cent. Why has Cleanliness such Value? — Because milk is a good food for many forms of troiihle-making hacteria ; he- cause it is consumed in a raw state, which permits of intro- duction into the child of any organism which may be in the milk; because it is the principal if not the sole diet of snch infant or child ; because of the tender age of the con- sumer, — all of which emphasize the necessity for great care in the production and handling of this article. Clean and cold are the two qualities which enabled our distinguished dairy friend, Mr. Gurler, to ship milk from DeKalb, 111., to Paris, France, where, after twenty-one days, it was still sweet and wholesome, though carrying no pre- servative whatsoever other than mere cold ; the same qualities " which enabled a few dairymen who exhibited milk at the 190G National Dairy Show at Chicago to exhibit a milk of such high quality that " some of the samples remained perfectly sweet after being shipped 1,000 miles across the country, put in storage at a temperature of about 32° F. for two weeks, and then reship|-»ed a distance of 900 miles to Washington, D. C, where they were stored in an ordinary ice box several weeks longer, some of the certified samples being still sweet after five weeks. A part of a box of cream entered in this contest was placed in cold storage in Chicago at a temperature of 33° F. and remained sweet and palatable for a period of seven weeks ! " ^ When such records can be made by a few men, it opens the eyes of all of us to the pos- sibilities of the industry, and should at least make us all thoroughly ashamed of ourselves for producing a milk so dirty and keeping it so carelessly that it becomes sour in one or two days. In conclusion, then, we must admit that the demand that milk shall, at least, be as clean as other foods is a reasonable nnd just demand. 1 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 87, p 20. 56 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The Reasonableness of Clean Milk. To lay aside all sentiment, for love can neither be measured nor weighed, the naked truth remains that our children are the highest priced domestic stock we have, and that their quality and often their lives are continually threatened by the poor quality of milk fed them ; and that it is cheaper in dol- lars and cents to keep them well on clean food than to try to make them well on drug-store dope. The cost of producing such clean milk is considerable, as will immediately be argued. Just how much more cost is added because of the extra labor involved in producing a clean rather than a common article will always be very variable, and is hard to state with any high degree of accuracy, but that such ad(le cents a quart, or II4 cents per pound, does not cost one-fifth as much per pound of actual food as does porter house steak, and that eggs at 30 cents a dozen (1 dozen eggs equaling ll/> pounds), because of the waste of shell, and the very high water content of the contents of the shell, costs us a little more than $1 per pound of digestible dry matter, as against 14 cents in the case of skim milk. Even Hamburg steak, that most humble of all No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 59 meats bearing the name steak, when sold at the nsnal price, 20 cents per pound, costs GO cents per pound of actual food, or more than four times that of skim milk, even at 2^/^ cents per quart. Comparing the second group of whole milk against smoked ham, we find that whole milk at 7 cents a quart costs us only 28 cents per pound digestible dry matter, whereas ham, be- cause of the bone, skin and water, costs us 65 cents per pound ; and that certified milk, even at the " awful " price of 15 cents a quart, costs ns only CO cents a pound; or, in other words, certified milk at 15 cents a quart is cheaper food, even for the adult, than smohed ham at 25 cents a pound, and as cheap as Hamburg steak. In fact, if the ]u-ices of 7uilk to the consumer were exactly doubled, and nine-tenths (instead of one-fourth) of the increase given to the producer of the milk, the farmer Avould then not be greatly overpaid, and the consumer would still be getting food more cheaply per pound of actual digestible material in milk than in any other animal food of similar food value. As a matter of fact, the selling price of milk should be increased about 4 cents a quart, and S^/o cents of this raise given to the pro- ducer, in order that a cleaner milk may be made possible, and still have a market value in proportion to the increased cost of cow feeds, labor, building material and land values, which have advanced from 50 per cent to 100 per cent since 1895. Truly, good milk at 12 cents per quart is cheap food, while dirty milk is dear at half the price. Coming to the next group, and comparing cream against bacon, we find that 18 per cent cream at 40 cents a quart costs us about 80 cents per pound digestible dry matter, whereas bacon, with approximately the same food-giving power at 25 cents a pound costs us only 35 cents per pound. Cream has the price attached largely because of the flavor and the name, not because of its real food value. " The idea that only whole milk is fit to use, which is rather erroneously held by housewives, is perhaps ascribable to the esteem in which cream is held as an ingredient of ' rich food,' and may lead to quite needless waste or expend i- 60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. ture. For growing children, who need large quantities of protein and carbohydrates, 2 quarts of skim milk would sup- ply more of these constituents and more ash than 1 quart of whole milk. . . . Many families who are in the habit of drinking whole milk and buying cream would doubtless be quite as well oif if the top of the milk, say two or three inches in a quart bottle, were poured into the cream instead of the milk pitcher; the milk ought still to be far from thin and blue, and there would be a marked saving in the cost of cream." " The commonly accepted standard for a man at moder- ately active muscular work calls for .28 pounds of protein and a fuel value of 3,500 calories per day, so that a lunch of 1 pint skim milk and ^ pound of bread furnishes very nearly one-third of a day's nutriment, and at a cost of but 5 cents. If whole milk were used instead of skim milk, the cost woidd be about 7 cents, and the fuel value 1,080 calories, while the protein would remain the same in amount; " and added to this is the further fact that the presence of milk in human diet increases the digestibility and food value of all other food consumed by about 5 per cent. Reviewing the situation, then, we see that milk as a food for infants and young children is almost indispensable, and in reasonable quantities is an economical food for adults ; that the consumers are demanding something that they are not yet willing to pay for ; and that the producers are com- manded to do something which they cannot do and stay in the business. By co-operation last winter you did some good work, and the whole country, the consumers not excepted, respect you the more for it. Is the time not now ripe for a broader co- operation, one which shall reach all producers, contractors, health officials and milk consumers in New England and New York ? Is it not time for the dairy associations of these States to join hands, first with each other, then with those of contractors and others, for the purpose of placing before the consumers of milk the facts regarding the true value of milk ; to keep placing it before them until the opposition to No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 61 an increase in price shall Lave been broken, and milk put upon the basis that it has so long deserved; nntil, in fact, the occupation of producing this most vital of American food necessities shall become an attractive one both to capital and to men ? There is right and justice in the demand of the consumer for a cleaner, purer milk, and there is equal right and justice in the demand of the producer that he be repaid the extra cost of producing this extra quality, and no amount of in- spection or legislation will really avail much until the pro- ducers are adequately repaid. Mr. "\Vm. E. Pateick. How do you account for dairy men being such fools as to sell their ]u-oduct at the price they do, and ]>ay double for what they buy ? Professor Washburn. I shall not call the farmer a fool, for when we go into the cities we find men from the farms in every walk of life, and managing great businesses with skill and intelligence. Of all the business enterprises in the world farming is the most complex. To be a scientific farmer requires more training, and more careful training, than to be an equally good scientist in any other line. A scien- tific agriculturist must know chemistry, physics, botany and physiology, and all the other allied branches, and then cement the whole proposition together by experience, and have com- mon sense, business sagacity and diplomacy enough to handle hired men. Answering more particularly, I would say that farmers have sold for less than the true cost because they did not know what that cost was. The true cost of a quart of milk is a thing which it is extremely difficult to get down to exact figures. There is a viewpoint I would like to impress upon every man in the world who is interested in agriculture. I re- cently spoke before a gathering of farmers, and a lady asked to know the subject. I told her. " Well," she said, " the State is doing a lot for the farmer these days." Is it for the farmer? If so, is the State pauperizing the farmer by helping him? In this country there are, roughly speaking, 02 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. twice as many people altogether as there are on the farms. There are about as many homes in the cities as on the farms. In other words, there are two homes for every farm, one fam- ily on the farm and one family in town. The family on the farm has the first rights in the stnif they produce, and the man in town is dependent for his board upon the surplus. In the case of shortage, who goes hungry ? The man depend- ing on the surplus. Who, then, is most affected by improved agriculture ? The farmer gets the first good, but the city man gets greatest good, in the study of agriculture. All this is beside the question, but it is a thought I always like to bring out. Mr. S. II. Reed. Can you give the death rate per thou- sand in the country, where children are raised on the cow's milk, and in the city, after the handlers have handled that milk? Professor Washburn. I cannot. I doubt if the figures are obtainal)le ; certainly I have never been able to get them. A comparison conducted between cow-fed and breast-fed babies is not an entirely fair one. The dairyman might keep his milk entirely clean until it w^as delivered to the mother, and then the mother might do something to the milk that would injure it. It is ignorance and neglect and selfishness in the home, nearly as much as outside the home, that cause death. There would not be nearly as many deaths as there are if the milk were carefully kept after it reaches the home. Mr. Reed. Is the producer to blame, or the consumer either, any more than those who take the milk from the farm and carry it to the city ? Professor Washburn. By all means, no. The uses to which milk bottles are subjected in the city homes are some- thing awful, in many cases. It is a problem not for the dairyman alone, nor the agriculturist alone ; it is an economic condition based upon many things, including tradition and greed. Afternoon Session. Secretary ELESWOUTrr. I will introduce as the presiding officer for this session, Mr. John L. Smith of Barre, repre- senting the Worcester West Agricultural Society. Some of No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 63 the best farm management in the State is found right there in Barre, as perhaps you will pardon me for saying when you learn that I was born there. Mr. Smith. This subject has not been discussed as much as some others at our public meetings, but it is, I sometimes think, the most important of all, for no matter how good a product we produce we are not successful if we fail to man- age our business proi^erly. I now have the pleasure of intro- ducing the speaker of the afternoon, Hon. N. P. Hull, Deputy State Dairy and Food Commissioner, Dimondale, Mich. 64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. FARM MANAGEMENT. UY HON. N. P. HULL, STATE DAHiY AND I'OOD COMMISSIONER, DIMON- DALE, MICH, First, I want to take joii into my confidence by telling you that I did not come to Massachusetts to tell you all about the details of running your farm, for I know, as well as you, that the only way I could successfully handle the details of a farm in Massachusetts would be to leave my farm in Michigan, move here, settle upon this land, and study conditions of soil, market and climate for a few years ; then I might be able to understand fairly well the details of farm management in Massachusetts ; but I maintain that there are certain basic princii)les of farm management that are just as true here in Massachusetts as they are in Michigan. Let me here give an illustration of farm management. Upon one side of the road there is a man who does a fairly good day's work, day in and day out for a year. At the end of the year he has made a profit; he has something to show for his labor; he has been able to surround himself and his family with the comforts of life, educate his children and lay aside something for the day of sickness, calamity and death. Beside him, or perhaps across the road, there is another man, who works harder than the first-mentioned man ; his wife works harder than any one ought to have to work, and his children work hard, but at the end of the year he is no better off than at the beginning. After a decade has gone by this man has nothing to show for his labor except the bare fact of having existed. The one man has managed his farm, his busi- ness, correctly ; the other man has not. The result is one man succeeded ; the other did not. Let me here ask yon a question. LTow many of you who have been farming for ten years can tell which crop grown No. 4.] FARM MANAGEMENT. 65 upon your farm, or wbieli line of live stock baudlccl, has paid you tlic uiost net profit ? Some of you can. I dare say most of you cannot. If you know nothing about where you have gotten your profits, wherein has your experience of ten years upon a farm profited you in being able to ]nore intelligently direct your efiorts for the next ten years ? I am a farmer, the same as you, and I did not come here 1x3 run down the farmer, nor to separate my lot from yours ; but I want to maintain here that our good Creator knew what he was doing when he made the farmer. lie gave him good, strong hands and arms because there was work to do in the world, and the farmer has his fair share of this world's work to do, but he also knew what he was doing when he put a part of the farmer's anat- omy above his ears, and put brains therein. I presume he thought the farmer would use those brains to more intelli- gently and more cunningly direct the efforts of his hands, so that the work of those hands would avail him more. Let me illustrate this. A young man from the fruit section of Mich- igan was sent by his father to our agricultural college to take a course in horticulture. After completing the course the young man returned to bis father's farm. The father had 10 acres of apple orchard on his 80-acre farm. The boy said, " Father, let me take this orchard, prune it, fertilize it and spray it, as I have been taught to do." The father was a hard-headed old farmer, and, looking the boy over, he said, '' Humph, you have been down to that college and got the big head, ha\'e you ? I want you to understand that I grew apples before you were born." The boy was a chip off the old block. Looking his father in the face he said, " Dad, it looks to me as though you have made a mistake." " Why ? " asked the father. The son replied, " Either you made a mistake when you furnished the monoy to send me to college to learn what I now know, or else you are making a mistake when you will not let me use that knowledge." This was a hard nut for the old gentleman to crack. Finally he said to the l)oy, " Take the orchard and try it one year; I guess you cannot spoil it in that time." The boy took the orchard, pruned it, sprayed it and cared for it as he had been taught to do, and he made more profit oil' that 10 acres of apple orchard that year than his 66 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. IPub. Doc. father bad made oli the whole farm iu the past ten years. The boy's hands or arms were no stronger, neither did he work harder than his father had worked, but he won because he more intelligently guided the labor of those hands. In farm management, whether the farmer lives east or west, north or south, there are two things that he should ever keep before him: first, that he should sell as many dollars' worth of product off his farm each year as he can, which shall carry with it the largest per cent of profit possible ; second, that he shall maintain or increase the fertility of his farm so that he may go on selling more dollars' worth of }U"oduct, which shall carry with it a larger per cent of profit. xVs to my first statement, the frutli is almost self-evident. If we are to progress in the world and ha\e better things, and to make better connnunities, we must do it largely from the l)rolits in our business. In fact, the profit that wc make in a year measures, in a commercial way, the value of that year of our life, and surely we ought to feel that our life is of sufficient value to urge us on to get as much for it as we can. As to the second proposition. A man having a warranty deed for an 80-acre farm has a legal right to mine it; or, in other words, to blight it so that those who come after him shall not be able to make a living from it. I do not believe that he has a moral right to do this. He owes it to his chil- dren, to his community, to his State and to his nation to so handle his farm that a fair share of the great unborn armies of the future shall be able to make a living from it. Again, as to my first proposition. One source of income or profit to the farmer is crop production. We owe it to our- selves to know which crop is best fitted to our land, our climate and our conditions, and then strive to so handle this crop that we shall make the largest possible profit from it. I have learned that in ])rodueing a crop, after one gets a sufficiently large crop to pay for the cost of production, it requires but a little larger crop to furnish us G per cent j^rofit ; and it requires but just a little larger crop than this to double the profit, and just a little more will triple the profit. Let me illustrate that by the corn cro]5. I do not care to have you remember the figures I give you ; they Avould be of no value to you, as they No. 4.] FARM MANAGEMENT. 67 would not approximate your conditions, but 1 must give some figures to illustrate the principle. Upon my farm for the last ten years, taken as an average, 55 baskets of ears of corn per acre, together with the resulting corn stover, will just about pay the cost of production. If I grow 4 baskets more, or 5J) baskets per acre, I make 6 per cent upon my investment. If I can grow 4 baskets more, or 63 baskets per acre, I will make l:i per cent upon my investment. That is, under my condi- tions, a 63-basket crop of corn is as good again as a 59-basket crop. Let me illustrate this. My friend Mr. Smith here is husking corn on one side of the fence, I on the other. You come along and ask Mr. Smith how his corn is turning out. He says, " 03 baskets per acre." You ask me. I say " 59." Most of you would say there is not much difference in those two crops of corn, but if my figures are true there is quite a difference, for T must plow my land again, plant it again, care for the crop and harvest it, and get another 59 baskets, then I will have 8 baskets of corn profit in those two years ; but ray friend Smith gained 8 baskets of profit in one year. I jtut in two years to acconi|)]ish what my neighbor accom- })lished in one year, which means that by simply growing 4 baskets more corn per acre than T grew he has doubled the value of his time compared to mine. What is true in prin- ciple regarding the corn, croj) is true of every crop we grow. When we put in part of our lives growing crops, we should strive to produce such crops in such a way as will return to us the largest value ff)r the time we expend. I am reminded of a farmer in northern Michigan, who, when asked to attend a farmers' institute, said, " If I have good land, and the good Lord sends us the rain and sunshine, I will get a crop ; if He does not send the rain and sunshine, I cannot; and there is no use attending an institute." I sup- pose the good Lord will send the same amount of rain upon our fields whether we know the business of farming or not, but whether the surface of our fields are so crusty that the rain will run off to the hollows, or whether the surface will permit the ])ercolating downward of the rain into the great storehouse whore it can be (lr;i\\ii upon in time of need, de- l)cnds upon the intelligent handling of the field. So many sun- 68 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. beams Avill strike our iiekls each year, whether we study to know or not, but whether they shall be refracted backward or shall be absorbed to quicken our land depends upon the intelligence we use in feeding that land. I am constrained to believe that if we, as farmers, do our part as well as the Lord does His, we might, most of us, be better oil'. As to maintaining fertility, there are two methods we may successfully follow. First, that of green manuring and com- mercial fertilizers ; second, that of adopting some line or lines of live stock husbandry, feeding out as much upon the farm of that which the farm produces as is possible, and returning the resulting fertility to the farm. While in a limited way a man may undoubtedly succeed by the first method, my judg- ment and practice would lead me to believe that for the great majority of farmers, both east and west, the second method is the better and more practical. It is not enough, however, that we feed out the stuff we raise upon the farm and convert it into a finished product and fertilizer, but we must see to it that this fertilizer is cared for and goes back upon the land. The Secretary of Agriculture estimates that about one-half of our farm-made fertilizers are wasted, and he also estimates that this waste equals or exceeds a billion dollars a year. How long can Ave go on wasting our natural ability to grow crops, depleting our fertility and wasting our resources, and still be able to feed the great number of people that there Avill be for us to feed in the future ? In adopting some line of live stock husbandry, we should keep in mind the first principle of success which I mentioned. We want to feed out our product to the animal that will return to us the most for it, with the largest per cent of profit. To do this, my judgment and experience permit me to recommend the dairy cow. In proof of this let me compare the cow as an economical producer to the steer. Suppose we have here a unit of feed. This unit represents enoiigh feed that if fed to the steer will make liim dress one pound more. That is, the steer will take this feed and convert it into a pound of dressed beef. Now, if instead of feeding this unit to the steer we fed it to a good dairy cow. she would convert it into a pound of butter or two pounds of cheese. A pound of dressed beef by No. 4.] FARM MANAGEMENT. 69 the side would be worth from 5 to 10 cents. A pound of butter would be worth from 20 to 40 cents. But, some one says, the cost of producing the pound of butter, aside from the feed, is more than that of producing the pound of beef. This is true, but the difference in cost of production is no way commensu- rate with the difference in the value of the product. Now. if T recommended the cow to you, and ^topped there, it would not be quite fair, for it is true that many men are keeping cows that do not return to their owners the first cost of the feed they consume. This, however, is not the fault of dairying, but the fault of the man keeping the cow^s. He is not using enough intelligence and painstaking care to know the essentials for success of the business that he is in, and then adopting these essentials. There are just three essentials in profitable dairying. These are, first a good cow; second, good feeding; third, good care. There are some cows that have the natural ability to take feed and profitably convert it into milk. There are other cows that have not this natural ability to take feed and profitably convert it into milk. I have said that in Mich- igan there are three kinds of cows. This, I think, is also true in j\[assachusetts. One kind of eow" takes her feed, digests and assimilates it, and because of her iidiorn tendency, predis- position, temperament, or call it the law of nature, if you will, she converts this digested feed into beef. This is a beef cow. Another cow, because of her temperament, converts her di- gested feed into milk. This is a dairy cow, and I care not what her breeding or color may be. I just want to know that her temperament prompts her to convert that feed into milk, I would advise the farmers to tie to this sort of cow, for, in my judgment, she will do the farmers of Massachusetts more good than any other animal that walks on four legs on the farms of Massachusetts. Then there is another kind of cow, that takes her feed, digests and assimilates it, and God only knows what she does with it. She neither makes milk nor beef of it, and she is of no value to any one anywhere and should be gotten rid of. Time and space will not permit me giving a talk here upon feeding and the care of cows, but successful fiinii ami daiiy management necessitates a man knowing how to do these 70 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. things and then doing them. Let me give an illustration of farm management. One man whom I knew bought a farm, and ran in debt for one-half the purchase price and for teams and tools to stock it. His neighbor said, " It was too bad, for he would lose all his hard-earned money invested in the farm." When he moved to the farm his neighbors watched him. He first made a small barnyard. His cows were kept there nights, and the first thing in the jnorning, with a shovel, he gathered the droppings and put them on the compost heap. His neigh- bors said, " Well, that is all we want to see. If he is to pay for that farm he must grow crops and sell them, and not bother around in that way." It was a bother to this man to collect those droppings ; then he must bother to take them to the field and scatter them ; and his bother did not cease there, for. other things being equal, from the first year that man moved upon the farm he has been bothered with harvesting a larger corn crop, a larger wheat crop and a larger bean crop; and to-ortant, including those changes occurring before the leaf dies; the second, the further changes taking place after the leaf is dead. In the first stage, under favorable conditions, the leaf under- goes a slow process of stars'ation, which is absolutely necessary for good curing. Care should be taken that the leaf is not killed by too rapid drying before the process is complete. The tobacco should be allowed to dry out gradually, and the rate of drying can be controlled by regulating the ventilation, ex- cept in very wet weather, when artificial heat is also required. Again, the temperature in the barn should not go much below 50° F., for under these conditions the tobacco sim})ly dries out without curing. The use of artificial heat is the only means of keeping the right temperature in the barn in cold weather. If the leaf is prematurely killed in the first stage by haying down, no amount of sweating or fermenting can fully correct the damage. The change from the first to the second stage of curing, wliich is the point at which the leaf dies, is indicated by the yellowing of the leaf. There is less danger from too rapid drying of the tobacco in the second stage. On the other hand, the principal danger after the yellowing of the tobacco is from pole sweat, caused by too much moisture. The on]y means of controlling ])(ile sweat is by the use of artificial heat combined with ventilation. Comparing the methods of harvesting by picking the leaves and by cutting the stalk, the picked leaves after curing are 10 to 15 per cent heavier than when cured on the stalk. They have more body and more of the so-called " gum " and elas- ticity. The colors of the picked leaves are usually not so clear 84 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. as when cured on the stalk, and they show more of a greenish cast. Mr. George P. Smith. Would you apply heat during the first stage of the curing ? Dr. Gaenek. The matter of applying artificial heat is not entirely settled, and should be tried out very carefully, but in the first stage there is no danger from pole sweat, as there is no danger of the leaves not drying out fast enough, and there is, therefore, not much use for heat, unless the weather is cold. In the first stage it is the temperature that is im- portant, and in the second stage the humidity ; and as excessive humidity is the cause of pole sweat, artificial heat is, therefore, the remedy for that trouble. If there should be a cold night during tlie first stage of curing it would be well to have just enough heat in the barn to keep the chill from the tobacco, to prevent the temperature falling much below 50° F. Do not allow the curing to be checked by too rapid drying or by too low a temperature. If the weather is Avet we need both heat and ventilation in the first stage. In the second stage the im- portant point is to dry the leaf, and it cannot well be dried too rapidly. This is contrary to the views held by many, but if the first stage is j^assed through successfully, you can make good any shortage in the second stage by regulating the fer- mentation. Take a leaf of green tobacco, put it in a hot oven and. leave it for five minutes and it will never cure, but will be in exactly the same condition after it has been hanging six months. Mr. Smith. About how long does the first stage take ? Dr. Garner. That depends a good deal on conditions, be- cause curing is regulated a good deal by the rate at which the drying proceeds, and more especially by the temperature. To- bacco will cure very rapidly if the temperature is 80° F. or above, but if it remains between 50° and G0° F. the curing is very slow. Under favorable conditions the essential changes in the first stage can take place in from three to five days. After that period no injury is done by too rapid drying. Mr. TuADDEUS Graves. The ordinary practice has been to cut olf all ventilation and ap})ly artificial heat for the purpose No. 4.] HARVESTING AND CURING TOBACCO. 85 of drying the air, the feeling being that it was an endless task to dry all the air that cuukl come in from outside. Do I un- derstand that you advise ventilation as well as heat in moist weather ? Dr. Garner. Yes, for the reason that the object is not to dry the air but to increase its capacity to take up moisture from the tobacco. Suppose the temperature is 60° F., and it is raining outside. The atmosphere will take up no more moisture, as it is saturated. But if we heat the air in the barn to 80° F. it will take up twice the moisture that it will at 00°, because each increase of 20° in temperature doubles the capac- ity of the air for holding moisture. Then, if you let in damp air from outside it becomes heated and takes up more moist- ure. On the other hand, there is danger in applying heat and keeping the barn closed if the weather is wet outside, as you simply stinmlate the tobacco to give oif more moisture in the barn and do not remove the moisture. You must make a dis- tinction between drying and curing tobacco. It must not dry too rapidly, but let it cure as rapidly as it will. ^Iv. H. J. Searle. I would like to inquire what apparatus there is that gives any promise of being of advantage to the ordinary tobacco grower. We understand that open charcoal fires in the ground are undesirable, also steam heat. Dr. Garner. We are experimenting with a system of flues and furnaces which we hope to be able to announce definitely, in a short time, as a successful method. The furnace is very simple, a home-made furnace, simply a hole in the ground, with an ordinary cover and a flue leading out from it. We use wood as fuel. We are using a double vent once across the barn and return. Each pipe runs out doors, and we have a furnace for each vent. It may be that after further experiment we will find that we can get along with a single vent, or can run sev- eral of them into a central exit flue. There are a good many things about this system of which we are not certain as yet Mr. Graves. If the roof has no ventilator and you put heat in the bottom of the barn that will drive the damp air to the top, is it possible to heat that damp air? Dr. Garxkr. With a loosely shingled roof there will 1)0 a good many crevices ihrough which the air can escape, thus 86 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. making natural ventilation, but if jou have a very tight roof, such as a tarred paper roof, you must have a ventilator at the top. Heat alone is of no benefit in moist weather, because the moist air must be allowed to escape. While the increase in temperature enables the air to take up more moisture it cannot continue to do that forever, but soon becomes saturated at the higher temperature. Mr. Searlj:. Does not any kind of heat, open or closed, help when tobacco is puffing and preparing to sweat ? I have used large stoves open at the top, with drafts on each side at the bottom, and a large sheet-iron cover to prevent the direct heat coming in contact with the tobacco over the stove. If the heat is too strong I dig a hole and let the stove down as low as I want it. Dr. Garnek. I shouhl recommend the use of heat when pole sweat is threatened. The man Avho sits down and allows his tobacco to rot under such conditions is doing exactly the same thing as if he allowed his crop to spoil in the field. Until we develop a better system use charcoal. Mr. Searle. How would coke do ? Dr. Garner. 1 cannot recommend coke because it has a great deal of sulphur in it. While burning, the sulphuric acid will be given off and will be likely to bleach the tobacco and ruin it, when an open fireplace on the floor is used. If used in a furnace, so that the gas w^ill be carried ort*, this objection will not apply. Mr. Lyman Crafts. I would like to ask if there are not conditions possible in the second stage of curing when the application of heat would do more harm than good ? Suppose the air outside is thoroughly saturated w^itli water for a con- siderable period, and the temperature is down to 40° or 50° F., would not the application of heat without ventilation cause the tobacco to throw off much more moisture than it would without heat, and would not that do, more harm than good ? Dr. Garner. Yon have brought out an excellent point. We must guard against low temperature, as T have said, in the first stage of curing, l)ut we know that low temperature will stop pole sweat, and if the temperature in the second stage is anvwhere from 40° F. down to freezing', I think it would be No. 4.] HARVESTING AND CURING TOBACCO. 87 Aviser not to apply heat. By applying heat then yon will simply favor the pole sweating. Mr. Graves. Do I nnderstand that a leaf taken from the stalk cnres with more weight than where cured on the stalk; and if so, how do you account for it ? Dr. Garner. It unquestionably does have more weight, as has been proved by repcate most reasonable and practical test of production, and his i)hin briefly is as follows: certain ears of corn will be selected and numbered, one-half of each ear 102 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. will be shelled and carefully preserved, while the other half of each ear will be planted in test rows of one-half ear to the row. From these test rows records will be secured as to the individual merits of the ears tested. The shelled corn which was saved from the four or five best producing ears is then planted on an isolated area, and in this way seed is produced for the crop or the multiplying area of the succeeding year. Thus the seed corn will be produced from the highest yield- ing four ears of the test area. This system of corn breeding, known as the " remnant system," requires three distinct corn- breeding areas each year. The first is what is known as the ear-to-the-row test, where one-half of each ear is planted and one-half is saved for future use of the four or five best ears. The second is a small breeding plat from the remnant of the four or five best ears of the year before. In this second plat all the corn may be detasseled except that from the one ear which gave the highest production. This will insure that the male parent in this breeding plat shall be from the highest producing ear of the test of the year before. Seed is saved only from the detasseled rows, thus insuring cross fertiliza- tion. The third area is known as the multiplying plat, and this should be planted on a part of the farm isolated from all other corn. The seed produced on this plat should be kept for planting the whole crop of the succeeding year, and for supplying all the neighbors who may wish to pay the price for the same with improved seed corn. It will require three years from the time the first selection is made until the gen- eral crop of corn is planted from this selected seed. While this work of selecting and breeding is not difficult, and not beyond the ability of an average farmer or farmer's boy, yet where one has already overburdened themselves with fann work, it will usually be found impracticable as well as im- possible to go into corn breeding even to the extent I have here outlined. To add this to the work of the already over- burdened farmer would not be unlike the adding of teaching agriculture to the already overburdened teacher of a country school. There is a place and an o]i])ortunity for some bright bov in everv communitv to o-o into this matter of corn breed- No. 4.] CORN GROWING. 103 iiig and to furnish the entire seed corn for the community. Corn thus pro<;lueed will he worth considerable more than that which is purchased in llic general market, raised in some distant section of the country, no one knows where, and which may not be adapted to the special local needs of the com- munity where it is to be used as seed. At the present time a larger part of the corn which is grown in New England is grown from seed which is pur- chased at the local seed store, possibly a local hardware or grocery store, without any special reference to corn breeding or selection. Even with this rather haphazard way of buy- ing seed corn there is an opportunity for the exercise of dis- cretion and skill in the purchasing of seed. One should first determine what type of corn will most fully meet the require- ments. The mistake which is most usually made is in the selection of the type of corn, simply because it is a large growing variety. This is especially true in this section, where corn is grown almost entirely for the purpose of en- silage. In selecting corn which is to be grown for the silo, it is well to select one of the largest growing varieties which will come to full maturity, or which will at least approach maturity, in the usual season of the locality where it is grown. This would mean for southern New England the selection of such varieties of dent corn as Leaming, Pride of the North and Early Mastodon, and for northern New England the growth of such varieties as Pride of the North and possilily Leaming or Longfellow. It is only in rare and individual cases that it is wise to grow in New England such varieties as Eureka, Cuban Giant and other large growing varieties which will come nowhere near maturity in our usual season, and yet there are cases where it may be wise to select the largest growing type of corn which can be secured. If one has but 5 or 6 acres on which to grow corn, and a 200-ton silo which must be filled, then the largest growing variety of corn should be planted, without regard to whether it comes to maturity or not. The ]iurpose here, of course, is to secure the largest amount of roughage and succulent food which can be grown to the acre. But on most farms it is wiser to grow 104 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. a larger acreage of corn of some variety which will mature the grain, and in this way secure quality in food as well as quantity. Most of the seed corn offered for sale in the local markets is shelled corn, and the farmer never has an oppor- tunity to see what type of ear produced this corn. If shelled corn is to be purchased, a careful examination should be made to determine the quality of the corn; the kernels should be clear and bright in color, full and plump in outline, not shriv- elled and shrunken, indicating immaturity. The germ should be large, and not discolored or l)lack, and a germination test should be made in every case to determine if the corn will grow. For, after all the discussion with reference to corn breeding and selecting, the most important quality which must be possessed by the seed corn is the power of growth. Good looking corn which may possess nearly all of the ad- miral)le qualities which are desired in seed corn can be found lacking in that most essential of all qualities, the ability to grow. Unless seed corn possesses this quality in a high de- gree, and with vigor and strength, corn had better be fed to the chickens, and replaced by other corn which will grow, whether or not it comes from quite as aristocratic a family. While the selection of good seed is fundamental and vital in the growth of corn, yet it is only one of the elements which make for success. The best seed corn ever produced, if planted and cared for as is some of the corn grown in New England, would fail to give satisfactory results. It is just as important that we give serious attention to the matters of rotation of crops, adaptation of the crop to the soil, proper soil fitting and fertilizatiou, tillage, harvesting and cur- ing. All of these matters are of equal importance with corn breeding. The proper place for corn in rotation is the first year after sod. No other farm crop seems so well able to thrive upon the undecomposed turf as corn. If the turf which is plowed for corn is in part made up of clover, this is all the better for the corn, as the clover will have brought to the soil a large portion of nitrogen which will be needed by the corn. Some growers have found it necessary to raise corn year after year No. 4.] CORN GROWING. 105 on the same land, depending npon the liberal nse of stable manure and coniniercial fertilizer and cover crops for main- taining the soil. While this can be done and a high average yield of corn maintained, yet it is not a practice which should be universally adopted, and can only be used to advantage where for special reasons it is found necessary. That treat- ment of the land which shall cause a cultivated crop like corn or potatoes to alternate with a sowed crop like oats or grass and clover tends to keep the soil free from weeds, to prevent the waste of plant food, to increase the soil humus and to bring about generally those conditions which are found favor- able for crop production. Whether farm manure shall be plowed under for corn, or Avhether it shall be applied as a surface dressing after plowing, must be determined by the local conditions. If that method of plowing is practiced which leaves a furrow on edge rather than completely invert- ing it, the manure niay be apjilied before plowing, and then harrowed in with the disc harrow. By thorough incor]iora- tion with the soil it will not only furnish plant food for the crop, but Avill serve to improve the physical condition of the soil. To leave the manure in the yard until after the corn ground is plowed, and then to haul it over the plowed land in distributing it, greatly adds to the labor without producing marked increase of the crop over that method of applying the manure before plowing. Where farm manure and commer- cial fertilizer are both used upon the same land for corn, if the manure is plowed under and the commercial fertilizer applied as a surface dressing they will supplement each other, the commercial fertilizer starting the corn off vigorously and the farm manure serving later in growth. It is impossible to lay down any definite rules which will apply in all cases, but the practice must vary according to th^ ty])e of soil, according to the condition of the manure and according to the ])revious treatment of the land. In planting corn a system of cheek-row planting has many advantages over drilling or rowing but one way. Where the soil is infested with weeds and grass it is a great advantage to be able to cultivate the corn in two directions. This can 106 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. only be brought about by the pbmting in the check-row sys- tem. Two row horse planters can now be purchased which will plant corn in check rows, providing the land is fairly level. On much of our hill lands it will be found that these check-row planters are not a complete success. We have one field at the Connecticut Agricultural College planted this year by one of these machines. C^orn is rowed in one direc- tion, but it would require the skill of an acrobat to cultivate it in the other direction. On another field, which is fairly level, the planter has done most excellent work, the corn being well rowed in two directions. Many farmers still hold to the practice of planting with a hand planter. In this case it is possible to check row the corn with absolute uniformity. With the land marked off in advance, two men with hand planters will have no difficulty in planting from 8 to 10 acres per day. In growing the dent corn for the silo these rows may be -Sl/o feet apart in one direction and 3 feet apart in the other direc- tion. In growing the smaller types of flint corn the rows may be 3 feet apart both ways, and abundance of room will be furnished for each hill of corn. Directly after the corn is planted cultivation should begin. This cultivation should not be delayed until the corn is up, but may oftentimes be given to advantage on the same day on which the corn is planted. Especially is this true where the corn is likely to be dug up by crows. The use of a smooth- ing harrow or weeder directly after planting has in many cases served to protect the seed from damage by the crows. It is even more effective than treating the corn with tar or other substances. After the corn is up, the first cultivation should be given with an implement with narrow teeth, which may be run close to the rows of corn, which are set fairly deep ; this will not roll the earth and bury the hills of corn. The first cultivation should be as deep as any cultivation you expect to give during the season, for if any of the surface roots are to be pruned, that pruning should be done at the first cultivation, for at that time the plant has relatively a much larger growth of root system compared with top than it will have again during the season. During the growing sea- No. 4.] CORN GROWING. 107 son the corn should be given cultivation at frequent intervals, the number of cultivations being determined somewhat by the season and soil conditions. During a dry season the surface should at all times be kept loose, open and porous ; and dur- ing a wet season, as soon as possible after the rain the surface should be stirred to a depth of from two to three inches, and this surface layer made as dry as it is possible, for the drier we can keep the surface of the soil on any cultivated field the more completely do we hold the moisture beneath the surface, whore it is needed by the growing plants. The practice of hilling corn is one which is advisable only on lands which are naturally too wet for the growth of corn, i»r in a wet season, when it is desired to establish surface drains in which the surplus of rainfall may be carried quickly from the field. During recent- years we have not been seri- ously troubled with a surplus of rainfall, and consequently those fields which have been given level tillage through the entire season have given best results. Corn is a valuable crop for New England because it gives a splendid opportunity for the growth of cover crops, which may be used to advan- tage for green manuring purposes. This cover crop can be sown to advantage at the last cultivation of the corn, but it is often better to wait until the corn is harvested, especially where this corn is to be put into the silo ; then harrow the field over thoroughly before sowing the seed for the cover crop. Of all cover crops which have been tested in New England, none have proved of greater value than rye, or a mixture of rye and winter vetch, or rye and clover. If the seed can be put into the soil during the month of September a good growth will be n^ade in the fall, and it will serve to prevent erosion, to hold the soluble plant food and prevent waste in the drainage waters. The most economical way of storing the corn crop after it is raised is to put it into a silo, and of all the types of silos so far recommended the round, wooden stave silo is, for the general farm, the best type. Concrete, l)rick and stone silos have all been tried and all have their advocates. It is claimed for them that, once constructed, they are a ]iermanent im- 108 BOARD OF AGRICrLTURE. [Pub. Doc. provement, and yet no one seems to know of a stave silo which has ever been worn ont. For twenty or more years stave silos have been in use, and so far as can be learned they are, where properly constructed, just as good to-day as when they were built. Jf a stave silo is good for twenty-five or thirty years, even though it must then be replaced, it is more economical than a concrete or brick silo. The money representing the difference in cost between the two types of silos, if placed in a bank at 4 per cent interest, would at the end of twenty years have won enough dividends to more than pay for the construction of a hew stave silo. I make this statement with reference to silos in spite of the fact that the Massachusetts Agricultural (Ndlege has two concrete silos, and is apparently well satisfied with the results. Recently, in discussing the matter of silo construction, and advising that the base of the silo be on the level with the feeding floor, and that it is not usually advisable to dig a hole in which to set the silo, I was informed that this pit in the ground was necessary in order to hold the juices of the silage and prevent their waste. If the corn is allowed to come to that degree of maturity to which it should come, there will be no visible juice to be preserved, for it will all be mixed with the silage. As a better quality of hay is secured where the grass is not allowed to come to full maturity before being cut, it was sup- posed that corn would also make a better quality of silage if it were harvested before it came to maturity, and it is diffi- cult to overcome the practice established during the early years of ensilaging corn. It is rather unfortunate that our local fairs and State fairs all over New England are held during the month of corn harvest. Of course the farmer and his sons and all the hired men must go to the fair, and this fi-equontly means that the corn is harvested and silos filled in order that this work shall not come along to interfere with the attendance at the fairs. Better take the risk of a slight frost and let the corn come to maturity than put it away when it is green and lacking in its fullest development. While corn and corn products alone do not make a perfect ration for farm animals, nor the stalk nor the grain contain that degree No. 4.] CORX G MOWING. 109 of protein which is necessary for the chury cow, yet as a source of carbohydrates, of roughage, of material to mix with purchased concentrates, there is no crop which can take its place. Much has been done to improve the crop as a result of breeding and selection, and this work will go on until every man who plants corn will plant pedigreed seed corn, which he knows possesses high producing qualities. But I wish to emphasize the fact that the selection of good seed is only one of the elements which makes for success with this crop. It is probable that without the slightest change in our practice and use of seed corn we could, by better cultivation, better fertilizing and better rotation, increase the yield of corn in Massachusetts at least 10 bushels per acre, and this would mean an increase in the crop for the entire State of 470,000 bushels. Ten bushels more per acre w'ould mean an increase in the corn crop in Connecticut of 000,000 bushels. For those who have no faith, or but little faith, in the modern principles of corn breeding this matter of better tillage and better care may appeal. While the work of corn breeding is peculiarly work for the specialist, and will probably be taken np by not more than one or two men in every connnu- nity, yet every man who grows corn should endeavor to make the land grow not a meager 38 to 40 bushels of coi'n per acre, but should make it realize the full possibilities of what was intended for corn, 50 to 75 or even 100 bushels per acre. The salvation of the dairy business in New England will not be secured when satisfactory arrangements have been made with the milk contractors, but the final success in the dairy business will depend in part upon lowering the cost of production, and this will mean the production of more and better corn, the use of ensilage for summer and winter feed- ing of the dairy herd, and the contemplation and mastery of every detail w^hich makes for the growing of a successful crop of corn. lUI L I. K T I N S Massachusetts Board of Ageicultuee, PUBLISHED IN Massachusetts Crop Keports, 1910. CORN SELECTION FOR SEED AND FOR SHOW. BY PROF. WILLIAM D. HURD, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. The renewed interest in corn growing is a significant thing in New England agriculture. When corn could be laid down "on track" in the east for 30 cents a bushel there may have been some excuse for the New England farmer depending on the "corn belt" for this im- portant product. For the past ten years, however, the price in the eastern States has ranged from 70 to 90 cents a bushel. Careful calculations show that corn can be raised on New England farms at a cost of from 30 to 45 cents per bushel (shelled), hence it is a profitable crop to raise. That corn is adapted to almost any rotation, that silage is indispensable in feeding a dairy herd, that this crop is extensively used in the arts and manufactures, always finding a ready market, and its being a native of New England are further reasons why this most important crop in this country should be more extensively grown here. The average yield of corn throughout the United States, according to 1908 statistics, was 20. 2 bushels per acre. The average yield over the six New England States for the same year was 40.5 bushels to the acre. This same year several growers in New England obtained yields of from 100 to 133 bushels of shelled corn to the acre (calculated when taken from the field). What accounts for this wide difference between the average yield and that secured by careful growers? No doubt favorable soil, proper manuring, cultivation, etc., played im- jjortant parts, but probably the most important factor was strong, virile, productive, properly selected seed. The need of more attention on the part of farmers to seed selection, and the fact that this year there is to be held in New England a great corn exposition, where selection and i^reparation of samples for show will count, are suf- ficient reasons for the emphasizing of these jjoints in this paper. An attempt only has been made to take up such points as would aid New England farmers to improve their corn, and get read}^ for the ex- position. The main object from the standpoint of the farmer in all breeding of plants and animals is to improve the plant or the breed of animals with which he is working. Practical men have realized for genera- tions that it was a profitable thing to use the best individuals in a herd to breed from. The fact that there is as much individuality in plants, that ears of corn, for example, differ as much in their productive 114 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. power and breccliiig characteristics as do animals, has not seemed to be generally recognized, or, if recognized, the knovvletlge has not been made good use of. Seed corn has been generally planted without respect to the region in which it grew, its productive ability or even its germinating power. A simple problem in mathematics will show how important it is that in any attempt to improve corn a good individual kernel should be used to start with. One kernel of corn produces an ear. An ear of corn, according to type and variety, will contain from 400 to 1,200 kernels. Taking 800 kernels as an average for an ear, these 800 kernels may reasonably be expected to produce 800 stalks, which, counting 1 ear to a stalk, gives 800 ears in the second generation. Each of these 800 ears, if properly handled, may be exjDected to produce 800 ears in the third generation. Then in three years there would be produced from the one kernel 640,000 ears, or approximately 8,000 bushels. A farmer, then, can modify to a great extent the quality, yield and all-round general characteristics of his crop by beginning right, with good seed. It is not expected, or even wise to ad\'ocate, that every farmer shall be a corn breeder, but there is need of developing in New England strains of corn which will be adapted to the soil, length of season and the demands of our New England agriculture. No doubt a con- siderable number of farmers will attempt to improve strains of corn in the future, and these simple directions are given for their benefit. Improving corn does not involve a knowledge of plant breeding. Great advancement can be made by simple selection. Any man with a keen eye, a desire to impro\'e the corn and an ideal to work toward may expect to be well repaid for his time and lal:)or. The writer would not overlook the fact that proper soil, climatic conditions, manuring, fertilizing and proper methods of culture are all extremely important, but the limits of this paper prevent a dis- cussion of these at this time. As has already been stated, good seed is the first and fundamental step in corn improvement. Uniform ears, straight rows, large size of ear, high percentage of corn to the cob and other points, considered on a score card at a show, may all be valueless when productive power is considered, and the whole purj^ose of corn improvement is more ears or more fodder to the acre. Before any attempt is made to improve a plant some knowledge of the character and habits of the i^lant should be acquired. With corn one should understand a few of the botanical characteristics of the plant, the wa}^ the ears are formed, the root system, etc. The corn plant varies in height, according to type and the geographical region in which it grows, from 1^ feet to perhaps 25 feet. On the stalk are to be found joints or nodes, and if the stalk is cut crosswise above one of these joints there will probably be found an embryonic car, which No. 4.] CORN SELECTION. 115 woukl sccni to show that the original habit of the plant was to produce a small ear at every joint. The silk is the female organ of reproduc- tion, the tassel, the male organ of reproduction, containing the pollen, which is shaken and blown about, falling on the silks (pistils) and fertilizing them. The fact that there is so much pollen produced by the tassels and this is blown about by the wind, or carried over con- siderable distances by other agencies, accounts for corn "mixing" so badly. It is not safe to plant two distinct types nearer than 20 rods of each other, and even at this distance considerable cross-fer- tilization may take place. To avoid "inbreeding" and to cause cross- fertilization somtimes every other row in a breeding plot is detasseled. Corn plants have two root systems, one consisting of coarse strong roots, coming oflf at a little distance above the ground, which act as braces for the plant. The other is the fibrous root system, which grows underneath the soil, taking nourishment for the plant. A knowledge of how this last root system places itself in the soil will aid in deciding the kind of cultivation to employ. Deep cultivation after the plants are started destroys this feeding root system, lessening the growth of the plant, as well as allowing great loss of soil moisture. Another point which must not be overlooked, but which will not be discussed at length, is uniform stand. It is an easy thing, by careless planting or by using poor seed, to lose 10 per cent or even 20 per cent of the hills or bearing stalks in the hills. This loss may mean the net profit which might have been obtained with the same amount of land, labor, fertilizer and cost of growing the crop. Care should be iaken to have no vacancies in the field or barren stalks in the hills. Without a uniform stand a good jdeld cannot be expected. Corn may be selected to increase strength of plant, yield, early maturity, size of ear, content of starch or protein, position of ear on the stalk, amount of leaf, if for silage, and for other desirable character- istics. It is not possible to select for many of these characteristics at the same time. For New England it is probably best not to go too far from home for a type with which to begin. The mistake is too often made of sending for seed to regions where entirely different climatic conditions prevail than those under which the crop is to be afterwards grown. Care should be taken to select a type that will be worthy of improve- ment. Get as pure a strain as possible; one adapted to your region, and one that will mature in an average season. Oftentimes seed can be secured from some one who has already spent several years in doing the preliminary work necessary to establish a strain and fix a type. Secure seed from such whenever possible. It will save years of your own time. This may seem like a paradoxical statement, but the time to begin to grow corn is in the late summer or early fall. Seed corn should also be selected in the field. Bv so doing the character and strength 116 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. of the plant, the position of the ear on the stalk, the way it hangs, early maturity, and all the other desirable characteristics which make the ear a desirable one, under growing conditions, may be taken into consideration. When corn is selected from the crib none of the fac- tors which enter into the growth vmder field conditions are known. One must be guided by external characteristics, and these are not sufficient. Never buy seed corn shelled which you expect to improve. In this condition even the kind of ear that produced the corn is not known. Let the corn become perfectly mature in the field before har- vesting. Much of what might otherwise have been good seed corn is ruined in storing and cui-ing. When taken from the field ear corn contains 25 per cent to 35 per cent moisture. If allowed to freeze while con- taining this amount of moisture the vitaUty will be greatly lessened, if not entirely ruined. Therefore the corn must be thoroughly dried before freezing. After it is properly dried it should be stored in a dry place, and no natural temperature will harm it. It should be either placed in racks or hung up in small traces. Do not shell or place in boxes or barrels. Considerable more corn should be saved early in the fall than will be needed, in order that more careful selection may be made later. While the external characteristics of an ear may be used for the preliminary work of selection, these are not sufficient to determine whether corn is fit for planting or not. In other words, the first prize ear in a corn show may be no better and often not so good as some other good ear. An ear of corn to be used for seed should be required to answer for itself the following questions: Will it grow? Will it mature? Has it constitution? Has it breeding characteristics? None of these important questions can be answered without at least testing the ear in two ways. First, the simple germination test maj^ be applied. Where quite a number of ears are to be tested a box 20 inches by 20 inches and 3 inches deep can conveniently be used. Mark off the box, with strings, into squares 2 inches on a side. Fill the box level full of sawdust or sand. Number each ear and each square of the germinating box. Place five or six kernels from ear No. 1 in space No. 1, and a similiar number of kernels from the other ears in corresponding spaces. Place the germinating box in a temperature of about 70° to 75° F. Keep the sand or sawdust moist. As germination takes place you will no doubt find many ears showing weakness or poor germinating power, and they should be discarded at once. Sometimes corn that will germinate will not grow well under field conditions. So in any effort to improve corn the desirable ears retained from the germination test should be tested in the field. The most convenient method is by what is called the "ear row test." This consists in planting row No. 1 with corn taken from ear No. 1, row No, 2 with corn from ear No. 2, etc. Plots of any desired size No. 4.] CORN SELECTION. 117 may be arranged, and while much more elaborate systems of plot tests have been recommended, for the average farmer the above will be sufficient. The plot used for this purpose should be given the best of preparation, fertilization and care throughout the season, giving the corn every possible chance. Before the pollen begins to scatter, all weak and barren stalks should be removed. Half of each row may also be detasseled before the fertilization of the silk takes place, to pre^'ent inbreeding. Seed ears for another years' crop may be selected from this plot and cared for as before described, and marked improvement should be the result. The operations described are simple, the work is extremely interest- ing, there is need of such work, and those who carry it on will find ready sale for their product at prices far in advance of those usually secured. Selection and Preparation of Corn for Show. For purposes of exhibition corn is now usually shown in single-ear, ten-ear or eight)^-ear (approximately a bushel) lots. The ten-ear sample, the one most commonly used, is of convenient size to be easily judged, and is of sufficient size to show a fair sample of what the crop really is. Numerous score cards have been devised for corn judging. Neces- sarily each varies with the ideas of the different persons who compile them. A score card, however, aids the judge in keeping all the im- portant points in mind. It establishes a uniform basis for study and comparison, and prevents laying undue stress on certain points to the exclusion of others. The use of a corn score card requires judgment, the same as for fruit, live stock, milk or other products. Score cards differ for different sections. Obviously, the same score card should not be used on corn of the type grown in New England as for that grown in Iowa or Missouri. In order to formulate a score card for New England corn the officers of the New England Corn Exposition appointed a committee to consider this matter. After consulting about twenty authorities on types of corn the following score cards for dent and flint corns have been decided upon. These will be used in judging the corn at the exposition this fall. Points. Score Card, Flint Corn. 1. Maturity and sood condition, 2. Uniformity, 3. Kernels, .... 4. Weight of ear, 5. Length and proportion, 6. Butts 7. Tips, .... 8. Space between rows, . 9. Color, .... Total, Perfect Score. 20 15 15 10 10 10 5 10 100 118 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Score Card, Dent Corn. Points. 1. Maturity and seed condition, 2. Uniformity, 3. Kernels, .... 4. Weight of ear, . 5. Length and proportion, G. Butts, .... 7. Tips 8. Space between rows, . 9. Color, .... Total, Perfect Score. . 25 . 15 . 15 . 15 10 5 5 5 5 100 Explanation of Score Cardfi. Of cour.se some difference must be made in judging dent and flint corn. The following explanation of the jwint.s are made to guide the growers in selecting their corn for exhibition purposes this fall : — 1. Maturity and Seed Condition.- — This is perhaps the most im- portant point on the score card. Corn is worthle.ss, economically speaking, if it will not grow. The ears should be firm (try twisting in the hands) and free from mold. They should have a bright luster. There should be no chaff or silks adhering. The germs should not be shrunken or blistered, and the sample should show an all-round healthy, vigorous appearance. 2. Uniformity. — Uniformity and trueness to type are usually con- sidered together. Few types are recognized in the west. It is hard to determine what a " type " of New England corn is. The ears should be similar in length, shape, size and color, indentation of kernels, etc. Uniformity in an exhibit would go to show that the corn was suf- ficiently developed so that the type had become somewhat fixed and stable. 3. Kernels. — Of course here again an entirely different basis must be used for dent and flint corns. The kernels should be uniform and slightly wedge .shaped. (.Judges remove a few kernels from different parts of the ear to determine this.) The shape of the kernel determines to a great extent the amount of corn on the cob, lost space between rows, also chemical composition. Kernels with much starch are rich in carbohydrates; those having a larger germ are rich in oil. The kernels should possess germs of good size. Kernels of uneven size do not work through corn planters with uniformity. The edges of the kernels should be straight and fit closely together; they should be of uniform thickness. The rows should also be straight. //. Weight of Ear. — In this score card this item takes the place of "proportion of corn to cob" in other score cards. Dry cobs do not vary much in weight, and it is much easier for a judge to weigh the ears than to have two or three out of ten shelled and the proportion of corn to cob determined in this way. The weight of shelled corn No. 4.] CORN SELF.CTION. 119 per acre is the important point. Here again there is a wide difference between dent and flint corns. Dent ears may weigh IG ounces or more, and are usually produced one on a stalk. Flint ears weigh 8 ounces to 10 ounces, and more than one ear is commonly produced on a stalk. 5. Length of Ear and Us Proportion. — The size of ears of corn vary considerably with the locality, soil, etc., so it is hard to fix a standard of length. Dent varieties should be 9^ inches to 10 inches long. Flint varieties ma}^ be 11 inches to 12 inches long. Some varieties of both types may be smaller. In dent corn the circumference of the ears taken 2 inches above the butt should be about two-thirds the length. Ears with too large a circumference for their length are slow to mature. Ears should not be too tapering. Nearly cylindrical ears are de- sirable. Ears should be full and strong in the central portion. G. Butts. — Large yield to the acre depends on having the butts and tips well filled out. The kernels should be uniform in size and well arranged around the butt, surrounding a cup-shaped cavity. The butt of the ear should not be too large, neither should it be so small as not to support the ear well when it is hanging on the stalk. Butts should be somewhat expanded but not too large. 7. Tips. — Should be well covered with kernels of uniform size and in rows which are a continuation of those on the ears. Poor tips may be caused by an unfavorable season. Tips well filled out show good breeding and a larger amount of shelled corn to the acre. 8. Space between tlie Rows. — i\Iuch space between the rows reduces the proportion of shelled corn. The shape of the kernels, the straight- ness of the rows, both at the base end of the kernel and on the ex- terior, should be very slight. 9. Color. — The color of the kernels should be uniform and of a bright luster, showing good condition. White or black kernels in yellow corn should be severely cut and vice versa. Too many mixed kernels may disqualify the exhibit. Missing kernels may be taken to mean that those originally occupying the vacant spaces were off color. The cobs should all be of the same color. Usually white corn has white cobs. Red cobs in yellow corn are preferred. Variar tion in color of cobs shows mixture and poor breeding. Preparation of the Corn for Exhibition Purposes. After the corn has been carefully selected, according to the points given in the foregoing score cards, it should be carefully stored, so that the ears will not become broken or otherwise injured. Keep it in a place where the luster will be maintained. It is just as allowable to "groom" an exhibit of corn and otherwise make it look well lor exhibition purposes as it is to place animals in "show condition." All silks, chaff, etc., should be carefully removed. The butts may be trimmed to give them as neat an ai^pearauce as possible. Any attempt 120 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. to improve a sample by removing kernels and inserting others should meet with a disqualification of the exhibit. In shipping, each ear should be wrapped separately, and should also be plainly marked with a small tag fastened into the butt with a tack or small nail. The whole exhibit should be properly labeled in accordance with the regulations which are laid down by the officers in charge of the corn exposition to which the corn is sent. No. 4.] GROWING ASPARAGUS. 121 GROWING AND MARKETING ASPARAGUS. BY MR. FRANK WHEELER, CONCORD, MASS. Since the asparagus rust has estabhshed itself in this country it is well known by the most experienced asparagus growers that the vari- ety introduced from France, known as Aryenteuil, or Palmetto, as it has been renamed since its introduction here, is much more resistant to rust than are other varieties, and is the more desirable kind to grow. One-year roots are much to be preferred to older ones, as they will not be so much mutilated in transplanting to the field from the seed plot, and will suffer less check; neither are they so likely to be stunted in the seed bed if dug as one-year roots as if allowed to grow three years ; also, the one-year roots will get to the producing stage as soon as the older ones. Procure seed that you know is true to name, preferably from some selected strain, known to be resistant to the rust, and of good market qualities. Sow the seed as early in the spring as the land can be made ready, on an early, moderately heavy, sandy loam, thoroughly enriched for two or more years with stable manure and chemicals, in drills 1 inch deep, 16 or 18 inches apart, thinly, or 1 to 2 inches in the row. This prevents crowding, and it is not necessary to thin the plants, which is desirable, as they are difficult plants to pull up so as to get all the root and prevent that plant coming up again. Keep this seed bed free from weeds by frequent wheel or scuffle hoeing and hand weeding. If troubled by the asparagus beetles or slugs protect the plants by dusting with Paris green, put on with a powder gun when the plants are wet with dew, or dusting slaked lime on the plants and slugs. The 'lime will stick to the slugs and kill them by contact. It is well to cover the plants in the seed bed through the winter with coarse, strawy manure or old hay, to protect the roots, as strawberries are covered or mulched for the winter. The soil most favoral)le to the production of asparagus is a sandy loam, of a smooth texture, free from coarse grit, gravel or stones, 8 to 12 inches deep, underlaid with a smooth, yellow, loamy subsoil, chang- ing to a close sand at a depth of 3 feet or more. It is better to pre- pare the field for the permanent bed one or two years before setting the roots, by growing some crop that requires high fertilization and thorough cultivation. The soil should, during this one or two years 122 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. before setting, be well. filled with manure to a depth of 9 inches or more, to stock the soil with humus, as all applications after the roots are set will have to be on or near the surface. A soil well stocked with humus will stand drought much better than one that is deficient in humus. The year previous to setting the roots the land should receive a heavy dressing of lime, nearl}' 1 ton to the acre, or an e\'en heavier dressing of wood ashes, imless the land has received frequent applications of either or both of these materials in recent years, in which case a smaller quantity will be sufficient. Asparagus is ver}- sensitive to an acid soil and wiU not do well on it. The autumn pre\ious to setting, plow the ground to a depth of 9 inches or more, if such a depth does not bring up too much of the poor subsoil. During the winter or spring spread 10 to 20 tons of manure broadcast, and in the spring, when preparing the ground, apply broadcast what chemicals are to be used. Thoroughly wheel harrow two or three times and smooth. Mark out the rows 4 feet apart and get them straight, — the field is to be planted for twelve years or more, — as much better work can be done in the care of the field with straight rows than with crooked ones. Open the furrows first with a swivel plow with two horses abreast, turning the furrows all one way. Then follow with a large two-horse landside plow, with the horses tandem in the furrow, throwing the earth the first time the same way as the swivel plow threw it, and then coming back in the same furrow, throwing the earth to the opposite side of the trench, where no earth has been thrown. In this way the trench can be made quite clean to a depth of 7 inches below the settled level surface with- out any shove Ung by hand. The roots are dug from the seed bed by plowing out with a large two-horse plow, shaken out with forks, and taken to some building where they can be separated and sorted, discarding all small and poor plants. The plants are set in the bottom of the trench 2 feet apart in the row, and covered with 2 inches of soil. The field is taken care of during the first season by hand hoeing in the line of the trench, working in soil a httle at a time, so as not to have the trench filled full before the middle of August or first of September, and cultivating on the ridges between the rows with some cultivator that will not work the earth into the trenches too fast. If it is thought worth while to take care of the field b}' hand for a part crop, a row of beets, carrots, parsnips, bush beans or some similar crop can be planted on the top of the ridge any time after the asparagus is set. The beetles and slugs must be taken care of by the same or similar means as those used on the seed bed, or if hens and chickens can be kept on the field they will be a help. At some convenient time during the winter or spring following the setting in the field, and each succeeding year, spread from 10 to 20 spreader loads of manure per acre, and at the spring preparation of No. 4.] GROWING ASPARAGrs. 123 the land apply chemicals supplementary to the manure, in such quan- tities that the land will receive each year from 125 to 150 pounds of nitrogen, from 250 to 300 pounds of potash and from 100 to 125 pounds of phosphoric acid per acre. The chemicals used should be nitrate of soda and high-grade tankage for the nitrogen, and ashes and muriate of potash for the potash. Probably the tankage will carry enough phosphoric acid to make the required quantity, with that from the manure, but if not, use Thomas slag, bone meal or acid phosphate. If ashes are hard to procure use more nuu'iat(! of potash to make up the deficiency of potash, and use one-third ton of lime per acre each year to keep the soil alkaline. The second and each succeeding year the land is prepared by the use of wheel and smoothing harrows, no plow being used. The tops or brush of the plants are not removed, but are broken down and cut up by first using a cutaway harrow, driven with the driver riding. Next, a whole disk harrow is used crossways of the former course of the cutaway harrow, riding or not, as the texture of the soil lets the harrow into it. The harrows should not at any time be weighted so as to crowd them on to the crowns of the plants. Either before or after the. second harrowing apply the chemicals, and harrow them in with the wheel harrow, not riding it the third time. Then smooth off with a smoothing harrow, but do not drag with a plank smoother or roll with a roller. If, however, it is desired, for any reason, to plank or roll the field, this should be followed, at as late a time as possible to do it without injuring the new shoots, by another application of the smoothing harrow, to kill all weeds that have started, and to leave the surface of the field rough, to prevent the soil from drifting in high winds and making the shoots crooked. The small pieces of brush and other material should be left on the field. The field during the second year is taken care of with cultivators and horse hoes, with but little hand work. Part of the preceding and what follows may seem like heresy to recommend, but my faith in it is attested by my practice and results for twenty-five years or more. Stop cultivation the latter part of August or first part of September, and allow all weeds to grow for a cover crop and winter protection, which, when harrowed in with the asparagus brush and the light annual dressing of manure, will keep the soil well supplied with humus, which will not be the case if chemicals are used without stable manure and all top growth is gathered and burned. If in the second year the shoots come of good size and veiy strong, they might as well be cut during the first week, as they are likely to be injured by frost, and it will hurt the roots no more to cut them than to let the frost kill them. The third year the shoots may be cut and marketed, to about June 1, and then should be allowed to grow, and kept free from weeds mitil the latter part of August. Although I 124 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. am recommending letting the weeds grow late in the season, when the asparagus is ripening, I most decidedly recommend that the weeds be kept down during the growing season, so that the asparagus may have all the benefits to be derived from clean culture and high manur- ing during that period. The fourth and succeeding years the crop may be gathered and sold to about June 20 or 25, according to whether the season has been such as to make a large crop, and the market demands it. During the cutting season the weeds are kept down by frequent cultivation between the rows, while those in the row are covered up, about June 1, by a tool, drawn by two horses, that straddles the row and draws the dirt into the row, making a ridge that covers the weeds so that they will not trouble for the rest of the cutting season. At the end of the cutting season all weeds are killed by leveling down the ridges by harrowing or cultivating and smooth harrowing, and for the rest of the season, until August 15 or September 1, by cultivators and horse hoes between the rows and hand hoeing in the rows. Marketing. For the Boston or New England market, the "grass," as it is gen- erally called, should be cut so as to have green grass, or so that the principal part of the growth is above ground, instead of the white kind, or that which is cut mostly below the surface. The customary length of bunch is 8J or 9 inches, so that two bunches laid end to end will reach across a bushel box, bunches of the size that one dozen will fill a layer in the box and three layers will fill the box, which is IJ pounds per bunch, or 55 jDOunds per bushel. The stalks are cut in the field so that they will show about G inches of green growth and 2^ inches of white after they are packed, tied and butted. The best tool for cutting is a knife with handle 7 inches long and blade 8 inches long by 1| inches wide, with dull sides, sharpened across the end, which should be square. There are knives on the market of this description, except that there is a deep swallow tail on the end, in- stead of being square. The objection to this form is the greater liabil- ity of injury to buds in using, the stalk not being entirely severed until the deepest part of the notch has gone through the stalk, and when that part is through the long points of the knife have gone their length beyond, which may be among the crowns of the roots, to the injury of some of them. Each man cuts two rows at a time, and two men lay together be- tween them the handfuls of grass they cut. After cutting, it is gathered in bushel boxes, tips overlapping in the middle of the box, taking care to lay the grass straight and even. It is then taken to the packing room, where it is sorted as it is packed for market. If the grass is such as it should be, with the care laid down in the foregoing pages, it will pay to make two grades. The better grade should be composed No. 4.] GROWING ASPARAGUS. 125 of only large, straight, full lengths of stalks, while in the poorer grade may lie i)ut (he small, short and crooked ones, if not so crooked as to disfigure the bunches after being packed. At the packing room the grass is put on a table or bench, around which the packers sit and the tier and butter-oflf stand. A table 7 feet long by 5 feet wide will ac- commodate five or six packers, one tier and one butter-off and washer. The packers use a rack, made with a 2 by 4 by 12 inch base, with a ^ inch headboard, G inches high and 4 inches wide. Two inches from the headboard is a U-shaped iron, ^g inch in diameter, 2| inches high, the lower four-fifths of which describes a semicircle of 2} inches diameter. Six inches from the headboard is another similar iron, 2J inches high, the lower part of which describes a semicircle of 2| inches diameter. Between these two irons, and closer to the larger one than to the smaller, a channel is cut across the base, to put the tying mate- rial through when tying. Standing about 6 inches above the large table, in or near the center, is a small revolving table, about 2 feet square, from which the packers take the empty racks and to which they return them when filled, where they are convenient for the tier to reach to place in the tying machine. One man can tic what three to six can pack, according to the size of the grass, and how well it is packed. He needs to be a nimble man, of cjuick good judgment, in order to see that all the bunches are of the same size before putting the pressure on for tying. Under the old order of packing, where each packer tied his own packing by hand, there was too much vari- ation in the size of bunch if there were many packers in the gang. The tying machine is better understood by seeing it than from description. It consists of a double hook carried by a hinged and weighted arm fastened to the under side of the table, to which a treadle is hung, on which the tier stands to give pressure to the bunch when tying it. With this machine a man can tie much faster and tighter than by hand. The tying machine is placed midway on one side of the table, while at its left, fastened to one corner of the table, is the cutting machine, gauged to cut off all the butts the same length. The man cutting off butts also does the washing. He has a tub of water close by, into which the bunches are dropped as cut. They are then washed and placed upright in long troughs or sinks, and water put to the grass a few hours before packing in bushel boxes to send to market. Never let the grass get wet above the butts after it is once dry after washing, but keep it as cool and dry as possible, to prevent its commencing to spoil. During bright and hot weather, when cutting, the grass will wilt somewhat in the field, but that is no objection, as it will pack better and tie tighter, and it freshens and swells to its normal size after being in the sinks of water a few hours. Care will have to be taken not to make the bunches quite as large as when the grass does not wilt, to allow for the swelling. 126 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. If for any reason the grass is to be held for a few days, and it cannot be put into cold storage, it is better not to bunch it as it comes from the field, but to carry it to a cold cellar and lay it on the floor. It can be kept in this way for a few days without much trouble. The customary box in which it is sent to market is the common Boston bushel box, holding three layers of one dozen bunches each, and covered by four pieces of lath nailed across the top. In very hot or muggy weather it is well not to place any paper, or other close covering, over the grass, but to let it have all the air it can get. Within twenty miles of Boston it is boxed the afternoon of the day it is packed, and carried that afternoon or night, by wagon, to market, so that it is ready for sale early the next morning. If much farther than twenty miles from market it is not boxed until the next morning after pack- ing, and is then sent by as early an express as possible. While the market calls for the large grades of grass as strongly as it now docs, — and it probably will continue to do so, — it will be to the grower's advantage to try to supply it. To have fields producing this quality of grass new beds need to be set out frequently, to take the place of the old ones as they fail. Twelve or sixteen years of cut- ting is as long as they will be in the most profitable stage. To destroy an old bed it is as well not to plow out the old roots, but to plow shallow, or wheel harrow above the rows, keeping down all growth from the roots for two or three years, and letting them rot in the ground. After four or five years the field can be plowed to any depth wished, and it is not robbed of a lot of fertility by carrying off all the roots. While killing out the roots any hoed crop can be grown, and almost any crop will do well on an old asparagus field. There does not seem to be any efficient and economical way of preventing asparagus rust. The best thing to do is to get the most resistant variety, and after you have established a bed, to select from the most resistant and best market types of stalks, seed for setting new fields, or obtain seed from some one you know to be doing this. During the last fifteen years the demand for asparagus has grown faster than the sup{)ly, and the prospect of good profit from the grow- ing of it in the future is good, especially for the large grade. All the extra profit in growing the large grade does not come from the extra price received, but partly from the more economical handling of the crop. It takes the same time to cut and pack the same number of little stalks as it does of large ones, but, after they are packed and tied, there is not more than one-third or one-half as many bunches. Therefore get good stock, give it plenty of room, feed it high, give it the best of care, put up the product honestly, get a reputation for good grass, and the I'eward will be satisfactory. 1 No. 4.] ALFALFA L\ INLVSSACHUSETTS. 127 ALFALFA AS A CROP IN MASSACHUSETTS. BY PROF. WM. P. BROOKS, DIRECTOR MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Alfalfa has been under trial, both at the experiment station and on a considerable number of private farms, for several years. It has been found that a good start and a thick stand arc not very difficult to obtain, but in many cases, both on the experiment station grounds and on private farms, the alfalfa has frequently died out within two or three years, giving place, with greater or less rapidity, to grasses and clovers. During the past few years, however, we have been ol^taining better success than formerly. There are now several small areas of alfalfa on station and college grounds which are from four to six years old and which are still in very good condition. The writer has heard also of a number of cases in which private farmers are meeting with mu(;h better success than was common a few years ago. Even should alfalfa hold the ground only three or four years, it would, in the opinion of some of those who have given it longest trial, still be well worth growing on account of its high value for forage, whether green or dry. The principal advantages of alfalfa as compared with clover are four : — 1. Larger total yield, if tlioroughly successful. The experiments carried out at Amherst up to the present time have been upon too small a scale to determine the yield to be expected from alfalfa, bnt, so far as can be judged, it seems [U'obablc that in seasons with well- distributed and moderate rainfall a total yield in three crops of from five to six tons of hay may be anticipated on good land. 2. The fir»it crop is ready to cut and feed at least two weeks earlier than clover. 3. It starts after cutting more (juickl}^ than clover, usuall}' fur- nishing three crops annually. 4. It is considerably finer than clover, and is therefore more pal- atable and cures more easily. So far as can be judged from figures showing composition, alfalfa apparently does not exceed the clovers in nutritive value to as great a degree as is often supposed. The following table illustrates this point : — 128 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Compos ition of Clover and Alfalfa Hays Water (Per Cent.). Ash (Per Cent.). Protein (Per Cent.). Fiber (Per Cent.). Nitro- gen-free Extract (Per Cent.). Fat (Per Cent.). Alfalfa hay. » Alfalfa hay, 2 Alsikeiclover hay,' Medium red clover haj', 2 15.00 13.24 15.00 15.00 7.90 7,29 9.70 7.60 13.50 16.14 14.00 13.20 27.20 34,49 23 10 24.20 33.20 40.52 36.10 37.40 3.20 1.56 2.10 2.60 ' Calculated on the basis of two analyses published by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. 2 Average of analyses of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. On account of its superior fineness alfalfa will usually prove some- what more palatable than clover, but the figures of the above table indicate that there may be no very wide difference in the nutritive values of alfalfa and clover hays. Comparative determinations of the digestibility of these two kinds of hay, produced under American conditions, are, however, desirable. Soil Requirements. Alfalfa may be made to succeed on a variety of soils provided these meet certain requirements, but whatever the type of soil it should be naturally thoroughly underdrained. If standing water is found during any part of the growing season within less than six to eight feet of the surface alfalfa is sure to do poorly. It is essential, further, that there should be j^crfect surface drainage. Standing water or ice, particularly the latter, w^ill destroy alfalfa in a relatively short time. The highest degree of success with alfalfa appears to have been attained on moderately heavy soils. The soils of the typical drumlins of the State, strong, retentive, gravelly loams, appear in most cases to be well adapted to this crop. A subsoil of medium texture, and one which will not retain too large a proportion of water, is desirable. It is highly important that the soil be free from the seeds or living roots of weeds. The presence of witch grass is highly unde- sirable. Localities where sweet clover, Melilotus alba, grows naturally are likely to be peculiarly adapted to alfalfa, as also are those dis- tricts where the soils are rich in lime. Preparation of the Soil. In preparing for alfalfa the most thorough possible tillage and such treatment as will leave the surface soil entirely free from weeds or the living roots of weeds, such as witch grass, are of prime importance. No. 4.] ALFALFA IN I\L\SSACIIUSETTS. 129 If the soil is fertile, and if a very early crop which can be so cultivated as to leave the soil in good tilth and free from weeds will be profitable, then such a crop may wisely precede alfalfa; but it is desirable that such a crop be harvested not later than about the middle of July in order to allow a sufficient interval for the thorough tillage which is desirable before the seed of the alfalfa be sown. If the cultivation of such an early crop as has been above referred to does not promise to be profitable, or if the soil has not been pre- viously limed and enriched, then a summer fallow will be found to be highly beneficial. In this case the rule should be to plow in the fall if possible; if not, then in early spring, and to harrow with suffi- cient frequency during the spring and early summer to destroy all weeds as they start and to bring the soil into a fine mellow condition before sowing the seed. Under this system of management the sur- face soil is made mellow and fine, capillary connection between the surface and the subsoil is thoroughly established, so that water rises freel}'^ from below toward the surface, and the surface soil, as a result of the frequent stirring which it has received and the subsequent germination and later the destruction of successive crops of weeds, is brought into the best possible condition for the rapid, early growth of the alfalfa, unchecked by the competition of weeds. The following are the details for the system of preparation for alfalfa which is es- pecially recommended: — 1. Plow the land the previous fall or in the early spring. 2. Apply lime at the rate of about 1^ tons per acre to the rough furrow, either in the fall or early spring, and immediately incorporate it thoroughly with the soil by the use of the disk harrow. 3. Harrow throughout the spring and early summer at intervals as frequent as may be necessary to destroy the successive crops of weeds as they start, and to bring the soil into the finest tilth. 4. About mid-spring, just previous to one of the harrowings which the land is to receive, apply the following mixture of materials per acre: basic slag meal, 1,500 to 2,000 pounds; high-grade sulfate of potash, 300 to 400 povmds ; or, if it can be obtained, low-grade sulfate of potash, 600 to 800 pounds. This mixture should be spread evenly and at once thoroughly harrowed into the soil. 5. When ready to sow the seed apply the following mixture of materials per acre: basic slag meal, 300 pounds; nitrate of soda, 75 to 100 pounds. Spread this evenly and work in lightly with the smoothing harrow. The Amount and Quantity of Lime needed. For all soils which incline to be heavy and which show some tendency to work up into clods and hard lumps, some form of burnt lime will be found best. Three kinds of burnt lime arc now offered for sale in our markets: (1) the ordinary lump lime, which should be slaked 130 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. with just enough water to cause it to crumble into a fine, dry powder before appHcatioii; (2) granulated lime, which can be spread at once, when it will slake in the soil; (3) the coarse lime, separated from the finer in the manufacture of h3'drated lime by the modern method. This lime is suitable for immediate application and when mixed with the soil will take up moisture and slake. Either the granulated lime or the grade last referred to should prove especially effective for iinproving the texture and tilth of the heavy soils. For use on the lighter soils, one of the so-called "agricultural" limes, which are in considerable measure made up of carbonate or air-slaked lime, will prove satisfactory. There appear to be but few sections of the State where a com- paratively heavy dressing of lime is not a necessity for satisfactory results with alfalfa. The cut clearly illustrates the benefit which usually follows. Alfai>fa. -.-J ■ —J.-.-.:.^— ^--.■- »itt-'«--J No Lime. Lime. The alfalfa shown in the cut is growing in cylinders 4 feet deep, which were first set into the ground. They were each then filled with equal quantities of thoroughly mixed soil. With the surface soil of one cylinder, lime at the rate of IJ tons per acre was thoroughly mixed. The other was left without lime, and both then received a liberal application of fertilizers. Under the conditions of this ex- periment we know that the soil in the two cylinders was of precisely the same character at the start, and the difference in growth must surely have been due to the influence of the lime. No. 4.] ALFALFA IN MASSACHUSETTS. 131 Fertilizers for Alfalfa. There can be no one combination of fertilizers or no one mixed fertilizer which under all conditions will prove best. It will be gen- erally admitted, however, by all qualified to judge, that on soils which are in a fairly productive condition at the start the fertilizers ai)plied should furnish relatively large amounts of the mineral elements of plant food, among which phosphoric acid, potash and lime are the most important. Alfalfa, like other legumes, is capable of drawing upon the air for most of the nitrogen which it needs, and applied nitrogen in the form of a fertilizer in any large amounts is unneces- sary. We may state the case even more strongly, — it is not only unnecessary, it may positively prove harmful. If it exercises a harm- ful effect, however, this will not usually be because the presence of nitrogen in the soil is necessarily injurious to the alfalfa, but because its presence increases the competition of the grasses for the possession of the field. In a soil well stocked with lime, phosphoric acid and pot- ash, but without available nitrogen in considerable amounts, the grasses make only a feeble growth. If, in addition to the phosphoric acid, potash and lime, we apply to such soil too large amounts of nitro- gen, the grasses in our humid climate will gradually come in, with the probability of crowding out the alfalfa with greater or less rapidity. It is the belief of the writer that combinations of basic slag meal and sulfates of potash are peculiarly adapted to alfalfa. The slag meal furnishes not only phosphoric acid but lime, which will help to bring the soil into condition for alfalfa and to maintain it in that condition. The sulfate of potash, on all the heavier soils especiall}'', is superior to muriate. I\Iany other suitable combinations of ma- terials might be made up. Wood ashes should give good results. Combinations of such grades of bone meal as contain relatively low percentages of nitrogen and of either the low or high grade sulfate of potash should do well. Mixed fertilizers, containing not more than 1^- per cent of nitrogen but with 12 or more per cent of phos- i;)horic acid and 8 to 10 per cent of potash, should generally give good results. The Use of Manure. Whether manure should be applied either in preparation for alfalfa or as a top dressing depends upon conditions. If a supply of fine manure, free from weed seeds, is available, and if the soil is in a very low state of fertility, a dressing of manure may be highly beneficial; but on soils already in good condition the application of manure is not called for, and from some jooints of view is undesirable. It ahnost invariably carries weed seeds, and its use produces the condi- tions already referred to under which, since it supplies an abimdance of quickly available nitrogen, the grasses thrive. If manure is used, 132 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. then it will usually mean that the grasses will tend to crowd out the alfalfa in greater degree than would be the case had manure been withheld. It seems wise, therefore, except upon soils which are exceptionally low in fertility at the start, to depend mainly upon fertilizers alone. Seed. Great care should be taken to secure the very best seed, and that grown as far to the north as possible should be preferred to southern grown seed. Buyers should be on their guard against seed mixed with dodder. One or two cases have been brought to the attention of the writer in which the experiments have been absolutely ruined because of the presence of the seed of this parasite mixed with the alfalfa seed sown. The seed of dodder is very minute, and the pur- chaser, if in doubt as to the freedom of any lot of seed offered from this parasite, should send it to the experiment station for examina- tion. There are a number of varieties of alfalfa on tz'ial in this coun- try, but the experiment work carried on at Amherst has not thus far indicated a wide difference in the value of the different kinds offered by seedsmen. The quantity of seed which usually seems to give most satisfactory results is about 30 pounds per acre. Time and Method of Seeding. It is believed that the best results with alfalfa will usually be ob- tained by sowing it alone about July 20 to August 5. Care should be taken to put the seed into the ground when the moisture conditions are such that it will germinate promptly. It is highly important that it should come up quickly in order to get started ahead of weeds. During the past two seasons, alfalfa sown about August 5 in Amherst has attained a height in excess of a foot previous to the coming of cold weather, and the alfalfa which has been sown at this season has made a thicker and more even stand, freer from weeds and grasses, than any which we have obtained by sowing at any other season. Good results are sometimes obtained by sowing the seed early in spring, with oats or barley thinly sown as a nurse crop. Alfalfa, like the grasses and clover sown at that season, often starts well, but is often injured by the hot, dry weather likely to prevail when the nurse crop is cut. In some of our early experiments in Amherst, alfalfa was sown in close drills, but this method has now been given up in favor of broad- cast sowing, after the most thorough possible preparation of the soil to insure freedom from weeds. In the case of alfalfa sown late in July or early in August, it has been the practice in Amherst to allow all growth made during the autumn to remain uncut for winter pro- tection. No. 4.] ALFALFA IN MASSACHUSETTS. 133 Soil Inoculation. In localities in wliich sweet clover does not naturally grow, inocula- tion of the seed or soil with the bacteria which develop nodules upon the roots, and which give the plant the capacity to assimilate at- mospheric nitrogen, is advised. If sweet clover is indigenous in the locality such inoculation is unnecessary, as the bacteria which develop nodules on the roots of sweet clover appear to be identical with those found on alfalfa roots. If inoculation is necessary it can be carried out in two ways : — 1. An artificial culture may be obtained and used in accordance with the directions accompan3'ing it. »Such cultures are sent out both by the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, and by a number of private companies. The cultures now offered appear to be much superior to those earlier produced, and the most recent experiments at the experiment station with a culture fur- nished by one of the private companies have given very satisfactory results. The use of a culture will, on the whole, be found rather less troublesome than the second method. In ordering a culture, it is necessary to name the crop for which it is wanted and the area which is to be sown. 2. Soil from an old and successful alfalfa field may be mixed with the soil of the area to be sown ; 300 or 400 pounds per acre, if thoroughly stocked with the needed bacteria, will prove sufficient, and it is possible that less would answer. If soil is used, it should be remembered that exposure of the gei'ms to the light, even if only for a short time, de- stroys their vitality. It is advisable, therefore, to harrow in the germ-carrying soil as promptly as possible after spreading. Leaf Spot or Rust. Alfalfa appears to be peculiarly subject in our climate to this parasitic disease. The presence of the disease is indicated by the appearance of small, dark-colored spots upon the lower leaves. If the weather conditions are favorable to the rapid increase of the parasite it spreads quickly to the upper leaves, and later first the lower leaves and then the upper may turn yellow and fall. In some cases the disease shows itself only on the lower leaves; the foliage on the upper part of the plant continues healthy and the injury may not be great. In damp or rainy weather the disease, however, often spreads with great rapidity, the growth of the crop is checked and the vitality of the plants is greatly weakened. When this disease shows a tendency to spread rapidly, it is best to cut the alfalfa immediately. Under this treatment a healthy growth will soon start, while if the diseased plants are allowed to stand they will be greatly weakened, and the subsequent crops much reduced. During the past season leaf spot has been unusually prevalent and in 134 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. some fields has done great injury. Just how serious the disease will ultimately prove cannot at present be stated. If leaf spot shows itself in a newly seeded field, while the plants are young, it is best to go over it with the mowing machine, allowing the cuttings to lie where they fall. They will serve to furnish mulch and winter protection, which are so greatly needed in our climate, and their presence does not necessarily appear to increase the probaliility of the spread of the disease. Harvesting Alfalfa. Alfalfa should usually be cut as soon as it is in bloom. If allowed to stand much beyond the period of early bloom the plants start much less promptly after being cut and the total yield of the season will be relatively small. The last cutting in any season should not be too late. It is desirable that there should be a considerable growth remaining on the field for winter protection. After cutting, alfalfa should be allowed to lie, with possibly one turning, until it is wilted. It should then be put into windrows and later into cocks, where it should be allowed to remain until cured. If hay caps can be used the results will be more satisfactory. Should the time required in curing exceed about five days, the cocks should be moved to avoid injury to the roots, and it is desirable, as in the case of clover, which is often similarly handled, to remove the caps and open or turn over the cocks on the morning of a good day, when it is judged to be sufficiently cured to be put in. Annual Top-dressing. If the crop has been successfully inoculated, or if the nodules which have been referred to are abundant on the feeding rootlets of the alfalfa plants, it will not be necessary to top-dress with materials furnishing nitrogen, or, at least, if such materials are at all required, as may be the case upon soils which are naturally very poor and light, they should be used only in moderate quantities. It is necessary, however, in order to secure large crops to supply the mineral elements of plant food in abundance. The following mixture of materials is recommended, annually, per acre: basic slag meal, 1,200 to 1,500 pounds; high-grade sulfate of i)otash, 250 to 350 pounds; or low- grade sulfate of potash, 500 to 700 pounds. This mixture may be applied either in the autumn or in very early spring. Conclusion. While the writer does not yet feel perfectly confident that alfalfa will establish itself in all localities as one of our valuable farm crops, he would express himself as now beginning to hope that it can be made to succeed. He would, however, counsel some caution at the Xo. 4.] ALFALFA IN MASSACHUSETTS. 13', start, and would urge that small trial areas be put in in all localities where soils of the right character are found. He would call particular attention to the fact that the successful cultivation of alfalfa would not otdy mean a valuable addition to our forage crops, but would also mean soil improvement, for where alfalfa has been successfully grown the soils are sure to be rendered more productive. This im- provement in the case of alfalfa would be a consequence, first, of the extensive subsoiling due to tlie deep penetration of the great tap roots of the plant; and, second, to an accumulation of nitrogen in roots and stubble, drawn in the first instance from the air. It will be understood that when an alfalfa sod is plowed this nitrogen will be- come available! to succeeding crops. i;36 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. CELERY GROWING, STORING AND MARKETING. BY HENRY M. HOWARD, DIX FARM, WEST NEWTON, MASS. The raising, bleaching and keeping of celery is easy enough, if cer- tain methods are carefully pursued. Success is sure if the right thing is done at the right time in the right way. Any one who follows the directions and methods mentioned in this article will be sure to suc- ceed in growing and keeping celery. You may succeed if you do not exactly follow these methods, because there are other ways of doing these things beside those mentioned here. Soils. Almost any soil will grow good celery when that soil is properly pre- pared and kept in good condition. A soil that will grow good crops of beets, onions or lettuce will grow good celery. The soil must be rich, moist and loose. A low, moist, cool soil will grow good celery in mid- summer to sell in July and August, but is not a good soil for that to be harvested in November. A hea\'y loam will carry a good crop to maturity in September or later. To have a crop mature in September it must be set in June. A light, sand}^ soil or a gravelly loam may be set to celery from July 20 to August 10, and made to yield an excel- lent crop. This last soil should not be set to celery before July 20, as the cost for care and water would be too great. Varieties to Plant. Be sure to buy your seed of the same firm every 5''ear, and insist on having the same strains and varieties that market gardeners use, — Paris Golden for early use and Giant Pascal for late use. These two varieties are largely cultivated, and are as good as any that are grown. The French strains are best. The Paris Golden makes a good celery to use up to November, and is easily bleached with boards. The Giant Pascal may be had ready for the table from September 10 on, and will keep as well as any vari- ety. It must be bleached with soil or grown in the pit, to be of good cjuality. No. 4.] CELERY GROWING. 137 Methods of growing the Plants. Plants may be started in flats in the house, or under glass in a hot- bed or greenhouse. Prepare a flat thus : Take a box not over 2 inches deep, and with other dimensions of any convenient size, sift in 1 inch of sharp sand or coal ashes, and then fill in the box level full with good sifted garden soil. Press the whole down and level the surface. Sow the seed broadcast and sift on a little more loam, covering the seed a little less than | inch. Keep moist and wann until the plants appear, which should be in from one to three weeks, according to temperature and age of seed, but chiefly temperature. Keep the plants growing, and prick out in a hotbed or cold frame, setting about 300 plants to the sash. The plants should be kept under glass, and made to grow by proper care in watering, ventilating and keeping warm at night, using mats on the glass for that purpose. Seed sown in flats or under glass March 1 should give plants large enough to prick out April 10. These plants, if carefully grown, should be ready to go into the field by May 10. Another way to get good plants is to sow in rows G inches apart in a hotbed or cold frame from March 1 to March 15. The ground should be kept moist and warm until the plants appear, and should then be stirred between the rows, and the plants ventilated and cared for the same as when started in flats. Good jDlants for the main crop can be grown by sowing the seed broadcast or in rows in the open field as early in the month of Maix-h as you can sow peas. Cover the seed not more than J inch. These plants should appear in about three or four weeks; less attention than is required in the methods previously mentioned will give plants of good size to set after early crops of lettuce, beets or beans. Celery seed may be sown up to May 1 with good prospect of getting plants large enough to set in July and August. Market gardeners raise many plants in greenhouses and hotbeds to set on low land for celery to market in July and August. The plants for all celery marketed later than that come from seed sown with a machine in the field, in rows 8 to 12 inches apart. If your plants are not growing as rapidly as you wish, give a little nitrate of soda and plenty of water. You must be careful, or the plants will suffer from too much nitrate of soda. If the plants are getting too large, cut back the tops and loosen the roots, to check their growth and start new roots and tops. The effect produced by loosening the roots with a fork is very much the same as that of transplanting, and far more economical. Plants should not be thicker than four or five to the inch in the row, and must be thinned if they stand thicker than this. If sown too thick broadcast, it will be best to transplant all plants, setting them in rows about G inches apart, and the plants as 138 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. close as possible in the row. If a broadcast bed gets too weedy, it will be found cheapest and best to transplant to a new bed, using plenty of water until the j^lants become established. The Preparation of the Soil. It is well understood that in order to have a good garden, manure is needed. Fresh horse manure is good manure to plow in for a garden, and 5 cords every year are needed for a garden of ^ acre. If you will use that much manure you will find that whatever you plant grows better than it did before and matures more quickly, and that your croi>s do not feel the effects of dry weather as badly. For celery prepare the land by plowing in all weeds and refuse and what manure you need after the first crops of jieas, beans or beets are removed. Harrow and drag the surface, and then you may wait for right weather conditions. If they do not come, and you are ready to set the plants, harrow and drag again and then wet down the whole surface of the soil with water, using 1 inch of water, which would amount to 27,180 gallons to the acre. There is nothing else that will do as much good just at this time. Lay off the rows 2 to 5 feet apart, and set the plants as soon as the land is in fit condition. If both early and late celery are grown, you may set the rows of late celery between the rows of early, the rows of each variety being 4 feet or more apart. This method of planting enables you to get a good row of celery every 2 feet. By setting the plants 6 inches apart in the row you can get one good root of celery for each square foot of your land. Each person setting plants should set 400 or more an hour, and the plants should be so firmly set that in trying to pull one out by a leaf the leaf will break before the plant will start to come out of the ground. If the weather continues dry after the plants are set, more water should be given them. As soon as a clay or two after the plants are set they may and should be shove-hoecl, and this style of hoeing should be continued every four or five days until the plants shade the ground. Celery likes a soil well prepared by plowing, harrowing and dragging, and will do best where fresh manure is plowed in. If the land is not wet, water must be applied before the plants are set. If the plants must be pulled any length of time before setting, they should be stood in water for a few minutes and then placed in the shade until wanted for setting. New white roots will start to grow at once, and in a day or two after setting you will be able to see that the plants are growing. Boys may pull and drop the plants for the men to set. Water should be used freely before and sparingly after setting the plants. A f-inch hose with 65 to 75 pounds pressure will run GOG to 700 gallons of water an hour, and will take something like four days to wet down an acre of land sufficiently for setting celery, costing about $14 or $15 for water and labor. Some sort of a labor-saving sprinkler system No. 4.] CELERY GROWING. 139 should be used. The writer has tried several such, and is satisfietl that there is no system better or more economical than the Skinner system. The pipes may be laid on the surface of the ground when preparing the land, and may be left there until the celery is nearly grown. Should it need watering when nearly mature, set the pipes up on stakes about 3 feet above the su. face of the ground. This system is made of iron pipe and brass fixtures, and will last a long time. It will be found very satisfactory in any garden of i acre or over. Most other systems require more labor and also the use of considerable hose, which soon wears out and is sure to injure more or less plants while being used. If only Paris Golden celery is grown, the rows may be from 2 to 2^ fe(!t apart, and do well. Many market gardeners have also tried grow- ing the Giant Pascal celery in rows that distance apart, and continue to do so, bleaching the crop in the pit. Another way of setting tliat has been tried by many, and seldom tried a second season, is that of setting the plants 1 foot apart each way. You can get in as many plants if they are set 6 inches apart in rows 2 feet apart, and the cul- tivation is much simpler, and can be largely done with a horse and a five-tooth cultivator. Cultivating. The whole idea of cultivating celery is to keep the ground loose and cultivation shallow, and it is just as important to cultivate in a wet time as when there is continued dry weather. The ground is apt to get hard in wet weather, and the roots get too numerous near the sur- face; then a period of dry weather follows, and the cultivation cuts off so many roots that the crop suffers and is more liable to disease. With proper preparation of the soil and proper cultivation of celery we have no fear of disease, and no use for nitrate of soda or spraying with Bordeaux mixture to prevent blight. Nitrate of soda is good to make celery move along a little faster, and it is safe to use 200 to 300 pounds to the acre between the rows, or 2 pounds to a row 100 feet long in a garden. Bleaching. The early or Paris Golden celery may be bleached with boards and gotten out of the way, so that the late celery or Giant Pascal can l)e banked with earth. This is the plan used where you wish to sell all the celery from the field. The boards used are rough boards, not less than 10 inches wide, 12 feet long and 1 inch thick. These same boards are used in making storage pits for the winter celery. The boards arc set up on edge as straight as possible, and kept in place by slats nailed across the upper edges of the boards, about 2 feet from the ends. The space between the boards through which the celery grows should be left at least 4 inches wide. Many market gardeners use a hea^y gal- vanized-wire hook to drop over the edges of the two boards. These 140 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. hooks are very easy to handle, and very convenient when taking out celery. They are safe, doing away with sharp nails for horses or men to step on. The time needed for celery to bleach in the boards is from one to three weeks, according to the weather and the growth of the celery. It is not safe to set up boards to celery after the 1 st of October. The celery is apt to bleach slowly after that, and a frost is liable to occur after October 22 that will injure the celery in the boards. Giant Pascal celery may be bleached very early in September by earthing up. Great care is needed that the plants be dry, well pressed together, and not buried when putting the dirt up to them by means of the plow, the hoe and the shovel. The soft earth is plowed up to the row, the hoe is used to press the dirt in firmly, and the shovel is used to carry and pack the dirt still higher up on the stalks. A 10- inch bank will do excellently for September banking. After the bank is up for a week the celery should be examined every day, as it is very liable to rust in the bank at this time of year. Not much should be banked at a time thus early in the season, and every few days a little more may be banked, thus having a continuous and increasing supply coming on for market. It is best to drive a stake at the first row of each new lot banked, and write on the stake the date of banking. You will find the celery ready to use in about ten days if banked early in September. Where Giant Pascal celery is planted by itself to be sold from the field, the rows should be 3^ feet apart. Every other row can be earthed up early and sold, and then a broader, thicker bank put up to the row which is left, to be taken out as late as November 25. Almost all the celery around Boston is housed by November 20. These later- banked rows may be the very best celery to try to keep late in storage, if the celery gets bleached only a very little. Usually, the later the celery is put in storage the later it will keep. Storing. Celery is prepared for storing away in pits or cellars by banking it in the field about a week before it is to be put in. Near Boston we begin to put the celery into the i^its by October 18, and continue to store it away every day when the weather is favorable until the crop is all in. Choose days that are not too windy or wet, and get the celery to the pit and set up before the roots dry out. In plowing out the celery, a good plowman with one good horse will soon be able to turn out the rows so flat as to look like machine work, and not a plant will be bruised or hurt. Then we give the root a little kick with the foot and a little shake with the hand, trim off the loose or crooked outside leaves, and lay the roots in piles of convenient size to load. Some farmers trim the celery at the [lit; but it saves much time in handling and teaming to trim it in the field, and this is the method usually followed. No. 4.] CELERY GROWING. 141 Tiie celery is set iti the jiit in rows 3 to 4 inches apart, and the plants touching in the row. The plants are set about 3 inches deep in these rows, and the dirt made firm enough on the roots to keep the celery standing upright. If you wish to keep celery very late, into April or May, you must give the plants more room in the pit, setting them at least 3 inches apart each way, and be attentive to covering and ventilating. The roof of the pit must be water tight, and supplied with ventilators every 10 feet. The covering on the roof should be 8 inches of leaves or strawy manure, or about 1 foot of salt hay. If there is a good covering on the pit, it will be safe to give ventilation even on very cold days. There should be thermometers in the pits to guide as to tem- perature. The pits should be kept from sweating, and enough air should be supplied to keep the celery tops dry. The temperature should be kept as nearly at 32° F. as possible, if it is desired to keep the celer}^ late. With a pit well covered, an outside temperature of 20° and an inside temperature of 35°, some ventilation should be given and the pit cooled down to 32° and kept dry. If a pit gets too cold, a space large enough to set a cast-iron coal stove should be cleared, a good coal fire built, and it will soon be warmed up. A pit which is to stand over winter needs to have a double-pitch roof, 7 feet high at the ridge, about 3 feet at the eaves, and should be well banked on the ends and sides with loam. The width of the pit will be about 23 feet when 12-foot boards are used on the roof. The ridge should be a 2 by 6 inch plank, supported every 5 feet by a post; the purliiies to support the roof boards may be of 2 by 6 to 3 by 4 inch stuff", witli a post every 5 feet. The sides of the pit may be of earth, or of earth and plank. A walk 1 foot wide, from one end of the pit to the other along the middle, nearly under the ridge, is convenient and aids in getting a closer view of conditions inside the pit. The ventilators are made by using two boards right over the posts support- ing the ridge and purlines, and these ventilators are on each side of the pit, and alternate. They may be thrown wide open or opened just a few inches at the top, according to the weather. The celery is removed by opening wide one of these ventilators near where the celery is ready to come out. Celery pits need a great deal of attention to ventilation, if you wish to keep the celery late. Marketing. The earliest celery in the market is Paris Golden. Often by July 10 we find this celery coming on the market in fine shape. When several roots are needed to make a bunch, they are fastened together by nails through the root. Many times a single root is large enough for a bunch. Eighteen bunches are packed in a bushel box. The Paris Golden is a very handsome celery when well grown and well put up for market. It has a strong flavor, is tough and will stand up well. It 142 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. grows large, is a good keeper and a good money maker. It is often bleached with earth, the same as Giant Pascal celery, and when so bleached is much better for eating. All celery should be kept covered with wet paper or bagging after it is put up for market, and kept as cool as possible. Use plenty of ice, chopped fine, and plenty of paper on early celery, if you would have it look well and command the top price. The Giant Pascal celery is put up for market the same as the early celery. The bunches are made as regular in size as possible; three to five roots are put in a bunch, and eighteen bunches are made to fill a bushel box. The Pascal is a large, strong-growing celery. It is of mild flavor, and brittle. It has a waxy look, a nutty flavor and a crispness which make a great demand for it as soon as it appears in the market. The very best, cleanest and slickest-looking Pascal celeiy can be had by bleaching it in a pit. Set the plants as before described in a pit, having taken pains to have the soil in the pit well wet down, keep the pit a little close until the plants get rooted, and give air according to growth desired. Great care must be exercised, or the whole pit of celery will come forward too fast and be difficult to sell in the short time in which it ought to go, especially if your market is small. Aim to I3ut up your celery so well that there will be a strong demand for your mark. For small gardens, where a fresh supply is wanted daily, a whole tubful of jDlants may be prepared from the pit at one time, leaving the roots on and having about one pailful of water in the tub. In summing up, the essentials of success in the celery business arc as follows: good seed, sown early in rich soil; the plant must be kept growing; transplanting should be done only after the land is properly prepared; cultivation should be frequent and shallow; water beside rainfall should be used if necessary; bleaching must be carefully at- tended to ; storage pits must be well built and ventilated ; and when the crop is grown, it should be put in fancy shape and sold for the highest price. No. 4.] QUINCE CULTURE. 143 QUINCE CULTURE. BY PROF. F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OP POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. The following notes on quince culture are given in response to a request from the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture for some- thing on the subject which might be sent out to residents of the State from whom inquiries are frequently received for information as to this fruit. It is not supposed that the industry will ever grow to large proportions in Massachusetts. In fact, from the very nature of the fruit and its uses there can never be more than a very moderate de- mand for it. But as a part of the home fruit plantation, or as a modest part of the commercial orchard, it is certainly deserving of more at- tention than it has received in the past. In fact, even when they are planted, quince trees seem to be more systematically neglected than other fruits, which is certainly stating the case strongly. As every one knows, the quince never makes more than a large bush or a very small tree, 15 feet being the extreme for height, so that they may readily be included in even a small plantation of fruits. And while, as ordinarily seen, the tree is straggling and unkempt, owing to lack of care, yet when given a little intelligent attention, particularly as to pruning, it makes an attractive little tree; and when it is in full bloom very few fruit trees are more beautiful. The blossoms are large and snowy white, shaded with a delicate pink, and would make an attractive sight at any time, but, coming as they do, when other fruits are out of bloom, they seem doubly beautiful. As an article of diet the quince takes a high position, and deserves far more general use than it receives. Quince marmalade and quince preserves recall to every one's mind his grandmother's fruit closet; and while preserves are not indispensable, like flour and sugar and tobacco, yet in case of unexpected guests a well-stocked fruit closet brings a feeling of security. AVe shall have more to say on the uses of the quince in a later paragraph. Just noV we merely wish to establish the principle that the quince is worthy of ^ader use than it at present receives. Soils and Fertilizers. In the choice of a spot in which to grow quinces, one is usually very much restricted, since they generally form a small and relatively un- important part of the home fruit plantation, which is located only 144 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. with regard to its convenience from the house. Yet if one is allowed a choice, as is usually the case when one is setting a really commercial plantation, soils, windbreaks, exposures, etc., may all be considered. I do not think the quince is an exacting fruit as to soils. Certainly we have all seen it growing on a great variety of soils with excellent success (when one considers the utter neglect to which it is generally subjected). I recall, in particular, a row of old quince trees growing along a roadside in decidedly sandy soil which have year after year given a crop of fruit. I Avill not say it was a good crop or that it was good fruit, but considering their handicap these old trees did wonders, so no one need give up having quince marmalade because the soil is sandy. Yet most authorities agree, and the writer's observations tally therewith, that the ideal quince soil is a reasonably heavy clay loam, which is sufficiently well drained so that the water does not stand either in or upon the soil, and yet which is of such a nature and has been handled in such a way as to make it retentive of moisture. This may seem a somewhat difficult combination of characters to secure, but it is not unreasonably so. A good clay loam which has not too retentive a subsoil will give the first requisites. If the subsoil is heavy, then the land should be tile-drained; and of course the lay of the land should be such as to allow surface water to drain off. It only remains to keep up a good supply of humus in the soil and to cultivate the land instead of allowing the trees to stand in sod, as is usually done. Both these are of prime importance in getting the water into the soil and in holding it there. Of course, quinces will do something in sod; that has been too abundantly proved in Massachusetts to be disputed, for about all the quinces we grow are produced in that way; but with the soil requirements suggested, every one (except possibly the ex- treme sod crank) will agree that cultivation is by all means the best method of soil management, since it allows incorporating plenty of humus in the soil and keeping up the earth mulch to prevent evapora- tion. With a soil such as we have selected, and with the treatment, we have suggested (cultivation and cover crops), I do not beheve any ap- plication of nitrogen will be necessary affer the first two years. For these two years I have found that an ounce of nitrate of soda to each tree will give all the growth necessary, even in decidedly poor soil. This should be scattered about the trees as soon as growth gets fairly under way in the spring. The first year it ought to cover a circle with a diameter of say three feet (the tree of course being the center of the circle), and the second year a circle perhaps five feet in diameter. Potash and phosphoric acid may be used much more liberally with young trees just set. A 3^ pound of a mixture made up of 3 pounds of high-grade sulphate of potash and 5 pounds of acid phosphate will give excellent results, and this may be gradually increased (always having due regard to the way the trees respond) till at full bearing No. 4.] QUINCE CULTURE. 145 the orchard may get from 100 to 250 pounds of potash and from 200 to 500 pounds of the phosphate, though for bearing trees I should use, at least part of the time, basic slag meal as a source of phosphoric acid instead of the acid phosphate. Varieties. Compared with other fruits there are very few varieties of quinces, and, indeed, of these few a very small percentage is really of any particular value. Thomas lists 14 varieties in his "Fruit Culturist," and Budd and Hansen give 17 in their "Horticultural Manual." Out of this number only 4 or 5 have reached commercial importance over any extent of the United States. The varieties which seem to me to be of sufficient value, or to have been sufficiently tested, to warrant one in including them in a list for planting in Massachusetts, are as follows: — Orange or A-pyle. — This variety, of European origin, is one of the oldest and best known, and is often recommended as the only commer- cial sort for Massachusetts. I do not quite endorse this view, but it is certainly the leading variety. The chief objection to it is that it has been so long propagated, often by seeds, that several strains have been developed, some of which are not very valuable. The tree is fairly vigorous and spreading in its growth. The fruit is variable, as suggested above, but is typically rounded, not pear shaped and with distinct flattening at the ends. The color is fine golden and the sur- face not unduly ixxzzy. It ripens about October, but will often keep in good condition up to midwinter. The flesh is firm, but cooks up tender and soft. Champion. — This is an American variety, having originated in Connecticut. The tree is a vigorous grower, being more upright and taller than the Orange, and the fruit matures somewhat later than that variety; in fact, in some localities it does not ripen well. The fruit is large and very distinctly pear shaped, with tender flesh and delicate flavor. This would certainly s1and next to the Orange in popularity. Rca, or Rea's Manwwth. — This variety makes a small tree, but the fruit is large, sometimes very large, distinctly and abruptly pear shaped, a rich orange in color and with a very smooth skin. The flesh is of excellent quality, and the fruit is ready for use earlier than most other sorts. Meech or Meech's Prolific. — This variety also originated in Connecti- cut, and resembles the Orange considerably. The fruit is usually obscurely pyriform in shape, of a fine orange color, very fragrant, and of fine quality. A fifth variety which might be added, though the writer has little personal knowledge of it, is the Bourgeat. This was recently imported from France and has given excellent results in some places. Mr. E. C. Howard of Belchertown, in particular, has been much pleased with it. U6 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Selecting Trees and planting out. In the choice of nursery stock most growers select quince trees two or three years old. The writer would never go over two years, and would even prefer strong one-year trees. The arguments are the same as with any other fruit trees. The younger tree is apt to be less dis- turbed by transplanting and to take hold better for this reason. One is apt to get better stock in one-year trees, since only the best and most vigorous trees reach saleable size at that age. And, above all, it allows one to head the tree low, which is certainly the only way to head quinces. Among the larger tree fruits there may be some ques- tion on this point, at least there is room for argument, but the quince is at best not much more than a shrub, so that the familiar argument of wanting to get the team up under the branches will not apply. In the writer's opinion 12 inches is plenty high enough to head a quince. If one-year stock is used the tree may be simply cut off at this point and allowed to form a head from new branches sent out below this. As to distance apart, authorities differ, but from 10 to 15 feet is usually recommended. With repressive pruning (heading in each year's long, straggling growth) it will certainly be many years before quinces will crowd each other even at 10 feet, and that is the distance which the writer has generally adopted. In the setting of the trees no special treatment is necessary. I be- lieve that fall setting might perhaps be justified here more often than with other fruits, for the reason that the ideal quince soil being on the moist side is apt not to be ready for planting as early in the spring as some others. My own belief is that very early spring setting is the best for almost any fruit trees, and that next to this is very late fall setting. The trees ought to be set at least a couple of inches deeper than they stood in the nursery, since the quince is naturally a shallow- rooted tree and the roots will tend to work up nearer the surface. After setting, clean cultivation should be practiced. As in most other phases of the care of the quince, there are no special reasons for this farther than the one already suggested, that the quince thrives best under comparatively moist soil conditions. And, for the same reason, in selecting a cover-crop choose one which makes a good growth, like buckwheat or barley, or, for a nitrogenous cover-crop, vetch or soy beans. This should be sown the middle or last of July. Fruit-bearing and Pruning. The method of bearing fruit, in the quince, is one of the most in- teresting and unusual among all the tree fruits. There are no winter fruit buds as in most other fruits, but each spring the lateral buds on the shoots of the previous year's growth send out new shoots, and after these shoots have grown for a few inches (usually from 3 to 6) a single Fig. 1.— Young quince tree, just coming into bearing, s'.iowing few long slioots. riG. 2. — Young quince tree, not yet in liearing, sliowiii- long teriuiual shoots, which need heading in. No. 4.] QUINCE CULTURE. 147 blossom is produced on the end of the shoot. This, of course, tem- porarily stops the growth in that direction, and if the blossom sets a fruit there is no further growth at this point for the season. If it does not set fruit, however, one of the lateral buds on the shoot will frequently start into growth and continue the lengthening of the branch, sometimes for a foot or more. All this means that on those branches where a quince tree sets fruit its j'^early growth is very slight indeed, and if it bears abundantly, the tree will present a rounded top, looking almost as though it had been sheared, as in the case of the tree in Fig. 1. Whereas, if the tree sets little fruit, a young tree in particular may make a long, spreading growth, which will give it the appearance shown in Fig. 2. We are now in position to consider the matter of pruning, which is chieflj^ concerned wath keeping the tree from growing ragged and out of shape, as it will most certainly do if neglected, and in keeping up a supply of thrifty one-year-old wood from which the bearing shoots may start each spring. As in other fruits, the main pruning may be done at almost any part of the dormant season, but preferably about March, and a good pair of hand shears such as are used in grape prun- ing is all that is necessary for practically all of the work. The first operation is to shorten in the long terminal shoots, shown in Fig. 2, and unless there is special reason for wanting the tree to enlarge, these may be cut back from two-thirds to three-fourths of their growth, or even cut out altogether in some cases. The next operation is to go through the tree and thin out the entire top. The severity of this thinning will depend altogether on the previous treatment of the tree. If it has been neglected, it may be necessary to remove a large amount of wood, so as to induce an abundant new growth; while if it has been \vell cared for, there may be only here and there a crowding branch to remove. In any case, experience (either one's own or that of another) is the only sure guide. But the aim ought to be to keep the head sufficiently open so that the center of the tree may not become "blind," or devoid of one-year wood. As compared with other fruits, however, the quince may be allowed to form rather a thick top, since it never attains large size and consequently the sun and air will penetrate to the center of the tree through a thicker top. Insects and Fungous Pests. The quince is really troubled with very few insect or fungous enemies in well-kept orchards. Of course the neglected and run- down trees, which are the too common rule, are likely to be attacked in various waj^s, but where trees are given anything like modern treatment the number of enemies is relatively very small. Even deer, the newest and w^orst enemy of apple orchards in Massachusetts (worst because protected by the State), are said not to browse on quince trees. 148 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Among fungous troubles, by all means the most important and most common here in Massachusetts are the quince rusb and the leaf blight or fruit spot. Of these two, according to the writer's observation, the rust is much more common, but when the leaf blight does occur it is apt to do much more damage. The rust attacks both the fruit and the twigs, and at a certain stage, particularly on the fruit, it pro- duces long, thread-like growths over the surface of the affected parts, which are orange in color and very conspicuous. On the twigs it produces knots not unlike the black knot of the plum, though with- out the pimply appearance of surface which the plum knots have. Frequently the fungus works entirely around the branch, causing it to break off. The fungus causing this disease is one of those curious forms which have two stages of growth. One is the disease of the quince we are discussing, and the other is found upon cedar trees. The treat- ment would therefore be to destroy affected cedar trees, at least those near the quince orchard, and to cut off and burn the affected parts of the quince, whether fruit or twigs. Then, in addition, thorough spray- ing with Bordeaux mixture will usually hold it in check. The writer has found that an appUcation early in the spring, shortly after the leaves appear, a second one just before blossoming, and a third just after the blossoms fall will usually almost completely protect the orchard. The second disease, the leaf blight or fruit spot, is, as I have said, likely to be more serious than the rust when it does occur. It pro- duces on the leaves small dots, red-brown in color and circular in out- line, which may coalesce so as to form larger irregular spots. In severe cases the leaves turn yellow and drop off, sometimes leaving the tree entirely bare by the last of August. On the fruit it shows as dark- brown sunken areas scattered over the surface. Fortunately, this disease, though serious when allowed to go untreated, is fairly easily controlled by sprayings, and practically the same sprayings given for the rust will give satisfactory results with this disease. Among insects there are three which deserve to be mentioned: the codling moth, the borer and the curculio. The codling moth is the same fellow who produces the "wormy" apple, and is to be fought in the same way, viz., by adding arsenate of lead or Paris green to the Bordeaux used just after the blossoms fall. Paris green should be used at the rate of 6 ounces to 50 gallons of Bordeaux, and arsenate of lead at 3 to 4 pounds to the same amount of Bordeaux. Borers are usually not troublesome in cultivated orchards, but the trees should be watched, and when they are attacked the borers must be dug out, or a wire run into the burrow till the insect is reached. In sections where borers are likely to be troublesome the trees ought to be examined in late spring and early fall, particularly just at the sur- face of the ground. This will usually be entirely effective in keeping them down. No. 4.] QIIXCE CLXTURE. 149 The last insect is the curculio, which attacks the fruit in much tlic same way that the apple is attacked, though it is by no means as common an enemy. These insects may usually be controlled some- what by spraying, just before the blossoms open, with Paris green or arsenate of lead, as outlined for the codling moth. But the surest way to get rid of them is to jar them on to a sheet spread under the tree. This is a slow and tedious method, but one whicli is practiced by many commercial growers. Picking and Marketing. Quince trees ought to begin to bear by the fourth or fifth year and should reach full bearing by ten years. The life of the orchard of course depends on the care it receives, but some of the commercial orchards of New York have remained healthy and productive for forty 3'Cars. While the quince is a firm, hard fruit, it is easily bruised, and such damages show up very plainly. It ought therefore to be handled with care, from the time it is picked till placed upon the market. If picked directly into half-bushel baskets, and carried in these to the storage house, the bruising is perhaps as little as possible. For market they may be packed in almost anything, from a grape basket to a barrel. Where one can reach the retailer direct, large-sized grape baskets are excellent, but barrels and half barrels are frequently used. Practically the same arguments apply to the different packages as appl}' to apples. Uses. Like a great many other good things quinces are not used as generally as thej'' ought to be. It is not the design of these notes to say all that might be said on any phase of the subject, but it does seem that a few suggestions as to some of the more common ways of serving quinces would be in order. The writer can personally recommend the follow- ing receipts. He cannot say that he has tried them all, but he has tried the "results" and knows that they are good. They are taken from various reliable cook books. As quinces are of such a strong flavor, a few of them will make a large quantity of delicious marmalade, jelly and preserves by using apples in combination with them. The quinces should be cooked in water until soft before adding sugar, for if sugar is added when cooking begins, the quinces will become hard. Canned Quinces. — Pare and core quinces and an equal quantity of sweet apples. Use one third the weight of sugar dissolved in enough water to make a syrup. Cook slowly until tender. Quince Marmalade. — Pare and core quinces and cook until soft in enough water to cover them. Then rub through a sieve and add three quarters the weight of sugar. Cook twenty minutes and put into jelly glasses. 150 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Quince Honey. — Pare and grate five large quinces. Add five pounds of sugar to one pint of boiling water. When sugar is dissolved, add the grated quince and cook twenty minutes. Turn into jelly glasses. Quince Jelly. — Put parings and imperfect quinces into a preserving kettle, with one quart of water to two of the fruit. Cook slowly for about two hours. Then strain, measure juice and bring to the boiling point. Add an equal quantity of hot sugar and boil until a drop of it placed upon a cold dish hardens. A nice jelly is made by using one- half apple juice in the above receipt. Preserved Quinces. — Pare and core quinces. Place in a kettle with enough water to cover them and cook until soft. Then add sugar equal in weight to amount of fruit, and cook until it reaches the desired color. No. 4.] GUA?K ( rLTrilE. 151 GRAPE CULTURE. BY MR. EDWARD R. FARR.\R OF LINCOLN, ^L^.SS. For the commercial growing of grapes two things are essential,— aptitude for the work and a favorable location, where the late spring or early fall frosts are not likely to destroy the crop. If either of these is lacking one will do well to give his attention to some other crop. Cold air settles on the lower levels something as water does, this being referred to as frost di-ainage, so that an elevated hill slope is needed for grapes, preferably with a south or southeast exposure. If there is a body of water at the foot of the hill so much the better, as the air moving down over the water is warmed, and rises, giving a current of air which will occasionally save a crop, as it did this year on a corner of my vineyard that slopes toward a pond, the rest of the fruit being nearly all killed by the frost in June this season. The slope and the character of the land should be such as will ripen the fruit early, as the price drops very materially when the New York or western grapes come into the market, making it difficult to dispose of our crop at a profit. Windbreaks, protecting the vineyard from the strong prevailing winds, are a help. The injury to the leaves l^y high winds gives favorable conditions for the entrance and growth of fun- gous diseases. Soils. Grapes prefer a light, friable soil, and cultivation and cover crops help to keep it in this condition. Occasionally, with special care, a rocky or steep hillside may be used. Fertilizers. Fertilizers should be used that will be ample for growing the fruit, but without making undue growth of wood. Stable manure is more apt to promote fungous growth than are commercial fertilizers. Varieties. For commercial uses Moore's Early, Worden and Concord are the best varieties. An additional list would be Winchell, Campbell's Early, Diamond and Niagara. 152 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. For the home garden a selection might be made from the following varieties: Brighton, Campbell's Early, Concord, Delaware, Diamond, Herbert, Moore's Early, Niagara, Winchell and Worden. The following brief descriptions of these varieties are compiled from Bulletin 315 of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station: — Brighton. — Originated in New York in 1870; tendrils, continuous; self sterile; stamens, reflexed; cluster, very large to medium in size and medium to loose in compactness; berry, medium to large in size and round to oval in form; color, red; flavor, very sweet; quality, very good; season, midseason; use, for dessert and market; well recom- mended; of high quality, productive; earlier than Concord; a good market grape. CatapheWs Early. — Originated in Ohio in 1892; tendrils, intermit- tent; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, very large to medium in size and close to medium in compactness; berry, large in size and round in form; color, purplish black; flavor, sweet and vinous; quality, good; season, early; use, dessert and market; well recommended; one of the standard commercial grapes. Concord. — Originated in Massachusetts in 1843; tendrils, continuous and irregular; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, large to medium in size and close; berry, about medium in size and round to oval in form; color, black; flavor, sweet and slightly foxy; quality, good; season, midseason; use, for dessert and market; well recommended; hardy and productive; the standard market grape. Delaware. — Originated in New Jersey (?) in 1849; tendrils, inter- mittent; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, medium to small in size and close; berry, small to medium in size and round in form; color, light red; flavor, vinous, spicy and sweet; quality, best; season, mid- season; use, dessert, market and wine; well recommended ; the stand- ard American grape for qualitJ^ Diamond. — Originated in New York in 1870; tendrils, intermittent; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, medium to large in size and close; berry, about medium in size and round to oval in form; color, green to yellowish green; flavor, spicy; quality, very good; season, mid- season; use, dessert, market and wine; well recommended; one of the best white grapes; worthy of more general cultivation. Herbert. — Originated in Massachusetts in 1852; tendrils, inter- mittent; sterile; stamens, reflexed; cluster, medium to large in size and loose; berry, about medium in size and round in form; color, black; flavor, tart; quality, good to very good;, season, midseason; use, dessert; recommended; on account of quality, one of the best table grapes. Moore's Early. — Originated in Massachusetts in 1871 ; tendrils, con- tinuous; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, medium in size and com- pactness; berry, large to medium in size and round in form; color, purplish black to black; flavor, foxy and sweet; quality, fair to good; No. 4.] GRAPE CIXTURE. 153 season, early; use, dessert and market; well recommended; the stand- ard early commercial grape. Niagara. — Originated in New York in 1868; tendrils, continuous; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, large to medium in size and medium in compactness; berry, about medium to large in size and oval in form; color, green to yellowish green; flavor, foxy, sweet and tart; quality, good to very good ; season, midseason ; use, dessert and mar- ket; well reconmiended; the standard white grape for the commercial grower. Winchell. — Originated in Vermont in 1850; tendrils, irregular; fer- tile; stamens, upright; cluster, large to medium in size and loose to medium in compactness; berry, about medium to small in size and round in form; color, light green; flavor, juicy and sweet; quality, very good to best; season, early; use, dessert and market; well recom- mended; the standard early green grape. Worden. — Originated in New York in 1863; tendrils, continuous; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, large and close; berry, large in size and round in form; color, dark purple to black; flavor, sweet, juicy, foxy and mild; quality, good to very good; season, early midseason; use, dessert and market; well recommended; the standard early black grape for home use and market. Planting. The holes should be dug about 10 inches deep and the plants care- fully set out, using either strong one-year-old plants or two-year-old plants. The vines should be purchased of one of the large, reliable firms in the grape regions of New York. The rows should be set 8 feet apart, with the vines 6 to 8 feet apart in the rows. I prefer early spring planting. The land should be in good condition, with plenty of humus. Ground bone or some other slow-acting fertilizer may be dug in where the vines are set. For the first two years light posts, with one or two wires, may be used. After that substantial posts, with two to four wires, will be needed. Pruning. The first year the vines should be cut back to two buds. These should ])e allowed to grow as long as they will. The next year the vines may be cut the height of the lower wire, and two shoots again be allowed to grow, breaking the others off soon after they start. The object of this severe pruning is to get a strong root system established, not allowing too much of the vine to go into unnecessary top. The third year the best cane may be left .3 to 6 feet long, according to the strength of the vine. To get a good crop of large clusters strong canes of well-ripened wood are needed, the fruit being grown only on the wood of the previous 154 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. year's growth. To obtain such, various methods are used. Probably the best way is to have one cane on the trelhs run from that vine to the next, so that when the vines are in place on the trellis there will be on one of the wires a continuous line of bearing wood, and on a wire underneath this two canes for the next year's bearing may be grown, the best one of them to be used for the next year's fruiting. Another good method is to have two or four arms on the vines, so placed that on the second and fourth wires there will be a continuous line of bearing wood. Where this method is used a number of the poorer shoots may be broken off when young. Another way, practiced considerably in New York, is to have the vine along the lower wire, the other shoots being grown vertically and tied to the other wires. Another way is to let the vine grow pretty much as it will, cutting away all but two or three buds on the stronger last year's shoots. Summer Pruning. If the vines have wintered favorably a number of the smaller buds may be rubbed off soon after they start, and all those on wood more than one j^car old, unless wanted for next year's bearing. About the time the blossoms open, by pinching back the ends of the new growth the life of the vine is forced back into the bunches, helping them to set large clusters. The pinching back should be done so as to leave about five leaves on the cane beyond the bunch of fruit. Side shoots will start, which may be cut back two or three times during the season. The new leaves, being of a light color, are easily seen, and only the stronger growth needs cutting back. Girdling. Ringing or girdling the vine may sometimes be used to advantage. This is done by taking off the bark about an inch wide around the vine, the theory being that the sap goes up in the wood and down in the bark. By cutting the bark the sap is forced into the growth above the part girdled, and by keeping the vine cut back the fruit is usually increased in size, and r-ipens from a week to ten days earlier. The girdling should be done about the middle of July. The part of the vine girdled dies in the winter. Only one-half of the vine should be girdled, as about that proportion is needed to keep up the vigor of the vine. If too much of the vine is girdled the fruit does not ripen well, and the vine is weakened. I have practiced girdling more or less for fifteen years, and see no injury to my vineyard from it. Thinning the Fruit. Soon after the fruit is set the vines should be gone over, and where there are more bunches than are needed the smaller ones should be taken off, so that the fruit the vine is able to carry will be in as few bunches as possible. Xo. 4.] GRAPE CULTURE. 155 Spraying. For fungous diseases spraying is a preventive rather than a cure, as after the fungous diseases are well started spraying has little effect in checking them. A good spraying with a strong solution of copper sulphate, before the buds start, covering thoroughly the vines and also the posts, often helps out very much the rest of the season. By adding arsenate of lead to this spraying mixture it will help take care of the earlier insects. Just before the blossoms open a spraying of Bordeaux and arsenate of lead should be used, covering the bunches thoroughly. This repels and usually checks the work of the rose bugs. They like to eat the grape blossoms, and are one of the few insects not affected by contact or stomach poisons. Another spraying ten days later is needed, and occasionally a fourth spraying. The chief diseases of the grape are anthracnose, black rot, downy and powdery mildew. The chief insects affecting the grape are the flea beetle, grape-fruit worm, leaf hopper and rose bug. These are usually controlled by the sprayings above referred to. Marketing. Grapes are usually disposed of to the best advantage by marketing as soon as they are well ripened. Moore's Early and Winchell should be disposed of as soon as suitable, as the first is liable to have the fruit shell off and the other loses tone. The package should be such as suits the market where they are sold. I use an eight-quart diamond basket, which holds from ten to twelve pounds. In years like the present the smaller bunches can be picked before they are quite ripe, and sold for preserving. In local markets there is often considerable call for grapes for that use. Prices are not such as were received thirty or forty years ago, but for several j'^ears past have ranged from 2^ to 7 cents per pound, avei'- aging about 4 cents. I usually begin selling in August, and my .crop is generally all mar- keted by the 20th of September. I have had no loss from fall frosts since 1893. There is many a sheltered nook about buildings or j^ard where a few vines might be grown. It is always well to keep one's family well supplied with choice fruit. NINTH ANNUAL REPORT State Nursery Inspector. Presented to the Boaiid and Accepted, January 10, 11)11. NINTH ANNUAL KEPORT OF THE STATE NURSERY INSPECTOR. To (he State Board of Agriculture. 1 have the honor to submit herewith the ninth annual report of the State NTursery Inspector. The ordinary work of inspection during 1910 was, in part, of its customary nature, 146 different places having been visited, controlled by 136 owners. Of these, 117 received certificates; in 10 cases the nurseries were in such condition that certificates were not issued ; 7 persons have no stock this year, though they do not intend to discontinue the business, and 2 have decided to become agents hereafter. The usual inspection this year found a considerable in- crease in the amount of nursery stock grown in Massachu- setts. There ^vas also a noticeable increase in the cost of living while at work ; and enough days were lost by rain to make this an appreciable factor in the cost. It became evident, before the work was completed, that the appropriation would be in- sufficient to accomplish what is required by law, and accord- ingly the situation was placed before His Excellency the Governor and the Council. As a result, an additional appro- priation of $100 was received, but even with this addition the work has exceeded the appropriation by about $250, which has thus far been carried by the inspectors themselves. It was stated in the last annual report of this office that, in spite of all possible precaution, a gypsy moth egg mass would probably some day escape discovery, and be shipped with the stock. This prediction became a fact last spring, though of several cases reported only one proved to have been on stock examined by the inspectors. The States where the infested stock was received, however, were very much disturbed by finding gypsy and brown-tail moths coming into their terri- 160 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. tory from Massachusetts, and orders were prepared which would prevent Massachusetts nurserymen from selling any stock there. This was a very serious matter, and, if carried into effect, the result would have been the entire loss of a business amounting each year to more than a million dollars, for as soon as one State would issue such an order all the others would immediately follow the same policy. iVs there was no organization of nurserymen in the State, information of the probable debarring of Massachusetts stock was sent to the State Nursery Inspector as the only person in touch with the nurserymen, and he at once urged a further consideration of the matter, and that at least an extension of time be allowed before these orders should take effect. He also assumed the authority to call a meeting of those nursery- men of the State who were most vitally concerned, to take the subject under consideration. This meeting was held at the office of the secretary of the Board of Agriculture, in May, and at that meeting the Massachusetts Nurserymen's Association was organized, and a committee appointed to meet the inspectors of the other States concerned, in the hope of finding some way by which the proposed discrimination against Massachusetts stock could be avoided. Such a meet- ing was arranged for and was held, June 11, at New York City. At that time the entire problem of providing such an examination and supervision of Massachusetts stock as would satisfy the other States was thoroughly discussed. Those in charge of the work in the other States finally consented to withhold the discriminating orders on condition that each shipment of stock from a Massachusetts nursery into the other States concerned should be immediately reported to the nursery inspector of the State to which the stock should go, giving date of shipment and name and address of the con- signee. A second condition was that nurseries within the territory occupied by the gypsy moth ' or brown-tail moth should be inspected after September 15 by the State Nursery Inspector or his deputies, and stock shipped after that date from such nurseries not so inspected would not be admitted to the States concerned. While this action was far more favorable than that which No. 4.] STATE NURSERY INSPECTOR. 161 had been contemplated, it at once caused serious difficulties. The ordinary inspection work had required the expenditure of about the entire appropriation, and, with the normal in- crease in acreage, it was evident that the cost of this supple- mentary inspection could not be met. There would be over fifty nurseries to examine, and this must be done after Sep- tejnber 15, and yet quickly enough thereafter to avoid holding up the business of these nurseries. The problem was how to obtain enough trained men to examine these nurseries in a thorough manner, within a reasonable time after Septem- ber 15, and where to find the money this would cost. This was, in a measure, solved by the kindness of Mr. D. M. Rogers, in charge of the government work in suppressing the gypsy and brown-tail moths. Mr. Rogers kindly offered the assistance of several of the men in his employ as soon as they could be spared from their regular work, and in this way the services of five additional inspectors were available for a por- tion of the time. The expense of the work was finally assumed by the nurserymen whose places received this in- spection, and thus the immediate difficulties were removed. In this connection the assistance given by Mr. Rogers deserves full and grateful recognition. The sections of the law relating to the inspection of orchards and other regions liable to be in such condition as to cause financial loss to neighboring residents (sections 8 to 12) have been made use of in several cases during the year, and expenses connected with this work have been a factor in producing a shortage in the appropriation. The cases con- cerned have all been satisfactorily settled, and the trees or other plants which were found to be a real menace have been cared for in accordance Avith the orders of the inspector, so far as can be learned. For many years nursery stock has been introduced to some extent into Massachusetts from abroad, and for some time has been rapidly increasing in amount. As the brown-tail moth and San Jose scale were probably brought into this country on such stock, and as there are still many other dangerous pests which may be brought in at any time in this way, it is important to examine all imports to discover and 162 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Rub. Doc. destroy such pests before they shall have an opportunity to establish themselves here. Until about two years ago it was practically impossible to learn of these imports, the custom house officials being under no obligations to furnish such information. For the last two years, however, this information has been supplied to the different States by the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture, and it is now possible to examine the imports as they arrive at their various points of destination. Lack of funds has prevented any large amount of this work, but in a few instances an examination was pos- sible, the contents of perhaps one hundred cases being exam- ined to discover any insects or diseases which might be present on the stock. The results showed the importance, and, indeed, the absolute necessity, of watching our imports carefully if we are not to receive other pests as serious as the gypsy and brown-tail moths. Among the shipments the worst case of crown gall ever seen by the inspector was discovered, includ- ing forty-five out of fifty plants tied together in one bundle. Another shipment was abundantly supplied with the West Indian peach scale, which has already received some attention because of its abundance on a shipment of cherries from Japan for planting on the White House grounds at Washing- ton, resulting in the destruction of the entire shipment. If the authorities of other States consider it of prime importance to watch all consignments of import stock carefully, Massa- chusetts cannot afford to admit this stock without a careful examination. As a result of the slight amount of examina- tion possible last spring, five different pests or diseases were found, any one of which, if it had escaped unnoticed, might have added another to the number of foes this State is now obliged to fight. It has just been stated that examination of about one hun- dred cases or other parcels of stock resulted in finding five insects or diseases liable to become dangerous to our trees or other plants, but it cannot be determined how many other kinds of pests, and how many specimens of the five already discovered were brought in on the uninspected consignments. As the inspector has received notice of the shipment into the No. 4.] STATE NURSERY INSPECTOR. 163 State during 1910 of 3,383 cases, bales or consignments in some form, it would seem important to provide that this stock be given careful attention hereafter. At the present time, therefore, the nursery inspectors must examine the nurseries of the State, now much larger than when the present appropriation was made; must respond to all requests for the examination of orchards and other places where financial loss is probably involved, although no increase of appropriation was allowed for this purpose; must give a supplementary inspection of all nurseries in the gypsy and brown-tail moth territory, for which no financial allowance has been made ; and, unless the State is to acquire an addi- tional list of dangerous foreign pests, must inspect all imports from foreign countries, for which purpose no particular ap- propriation has been made, all this work being supposedly paid for from the $2,000 originally appropriated. To do this any longer is impossible. A larger appropria- tion must be provided or the work must be stopped, and when this work stops, a business involving about $2,000,000 will practically stop; protection of our trees and shrubs from the neglect of others will cease ; new pests will appear from abroad and spread over the State, and a large factor in the protection of our trees and other plants will be removed. To properly inspect our nurseries for the various pests and diseases liable to be present, to provide for necessary orchard and field examinations, and to properly examine imported stock, a large increase over the present appropriation is neces- sary, and I would respectfully urge upon the members of the Board of Agriculture the importance of this increase, and ask their endorsement of this proposition and their active support of some bill for this purpose before the Legislature. The inspector understands that the nurserymen of the State are also of the opinion that changes are necessary, and it may be desirable to confer with the Massachusetts Nurserymen's Association and settle upon some one bill as representing the wishes both of the Board and of the nurserymen. 101 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [P. D. No. 4. Financial St. iTEMENT. Approi^riation, .... ..^2,000 00 By Governor and Council, . 100 00 $2,100 00 Compensation of inspectors, . . $1,192 50 Traveling and necessary expenses, . . 891 73 Supplies (postage, printing, etc.), . 15 72 2,099 95 Unexpended balance, $0 05 The coiitinued co-operation of the secretary of the Board of Agriculture and of his assistants in the office with the in- spector and his deputies has been of much assistance during the year, and it is a pleasure to record here our appreciation of this. Respectfully submitted, H. T. FERNALD, State Nursery Inspector. Amherst, Jan. 1, 1911. THIRD ANNUAL REPORT State Ornithologist. Synopsis presented to the Board and Accepted, January 10, 1911. -"•"■i^*'^^^- "" ^. -,!U Twelve robins, three jays, three flickers, two hermit thrushes and one purple finch. Found on an Italian. Had no gun ; was carrying game for three who had guns. He had copy of law in Italian language in pocket. (Photograph by Wilbur F. Smith.) THIRD ANNUAL EEPORT OF THE STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. The Work of the Year. Educational Work. The demand for lectures by the State Ornithologist con- tinues unabated. Thirty-seven free lectures have been given during 1910. Engagements for five hundred might have been taken had time permitted, but the work of preparing the spe- cial report on wild fowl, game birds and shore birds, author- ized by the Legislature in 1910, made it impossible to accept many engagements to lecture. This report is still in process of preparation, and will be ready for distribution during the latter part of the year 1911. 8ong Birds destroyed hy Aliens. Some complaints have been received regarding the killing of birds by foreigners. The census of 1905 gives the foreign- born population of Massachusetts at 918,044. Many of these aliens come from southern Europe, or from other countries where the killing of song birds is a common practice. When these people arrive in this country the tendency to continue such depredations is very marked. A hunter's license law which went into effect in the year 1909, and which requires all aliens who hunt to pay a license fee of $15, has reduced the number of foreign hunters. It has probably kept at least 20,000 of them from hunting in Massachusetts, but some are now evading the law by using short guns, that may bo concealed in their clothing, or by utilizing traps, nets or bird lime. Great numbers of small birds, such as flickers, jays, robins, bluebirds, sparrows, thrushes and warblers, are killed by these people and used for food. The frontispiece 168 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. of this report shows 12 robins, 3 blue jays, 3 flickers, 2 hermit thrushes and 1 purj^le finch which were concealed on the per- son of an Italian who was arrested by a game warden in Connecticut. This hunter had no gun, but was carrying the '' game " for three people who did the shooting. He had a copy of the game laws printed in Italian in his pocket. The heads of about 100 robins were found where some Polish hunters had dressed them in a New Hampshire city, and in Massachusetts an Italian was taken with 40 birds, mostly flickers, on his person. These are only a few of the instances that have come to light. Complaints are made that the laws are not enforced, and that some of the wardens are inactive, but conditions have been very much improved since the hunters' license law was passed. Before that time there were many Italian camps where the ground was strewn with feathers, and it was re- ported that in some instances hardly a bird was left alive in the woods. It is difficult, even under present conditions, to stop this practice among foreigners, and the laws will never be fully enforced until every one interested in the protection of birds uses his influence in the right direction. The Massachusetts Audubon Society has printed an appeal to the Italians, advising them of the laws protecting song birds and requesting better observance. The Commission on Fisheries and Game have notices printed in Italian for dis- tribution by any one who is interested. An appeal must be made to the religious instructors of foreigners to use their influence toward securing obedience of the law, and the chil- dren in the schools should be taught the value of birds, and urged to protect rather than destroy them. Birds feeding on the Eggs of the Gypsy Moth. Enforcement of the laws protecting the smaller birds is now imperative, for many of them feed more or less on the gypsy moth and the brown-tail moth. In 1896, when my report was published on birds feeding on the gypsy moth, birds were not known to eat the eggs of these moths; but in the last decade evidence has been accu- No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 169 Ululated to the eli'ect that birds are now learning to feed upon these eggs. At first egg clusters were found slightly damaged, as if pecked at ; later the birds were seen pecking at them. Messrs. H. B. Bigelow and Wilfred Wheeler of Concord have noticed that the birds are eating these eggs. The ques- tion at once arises whether the birds do not scatter more eggs than they eat, and leave them to hatch on the ground. But Mr. Wheeler and Mr. Wilson H. Fay state that they have watched the birds feeding on these eggs and have searched carefully on the newly fallen snow below, but have been unable to find any eggs there. Formerly the birds merely pecked into the cluster, scattering the eggs about ; now they are learning to eat them clean. I examined many trees in Concord where the birds had been at work, and found many egg clusters from which all the eggs had been removed. Mr. Fay spent several winter days observing the birds. He re- ]X)rts that he saw a downy woodpecker peek into an egg mass one hundred and twenty times within a minute. He states that chickadees, brown creepers and golden-crowned kinglets also apparently eat the eggs. Dr. G. W. Field, chairman of the Massachusetts Commission on Fisheries and Game, in- forms me that nuthatches eat them. Dr. A. W. Tuttle of Cambridge states that at his camp the birds have destroyed a great part of the eggs of the gypsy moth. He regards the downy woodpecker as the most efficient worker in this respect. Fear has been expressed that the eggs of the moth may pass through the alimentary canals of the birds unbroken and undigested, and may afterwards hatch, and that in this way the birds will become distributors of the insects. Exper- iments that were made before 1896 with the crow and the English sparrow showed that the eggs which passed through the digestive tract of those birds were killed in the process of digestion, although the shells of some of them were unbroken. This indicates that there is no distribution of living eggs to any distance by egg-eating birds, and if the birds are be- ginning to eat the eggs of this moth, they will ])r()l)nbly be- come as useful eventuallv as Euro]iean birds, which have 170 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. been known to check the inroads of the moth in parks and on large estates, merely by eating the eggs in the fall, winter and spring. This is the most vulnerable stage of the moth, as the eggs remain upon the tree for the greater part of the year. The blue jay and a few other species are now believed to be quite destructive to the caterpillars of the brown-tail moth during the winter. In some localities the caterpillars have been removed from nearly all the webs on the trees. It is believed that the blue jay is the most eifective of these winter caterpillar hunters. This subject will be further investigated during the coming year. Most of the month of June and much of the remainder of the year were devoted to an investigation of the introduced starling. European Methods of attracting Birds. The success of the efforts of Europeans in protecting birds has attracted a great deal of attention in this country. Many articles and essays dealing with the various attempts to pro- mote these methods have been published in Europe. Socie- ties and conmiunities, as well as individuals, have taken the matter up in many parts of Europe. Government authori- ties have taken up the question of bird protection, particu- larly in the European forest work. International conven- tions for the purpose of consulting regarding bird protection ha^e been held. Perhaps the most eminent success in bird protection by one individual has been attained by Baron von Berlepsch at Seebach. Recently a volume by Martin Heise- mann, giving the results of the baron's efforts, entitled " How to attract and protect Wild Birds," has been translated into English, and is now distributed by the National Asso- ciation of Audubon Societies in this country. Baron von Berlepsch has carried out the principles of game protec- tion in the conservation of small birds. He plants trees and shrubbery to attract birds, trims and prunes his trees and shrubbery in such a way as to afford nesting places for the birds, and has invented nesting boxes and feeding appliances that have proved so successful that the 3,000 nesting boxes No 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 171 put up on his estate at Seebach are nearly all occupied by birds, and the number of birds on his estate far exceeds the number in equal areas in other parts of the country. As a result of the protection of the birds on his estate a caterpillar plague which swept the country in that region had no effect upon his trees, and his entire plantation stood out like a green oasis amid the bare and barren countryside. Many of the bird boxes and appliances used by Baron von Berlepsch have been imported into this country, and I have watched the results with a good deal of interest. Undoubt- edly the methods he used are considerably in advance of our own. Attempts have been made to manufacture such nesting boxes and other appliances in this country, and recently Mr. Philip E. Perry, of 39 Clarke Street, Lexington, has per- fected a machine for the manufacture of these nesting boxes, and it is hoped that they will be given an extensive trial in our woods, fields and orchards during the coming years. It is not difficult to increase the number of chickadees and some other species which feed on the gypsy and the brown-tail moth by putting up nesting boxes in summer and a little suet upon the trees in winter, and it is my intention during the coming year to make a trial of these and other methods in Massachusetts. Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes of Meriden, N. H., has produced some bird food houses similar to those used by Baron von Berlepsch, and they are very successful in attracting the birds. The Stakling. The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) was introduced into ]S[ew York City in 1890, and has now reached Massachu- setts. It is a native of western central Euroj^e, winters south to Africa and is accidental in Greenland. It may be de- scribed briefly as follows: length, 814 inches; adult male: black with purple and green reflections, the feathers of the upper parts more or less tipped with pale buff; under tail- coverts edged with white; beak yellow; feet flesh-colored, tinged with brown ; female : spotted below as well as above ; young: uniform ash brown, faintlv streaked witli darker. 172 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The starling may be readily recognized by its general ap- pearance and manner of flight. It is about the size of the red-winged blackbird, but has a very short tail. It is usually dark in color, and during the breeding season its bill is bright yellow. Those who see it for the first time usually describe it as a blackbird with a yellow bill. In flight it flutters much like a meadow lark, but seldom sails as the lark does. The Starling in Europe. In order to get some idea of what we may expect of the starling in this country w^e must first glance at its history in Europe. There it is one of the most abundant birds. In some sections it has been more numerous in the past than it is now, but on the other hand it is now increasing in num- bers in other regions. Most of the starlings in northern European countries pass the winter in southern Europe, but reappear in the north very early in the spring, sometimes before the snow is gone ; and in nmch of the northern jiart of its range a few individuals are resident throughout the winter. Although it resembles our blackbirds somewhat in appearance, it differs widely from them in its breeding hab- its. In Europe it nests in hollow trees, in holes or crevices in rocks, walls, cliffs and buildings. Like the house spar- row it is a close companion of man during the breeding sea- son. In building its nest it occupies suitable places about the eaves, and utilizes bird houses and nesting boxes as the house sparrow does. It lays from four to seven greenish- blue eggs and usually raises two broods each season. It is a very gregarious species, and even during the breeding season may be seen in small flocks, a few individuals or a family often consorting together. By midsummer these small flocks begin to congregate into larger ones, containing hun- dreds of individuals, and increasing sometimes in the fall to thousands and tens of thousands. The largest flights are seen at the roosts. Usually the starlings from a large area concentrate on some marsh at night, where they roost in the reeds, and from these centers they scatter over the country to feed each day, returning every evening to the same roost, No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNTmOLOGIST. 173 until the approaching winter, with its scarcity of food, com- pels them to wander about in search of it, or to resort to more southern regions. The accounts of the vast numbers congregated at the roosts as related by European ornithologists are almost incredible. Their numbers are set down as hundreds of thousands and sometimes as " millions," but such statements are probably somewhat exaggerated. It is certain, however, that these birds gather at the roosts in " clouds," such as are sometimes seen in the south, where our swallows concentrate in countless thousands at night over a marsh, and discharge their num- bers into the reeds like a waterspout descending from a cloud. A similar manner of going to roost is attributed to the starling. Like our cowbird, it seems fond of frequenting ])astures or places where cattle are kept. It is said to even alight on the backs of cattle and sheep in search of ticks and other insects that infest them. It is pre-eminently a ground feeder, and feeds on lawns and in grass fields, and also to some extent in gardens and plowed lands. It destroys grubs, earthworms, snails and many of the insects which ordinarily infest grass lands and the droppings of cattle. It is gener- ally conceded in Europe that the benefits it confers on the farmer far exceed the harm it does by attacks on fruit or crops. Is^evertheless, there are many instances on record where the starling has become a pest to the farmer. The hal)it of collecting in enormous flocks is the great element of danger. When a great number of any species having grain- eating or fruit-eating propensities is collected in one locality it is capable of doing great harm in a very short time. Such flights, however, are often productive of good. The forest authorities in Bavaria, during an invasion of the spruce moth or " nun " in 1889—91. noted great flights of starlings, which were credibly estimated to contain as many as 10,000 in a flock, all busy feeding on the caterpillars and ]uipa? of this moth. The attraction of starlings to such cen- ters was so great that market-gardeners seriously felt their absence in distant parts of the region. The injury that starlings arc capable of doing in Europe 174 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. may be judged from the folloAviiig accounts. Mr. A. Butler Duncan of New York writes that he has known the starling to become a '' perfect pest " in England. What the starling does to fruit in Great Britain is told in an extract from the " Agricultural Students' Gazette," quoted by S. H. Goodwin in " Bird-Lore," May-June, 1908, p. 130. The starling is a splendid bird on grass land, foraging for leather jackets (larvse of craneflies), wire worms, etc.; rids the sheep of a few of their ticks; bnt in a frnit district it comes in droves into the strawberries and attacks the cherries wholesale (Hereford) ; peas, apples, plums, as well as cherries (Kent), also raspberries. Very valnable insect destroyers, but getting too numerous (Nott). In my fruit field (between Harden and Colchester) I do not suffer very much from blackbirds and thrushes, nor do I grudge them their toll in return for their song. Only one bird is dangerous to my crops, — that is the starling. He threatened the utter destruction of our strawberry, raspberry, cherry, gooseberry and currant, and some other crops. These birds are said to come to us from the marshes as soon as the young are hatched. And they come in millions; in flocks that darken the sky. Their flight is like the roar of the sea, or like the trains going over the arches. Their number increased rapidly each year. I can look back to the time when there were few, and have watched their increase for forty years, till now it is intolerable (Essex). The starling is a terror, and life around here is hardly worth living; you must have a gun always in your hand, or Avoe betide the cherries; they come in thousands ( Sittingboume, Kent ) . Miss Gertrude Whiting of New York City writes me that in Switzerland enormous flocks of starlings come down like black clouds on the vineyards. In ten or fifteen minutes they pluck the fruit absolutely clean, and the cultivator is robbed of his year's crop. In the south of France starlings are said to be similarly destructive to the olive crop. This indicates what would happen in America were the starlings to become abnormally numerous. It is of particular interest to learn what we can of the na- ture of the starling in its own country in its relations to other birds. In Europe the starling is known to eat the eggs and the newly hatched young of sparrows, but this habit does No. 4.] REPORT OP^ STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 175 not seem to have been generally noted. Mr. Clinton G. Abbott, who is very familiar with the bird in Europe, writes me that he considers its pugnacious nature to be by far the most serious objection to the starling, and that no birds which nest in holes can have any peace at all until all the starlings are satisfied. " ]\lany a time," he writes, "■ have I noticed the British woodpeckers laboriously boring holes in the hard wood, only to find that after a couple of weeks' work a pair of starlings had laid claim to the apartment." The woodpecker never gives up without a fight, but the starling is always victorious, and " the next day trailing straws from the entrance of the cavity show the presence of these new and slovenly tenants." The pugnacity of the star- ling does not seem to be generally noted in the works of European ornithologists, but apparently at times they have battles among themselves. The following copy of an ancient tract, for which I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Samuel N. Rhoads of Haddonfield, IST. J., is both quaint and in- teresting. The Wonderful Battel of Starlings: Fought at the City of Cork, in Ireland, the 12th and llih of October 1621. As it hath been credibly informed by divers noblemen and others of the said Kingdom-, etc. London, Printed for N. B. 1622. Cork is a City in the West of Ireland, in the Province of Mun- sier; for Situation, and all Commodities, which Sea or Land may afford, not inferior to any City in that Country. About the 7th of October last, Anno 1621, there gathered together, by Degrees, an unusual Multitude of Birds called Stares, in some Countries known by the Name of Starling's. Quality bold and venturous, among Ihemselves very loving, as may appear by their Flights, keeping together all Times of the Year, excepting the Breeding-Time. It is, and hath been an old Proverb, that Birds of a Feather hold and keep together; which hath even been a common Custom in these as much as in any other Kind whatsoever : But now the old Proverb is changed, and their Custom is altered clean contrary. For at this Time, as these Birds are in Taste bitter, so they met to fight to- gether the bitterest and sharpest Battel among themselves, the like, for the Manner of their Flight, and for the Time the Battel did conliinie, never heard or seen at any Time, in any Country of the World. (I believe) 176 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. We read in the Histories of onr own Counti-y, that, in tiie twelfth Year of King Richard II. the Gnats mustered together at Shine now called Richmond, in great Abundance, with so great a Multitude, that the Air was obscured and darkned by them. They fought so violent a Battel among themselves, that, by Estimation, two Parts of them were slain, and fell to the Ground. The Num- ber of those which were killed was so great that they were taken up with Shovels, and swept together with Besoms, that Bushels were filled with them, the third Part having gotten the Victory, flew away and vanished, no Man knew whither. Now to come to the Fight of our Birds, the Stares or Starlings : They mustered together, at this above-named City of Cork, some four or five Days before they fought their Battels, every Day more and more increasing their Armies with greater Supplies; some came as from the East, others from the West, and so accordingly they placed themselves, and as it were ineamped Themselves Eastward and Westward about the City: During which Time their Noise and Tunes were strange on both Sides, to the great Admiration of the Citizens and the Inhabitants near adjt)ining, who had never seen, for Multitude, or ever heard, for loud Tunes which they uttered, the like before, Whereupon they more curiously observing the Courses and Passages they used, noted, that from those on the East, and from those on the West, sundry Flights, some twenty and thirty in a Company, would pass from the one Side to the other, as it should seem employed in Embassies; for they would fly and hover in the Air over the Adverse Party, with strange Tunes and Noise, and so return back again to that Side from which as it seemed, \hej were sent. And farther it was observed, that, during the Time they as- sembled, the Stares of the East sought their Meat Eastward, as the Stares of the West did the like Westward; no one flying in the circuits of the other. These Courses and Customs continued with them until the 12th of October, which Day being Saturday, about Nine of the Clock in the Moniing, being a very fair and a Sun-shine Day, upon a strange Sound and Noise, made as well on the one Side as the other, they forthwith, at one Instant, took Wing, and so mounting up into the Skies, encountered one another with such a ten-ible Shock, as the Sound amazed the whole City and the Beholders. Upon this sudden and fierce Encounter,' there fell down in the City, and into the Rivers, Multitudes of Starlings or Stares, some with Wings broken, some with Legs and Necks broken, some with Eyes picked out, some their Bills thrust into the Breast and Sides of their Adversaries, on so si rage a Manner, tht it were incredible, except it wei-e confirmed by Letters of Credit, and by Eye-Witnesses with that Assurance Avhich is without all Exception. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 177 Upon the first Encounter they withdrew themselves backward, East and West, and with like Eagerness and Fury encountered several Times; upon which all these Stares fell down, in like strange and admirable Manner, as upon the first Encounter. They con- tinued this admirable and most violent Battel till a little before Night, at which time they seemed to vanish, so that all Sunday, the 13th of Octobei', none appeared about the City. Upon this Sunday divers passengers came out of Suffolk, who sailing betwixt Gravesend and Woolwich, they heai^d a loud and strange noise and Sound in the Air, whereupon casting their Eyes upward, they saw infinite Multitudes of Stares fighting in all violent Manner together, with a Crow or Raven flying betwixt them, for the Flight being so high, they could not perfectly discern whether it was Crow or Raven. These Birds had also several Encounters, making strange Sound and Noise; and ever as they divded and retired themselves, the Crow or Raven was seen in the Midst: But what Slaughter was made they could not observe, be- cause the Evening was somewhat dark, and the Battel was fought over Woods more remote off; but for more assured Proof of this Fight the Sunday before-named, there are, at this Time, in London, diverse Persons of Worth and very honest Reputation, whom the Printer of this Pamphlet can produce, to justify what they saw, at Cause shall require, upon their Oaths. Now to return to the last Battel fought, at Cork, by these Stares Upon Monday, the 14th of October, they made their Return again, and, at the same time, the Day bring as fair a Sun-shine Day as it was the Saturday before, they mounted into the Air, and en- countered each other with like violent Assaults, as formei'ly they had done, and fell into the City upon the Houses, and into the River, wounded and slaughtei-ed in like Manner as before is re- ported : But at this last Battel there was a Kite, a Raven and a Crow, all three found dead in the Streets rent, torn and mangled. In this precedent Narration, one Report will cause most admira- tion, and that is, the Stares or Starlings, forbearing and absenting themselves from Cork, upon Sunday, being the 13th of October, should that same Day be seen to fight near, or not far off from Woolwich; whether the same Stares it may be held in respect of the Distance of the Place by Sea and Land, improbable. But this Improbability is soon answered ; for as the Fight at Cork may seem strange and improbable, yet being most assured that such a Battel was fought, it may be as probable, in the Wonderful Works of Al- mighty God, that, notwithstanding the Distance of the Place, these may be the same Stares.^ ' Morgan, J.: "Phoenix Britannieus", a miscellaneous collection of scarce and curious tracts. No. 1, pp. 250-253, London, 1731. 178 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The above extracts indicate that the starling has some un- desirable qualities, and as such qualities are often accentu- ated when a bird is introduced into a new country, we cannot view the introduction of the starling without some apprehen- sion. The fact that it is generally considered a desirable species in northern Europe ought not to have convinced any one that it would be so in America, and its introduction here ought never to have been undertaken. When imported into New Zealand it became a very destructive pest, and no one can tell what may be the result of its acclimatization here. Since the successful introduction of the starling in America the Bureau of Biological Survey of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture has been given authority to regulate the importation of foreign mammals and birds into this country, and in the future there is very little likelihood that the zeal of misguided persons who wish to import foreign species will have such results as followed the introduction of the house sparrow. The Biological Survey now has agents in every port where foreign species are likely to come in, all shipments are examined and if the bird or mammal is considered at all dangerous it is destroyed ; thus we have been able to keep out the mongoose and several undesirable species of birds. But the starling, introduced before these regulations went into effect, has increased so fast and spread so far that the ques- tion now to be considered is whether it is to prove an unde- sirable addition to the fauna of the country, and, if not, whether its increase can be controlled and regulated. The Starling in America. lis Introduction. — Probably we shall never know how many attempts have been made to introduce the starling into this country. I have learned of several. Mr. William Co- nant of Tenafly, IST. J., states that he had a tame starling there in a cage in 1884. At lea^t six other starlings came about the cage of his pet bird, which he finally liberated and it disappeared. These starlings are believed to have reached Tenafly from Tuxedo, where several European species, in- cluding the English pheasants and partridges, were liberated No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 179 at that time. Some of the pheasants and European par- tridges also reached Tenafly. Mr. Van Brunt Bergen of Brooklyn, N. Y., writes that Mrs. Doubleday liberated several pairs of starlings at Bay Ridge eight or ten years ago. They came from England. But the introductions undertaken by Mr. Eugene Scheifflin at Central Park, ISTew York City, are credited as the first to be successful. The first of his importations numbered 80 birds, which were liberated on March 6, 1890, and 40 more were released on April 25, 1891. Some of these birds re- mained in the park or its vicinity, and bred there, but in 1891, 20 appeared on Staten Island, and in 1896 they had increased their numbers and had extended to Brooklyn. In 1898, according to Dr. T. S. Palmer of the Biological Sur- vey, the specie's had obtained a strong foothold in the neigh- borhood of jSTew York City. It had reached Stamford, Conn., and Plainfield, !N^. J. One hundred birds were liberated near Springfield, Mass., in 1897, but Mr. Robert O. Morris of Springfield states his belief that they did not survive the fol- lowing winter. It may be possible that they went south, but not one was reported from Springfield again until the year 1908. In the meantime they had spread over the first 40 miles of Long Island, up the Hudson River to Ossining and beyond, through much of eastern New Jersey and into Pennsylvania and Delaware. In June, 1910, I was able, through the co-operation of the Bureau of Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture, to make an investigation of the distribution, food and habits of the starling in America. Several trips were made to Springfield, Mass. ; Connecticut ; Long Island, N. Y, ; IN^ew Jersey and one to Pennsylvania. A large cor- respondence was begun with people in all the States in which the starling has been found. One hundred and two starlings were collected^ and the contents of their stomachs were exam- ined by Prof. F. E. L. Beal of the Biological Survey. On this investigation the present report is based. It is important to compare what is known of the status and habits of the starling in this country with its history 180 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. and habits in Europe, for by such a comparison we may be able to forecast its probable relation to other birds and to agriculture in Massachusetts. Its Increase andDisserniimtion. — When the brief period that has elapsed since the introduction of the starling (twenty years) and the small number introduced are considered, it must be conceded that the increase and the dissemination of the species have' been rapid. It has not increased or spread so rapidly as did the house sparrow (commonly called English sparrow), but the sparrow's numbers sprang not from one importation but from many, that took place at widely scat- tered localities during a series of years, — something that has been prevented in the case of the starling. Its increase has been rapid in most of the region now occupied by it, where it is in many places second in numbers only to the sparrow and the robin. The testimony of 110 correspond- ents whose residences are scattered over five States shows that the starling is increasing fast. All state as a result of their observation that it is increasing, and most of them say that its accession is rapid. Only 18 have seen no increase in their localities or find the increase slow. They, however, are resi- dent mainly near where the starling was first introduced, and where it has nearly reached the limit of food supply or nest- ing places. Even in Brooklyn, however, Mr. Edward W. Victor, who keeps a carefnl daily account of the birds ob- served at Prospect Park, records an average of 29 starlings daily in 1908, 31 in 1909 and 41 in 1910. Mr. Jno. 11. Sage of Portland, Conn., states that two pairs were seen there in 1908, and that by June, 1910, the mmiber had increased to about 100. During the breeding season the starling is rather quiet and secretive, and its numbers are not fully realized, but in the fall its large flocks become very conspicu- ous, and people are prone to exaggerate its numbers for the reason that these flocks roam over the country for miles, fre- quently appearing and disappearing and giving the impres- sion of great abundance. The most convincing proof of in- crease comes in the statements of people who saw the starlings in flocks of from 1,000 to 3,000 in the fall of 1909, and who No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 181 now find them in the same localities in flocks estimated to contain from 8,000 to 10,000. In the region about jSTew York City, including Long Island, Staten Island and parts of the Hudson River valley, also portions of New Jersey, where the sparrow is more abundant than I had ever seen it anywhere else in this country, there appeared to be at least 50 sparrows to every starling in June, 1910, but it is quite probable that the ratio has now been very materially changed in many places by the increase of the starling. The spread of the starling since 1900 may be seen by the following statement. In the year 1900 it appeared at Flushing, L. L; East Orange, N. J.; Chilmark, N. Y. (Scarborough-on-Hudson) ; Norwalk, Stamford and New Haven, Conn. In 1901 the first birds are recorded from Delaware, taken near Odessa. In 1904 the starling had reached Rye, N. Y. ; and Trevose, Bucks County, Pa. In 1905 it is recorded from Newburg, N. Y. ; Elizabeth, N. J.; and West Philadelphia, Pa. In 1900, Danbury, Wethersfield and Hartford, Conn.; New Brunswick, Princeton, Red Bank and Vincentown, N. J., were included in its range. In 1907 it was seen in Stoning- ton, Windsor, Bethel, Southington and New London, Conn. ; Ui)per Montclair, Morristown and Tuckerton, N. J. ; and Setauket, Syosset and Orient, L. I. In 1908 it was seen in Millersville, Pa.; Bedford Hills, N. Y. ; Portland and New Milford, Conn.; and Springfield, Mass. In 1909 it had reached Rhinebeck and Pleasantville, N. Y., and one was said to have been seen at Rochester, but none have been noted there since. It was also met with at ]\Iilburn, N. J. ; Bristol, Pa. ; and Chester, Conn. Since the above was written I have learned from ]\Ir. Israel R. Sheldon of Providence, R. I., that starlings have been breeding for " two or three years " at Silver Springs, R. I., on the east shore of Narragansett Bay, about 8 miles below Providence. They must have reached this point in 1908 or 1909, if not earlier. He states that they nest in the peaks of the roofs of some cottages, behind some lattice work, and that he has seen as manv as 8 at one time. As the noise 182 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. that thej make disturbs the cottagers their nesting has been repeatedly interfered with, which may account for the fact that they have not increased much. This is the only authentic occurrence of the starling in Rhode Island that has come to my notice, but as Providence is many miles from Stonington, Conn., the easternmost record hitherto recorded, starlings are probably domiciled in other Rhode Island towns. The increase and spread of the starling is due to its fecun- dity and its general fitness for the battle of life. It often has two broods in America, as it has in Europe. I am satis- fied of this by my own observation and by the statements of other observers, and believe this to be the rule, although in some localities I could find no evidence of a second brood. On the other hand, it seems not improbable that a third brood is sometimes reared ; but this needs confirmation. The star- ling's physical fitness for the struggle for supremacy is seen at once on an examination of its anatomy. It is a very hardy, muscular and powerful bird. It has the physical characteristics of a little crow. It is exceedingly tough and wiry, and the bill, its principal weapon of oifense and de- fense, is superior in shape to that of a crow. It is nearly straight, long, heavy, tapering, and nearly as keen as a meat axe, while the skull that backs it is almost as strong as that of a woodpecker. Mentally the starling is superior to the sparrow, and while brave and active in the face of any foe that it can master, it shows the acme of caution and intelli- gence in its relations with man or any other creature too pow- erful for it to cope with. While it is comparatively fearless where it is unmolested, it is always on its guard, and if hunted becomes more wary than a crow. It is a handsome bird, and though it has little merit as a songster, it has many pleasant whistling and chattering notes and some talent as a mimic. Its alarm note is a harsh, rasping, low-pitched call. Its insect-eating habits, its beauty and its cheery notes have already made it many strong friends in this country who will stoutly protect it, and this protection, together with the bird's ability to take care of itself and keep out of danger, precludes all possibility of its extermination here if it proves undesirable. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 183 Were rewards or bounties offered with a view to its ex- tinction, blackbirds, meadowlarks and other native species, which consort with the starling, would be among the chief sufferers. The starling is here to stay, and we must make the best of it. Whether its presence will result in more good than harm will depend largely on the ratio of its increase. We now know enough of its habits in this country to forecast some of the results that may be expected from an excess of the species. The Starling drives Certain Native Birch from their Nests. — When any animal is successfully introduced into a new country, and increases rapidly, its advent naturally tends to upset the biologic balance. Its native natural ene- mies have been left behind in its own country, where it had a settled and established place in a series of natural forces, that had been in existence for centuries, and it becomes an interloper in the new land, among conditions and forms of life entirely new. If the species is weak or unfit for its new environment^ or if it is introduced into a land differing much in climatic conditions from its own, it dies out and no disturbance results ; but if it is strong and fit, and the climate is suitable, it is likely to increase abnormally in num- bers, and it cannot so increase without displacing some of the species native to the soil. The starling is a hardy, capable and prolific bird, which, like the sparrow, has had many centuries of experience in getting its living in populated countries and cultivated re- gions in close relationship with man, and in such an environ- ment it has survived and thriven. It thus has an advantage over our native species similar to that enjoyed by the spar- row, which, subsequent to its introduction here, displaced so many native birds during the latter quarter of the nineteenth century. How can the bluebird or the house wren, which have been accustomed to life about human habitations for a comparatively short time, compete with such a bird as the starling? The friends of the sparrow argued that it would fill a void in our city life that no native bird could possibly occupy, inasmuch as it would always have in the streets a plentiful 184 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. supply of food that would otherwise be maiulj wasted, and that it would be able to maintain itself where native birds would starve. No such argument can be advanced in favor of the starling'. If there was an opening for the sparrow it was filled long ago, and the starling cannot occupy the place in our urban life now filled by the sparrow, even if it drives out the latter. Xo doubt in the city the starling is preferable to the sparrow, but it cannot displace the sparrow without indirectly making trouble for native species also. The sparrow and the starling will live together, as in Eng- land, but the starling will drive the sparrow away from all nesting places that are suitable for its own use^ and the spar- row will in turn eject tree swallows, martins, bluebirds, wrens and other native birds from their present nesting places, that it may secure homes in place of those taken by the starling. Already this adjustment is going on. First in the city, then in the suburbs, and finally in the country our native birds which normally nest in hollow trees will be driven to the wall if the starling continues to increase in numbers, and there is now no adequate check to its increase in sight. In America as in Euroj^e the starling seeks nesting places about buildings. It breeds in dovecotes, such church steeples as furnish safe nesting places, in holes and crevices about houses, in niches under the eaves, in electric light hoods, bird houses, nesting boxes, woodpecker holes and hol- low trees. Therefore, in seeking nesting places it comes directly in competition with domestic pigeons, screech owls, sparrow hawks, flickers and other woodpeckers, crested fly- catchers, martins, bluebirds, tree swallows and wrens, and as it extends its range to the west and south it must compete with other species. In the region already occupied it has proved itself capable of driving out all the above-mentioned species, except the screech owl, which doubtless will prove its master. In America the starling is not regarded as particularly pugnacious except where it has to fight for nesting places or for food. In such cases it is combativeness personified, and its attacks are well directed and long continued. Usually No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 185 in its competition with the sparrow there is no fighting, for the sparrow soon learns that it is no match for the starling, and the contest degenerates into a straw-pulling match, each bird alternately clearing out the nesting material that the other brings. If the owner of the nest joins battle with the starling and fights stubbornly it is driven off, or it is some- times killed in its nest. This daring interloper attacks birds much larger than itself, and the evidence shows that almost invariably it prevails in the end. The sparrow, the bluebird and the flicker have been credited with repelling it for a time, but eventually the starling wins, because of its increas- ing numbers, courage and fitness. As the starling comes, native birds, whose nesting places it covets, must go, and many of these birds are more desirable than the starling. The skillful manner in which it evicts the flicker inspires the observer with a certain admiration for its superior strat- egy and prowess. The starlings quietly watch and never interfere while the flicker digs and shapes its nesting place in some decaying tree ; but when the nest is finished to the satisfaction of the starlings it is occupied by them the mo- ment the flicker's back is turned. On the return of the flicker a fight ensues, which usually results in the eviction of the starling in the hole, which, however, keeps up the fight outside while another enters the hole to defend it against the flicker, which, having temporarily vanquished the first, re- turns only to find a second enjoying the advantages of pos- session. As Mr. Job says, the flicker is confronted with " an endless chain of starling," and finally gives up.^ In this way or some other the starlings, working together, always succeed in driving the flicker from its home, in which they immediately begin to build. The moment the flicker gives up vanquished, the starlings leave him entirely alone, allowing him to hew out another hole, either in the same tree or in one near by, when a similar fight ensues with more starlings; and so the flicker is driven literally from pillar to post, until it has prepared sufficient homes for the starlings in its neighborhood, and all are satisfied, or until it gives up 1 Job, Herbert K.: " Danger from the Starling," " The Outing," November, 1910, p. 149. 186 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. in disgust, and leaves the vicinity of its aggressive neighbors. The principal spring work of the flicker in the future will be the preparation of nesting places for the starling. It is probable that the hairj woodpecker and the redheaded wood- pecker also will serve as carpinteros for the interloper, but the downy woodpecker will probably be exempt from such service, as the entrance to his domicile is too small to admit the starling. There is no evidence that the starling has at- tempted to dispossess the screech owl ; but Mr. Clifford M. Case of Hartford, Conn., states that he has seen a starling whip and drive away a male sj^arrow hawk. Many corre- spondents report that flickers, bluebirds, English sparrows and wrens have been driven from their nesting places in old orchards by the starlings. Mr. Clifford II. Pangburn of New Haven says that his rec- ords show a considerable decrease in the number of bluebirds since the starlings came. There is no way to prevent this except in the case of the smaller species, which may be pro- tected by providing them with nesting boxes having an en- trance hole not over IV2 inches in diameter. At my request Mr. William H. Browning, who has many starlings occupying nesting boxes on his estate, put up in front of the entrance to one of them a small board in which a hole 11/2 inches in diameter had been bored. Starlings which then had young in the box were unable to enter. The starling will compete with native birds for their food supply. Mrs. P. R. Bonner of Stamford has observed the intruder frequently attacking robins and other birds, and driving them away from a lawn where they formerly fed. The starling is a sphinx-like bird and ordinarily treats other birds with a sort of contemptuous tolerance. In winter it even permits robins, blackbirds and meadowlarks to join its great flocks, but as these flocks increase they must eventually clean up most of the winter food supply of wild berries, and leave our native winter birds without sufficient sustenance. Other Injurious Habits of Starlings. — The food of the starling in America seems to be similar in general character to that which it consumes in Europe. It is particularly use- No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 187 fill there, however, because of its fondness for the destructive land snails, vs^hich are verj numerous in many regions. It cannot be expected that it will be thus beneficial here, for we are not similarly afflicted in this country. The starling can give no service here that cannot be equally well per- formed by our own blackbirds, meadowlarks, bobolinks, spar- rows and other birds, but it will be useful where these birds are not numerous enough to keep the insect enemies of grass lands in check. Already, however, the starling has begun to show a capacity for harmfulness which may be expected to become more prominent as its numbers increase. In the breeding season small flocks go to the cherry trees, and as they alight for a few minutes a shower of cherry stones will be heard. Sometimes they strip a tree completely and then go to another. In other cases they feed in a desultory way, taking toll from all the trees in a neighborhood. Mr. William T. Davis of New Brighton, N. Y., describes the destruction of pears by starlings which he observed on Oct. 17, 1907, illustrating his statement by a reproduction from a photograph of two of the ruined pears (" Bird-Lore," November, December, 1907, p. 2G7). Fully one-third of each pear was eaten. Many observers state that the starling eats apples' but this habit appears thus far to be confined mainly to apples left on the trees late in the fall, after the crop has been gathered. Mr. W. S. Bogert of Leonia, N. Y., asserts that it pecks open withered apples for the seeds. Nevertheless, it some- times eats ripe fruit in the fall. Mr. Albert W. Honywill of New Haven, Conn., has seen starlings eating apples, and Mr. James D. Foot of Rye, N. Y., states that they will alight in an apple orchard and take a peck or two at the finest fruit. Such flocks also sometimes descend on a strawberry bed and considerably reduce the crop. In the fall, when they gather into large flocks of a thou- sand or more, they are often very destructive to corn in the ear. In Europe they feed to some extent on small grains, but I have not seen any evidence of that here. In New Jer- sey in the month of Juno thoy seemed to prefer the cherry 188 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. trees to the wheat fields, and did not appear to molest the wheat at all. A few gardeners claim that they pull sprout- ing corn and eat peas. Mrs. Frank L. Allen of West Haven states that she watched the starlings at work destroying her lettuce and radishes. Sometimes they have the habit of pull- ing up young plants. Mr. Alfred C. Kinsey writes that he noticed the parent birds supplying nestlings with what proved to be the stami- nate flowers of the hickory. Later on in diiferent localities the same peculiarity was noticed. If such feeding becomes extensive it will bring about a failure of nut crops. He has also noticed these birds on grape vines and in trees wantonly tearing off large pieces of leaves, as well as doing damage to various fruit crops. Some observers assert that the starling also destroys the buds of trees, but I have been unable to get definite evidence on this ])oint. Food of the Starling. — Examination of the stomachs of 102 starlings collected in 1910, 41 of which were nestlings, seems to show that the food of the starling in this country is similar to that taken by it in Europe. The proportion of animal food is very large and consists chiefly of insects. Only 3 birds had taken earthworms, which composed 17.33 per cent of their stomach contents; 18 birds had eaten both millipeds (or thousand legs) and spiders; 22 had taken milli- peds but no spiders, and 18 had eaten spiders but no millipeds. The average percentage of millipeds in 22 stom- achs was 39.80 per cent. Caterpillars re])resent the largest items of insect food. Fifty-two birds, or more than half the number taken, had eaten caterpillars, which formed over 45 per cent of their stomach contents. These appeared to be mainly, if not en- tirely, hairless larvse, among which Geometrids or inch worms, were recognized. Probably a large percentage of these caterpillars were Noctuids, or cutworms, as I fre- quently recognized cutworms in the bills of the parent birds when they were feeding their young. Very few moths were noted in the stomachs, but some tincid cocoons were found in No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 189 oue. Datana ministra, an apple tree pest, was recognized in 1 stomach. More of the birds had taken beetles than had eaten cater- pillars; but the beetles formed a smaller average percentage of the food. Fourteen had taken Elaterids (commonly known as snap beetles) or their larva? (wire worms), which formed 10,92 per cent of their stomach contents. The larvce of this beetle, the wire worm, is well know^n to agricul- turists as a destructive enemy to grain and garden crops, but many native birds eat it. The Carabidte, or ground bee- .tles, were represented in 42 stomachs. While these beetles are generally regarded as useful insects, they have been known to become injurious where they have increased abnor- mally, therefore their destruction cannot be set down to the discredit of the starling. The genus Calosoma is repre- sented in 1 stomach. This genus is believed to contain only beneficial insects. One bird had taken some Lampy- rids. Three had taken the Leptinotarsa decenilineata, or Colorado potato beetle, which formed 16.67 per cent of the stomach contents. If the starling acquires the habit of eat- ing Colorado potato beetles it may prove useful in this re- spect. Only few native birds eat them. Eleven starlings had taken a few scaraba?id beetles, which formed on the aver- age 8.54 per cent of the stomach contents. Weevils were represented in 28 stomachs, and constituted 7.07 per cent of their stomach contents. Beetles of the genus Laclinos- terna, commonly called May beetles, or their larvae, com- monly known as white grubs, were represented in lo stomachs, and comprised 14.53 per cent of their contents. These beetles are very destructive, as the white grub feeds on the tubers and roots of plants. This genus is one of the well- known enemies of grass and garden crops, but many of our native birds feed upon all forms of the insect. Two birds had taken chrysomelid beetles, which feed on the foliage of trees. The notorious elm-leaf beetle is a member of this group, but they formed only 2 per cent of the stomach con- tents of these two birds. 190 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The orthoptera are represented hy grasshoppers in 17 stomachs, forming 19.88 per cent of their contents. There Avere also a few crickets. This is rather a small showing, as practically all birds eat grasshoppers, but probably a larger proportion of grasshoppers would have been found later in the season. The Hemiptera, or bugs, were found in only 3 stomachs, and Diptera in only 1, the proportion of each being very small. Hymenoptera were found in 17 stomachs. This order was represented mainly by ants. It seems probable that the starling does not destroy many of the useful parasitic flics- of this order. The nestlings were fed with food similar to that taken by the adults, but they were given a larger proportion of young, or larvae, such as caterpillars and other soft-bodied insects, while the adults fed more on mature beetles and similar hard- bodied insects. The vegetable food consisted very largely of fruit. The birds were taken during the cherry season, and 18 stomachs contained an average of 5G.17 per cent of the skin, pulp and stones of domestic cherries. In 7 cases the skin or pulp of fruit, which could not be fully identified, composed 31.71 per cent of the stomach contents; mulberry seed and pulp in 9 cases composed 35 per cent of the stomach contents, and grape pulp composed the greater part of the stomach contents in 1 case. This grape pulp must have been secured from greenhouse fruit. Possibly an investigation of the stomachs of starlings during the grape season would reveal a much larger percentage of this fruit. Only a few nestlings had eaten fruit. A few stomachs contained fragments of grasses, which may have been taken accidentally in procuring insect food. Portions of vegetable stems also were found. A few seeds of Polygonum, Rhus radicans and other plants were found, which suggest that later in the season seeds and wild fruits may form a larger proportion of the food of the star- ling. Among the miscellaneous substances found was a portion of some small crustacean and a bit of shell. Fifteen stom- No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 191 ac'lis were empty and 3 nearly empty. A large proportion of these was taken on the roost at night, on or before 8 o'clock, and as the birds were feeding until about 7 o'clock, and as they usually go to roost with a full stomach, it is fair to as- sume that the digestion of the starling is rapid enough to empty its stomach within an hour. The starling is not numerous enough in Massachusetts to do any appreciable injury to fruit crops, vegetation or native birds. Thus far it is undoubtedly beneficial here, as it does some good by destroying noxious insects. Under our laws it is protected at all times, but if its numbers increase unduly it may be necessary to deny it the legal protection now af- forded to insectivorous birds. In closing this report I gratefully acknowledge the cour- tesies tendered by Dr. T. S. Palmer and Prof. F. E. L. Beal of the Bureau of Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture, Washing-ton, D. C, who have rendered pos- sible this investigation and report ; and also to record my indebtedness to the list of correspondents appended, who have furnished information regarding the starlings in Europe and America. The stomachs of the starlings collected by me were examined by Professor Beal, who kindly furnished me a list of the contents. Much assistance was also rendered by Messrs. B. S. Bowdish of Demarest, N. J. ; W. W. Grant of Engle- wood, N. J. ; W. S. Bogert of Leonia, N. J. ; Courtenay Bran- dreth of Ossining, N. Y. ; Samuel N. Rhoads of Haddonfield, N. J. ; Rev. A. B. Dolan of Agawam, Mass. ; and Robert O. Morris and William Deardon of Springfield, Mass. Respectfully submitted , EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH, State Ornithologist. 192 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. ArPENDIX. List of Observers Who have contributed Itstformatiok about THE Starling. Abbott, Clinton G., Allen, Mrs. Frank L., Anderson, Mrs. J. C, Andrews, Russell G., Archbold, J. A., . Armitage, P. F., . Bailey, Wm. L., . Banks, Miss M. B., Barron, George D., Batten, George, Beal, Prof. F. E. L., Beers, H. W., Behr, Edward A., . Benedict, Theodore H., Bergen, Van Brunt, Bevin, V. D., . Bignell, Mrs. Effie, Bishop, Dr. Louis B., Black, R. Clifford, Jr., Bogert, M. T., Dr., Bogert, W. S., Bonner, Mrs. P. R., Borland, William G., Brandreth, C, Brennecke, George, Brewer, A. R., Brockway, Arthur W., Bi-onson, W. W., Brooks, F. M., Brown, James F., Brown, Ronald K., Browning, J. Hull New York City. West Haven, Conn. Englewood, N. J. Southington, Conn. Buffalo, N. Y. Coudersport, Pa. Ardmore, Pa. Westport, Conn. Rye, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. Washington, D. C. Bridgeport, Conn. Brooklyn, N. Y. New York City. Brooklyn, N. Y. New York City. New Brunswick, N. J. New Haven, Conn. New York City. New York City. Leonia, N. J. Stamford, Conn. New York City. Ossining, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. Glenridge, N. J. Hadlyme, Conn. Washington, Conn. Brooklyn, N. Y. North Stonington, Conn. New York City. Tenafly, N. J. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 193 Browning, William H., Brundage, Benjamin, Buck, Henry Robinson Burr, Freeman F., Callaway, W. T., . Case, Clifford M., . Chamberlin, S. T., . Chapman, F. M., . Cherrie, George K., Childs, John Lewis, Clark, Charles H., . Cleaves, Howard H., Clemson, George N., Colgate, R. R., . Comey, Arthur C, . Comstock, George W., Conant, William, . Cook, L. G., . Cox, Wilmot T., . Craft, Miss Laura F., Cromwell, James W., Crosby, Maunsell S., Dana, Miss E. A., . Davis, Miss Elizabeth D Davis, Elizabeth King, Davis, Mary A., . Davis, William T., Dewey, C. A., Digmey, J., . Dimoek, George E., Ji Dixon, Frederick J., Dodge, Charles W., Dows, Tracy, Duncan, A. B., Duryee, A., . Dyer, E. Tiffany, . Eaton, Clinton J., . Eaton, Elon Howard, Ellison, W. W., . Ells, George P., . Enders, John 0., . England, I. W., . New York City. Danbury, Conn. Hartford, Conn. New Haven, Conn. Millburn, N. J. Hartford, Conn. Derby, Conn. New York City. Brooklyn, N. Y. Floral Park, N. Y. East Orange, N. J. Prince's Bay, L. I., N. Y. Middletown, N. Y. New York City. Utiea, N. Y. Essex, Conn. Tenafly, N. J. New York City. New York City. Glen Cove, N. Y. Summit, N. J. Grasmere, Rhinebeck, N. Y. Englewood, N. J. Pittsfield, Mass. Tuxedo, N. Y. New York City, New Brighton, N. Y, . Rochester, N, Y. Bernardsville, N. J. Elizabeth, N, J, Hackensack, N, J. Rochester, N. Y. New York City, Hempstead, L. I., N, Y. Summit, N. J. Southampton, L. L, N. Y. Georgetown, Mass. Geneva, N. Y. East Orange, N. J. Norwalk, Conn. Hartford, Conn. Passaic, N, J, 194 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Rub. Doc. Field, E. B., . Foot, James D., Fowler, Henry W., Gibson, Win. H., . Oilman, Mrs. George L. Grant, W. W., Graves, Mrs. Charles B Greene, Mary A., . Grinnell, Dr. George Bi Hadden, Dr. Alexandei Hale, Thomas, Jr., Hardon, Mrs. Henry W Harper, Francis, , Harral, Mrs. E. W., Havemeyer, H. 0., Jr., Herdman, D., Herrick, Harold, . Hicks, Mrs. Benjamin Hix, George E., Hollyer, James, Honywill, A. W., Jr., Horsfall, Bruce, Hoyt, William H., . Hussey, William H., Huyler, W. €., . Jacot, A. D., , Job, Herbert K., . Johnson, Walter A., Kent, Edward G., . Kerr, Mrs. John ('., King, Miss Anna, . Kinsey, Alfred C, Kittredge, S. D., . Kunhardt, W. B., . Langdon, W. G., . Latham, C. R., Lawrence, Townsend, Lee, Charlotte E., . Leigh, B. W., . Lemmon, Isabel McC, fl, Hartford, Conn. Rye, N. Y. Philadelphia, Pa. Tarry town, N. Y. Granville, N. Y. New York City. New London, Conn. Groton-on-Hudson, N. Y. New York City. New York City. Yonkers, N. Y. New York City. College Point, N. Y. Bridgeport, Conn. New York City. Middletown, Conn. New York City. Old Westbury, N. Y. New York City. Athenia, N. J. New Haven, Conn. Princeton, N. J. Stamford, Conn. East Orange, N. J. Tenafly, N. J. Sandy Hook, Conn. West Haven, Conn. New York City. East Orange, N. J. New York City. Arrochar, N. Y. Summit, N. J. Hasting's-on-Hudson, N. Y. Reading, Pa. New York City. Windsor Locks, Conn. Flushing, L. I., N. Y. Huntington, L. I., N. Y. West End, N. J. Englcwood, N. J. No. 4.] REPOUT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 195 Loonsberry, Miss Leonora, Lounsbery, R. P., . Lowell, Sidney V., Macy, Mrs. V. Everit, Mager, F. Robert, . Maohee, J. H., Maloy, J. H., Marsh, Miss Ruth, Mastick, Mrs. Seabury C, Matheson, William J., McCook, Philip J., MeCormick, Dr. H. D., Meeker, Jesse C. A., Merritt, Mrs. D. F., Merritt, Mrs. George P. Metcalf, Manton B., Metoalf, Willard L., Miller, H. H., Miller, Hiram S., . Miller, W. DeW., . Mills, H. 0., . Moore, C. DeR., . Morris, Lardner V., Morris, Robert 0., Morris, Dr. Robert T., Mulford, Miss Sarah M Neweomb, William, Nichols, J. T., Nichols, John W. T., Pangburn, Clifford H., Palmer, Dr. T. S., . Parsons, R. L., Pease, E. Lynn, Pennock, C. J., Pierrepont, John J., Pitkin, P. E., . Porter, Louis H., . Post, William S., . Potts, Thomas, Prime, Miss Cornelia, Bedford, N. Y. New York City. Brooklyn, N. Y. Scarborough-on-Hudson, Chil- mark, N. Y. Yonkers, N. Y. Morristown, N. J. New York City. East Orange, N. J. Pleasantville, N. Y. New York City. New York City. Cedar Grove, N. J. Danbury, Conn. Montelair, N. J. Hartford, Conn. Orange, N. J. Falls Village, Conn. Peapack, N. J. Springs, N. Y. (Gardiner's Is- land). New York City. L'nionville, Conn. New York City. Brooklyn, N. Y. Springfield, Mass. New York City. West Roselle, N, Y. Tenafly, N. J. New York City. New York City. New Haven, Coim. Washington, D. C. South Orange, N. J. Thompsonville, Conn. Kennett Square, Pa. Brooklyn, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. Stamford, Conn. New York City. Brooklyn, N. Y. Huntington, L. L, N. Y. 196 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Rathborne, R. C, . Reinhold, Dr. A. J., Rhoads, Samuel N., Riis, Jacob A., Robinson, F, B., . Robotham, Cheslar, Roddy, Prof. H. Justin, Rogers, Charles H., Russ, E., Sage, Jno. H,, Sauter, Fred, Scheifflin, Eugene, . Schroeder, Arthur, Seccomb, Mrs. E. A., See, Alonzo B., Seton, Ernest Thompson, Shannon, William Purdy Shaw, Mrs. C. W., Sheldon, Israel R., Shoemaker, Henry 'W., . Simmons, George 0., Smith, Theo. H., . Smith, Wilbur F., . Stiles, Edgar C, . Stone, Herbert F., Stone, Witmer, Thomas, Emily Hinds, . Tinkham, Julian R., Titus, E., Jr., Townsend, Wilmot, Treat, Willard E., . Tweedy, Edgar, Underbill, Alice L., Vietor, Edward W., Van Name, Willard G., . Wadsworth, Mrs. Richard C. W., Walker, David R., . Watson, Miss Jane S., . AVeston, Miss Helen, Wetmore, Mrs. Edmund. Newark, N. J. New York City. Haddonfield. N. J. New York City. Newburg, N. Y. Newark, N. J. Millersville, Pa. New York City. Hoboken, N. J. Portland, Conn. New York City. New York City. Montclair, N. J. Plainfield, N. J. New York City. Cos Cob, Conn. New York City. Mountainville, N. Y. Providence, R. I. New York City. Brooklyn, N. Y. East Orange, N. J. South Norwalk, Conn. West Haven, Conn. Stapleton, L. I., N. Y. Philadelphia, Pa. Bryn Mawr, Pa. Upper Montclair, N. J. New York City. Brooklyn, N. Y. Silver Lane, Conn. Clinton, Conn. Yonkers, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. New Haven, Conn. Irvington-on-Hudson. N. Y. Waterbury, Conn. East Avon, N. Y. West New Brighton, L. L, N. Y. Fort Salonga, L. I., N. Y, No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 197 White, Harold H., . White, W. A., Whiting, Miss Geitriule Whiton, S. G., W^ileox, T. F., Wilde, Mark L. C, Wildman, A. D., . Willever, J. C, . Williams, B. S., . Wills, Charles T., . Winters, H. D., . Wrigiit, Mrs. Mabel, Brooklyn, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. New York City. Brooklyn, N. Y. New York City. Camden, N. J. Yonkers, N. Y. New York City. New York City. New York City. Watkins, N. Y. Fairfield, Conn. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT State Inspector of Apiaeies. Presented to the Board and Accepted, January 10, 1911. N.H ra.Y. £XPL/7A//7r/Or/ ffMSR/C/ff/ FOUL BROOD EUmP£ff/^ FOUL BffOOO BOTH ffff£/f/C/r//& a/ffOF£/^/ir w SffMf LocffLiry ffR5ff OFP/fOffffBlF ^^ /NFtCr/Of/ PLATE I. Map showing the present status of the distribution of American foul brood and European foul brood in Massachusetts. fJU£R/CffA/ rOUL BROOD £UlfOP£ff// rOUL B/fOOO SOT// ^/¥£ff/C/f//A fU/FOf£/7// W sff/iff Locffury /fR£ff OrF/f03ffBl£ /NF£Cr/0// FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE STATE INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. To the State Board of Agriculture. I respectfully ])roseiit the first annual report of the State Inspector of Apiaries, whose services were available begin- ning July 1, 1910. Brood Diseases of Bees. The season has been favorable for making a pronounced beginning in the check of brood diseases of bees, — - Amer- ican foul brood and European foul brood. The results demon- strate ])riniarily that these diseases are infinitely more pi-e\al('nt and generally distributed than has been hereto- fVire supposed. In some localities of a hundred square miles or more nearly every colony has been found in a sei-ious condition. The possibility of successfully control- ling these diseases has been shown to the satisfaction of beekeepers. Public Nuisance. — Colonies of bees infected with brood diseases are public nuisances as they occur throughout the State. They endanger ]n-o]ierty, handicap the eflorts and mar the investments of the most earnest and painstaking beekeepers. They not only reduce the returns of the in- dustry, l)ut also make sales of bees and bee products difficult and uncertain. The annual loss caused is inestimable, affect- ing not only the beekeepei', but also the orchardist, market gai'dener, cucumber grower, cranberry grower and other agri- culturists. Infectiousness. — That a single case of disease may en- danger a whole beekeeping community has been re])eatedly ol»served. IToney is largely the medium through which the disease is spread. Tomparison might be made to the ti-ans- mission of typhoid fever and other human diseases in milk 202 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. and water. Bees are eager to rob and pillage honey from any source. Thus, if a colony becomes so reduced by the progress of disease that it no longer defends itself against the attacks of " robbers," or if the infected colony dies, then each colony in a radius of miles becomes subject to infection. From all points of the compass robber bees set upon the germ-laden honey and carry it back to their respec- tive hives. It having been demonstrated that a relatively small amount of infected material may transmit the disease, infection throughout a whole countryside may obviously result from a single colony igniorantly or carelessly handled. The recognized infectiousness of brood diseases is also em- phatically illustrated by the policy of the United States Department of Agriculture. If disease is discovered in a town, not only the town but the county is considered infected area. Although a much greater array of evidence of infectiousness might be given, yet it is apparent that where these diseases exist nnsuppressed, they are compar- ably as dangerous to beekeeping interests as smallpox is to the human community. The Suppression of Diseases is fimdamentally impor- tant. — All beekeeping, — raising bees for market, queen rearing, honey production, — and with it the best interests of the horticulturist, is dependent npon the reduction of these diseases. There is ground for belief that before many years interstate trade in bees, queens and possibly products will be restricted by law from a State where diseases are nnsuppressed to a State where they are under control or do not occur. This would seriously affect ]\rassachusetts bee men, particularly those who raise queens or bees for the trade, unless the general occurrence of infection is re- duced. The seemingly sjiontaneous and general demand, by those who use bees, for what might be termed " certified stock," explained elsewhere, has its relation here. If bees pronounced by expert authority '' free fi-om disease " are unobtainable in Massachusetts, it must be expected that trade which would otherwise come to the State, from with- out and from within, will go elsewhere. The interests of the United States Department of Agri- No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 203 culture are largely focused on the study of the nature, dis- semination, remedial measures and distribution of Amer- ican foul brood and Euroi)ean foul brood. Between 70 per cent and 80 per cent of their appropriation for api- cultural investigations is sjient in this study, regarding it fundamental to progress, or even success, in the industry. Significant, also, of the scope and importance of this phase of beekee})ing is the literature, which numbers hundreds and doubtless thousands of titles in all languages, meaning a world-wide movement. Influence on the Conditions of the Industry. — Bees thrive and may be profitable in any part of Massachusetts, though some localities are the superior of any in the north- eastern United States. Bee diseases have had an incalcu- lable effect on the Avay that bees are kept, on the number which are kept, on commercial enterprise and the expansion of beekeeping and indii-ectly on agriculture itself. The conditions and returns fi'om the industry may be truly measured in terms of the relative distribution of American foul brood and European foul brood. Tn some localities it is regarded as impossible to raise bees at all ; not, it has been found, owing to the lack of forage or other unfavorable conditions, but rather to the subtle and repeated inroads of brood diseases. Usefulness of Bees to the Agriculturist. By far the greatest service of bees is to agriculture in its broad sense, in particular to practical and commercial horticulture. The Orchardist. — If the aims and ideals of the orchardist are to be realized, bees are a primary essential ; but colonies of bees which can be depended upon must be available. The writer has had numerous inquiries for bees to be used in the orchard, in order to obtain, as one man put it, a little better set or an off-year set, thus getting advantage of the grower who depends upon the fluctuations of his neighbors' boes. It is in the unfavorable year that prices run high, and experience shows that healthy bees should be at hand to work the blossoms under such conditions. 204 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The Sinall Fruit Grower. — The small fruit grower can j)rofit similarly. There is perhaps no flower which the bees work more freely and vigorously than the raspberry. Prac- tically all small fruits resi)ond to the visits of bees. The Marl'et Gardener. — The market gardener in many instances already keeps bees ; and inquiries point to this becoming more general. For instance, the growers of melons, cucumbers and squashes find a failure in their crops when bees are scarce or lacking, and an increase of yield when bees are present in abundance, as was specifically observed last summer. A Massachusetts grower of melons, in a region badly infected with bee diseases, — a large percentage of the bees having been killed ofi^, — had an extraordinary yield as the result of hiring, as an experiment, a single healthy colony of bees. It is said that $4,000 worth of melons were sold at his door. TJie Cucumher Grower under Glass. — l^o horticulturist is more dependent upon the services of healthy, dependable colonies than the grower of cucumbers under glass. It has been accurately estimated that at least 2,000 colonies are annually put into the greenhouses. Only the strongest, most healthy colonies can endure, or even be of service, in this unfavorable environment of extreme heat, humidity and confinement. If the bees fail, and the grower is obliged to send for more or delay until he can find them, set after sot of the crop passes in unfruitfulness. Thus in a few days hundreds of dollars may be lost. For the past few years greenhouse cucumber growers have complained that bees are less serviceable than formerly, that they " go to pieces in the house," which is comparable to the " bad luck " complaint of beekeepers. Without systematic visits to the greenhouses, the growers' misfortunes have already been traced directly to brood diseases. The Cranherry Groiver. — There are a few cranberry growers who are beekeepers, and have reported that they consider this insect of decided value in setting the fruit. The observations of Dr. Franklin also indicate a bright future for the utiliz;ation of bees in the cranberry bog. Already inquiries have come desiring to know, for instance, the number of colonies necessary for a bog of a given size. No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 205 In the cranberry industry $1,500,000 represents the product of upwards of 2,000 growers. This industry increased 182 ])er cent between 1895 and 1905, and is still gaining, Dr. Franklin figuring that at least 2,000 acres have been added within the last few years. Here again is a branch of horti- culture, placing dependence on bees, which should have absolutely healthy stock. This statement of the uses to which bees are put, aside from the apicultural i)liase. indicates the diversity, scope and far-reaching complexity of the bee-disease situation. In- stead of being a minor industry, beekeeping is fundamental to agricultural interests and occupations involving millions of dollars. Instead of being a condition that will right itself, it is evidently retarding the progress not only of the beekeeper, but also of the fruit grower, the market gardener, the hot-house cucumber grower and other agri- cultural industries. Concern of the Beekeeper. The beekeepers who have had inspection are anxious that it should continue, fearing reinfection of restored areas. Others foresee the annihilation of the industry, disaster to market gardening, seed production, orcharding and the like. At least what ground has been gained should be held. From other parts of the State there have been requests for help, and these still continue. It has been physically impossi- ble to respond to some of the most urgent calls from areas where the diseases are in the worst stages, in Berkshire and about Springfield, for instance. In these localities the disease is so prevalent that at least six weeks in each will be required to make any headway. The beginner in beekeeping and the one who wishes to increase his apiary are at a loss to know where they can buy, with certainty, bees which they can depend upon. The horticulturist is in a similar situation. This is the graver situation, because the growers of cucumbers under glass use upward of 2.000 oolonies of bees annually in their houses. IMoreovor, tlioy ni-e seldom practical apiarists and have to trust the bookee])ei'. who. if not informed in tho matter of disease. ni;iy sell cdldiiies whir-li will go to pieces 206 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. immediately in the greenhouse, causing the cucumber pro- ducer hundreds of dollars loss witliin a few days. The reverse of the situation is also true. If the beekeeper is not given the protection of inspection, and the assurance that his bees are in a healthy condition, he is fearful that the grower of cucumbers will fail to buy his bees, going out of the State to get them if necessary. Thus the market is endangered. It has come to light this season that as soon as the disease situation is under control there will be additional investment in bees from the commercial standpoint. One man from without the State is already buying up colonies, and plans to put several hundred in Massachusetts. Another beekeeper has spoken of running a series of out-apiaries in a certain promising portion of the State. Unfortunately, however, the locality is in one of the worst infected regions, and, unless it is cleaned up, will prevent the venture. Yet in disease-free environment it is entirely feasible, and would mean the main- taining, under advanced methods, of a thousand or more colonies. Such an enterprise, properly managed, would bring distinction and recognition to Massachusetts from all over the country. Voluntari/ Inspection. — By far the most pronounced effort of the beekeepers to throw off the burden of disease and restore the profitable industry in that superior Berkshire country was by the service of voluntary or self-appointed inspectors. Before the act of the Legislature one experi- enced beekeeper took three towns in his vicinity, some one else took another group of towns, and so the territory was divided. These self-appointed inspectors doubtless did much good ; they at least learned the deplorable condition and the losses of many hundreds of colonies of bees about them, but, as one of them said, they lacked authority. Then there was the personal expense, the demands of other duties, which would mean only intermittent service or work of short duration. It had its significance in that it showed that the effort to solve the problem has merit, underlies a profitable vocation, has the confidence of the beekeepers, and is desired and supported by them. No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 207 Certification. — Hardly had the work of inspection l)ecn bciiiin than the writer had requests for the names of persons who could snpply bees positively free from infection. Of late the requests have been even more numerous, not only from beekeepers or prospective beekeepers, but from or- chardists, market gardeners, growers of cucund)ers under glass, and even from cranberry growers. Beekeepers and growers of cucumbers under glass in particular have repeat- edly made disappointing purchases of bees. Colonies have failed to do M^ell and often have died. This is known to have been due to the presence of disease in the colonies when sold. It is also known that disease has been intro- duced into apiaries which otherwise were healthy. Although the writer is glad to believe that the sale of diseased bees has been unintentional, nevertheless the disastrous effects are unchanged. It introduces doubt and distrust into the bee market, and is particularly discouraging to the beginner, who falls a victim to what amounts to fraud. From the unfortunate experiences throughout the State has arisen the demand, spontaneously and simultaneously, for bees which can be pronounced by expert authority free from disease. It has been suggested that there should be some system of certification, similar, perhaps, to the certification of nursery stock. Those who have had their bees examined may tell the purchaser of the fact, but the larger beekeepers and those who raise bees for sale urge more than that. They would have a certificate of health to send with each ship- ment. The inspector sees how it will be possible to arrange for this, but greater detail and labor will be consequent. Certainly it deserves serious consideration. The system should be of advantage in two ways, giving assurance to the bee raiser and protection to the purchaser. Thus it should tend to give the sale of bees in Massachusetts precedence, should increase such sale materially, and, con- sequently, the production. Aside from the healthy stimulus to beekeeping, the horticulturist who is dependent upon disease-free stock for success in his crops will benefit in proportion. 208 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Status. Poist Conditions. — In 1908 a survey of the occurrence of bee diseases was published.^ At that time definite cultural information determined the occurrence in 8 towns. Similar data for adjoining States indicated an even greater dis- tribution, especially along the boundary line. Besides this definite knowledge from 8 towns, beekeepers' reports showed })robable infection in even greater areas. It is significant of the accuracy of interpretation of the beekeepers' reports that several of the localities then supposed to be infected have since been demonstrated to be in a serious condition. When the previous report was jiublishcd, European foul brood was known to occur in and west of Worcester County only ; its apparent spread is referred to below. In the past, efforts to eradicate disease have been individual and periodic. Such efforts can never accomplish the desired end, and it is also discouraging to the individual and to all who watch his eftorts. Success requires the co-operation and system- atic effort of every beekee]ier in the community. Inspection will furnish the medium of co-operation and add the oppor- tunity for instruction and assistance. Process of Inspecfion. — An effort has been made to be- come personally familiar with the disease situation in the State. General occurrence made it necessary to select some of the worst infected areas for treatment. With a focus of infection as a beginning, examining each colony, the circle of examination was gradually expanded until a limit of disease was fouud. Each infected colony was distinctly marked. Personal instructions for treatment and often demonstrations were given. When necessary, apiaries were revisited. The investigation in the latter part of the season disclosed a considerable number of diseased colonies which it was necessary to hold over for treatment next spring. Instructions and caution for the safe maintenance until spring were given. A record of all transactions with each beekeeper has been kept on individual record cards. * "Bee Diseases in Massachusetts," by Burton N. Gates, Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 75, Part III.; also, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 124 (out of print). o -0 3 ho o S o ^ « -o bo a> a o ft ^ ft u •^^^ Xo. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 209 Benefit v. Disaster. — In the localities where treatment has been ajjplied beekeepers have learned not only that it is possible to save their colonies, even those badly infected, but also that the brood, the wax, the honey, the hives and the like may be ntilized. It is not now the task and docs not entail the loss which treatment formerly incurred, when it was thought necessary to burn everything infected, bees and all. For illustration : one beekeeper had some 30 colonies, all of which were infected and some of which were so reduced that they were regarded as useless and hopeless ; they would have died within a few weeks. All were treated late in July. When these bees were ]nit into winter quarters the disease had not reappeared. The bee- keeper sold some 175 pounds of wax (which wholesales at about 30 cents a pound), GOO pounds of honey, $(39 worth of bees and queens, and has on hand 29 colonies of bees in prime condition, worth at least $200. In its former condition his apiary would have been appraised at nothing, since a diseased colony of bees is without value. Further- more, colonies regarded as hopeless were stimulated with the brood removed from other colonies. In one instance, at least, a colony which had less than a pint of bees was increased so that it could not be crowded into two hive bodies ; it gave a surplus of honey. On the other hand, to show the disaster sustained by one beekeeper, out of 55 colonies put into winter quarters last fall, 50 were dead last spring. Those remaining had ad- vanced eases of American foul brood and were successfully treated. Yet this beekeeper sustained a loss greater than half the present appropriation. To make a bad matter worse, the evidence is that the apiarist unwittingly purchased the disease. Present Conditions. — It is difficult to draw just and ade- quate conclusions from a tabulation of the number of ajuaries visited, the number of beekee|:)ers in the State, the number of colonies examined and those found infected. Only the most general interpretation of the situation is possible. The list of beekeepers has been increased over the foruior list by about 25 per cent. The indications are that the 2.500 210 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. l)(x'. now recorded does not fully represent the total number. About one-seventeenth (140) of the apiaries were visited. Many of these required revisiting, so that the total number of calls is miich greater than 140. About 900 colonies were examined, a considerable number of which were re- examined, bringing the total number of manipulations to between 1,500 and 2,000. As a whole, over 25 per cent of the colonies examined were diseased, yet this does not indi- cate the probable ratio of infection. In some localities it was not possible to make a thorough and systematic search for disease this season, the eifort being rather to determine its presence, preparatory to further work. kSome towns show more than 90 per cent of infection. Cleaning up the Apiaries. — A person continually losing colonies is likely to leave empty hives and refuse about the yard. In several instances the writer encountered bee- keepers who could not tell in how many of the 15 or 20 hives standing around the bees were alive. After turning o^'er a dozen or more box hives it was surprising to find more than one or two with life. Almost invariably the apiary has succumbed to foul brood. Incidentally this illustrates the need of spreading information, but more es- pecially in regard to the way in which infection is fre- quently gained. As the colonies die bees from elsewhere rob many remaining stores of honey. Boards of health forbid the exposure of materials from the sick room ; a comparable measure is equally important in combatting in- fectious diseases of bees. Fortunately, several hundred empty hives were removed from the apiaries this season. The Map. — The accompanying map and tables (see page 213) show in detail the results of the investigation of 1910. Areas in cross hatch indicate where disease probably occurs ; solid color marks infection proved by cultural examination or inspection. Although the probable infection areas are somewhat similar to those in the previous report, they are the result of information for the present year. The Apparent SIpread of the Disease. — While diseases were formerly known to occur in 8 towns, there is an in- crease to 32, or 400 per cent. While this might be inter- Xo. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 211 13reted as a spread of the disease, it shows rather, that inspection coutirnis what has been maiutaiued for several years, — that this malady is widespread. The Probable Spread of European Foul Brood. — Euro- pean fonl brood, formerly known only in Worcester County and west, has apparenth' spread east to the coast, having been found late in the season in Boston and adjoining towns. Thus it now occurs from boundary to boundary of the State. This is, perhaps, the most alarming feature of the present situation. Its gi-adual march from west to east has been watched for several years. Inasmuch as it spreads more rapidly and is perhaps the more disastrous of the two diseases the greatest precaution is warranted. Berhsliire County and Vicinity. — Berkshire County and vicinity is one of the most promising apicultural localities in the northeastern United States, one beekeeper having re- marked that there is a continual flow of nectar from frost until frost. Wild thyme (TJiymus serpyllum L.), here- tofore not supposed to occur in America, but highly valued in England for its honey, was found hy hundreds of acres ; it is said to yield a surplus in the Berkshire district. Clover, basswood, raspberry, sumac, l)uckwheat and other plants give crops. Were it not for these su]ierior conditions there is doubt if a colony of bees could have survived the inroads of disease. The situation is so grave that it was found impracticable to undertake treatment until at least six or eight weeks could be devoted to it. Yet it is in this locality that the most evident demand for inspection has been manifested by the self-appointed inspectors already referred to. The Conneci'icui Valley. — That the situation is espe- cially bad in part of the Connecticut valley has been known for several years. The focus is around Springfield, but tbe extent was found too great to warrant systematic control this year. However, in a few isolated localities it is pos- sible to do something preparatory to another season. Great numbers of bees have been lost in this section. Vi'orcester County and Vicinity. — Two of the worst foci of infection were placed under control. Southborough was 212 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. the center of one area inspected and treated, and there, another year, beekeepers shoukl be in a position to get a harvest. Leominster and vicinity showed nearly every colony diseased, but it is being held in check. Although it was impossible to treat all of the stock so late in the season, many colonies were shaken. The remainder are being held for treatment next spring, instructions having been given for safely wintering them. In the spring it is hoped that the work may be followed up, in order to expand the circle of examination. In Worcester and vicinity, where there are a large number of bees, and where the disease is admitted to be prevalent, a beginning has been made. Worcester should be the center of another circle of inspection, being expanded to meet those about Leominster and Southborough. In Worcester County, while the figures are only suggestive, more than 50 per cent of the colonies examined were dis- eased, and a much greater per cent of the apiaries visited had diseased colonies in them. An area of probable infection is so pronounced in the vicinity of Barre and Dana that several weeks' work will be necessary in this excellent api- cultural district. Eastern Massachusetts. — The work in the eastern part of the State has had merely a beginning, the most pro- nounced feature being the discovery of European foul brood in and around Boston. This one fact, together with indi- cations of widespread infection of American foul brood, and in consideration of the vast local agricultural investment in lines Avhich require the service of healthy, dependable colonics of bees, evinces the nrgency for immediate remedial measures. It is also important to consider that a large part of the bees raised in the east are sold and shipped, so that if diseases, especially European foul brood, are not checked, there is the gravest danger that they will have become scat- tered throughout eastern New England. No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 213 European Foul Brood, Massachusetts, 1910. Berkshire County. Egrernont. Great Barrington. Montere}^ Mount Washington. Neiv Marlborough. Pittsfield. Sheffield. Hampden County. Brimiield. Chicopee. Longmeadow. Ludlow. Monson. Springfield. H.\mpshire County. Granby. Greenwich. Soidh Hadley. Middlesex County. Arlington. Belmont. Medford. Suffolk County. Boston. Worcester County. Bar re. Dana. Worcester County — Con. Fitchburg. Hardwick. H olden. Lancaster. Leominster. Lunenburg. New Braintree. Oakham. Petersham. Sterling. Worcester. American Foul Brood, Massachusetts, 1910. ' Bristol County. Freetoivn. Essex County. Amesbury. Ipswich. Hampden County. Chicopee. Longmeadow. Liullow. Springfield. Middlesex County. Arlington, Ashland. Belmont. Middlesex County — Con. Framingham. Hopkinton. Marlborough. Medford. Newton. Waltham. Norfolk County. Sharon. Walpole. Weymouth. Plymouth County. Abington. Rockland. Worcester County. Aubtirn. Berlin. Charlton. Fitchburg. Grafton. Leominster. Millbury, Northborough. Oxford. Southborough. Southbridge. Sterling. Sturbridge. Upton. Westborough. Worcester. ' Italics indicate positive infection; reman indicates area which is doubtless infected. 214 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. FiNANciAi- Statement, Dec. 31, 1910. Appropriation, ........ $500 00 Services of inspector, 66 days at $5, . . . $330 00 Traveling and necessary expenses, . . . 133 99 Unexpended balance (appropriation expires March 31, 1911), 36 01 .*g500 00 Miscellaneous Work. Correspondence. — It should be noted that an especially large nnmber of coninumications have been received. In- coming and outgoing letters number upwards of 1,100, which, when it is considered that little was known of this office for the first few months, means, on the basis of a year, a large amount of detail in excess of other office and field work. Meetings attended. — On twelve occasions the inspector addressed organizations of beekeepers and horticulturists upon the problem of diseases and kindred beekeeping topics, in Amherst, Blackstone, Boston (two), Lee, Canton, South- borough, Stoughtoik and Worcester (four). Proposed Demonstraiional Meetings. — A large number of men may be met, given instruction in combating diseases and prepared for personal assistance by means of the demon- strational meetings. Thus far these meetings have proved important and tirnesaving. If these are held under the auspices of beekeepers' societies they will serve a double end, instruction and the added function of the society, which is such a valuable factor in promoting the industry. In order that the State may be covered another year, no less than ten of these distinctively disease demonstrations should be held, exclusive of lectures where the subject of disease may form part of the discussion. Publications. — That beekeepers might have a concise statement of the nature, treatment and methods of control of brood diseases, the writer prepared in July, for publi- cation. Bulletin Xo. 1, Apiary lusjiectiou Series, entitled "Brood diseases of bees, their treatment, and the law for No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 215 their sui^pression in Massachusetts." This was published at the expense of the State Board of Agriculture. Over 3,000 copies have been distributed. It will be desirable to circulate, before the opening of spring, a brief warning against the further spread of the diseases. Colonies which have died during the winter from the disease, if not prop- erly handled before bees fly, can readily infect hundreds of other colonies by robbing the infected honey. A circular giving precautionary measures should do much to prevent the spread by this means. The Problem. Concisely, the problem is one of education. That bees may be diseased, and that these diseases are depressing, destructive and even annihilating to the beekeeping in- dustry, is relatively a new point of view. Yet bee diseases are at the root and foundation of beekeepers' troubles and " bad luck." The way to relieve the situation is to inform the beekeeper, educate him to know the diseases in all their phases, show him how to treat them and guard against them. Intimately associated is the opportunity to educate along other lines of apiculture. As a matter of fact, in the past season the Avriter has spent quite as much time among beekeepers giving them insight into modern methods, showing " short cuts," new implements, how to increase their harvest to more nearly what it should be, and kindred subjects, as in actual inspection of bees. In many instances it has been found absolutely necessary to instruct in what might seem the most trivial, simple, beginner's subjects, as, for instance, the proper use of the smoker, yet this merely illustrates what beekeeping needs. It thus becomes evident that, while the inspection of disease should be re- garded centrally and primarily important, this is but one slight phase of the general betterment of the industry. It illustrates one of the ideals of educational methods, namely, taking the results of scientific investigation into the field to the man who is to use them, — the farmer, the beekeeper. It is the writer's earnest desire that ample provision be made for the general educational benefits which slionld ac- 216 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. cora23aiij inspection of bees for disease; this will assure a normal, well-rounded and balanced advance in beekeeping rather than a one-sided development. The general condition of apiculture has been found to be relatively low. It is estimated that in western Massa- chusetts a minimum of $30,000 worth of honey might be harvested annually. Where once there were hundreds of colonies, there are now but C)ne or two. Were it not that bees thrive there extraordinarily, the writer believes that none would have siirvived disease. European foul brood has repeatedly devastated the apiaries, until it is a com- mon expression, " There is no use trying to keep bees any more, they won't do anything."' Yet there is a small fortune dried up in the flowers every year because no bees harvest it. In numy parts of the State the beekeepers have become disheartened, they scarcely realize why, except that, as they say, they have had *' bad luck." For illustration: where a few years ago there were from 75 to 100 colonies of bees in one town of from 30 to 40 square miles, the writer could not find the slightest trace of a bee, wild or under domestic control. In talking with the farmers it was learned that fruits and vegetables were failing. Is there not a reason ? Yet this killing out of the bees was directly traced and determined as the result of disease, the last colony having succumlied within a year. Beekeepers need stimulation, encouragement, instruction, to enable them to cope with the disastrous situation which threatens to overthrow the industry. The subtle influences of disease have been working for several years. The possi- bilities of the industry warrant its promotion ; the general interests of agriculture demand that healthy bees be main- tained. To SUMMAEIZE. The work thus far has revealed the fact that the disease situation may be controlled in Massachusetts as successfully as has been demonstrated in New York and elsewhere, but that an additional sum will be essential for the best ulti- mate economy. The sooner general enlightment is afforded not only the (piickcr will be the recovery of the industry and No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 217 the greater the returns, but the less the aggregate expendi- ture. That the early spring and summer is the most suitable time for work and results has not been emjjhasized, yet this is the key to success. It is urgent that the services of the three additional men provided for by existing legislation be available in April, in order to accomplish simultaneous work in four parts of the State and obtain control of the situation. To permit this work being done to best advan- tage, along the lines indicated, $2,000 should be available annually. Acknowledgments. The writer would express his hearty appreciation of the co-operation of the beekeepers, and thank them for hospi- tality so frequently extended. Dr. Phillips and staif of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture have furthered the work l)y diagnosis of material. It is particularly gratifying to hear, as the writer frequently has, the deserved recognition and appreciation by the beekeejiers of the interest and concern in their affairs shown by the State Board of Agriculture and its secretary. It is a pleasure to speak of the beekeepers' appreciation and to thank them all for their courtesy and material assistance in fighting the infectious diseases of bees. Respectfully submitted, BURTON N. GATES, State Inspector of Apiaries. Jan. 10, 1911. TWENTIETH ANNUAL REPORT Dairy Bureau Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture REQUIRED UNDER Chapter 89, Section 12, Revised Laws. Presented to the Board and Accepted, January 10, 1911. Dairy Bureau— 1910. CHARLES M. GARDNER, Westfield, Chairman. HOWARD A. PARSONS, North Amherst. GEORGE W. TRULL, Tewksbury, P. 0. Lowell, R. F. D. Secretary. J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH, Executive Officer and Secretary of the Stale Board of Agriculture. General Agent. P. M. HARWOOD. Address, Room 136, State House, Boston. REPORT OF THE MIRY BUREAU. During the year just closed 7,922 inspections lia\e been made, 220 cases entered in court, of which 218 were won, and 35 meetings have been addressed by the general agent. Of the court cases, 139 were for violation of the oleomarga- rine laws, 77 for violation of the renovated butter law, and 4 for violation of the milk adulteration law. The Bureau has inspected most of the creameries and large milk-distrib- uting depots in the State, and has found them, as a rule, in a satisfactory condition. There are now 12 co-operative and 11 proprietary creameries in the State. Two creameries that in Shelburne Falls and the Greylock in Cheshire, have gone out of business within the year. While the Bureau has done much in the way of protecting the public from fraud and the makers and dealers in butter from unfair competition, and while more than the usual amount of educational work has been done, but little milk work has been attempted, and this for two reasons. First, our appropriation is insufficient, and second, the field is well covered by another State department and by local milk in- spectors, now generally active all over the Commonwealth. The few cases we have undertaken have been upon request. The Dairy Situation. In view of the present transportation situation and the fact that approximately three-fourths of all the milk brought into Boston by rail and nearly all of that brought in from without the State is now pasteurized before being offered for sale, the hope of the Massachusetts farmer seems to lie in whatever demand there is for a good clean article of 224 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. iicar-bj raw milk, produced under conditions which inspire confidence and therefore demand a better price than that received for milk which cannot be safely sold without resort- ing to pasteurization. As an illustration of what can be done where there is a good understanding between reasonable local authorities and willing-to-co-operate milk producers, the city of Brockton stands out prominently, milk being generally sold in that city this winter at 9 cents per quart. In the report of the milk inspector of Brockton for 1909 he cites 25 dairies with bacteria count averaging below 50,000 per cubic centimeter, of which 18 averaged below 25,000 and 7 below 10,000 each. In commenting on the 3 dairies having the lowest bacteria count, the inspector says : " Neither of these has found it necessary to generally remodel the barn or install costly new apparatus, but careful personal supervision of the work by the owner has placed these dairies in the lead." Other good illustrations might be given in other cities, but this one suf- fices to show that where there is a will to produce a clean article of milk there is a way ; and also illustrates a willing- ness on the part of the public, confidence established, to pay the price. The number of cows assessed in Massachusetts April 1, 1910, was 166,048, which is 2,173 less than were assessed in 1909 and 15,763 less than were assessed in 1906, the average annual decline for the last four years being 3,942. The amount of milk brought into Boston by rail has also continued to fall off, according to the Railroad Commis- sioners' figures. For twelve months, Dec. 1, 1908, to ITov. 30, 1909, the figures were 108,082,936 quarts; for corre- sponding months in 1909-10, 100,606,3621/2, — a decrease of 7,376,5731/2 quarts. The corresponding months in 1905- 06 showed 114.233,976 quarts. On this basis of 114,000,- 000 quarts in 1906, a normal increase with the growth of population ought to have shown 123,000,000 quarts of fluid milk brought into Boston by rail in 1910. No. 4.] KEPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 225 Condensed Milk. TLerc is little doubt but that condensed milk, in what- soever form it appears, has recently made serious inroads upon the milk trade in this Commonwealth. Not only is this true of Boston and other cities, but there is hardly a ham- let so small or so remotely situated that the little cans of this article have not found their way to the shelves of the grocery store or the meat market. Yet with a possible exception not a can of this milk is produced or condensed in Massachusetts. The local storekeeper thus sends his money out of the State for condensed milk, while at the same time he complains if the local farmer buys dry goods or groceries outside his own town. When the consumer buys condensed milk instead of clean, fresh milk produced by local dairymen, because he is loath to pay the latter a living price, does he know whether or not he is paying a greater relative price for condensed milk and at the same time getting a relatively inferior article ? If not, he should post himself as to the facts. Condensed milk has its use, a niche to fill, namely, wherever fresh fluid milk cannot for any reason be obtained or kept in proper condition ; but until this milk can be offered for sale at less price than it now is, or can be proven to be more nutritious as a food than an equal value of clean, raw, whole milk, there is little excuse for either its pur- chase or use wherever the latter is obtainable at present prices. We have found, from the purchase and analysis of a number of samples of condensed milks, facts similar to those discovered by Professor Jordan, and reported by him last year, that the average cost was around 11 cents per fluid quart equivalent for condensed milk on the basis of the Massachusetts standard of 3.35 per cent milk fat. In this connection it should be remembered that ordinary fluid milk averages a higher percentage of fat than that required by law, thus rendering the comparison more than fair to con- densed milk. Professor Jordan also reported that condensed milk varied greatly in its bacteria count, all the way from " very low " to 10,000,000 per cubic centimeter. Our own 226 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. invostigation of sixteen brands purchased at random showed, through Professor Prescott's examination, variation of from less than 100 to 1,350,000 per cubic centimeter. It there- fore appears that condensed milk is not always sterile.^ Ex- aminations made by our chemist, B. F. Davenport, M.D., by Herman C. Lythgoe, analyst of the State Board of Health, and by Prof. James O, Jordan of the Boston Bureau of Milk Inspection, indicate that condensed milk is seldom prepared from milk rich in fat, but oftentimes from apparently below- standard milk. Therefore it would seem that the least we can ask is the passage by the Legislature of a bill requiring that a label, bearing a formula for extending with water, for home use, be securely attached to each container of evap- orated, concentrated or condensed milk sold or offered for sale in this Commonwealth, and that the formula thus at- tached be such that the milk product resulting be not below the Massachusetts standard for whole milk. Such a law should carry with it a suitable penalty in case the milk thus extended fails in any instance to conform to the present legal requirements for whole milk. So long as a milk standard is maintained in this State it is manifestly unfair that these prepared milks from other States should come into our markets without either standard or guarantee as regards their solid food content. We suggest the following, which is the same bill that the Bureau used its best efforts to have passed last year : — An Act eelative to the Labeling of Evaporated, Concentrated OR Condensed Milk. Section 1. Every container of evaporated, concentrated or con- densed milk sold or offered for sale, or had in possession or custodj^ with intent to sell, by any person, firm or corporation within this commonwealth, shall have plainly printed thereupon in the English language, or attached thereto on some firmly affixed tag or label, a formula for extending the said evaporated, concentrated or con- densed milk with water, and the said formula must be such that the milk product resulting shall not be below the Massachusetts standard for milk solids and fat for whole milk. • It should be said, in justice to evaporated unsweetened milk, that it is usually found to be practically sterile, and is also sold at a relatively less price than the sweetened con- densed milk. No. 4.] REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 227 Section 2. Whoever, himself or by his servant or agent or as the servant or agent of any person, firm or corporation, sells, exchanges or delivers, or has in his custody or possession with intent to sell, exchange or deUver, any container of evaporated, concentrated or condensed milk, within this commonwealth, not marked or labeled in compliance with the jDrovisions of section one of this act, shall for the first offence be punished by a fine of not more than one hun- dred dollars, for a second offence by a fine of not less than one hundred nor more than two hundred dollars, and for a subsequent offence by a fine of five hundred dollars or by imprisonment for not less than three months nor more than six months. Section 3. This act shall take effect on the first day of Septem- ber in the year nineteen hundred and eleven. Oleo:margarike from National Standpoint. The total amount of iiiicolored oleomargarine withdrawn United States tax paid in year ending June 30, 1910, that is, what was sold in this country, was 135,149,429 pounds, or 97 per cent of the whole, and the tax at ^A cent per pound amounted to $337,898.57. If, as is now proposed, 2 cents per pound had been paid as tax on this same amount the revenue would have increased sevenfold, and would have amounted to $2,703,188.58. In view of this fact we are constrained to ask three questions. First, does the consumer want to pay this increased tax? Second, does the consumer want his oleomargarine colored to more closely imitate creamery butter, thus increasing the chance of his being more readily imposed upon by being required to pay an approxi- mate creamery price for it? Third, why does the oleomar- garine manufacturer wish to re-establish a system which was really responsible for the necessity for laws to protect the consumer from fraud from the outset? This question of tax- ing oleomargarine and thus restricting the use of coloring matter in its manufacture is of vital importance to pro- ducers, dealers and consumers; therefore all should be alive to the situation, and see to it that no ill-advised legislation takes place in our national Congress. Co-OPERATIO?r. This Bureau has on several occasions in the past advocated a State dairymen's association, and we believe that such 228 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. an organization, proj)ei'lj officered and managed, would work out for the benefit of the Massachusetts milk-producing farmers, and, indirectly, for the consuming public as well. Peksonnel of the Bureau. In January, 1910, Messrs. Richardson, Paige and Jewett, by reason of expiration of their terms, ceased to be members of the Board of Agriculture, and therefore were ineligible for reappointment on the Bureau. His Excellency Governor Draper was, therefore, called upon, for the first time since its original organization, to select an entirely new Bureau, which he did, appointing Charles M. Gardner of Westfield, Howard A. Parsons of Amherst and George W. Trull of Tewksbury. The executive force, agents, chemists, etc., are as follows: executive officer and secretary, J. Lewis Ells- worth ; general agent, P. M. Harwood ; B. F. Davenport, M.D., of Boston, and F. W. Farrell of the Emerson Labora- tory, Springfield, have done the chemical work. A small amount of bacteriological work has been done by Prof. Sam- uel C. Prescott of Boston. A. W. Lombard has continued to act as agent, and five others have been temporarily employed from time to time. Summary of Police Work. Total number of inspections, ^ 7,922 Number of inspections where no sample was taken, . . . 6,121 Number of samples of butter and oleomargarine, all purchased, 1,724 Number of samples of milk and cream, , 136 Cases entered in court, 220 Meetings addressed by the general agent, 35 Cases prosecuted during the twelve months ending 'Nov. 30, 1910, by months and courts, with law violated, and re- sults, are as follows : — » There were 53 extra samples taken during the year, therefore this number is 53 less than the sum of the next three items. No. 4.] REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 229 CODRT. Month. Num- ber. Law violated. Con- victed. Dis- charged. Holyoke, Police, . Somerville, Police, Brockton, Police, Worcester, Central District, Springfield, Police, Cambridge, Third Eastern Middlesex District. Lowell, Police,' . Lynn, Police, Cambridge, Third Eastern Middlesex District. Haverhill, Northern Essex District. Holyoke, Police, . New Bedford, Third Bristol District. East Boston, District, 2 Ayer, Northern Middlesex District. Northampton, Hampshire District. North Adams, Northern Berkshire District. Worcester, Central Worces- ter District. Fitchburg, Police, Fall River, Second Bristol District. Quincy, East Norfolk Dis- trict. Orange, Eastern Franklin District. A t h o 1 , First Northern Worcester District. Gardner, First Northern Worcester District. Holyoke, Police, . Lawrence, Police, Salem, First Essex District, Gloucester, Eastern Essex District. Worcester Central District, Lynn Police, Chicopee, Police, Southbridge, First Southern Worcester District. Chelsea, Police, . Taunton, First Bristol Dis- trict. Springfield, Police, Marlborough, Police, . Fall River, Second Bristol District. Boston, Municipal, 2 . December, December, December, December, December, December, December, December, January, January, January, January, January, January, February, February, February, Marcli, March, March, March, March, March, April, April, April, April, April, May, May, May, May, May, June, June, June, June, 16 2 5 1 1 8 3 4 2 2 4 12 4 2 1 2 35 4 26 1 4 2 2 10 6 1 4 2 18 1 Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, 4 oleomargarine, 1 milk. Milk, . Milk, . 6 reno\ated butter 2 oleomargarine. Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Renovated butter Renovated butter Oleomargarine, Renovated butter Renovated butter Oleomargarine, Renovated butter 9 renovated butter, 26 oleomargarine Oleomargarine, 16 renovated butter 10 oleomargarine Renovated butter Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Renovated butter 2 renovated butter 8 oleomargarine. Renovated butter Renovated butter Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Renovated butter Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Renovated butter ' Filed on payment of costs. - In connection with the Boston Bureau of Milk Inspection. 230 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Court. Month. Num- ber. Law violated. Con- victed. Dis- charged. Concord, Central Middlesex District. Northampton, Hampshire District. VVoburn, Fourth Eastern Middlesex District. Fall River, Second Bristol District. VVareham , Fourth Plymouth District. Nahant, Police, . Oak Bluffs, Dukes County District. Salem, First Essex District, Salem, First Essex District, Concord, Central Middlesex District. Woburn, Fourth Eastern Middlesex District. Totals, June, June, July, July, July, August, September, September, November, November, November, Renovated butter Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Milk, . Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, Oleomargarine, 220 Note. — The Bureau is especially indebted to the milk inspectors of Boston, Chicopee, Ijowell, Northampton, Revere, Salem, Springfield, Taunton and Worcester for assistance which has resulted in cases in court. We also record our indebtedness to all others who have aided us in any way. The charges in the several eases entered in court for the year ending Nov. 30, 1910, have been as follows: — Selling renovated butter in unmarked packages, Selling oleomargarine when butter was asked for, Selling oleomargarine without being registered, Selling oleomargarine without sign in store, Selling oleomargarine in unmarked packages, . Selling oleomargarine from unmarked wagons, Furnishing oleomargarine in restaurants, etc., without guests, . Selling milk containing added water, notice to 77 35 4 2 3 87 4 220 The following is a list of inspections withont samples and the number of samples taken in the years 1903-10, inclu- sive : — No. 4.] REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 231 Yeau. 1903. 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907, . 1908, . 1909, 1910, . Totals, , Averages, Inspections without Samples. 4,135 4,456 4,887 4,985 4,538 5,516 5,003 6,121 39,641 4,955+ Samples taken. 1,395 1.157 971 576 1,374 1,575 1,869 1,960 10,877 1,359+ Oleomargarine. No licenses for the sale of colored oleomargarine were issued in this State, and no sales of such goods have been discovered bv the agents of the Bureau during the year. The high price of butter has boomed the oleomargarine trade. Some idea of the extent may be obtained from a perusal of the following list of United States licenses for the sale of uncolored oleomargarine, in force in Massachusetts in November, 1909, and November, 1910, showing the increase of the latter over the former : — 1909. 1910. Wholesale licenses in Boston, 13 21 Wholesale licenses in other cities, 8 9 Total, . 21 30 Retail licenses in Boston, 46 91 Retail licenses in other cities and towns, .... 465 607 Total, 511 698 The following figures, taken from the annual report of the United States Commissioner of Internal Revenue for 1910, show the production, withdrawn tax paid, and withdrawn 232 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. for export of the two classes of oleomargarine, as defined by act of May 9, 1902, covering a period of eight years, since it went into effect on July 1, 1902 : — Oleomargarine (Pounds). Product taxed at Rate op 10 Cents per Pound. Product taxed at Rate of J Cent per Pound. Year. Produced. With- drawn Tax paid. With- drawn for Export. Produced . With- drawn Tax paid. With- drawn for Export. 1903, . 5,710,407 2,312,493 3,334,969 67,573,689 66,785,796 151.693 1904. . 3,785,670 1,297,068 2,504,940 46,413,972 46,397,984 123,425 1905,. 5,560,304 3,121,640 2,405,763 46,427,032 46,223,691 137,670 1906, . 4,888,986 2,503,095 2,422,320 50,545,914 50,536,466 78,750 1907,. 7,758,529 5,009,094 2,695,276 63,608,246 63,303,016 129.3.50 1908, . 7,452,800 4,982,029 2,.522,188 74,072,800 73,916,869 109,480 1909,. 5,710,301 3,275,968 2,403,742 86,572,514 86,221,310 112.958 1910, . 6,176,991 3,416,286 2.767,195 135,685,289 135,159,429 97.575 Total, 47,043,988 25,917,673 21,056,393 570,899,456 568,544,561 940,901 Renovated Butter. The violations of the renovated butter law in this State during the year have been more than double what they were in 1909. The high price of butter has caused more of the goods to be used than was the case then, but, considering the amount sold, the number is not excessive, except from an ideal standpoint. There is one licensed concern in this State man- ufacturing renovated butter. Most of the goods are offered for sale in print form. The following figures, from the same source as the pre- ceding table, show the production and withdrawn tax paid of renovated butter, 1902-10 : — No. 4.] REPORT OK THE DAIRY BUREAU. 233 Renovated Butter (Pounds). Year. 1903. 1904, 1905, 1900. 1907, 190S, 1900. 1910, Total, Production. Withdrawn Tax paid. 54.658.790 54.223,234 54.171.183 54,204,478 60,029,421 60,171,504 53,.549,900 53,361,088 02,965,613 63,078,-504 50,479.489 50,411,440 47.345.361 47,402,382 47.433,575 47,378,446 430,633,332 430,231.082 Butter. The annual statement of the Chamber of Commerce, as will be seen by appended tables, shows further decrease in the consumption of butter during 1910. This is undoubt- edly due, in a large measure, to the high price, wholesale average, of 30.2 cents per pound, the highest figure reached in many years. The following table shows the average quotation for the best fresh creamery butter, in a strictly wholesale way, in the Boston market for the last nine years, as compiled by the Boston Chamber of Commerce : — 1910. 1909. 1908. 1907. 1906. 1905. 1904. 1903. 1902. 1901. Month. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. January, . 33.5 30.9 29.7 30.4 25.2 28.0 22.7 28.0 25.0 25.0 February, 30.5 30.0 32.1 31.7 25.2 31.6 24.6 27.0 28.5 25.0 March, 32.0 29.1 30.2 30.2 25.5 28.0 24.1 27.0 29.0 23.0 April, 31.5 27.9 28.4 32.2 22.2 29.1 21.6 27.5 32.0 22.0 May. . 29.0 26.6 24.1 31.4 19.9 23.9 19.9 22.5 25.0 19.5 June. . 28.2 26.4 24.5 21.3 20.2 20.7 18.4 22.75 23.5 20.0 July, . 28.6 27.2 23.6 25.9 21.0 20.6 18.3 20.5 22.5 20.0 August, 29.6 28.2 24.5 26.0 23.8 21.0 19.1 20.0 21.5 21.0 September, 29.6 31.3 25.3 29.2 25.6 21.2 20.8 22.0 23.5 22.0 October, . 29.4 31.7 27.5 29.9 26.9 22.1 21.5 22.5 24.5 21.5 November, 30.2 31.4 29.5 27.1 27.6 23.0 24.1 23.5 27.0 24.0 December, 30.0 32.9 31.0 27.5 30.7 23.9 25.7 24.5 28.5 24.5 Averag< 30.2 29.5 27.5 28.48 24.48 24.47 21.73 26.23 25.0 22.3 234 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The Chamber of Commerce figures regarding the butter business in Boston for 1909 and 1910 are as follows: — • 1910. Pounds. 1909. Pounds. Carried over, .... Receipts for January, . Receipts for February , Receipts for March, Receipts for April, Receipts for May, Receipts for June, Receipts for July, Receipts for August, . Receipts for September, Receipts for October, . Receipts for November, Receipts for December, Total supply. Exports for year, deduct. Net supply Storage stock December 31, deduct, Consumption for year, . 8,030,740 2,763,388 2,735,471 3,202,183 2,617,479 7,953,512 13,294,088 10,529,244 8,371,256 7,455,963 5,499,123 2,904,893 2,094,240 77,451,580 13,650 77,437,930 12,272,624 65,165,306 8,9C0,328 3,198,459 2,258,740 2,762,898 3,089,744 4,810,649 11,309,791 11,357,950 8,648,239 7,406,408 5,140,375 2,813,504 2,257,397 74,014,482 44,050 73,970,4.32 8,030,740 65,939,692 Condensed and Evaporated Milks. Table showing Results of Bacteriological Examination of Different Brands of Condensed and Evaporated Milk. Sweetened Condensed Milk. Brand. Bacteria per Cubic Centimeter, 20° C. (96 Hours). Bacteria per Cubic Centimeter, 37° C. (24 Hours). Vermont, Eclipse, Ruby, . Red Cross, Tip Top, Rose, Challenge, Eagle, . Cupid, . Standard , Average, 240,000 30,000 1,150,000 260,000 15,000 355,000 100 570,000 650 700,000 210,000 34,000 1,350,000 320,000 35,000 330,000 1.50 410,000 750 550,000 332,075 323,990 No. 4.] REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 235 Table showing Results of Bacteriological Examination, etc. Unsweetened Evaporated Milk. Concluded. Brand. Bacteria per Cubic Centimeter, 20° C. (96 Hours). Bacteria per Cubic Centimeter, 37° C. (24 Hours). Peerless, .......... Wilson's Highland, Gold Van Camp's, Gold Croaa Less than 100 Less than 100 Less than 100 Less than 100 500 Less than 100 Less than 100 150 Less than 100 Less than 100 2,100 Less than 100 Table showing Cost of Equivalent of Milk Fat contained in a Quart of Milk, up to the Massachusetts Standard of 3.35 Per Cent, in the Following Brands of Sweetened Condensed Milk and Unsweetened Evaporated Milk. Calcidations made upon Basis of Weight, Fat Content and Price of Each Brand. Sweetened Condensed Milk. Brand. Cost per Quart (Cents). Brand. Cost per Quart (Cents). Tip Top 9.24 Red Cross, . . . . 9.64 Eclipse i.^.eo Eagle, 13.52 Vermont, .... 9.03 Cupid, 12.41 Summit, 11.61 Challenge, 10.30 Standard 11.73 Ruby, . 12.73 Rose 10.73 Heather, . Average, . 11.81 11.36 Unsweetened Evaporated Milk. Highland, 11.09 I Gold Cross 7.86 Wilson's, . . i 9.11 Gold Average 9.58 Van Camp's, . 10.15 9.39 Peerless, . 8.55 236 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Table showing Price per Can, Weight of Contenls, Per Cent of Fat and Times Massachusetts Fat Standard for Milk, in Twelve Samples Sweetened Condensed and Six Samples Unsweetened Evaporated Milk. Sweetened Condensed Milk. Brand. Price per Can. (Cents). Net Weight of Contents. (Ounces). Fat (Per Cent). Times the Standard for Fat. Challenge, 10 12% 8.90 2.66 Rose, 12 14i3Ae 8.70 2.59 Tip Top, . 11 14i%c 9.28 2.77 Eagle. 15 14Hi« 9.00 2.68 Vermont, . 11 UVs 9.50 2.83 Eclipse, 12 ume 7.50 2.24 Ruby, 11 12% 9.90 2.95 Standard, 12 14>/8 8.40 2.50 Red Cross, 12 141 %« 8.20 2.44 Cupid, 9 14»/i« 6.50 1.94 Summit, . 10 13% 7.20 2.15 Heather, . 10 11V4 8.70 2.60 Unsweetened Evaporated Milk. Peerless, . Gold, Highland, Wilson's, . Van Camp's, Gold Cross, 11 16 9.30 10 levs 7.50 10 12 8.70 10 1615^8 7.80 10 151%8 7.20 10 16% 9.00 2.77 2.23 2.59 2.33 2.15 2.68 Milk. The following analyses of milk, taken in November, 1910, from the patrons of a milk shipping station in western Massachusetts, show milk of excellent quality, with no at- tempt at adulteration. The herds were composed of natives, and Holstein and Jersey grades. No. 1.] REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 2;37 Sample Number. Pounda Milk. Number Cows. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. . 7. . 8. . 9, 10, 11. 12, 13, H. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, . 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, . 28, . 29, 30, 31, . 32, . Average 157 17.3 97 76 123 128 173 104 64 74 62 94 60 144 193 56 52 98 84 248 170 148 236 145 182 31 84 114 114 262 96 67 122.4 12 13 6 9 21 7 10 12 9 5 12 11 5 11 24 15 10 11 13 26 15 16 9 17 23 12 11 8 21 33 11 13 Fat (Per Cent). Total Solids (Per Cent). 4.9 4.2 3.4 4.6 5.2 4.0 4.7 3.8 4.6 3.6 5.0 4 9 4.9 4.1 5.1 5.2 5.1 5.0 4.2 3.8 4.6 3.9 3.9 4.2 4.6 4.4 4.4 4.6 4.5 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.49 14.24 13.23 12.06 13.91 14.40 12.60 13.79 12.75 13.62 12.24 13.96 13.44 14.15 13.01 13.77 14.18 14.18 14.52 13.17 12.37 13.75 12.64 12.59 12.98 13.85 13.75 13.85 13.74 13.20 13.62 13.02 13.11 13.42 Refrac- tion. 43.8 43.3 42.7 43.8 43.5 42.8 43.5 43.0 43.4 42.6 43.1 42.0 44.1 43.5 42.9 43.0 42.6 43.7 43.2 42.2 43.3 43.2 42.6 42.5 43.2 44.3 43.5 43.2 41.8 43.4 42.0 43.1 43.02 238 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Milk brought into Boston bij Different Railroads, Dec. 1, 1009, to Nov. 30, 1910, as reported by the Railroad Commissioners {Quarts). Date. Boston & Albany. Boston & Maine. New York, New Haven & Hartford. Total. 1909. December 1,239,835 5,448,159 2,376,820 9,064,814 January, 191( ). 1,261,493 5,271,660 2,511,295 9,044,448 February, 1,129,956 4,839,106 2,238,771 8,207,833 March, . 1,308,125 5,475,064^ 2.528,599 9,311,788i April, . 1,319,982 6,343,029 2,410,224 10,073,235 May, 278,791 5,218,864 2,388.932 7,886,587 June, . 965,608 5,638,992 2,266,220 8,870,820 July, . 1,165,639 5,599,752 2,411,087 9,176,478 August, 891,673 4,679,669 2.037,164 7,608,508 September, 904,062 4,444,055 1.881,451 7,229,568 October, 943,466 4,482,585 2,004,881 7,430,932 November, 799,828 3,938,947 1,962,578 6.701,353 Total, 12,208,458 61,379,882^ 27,018,022 100,606,362J Milk brought into Boston by Railroad for Twelve Months ending Novem- ber 30 of Each Year (Quarts). 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910, Total decrease in four years Average annual decrease 114,233,976 109,882,190^ 103,381,2781 108,082,936 100,606,362^ 13,627,613^ 3,406,903 1 Number of Cows assessed in Massachusetts. May 1, 1906, 181,816 April 1, 1910, 166,048 Total decrease in four years, . ... . . . 15,768 Average annual decrease, 3,942 No. 1.] KErOUT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 23U Local Milk Inspectors. Milk Inspectors for Massachusetts Cities, 1910. Beverlj^ Henry E. Dodge, 2cl. Boston, Prof. James 0. Jordan. Brockton, George E. Boiling. Cambridge, Dr. Ernest H. Sparrow. Chelsea, Arthur H. Upton. Chicopee, C. J. O'Brien. Everett, E. Clarence Colby. Fall River Henry Boisseau. Fitchburg, John F. Bresnahan. Gloucester, George E. Watson. Haverhill, Homer L. Conner, M.D. Holyoke, James K. Morrill. Lawrence, Eugene A. McCarthy. Lowell, Melvin F. Master. Lynn, Alexander S. Wright. Maiden, J. A. Sanford. Marlborough, John J. Cassidy. Medford, Winslow Joyce. Melrose, Caleb W. Clark, M.D. New Bedford, Herbert B. Hamilton, D.V.S. Newburyport, T. D. Donahoe. Newton, Arthur Hudson. North Adams, . . Henry A. Tower. Northampton, George R. Turner. Pittsfield, Eugene L. Hannon. Quincy, Edward J. Murphy. Salem, John J. McGrath. Somerville, Herbert E. Bowman. Springfield, Stephen C. Downs. Taunton, Lewis I. Tucker. Waltham, Arthur E. Stone, M.D. Woburn, P. T. McDonough. Worcester, Gustaf L. Berg. Milk Inspectors Massachusetts Towns, 1910. Adams, Dr. A. G. Potter. Amesbury, E. S. Worthen. Andover, Franklin H. Stacy. Arlington, Dr. L. L. Pierce. Attleborough, Caleb Parmenter. Barnstable, George T. Mecarta. Belmont, Prof. Samuel C. Prescott. 240 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Rub. Doc. Brookline, Frederick H. Osgood. Clinton, Gilman L. Chase. Greenfield, M. L. Miner, D.V.S. South Hadiey Falls, .... George F. Boudreau. Hyde Park, James G. BoUes. Leominster, William H. Dodge, D.V.S. Ludlow, A. L. Bennett, D.V.S. Monson, Dr. Charles W. Jackson. North Attleborough, .... Hugh Gaw, V.S. Palmer, Edward F. Brown. Revere, Joseph E. Lamb. South Framingham, .... Charles N. Hargraves. Stoneham, George H. Allen. Wakefield, Harry A. Simonds. Ware, Fred E. Marsh. Watertown, Luther W. Simonds. Westfield, William H. Porter. Williamstown, C. L. Whitney. Winchendon, Frederick W. Russell, M.D. Winchester, Morris Dineen. Creameries, Milk Depots, etc. Co-operative Creameries. Number and Location. Name. Superintendent or Manager. L Ashfield, 2. Belchertown, 3. Cummington, 4. Easthampton, 5. Egrcinont (P. (). Great Barrington). 6. Monterey, 7. New Boston, 8. New Salem (P. O. Mill ington). 9. Northfield, . 10. Shelburne, . n. Westfield (P. O. Wyben), 12. West Newbury, . Ashfield Creamery, . Belchertown Creamer>', Cummington Creamery, . Hampton Creamery, Egremont Creamery, Berkshire Hills Creamery, Berkshire Creamery, New Salem Creamer j-, Northfield Co-operative Cream ery Association. Shelburne Creamer}-, Wyben Springs Creamery, West Newbury Creamery, William Hunter, manager. M. G. Ward, president. D. C. Morey, superintend- ent. W. H. Wright, treasurer. E. A. Tyrrell, manager. F. A. Campbell, manager. F. M. Rugg, president. W. A. Moore, treasurer. Chas. C. Stearns, superin- tendent. Ira Barnard, manager. C. H. Kelso, manager. R. S. Brown, treasurer. No. 4.] KKPOUT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 241 Proprielarij Crea meries. Number and Location. Name. Owner or Manager. 1. Amherst, 2. Amherst, 3. Brimfield, . 4. Everett, 5. Fitchburg, 26 Gushing Street. 6. Gardner, 7. Groton, 8. Heath 9. Hinsdale, 10. Marlborough, 11. North Brookfield, Amherst Creamery, . Fort River Creamery, Crystal Brook Creamery, Hampden Creamery Company, Fitchburg Creamery, Boston Dairy Company, . Lawrence Creamery, Cold Spring Creamery, Hinsdale Creamerjs . Este's Creamery, North Brookfield Creamery, Tait Bros., managers. E. A. King. F. N. Lawrence. Hampden Creamery Com- pany. G. S. Learned. Boston Dairy Company. Myron P. Swallow. I. W. Stetson & Son. Ashley B. Clark, treasurer. F. F. Este. H. A. Richardson. Educational. Amherst, Dairy Industry Course, Massa- chusetts Agricultural College. W. P. B. Lockwood, pro- fessor in charge. Milk-distrihuling Depots. Name. Location. Manager. Alden Bros., Boston Dairy Compan5^ C. Brigham Company, C. Brigham Company, Deerfoot Farms, Elm Farm Milk Company, H. P. Hood & Sons, . Springfield Co-operative Milk Association. Tait Bros., .... Wachu.sett Creamery, D. Whiting & Sons, . Boston office, 1171 Tremont Street, Depot, 24-28 Duncan Street. Boston, 484 Rutherford Avenue, Cambridge, 158 Massachusetts Ave- nue. Worcester, 9 Howard Street, Southborough, . . . . . Boston , Wales Place, Boston, 494 Rutherford Avenue, branch, 24 Anson Street, Forest Hills. Lynn, 193 Alley Street. Maiden, 425 Main Street. Salem , 252 Bridge Street. Watertown, 289 Pleasant Street. Lawrence, 629 Common Street. Springfield, Springfield, Worcester, ...... Boston, 570 Rutherford Avenue, Charles L. Alden. W. A. Graustein. John K. Whiting. C. Brigham Company. S. H. Howes. James H. Knapp, treasurer. Charles H. Hood. F. B.Allen. Tait Bros. E. H. Thayer & Co. George Whiting. 242 BOARD OF AGUICULTURE. [P. D. No. 4. Milk Laboratory. Name. Location. Manager. Walker-Gordon Laboratory, Boston, 793 Boylston Street, . George W. Franklin. Receiving Depots for Milk for Shipments to New York City. F. D. Shove Milk Factory, Willow Brook Dairy Com- pany. West Stockbridge Sheffield C. M. Riggs. Frank Percy. Expenses. The following is a classified statement of the expenses for the year ending Nov. 30, 1910: — Bureau: compensation and traveling expenses, . . $453 27 Agents: compensation, 2,425 84 Agents: traveling expenses and samples purchased, . 2,922 71 General agent: traveling and necessary expenses, . . 435 83 Chemists: analyses, tests, court attendance, . . . 1,449 40 Printing and supplies, 312 95 Total $8,000 00 P. M. HARWOOD, General Agent. Accepted and adopted as the report of the Dairy Bureau. CHARLES M. GARDNER. H. A. PARSONS. GEORGE W. TRULL. SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT State Forbstee Synopsis Presented to the Board and Accepted, January 10, 1911. SEVENTH ANNUAL EEPOPJ OF THE STATE FORESTER. Introductiox. Forestry work during the past year has received its due share of interest on the part of our Massachusetts people. It is a pleasure to be able to report that in general the forestry and moth work have so amalgamated that not only more efficiency but greater economy is the result. The depredations of insect pests, fungous diseases and forest fires must be successfully dealt with and controlled if we are to succeed in establishing and maintaining a modern forestry system throughout this Commonwealth. From the first the forestry work has been popular, while the moth work, on the other hand, has savored of unpopularity, for many reasons, but chiefly because of the law requiring property owners, through taxation, to defray a portion of its expense. It has taken time to organize and perfect the work of combat- ing the gypsy and brown-tail moths. It is believed to be a con- servative estimate when we say that we have increased our efficiency toward moth control fully one-third during the past season, and without additional appropriations. It has been the earnest endeavor of the State Forester, since the moth work has been placed under his care, to overcome, if possible, anything that has a tendency to create a misunder- standing, and also to secure legislation that would meet definite requirements and hence general public approval. The legislation enacted by the last General Court has already ju'oved of great assistance, and it is hoped that our requests as outlined at the conclusion of this report will meet with the favorable consideration of your honorable body. 246 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. It is believed that there are few departments in the State that have a more enthusiastic, self-sacrificing and loyal corps of employees than has this one. " A live-wire organization " is our slogan. The demands upon the office of the State Forester for exam- inations and advice on forestry matters have been greater than ever; also, forestry literature, lectures and demonstrations have been constantly requested throughout the year. Fire-warning notices and forest-law posters have been generally distributed and are in greater use than ever. The growing interest in equipping our towns with some modern fire-fighting apparatus is certainly encouraging. The legislation of last year, whereby the poorer towns receive State aid, has been of great assistance. The comparative efficiency of towns with and without equipment for fighting forest fires during the past season is proverbial. ToAvns with equipment were practically free from fires, while those without such equip- ment were largely burned over. The reforestation work is extremely popular, and it is be- lieved that the State can well afford to enlarge the appropriation for this work, as under our present method the State cannot possibly lose. The State Forester feels frank to say that the outlook in this department was never brighter. Organ izATioisr. The same general plan of organization as that outlined last year has been continued throughout the season. Our constant aim has been toward greater efficiency and raising the standard of the work. Our purpose is to encourage cities and towns to first secure competent forest wardens and moth superintendents, and then to desist from constant changes. It takes time to get a man well broken into the work, and thereafter he is of the greatest value. The present organization of the State Forester's staff is as follows : — No. 4.1 REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 247 Mr. F. W. Ranb, B.Agr., M.S Mr. L. H. WORTHLEY, . Mr. H. O. Cook, M.F., Mr. R. S. Langdell, . Mr. H. F. Gould, M.F., Mr. J. H. Potts,' Alden T. Speare, Mr. Chas. O. Bailey, . Miss Elizabeth Hubbard, Miss Charlotte Jacob.s, Mr. Wm. a. Hatch, Mr. John W. Enwright, Mr. George A. Smith, Mr. Frank A. Bates, Mr. Francis C. Worthen, Mr. John J. Fitzgerald, Mr. Wm. W. Colton, Mr. Clarence W. Parkhurst, Mr. Chas. W. Minott, Staff. State Forester. Assistant Forester, in charge of moth work. Assistant Forester, in charge of forestry man- agement. Assistant Forester, in charge of nursery work. Assistant Forester. Assistant, forest fire work. Assistant, moth disease work. Secretary. Clerk, in charge of accounts. Clerk, in charge of mail and office. Division Superintendent, Division 1, as fol- lows: Danvers, Hamilton, Ipswich, Lynn, Lynnfield.Nahant, Peabody, Revere, Salem, Swampscott and Wenham. Agent, Division 2, as follows: Arlington, Bed- ford, Burlington, Carlisle, Everett, Lex- ington, Maiden, Melrose, No. Reading, Reading, Saugus, Stoneham, Wakefield, Wilmington, Winchester and Woburn. Agent, Division 3, as follows: Belmont, Boston, Brookline, Cambridge, Chelsea, Concord, Hyde Park, Lincoln, Medford, Natick, Needham, Newton, Somerville, Waltham, Watertown, Wayland, Welles- ley, Weston and Winthrop. Agent, Division 4, as follows: Abington, Avon, Braintree, Cohasset, Hingham, Holbrook, Hull, Milton, Quincy, Randolph, Rock- land, Scituate, Weymouth and Whitman. Division Superintendent, Division 5, as fol- lows: Amesbury, Boxford, Georgetown, Groveland, Merrimac, Middleton, New- bury, Newburyport, Rowley, Salisbury, Topsfield and West Newbury. Division Superintendent, Division 6, as fol- lows: Andover, Billerica, Chelmsford, Dracut, Haverhill, Lawrence, Lowell, Methuen, North Andover and Tewksbury. Division Superintendent, Division 7, as fol- lows: Ashby, Ashburnham, Ayer, Dun- stable, Fitchburg, Groton, Lunenburg, Pepperell, Shirley, Townsend, Westford and W^estminster. Division Superintendent, Division 8, as fol- lows: Bellingham, Canton, Dedham, Dover, Foxborough, Framingham, Franklin, Med- field, Medway, Millis, Norfolk, Norwood, Plainville, Sharon, Sherborn, Stoughton, Walpole, W^estwood and W'rentham. Agent, Division 9, as follows: Acton, Berlin, Bolton, Boxborough, Clinton, Harvard, Hudson, Lancaster, Leominster, Littleton, Marlborough, Maynard, Sterling, Stowe and Sudbury. 1 Resigned. 248 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Mr. George A. Sands, Mr. Harry B. Ramsey, Mr. John A. Farley, . Mr. Lewis W. Hodgkins, Mr. John F. Carleton, Mr. Saul Phillips, Division Superintendent, Division 10, as fol- lows: Ashland, Blackstone, Grafton, Hol- liston, Hopedale, Hopkinton, Mendon, Mil- ford, Northborough, Northbridge, South- borough, Upton, Uxbridge and Westbor- ough. . Agent, Division 11, as follows: Athol, Au- burn, Barre, Boylston, Brookfield, Charl- ton, Douglas, Dudley, Gardner, Holden, Hubbardston, Leicester, Millbury, Orange, Oxford, Paxton, Petersham, Phillipston, Princeton, Rutland, Royalston, Spencer, Sturbridge, Sutton, Templeton, Webster, West Boylston, Winchendon and Worces- ter. . Agent, Division 12, as follows: Carver, Dux- bury, Halifax, Hanover, Hanson, Kingston, Marshfield, Norwell, Pembroke, Plymouth and Plympton. . Agent, Division 13, as follows: Attleborough, Bridgewater, Brockton, East Bridgewater, Easton, Lakeville, Mansfield, Middlebor- ough. North Attleborough, Raynham, Taunton and West Bridgewater. Division Superintendent, Division 14, as fol- lows: Barnstable, Bourne, Brewster, Den- nis, Falmouth, Marion, Mashpee, Orleans, Rochester, Sandwich, Truro, Wareham, Wellfleet and Yarmouth. . Division Superintendent, Division 15, as fol- lows: Beverly, Essex, Gloucester, Man- chester, North Shore Woodlands and Rock- port. L. O. Howard, Ph.D., Theobald Smith, Ph.B., M.D. Roland Thaxter, Ph.D., , E. L. Mark, Ph.D., LL.D., . W. M. Wheeler, Ph.D., C. H. Fernald, Ph.D., Frank H. Mo.sher, Co-oper.\tive Scientific Staff. . Chief United States Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C, Parasites and Predaceous Insects. Professor of Comparative Pathology, Harvard University, Diseases of Insects. Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, Harvard University, Fungous Diseases affecting In- sects. Director of the Zoological Laboratory, Har- vard Univ'ersity, Protozoa and Insect Life. Professor of Entomology, Harvard University, Experimental Entomologist. Professor of Entomology, Massachusetts Ag- ricultural College, Consulting Entomologist. Entomologist in charge of laboratory. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 249 List op Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents. [Alphabetically by towns.] Town' ou City. No. Forest Warden. Local Moth Superintendent. Abington, 287 Acton, . 181 Acushnet, 275 Agawam, 93 Alford, . 24 Amesbury, . 228 Amherst, 67 Andover, 212 Arlington, 193 Ashburnhani, 104 Ashby, . 158 Ashfield, 50 Ashland, 200 Athol, . 105 Attleborough, 265 Auburn, 123 Avon, . 259 Ayer, 169 Barnstable, . 315 Barre, . 142 Becket, . 23 Bedford, 179 Belchertown, 73 Bellingham, . 326 Belmont, 194 Berkley, 271 Berlin, . 139 Bernardston, 39 Beverly, 220 Billerica, 173 Blackstone, . 114 Blandford, 81 Bolton, . 146 Boston,! - Bourne, 311 B. E. Wilkes, chief fire department, Wm. H. Kingsley, . . . . . Henry F. Taber John Clancy, ...... D L. White, P. O. Feeding Hills, . John H. Wilcox, James E. Feltham, chief fire department, G. E. Stone, tree warden, J. H. Playdon, tree warden, . Walter H. Pierce, chief fire department, . Arthur H. Skillings, chief fire depart- ment. Wm. S. Green, Chas. A. Hall, H. H. Piper, Frank P. Hall, chief fire department, Hiram Packard, chief fire department, 3 Hope Street. J. Fred Searle, James W. McCarthy, Pratt Street, Chas. E. Perrin Henry C. Bacon, P. O. Hyannis, . D. H. Rice Elmer D. Ballou Chas. E. Williams, James A. Peeso, constable, L. F. Thayer John F. Leonard, chief fire department, . Gideon H. Babbitt, . . . . Walter Cole, constable, . . . . E. E. Benjamin Robt. H. Grant, chief fire department, . Geo. C. Crosby, chief engineer fire de- partment. Thomas Reilly, C. O. Shultz Chas. E. Mace Walton E. Keene C. Frederick Shaw. James O'Neil. A. P. R. Gilmore. A. L. Stover. J. H. Playdon. Wm. H. Bradley. Chas. A. Billings. H. A. Lawrence. Michael Geoghan. Geo. E. Whitney. Wm. E. S. Smith. J. Fred Searle. Willard W. Beals. Daniel W. Mason. Harry W. Bodfish. George R. Simonds. W. A. Cutler. Nelson Randall. Henry A. Whitney. Chas. H. Houlahan. J. M. Alexander. Ernest C. Ross. Josiah B. Brown. Henry E. Marion. A. J. Oibbon.s. Chas. E. Mace. D. Henry Sullivan. Stillman B. Wright. > No forest area. 250 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con. Town or City. Badge No. Forest Warden. Local Moth Superintendent. Boxborough, Boxford, Boylston, Braintree, Brewster, Bridgewater, Brimfield, Brockton, Brookfield, Brookline, Buckland, Burlington, Cambridge,* Canton, Carlisle, Carver, . Charlemont, Charlton, Chatham, Chelmsford, Chelsea,' Cheshire, Chester, Chesterfield, Chicopee, Chilmark, Clarksburg, Clinton, Cohasset, Colrain, Concord, Conway, Cummington Dalton, Dana, . Danvers, Dartmouth 182 218 138 244 318 293 99 286 120 237 49 178 249 171 304 42 115 320 172 63 87 308 3 145 246 37 180 51 60 14 147 345 278 M. L. Wetherbee, ..... Harry L. Cole, Chas. S. Knight, metropolitan watchman, Jas. M. Cutting, special police, P. O. South Braintree. T. B. Tubman, highway surveyor, North Brewster. Edwin S. Rhoades, Geo. E. Hitchcock Harry L. Marston, chief fire department, David N. Hunter, Geo. H. Johnson, chief fire department, . Wm. Sauer, P. O. Shelburne Falls, . Walter W. Skelton, tree warden. Lawrence Horton, fire engineer, P. O. Ponkapoag. A. Lapham, ...... Herbert F. Atwood, Fred. D. Legate, Carlos Bond, .... Geo. W. Ryder, West Chatham, Arthur E. Barton, . Chas. D. Cummings, .... Wm. H. Babb Chas. A. Bisbee, P. O. Bisbee, John H. Pomphret, chief fire department, Ernest C. Mayhew, Robert Lanfair, R. F. D. No. 1, North Adams. Wm. Clark, Wm. J. Brennock, captain fire depart- ment. Wm. H. Davenport, .... G. M. Morrell, chief fire department, Chas. Parsons, tree warden, . W. S. Gabb, P. O. Swift River, . Alvah K. Cleveland, North Street, Thos. L. Thayer, P. O. North Dana, Thomas E. Tinsley, .... Sylvanus P. Hawes, .... John J. Sherry. Chas. Perley. George A. Vickery. Oscar A. Hubbard. James E. Eldridge. Walter E. Rhodes. N. S. Souther J. H. Conant. Ernest B. Dane. Walter W. Skelton. J. F. Donnelly. Augustus Heminway. G. G. Wilkins. Herbert F. Atwood. John G. Hammond. Geo. B. Bassett. M. A. Bean. J. A. O'Brien. Almon S. Tilton. Wm. McGown. Joseph E. Grassie. H. P. Richardson. Thomas E. Tinsley. • No forest area. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 251 List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con. Town or City. No. Forest Warden. Local Moth Superintendent. Dedham , Deerfield, Dennis, Dighton, Douglas, Dover, Dracut, Dudley, Dunstable Duxbury, E. Bridgewater, East Longmeadow Eastham, Elasthampton Easton, Edgartown, Egremont, Enfield, Erving, Essex, . Everett,' Fairhaven, Fall River, Falmouth, Fitchburg, Florida, Foxborough, Framingham, Franklin, Freetown, Gardner, Gay Head, . Georgetown, Gill, Gloucester, . Goshen, Gosnold, 241 52 317 272 112 240 163 no 161 303 298 95 322 77 264 309 29 74 46 223 276 280 312 157 5 261 197 255 274 153 343 224 45 234 61 344 Henry Harrigan, VVm. L. Harris, Alpheus P. Baker, constable, P. O. South Dennis. Ralph Earle, ...... W. L. Church John Breagy, ...... Frank H. Gunther, chief fire department, F. A. Putnam, Archie W. Swallow, . . . . Fred. B. Knapp Loren A. Flagg, chief fire department, P. O. Elmwood. E. J. Speight, W. Horton Nickerson, road surveyor, Frank P. Newkirk, tree warden, John Baldwin, chief fire department, North Easton. Manuel Roberts, ..... Frank W. Bradford, Great Barrington, R. F. D. No. 3. Chas. W. Felton, Chas. H. Holmes, P. O. Farley, Otis O. Story, tree warden, Albert C. Aiken, ..... William Mulligan, tree warden, Herbert N. Lawrence Geo. H. Hastings, E. L. Jeffries, North Adams, R. F. D. No. 3. Ernest A. White, chief fire department, . Josiah S. Williams, P. O. Nobscot, . Ed. S. Cook, dealer in wood and lumber, Andrew M. Hathaway, P. O. Assonet, . Geo. S. Hodgman Leander B. Smalley, Menemsha, . Clinton J. Eaton, ..... Lewis C. Munn Sydney F. Haskell, Essex Avenue, Sydney F. Packard, Williamsburg, R. F. D. No. 2. Harold S. Veeder. P. O. Cuttyhunk, George A. Phillips. H. H. Sears. D. F. Lane. Walter E. Carpenter. Harold McKenzie. Thomas F. Carrick. Joseph N. O'Kane. James A. Davis. Henry A. Fish. Benjamin Taylor. N. P. Clark. R. W. Melendy. Theodore S. Wim- penny. Otis O. Story. James Davidson. Geo. W. King. Wm. Mulligan. W. B. Bosworth. Geo. H. Hastings. Samuel J. Johnston. N. I. Bowditch. John N. Stobbert. Gilbert M. Nichols. T. W. Danforth L. B. Smalley. Clinton J. Eaton. Herbert J. Worth. • No forest area. 252 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con. Town on City. Badge No. Forest Warden. Local Moth Superintendent. Grafton, Granby, Granville, Great Barrin Greenfield, Greenwich, Groton, Groveland, Hadley, Halifax, Hamilton, Hampden, Hancock, Hanover, Hanson, Hardwick, Harvard, Harwich, Hatfield, Haverhill, Hawley, Heath, Hingham, Hinsdale, Holbrook, Holden, Holland, Holliston, Holyoke, Hopedale, Hopkinton, Hubbard.ston Hudson, Hull, . Huntington, Hyde Park, Ipswich, 125 79 91 25 44 327 167 225 66 299 222 97 9 295 296 141 152 319 05 216 48 36 289 15 247 136 101 202 85 328 201 149 199 329 70 330 223 Sumner F. Leonard, C. N. Rust Lawrence F. Henry, Dan W. Flynn, 54 Russell Street, Wm. A. Ames, tree warden, Wm. H. Walker, P. O. Greenwich Village, Jas. B. Harrington, chief fire department, Sydney E. Johnson, 311 Center Street, . Edward P. West, tree warden, Edwin H. Vaughn, ..... Fred Berry, P. O. Essex, R. F. D., John S. Swenson, ..... Chas. F. Tucker Chas. E. Damon, P. O. Box 113, North Hanover. Albert L. Dame, tree warden, P. O. South Hanson. Myron N. Ayers Benjamin J. Priest, .... John Condon, ...... John M. Strong, P. O. West Hatfield, . John B. Gordon, chief fire department, Ernest R. Sears, tree warden, P. O. Charle- mont. S. G. Benson Geo. Gushing, chief fire department, Lewis B. Breague, tree warden, E. W. Austin, Henry E. Holt, O. F. Howlett, P. O. Southbridge, R. F. D. No. 2. Waldo E. Coolidge Chas. C. Hastings, ..... Walter F. Durgin, superintendent of parks. R. I. Frail Ernest A. Young, tree warden, Fred W. Trowbridge, chief fire depart- ment. Smith F. Sturgis, tree warden, P. O. AUerton. Daniel B. Mack Harry G. Higbee, . Augustus J. Barton, Chas. K. Despeau. Wm. A. Ames. Joseph F. Bateman. Raymond B. Larive. Frank D. Lyon. Erie G. Brewer. Lyman Russell. A. L. Dame. Geo. C. Maynard. John H. Drum. Geo. F. Moore. Arthur W. Young. Wm. Hay don. H. E. Holt. Geo. H. Moody. Walter F. Durgin. F. F. Baldwin. Ernest A. Young. Frederick P. Hosmer. John Knowles. Harry G. Higbee. James A. Morey. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 253 List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con. Town or City. Badge No. Forest Warden. Local Moth Superintendent. Kingston, Lakcvillo, Lancaster, Lanesborougl Lawrence, Lee, Leicester, Lenox, Leominster, Levcrett, Lexington, Leyden, Lincoln, Littleton, Longmeadow Lowell, . Ludlow, Lunenburg, Lynn, . Lynnfield, Maiden, Manchester, Mansfield, Marblehead, Marion, Marlborough, Marshfield, Mashpee, Mattapoisctt Maynard, Medfield, Medford, Med way, Melrose, Mendon, Merrimac, Methuen, 301 2S3 151 10 214 22 122 18 155 57 188 38 187 170 94 165 88 156 331 209 191 236 263 332 306 198 292 313 281 184 252 192 254 119 227 213 Arthur B. Holmes, Nathan F. Washburn, P. O. Middlebor- ough. Everett M. Hawkins, chief fire depart- ment. King D. Keeler, . . . Chas. G. Rutter, chief fire department, . Jas. W. Bossidy, Chas. White, P. O. Cherry Valley, . Geo. W. Fitch Fred A. Russell Orman C. Marvel Azor P. Howe, ..... Herma W. Severance, P. O. Bernardston, Edwin R. Farrer, tree warden, A. E. Hopkins, Oscar C. Pomeroy, Edward S. Hosmer, chief fire department, Edward E. Chapman, . . . . Clayton E. Stone Nathan M. Hawkes, park commissioner, Thos. E. Cox, P. O. Wakefield, R. F. D., Frank Turner, chief fire department, Frederick Burnham, . . . . flerbert E. King Wm. H. Stevens, . . . . . Geo. B. Nye, Chas. H. Andrews, chief fire department, Edward E. Ames, Joseph A. Peters, Everett C. Stetson, . . . . Arthur J. Coughlan, Maynard's block, . Waldo E. Kingsbury, chief fire depart- ment. Chas. Bacon, chief fire department, Clyde C. Hunt, captain fire department. Geo. B. Cromb, Edgar P. Sargent, . Herbert B. Nichols, Carl C. Faunce. S. T. Nelson. Geo. F. Morse, Jr. Isaac Kcllcy. J. H. Woodhcad. S. R. Walker. E. P. Merriam. Edw. R. Farrer. Alfred Hopkins. Chas. A. Whittet. Myron E. Harvey. Albert C. Doak. Alfred W. Copeland. George W. Stiles. John D. Morrison. W. O. Sweet. Wm. H. Stevens, 2d. James H. Morss. Timothy J. Brennan. P. R. Livermore. Watson F. Hammond. Geo. E. Barrows. Albert Coughlan. Geo. L. L. Allen. Wm. J. Gannon. Frank Hager. John J. McCuUough. Frank M. Aldrich. Chas. R. Ford. Alfred H. Wagland. 254 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con. Town or City. No. Forest Warden. Local Moth Superintendent. Middloborough, Middlefield, . Middleton, Milford, Millbury, Millis, . Milton, . Monroe, Monson, Montague, Monterey, Montgomery, Mt. Washington, Nantucket, . Nahant, Natick, Needham, New Ashford, New Bedford. New Braintree, New Marlborough, New Salem, . Newbury, Newburyport, Newton, Norfolk, North Adams, North Andover, N. Attleborough, North Brookfield North Reading, Northampton, Northborough, Northbridge, Northfield, . Norton, Norwell , 284 342 211 127 124 253 242 34 98 53 28 82 30 333 204 238 6 277 131 32 55 231 230 205 256 4 215 262 129 175 72 140 117 40 266 290 C. W. Weston Thos. H. Fleming, P. O. Bancroft, Oscar H. Sheldon, . Elbert M. Crockett, chief fire depart- ment. Wm. E. Horn, Chas. La Croix, ..... Nathaniel T. Kidder, park commissioner, S. R. Tower Omer E. Bradway, Fred W. Lyman, lumber dealer, J. H. Bills, Frank C. Preston, P. O. Huntington, . Ira L. Patterson, ..... Albert R. Coffin Thos. Roland Wm. E. Daniels Howard H. Upham, chief fire depart- ment. Wm. E. Baker Edward F. Dahill, chief fire department, E. L. Havens, ...... Jas. McLaughlin, P. O. Mill River, . Rawson King, P. O. Cooleyville, . Wm. P. Bailey Chas. P. Kelley Walter B. Randlett, chief fire department, P. O. West Newton. Andrew R. Jones, ..... H. J. Montgomery, chief fire department, Geo. A. Rea, ...... Harvey W. Tufts, chief fire department, Harold A. Foster Irving F. Batchelder, .... Frederick E. Chase, .... T. P. Haskell W. E. Burnap, P. O. Whitinsville, . Fred. W. Doane, Alden G. Walker, John Whalen, . . . . B. T. McGlauflin. Patrick F. Fitzgerald. Edw. F. Roach. Fred Holland. Nathaniel T. Kidder. Geo. M. Winslow. Thomas Roland. H. H. Hunnewell. Ernest E. Riley. Chas. F. Lawton. O. B. Tarbox. Chas. P. Kelley. Chas. I. Bucknam. C. Albert Murphy. Peter Holt. F. P. Toner. Samuel D. Colburn. Geo. E. Eaton. T. P. Haskell. Arthur F. Whitiu. Owen G. Walker. John H. Sparrell. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. Zoo List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con, Town or City. Badge No. Forest Warden. Local Moth Superintendent. Norwood, 250 J. Fred Boyden, chief fire department, . H. Frank Winslow. Oak Bluffs, 334 Frank W. Chase Patrick P. Hurley. Oakham, 135 Chas. H. Trowbridge Chas. H. Trowbridge. Orange, 47 Frank M. Jennison, .... F. M. Jennison. Orleans, 321 Chas. F. Poor Albert A. Smith. Otis, 27 Chester R. Cromwell, .... - Oxford, . 335 T. M. Harrington, Chas. G. Larned. Palmer, Pax ton. 89 130 James Summers, chief fire department, P. O. Box 333. Fred A. Durgin, C. H. Keith. Louis M. Robinson. Peabody, 219 Michael V. McCarthy, Forest Street, James F. Callahan. Pelham, 68 E. A. Harris, P. O. Amherst, - Pembroke, 294 Jos. J. Shepherd, Calvin S. West. Pepperell, 160 Geo. G. Tarbell, P. 0. East Pepperell, . John Tune. Peru, . 16 John Frizell - Petersham, 148 Geo. P. Marsh Frank A. Hathaway. Phillipston, Pittsfield, 106 13 Wm. Cowlbeck, P. 0. Athol, R. F. D. No. 3. Lucien D. Hazard, Wm. H. L. Coulbeck. Plainville, . 59 Edward C. Barney, .... Chas. N. Snell. Plainfield, 309 Lestan E. Parker -. Plymouth, 302 Herbert Morissey, Abbott A. Raymond. Plympton, 300 Thomas W. Blanchard David Bricknell. Prescott, 69 Waldo H. Pierce, P. O. Greenwich Village, - Princeton, 150 W. A. Williams Frank A. Skinner. Provincetown , 325 James H. Barnett John M. Burch. Quincy, 243 Peter J. Williams, chief fire department. Andrew J. Stewart. Randolph, 248 Chas. A. Wales, chief fire department, . James E. Blanche. Raynham, 270 John V. Festing, chief fire department, . Geo. M. Leach. Reading, 176 Herbert E. Mclntire Henry M. Donegan. Rehoboth, 268 Silas A. Pierce, Stephen W. Robinson. Revere,' - - Geo. P. Babson. Richmond, 17 T. B. Salmon - Rochester, 282 Wm. N. Smellie Chester B. Morse. Rockland, 288 John H. Burke, clerk fire board. Frank H. Shaw. Rockport, 235 A. J. McFarland, P. O. Box 91, Frank A. Babcock. Rowe, . 35 Merritt A. Peck, - Rowley, 232 Daniel O'Brien Daniel O'Brien. Royalston, 102 Willard W. White, P. O. South Royalston, W. W. White. ' No forest area. 256 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Vuh. Doc. List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con. Town or Citt. Badge No. Forest Warden. Local Moth Superintendent. Russell, Rutland, Salem,' . Salisbury, Sandisfiold, Sandwich, Saugus, Savoy, . Scituate, Seekonk, Sharon, Sheffield, Shelburne, Sherborn, Shirley, Shrewsbury, Shutesbury, Somerset, Somerville,' South Hadlcy Southampton Southborough Southbridge, Southwick, Spencer, Springfield, Sterling, Stockbridgc, Stoneham, Stoughton, Stow, Sturbridge, Sudbury, Sunderland, Sutton, Swampscott, Swansea, 83 143 229 33 314 207 8 291 267 251 31 43 203 168 132 58 336 78 76 337 109 92 121 86 144 21 190 258 183 108 185 338 116 339 273 Sidney F. .Shurtleff, highway surveyor, . Henry Converse, chief fire department, . Wm. H. Evans Lyman H. Clark, P. O. New Boston, John F. Carleton, P. O. Spring Hill, Ole C. Christiansen, . . . . Herbert H. Fitzroy, P. O. Savoy Center, Ernest R. Seaverns, chief fire depart- ment. John L. Barker, P. O. Attleborough, R. F. D. No. 4. A. A. Carpenter, . . . . . Arthur H. Tuttle H. O. Fiske, P. O. Shelburne Falls, Milo F. Campbell, South Sherborn, Melvin W. Longley, P. O. Shirley Csntre, Wm. E. Rice Minor A. Haskell, Wm. F. Griffiths, Swansea, R. F. D., . Joseph Beach, P. O. South Hadley Falls, Geo. W. Tyler Harry Burnett, tree warden, . Aimee Langevin, Olney Avenue, Lowell A. Mason, .... A. F. Howlett, chief fire department. Burton Steere, assistant fire chief, . G. F. Herbert Geo. Schneyer, P. O. Glendale, Geo. E. Sturtevant, chief fire department Jesse E. Smith, .... Wm. H. Parker, P. O. Gleasondale, Chas. M. Clark, P. O. Fiskdale, . F.E.Bent, ..... A. C. Warner, ..... R. W. Richardson, .... Geo. P. Cahoon, chief fire department Thos. L. Mason, R. F. D. No. 2, . H. Edw. Wheeler. Amos Stillman. Henry C. Rich. B. F. Deni-son. Thos. E. Berrctt. Percival S. Brown. Harold F. Thompson. T. J. Leary. J. P. Dowse. A. A. Adams. Frank L. Ott. Chas. Riley. Asa B. Pritchard. Harry Burnett. Joseph Proulx. Geo. H. Ramer. Wm. F. Gale. Jos. H. Kilbourn. Geo. M. Jefts. Wm. P. Kennedy. Geo. A. Patterson. Wm. E. Baldwin. John E. Gifford. Everett P. Mudge. E. C. Gardner. ' No forest area. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 257 List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth, Superintendents — Con. Town on City. Badge No. Forest Warden. Local Moth Superintendent. Taunton, Templet on, Tewksbury, Tisbury, Tolland, Topsfield, Townsend, Truro, . Tyngsborough, Tyringham, Upton, . Uxbridge, Wakefield, Wales, . Walpole, Walt ham. Ware, Wareham, Warren, Warwick, Washington, Watertown, Wayland, Webster, Wellesley, Wellfleet. Wendell, Wenham, West Boylston, West Bridgewater West Brookfield, West Newbury, West Springfield, West Stockbridge West Tisbury, Westborough, Westfield, . 269 107 364 310 90 218 159 324 162 26 126 113 208 100 340 195 75 305 119 41 19 206 196 111 239 323 54 221 137 285 128 226 341 20 307 133 84 Fred. A. Leonard, chief fire department, Henry H. Seaver, P. O. Baldwinville, Herbert W. Pillsbury, . Elmer C. Chadwick, Eugene M. Moore, . Geo. F. .\verill, F. J. Piper, chief fire department, Naylor Hatch, Otis L. Wright, Geo. F. Knapp, E. M. Baker, chief fire department Louis F. Rawson, . Samuel T. Parker, . W. W. Eager Horace A. Spear, Jr., Geo. L. Johnson, chief fire department, L. S. Charbonneau, P. O. Box 25, A. C. Keyes, .... Joseph St. George, . Chas. A. Williams, . Geo. Messenger, R. F. D., Becket, John C. Ford, tree warden, Clarence S. Williams, Cochituate, Arthur G. Pattison, Fletcher M. Abbott, tree warden, Edwin P. Cook, Geo. A. Lewis, Jacob D. Barnes, tree warden, Frank H. Baldwin, agent Metropolitan Water Board. Warren P. Laughton, J.H.Webb Silas M. Titcomb, P. O. Byfield, A. A. Sibley Bernard Manning, . , Wm. J. Botch, James H. McDonald, chief fire depart- ment. Geo. H. Byers, chief fire department, Arnold Street. Alvaro Harnden. John B. Wheeler. Harris M. Briggs. Presbury S. Luce. C. W. Floyd. Geo. E. King. Joseph H. Atwood. Howard E. Noble. Geo. H. Evans. H. T. Newell. W. W. Whittredge. Philip R. Allen. Warren M. Ryan. Fred E. Zeissig. J. J. Walsh. Alfred A. Warriner. John C. Ford. Daniel Graham. Carl Klebart. Fletcher M. Abbott. Everett S. Jacobs. Jacob D. Barnes. Chas. H. Baldwin. Octave Bel more. Robert J. Forsj'the. John Pease. Walter Sullivan. 258 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con, Town or City. Badge No. Forest Warden. Local Moth Superintendent. Westford, Westhampton, Westminster, Weston, West port. West wood, Weymouth, Whately, Whitman, Wilbraham, Williamsburg, Williamstown, Wilmington, . Winchendon, Winchester, . Windsor, Winthrop,' . Woburn, Worcester, Worthington, Wrentham, . Yarmouth, . 166 71 154 186 279 251 245 56 297 96 64 2 174 103 189 12 177 131 62 260 316 John A. Healey, P. O. Graniteville, Levi Burt, .... John C. Goodridge, chief fire depart- ment. Edward P. Ripley, Herbert A. Sanford, . . . . Percy R. Dean, . . . . . J. R. Walsh, East Weymouth, James A. Wood, Clarence A. Randall, tree warden, . Henry I. Edson, P. O. North Wilbraham, Howard C. Pomeroy Daniel Hogan, . . . . . Joseph M. Hill, chief fire department. North Wilmington. Arthur L. Brown, chief fire department, . Irving L. Symmes, chief fire department, H. W. Ford Frank E. Tracy, chief fire department, Arthur V. Parker, .... Howard C. Brewster, E. S. Stone, captain fire department, Seth Taylor Harry L. Nesmith. Stillman Whitney. Edw. P. Ripley. Jonathan B. Hicks. C. H. Southerland. Chas. L. Merritt. Clarence A. Randall. Oliver McGrane. John G. Folsora. Samuel S. Symmes. Frank W. Tucker. James H. Kelley. Harold J. Neale. Wm. M. Gilmore. Chas. R. Bassett. > No forest area. New Legislation. The following new legislation, relative to forestry matters, was enacted by the last General Court. As the liberation of fire balloons during seasons of drought has been the cause of several c-xtrciiicly damaging forest fires during the past few years, and as their continued use would be a constant menace to property in the future, it seemed imperative that legislation should be enacted which would eliminate this danger. The following law was therefore passed : — A view of the State Forester's exhil)it ou tlie better larmiuj,'- electric train. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 259 Acts of 1910, Chapter 141. An Act to prohibit the Use of Fire Balloons. Be it enacted, etc., as follows: It shall be unlawful within any city or town in this commonwealth for any person to liberate or fly fire balloons of any description. Who- ever violates this act shall be punished by a fine of not more than one hundred dollars, or by imprisonment for not more than one month, or by both such fine and imprisonment. [Ajjproved March 2, 1910. The enactment of the following law will undoubtedly result in lessening the number and size of forest fires, by stimulating a desire on the part of many towns to adopt reasonable preven- tive measures, and to provide proper apparatus to extinguish fires when they do occur. This law is dealt with more in detail in the chapter devoted to forest fires. Acts of 1910, Chapter 398. An Act relative to Protection against Forest Fires. Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. Every town in the commonwealth with a valuation of one million five hundred thousand dollars or less which appropriates and expends money, with the approval of the state forester, for apparatus to be used in preventing or extinguishing forest fires or for making protective belts or zones as a defence against forest fires, shall be enti- tled, upon the recommendation of the state forester, approved by the governor, to receive from the treasury of the commonwealth a sum equal to one half of the said expenditure, but no town shall receive more than two himdred and fifty dollars. Section 2. A sum not exceeding five thousand dollars in any one year may be expended in carrying out the provisions of this act. Section 3, This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved April 13, 1910. So numerous have been forest fires in Barnstable and Plym- outh counties within the past few years, the cause of which in many cases has been attributed to the carelessness and indiffer- ence of berry pickers and camping parties, that many prominent citizens of those counties petitioned for legislation which, if properly enforced, would serve to lessen the danger of fire from the above-named source. The following law was therefore enacted : — 260 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Acts of 1910, Chapter 478. An Act relative to the Picking of Berries and Flowers and to Camping and Picnicking during Certain Months in the Coun- ties OP Barnstable and Plymouth. Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. It shall be unlawful for any unnaturalized, foreign-born person to pick wild berries or flowers, or to camp or picnic, upon any land of which he is not the owner, within the counties of Barnstable and Plymouth, between the first day of April and the first day of December, without first obtaining written permission so to do from the owner or owners of the land. The Said written permit shall not be transferable, and shall be exhibited upon demand to the forest warden, or his depu- ties, of the town wherein the land is located, or upon demand of any sheriff, constable, police officer or other officer authorized to arrest for crime. Failure or refusal to produce said permit upon such demand shall be prima facie evidence of a violation of this act, and any forest "warden or any duly authorized deputy forest warden, police officer, sheriff or other officer authorized to arrest for crime, may arrest with- out warrant any person who fails or refuses to display for inspection the said permit upon the demand of any of the oflficials named in this act. Section 2. Whoever violates any provision of this act shall be pun- ished by a fine of not more than fifty dollars, or by imprisonment for not more than thirty days, or by both such fine and imprisonment. [Approved May 3, 1910. In response to the suggestion made by Governor Draper in his inaugural address, as well as the recommendation contained in the annual report of the State Forester, the law relative to the suppression of the gypsy and brown-tail moths was so amended as to make the ofSce of local moth superintendent appointive rather than elective, and the appointees subject to the approval of the State Forester. The object of this legis- lation was to insure the appointment of thoroughly competent men to have charge of this important woi-k in the cities and towns of the Commonwealth. The amendment was as fol- lows : — No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 261 Acts of 1910, Chapter 150. An Act relative to the Appointment of Local Superintendents FOR the Suppression of the Gypsy and Brown Tail Moths. Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. Section four of chapter three hundred and eighty-one of the acts of the year nineteen hundred and five, as amended by section two of chapter two hundred and sixty-eight of the acts of the year nine- teen hundred and six, and by section one of chapter five hundred and twenty-one of the acts of the year nineteen hundred and seven, is hereby further amended by striking out at the beginning thereof, the words " Cities and towns by such public officer or board as they shall designate or appoint, shall under the advice and general direction of said super- intendent ", and inserting in place thereof the words : — The mayor and aldermen in cities and the selectmen in towns shall annually in the month of March or April appoint a local superintendent for the sup- pression of gypsy and brown tail moths. Said superintendent shall, under the advice and general direction of the state forester, — also by inserting after the word " herein ", in the eighth line, the words : — The appointment of a local superintendent shall not take effect unless approved by the state forester, and when so approved, notice of the appointment shall be given by the mayor and aldermen or the selectmeu to the person so appointed, — so that the first paragraph of said section as amended will read as follows : — Section 4. The mayor and aldermen in cities and the selectmen in towns shall annually in the month of March or April appoint a local superintendent for the suppression of gj"psy and brown tail moths. Said superintendents shall, under the advice and general direction of the state forester, destroy the eggs, cater- pillars, pupae and nests of the gypsy and brown tail moths within their limits, except in parks and other property under the control of the com- monwealth, and except in private property, save as otherwise provided herein. The appointment of a local superintendent shall not take effect unless approved by the state forester, and when so approved, notice of the appointment shall be given by the mayor and aldermen or the select- men to the person so appointed. When any city or town shall have expended within its limits city or town funds to an amount in excess of five thousand dollars in any one fiscal year, in suppressing gypsy or brown tail moths, the commonwealth shall reimburse such city or town to the extent of fifty per cent of such excess above said five thou- sand dollars. Section 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved March 2, 1910. 262 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. In order to legalize the acceptance by the State Forester, on behalf of the Commonwealth, of bequests or gifts made for the purpose of promoting forestry in Massachusetts, the following law was enacted : — Acts of 1910, Chapter 153. An Act to authorize the State Forester to accept Bequests or Gifts on Behalf of the Commonwealth. Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. The state forester, with the approval of the governor and council, is hereby authorized to accept, on behalf of the commonwealtli, bequests or gifts to be used for the jiurpose of advancing the forestry interests of the commonwealth, under the direction of the governor and council, in such manner as to carry out the terms of the bequest or gift. Section 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved March 3, 1910. An act was passed to provide funds for carrying on the gypsy and brown-tail moth work, and for experimenting with parasites for destroying said moths, as follows : — Acts of 1910, Chapter 234. An Act making Appropriations for the Suppression of the Gypsy and Brown Tail Moths. Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. The sums hereinafter mentioned are appropriated, to be paid out of the treasury of the commonwealth from (he ordinary reve- nue, for the purposes specified, to wit : — For the suppression of the gypsy and brown tail moths in the year nmeteen hundred and ten, and for expenses incidental thereto, a sum not exceeding one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, the same to be in addition to any amount heretofore appropriated for this purpose. For experimenting with parasites or natural enemies for destroying said moths, and for expenses incident thereto, a sum not exceeding fif- teen thousand dollars, in addition to any unexpended balance of a for- mer appropriation for this purpose. Section 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved March 18, 1910. Acknowledgments. It gives the State Forester great pleasure to acknowledge the continued valuable services and loyal support which he has re- ceived through his assistants and workers in this department, No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 2G3 whether it be in the office or field work, throughout the year. The work on the part of all has been enthusiastically and will- ingly undertaken. All of the members of the staff are entitled to the greatest possible credit for their efficient services. He also desires to express his great appreciation of the gener- ous treatment and kindly assistance rendered him by all citizens, boards and officials with whom he has come in contact, and again to emphasize the kindly co-operation on the part of the United States government through Dr. L. O. Howard of the Bureau of Entomology and Mr. D. M. Rogers, field agent ; also of Harvard University, through Dean W. C. Sabine and the departments represented on the co-operative scientific staff. Steam Railroad " Farming Special " Train. The needs of better farming methods and a much greater pro- duction from farming lands are receiving much attention all over this country. Here in our own State this feeling has been materially augmented during the past year through the earnest endeavors of the State Forester, the State Board of Agriculture and the Massachusetts Agricultural College, aided by the Boston & Albany Railroad, to exploit the opportunities that exist for land owners of the Old Bay State. In line with this movement, the Boston & Albany Railroad ran a " Better Farming Special " over its road March 30 and 31 and April 1 and 2, consisting of five observation cars, fully equipped with exhibits representing every branch of agriculture and forestry. The " Better Farming Special " visited the following cities and towns : — Wednesday, March 30. — Westfielcl; Pittsfield; Cheshire; North Adams, Thursday, March 31. — Chester; Springfield; Enfield; New Salem; Athol, Friday, April 1. — Templeton; Barre Plains; Ware; Palmer; East Brookfield, Saturday, April 2. — Worcester; Westborough ; South Framingham; Milford. At each place the special was met by hundreds of farmers, who in many instances had driven miles to enjoy the privilege of 264 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. listening to the lectures ou the niauj' themes relating to farming, as given by the representatives of the Massachusetts Agricultural College and the State Board of Agriculture; also, the develop- ment of forestry and the work of suppressing the gypsy and brown-tail moths, as presented by the State Forester and his assistants. At some of the stations were gathered whole schools, in charge of their teachers, and great interest was shown by them in both the lectures and the exhibits. One entire car was devoted to forestry, under the direction of the State Forester, and included in the exhibits were the fol- lowing : — Pine seedlings, varying in age from one to three years. Photographs showing modern and approved methods of foresti*y management and reforestation work. Photographs showing fires, and damage done by same. Complete equipment for forest-fire fighting. Living gypsy moth caterpillars. Living brown-tail moth caterijillars. Mounted specimens showing the life history of the gypsy and brown- tail moths. A large collection of parasites, such as have been imported from abroad. Living Calosoma beetles. Several species of native predaceous beetles of the gypsy moth. Photographs showing different methods used in moth-suppression work. Photographs of apparatus used in moth-suppression work. Trees showing the proper method of treating cavities by tin patching. Oak tree, showing brown-tail moth webs in their winter stage. Living egg parasites. Specimens of many other insects of economic importance. The forest-fire wagon, desig-ned and equipped under the direction of the State Forester, attracted much attention and received favorable comment from scoi'es of town officials, who manifested a great deal of interest in the forest-fire problem. Another feature of the State Forester's exhibit which created widespread interest was the living specimens of the gypsy and brown-tail moth caterpillars, which gave to hundreds of people their first opportunity to see these dangerous insect pests. Evenine; meetings were held at North Adams, Athol and No. 4.J REPOrxT OF STATE FORESTER. 265 Worcester, and large and enthusiastic audiences were addressed by leading men on agricultural and allied topics. The enterprise from start to finish was declared a pronounced success, and without doubt proved to be a valuable factor in stimulating and advancing the farming and forestry interests of Massachusetts. Electric Railroad " Farming Special '" Train. So marked was the value of the exhibition to the farming in- terests of the territory traversed by the Boston & Albany special that the officials of the New England Investment and Security Company, which controls between nine hundred and one thou- sand miles of trolley lines in western Massachusetts, immediately tendered the Agricultural College and State department, with- out expense, every facility and convenience which they had to offer in running a trolley special over their lines in sections of the State not covered by the former trip. In accordance with this plan, on April 14 four cars, equipped in practically the same manner as those of the Boston & Albany special, left Amherst on a three-days tour of education. The itinerary was as follows: — Thursday, April 14. — South Iladley ; Russell ; Huntington ; Spring- field. Frklaij, April 15. — North Wilbraham; Brimfleld; Sturbridge; Charl- ton Center. Saturday, April 16. — Oxford; Holden ; Sterling; Worcester. Much enthusiasm and interest greeted the special at every stop. At South Iladley nearly three hundred students of Mt. Holyoke College attended the demonstrations and enjoyed the lectures. A splendid agricultural rally was held at Springfield on the evening of the 14th, under the auspices of the Springfield Board of Trade, where over five hundred business men listened to an address by President Butterfield of the Massachusetts Agricul- tural College, in which he in) pressed upon them the importance of co-operation in advancing the interests of commercial farming in our State. 266 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. This was undoubtedly the first trolley " farming special " ever attempted in this country, and its success proves that a grand service can by this means be rendered agricultural educa- tion in the future. Publications of the State Foeestek. It has been the aim of the office to publish as rapidly as pos- sible such information as our people desire regarding forestry in its various phases. As requests came in, the department has anticipated the requirements, and has written bulletins which give in a practical and workable way detailed information, so that our people will not lack for guidance in actually accom- plishing something, if they are so inclined. At present we have a list of bulletins which cover fairly well the general information most likely to be required. By being able to furnish a bulletin which goes more into detail than is pos- sible in a letter, the State Forester can do himself great justice. We do not attempt sending out the whole list of bulletins unless specially requested to do so. or unless we feel sure that they are likely to be appreciated and used. The department has a mailing list of about 3,000 names of those who have shown some special interest in forestry. The mailing list is revised occasionally by writing and asking if the bulletins are still desired. Two publications issued by the State Forester were so eagerly sought after that the Legislature believed it advisable that they be sold at cost; hence they are the only exceptions in the list. These are especially valuable in the identification of trees and in school work. The list of publications of the department follows : — *1. Forest Trees of Massachusetts: how you may know them. A Pocket ManuaL *2. The Study of Trees in our Primary Schools. 3. Massachusetts Wood-using Industries. 4. The Evergreens. 'Methods of Study in Public Schools. 5. Re-foi-estation in Massachusetts. 6. How and when to collect White Pine Seed. 7. Forest mensuration of the White Pine. ITow to estimafe Standing Timber. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 2G7 8. How to make Improvement Tliiiming-s. 9. We must stop Forest Fires in Massachusetts. 10. Forest fire-fighting Equipment in our Towns. 11. The Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths. 12. The Annual Report of the State Forester. 13. Laws relating to Forestry, and the Suppression of the Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths. 14. Colored Plates of the Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths and Calosoma Beetle. 15. Suggestions in Regard to Municipal Forests: a Practical Example. [Note. — Under the resolves authorizing their publication, the two bulletins marked * must be sold by the State Forester at a price not less than their cost. Thus, the price of " Forest Trees of Massachusetts : how you may know them," is 5 cents a copy at the office, 6 Beacon Street. Boston, or 2 cents extra by mail; and of '' The Study of Trees in our Primary Schools," 12 cents a copy, or 8 cents extra by mail. Any other bulletins in the list may be obtained at the office, or will be mailed upon request without cost.] 268 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. GENERAL FORESTRY. Examinations of Woodland. The examination of private woodland for owners requesting such examination, one of the oldest branches of our work, has been carried on as in former years, and the even distribution over the whole year of the applications for such examinations, without extra solicitation on the part of this office, seems to indicate a steady and healthy interest on the part of the owners (jf this class of land. The work, as was explained last year, consists usually of a visit to the land in company with the owner or some other interested person, advice as to treatment given verbally on the ground, and often a subsequent written report. This year an attempt has been made to keep in closer touch with examinees and the manner in which the recommendations of the office are carried out, by making a personal inspection, usually at a time when in the locality on other business. In this way owners were made to feel that an interest was being taken in their work, and in every case the office has felt well repaid by the results. It has not been possible to make such inspections in large numbers, partly because the work was not begun till well along in the year, and partly because only those owners are visited where it is felt that enough time has elapsed to make the visit profitable. Enough has been done, however, to prove the advan- tages of the plan, and it is intended to push the work steadily during the coming season. The following table gives a list of the examinations made, their location and area. A table of costs will be found at the end of this section of the report. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 269 Owner. Town. Area (Acres). Allen, P. R Bent, F. E., Borden, N. E Boston & Northern Street Railway, Brayton, A. P Brochu.J. E., Burnett, H., trustee, ...... Chandler, J. F Creamer, F Cummings, W. O., Gushing, J. S., Dewar, D. W Eddy, Mary B Emerson, Dr. A. W., ...... Fitchburg Water Board Forrest, W. P., Fowle, D. H Fuller, W. A Fuller, W. A FuUer, W. A Gerrish, Isabel F., Green, F. C Harriman, C. S Holmes, E.B Home, W. N Hunnewell, H. H Jones, J. L., Lawrence, LP Mahoney, T. J., Main, F. H Manning, W., Massachusetts Agricultural College, branch farm, Minns, Susan, Minot, W Morey, E Nelaon, H. W Pickman, D. L Robinson, C. E., Sawyer, A. H., Sears, Julia M., Walpole, Sudbury, South Framingliam, Groveland, . Somerset, Attleborough, Hopkinton, Tyngsborough, . Peru, . Tyngsborough, . Norwood, Carlisle, Newton, Norwood, . Westminster and Fitchbun Foxborough, Newbury, . Clinton, Harvard, Bolton, Ashland, Bourne and Plymouth, North Wilmington, Abington, . Foxborough, Natick, Halifax, Ashburnham, Warehara, . Lanesborough, Marion, Sandwich, . Princeton, . Ware ham, . Ashland, Marshfield, . Bedford, Hinsdale, Salisbury, . Tyngsborough, 5 30 60 38 13 100 116 10 40 10 40 10 100 400 22 30 49 107 128 47 400 4 30 32 250 1,400 200 200 400 20 127 50 20 43 400 800 30 30 270 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Rub. Doc. Owner. Town. Area (Acres). Seavey, H., . Simmons, H. F., Stevens, E. A., Stevens, H. H., Tenney, C. H., Tracy, Harriet E. Webber, F. S., White, J. H., . Willets, H., . Total, Canton, Hanover, Duxbury, . Marlborough, Methuen, Peru, . South Hadley, . Bridgewater, New Marlborough, 125 10 40 30 75 175 10 25 200 6,495 In all, 17 inspections have been made, with an aggregate area of 1,080 acres: — Owner. Bird.C. S.. . . . , Bridgman, H. A., Burbank Hospital, Burgess, J. K., Codman, Catherine, Emery, Miss M. E., Fisher, Lewis N., . Fiske, Warren, Holmes, E. B., Hutchins, C. L., . Joslin, E. P Needham Water Board, Plympton, Mrs. A. L., . Prescott, C. W., . Stevens, Chas., Thorndike, R. K., Walpole High School, . Town. Area (Acres). Walpole, Shirley, Fitchburg, . Dedham, Dedham, West Newbury, Walpole, Harvard, Abington, . Concord, Oxford, Needham, . Dover, Concord, Sudbury, Millis, . Walpole, 60 15 400 50 18 55 7 200 30 25 100 5 10 60 5 20 20 Woodland Management. The forestry department wishes to lay especial emphasis on another recent development of its work ; namely, management of private woodlands by the owner, under the continuons super- No. 4.] KEPOUT OF STATE FORESTER. 271 vision of this office. Under this plan, several private owners are this winter carrying on regular thinning improvement cut- ting, fire-line making and other forestry operations, under the more or less regular instruction and general supervision of a forestry assistant. In one instance, that of the Burbank Hospital, treated more fully elsewhere, a regular lumbering operation was completed. In any case the plan is doubly advantageous, both to the owner and the office, in that it is made possible for such owners to employ the same men used by the reforestation department in its spring planting, thus getting the profit of experienced labor at the same price that would have to be paid for inferior work- men ; while at the same time the office is pleased to offer its men continuous employment, instead of losing all trace of them im- mediately at the close of the planting season. The owner, of course, pays all cost of the work, including travelling expenses of the expert from this office, the assistance only being given free. In addition to the advantages already indicated, there is the far-reaching one of having within the State an ever-increasing number of men, and more particularly of competent bosses, who understand not only woods work but woods work along practical forestry lines ; this body of men to act as a nucleus around which to build up an effective force for carrying out the many and increasingly difficult forestry problems which are pressing for immediate solution. Owners and towns where the work described above either is or soon will be under way are as follows : — R. B. Symmington, Plymouth, has thinned about 50 acres. Francis C. Green, Buzzard's Bay, will make fire lines, thin and pos- sibly plant. Frederick W. Burnham, Buckland, is clear-cutting and thinning about 50 acres ; will later turn over to State to plant. I. P. Lawrence, Ashburnham, is planting 25 acres and may do some thinning. It is hoped that in future we may be able to report a still further increase in this work, and one in keeping with its importance. 272 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Forest Woeking Plan for the Burbank Hospital. A year ago last spring the trustees of the Burbank Hospital asked this office to examine 250 acres of woodland belonging to the hospital. Mr. Cook, the assistant forester who made the examination, was greatly impressed with the evidence of present and future value in the land, and convinced the trustees that they should have a working plan made for the place. This was done in the fall of the same year. In this plan each type of land was carefully mapped out, and the treatment to be accorded each type was explained. In general, the report recommended the cutting of mature growth, the thinning and improving of growing stands, and the planting of such vacant land as was not needed for pasturing cattle. Three lots were selected for immediate cutting. The first was covered with a growth of mixed hard woods, — chestnut, birch, pine, beech, oak, maple and hemlock. From the standpoint of merchantable volume, chestnut and white pine were the most prominent trees, and ranged in size from 7 to 25 inches, the average being from 12 to 16 inches. The plan for cutting called for the removal of all trees over 7 inches in diameter, breast high, except a few pines which were to be left to seed the cut-over land. The merchantable trees were to be left un- injured as far as possible, limbs and tops were to be worked up into cord wood, and the rest of the slash piled and burned. Practically all the chestnut, oak, pine, birch and hemlock trees were of merchantable size, whereas the maple and beech were very generally below it. The reason for selecting this lot for immediate cutting was that it had been more or less severely injured by fire in past years, and it was feared that the trees were slowly dying. The second lot was 4 acres of heavy white pine, nearly pure. The trees averaged 15 inches in diameter, breast high, and 70 feet in height. It was estimated to run 35,000 feet to the acre, but turned out to contain much more. This lot was cut clean, with the exception of a few of the large, liniby trees, which were left to seed the cut-over land. About 8 trees to the acre, and placed as evenly as possible over the cut area, were selected for this purpose. The spreading, bushy specimens were selected as ;?»«s- .■!^^^4v Pine trees left standing for reseeding purposes, on tlie Burljank Hospital property, at Fitchl)urg. No. 4.] KEPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 273 seed trees, because they produce the most seed and at the same time are the least valuable as lumber. Here, as on the other lot, the slash was piled and burned. The third bunch of timber covered only II/2 acres, and was made up almost entirely of sprout chestnut. This lot was selected because the trees were over-mature, had decayed butts and were going back. The method of handling this work, as agreed upon by Dr. Tower, superintendent of the hospital, and Mr. Cook, was briefly as follows : — The chopping was to be done under the direct supervision of this office, and Mr. Winifred Eaton, one of our most trusted employees, was made foreman of the chopping gang. This arrangement was made because it was felt that the ordinary choppers could not be depended on to carry out the provisions of the working plan. This office looked on the job as an ex- periment in conservative logging, and was therefore anxious that everything be done in good faith. The sawing and sticking was done under contract by a Mr. Spencer, a portable-mill man. The hauling of the logs was done by the men and horses belong- ing to the hospital farm. Partly because these men were not experienced in this work, and partly because they had to pile the logs on skids, to remain until the mill was set up, the cost of logging was higher than is usual in this kind of work. The following table shows the cost of the above operation : — Operation. Total. Per 1,000 Feet. $59 50 SO 19 15 70 05 12 00 04 85 50 901 121 00 1 10' 463 50 1 53 695 75 2 30 47 60 16 888 70 2 93 Camp, material and tools, Labor on camp, Repairing old roads, Chopping 95 cords pine, at 90 cents per cord, . Chopping 110 cords hard woods, at $1.10 per cord, . Lumber, 303,000 feet, Sawing lumber, Burning brush, Logging and sticking, Total, excluding cord wood, .... ' Per cord. $2,182 75 $7 20 274 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The total product was made up of both timber logs (303,000 feet) and cord wood (205 cords). In order to get at the cost of chopping the lumber, we deducted the value of the cord wood chopping, allowing 90 cents for each of the 95 cords of pine and $1.10 for each of the 110 cords of hard wood, these being the prices current for that work in that vicinity. The cost of chopping is somewhat higher than the average for that kind of work, — approximately 30 cents per 1,000 feet more ; but the most of this diiference can be laid to the labor of piling the brush for burning, and some to necessity for caring for the smaller trees. Owing to the fact that a large number of timber lots were cut off in the neighborhood of Fitchburg last winter, the lum- ber market there experienced a slump, so that the hospital superintendent was unable to dispose of his supply at a price equal to what we had hoped for. For the 175,000 feet of round-edge pine he received $15 per 1,000 feet as it lay stacked on the lot; for the 53,000 feet of square-edge pine, $21; and for the 75,000 feet of mixed hard woods, only $14. The gross returns were $4,788, — an average price of $15.80 per 1,000 feet. Deducting from this amount $2,182, the cost of log- ging, sawing, etc., the net returns were $2,606, or $8.60 per 1,000 feet. This sum is somewhat more than they would have received had they sold the stumpage outright to a lumberman, because an offer of $8 per 1,000 feet was made for it. Also, under such circumstances the cutting would have been carried out without any regard for the future of the land, and the slash left in such a condition that a bad fire would have been un- avoidable. We should estimate that the total extra cost of disposing of the slash on this job was about 40 cents per 1,000 feet of lumber cut. Marking for Gypsy Moth Thinning. In addition to examinations for private owners, and the marking entailed thereby, the work of the forestry assistants was extended over numerous areas in the eastern section of the State for thinning done by the gypsy moth employees. It was felt that the men, after cutting an area so marked, would soon be able to combine a working knowledge of forestry methods A portiible steel shack, — one of those in use by the State Forester's department. Size, ten Ijy twelve feet; capable of handling twelve men. The State Forester's nursery at Amherst. M'hite pine transplants in the foreground. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 275 with their already excellent acquaintance with gypsy moth requirements. A total area of about 490 acres was marked for this sort of thinning, about 425 acres of which lay on the north shore of Massachusetts Bay, in the towns of Beverly, Manchester, Gloucester, Wenham and Essex. About one-half of the cut- ting done on the north shore was marked for by the forestry assistants, and it is now felt that the men are quite familiar with their methods of work. Other localities in which marking was done or advice given were Tyngsborough, Tewksbury, Wareham, Hingham, Mashpee and Newton. In the latter place, where a particular effort was made to sell the cord wood product, the amount realized not only paid the cost of cutting, but also of cleaning up the brush, leaving a slight margin of profit. Surveying. Considerable surveying has been done by the forestry de- partment during the year, including nearly all the unsurveyed lots taken under the reforestation act. These lots, by towns, are as follows: Buckland, 165 acres; Wellfleet, 52 acres; Har- wich, 14 acres; Peru, 80 acres; Colrain, 12 acres; Oakham, 100 acres; a total of 449 acres. Maps have been or are being made for all these lots. Besides this ordinary surveying and mapping, one topographic and forest map (in colors) has been made of a tract of land taken by the State under the reforestation act, and planted and managed by this office, known as the Lowe farm. This land lies in Colrain, has an area of 580 acres, and is the largest of the State plantations. Reforestation Work. The reforestation work has been carried on this year under the policy already established, and gives great promise of awak- ening the interest of mill owners, lumbermen and land owners to the necessity of replanting cut-over and waste lands. The lots planted last year, after being inspected this fall in some cases show as high as 97 per cent, of healthy growing trees, and 276 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. in no case has more than 40 per cent, died out. Even at this early date some of these lots have started to fill their mission of demonstrating, and influencing land owners to undertake forest planting. One party not owning land suitable for reforestation bought over 200 acres of cheap waste land, and intends plant- ing it in the coming spring. Another party, owning 50 acres of run-out pasture land, became interested through looking over one of these plantations where young pine had been planted on land similar to his own. Many other parties, becoming inter- ested, set out smaller areas. Deeds for 921 acres have been recorded and the land planted last spring. In order to carry on the work, five galvanized-iron shacks were constructed, which will accommodate from eight to ten men, these shacks enabling the men to live on the lot during the planting season, and doing away with the necessity of trans- porting the men to and from work, as had been the case when the lot was a number of miles from any town. The average cost of planting was brought to a slightly lower cost through the use of these shacks and other economical methods. State Plantations, 1910. Town. Acres. Type of Land. Variety planted. Colrain, 80 Run-out pasture, Norway spruce. Colrain, 80 Run-out pasture, Norway spruce. Belchertown, 10 Run-out pasture, White pine. Colrain, 169 Run-out pasture. White pine. Colrain, 52 Run-out pasture. Norway spruce. Sandwich, . Peru, . 38 68 Burnt-over land. Run-out pasture, Pitch and Scotch piue and Nor- way spruce. Norway spruce and white pine. Peru, . 12 Run-out pasture. Norway spruce and white pine. Shirley. 14 Cut-over land, . White pine. Hubbardston, 100 Cut-over land, . White pine. Spencer, 14 Cut-over land, . White pine. Paxton, 54 Cut-over land. . White pine. Brook field, . 70 Cut-over land, . White pine. Oakham, 100 Cut-overland, . White pine. West Brook field, 30 Cut-over land, . White pine. Carlisle, 30 Cut-overland, . White pine. Total area, 921 No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 277 Planting done under Advice op State Forester. Name. Town. Variety. No. of Trees. Amherst Water Company, Amherst, White pine, 15,000 N.D.Bill South Worthington, White pine, 300,000 Needham Water Company, . Needham, White pine, 5,000 I.«ominster Water Company, Leominster, . White pine. 7,000 Long Island Almshouse, Long Island, . White pine, . 45,000 Dr. E. P. Joslin Oxford, . Norwaj' spruce, 5,000 Brown Bros, and John Folsom, Winchendon, . White pine. 150,000 Fred Barclay, .... Spencer, . White pine, . 20,000 I. P. Lawrence, .... Ashburnham, White pine. 20,000 Walter Clark Paxton, . White pine. 10.000 State Colony for Insane, East Gardner, White pine, 14,000 Faunae demonstration farm, Sandwich, White pine, etc.. 500 W.R.Rich Truro, . Pitch pine. 1,000 F. P. Stratton Concord, Norway spruce, 1,000 Henry Pike Paxton, . White pine, 1,300 Forest Nursery. The State forest nursery at Amherst will have ahout 2,000,000 two-year-old white pine seedlings fit for planting next spring. A large part of them should be transplanted in the nursery, if arrangement can be made for sufficient ground. Last spring we were able to use about 900,000 in the reforestation work, and transplanted at the nursery 250,000, that we might have trees which when planted in the most exposed places will grow sucessfully. We have also a good stand of one-year-old white pine and Norway spruce. The following table gives the esti- mated stock on hand at the nursery : — Variety, White pine seedlings. White pine seedlings. Pitch pine seedlings. Pitch pine seedlings, Norway pine seedlings, . Austrian pine seedlings, . No. of Trees. 2,000,000 2,500,000 25,000 25,000 5,000 20,000 278 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Variety. Scotch pine seedlings, Norway spruce seedlings, Balsam fir seedlings, Hemlock seedlings. Red spruce seedlings. Black locust seedlings, . Catalpa speciosa seedlings, . Total Variety. White pine transplants, . White pine transplants, . Norway spruce transplants, . Black locust transplants, Honey locust transplants, Total Age (Years). No. of Trees. 40,000 500,000 5,000 5.000 2,000 20,000 5,000 5,152,000 No. of Trees. 304,000 Since the planting of last spring, the large number of appli- cations by land owners to reforest their waste land under the reforestation act make it plain that it will be impossible to replant all the land which would be turned over to the State, unless the present limited appropriation is increased. At this time last year only about 500 acres of land had been offered under the act, the balance for last spring's work being taken over during the winter; this year already over 1,200 acres have been offered. Never before has such interest been taken in the work, and the outlook for the coming months is that many more tracts will be offered; and as under the present appropriation only about 1,000 acres can be planted, steps should be taken by the coming Legislature to meet the situation. Instrtjction in Planting. While the planting on State land occupies most of our atten- tion during the spring, to the partial exclusion of other work, an attempt was made last year to give practical assistance on the ground to owners inexperienced in forest planting, who were for the first time trying the experiment on a large scale. Advice of this nature was given to the following owners : — A natural seeding-in of pitch pine on tlie Cape. Tlie land in the foreground is to be planted by the State Forester. The beginning of a nursery at East Sandwich, Cape Cod, 1910. Four-year-old white pine transplants on left, set last spring; seed boxes of Scotch and Austrian pine on right. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 279 Faunee demonstration farm, Sandwich, set out 500 seedlings. Long Island Hospital, Boston harbor, set out 45,000 seedlings. Fitchburg Water Board, "Westminster, started a forest nursery. E. P. Joslin, Oxford, set out 5,000 seedlings. Needham Water Board, Needham, set out 5,000 seedlings. I. P. Lawrence, Ashburnham, set out 25,000 seedlings; also set out 15,000 in a nursery. State Colony for Insane, Gardner, set out 14,000 seedlings. Reports from some of this work seem to indicate as good results as can be expected in the short time that has elapsed. The seedlings at Long Island are in good condition, and it only remains to be seen how they will endure the coming winter. The stock on the farm at Sandwich is in good shape, and it will be put to a rigid test this winter, having been planted as a windbreak against the heavy gales so prevalent on the Cape. Portable Steel Shacks. In the reforestation work of the past few years we have had difficulty in keeping the expense of planting uniform. There are many conditions that are accountable for it, such as the size and condition of the area, — as a larger tract can be han- dled more cheaply per acre than a smaller one ; price of seed- lings, etc. ; but the greatest factor to be reckoned with has been the question of caring for the laborers. In some cases it was necessary to transport the men night and morning to and from the field, which was an extra expense. In order to overcome this, the department has constructed several portable steel shacks (see accompanying photograph), which are used to house and board the labor on the ground. These shacks were constructed in the State Forester's warehouse. The whole con- struction is of galvanized-iron sheets, which are held together with bolts and clasps. The only wooden parts are the door and two window sashes, one on each side. Twelve men can thus be accommodated. The following outline gives the size of the shack, equipment for setting it up, cooking utensils and plant- ing tools used in the work ; the approximate cost is also given. With this device the whole environment of the work is im- proved, and the results, from an economic standpoint, are far more satisfactory. These shacks are used only when the plant- 280 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. iiigs are in a locality where it is difficult to get board and room for the men, or where the work is at a distance from boarding places. Cost of Steel Shack and Equipment. Shack. Size, 12 feet by 12 feet square ; height, 9 feet front, 7 feet back, 1 sliding window on each side, ..... 1 door in center of front, 6 double bunks, 4 feet wide, 2 feet 4 inches between each, $75 00 Equipment. 1 cook stove, 2 lanterns, 1 kerosene can, 1 hammer, axe and saw, 1 pair wire cutters, 2 shovels, 1 chisel, Cooling Utensils. 1 large coffee pot, 3 large kettles and covers, . 1 small kettle and cover, 2 large frying pans, . 1 bean pot, . 3 large spoons, . 2 large knives, 2 small knives, 12 cups, plates, knives, forks and spoons, 1 dipper, 1 dish pan, . $5 00 2 00 25 2 50 45 1 20 7r. $12 15 $4 00 Planting Tools. 6 grub hoes, 12 pails. 1 chest for carrying equipment. The bedding is furnished by the men. $3 00 2 50 $5 50 Forest Fires of 1910. It is with considerable reluctance that each year we include in our annual report a chapter on this painful subject, — pain- No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 281 fill, because forest fires are the greatest obstacle to the advance- ment of practical forestry in this Commonwealth, and because they form one of the most difficult problems with which we are obliged to deal; jet for these very reasons this chapter cannot be omitted from this book. The subject of forest fires has been most vividly presented to the people of the United States during the past summer by the disastrous fires which raged in the northwest. We in our little State cannot experience such enormous conflagrations as these; yet the fire demon each year lays its insidious claws on a valuable portion of our natural heritage. Last year 215 of the 354 towns and cities of the Common- wealth reported that they had 1,385 forest fires; 28, or 8.6 per cent., said that they had none; and 92, or 27.7 per cent., failed to report. There are IS towns and cities which have little or no forest land, and therefore do not appoint forest wardens. On account of the large number of towns not reporting, we may be sure that the figures which we have are very conserva- tive. The wardens reported that these fires damaged the wood- land to the extent of $205,383. As we have emphasized in our previous reports, the figures for money damage are very inade- quate, as many wardens will not report the damage, because they feel incapable of estimating it; and even when they try, they cannot set a value on the young growth killed and the gradual deterioration of the soil. In the cost of fighting fires, we have data which is not a matter of guesswork, although this is in- complete, because in towns and cities having an organized fire department, where the members are paid a regular salary, the cost of fighting woodland fires of course cannot be obtained. In 1905 the State Forester made a careful canvass of all the towns, and came to the conclusion that the annual cost of fight- ing fires was about $30,000. Our figures would seem to indicate that this conclusion was correct. When we spread this sum over the 300 towns in the State, it does not make a very large sum for each individual community; but it must be remem- bered that this expense is borne in large part by a few towns, and usually the poorest and least able to bear it. An annual bill of $1,000 for forest-fire fighting is a serious burden on a town whose entire yearly ex]ieiiditure may not amount to more 282 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. than $15,000. This forest-lire menace is a two-edged sword, for, while it cuts its way into the town treasury, it is at the same time destroying the property which supplies the revenue to that treasury. The present system of collecting fire reports in this office was inaugurated three years ago, and we thought that it would give opportunity for an interesting study if the data for 1908, 1909 and 1910 were placed side by side. Perhaps the most striking feature is the similarity in the totals for number of fires, acres burned and damage done. Looking at the table more closely, we find some interesting variations. For instance, the figures for March, 1910, greatly exceed those for March, 1908 and 1909. Spring came early last year, and the season of spring fires was present sooner than usual. There were comparatively few fires during the summer, although it was accounted a dry one. On the Cape, where most of the summer fires occur, they had considerable rainfall during July and August. The drought in October is reflected in the fire data for that month. The October fires were very severe, in that they burned in the peat and humus, many of them for weeks, and only severe rains extinguished them. We find in the table of causes comparisons of more impor- tance and interest. We find, for instance, that the number of fires caused by the railroads has steadily decreased, and we feel that this represents real progress on their part, although plenty of room is left for improvement. The number, of fires caused by the burning of brush materially increased, and this would seem to be a cause for disappointment, in view of the general adoption of the present law ; but owing to the provisions of this very law, which make it easier to place responsibility, it is the number of fires reported with this cause, and not the actual number of fires caused by burning brush, which have increased. Fires caused by the careless use of matches in the hands of boys, fishermen, hunters, berry pickers, etc., have been the cause of more concern during the past year than ever before. Although the number under this head is not large, there is no doubt that most of the fires labelled " Unknown " would be No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 283 placed ill this culumn if they cuiild be traced out; so that we feel sure that they cause as luauy fires as the railroads, and are more dangerous, because the smoke is everywhere, while the railroad tire is confined to a certain district, and can be more or less anticipated. The time has not arrived when we can get a sweeping injunction prohibiting all smoking in the woods ; but there is no doubt that by the necessary gradual posting of all private land against trespassing this condition will come in time. As long as we have forest fires, there will be problems con- nected with them, and their solution will not come all at once; but there are certain features which can and should have imme- diate attention. In the first place, the office should have the services of a man whose entire time can be spent on forest-fire work. An assistant or chief forest warden, so called, would find a very considerable portion of his time taken up in carrying out the provisions of the fire-equipment reimbursement act ; another portion would be well occupied in the collecting and listing of reports; and the remainder could be well used in visiting and assisting whatever forest wardens seemed to require such aid. If the Legislature should add to the authority of the State Forester other duties in the line of fighting fires and making arrests, this assistant would be a very busy man indeed. Forest Fires OP 1910. Months. Acres. Damage. Cost to put out. No, February 5 - - 2 March 12,666 $57,740 $3,839 438 April 13,782 68.867 5,125 413 May 4,236 13,957 1,738 116 June 137 980 490 23 July 1,041 0,509 1,627 76 August 165 1,275 763 44 September 2,900 15,035 1,456 25 October 7,068 40,064 7,885 196 November, 107 400 427 24 No date given, .... 114 556 125 28 Totals 42.221 $205,383 $23,475 1.385 284 BOARD OP^ AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Comparative Causes of Forest Fires for the Past Three Years, 1908. 1909. 1910. Causes. No. Per Cent. No. Per Cent. No. Per Cent. Unknown Railroad , . , . Burning brush, Smokers, hunters, berry pickers, etc.. Steam saw-mills, .... Children Miscellaneous, Too late for tabulation. 314 494 119 161 12 71 118 24.4 38.3 9.0 12.0 1.2 6 0 9.1 360 497 149 140 5 92 190 63 25.1 34.7 10.4 9.7 .5 6.4 13.2 413 362 203 124 1 75 78 129 32.9 28.8 16.2 9.9 .1 5.9 6.2 Totals, ...... 1,289 100 1,496 100 1,385 100 Comparative Damages BY Forest Fires for the Past Three Years, 1908. 1909. 1910. Months. Acres. Damage. Acres. Damage. Acres. Damage. January, - - 13 - - - February, - - 12 - 5 - March, 236 $420 1,577 $4,763 12,666 $57,740 April, 16,262 52,731 12,515 72,195 13,782 68,867 May, 5,856 48,506 4,322 38,080 4,236 13,957 June, 1,195 17,824 405 11,870 137 980 July. . 6,109 28,783 11,992 26,396 1,041 6,509 August, 1,567 22,320 1,940 10,833 165 1,275 September 1,062 3,140 1,092 21,413 2,900 15,035 October, 7,084 29,960 384 1,805 7,068 40,064 November, 301 1,468 585 612 107 400 No date given. - - 246 35,083 1,515 114 556 Totals, 39,672 $205,152 $189,482 42,221 $205,383 FOEEST-FIRE EQUIPMENT. The Legislature last spring passed an act authorizing the State Treasurer to reimburse towns, having a valuation of one and a half millions or less, 50 per cent, of whatever sum they might spend for forest-fire-fighting equipment, provided this sum does not exceed $500, and provided also that the equip- No. 4.] KEPOllT OV STATE FORESTER. 285 inent purchased has the approval of the State Forester. As the law was not passed until after the time of the annual town meet- ings, only a few places have been able to avail themselves of its provisions, and but a small part of the appropriation of $5,000 was therefore expended. This appropriation, however, is a continuing one, and the same sum will be available next year. It is expected that many towns will vote this spring to spend money for this purpose. Wardens and selectmen of 17 towns have already assured this office that they will urge the matter at the next annual meeting. The following table contains the names of the towns that have received reimbursement, the amount thereof, and the kind of equipment purchased : — Towns receiving Fire-equipment Reimbursement. Towns. Amount of Reim- bursement. Nature of Equipment. Ashland, . Boxford, . Dighton, . Georgetown, CJrcenwich, Hanson, Mashpee, . Middleton, Norwell, Oakham, . Pembroke, Phiilipston, Prescott, . Raynham, Westminster, West Newbury, $15 75 45 60 58 67 39 39 25 95 100 77 34 55 49 50 50 00 138 00 203 75 48 65 48 16 50 00 55 91 24 00 Johnson pumps and paila. Chemical extinguishers. Extinguishers and cans. Extinguishers, cans and shovels. Chemical extinguishers. Wagon and other equipment. Extinguishers and shovels. Extinguishers. Extinguishers. Extinguishers. Wagon, extinguishers, etc. Extinguishers. Extinguishers. Extinguishers. Extinguishers and cans. Extinguishers. In addition to the above list, the towns of Bedford, Charlton, Hanson, North Reading, Tewksbury, Sterling, Sandwich and Wrentham have already purchased equipment, the reimburse- ment on which will amount to $1,600; but, as their accounts were not received before November 30, we were not able to list 286 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. tliem in our table. All of these towns except Charlton purchased a full wagon equipment. In this connection it is pertinent for us to call attention to our two model forest-fire wagons. These were built by the State Forester in order that the officials of the towns wishing to pur- chase forest-fire equipment may see what we consider an ideal form of apparatus. The plan of this outfit was made up only after a careful study had been made of existing forest-fire appa- ratus in several towns. The larger wagon is intended for two horses, and costs, all equipped, about $450. The equipment consists of fourteen chemical extinguishers; fourteen galvanized cans, each holding two extra charges of water and chemicals ; shovels ; rakes ; mat- tocks ; and spare chemical charges. This equipment is carried in racks and cases, not only so that it will ride safely, but also so that it can be conveniently carried into the woods. Eight men can find accommodation on this wagon. The smaller wagon, drawn by one horse, has all the equip- ment of the larger, but less in amount. It will carry four men, and costs, all equipped, about $300. These two wagons were exhibited this fall at the Marshfield, Barnstable, Worcester, Clinton, Barre and Palmer fairs, where they attracted general interest. The New Haven, Boston & Maine and New York Central railroads aided us in this exhibition work by transport- ing the wagons over their lines without charge. A small pam- phlet describing these wagons has been published by this office, and may be had on application. FOBEST-FIRE DEPUTIES NEEDED. The State Forester wishes to repeat what was suggested last year under this head : — The forest warden law has undoubtedly been tested far enough to be pronounced a success as another step in perfecting our organized efforts against forest fires. I now propose the idea of empowering the State Forester to appoint deputies at large to assist him. Many of our forest wardens need instruction and co-operation in getting their work well in hand. The best way to teach these men just how to accomplish results in fighting forest fires is to confer with them right on the ground, and The slash remaining following the lumbering of a pine lot at Concord. Here is where we must guard against fire. The brush or slasli conditions following lumbering of a mixed growth at Petersham. This is typical of most sections, and forms the base or tinder-box that causes our destructive forest fires. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 287 demonstrate what can be accomplished and how it can be done. There are experienced men whom the State Forester couki in times of emer- gency delegate to assist, and, if need be, with authority to take charge. In the case of the gypsy and brown-tail moth agents, these men are at present mounted on motor cycles, and hence are familiar with the country. They are already State employees, and men interested in the preservation of the forests. They will gladly acquaint themselves with modern methods of fighting forest fires, and, were they appointed deputies authorized to assume responsibility, the State would have their services at no extra compensation. Of course this would apply only throughout the moth-infested territory, but other plans could be worked out for the remainder of the State at a minimum cost. Disposing of the Slashings ob Brush. As a result of the discussion of this matter in the last annual report, the State Forester has had many inquiries and has dis- cussed the matter with practical men. That the slashings left from limbing are a great menace, and one of the basal dangers causing forest fires, there can be little question. At the present time this office is carrying on some experiments to determine the expense of handling the slash, and the results are looked forward to with much interest. No one desires to hinder the wood-lot operator, or to cause him any extra expense ; but when the expense of piling and burning the brush is once determined, it can be dealt with as a part of the business transaction. We must conserve for the future welfare of the town and Common- wealth, as well as for the present. It is high time, therefore, that some reasonable State regulations should be made. Forest-fire Lookouts. Last year attention was called to the value of forest-fire look- outs, and the advisability of our experimenting somewhat, to determine whether their use would be applicable to our condi- tions. We were unable to spare any of our regular appropria- tion for doing anything in this line ; and hence, with the excep- tion of the Plymouth tower, which was erected by the town of Plymouth a few years ago, there are no others in the State. Since our last report New Hampshire has established several lookout stations, and the results derived from their first season's use are very satisfactory. 288 BOARD OF AGRICULTL'KE. [Pub. Doc. Maine has a number of these lookouts scattered throughout the so-called wild or forest lands, and the State makes an annual appropriation of $60,000 a year for these stations and for fire- patrol work. The work of the Forest Commissioner of Maine is primarily that of forest-fire protection. New York has forest-fire lookout stations established through- out the Adirondacks, and values them very highly. The point may be raised that the States named have a much larger forested area than has Massachusetts. This is true; l)ut this State is quite thickly poind ated, and the dangers from fires are therefore proportionately greater, as man him- self seems to be the destructive force. There is no doubt that the small outlay required for the services of men to attend a few lookouts at high points in this State, together with the in- stallation of telephones, would have been repaid many times over during the past season in the saving of forest values by stopping fires in their incipiency. There is nothing like having a system for getting results. If this outlook plan could be added to the present forest warden system, it is believed that it would be an economic step in the right direction. Fire Lines and Protective Moth Belts. Each forest warden should plan to interest his town in doing something in the way of making fire lines. By making a begin- ning and doing a little each year the importance and value of the work will demonstrate itself. The widening of all wood roads or cleaning a strip and running plowed furrows, together with separating the debris, etc., if done in advance, precludes the danger from fires, so common at present. This winter this de- partment has been fortunate in finding enough of this sort of work, largely on private estates, to employ a number of our men in making fire lines. By finding the men employment at this season, we shall be able to keep them the year round. Men familiar with the work and understanding modern methods accomplish much more than inexperienced men. These fire lines may be utilized for operating the lots, as occa- sion demands ; also, they enable one to combat the dreaded moth pests. No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 289 Railroad Co-operation in Forest-fire Fighting. During the past season there have been many evidences of co-operative assistance on behalf of the raih'oads with the State Forester and the forest wardens in preventing and fighting forest fires. Invariably when assistance has been asked from the main ofiice of the railroads or the local section men, it has been furnished. In one instance of a fire which had not been set by the railroad, a forest warden reported that twenty-five men in the employ of the railroad came to his assistance without making any charge to the town for their services. There were many instances where engines were reported as evidently having inefficient spark-arresters, and hence they were throwing out cinders and setting fires ; but it is believed that in each case they were overhauled and improved. Certainly there is already a great difference in the feeling of our rural people towards the railroads ; and this is equally true, we are inclined to believe, of the railroad people as regards the protection of our woodlands and forests. When the State Forester came to Massachusetts, in 1906, it was the consensus of opinion that the railroads were the great offenders in burning up our forests. If there was a railroad in the vicinity of the fire, it was always held responsible. Since our forest warden and permit laws were enacted, and we have been enabled to get at the real causes of forest fires, it is plainly shown that there are many causes for forest fires other than the railroads. The railroad fires, however, are still very numerous, and there are great opportunities for improvement ; but let our forest wardens in each town co-operate and work harmoniously with all forces toward getting better results in checking and elim- inating forest fires. All we desire is to get the exact facts, and then we shall be in a position to better the conditions. The railroad officials are business men, and can be convinced of their duties as readily as any class of people. Instead of a forest warden finding fault and getting disgusted over railroad fires, the thing to do is to get direct proof and evidence, by hav- ing the number of the engine, the time of day, the date, etc., and then taking it up with the proper authorities. One warden has succeeded in getting the railroad people to keep some barrels 290 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. filled with water on the right of way upon a bad uji-grade which runs through woodland in his town. This same road has also supplied the section men on this section with two three-gallon hand extinguishers. Forest wardens little realize what they can accomplish until they try. PowEK Sprayers as Forest-fire Equipment. Attention was called in last year's report to the use of power sprayers in putting out forest fires. From our experience with the modern sprayers, which can be turned around in a small space, and hence may be readily handled, even in wood roads, they should be used more often. These machines can be ad- justed to spray directly from the brook, pond or tank, so that they are adaptable for service when other equipment would be useless. If for no other purpose than to carry water, they can be made very serviceable, as they can be filled by their own power in about five minutes. The capacity of the tank is usually 400 gallons. As these sprayers are capable of throwing a stream to the top of the tallest trees, it is readily seen what a radius of fire could be reached and deadened by them. They have suffi- cient power to maintain a 300-pound pressure at the end of a 1,500-foot length of 1-inch hose. These same machines could also be used to great advantage for house fires in the country. As our towns need such a device for the protection of their trees, why not get all the good possible out of them ? Forest Fires in Germany. A recent letter from Mr. F. B. Knapp, a Massachusetts man who is spending the year abroad with the Biltmore Forestry Schools, says : — They have praclieally no forest-fire problem here, and I should say that it is chiefly due to respect for law and order. The State Forester appreciates the above statement, for it comes from a man who has shown much interest at home in these matters ; in fact, he is the forest warden of Duxbury, where good work has been done. A plantation of white pine, thirt.y years old, at South Orleans, on the Cape. Who says wliite V)ine will not grow on the lower Cape ? No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 291 State Subsidy to Towns for Forest-fire Protection. The law enacted last winter, which assists all towns having a valuation of one and one-half millions or less in purchasing fire equipment to the extent of 50 per cent., or an amount not exceed- ing $500, was passed too late to be taken advantage of by most to\vns, as their annual town meeting had been held. At the coming spring town meetings it is believed that many will accept the assistance. The State Forester has a brief pam- phlet in press that will be sent to all towns in time for their con- sideration before the S2:)ring meetings. Public Addresses. As many engagements have been filled throughout the year as the State Forester could accept, and at the same time con- sistently carry on his other duties. The custom of placing the responsibility upon organizations of securing an audience of at least one hundred has made our efforts more effective and better appreciated. It has been practically impossible to meet all the demands from local clubs and private organizations; hence we have invariably requested that, in so far as j^ossible, these meetings be thrown open to the public. The usual course of lectures was given at the Massachusetts Agricultural College during January. Lectures before Scientific 0RGx^.NIZATI0NS. The State Forester has had several requests to lecture outside the State, as well as at home, and the following were accepted : Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., in their special lecture course on forestry ; the New Hampshire LEorticultural Society, annual meeting at Manchester ; the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science, annual meeting at Washington, D. C. ; the American Society of Economic Entomologists, annual meet- ing at Boston; the Economic Club; Williams College, at Wil- liamstown ; the Massachusetts Reform Club ; High School Prin- cipals Association ; the Society for the Protection of New Hamp- shire Forests, at Bretton Woods, IST. H. ; etc. 292 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. State Firemen's Association. The annual meeting of the State Firemen's Association was held at Lowell during the week beginning September 19, and the State Forester addressed the organization on Thursday even- ing, September 22, on the subject, " Forestry, and Fire Menace of the Same." This organization has been ready to co-operate and assist the department at all times, and their good offices have been highly appreciated. During the past summer, at a meeting of the officials of the above association and the State Forester, it was agreed that the fire-permit act should aj^ply to cities as well as to towns. Thinning Bulletin. The bulletin by the State Forester's assistant, Mr. H. O. Cook, on " Thinning," referred to as being in press last year, was received from the press early in the year, and has proved of gi'cat value in assisting us in getting this information into the hands of those who contemplate improving their woodlands. This bulletin is opportune, as it meets a definite place in the handling of woodlands in the worst moth-infested sections ; and it helps not only in making better forestry conditions, but, with the poorer trees and dead wood removed, the work of spraying and treating woodlands is greatly simplified. Bulletin on Reforestation and Nursery Work. Reforestation and the growing of young trees is at present a subject of gi'eat interest to our people. In order to give detailed and exact knowledge, the bulletin was carefully planned and published, and we have every reason to believe that it covers the subject as clearly and as practically as any publication available. It was written by Mr. R. S. Langdell, assistant in charge of the State nursery at Amherst, who also has charge of the reforesta- tion work throughout the State. We believe it hits the nail on the head, and is of great assistance in the State work. The Chestnut Bark Disease. This disease, as reported last year, does not seem to have caused any great amount of damage as yet in this State. We No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 293 had received but one direct notice of its appearance here, when a letter came from Dr. Haven Metcalf, stating that he had reports of four outbreaks in Massachusetts. The State Forester has taken the matter up with Dr. Metcalf, and has also written to Prof. George Stone of the Agricultural College at Amherst. If occasion demands, further notice will be given, calling atten- tion to the disease and showing how the infested trees should be treated. The precaution mentioned last year will apply not only to the chestnut, but to all trees ; namely, that any tree that becomes un- healthy, particularly in the woodlands or forest, should be re- moved, thus minimizing the danger. Conference of State Foresters and Forest Wardens. A meeting was held at Bretton Woods, IST. H., during the first week in August, under the auspices of the Society for the Pro- tection of New Hampshire Forests, at which various State for- esters and forest wardens held a conference. The State Forester and many other Massachusetts people attended, including Mr. Guild, secretary of the Massachusetts Forestry Association, Con- gressman Peters, Forest Warden Knapp of Duxbury, etc. The meeting proved a very interesting and instructive one. The following paper was presented by the writer: — The Massachusetts Forest Warden System. Massachusetts has had the town forest warden system in practice long enough to feel that it is a pronounced success. The idea of hav- ing an authorized town, and, in a sense, a State oflficial in each town who is clothed with sufficient power to get results in a broad forestry movement, makes a splendid nucleus for better future results. It is the aim of the State Forester to secure for these positions public- spirited citizens who have their town interests as regards forestry mat- ters at heart, and then get them all the assistance possi])le. When a man is broken in, the aim of the State is to retain him in the work. The duties of the forest warden in Massachusetts are multitudinous, and he will never lack for things to do. The following are some of the forest warden's main duties : — Interest in all forestry matters. Appointed by selectmen, siibjeet to the approval of the State Forester, he has the power to appoint and discharge deputies. State Forester's power to hold meetings for edu- cating forest wardens. Forest warden chief forest fire fighter in the 294 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. town. Forest warden source of information on reforestation in the town. Forest warden, ideas on thinning and pruning trees. Forest warden read or have read fire laws in schools. Forest warden post fire laws and warnings. Forest warden deal with railroads in his town. Forest warden have ideas on forest taxation. Forest warden assist State Forester on forest data, maps, etc. Forest warden tell when seed and seedlings are plenty. Forest warden start a town nursery. Forest warden, amount, kind and price of cheap lands. Forest warden, town lands accepted and planted. Forest warden encourage forestry in town schools, grange, farmer's clubs, woman's clubs, etc. Forest warden handle town insect troubles. Forest warden assist in encouraging bene- ficial birds. Forest warden plan fire campaign, fire belts, have fire extinguishers well placed, telephone calls, etc. Forest warden, power to arrest without a warrant within certain restrictions, etc. The whole purpose, as I see it, is to adopt modern ideas and sys- tematize our efforts along well-defined channels, whereby results are made possible. The working out of a forest warden system in a thickly settled State like Massachusetts might not adapt itself to some sections of Maine and northern New Hampshire, but with modifications it could be made to do so. In Massachusetts about 5 per cent, of the forest products used are grown in the State; hence we have a good market, and with modern methods of forestry management, made possible through local and State officials, the value from possible forest products can be made very great. What is true of Massachusetts is equally true in other New England States in more or less degree. Expenditures and Receipts. In accordance with section G of chapter 409 of Acts of 1904, as amended by Acts of 1907, chapter 473, section 2, the follow- ing statement is given of the forestry expenditures for the year ending mv. 30, 1910: — office supplies, Forestry Expenditures. Salaries of assistants, . Travelling expenses, Stationery, postage and other Printing, Instruments, . Forest warden account, . Nursery, Sundries, $5,346 47 1,001 78 369 37 960 37 48 55 499 92 2,222 15 143 13 $10,591 74 No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 295 Reforestation Account, Seedlings, $2,204 70 Land, 1,035 00 Labor, 5,124 68 Equipment, 694 63 Travelling, 670 83 Express, 311 21 Sundries, 57 74 Turned over to the treasurer for publications, Turned over to the treasurer for seedlings. Turned over to the treasurer for cord wood, $10,098 79 $102 60 243 50 118 13 $464 23 Reimbursement to towns for fire-fighting apjiaratus, . . $1,469 56 Unexpended balance, ........ 3,530 44 Total appropriation, $5,000 00 In accordance with section 5 of the above-named chapter, the following statement is given of the receipts for travelling and subsistence : — Lectures. Mansfield Men's Club, Andover Grange, Newburyport Neighborhood Club, Rockport Men's Club, . Saugus Laymen's League, . Littleton Women's Club, Maiden Board of Trade, Somerville Board of Trade, . Bellingham Pomona Grange, Foxborough Grange, . Boston Public Library, Field and Forest Club, . Quincy Men's Club, Buzzards Bay, Athol Improvement Society, Bolton Pomona Grange, Boylston Grange, Pitchburg Pomona Grange, . Harvard Grange, Phillipston Grange, Amesbury Improvement Society, Hatfield Men's Club, . Bristol County Academy of Science, . . . . . . $1 00 1 20 30 90 1 10 1 42 2 00 20 1 40 3 15 3 00 5 00 2 40 4 04 1 50 2 50 2 28 1 84 3 50 40 5 00 2 00 Hingham Association, . Massachusetts Board of Agricul ture, .... Cornell Club, American Forestry Association, Course of Lectures, M. A. C, Woronoco Club, Westfield, . Newburyport Club, Pilgrims' Club, New Bedford, Williams College, Middlesex Sportsman's Show, Newton High School, . Winchester Unitarian News Club South Bristol Farmers' Club, Worcester Horticultural Society Heptorcan Club, . Phi Delta Theta Club, . Farmers' Week, M. A. C, . Fish and Game Association, Palmer's Woman's Club, Winchendon Board of Trade, Winchester High School, Barre Library Association, . Danvers Bird Club and Grange, 5 69 1 50 . 25 00 . 1 5 40 3 00 2 50 . 11 34 1 04 75 1 96 3 00 1 50 2 25 1 4 00 5 00 1 21 4 48 1 25 »Paid. 296 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [P.D.No.4. Lkoturks — Concluded. Wellcslcy Grange, Massachusetts Reform Club, Pepperell Woman's Club, Lehigh University, Pierce School, ... Institute State Board of Agri culture, .... Grange field day, West Newton and Yarmouth, Montwait Chautauqua, Cape Cod Cranberry Association, Franklin County Pomona Grange, State Prison teachers, . $3 00 1 22 2 00 24 31 1 07 7 45 10 59 1 15 2 20 8 11 1 30 State Fireman's Association, . $3 50 Hanover Fireman Muster, . . 1 50 New Hampshire Horticultural So- ciety, . . . . . 5 50 Springfield Board of Trade, . 5 00 Ro.xbury Woman's Club, . . 2 00 Massachusetts Forestry Associa- tion, . . . . . — ^ Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, . . . 25 10 American Association of Economic Entomologists, . . . . 2 00 Expenses incurred in Allen, P. R., Bent, F. E., Borden, N. E., Boston & Northern Street way, Brayton, A. P., . Brochu, J. E., . Burnett, H., trustee. Chandler, F. F., . Cummings, W. O., Cushing, J. S., . Dewar, D. W., . Eddy, Mary B., . Emerson, Dr. N. W., Forrest, W. P., . Fowle, D. H., . Fuller, W. A., . Gerrish, Isabel F., Green, P. C, Harriman, C. S., Home, W. N., . Hunnewell, H. H., Jones, J. L., Lawrence, I. P., . Mahoney, T. J., . $0 70 50 74 3treet Rail 1 32 2 00 1 40 70 62 62 50 1 25 15 18 1 00 1 80 1 50 1 00 2 40 68 90 50 1 20 6 50 1 82 Examination Work, charged to Owners Main, F. H., Massachusetts Agricultural Col lege, Faunce demonstration farm, Minns, Susan, Minot, W., . Morey, E., . Nelson, H. W., . Piekman, D. L., . Robinson, C. E., . Sawyer, A. H., . Sears, Julia M., . Seavey, H., Simmons, H. F., . Stevens, E. A., . Stevens, H. H., . Stone, G. (W. Manning), Tenney, 0. H., . Tracy, Harriet E., Webber, F. S., . White, J. H., Pitchburg Water Board, Total, . $5 44 5 00 2 50 2 00 1 00 1 20 1 50 2 85 1 50 1 40 50 1 25 1 50 1 14 2 35 1 16 2 85 3 05 1 20 2 00 $71 37 Expenses incurred in Supervision of Managed Woodlands, charced to Owners. F. C. Green $4 80 R. B. Symmington 20 00 $24 80 Expenses incurred in giving Instruction in Planting, charged to Owners. E. P. Joselin, $2 35 Long Island, transportation furnished, ........ "" Fitchburg Water Board ^ 85 Needham Water Board, no expense, ........ ~ ^ Paid. EIGHTEENTH SEMIANNUAL REPORT Chief of the Cattle Bureau. Presented to the Board and Accepted, January 10, 1911. REPORT. Boston, Jan. 10, 1911. To the State Board of Agriculture. In submitting to your honorable Board, as required by statutory provisions (section 3, chapter 116, Acts of 1902), this, the eighteenth semiannual report of the Chief of the Cattle Bureau, it seems fitting to state, by way of preface, that, as I have been in charge of the office only since Oct. 5, 1910, the report which is for the year ending Nov. 30, 1910, must necessarily, so far as its tabulations of work performed are concerned, represent, in a large degree, the administra- tion of my predecessor. Of course it includes also the work performed since the date of my commission, a period of barely two months. In preparing such details as the report contains I have had to rely upon the office force, and I wish to place on record my appreciation of the unvarying courtesy and willing co- operation rendered by it. These assistants are very efficient, and display, because of their long service and marked intelli- gence, a most enviable knowledge of and intimacy with the detailed clerical work of the Bureau. Under their careful routine even the minutest detail is correctly checked up, and there is at all times, and open to public inspection, a complete statistical record on all matters coming within the jurisdiction of the Bureau. I commend to your consideration the tables herewith sub- mitted. Rabies. The following table shows the prevalence of rabies during the year ending Nov. 30, 1910 : — 300 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Dogs. Cattle. Cats. Killed or died with rabies, Killed by owners or died in quarantine, not rabid, . Released from quarantine, Animals still in quarantine, 51 55 75 47 3 1 1 1 Totals 228 5 1 Grand total, 234 animals. One dog, released March 21, developed rabies and was killed on May 25. Another dog, released September IG, be- cause its owner claimed it was out of town the day the rabid dog to which it was supposed to have been exposed ran through the town, developed rabies and died November 2. The veterinarian of the Boston Board of Health reports 4 cases of rabies in dogs in that city during the year, making a total for the entire State of 55 mad dogs. The total number of dogs having rabies during the year ending Nov. 30, 1909, in Massachusetts, including Boston, was 154; this shows a decrease of 99 cases for 1910. During 1910 Dr. Frothingham has examined the brains of 37 animals for rabies, of which 19 have proved positive cases and 18 have proved to be negative. One dog's head sent to Dr. Frothingham was so decomposed he could not examine it, and another head was so badly injured by shooting that it was not possible for an examination to be made of it. Glandeks. There has been a marked diminution in the number of cases of glanders and farcy reported in Massachusetts during the year ending Nov. 30, 1910, from the previous twelve months. During the year ending Nov. 30, 1909, 084 cases of glan- ders or farcy were recorded, beside which there were 17 ani- mals under observation at the end of the year. Twelve of these were later released, and 5 were killed as having glanders. Adding these 5 to the 684 cases previously decided makes a total of G89 animals killed, or which have died, that were quarantined prior to Dec. 1, 1909. No. 4.] RErORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 301 During tlic year ending Nov. 30, 1910, 1,0G7 horses or mules have been reported, including those dealt with in stable tests. Of these, 676 have been killed as having glanders or farcy, 357 have been released and 24 were still held for fur- ther examination. Of the 676 killed for glanders or farcy during the year, 362 were from cities and towns outside of Boston, and 314 from the city of Boston. There was a decrease of only 7 cases for the entire State from the previous year. In Boston there was an increase of 36 cases, as the veterinarian of the Boston Board of Health reports 314 cases for the year ending Nov. 30, 1910, as against 278 cases for the previous year. There seems to be an increase in the number of cases of glanders found in Worcester, as there were reported 28 cases of glanders and farcy during the year ending ISTov. 30, 1910, as against 14 cases reported the previous year. On the other hand, in Somerville there was a decrease of 10 cases, 32 cases having been reported for the year ending Nov. 30, 1910, as against 42 cases the previous year. In Fall River there were only half as many cases, 12 horses having been killed during the year ending Nov. 30, 1910, and 24 the previous year. In Cambridge there was a decrease of 11 cases, 50 having been reported for the fiscal year of 1909 and 39 for the year end- ing Nov. 30, 1910. Sixteen stable tests have been undertaken during the year, 21 cases of glanders having been found in these stables pre- vious to making the tests. Three hundred and seven horses were tested with mallein ; of these, 164 were released, 60 were killed on account of having glanders and 24 are held for further tests. The reports of rendering companies, as required by sec- tion 111 of chapter 75 of the Revised Laws, as amended by chapter 243 of the Acts of 1907, continue to be of much value in furnishing information of cases of glanders or farcy which would not otherwise be brought to the attention of the Chief of the Cattle Bureau, as the following table illustrates : — 302 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Beports of Itendering Companies. Rendering Companies. Number of Reports. Number of Cases. Number in Boston. Number out of Boston. Number outside of Boston not pre- viously reported. William S. Higgins, Saugus, Home Soap Company, Millbury, Lowell Rendering Company, James E. McGovern, Andover, . Muller Brothers, North Cambridge, . W. H. Nankervis, Marlborough, . New Bedford Extractor Company, New England Rendering Company, Brighton, Parmenter & Polsey Fertilizer Com- pany, Peabody, N. Roy & Son, South Attleborough, . A. E. Southwick, Mendon, . N. Ward Company, South Boston, Whitman & Pratt Rendering Com- pany, North Chelmsford, Worcester Rendering Company, . 6 17 It 27 28 2 4 14 9 22 3 51 S 26 6 6 4 9 83 4 44 13 16 302 6 5 5 11 253 6 6 4 9 78 4 33 13 16 49 6 5 2 3 4 6 12 1 2 5 2 Totals, 231 498 269 229 37 Annual Inspection of Neat Cattle^ Farm Animals, AND Premises upon which the Former are kept. About tbe middle of September the following circular letter was sent to tbe inspectors of animals in tbe cities and towns of tbe State, together witb tbe necessary books in wbicb to record tbe results of tbeir work, and blank forms of certifi- cates of bealtb to be given owners in conformance witb section 18, chapter 90 of tbe Revised Laws: — commonwe.^lth of massachusetts, Cattle Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture, Room 138, State House, Boston, Sept. 15, 1910. Directions to Inspectors of Animals. Inspectors of animals are hereby directed to make a general inspection of the neat stock and incidentally other fann animals in their respective towns, as required by chapter 90 of the Kevised Laws, such inspection to commence October 1 and to be completed before the fifteenth day of November. No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 303 Wherever inspectors examine animals and find them free from contagious disease, they will give owners certificates of health, as provided for in section 18 of the law, from tlie book of blanks (Form No. 2) furnished for that purpose. Books will also be pro- vided (Form No. 1) for carrying- out the provisions of sections 17 and 24 of chapter 90 of the Revised Laws. Inspectors will not say on any report, " Same as last year," but will make a full and complete report on every place inspected, in- cluding all dimensions and measurements provided for on the blank, and answer in full all questions as to the light, ventilation, sani- tary surroundings, and water supply, as w^ell as the number of cattle kept in each stable, and give a complete list of other animals in spaces provided in the book. Inspectors of animals are not to quarantine any cattle as tuber- culous, unless they show sufficient evidence of disease to make it possible to condemn them on a physical examination, or show evi- dence of tuberculosis of the udder. It is also requested that, if cases of tuberculosis in animals are found, inspectors keep a record of them for a few days, and then when animals are quarantined, several can be quarantined at once and duplicates sent here, so that tke agent of the Cattle Bureau can see a number at one visit, instead of having to go every two or three days to see one animal at a time, thus avoiding limning up expenses as much as possible. It is also the duty of insjiectors of animals to quarantine cattle brought into this State from without the limits of the Common- wealth, if the owner has not had a permit from this Bureau, the same to remain in quarantine until ordered released by the Chief of the Cattle Bureau or his agent. Inspectors of animals, in ease they suspect the presence of any contagious disease among any species of domestic animals, are to quarantine such animals and send duplicates to tlie Chief of the Cattle Bureau. Contagious disea.«!es, under the provisions of section 28, chapter 90 of the Revised Laws, include " glanders, farcy, contagious pleuro- pneumonia, tuberculosis, Texas fever, foot-and-mouth disease, rinder- pest, hog cholera, rabies, anthrax or anthracoid diseases, sheep scab, and actinomycosis." The necessary books for the inspection will be forwarded at once. Please report immediately if not received by October 1. When inspection is completed return book. Form No. 1, at once by ex- press. Austin Peters, Chief of Cattle Bureau. 304 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The following table embodies a condensed report of the doings of the inspectors of animals in making the annual inspection, which complies with the requirements of section 24, chapter 90, Revised Laws : — Net Results of Annual Inspection of Animals and Farm Number herds inspected, .... Number neat cattle inspected, . Number cows inspected, .... Number herds kept clean and in good condition, Number sheep insj)ected, .... Number swine inspected, .... Number goats insiDected, .... Number stables inspected, .... Number stables well located, . Number stables well lighted. Number stables well ventilated, . Number stables kept clean. Number stables with good water supply, . Number stables imi^roved since last inspection. Premises. 31,484 227,104 168,026 27,742 27,092 105,363 894 32,832 28,412 25,483 27,421 28,420 30,309 1,523 TUBEECULOSIS. The work for the eradication and control of bovine tuber- culosis can, as usual, be groujied under tln-ce heads : first, the examination of animals quarantined by the local inspec- tors on susi^icion of being diseased, and the appraisal and condemnation of those found by the agents to be tuberculous ; second, the quarantining and testing of cattle intended for dairy or breeding purposes brought into Massachusetts from other States to the stock yards at Brighton, Watertown or Somerville, and those brought in on permits to other points ; third, testing cattle with tuberculin for owners who are desirous of eradicating the disease from their herds. The following figures show the number of neat cattle quarantined by local inspectors, the number for which war- rants were issued, and the disposition made of the animals : — No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 305 Total number of cattle quarantined or reported for examina- tion during the year, 2,595 Massachusetts Cattle. Number released, 508 Number condemned, killed and paid for, 1,119 Number permit to kill, paid for, . . 115 Number permit to kill, no award, . . 151 Number died in quarantine, no award, . 57 Number condemned and killed, in process of settlement, 300 Number in quarantine, unsettled, . . 5 2,255 Cattle from without the State. Number released, ..... 8 Number condemned and killed, no award, 314 Number condemned, killed, no lesions found, paid for, ..... IG Number condemned, killed, no lesions found, to be jjaid for, .... 2 340 Total, 2,595 Of the above 340 interstate cattle, 233 were tested and retested at Brighton, G of which were released for slaughter and 227 condemned ; no lesions were found in 10, for 8 of which the State has reimbursed the owners, and payment will be made for the remaining 2 upon presentation of claims by owners. Of the remaining 107 cattle (which were tested at other points than Brighton), 8 were found to show no lesions, for which the State has reimbursed the owners, and 2 were released on a third test. In addition to the 2,595 head of cattle disposed of as above, 644 cattle and 267 swine have been reported by butchers, renderers and boards of health as having been found tuberculous at time of slaughter, all of which were ren- dered. Of this number, 431 cattle and 170 swine were slaughtered and condemned at the Brighton Abattoir, Under the second group, the maintenance of a quarantine against other States to prevent the introduction of tubercu- lous cattle from outside sources into Massachusetts, the fol- 306 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. lowing figures show the number of animals brought in from without the State, and the disposition made of them : — Receipts of Stock at the Watertown Stock Yards, from Dec. 1, 1909, to Nov. 30, 1910. New Hampshire cattle, Vermont cattle, . Massachusetts cattle, Western cattle, . Sheep and lambs. Swine, Calves, 4,687 3,508 2,048 1,190 3,438 3,477 23,372 Receipts of Stock at the New England Dressed Meat and Wool Com- om Dec. 1, 1909, to Nov. 30, 1910. 22 519 2,276 pany's Yards at Somerville, ft Maine cattle, New Hampshire cattle, Vermont cattle, . Massachusetts cattle, Western cattle, . Canada cattle, . Sheep and lambs. Swine, Calves, Receipts of Stock at Brighton, from Dec. 1, 1909, to Nov Maine cattle. New Hampshire cattle, Vermont cattle, . Massachusetts cattle. New York cattle, Western cattle, . Canada cattle, . Sheep and lambs. Calves, Swine, Cattle tested, Cattle condemned, Cattle killed on permit, Cattle released after test, The cattle upon which a tubercul mostly milch cows to bo offered for 7 20,294 30,783 307,057 1,008,800 31,077 30, 1910. 7,816 1,844 2,077 12,995 2,322 36,716 786 11,430 73,105 71,854 13,013 171 78 12,764 n test is required are sale at the Brighton market Wednesdays, beside a few bulls and working oxen. No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 307 Those animals that come to Watertowii or Somcrvillc are taken to Brighton, and all of the testing is done at the stock barn there. Report of Cattle brought into State during the Year to Points out- side of the Quarantine Stations. For dairy and breeding jiuriioses, tested before shiiiment, . 1,020 For dairy and breeding iniri)oses, tested after arrival, . . 5,354 For dairy and breeding puri)oses, awaiting test, ... 4 Total, 6,378 Neat cattle on which no test was required, exclusive of cattle and calves for immediate slaughter. 909 The cattle and calves on which no test was reqnired, ex- clusive of animals for immediate slaughter, were as fol- lows : — Returned from out-of-State pastures, Calves under six months old, .... Injured and killed, or died before tested, Entered at auction sales, reshipped out of State, Kept in State for brief periods only, Total, 655 163 9 49 33 909 The number of cattle and calves brought into the State for immediate slaughter cannot be given exactly. In round numbers there were 10,000 cattle and calves brought to the large abattoirs and other points outside the quarantine stations, intended for immediate slaughter. Nearly all of the total number of animals given above were brought into the State on permits issued by the Chief of the Cattle Bureau, only 445 head having been brought in without permits, which were reported to the Bureau by rail- road agents, local inspectors or others. Of these, 4 were tested before shipment, 8 were calves under six months old, 32 were slaughtered at once for beef, 1 was being returned from pasture, 27 were in the State temporarily, 23 of which remained only one day, and the remainder, 373 head, were tested by agents of the Cattle Bureau. 308 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The following figures show the disposition of animals that were brought into the State to points outside the quarantine stations at Brighton, Watertown and Somcrville, which failed to pass a satisfactory tuberculin test : — Condemned on first test, ........ 16 Condemned on second test, ........ 83 Condemned on thii'd test, ........ 1 Died before a second test could be made, ..... 2 Killed for beef without retest, on request of owner, subject to inspection, .......... 7 Awaiting slaughter on first test, at request of owner, . . 2 Awaiting a second test, ........ 5 Awaiting a third test after calving, ...... 6 Total, 122 On the animals condemned as above, 4 warrants, with re- port of killing, have not jet been returned ; 10 animals were found on post-mortem examination to be free from disease and have been paid for by the State; and 86 were found on post-mortem examination to be affected with tuberculosis. Of the 7 animals killed for beef on first test, 4 showed no lesions on j)ost-mortem examination, 2 were diseased, and on 1 no report of result has been received. There Avere 1,012 permits issued during the year, 157 of which were reported as not used. Twenty-three permits were issued allowing cattle to be brought into the State for exhibition at agricultural fairs; 8 were issued for returning cattle from exhibition in other States ; 9 were issued for pasturing herds in the State during the season ; 2 allowing cattle to be unloaded in transit through the State ; 2 allowing cattle to cross the line daily from pas- ture or farms in other States ; and 3 allowing persons living near the line to drive cattle across the corner of the State, keeping the animals in the State for brief periods only. For several years, at the request of the United States De- partment of Commerce and Labor, a report of the receipts of all live stock at the j^ort of Boston has been sent to Wash- No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 309 ington each month. The report is made to show weekly receipts. The following table shows the totals, by months, for the past year : — Receipts of Live Stock at Boston for Twelve Months ending Nov. 30, 1910. For Month ending — Cattle. Calves. Sheep and Lambs. Swine. Horses. December 31, 17,453 7,932 27,141 117,710 1,935 January 31, . 15,940 12,551 18,446 126,960 1,860 February 28, 12,106 10,742 14,151 103,397 1,510 March 31, . 11,918 21,763 12,266 81,474 2,235 April 30, 8,378 18,430 14,518 65,753 2,047 May 31, 9,023 12,264 14,219 87,227 1,975 June 30, 9,459 12,197 22,623 143,752 2,520 July 31, 7,918 7,350 20,389 74,628 1,780 August 31, 7,624 6,334 41,111 67,021 1,679 September 30 9,878 7,209 52,673 80,372 2,015 October 31, 8,064 5,450 39,837 60,951 1,670 November 30 12,301 5,728 44,551 68,890 1,795 Totals, 130,062 127,950 321,925 1,084,135 23,021 The third division of the work consists in testing herds with tuberculin for owners who desire it, and is known as volmitary request worh. The following figures show what has been done under this division : — 20 jiersons, in 12 different cities and towns, made voluntary re- quests to have their herds tested : — 20 herds were tested, comi^rising ..... 314 cattle. Released, 219 Killed on permit to kill, paid for, ... 75 Killed on permit to kill, no award, ... 20 314 cattle. In 2 of the animals killed no lesions were found on post- mortem examination. After consultation with the authorities in charge of live- stock interests in the States of New York and Pennsylvania, the following order was issued on June 1 : — 310 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Cattle Bureau Order No. 26. Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Cattle Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture, Boston, June 1, 1910. To Persons bringing Cattle into Massachusetts from the States of New York and Pennsylvania^ and All Others whom it may con- cern : — Section 5 of Cattle Bureau Order No. 15, as amended by Cattle Bureau Order No. 16, is hereby further amended so as to i^rovide as follows : — 1. Certificates of tuberculin test on cattle to be shipped into Mas- sachusetts from New York or Pennsylvania on permits obtained under the provisions of section 1 of Cattle Bureau Order No. 15, made by veterinarians in those States, will be accepted by the Chief of the Cattle Bureau jDrovided : — (a) That the test on cattle tested in New York State is approved by the Commissioner of Agricultui'e or the Acting Chief Vetei'inarian of the New York State Department of Agriculture, and the test is made with tuberculin furnished for the purj^ose by the New York State Department of Agriculture. (b) That the test on cattle tested in Pennsylvania is approved by the Veterinarian or the Deputy-Veterinarian of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board, and the test is made with tuberculin fur- nished for the purpose by the State Live Stock Sanitary Board of Pennsylvania. 2. The Chief of the Cattle Bureau reserves the right to retest any cattle brought into this State under the provisions of section 1 of this order, if at any time a test is vuisatisfactory to him. 3. This order does not apply to neat cattle shipped to the stock yards at Brighton, Watertown or Somerville. 4. This order shall be published by sending a copy to each in- sj^eetor of animals in the Commonwealth, and by furnishing a copy to each shijiper of cattle into the Commonwealth upon permits issued under the jirovisions of section 1 of Cattle Bureau Order No. 15. This order shall take effect upon its approval. Austin Peters, Chief of Cattle Bureau. Approved in Council, June 1, 1910. E. F. Hamlin, Executive Secretary. Owing to an apparent misunderstanding on tlie part of cattle owners as to what cattle might he termed " pasture cattle " within the meaning of the Cattle "Bureau regulations, in July the following order was issued : — No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 311 Cattle Bureau Order No. 27. Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Cattle Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture, Boston, July 19, 1910. To Persons bringing Cattle into Massachusetts, and All Others whom it may concern : — Section 5 of Cattle Bureau Order No. 15, as amended by Cattle Bureau Orders Nos. IG and 2G, is hereby further amended by adding the following sentences: — Cattle being returned to Massachusetts from without the State will not be looked upon as returning from out-of-State pastures unless they are returned to the farm of the person who originally sent them out of the State. Cattle sold to go out of the State and resold to return to other farms than those from Avhieh they were originally shipped, or cattle returning from without the State to premises other than those from Avliieh they were originally shipjied, will not be looked upon as pasture cattle but will return subject to passing the tuberculin test. This order shall be published by sending a copy to each inspector of animals in the Commonwealth, and by furnishing a copy to each shipper of cattle into the Commonwealth ujion permits issued under the provisions of section 1 of Cattle Bureau Order No. 15. This order shall take effect upon its approval. Austin Peters, Chief of Cattle Bureau. Approved in Council, July 20, 15)10. E. F. Hamlin, Executive Secretary. MiscELi.ANEOUs Diseases. The Cattle Bureau is called upon during the year to deal with other diseases of a contagious nature, in addition to rabies, glanders and bovine tuberculosis, and these diseases are usuallv classified under the title of " miscellaneous diseases." Among them are actinomycosis, hog cholera and allied troubles, symptomatic anthrax or blackleg, anthrax, Texas fever, and tuberculosis in other animals than cattle. There have been very few cases of hog cholera, only 10 herds of swine having been quarantined for this disease. All but 2 of these herds have been released, as the disease has subsided and the premises have been disinfected. The re- maining 2 herds are still under observation by this Bureau. A suspected case of tuberculosis in a bay mare in Brockton 312 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. was reported by the inspector of animals of that city. Some of the material taken from a tumor on the animal was sent to the bacteriologist of the Brockton Board of Health, who reported that the mare had tuberculosis. She was then tested with tuberculin and failed to give a reaction. It was then thought best to test her with mallein, to which she gave no reaction, and she was released from further observation by order of the Chief of the Cattle Bureau. A number of cases of actinomycosis have been reported during the year, 12 in all. In two or three cases the disease affected the udder, and in such cases the animals were ordered killed at once, although in cases where cattle have recent lesions, involving the jaw, the owner is advised to feed liber- ally until in good flesh, and then kill for beef under the proper inspection. In pastures where symptomatic anthrax or blackleg oc- curred the previous season the protective inoculation has been given to the young animals when the owners requested it. The material used for this preventive inoculation, as in the past season, has been furnished by the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, and sent to Dr. James B. Paige of the Amherst Agricultural College, who has prepared it for use in the treatment when required. One hundred and sixty- six young animals have been vaccinated in the towns of Ashburnham, Granville, Princeton, Rowe, Winchendon, 'New Marlborough, Townsend, Amherst, Florida, Greenwich and Prescott. Dr. Paige reports that he has heard from all but one of the owners of cattle inoculated during the year, and that not a single fatality has followed the vaccinations. There have been a number of cases of mange in horses and cattle reported to this office, but as this is not a contagious disease under the law, the Chief of the Cattle Bureau has not felt entitled to spend much money in this direction, al- though the agents sent to examine these cases have given the owners professional advice in regard to the treatment of such animals. The outbreak of anthrax in the western part of the State, v/hich occurred in the fall of 1909, has been very nearly stamjDed out, only 11 animals having been reported as dying No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 313 of this disease during tlie past year. At the request of own- ers, 21 cattle, 3 horses and 95 sheep were given the preventive inocuhition. This treatment consists of two inoculations, the second one being given ten days after the first. In the month of April the following order was issued in relation to this disease : — Cattle Bureau Order No. 24. Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Cattle Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture, Boston, April 26, 1910. To All Persons whom it may concern: — By virtue of the jiower and authority vested by law in the Cattle Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture, under the provisions of chapter 90 of the Revised Laws and chai^ter 116 of the Acts of 1902, you are hereby notified that anthrax, which is a contagious disease and is so recognized under the laws of this Commonwealth, has occurred recently among domestic animals in the towns of Great Barrington and Sheffield. You are hereby further notified that in order to prevent the si3read of this disease among domestic animals and to protect the ijublic health in the localities where the disease exists, the Chief of the Cattle Bureau hereby issues the following order : — ■ 1. The carcasses of any neat cattle, horses or other animals that may die of anthrax are not to be skinned or opened, but must be buried or cremated with the hides on. If they are buried they must be buried deeply, away from any water course, and the carcasses covered with quicklime. If any blood or excreta come from any animal in removing it to a place of burial such material must be scraped up and burned and the ground from which it was taken sprinkled with quicklime. 2. If any animals die of this disease in any stable the stable must be disinfected according to the rules and regulations of the Cattle Bureau. 3. No one is to make any autoi")sy upon or any incision into the carcass of any animal that has died of anthrax, unless he be an agent of the Cattle Bureau acting under the authority of the Chief of the Cattle Bureau at the time of making such autopsy or incision. 4. Any person owning an animal that he suspects of having anthrax, or losing an animal which he suspects may have died of anthrax, or any pei'son hearing of the presence of this disease in any species of animal, is to immediately notify the local inspector of animals or the Chief of the Cattle Bureau or his agent. This order is to be made public by inspectors of animals in the 314 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. towns of Great Barrington, Sheffield, New Marlborongb, EgTemont, Alford, West Stoekbridge, Stockbridge, Lee, Tyringham and Mon- terey posting three or more printed copies in public places in their respective towns, and by publication for two weeks in the " Berk- shire Courier," a newspaper published weekly in the town of Great Barrington. This order shall take effect upon its ajiproval. Austin Peters, Chief of Cattle Bureau. Approved in Council, April 27, 1910. E, F. Hamlin, Executive Secretary. FiNANCiAT. Statement. At the close of the last fiscal year, Nov. 80, 3 909, there was on hand, as per the sixteenth semiannual report : — Balance of aj^propriation for salaries and expenses for 1909, . . . $316 29 Balance of aiipropriation for general work of the Bureau for 1909, . . 173 47 $489 76 Appropriation for salaries and expenses of 1910, chapter 38, Acts of 1910, . $7,000 00 Api^roi^riation for general work of the Bureau, chapter 165, Acts of 1910, . 100,000 00 107,000 00 Total to be accounted for, $107,489 76 Expended during the year: — For 754 head of cattle condemned and killed during the year 1909, paid for in 3 910, . .' . . . . $16,087 50 For 7 head of cattle condemned and killed prior to 1909, paid for in 1910, 145 00 For 1,311 head of cattle condemned and killed during the year, . . . 32,487 79 For killing and burial, quarantine claims and arbitration expenses, . . . 403 75 $49,124 04 For services of agents (exclusive of glanders work), $16,577 35 For expenses of agents (exclusive of glanders work), 5,898 91 No. 4.] IIEPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 315 For exi^enses of quarantine stations, . $8,056 25 For expenses of glanders work, includ- ing' services and expenses of agents, laboratory work and killing and burial, 8,641 87 For laboratory expenses (exclusive of glanders work), 1,197 14 For implements, ear tags, thermometers, etc., 625 82 For salary of Chief of Bureau, . . 1,800 00 For salary of clerk, . • . . . 1,200 00 For salaries of assistant clerks and stenographers, ..... 1,655 00 For office expenses, printing, postage, stationery, etc., .... For expenses of Chief of Bureau, . Total expenditures, .... Balance from all accounts, Nov. 30, 1910, Total as above, .... This balance is made up from the following items: — Balance of approjiriation for salaries and expenses, 1909, .... $306 41 Balance of appropriation for salaries and expenses, 1910, .... 401 61 Balance of ajipropriation for general work of the Bureau available for un- settled accounts of 1910, . . . 10,052 09 $10,760 11 1,788 26 165 01 $47,605 61 . $96,729 65 10,760 11 , , , $107,489 76 The average price paid for condemned cattle for the year was $24.93. There has been received during the year, from the sale of hides and carcasses of condemned animals, sale of ear tags, testing cattle for nonresident owners, etc., $4,020.41. Claims for 302 head of cattle condemned and killed as tuberculous during the year remain unsettled, to be paid for on proof of claims, the appraised value of which amounts to $5,712. 316 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Seventy-four stamps for branding carcasses of animals killed and inspected for food have been furnished to 50 cities and towns during the year ending Nov. 30, 1910. To carry on the work of the Bureau in all parts of the State, the service of many agents, veterinarians and others, is obviously necessary. In assuming this office I determined to retain so far as possible the existing force of employees, believing that their experience and their knowledge of the territory in which they worked made them the best qualified to carry on the work successfully. Many requests for ap- pointments were filed with me, and also many criticisms of existing methods and agents, but as my only purpose was to raise the standard of the work performed by the Bureau to the highest plane possible, I decided to judge the competency of agents myself, after a fair trial, and to make changes slowly, endeavoring always to retain those who proved most worthy. I am not wholly satisfied with the manner in which a considerable portion of the work is done, but we are, I be- lieve, faced in the right direction, and time will see the prob- lem worked out satisfactorily. In this small army of agents there are many whose work is highly creditable and character- ized by earnest, honest endeavor. The good work done by this Bureau is largely due to the painstaking labor of these men. As you are aware, I came into this position not as a pro- fessional appointee but as a practical handler of cattle and a dairyman. To the practical experience gained in many years of active association with the above-named interests, I shall add whatever may be gained (and I do not underestimate its value) by frequent consultation with the best scientific and veterinary authorities in the State and nation. I am pleased to report to your honorable Board that I have been assured of having at all times the professional advice of the best-known experts in matters pertaining to the professional phase of the animal industry. With such eminent professional assistance at the command of the Chief of the Bureau, and an earnest No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 317 endeavor to conduct the work with all the care a successful private business demands, we may confidently look for pro- gressive service in the State's behalf, and I trust ample justification will be found for the Bureau's establishment and continuance. For several years it has been the custom to send official representatives of the Bureau to one or more annual gather- ings of live-stock sanitary associations, interstate or national. The wisdom of this step needs no defence. In no other way can the local department impart its views on sanitary matters to its neighbors, or learn of methods adopted and practiced successfully elsewhere. Interchange of opinions and mutual acquaintance broaden all participants, widen their horizon and tend to a community of interest and protection. One such gathering has been attended by representatives of this Bureau during the year ending 'Nov. 30, 1910. At the meet- ing of the Eastern Live Stock Sanitary Association, held at Atlantic City, IST. J., May 6 to 8, the Massachusetts Bureau was represented by my predecessor, Dr. Austin Peters, who was and is president of the organization. He was accom- panied by Agent C. A. Dennen of Pepperell, and Dr. B. D. Pierce of Springfield. In this connection, although it is of date outside the scope of this report, I wish to say that I had the honor to be com- missioned by Acting Governor Frothingham to represent the State Cattle Bureau at the annual convention of the United States Live Stock Sanitary Association, held at Chicago, 111., December 5 to 7, inclusive. The session was a most helpful one in many ways. I found a rapidly growing interest in the sanitary phase of the animal industry, and an earnest and honest desire to arrive at the best methods of handling the perplexities of the subject, and, what was most gratifying, a willingness to get together and to look beyond State lines. I was brought in contact with the heads of cattle departments of nearly every State west of ISTcw England, and with officials of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry. The repre- sentative from Massachusetts was received with great courtesy, and was elected first vice-president of the association. 318 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Changes effected. Sundry changes in regulations, which were found early in my administration to be imperatively necessary, but which could not be made effective until after the close of the fiscal and statistical year, jSTov. 30, 1910, I have taken the liberty to insert in this report, feeling that your honorable Board is entitled to know the policy under which the department is now being conducted, and finding nothing in the statutes, after careful examination, which j)rohibits my so doing. On December 21 the honorable Executive Council approved of certain amendments of Cattle Bureau Order 'No. 15, which I had submitted to it. The first change to which I desire to call your attention is in section 5, and is embodied in the following paragraph: — Certificates of tuberculin test made by qualified veterinarians re- siding- in other States will be accepted, provided the test is made with tuberculin furnished or apjn'oved by State or federal govern- ment, and provided also that the certificates are approved and endorsed by the official in charge of live-stock interests in the State from which the cattle are shipped, or by his deputy. The Chief of the Cattle Bureau may in his discretion retest any or all tested cattle brought within the limits of the Commonwealth from other States. In considtation with officials having charge of live-stock interests in all the near-by States, I found them willing to examine and pass upon all certificates of tuberculin test made by qualified veterinarians in their respective States, thus safe- guarding the interests of this State and saving the shipper from possible loss. The old policy of the Bureau was to test cattle coming into the State after their arrival here. This practice resulted in loss to the shipper and necessarily ad- vanced the price to Massachusetts buyers, for shippers, in establishing sales prices, naturally took into consideration the liability of losing one or more head from each carload. The reciprocal relations established by this amendment will, I am sure, work to the advantage of all concerned, and will not imperil our interests. The closing restriction it is believed No. 4.] RErORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. -319 protects all our rights, and is a deterrent in case any irregu- larities escape the vigilance of the authorities. Another change in the same section provides as follows : — Cattle returning' from out-of-State pastures or boarding places, satisfactory as to sanitary conditions to the Chief of the Cattle Bureau, will not be subjected to a tuberculin test if they have not been out of the State over six months, provided they bear ear tags furnished for this purjoose by the Massachusetts Cattle Bureau the numbers of which have been forwarded to the office of the Bureau prior to the cattle being sent out of the State. Under the old order abuses crept in and the department was unable to correct them. A herd returning from out-of-State pastures might or might not be the same cattle that left the State ; it might be double or treble its original size ; it might contain any number of cattle which had never been subjected to inspection by this Bureau. All of these things were pos- sible because of the lack of means of identification. As amended, the regulation insists upon the use of the numbered ear tag, with office record of the same, before the herd leaves the State, and upon its return subjects all cattle not bearing the official tag to the tuberculin test. Acting under the authority granted by chapter 90 of the Revised Laws, I have ordered the annual inspection of neat stock, other farm animals and premises, recpiired by law, to be made between February 1 and March 15, instead of in the fall months, as has been the custom. This change I believe to be along a practical line. At the time of the fall inspection the cattle are in many cases scattered in pastures, and thus liable to escape that careful examination which the law con- templates. Then, again, at that season of the year their phys- ical condition is at its best, rendering the discovery of disease more difficult. The change of date will allow the inspectors to more completely cover the ground, will show the cattle in their normal condition, and, what is very important, will give the inspector a clear understanding of the conditions under which they are housed. 320 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Recommendations. Right here I wish to say that this Bureau should have more extended authority over sanitary conditions of stables and other farm buildings. Nothing so directly affects the . health of animals as the conditions under which they are housed. We may enter the stables and inspect the cattle ; we may condemn the infected members of the herd, and order their removal. On the other hand, the barn may be reeking with filth, poorly lighted and ventilated, a hotbed of disease germs ; yet into such dangerous surroundings, after we have taken out the diseased cattle, the owner may bring healthy cattle which in turn may become infected from these impure and unhealthy conditions. We should be clothed with power to open such barns to the air and sunlight and to cleanse them in a suitable manner, if our cattle work is to be crowned with success. The State Board of Health has among its multifarious duties the supervision of buildings in which dairy cattle are kept, but its agents apparently do not see the conditions quite as we see them, nor do they have our opportunity to advise the needed reform at a time when such advice is most likely to be effective. A vesting of such authority in the Cattle Bureau would be in the interest of intelligent classification of work. Another matter to which I desire to call your attention is one in which authority is divided between the State Board of Health and the Cattle Bureau. Under the law the Cattle Bureau furnishes stamps or brands to local boards of health applying therefor, to be used by meat inspectors in their respective localities. It also issues rules and regulations con- forming to those of the United States Bureau of Animal In- dustry, under which the meat inspectors must work. But these inspectors are not appointed by this Bureau, nor is their appointment subject to its approval, and, still further, this Bureau cannot hold them responsible for any failure to per- form their duties. They are responsible to the local boards of health, over which the State Board of Health has advisory power. Here seems to be an unnecessary tangle of authority No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 321 that needs unraveling. It would seem that the State Board of Health might very properly furnish these stamps and formulate the regulations under which the appointees of the local boards of health carry on their work. The office of local inspector of animals is of greater impor- tance than is commonly recognized. The authorities of cities and towns, who have the appointing power, should exercise the greatest care in selecting these officials, and in my opinion this Bureau should have increased authority over these ap- pointees, in order that they may work in harmony with the policy of the department. The present Chief would welcome an opportunity to consult with the local authorities on this subject, believing that their purpose, like his own, is to secure the most efficient men available. The State expects and should have in these local appointees men of practical efficiency, who, having been tried and found not wanting, should be retained in spite of political changes. Conclusion. The work of the Bureau has been largely directed toward the suppression of tuberculosis. I am of the opinion, and my opinion was formed long before I became associated with the department, and has been strengthened since, that it cannot be stamped out by any purely theoretical regulations. It can be largely suppressed, however, and all agencies leading to that end must be recognized and tactfully employed. Success will only be attained when there is, in addition to long-con- tinued and persistent official effort of a practical nature, co- operation upon the part of the individual cattle owner. There is too often distrust of officials when there should be confidence. The agent of a department is looked upon as an enemy, a ruthless destroyer of property and a foe to be dreaded and avoided. A policy must be adopted that will restore confidence and afford equal protection, without exces- sive burdens, to the humblest cattle o\vner and the millionaire farmer alike. It shall be the aim of the present administra- tion to work for such results. The State should seek to encourage the weaker class of dairymen, honest minded and well intentioned, and assist them in every legitimate way to 322 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [P.D.No.4. establish herds that shall be a credit to the State aiid a source of profit to their owners. Once established on a healthy, profitable basis they would become a permanent source of supply to near-by consumers, who would thus secure a fresh, healthful product at a reasonable cost. The appalling de- crease in the number of cattle owned in our State is sufficient proof of the need of such a policy. The Massachusetts Cattle Bureau was not established for the purpose of persecution, nor can it work out the problems before it by a policy that relies upon prosecution. Its aim and intent is to restrain and correct abuses if they exist, and at the same time stimulate and encourage the cattle industry of the State and protect the health of its citizens. The pres- ent administration is willing and eager to give to all parties interested helpful and encouraging counsel. We want every farmer and stock owner in the State to feel free to consult the Bureau. In no better way can misunderstandings be cleared up and difficulties solved. To attain this ideal we must first have honest and faithful agents of the State, who will deal fairly with the people, and then we must have the co-operation and confidence of the cattle-owning public, which will only come when the true policy and aims of the Bureau are more fully understood. I am sure that with rational interpretation of the law, and a better knowledge of the benefits sought, the Cattle Bureau may become one of the most prized depart- ments of the State, and that the producer and the consumer will eventually recognize in it an institution conducted for the welfare and protection of each. Respectfully submitted, FRED FREELAND WALKER, Chief of Cattle Bureau. FII^AITCIAL RETURJNS ANzVlysis of Peemiums and Geatuities IJ^CORPORATED SOCIETIES, MEMBERSHIP AND INSTITUTES, For the Year 1910. 324 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Financial Returns of the Incorporated SOCIETIES. 3 JM "3 ft^ p O C3 . o5 " — -^ tj Amesbury and Saliabury (Agricul- tural and Horticultural), Barnstable County, .... Blackstone Valley, .... Deerfield Valley, .... Eastern Hampden, .... Essex, ....... Franklin County, .... Hampshire, ..... Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden, Highland, ...... Hillside, Hingham (Agricultural and Horticul- tural), ...... Hoosac Valley, ..... Housatonic, ..... Lenox Horticultural, .... Marshfield (Agricultural and Horti- cultural), ...... Martha's Vineyard, .... Massachusetts Horticultural, Mass.ichusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, '2 . . . . . Middlesex North, .... Middlesex South, .... Nantucket, Oxford, Plymouth County, . . . _ . Spencer (Farmers' and Mechanics' Association), . . . . . Union (Agricultural and Horticul- tural), ...... Weymouth (Agricultural and Indus- trial), ...... Worcester, ...... Worcester East, Worcester Northwest (Agricultural and Mechanical), . . . . Worcester South, .... Worcester County West, 1881 1844 1884 1871 1856 1818 18.50 1850 1818 1850 188.3 1867 1860 1848 1910 1867 1859 1829 1792 1855 1854 1856 1888 1819 1867 1891 1818 1890 1867 18,55 1851 81,002 32 1,740 00 3,000 00 4,094 01 3,000 00 4,527 20 3,768 00 3,255 26 8,141 29 3,262 00 3,113 32 17,406 15 2,006 00 6,335 33 1,000 00 3,755 33 4,552 17 525 00 3,000 00 3,000 00 3,500 00 4,400 00 9,550 00 4,034 00 4,447 23 10,270 00 7,730 00 2,296 23 3,400 00 3,127 40 3,175 00 1 S8,121 97 2 9,917 96 3 5,000 00 3 9,200 00 3 7,000 00 < 16,150 16 J 11,295 10 5 5,065 00 1 21,135 00 1 3,120 00 6 6,070 22 6 4,676 31 ' 15,595 00 < 27,054 04 s 2,451 63 1 13,000 00 3 5,050 00 1 564,524 70 "7,131 94 3 12,000 00 3 3,200 00 8 11,577 68 "2,037 19 1 10,350 00 1 9,000 00 1 11,270 00 2 89,940 00 6 12,654 11 6 13,.361 61 I 14,130 00 1 10,500 00 $151,413 24 S941,679 62 S8,121 97 9,917 96 5,000 00 9,4.50 00 7,(X(0 00 15,860 00 11,295 10 5,0,50 00 21,166 27 3,120 00 6,070 22 4,676 31 15,000 00 27,0,54 04 2,451 63 13,000 00 5,050 00 830,172 06 7,131 94 12,200 00 3,200 00 11,577 68 2,037 19 10,350 00 9,475 68 11,270 00 91,878 46 11,991 30 13,361 61 14,130 00 10,500 00 S8,121 98 10,319 44 5,.501 04 9,559 41 7,076 14 16,150 16 11,295,10 5,065 00 21,446 27 3,120 12 6,170 76 4,720 88 15,595 00 27,104 04 2,451 63 15,007 64 5,110 22 848,433 72 7,131 94 12,3,50 20 3,230 43 11,577 68 2,037 19 10,543 89 9,475 68 11,304 51 91,878 46 12,654 11 13,,361 61 14,478 88 10,598 73 $1,208,659 42 $1,232,871 86 1 Invested in real estate, crockery, tables, etc. 2 Invested in real estate and bank funds. 3 Invested in real estate. < Invested in real estate, stocks, bank funds, crockery, tables, etc. 5 Invested in real estate, cash, crockery, tables, etc. 1 Invested in real estate, bank funds, crockery, tables, etc. ' Invested in real estate and cash. RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 325 Societies for the Year ending Dec. 31, 1910. a 3 i -a 3 tn a o T3 & '6 .2? 1 a o 3 >» .2 1 s o 8 M a CS "t3 2S 3 O 3 ►-1 3 o rt 2 M pq M u U H $7,71G 09 $405 28 $0 01 $1,500 00 1 8,000 00 - - Sl,917 96 - - 401 48 1,704 40 2 5,000 00 - - - - - 501 04 1,540 00 3 9,200 00 - - - - 250 00 109 41 - 4 7,000 00 - - - - - 76 14 7,173 51 5 15,300 00 - $300 00 - - 200 00 290 16 10,000 00 6 10,000 00 - 1,000 00 45 10 - 250 00 - 2,838 00 7 5,001) 00 - - - - 50 00 15 00 2,275 08 8 20,335 00 - - 231 27 $80 00 800 00 - 4,156 69 9 3,000 00 - - - - 120 00 12 52 96 10 5,000 00 - - 820 22 - 350 00 54 - 11 2,500 00 _ _ 1,276 31 _ 900 00 44 57 _ 12 15,000 00 - - - - - 595 00 9,000 00 13 24,840 37 - 500 00 - 50 00 425 00 1,279 67 2,050 00 14 - - - 2,101 63 - 350 00 - - 15 12,500 00 _ _ _ _ 500 00 2,007 64 1,627 94 16 2,750 00 SlOO 00 - 2,000 00 49 00 200 00 11 22 10 27 00 17 518,564 03 - 255,700 GO - - 55,907 43 18.261 66 - 18 ~ 4,412 00 ~ 2,039 89 - - 80 05 - 19 20 12,000 00 - - - 38 00 200 00 112 20 10,048 00 21 3,200 00 - - - - _ 30 43 - 22 11,000 00 - - 77 68 - 500 00 2,150 00 23 - - - 1,988 51 - 39 00 9 68 - 24 9,400 00 - - - 132 00 950 00 61 89 1,943 00 25 8,000 00 - - 475 68 - 1,000 00 - 1,504 91 26 11,000 00 _ _ _ _ 270 00 34 51 4,602 00 27 74,530 22 - - 15,409 88 - 1,938 36 - - 28 11,534 00 - - 662 81 - 457 30 - - 29 13,000 00 _ _ 61 61 _ 300 00 _ 3,050 00 30 13,530 00 - - - - 600 00 348 88 1,584 20 31 10,000 00 - - - - 500 00 98 73 637 50 32 $848,909 91 $4,512 00 $257,560 00 $29,708 55 $349 00 $67,462 37 $24,370 03 $69,465 19 8 Invested in bank funds, crockery, tables, etc. ' Invested in real estate, notes, crockery, tables, etc. >» Estimated. " Invested in real estate, library, furniture, bonds and other securities. '2 Reprosentod on the Board by special enactment, and makes no returns. " Invested in notes, banks fund and cash. ** Invested in bank funds, cash, crockery, tables, etc. 326 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Financial Returns of the Incorporated Societies SOCIETIES. T3 a C3 _2 .-3 3 pq 'O to a a. -2 'a O- -0 a 03 a a •2 03 3 Ph 0 $179 40 $125 00 : 1,413 51 _ 38 00 3 50 21 58 - 556 69 - 62 96 - 50 00 21 85 - 2 27 00 - 398 00 _ 143 00 - 204 91 - 502 00 107 45 76 75 37 50 - S349 70 $3,609 40 Oi-t £t3 Amcsbury and Salisbury (Agricul- tural and Horticultural), Barnstable County, .... Blaclcstone Valley, .... Ueerfield Valley, .... Eastern Hampden Essex, ....... Franklin County, .... Hampshire, . . . . . Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden, Highland, ...... Hillside, Hingham (Agricultural and Horticul- tural), ...... Hoosac Valley, Housatonic, . . . . • Lenox Horticultural, . . . . Marshfield (Agricultural and Horti- cultural), ...... Martha's Vineyard, .... Massachusetts Horticultural, Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, 3 . . . . . Middlesex North Middlesex South, .... Nantucket, Oxford, ...... Plymouth County, . . ■ Spencer (Farmers' and Mechanics' Association), . . . . . Union (Agricultural and Horticul- tural), ...... Weymouth (Agricultural and Indus- trial), Worcester, ...... Worcester East, ..... Worcester Northwest (Agricultural and Mechanical), . . . . Worcester South, .... Worcester County West, $1,500 00 1,400 00 1,540 00 5,760 00 10,000 00 2,800 00 2,250 00 3,600 00 9,000 00 2,000 00 1,606 09 9,650 00 2,150 00 1,800 00 1,300 00 4,100 00 3,050 00 1,400 00 600 00 $2,751 16 9,513 18 2,894 17 2,526 46 5,322 21 3,420 82 7,738 60 2,785 14 14,062 46 2,111 27 1,520 06 876 07 6,289 00 14,391 83 393 00 7,900 60 1,222 27 29,160 08 960 27 3,328 40 1,503 86 5,720 55 600 46 2,659 64 2,725 01 3,946 50 32,024 31 11,180 99 7,977 55 10,176 54 3,817 48 $65,50609 $201,559 94 $600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 354 80 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 600 00 $231 96 1 11 15 70 16 70 49 52 84 50 360 27 28 00 599 71 $17,754! $1,387 47 1 Including trotting. : Estimated. No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 327 FOR THE Year ending Dec. 31, 1910 — Concluded. 1 CO S a ^ Id a o < 1 Gra- a i a a Q si is CI "1 a a 3 . p. W i: o T3 0) "O X S m 03 .t a 83 go (D tH so 3 o 5-2 a '3 S a Sw 0) O p l-H rt « « H Pm o Q ^, S9 00 $2,142 16 $2,826 94 S759 95 $1,941 24 $75 00 $50 75 1 - 45 00 S205 00 8,431 22 9,111 70 1,072 05 6,124 05 2 34 1,912 66 2 - 30 15 51 71 2,212 31 3,393 13 744 49 1,253 37 65 00 330 27 3 - 32 00 13 74 1,880 72 2,254 36 794 11 850 15 - 596 30 4 - 58 00 - 4,604 21 5,246 07 897 41 4,088 01 260 05 _ 5 $300 00 21 00 353 00 2,085 71 3,529 51 426 75 008 02 483 25 2,011 49 6 40 00 1 00 7,097 00 7,743 04 » 2,049 05 3,956 54 203 51 933 94 7 - 32 50 57 48 2,773 14 2,773 14 750 50 388 29 114 40 1,519 95 8 - 70 00 55 00 13,321 70 13,791 98 3,990 55 3,860 30 138 44 5,802 09 9 - 40 00 - 1,405 27 2,111 15 070 55 1,430 30 4 30 - 10 - 80 00 17 00 806 36 1,590 08 917 50 072 58 - - 11 _ 55 00 10 30 155 25 1,030 79 001 60 309 19 _ _ 12 - 10 00 - 5,679 00 5,694 00 2,409 00 1,575 00 450 00 1,260 00 13 59 58 406 00 - 13,320 25 13,112 10 5,742 00 5,408 24 111 66 1,790 26 14 62 00 61 00 270 00 - 1,007 00 528 50 206 45 - 272 71 15 _ 95 00 137 50 7,068 10 0,005 58 2,226 75 4,336 61 102 22 _ 16 - - 1 00 536 77 1,226 11 690 23 339 03 - 196 25 17 11,235 00 760 00 7,936 92 8,628 16 18,082 39 < 4,564 00 - - 14,118 39 18 ~ ~ ~ " 591 40 316 40 125 00 - 2 150 00 19 20 - 17 05 115 26 2.596 09 3,210 20 1,429 33 1,158 34 39 00 589 53 21 - 19 00 70 15 874 71 1,533 43 680 75 852 08 - - 22 - 41 00 39 00 5,040 55 5,720 55 1,079 04 2,104 07 98 50 2,438 34 23 - - 45 00 172 66 436 78 306 50 70 28 - - 24 - 5 00 - 2,054 64 2,597 75 1,094 47 1,116 53 35 00 351 75 25 - 43 00 5 25 2,076 76 2,249 33 1,166 76 906 18 - 175 75 26 _ 10 00 28 35 3,308 15 3,928 53 583 84 2,871 67 218 75 254 27 27 - 140 (X) 504 50 30,180 10 33,667 42 7,551 40 - - 26,116 02 28 - 59 00 2,050 00 8,471 99 10,460 88 2,815 05 7,645 83 - - 29 _ _ 555 00 6,822 55 8,722 83 1,688 75 6,338 26 183 00 512 82 30 - 71 00 - 9,505 54 9,529 94 2,492 40 3,968 63 20 00 3,048 91 31 - 15 00 125 00 3,077 48 3,893 45 1,754 51 1,352 45 48 50 737 99 32 $11,756 58 82,231 70 $12,652 16 $155,777 23 $187,398 28 $53,514 79 $66,045 73 $2,652 92 $65,171 10 ' Represented on the Board by special enactment, and makes no returns. * Awarded in 1909; paid in 1910. 328 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Analysis of Premiums and Gratuities, Membership and i2 .Si ."HO -So ii 11 SOCIETIES. o ..o 05 0 a 3 3 1 a 5^ ^ Hi P m 13 a 3 m 3 rt T3 S £^ sS -^ sa 3 S 0 o >» 3^ a O - tH AT) 3 oi OT3«2 3 oi^i is l^o III aw a« H H H < < < < I Amesbury and Salisbury (Ag- ricultural and Horticultural) S769 35 $769 35 S759 95 _ _ _ 1 _ 2 Barnstable County, 2,484 85 1,253 05 1,072 65 1120 00 - - $1,164 00 3 Blackatone Valley, 1,081 15 822 60 744 49 145 00 $58 00 $58 00 703 50 4 Deerfield Valley, . 1,176 25 806 85 794 11 _ 900 00 5 Eastern Hampden, 1,339 00 897 76 897 41 98 00 _ _ 798 00 6 Essex 1,588 30 480 25 426 75 48 00 14 00 12 00 742 00 7 Franklin County, . 2 4,250 00 2 2,790 71 2 2,649 05 _ 2,500 00 8 Hampshire, 1,721 75 750 00 750 50 _ _ 1,158 00 9 Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden, . 2 4,040 55 2 3,990 55 2 3,990 55 50 00 _ - 1,005 00 10 Highland, 2 731 00 2 670 55 2 670 55 - - - 414 50 11 Hillside, .... 958 00 917 50 917 50 10 00 6 00 6 00 675 00 12 Hingham (Agricultural and Horticultural), . 1,375 80 661 60 661 60 71 75 _ _ _ 13 Hoosac Valley, 2 2,814 75 2 2,409 00 2 2,409 00 - _ - 925 00 14 Housatonic, . 2 6,809 75 2 5,742 00 5,742 OU - - - 2,038 00 15 Lenox, .... 661 50 528 50 628 50 50 00 _ _ _ 16 Marshfield (Agricultural and Horticultural), . 2 2,669 00 2 2,234 40 2,226 75 100 00 - - 505 00 17 Martha's Vineyard, 664 25 701 55 690 23 - - - 392 75 18 Massachusetts Horticultural, 9^31 00 5,589 00 3 4,564 00 369 00 231 00 3 231 00 - 19 Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture 4 - - - - - - - 20 Middlesex North, . . 566 50 373 15 316 40 - - 208 75 21 Middlesex South, . 2 1,800 00 2 1,339 25 2 1,429 33 104 70 36 75 36 75 309 45 22 Nantucket, 2 1,200 00 2 080 75 2 680 75 51 00 15 00 15 00 604 00 23 Oxford 1,498 00 1,123 55 1,079 04 78 00 39 00 36 88 1,066 00 24 Plymouth County. 359 25 366 50 366 50 - 10 00 10 00 1 - 25 Spencer (Farmers and Me- chanics' Association), . 2 1,700 00 2 1,161 00 2 1,094 47 - - - 815 00 26 Union (Agricultural and Hor- ticultural), . 2 1,552 00 2 1,180 63 2 1,166 76 - - - 804 00 27 Weymouth (Agricultural and Industrial), . 1,155 65 683 84 583 84 - - - 679 00 28 Worcester, 2 9,553 41 2 7,551 40 2 7,551 40 - - - 5,711 25 29 Worcester East, 3,200 00 2,815 05 2,815 05 32 00 32 00 32 00 2,001 50 30 Worcester Northwest (.Agri- cultural and Meclianical), . 1,800 00 1,694 75 1,688 75 - - - 1- 31 Worcester South, . 2 3,176 00 2 2,540 30 2 2,492 40 102 00 64 00 64 00 1,148 00 32 Worcester County West, 2 2,181 90 2 1,754 51 2 1,754 51 60 00 29 00 29 00 1,163 50 $74,108 96 $55,283 90 $53,514 79 $1,489 45 $534 75 $530 63 $29,031 20 Not reported. 2 Including trotting. No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 329 Institutes, for the Year ending Dec. 31, 1910. 11 ■0 a 0. -" 11 3-a . T3T3 . U 1 T3 O 7,~ a ^-a a 0) ■- a 3 a^Pn cj (3 o -^ a a ejW o t-i 3 l;^ ^°2 OOfl 3S^ a-a-§ o a a-o-a 2o C-3 . a ° a fl 3 d 3 S*^ O » !D SWf4 3 oj ij o a> cs sffio S9§ 3 S b O ^ C3 §2S o-o-aiS S§g3 3 c; fc. o ai 03 3 a _2 gW 3 E3Q < < < < < < < < < < $365 50 S365 50 1 _ $2&4 40 $258 90 I _ $3 25 1 431 25 334 00 $164 00 - - $557 75 363 35 305 85 $10 00 5 00 2 524 50 511 50 _ _ - 115 40 113 90 113 90 10 00 5 00 3 584 00 570 63 - - - 78 50 71 75 71 75 12 00 11 00 4 601 50 601 50 _ _ _ 254 75 173 25 173 25 63 00 23 00 5 223 25 149 25 197 50 SO 00 $6 00 382 00 136 00 119 25 14 00 4 00 6 1,316 00 1,316 00 - - - 500 00 252 10 252 10 21 00 12 00 7 309 25 309 25 - - - 250 00 112 25 108 75 6 00 2 00 8 1,179 50 1,105 75 95 00 _ _ 241 00 208 25 193 75 40 00 11 00 9 428 25 428 25 17 75 13 75 13 75 70 75 67 45 57 45 4 50 4 50 10 662 45 662 45 45 00 44 50 44 50 77 00 70 50 70 50 4 00 3 00 11 _ _ 173 00 84 00 84 00 776 80 371 10 371 10 3 50 2 00 12 264 50 264 50 _ _ _ 80 75 55 50 55 50 24 00 6 00 13 1,196 75 1,196 75 276 00 271 00 271 00 391 50 336 00 336 00 38 00 38 00 14 - - - - 611 50 528 50 528 50 - - 15 319 35 319 35 90 50 7 50 2 50 246 00 199 55 193 35 17 50 11 00 16 3U9 75 309 75 - - - 68 25 104 50 104 50 10 00 7 00 17 - - - - - 8,862 00 5,358 00 3 4,333 00 - - 18 139 25 103 75 - : : 264 75 174 25 159 00 - - 19 20 287 60 287 60 67 30 17 85 17 85 22 00 6 50 6 50 - - 21 349 75 349 75 134 00 - - 163 00 71 50 71 50 16 00 _ 22 802 50 785 26 65 50 62 90 62 22 179 50 109 90 105 04 9 00 9 00 23 90 00 90 00 - - - - 116 50 116 50 - - 24 386 50 356 50 51 25 25 75 19 25 106 00 86 00 72 00 10 00 10 00 25 462 00 457 50 - - - 69 60 57 50 50 75 13 25 5 75 26 325 74 323 49 45 00 _ _ 210 00 101 25 96 25 5 50 50 27 3,747 50 3,747 50 _ - - 497 00 443 00 443 00 22 00 16 00 28 1,650 25 1,650 25 - - - 1 _ 871 25 871 25 21 00 8 00 29 1,045 75 1,044 75 _ _ _ 1 _ 469 75 469 75 30 00 12 00 30 768 50 732 50 - - - 226 00 138 20 131 95 18 00 15 00 31 836 95 836 95 - - - 150 50 140 75 140 75 15 00 12 00 32 $19,608 09 $19,210 23 $1,422 80 $533 25 $521 07 $15,452 30 $11,562 70 $10,381 14 S437 25 $236 00 « Awarded in 1909; paid in 1910. * Represented on the Board by epecial enactment, and makes no returua. 330 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Analysis of Premiums and Gratuities, Membership and ^ • t- o t; **-• ' (-. o t. 1 ■T3 J, h 1 Oj-n OJ-- n " Oi- — iJ c] V o3 -o o 'O XI O ° 03 "0 m T3=3 •0=3 fli^ a U fD ^ S ^ G ^ 0 a m 3.2 2 2 (^ C3 ^ ^ '^ 9 Q S ^ 2 M Z Hi « a a H 1^ ►? m u o ci 5 s :2 -c * a >. 2 Q < O a § E U .9 "^ - W -5 1* - s f2 - ^ .^ ra H B J3 m 0) f-. ^(U - ^ ^ ^ a» '^ '^^ '^ V — g 3 p. ^ -s .few CO S S Q M i-i £ I-; d S E . 03 C3 S 60 < ■> .a - b o ii « H 2 ^ ffi r- -w " Pt( Got, • o ffi *"• HH S3 g o fe o s I ^ I - s: ■w O O g Sm 2^ > .0) ■^ -« 0.= 1-1 a; K 3 I tn fe P^ -s; 6£ .9 ■ So J5 fl 4) 3 O J2 2 -S "^ «• "^ E i^ ,S 2 .a '^ "aJ 'a E ta a ;3 .-. :z; o o o ^ § s g g « ffl , s. 0) a 0) 03 oj pq T3 '-' tT W n j_ ^ N 03 0! -f3 C3 Ah ro ". a . « - ^ fe 2 H -^ « < H ^" W ,03 K O 2 -M „- ^^H^^ 2Wcg-« ►J Sfe 2 S« W « Q o .23 W c3 Ph W Q O 03 ^ O > -3 O 03 ^ E £^ = ^ o 03 >. M g b O O 03 Qi JZ] W o H m -- .^ pt( E . = S &: O O 6 -S aj - -H 3 fe [in 2; Ph j3 a _- 2 t S|| ^ ^ rT S^ a -^ O n iH a j; > % r?: -a. ^" '^ ^ 1 4 i a s J3 ;« 5f s 5 M = a > g^ -. O *J '^ U2 03 03 g X J2 J3 t: § 5 -S Si 0) ^ C3 03 03 03 • — 340 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. o Eh g O O w. < o E c 73 fcfi '^ a I ^ J3 k; ^ ~ 01 O 0) — = -:-• ^ a> c ^ s a m _o ^, OJ « a; rt d □ 2 ^^ i^ h4 o rt (- ffi » is U m ? K 8 S ti< a 03 a J3 0 > a o ►-j OOP Jl ^ w o ^ ^ T3 O. c! ?; o bc ; _c -c :h ra rt m w ►^ ^-; o w I o ^ a> . ; ^ g S M CD O Q •o o ■o ^ n ja a _C3 O ^ 0. 1 g a Z § S M ' o O .2 -S ,/ « &;o W ^ 03 o3 p t- ^ 03 c3 Q ,f 3 ■ o a E 'h. a 0) hO •^1 5^ 3 O S 3 - O S -2 s s >. s ^ . >. ;2; w o 3j Q iD O QJ d o o o o o o S: &:e: No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY. 341 o o O M r, Ha field. Webs a 3Ste ring 20 nox n. iest( rov cest a, a c « o l^o mM. Gale, bL. D stone, ch. Bo ^ .3 a fe %% 5 fe ■£ £ « ^«W VVi iam Ne . H. . P. S2 a £ 13 E g a s^l S s^ s c ^ '^^^ d d »2 fl 2 J sJ :? X § ^ s . § « CS § g ^ ►S 3 1 £ I .a § '^ ^ - « S -S — ■ S a .u . a ^ - ^ « 5 .a oT e "^ g (£ < » ^ ^ & S » ^ i ^ "2 o^ t» "a »^" ►^ 'j 5 ^ c^ 3 1 O 02 ^I«8J^.- ^ < v^ O O S fe a C3 A a 3 0 S ^• Q ? -s ^ 1 ^. & 1 °! t« b; o 3 JT S .2 " oi t: S o -3 l=^--«=«" ^ ; h4 g -" - „- "3 - J3 lllllli ^ i2 o -t; a.t: £ «i; PQ O W Ph M W w s -J< ^ S fl ■ ■ ■ " ^ "So s 3 M S 0 ?s in ^ 2 3 s o 'i^ 9^ QJ fe j3 iJ p -r a .tl M < W O W Ah OQ CO Ph W Ph < 5cOdcH2 in^ o3PH_a;^ [i gi^ A ■ S Ml "O ~ 3 0 O C3 o ^ O « 3 ■« ° m § " ^- w O ^" ^ •I '^ 'a Iz; tq 03 s .5 S .9 "i ■^ -^ ^ I- o .. oJ oj m .f^ a J3 - O «) -^ J3 3 O r, O « ►? 3 C o a> g I X* u . Q =; j» o si •s^ d -B tS Pi fn - S . Q t t ^ %0 .; ffi ffi o c» M S 9 p o .S e .s .^ -^ « 13 a rt (D 1,1: lIj 1-^ - J o -'•'^ t— r "^ r^ No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY. 343 e E J. E. Burt. Athol. C. A. Brown, Brockton. W. H. Griswold, Dalton Walter R. Bell, Manches R. E. Small, Falmouth. S. H. Stone, Greenfield. Percy M. Alden, Willima Asa L. Harris, Lawrence W. H. Pyne. Milford. Jas. H. Dwyer, North A C. A. Larabee, North A F. C. Chandler, Kingsto E. S. Evans, Springfield E. L. Richardson, West W. H. Fitton, Worcester 2 M ^ . g -QSr2ga^§«^'3«^^32« a* -J -rt.3 -2f3^-MS— a^ E Sffl.S2:2o3S£2|^:2-3«« «^ &^W|Q j §d^ 6dW2 2 „- J3 2 . aJ S -§ .a 2 2 •'"■^ill illjll t P " a • .3-i; ■ " 1^1 M '5 d < ^Ji C ^^1^ "a b»^ 3 o >. O n '^ - :; a, .5 £ ? >,-3 1^' s ? - S 0 .^ ix g 3,0 T ^ n ^ ^ 2 r O u 2 "J2 -^ •S -^ o .^ 2 a o < B Q W fS O K _o "^ w .2 ■S t o g - < Ph ■^ bg^-^'S'S-r. -5 O — M 1) c^ 2 .2 B ~ — O Oh « t- -C! j3 ■SB ■2 13 -3 2 S 3 « tc pg ^ - O M it 344 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. ■a S ttf a V >. SOS p S S W ^ iS so »r S S g W 2 g p 5 ^ p w s <^ -So p c3 CLi »3 n « r3 ^< o w 3 « s .E a O W h^ M O •H W W § o ^ H i-i pi S - O J3 -« W "« „- J, -^ u ra KK « n=i^ M 6 ^ -rt u M ?i « ^ H ^ .y -3 m ci >- £ 2 5 g a 2 o 0 S ^ ■ ^ 9 ^ U O > s 1^ >^ c« o O !-■ si ^ O K O O O ffi H O c . Hi '^ o "H ^ is ^ -a . « m - M -tJ >> o c4 ■-' 1^ Cj ^^ l^ s g « ^|d aj ^ W S & W rt (i, P^ ^ w 3 H -i^ =3 "i .>.>■- '^ 1^ - § fl ^ "§ • J -I 3 ^ -2 -2 S S ^ B «- i i t' ^||So;§§oM5Q^«3^cCM§^-S|:§ Hffim^OOOKHHHt- K ■ "S ■3 . 0 II £ i a < & >. 0 fe ii s 03 2 u 0 1 1 .3 < s < , 1 3 1 P5 a 1 1 3 .2 0 3 0 County Harvest Club County Bee-keepers' J North Agricultural So a -2 i; 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 TJ t-. J-i U i^ 2 t5 s; -3 ^ Q. ^ "o " ^ ^ J3 C3 j3 J3 ^ 0 0 <; III S g g fi oi 03 03 03 C3 c! rt 03 03 0 c-t U l^ u 000 P3 0 0 P^ K w s ;§ s s s SS 02 ^ ^^^ No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY. 345 MASSACHUSETTS PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. Officers of the State Granoe, 1911. Master, Cliarles M. Gardner of Westfield. Overseer, . . . . . . . . . . . E. E. Chapman of Ludlow. Lecturer, E. F. Richardson of Millis. Steward L. R. Smith of Hadley. Assistant Steward, . . E. H. Gilbert of Stoughton (P. O. address. North Easton). Chaplain, ......... Rev. A. H. Wheelock of Marlborough. Treasurer, Hon. F. A. Harrington of Worcester. Secretary, . . . Wm. N. Howard of South Easton (P. O. address, North Easton). Gate Keeper, . . . . . . . . F. L. Warfield of Bucliland. Ceres, .......... Mrs. Mary Olds Lakin of Brookfield. Pomona, .......... Mrs. Ella D. Rice of Leominster. Flora Mrs. Philomene Cook of Methuen. Lady Assistant Steward, . . . S. Mal)cl Thompson, Westborough, R. F. D. No. 2. Executive Committee. George S. Ladd, Sturbridge. C. A. Dennen, ............. Pepperell. W. C. Jewett Worcester. General Deputies. N. B. Douglas, . Elmer D. Howe, . Warren C. Jewett, George S. Ladd, . C. D. Richardson, Sherborn. . Marlborough. Worcester. Sturbridge. West Brookfield. Pomona Deputies. W. E. Patrick Warren. F. N. Boutelle, North Leominster. W. T. Moore Huntington. Subordinate Deputies. George W. Sherman Brim field. L. H. Cudworth Oxford. W. H. Sawyer, Winchendon. W. A. Harlow, Cummington. H. N. Jenks Adams, R. F. D. Elbridge Noycs, Newbury. T. E. Flarity Townsend. Moses U. Gaskill, Mendon. E. B. Hale, Bernardston. Hcrmon W. King, East Ix)ngmeadow. John Bursley West Barnstable. C. R. Damon Williamsburg. W. T. Herrick Westborough. H. W. Carter, Millbury. Chester B. Williams, . . . ^ Cochituate. 346 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Subordinate Deputies — Con. Walter E. Morris, Billerica. Harold M. Shaw, Great Barrington. Joseph W. Baldwin North Easton. S. T. Brightman, Westport. Horace E. Wallia, Waltham. Charles H. Preston Danvers. Dr. M. H. Williams, Sunderland. Fred E. Alden, ............. Worcester. Norman L. Peavey, Dracut. Special Deputies. William N. Howard, t^orth Easton. J. P. Ranger, North Brookfield. M. A. Morse Belchertown. C. H. Shaylor, Lee. No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY. 347 -a H-l S P3 1-4 o •a W J ^; i-s S ^ a Mt-I >. O - >-■ rH a 3 •5 o .c St; 3 ^ .5 s . g ''-^ < 2 ^ -a ^ ri ?• § g^ ^^^-^ W S t^ S *- -1 S.S r So rt 2 ^ a *2 ^- >r3 O W .S o o 2 -i^ Plj < N a> aj 6 '3 '5 12; .2 j2 a ,1' O W 3d 5 > • « 3 2 o T3 fe 3 a' . 3 "^ M "3 ■£ 0) . — « n V fl ^. < < 9 -2 "H ^O fl -=^ - w a r^ s P-^ a M aa ^ 1^ H a - Wheeler e Hillm Dalton Freema !3 -^ 0 0 -J CO ..He ■ S H g woo (3 a, . 1^ ^ >^» ^s sg ss ss S ja r. St., I arlem( n. •^1 "S -a ca 0 M 11 0 M eomin imfiel 32 Gr East untin iller. L nes, Br ulding, Butler, kins, H 02 3 S 3 g . S ° ^ a a .S < S W M pq K PQ o A -2 ^ o o .5 :? 3 •s ^ = OS 2; ^^ 6 • ^ ^ e- *? I- lU D. s w 2 s o fe .s li « 0 2 ja" «-2 K is 5: PQ M 0 >. (^■Z'^-X E: CfP. Q is 348 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. CO H pi PQ - =3 > 1^ W a a ^ K o O 2. SO O r • I W ^ E "^ S S iJ i-s >' -^ ■fi 2 P a o « o m Ah Pi _2 1^ d G .2 S .2 .^ S H e CO CO B 2 a 3 fl ,2 :z; .£ £ "^ .2 I 2 o < m df^ 5 § — si 11 - 02 ■a . S d ^ 9 "m .^ H o ■ ■ M ii M a « a qj -^ 2h ^ o O 2 A aj ya m ^ "= P :^ 03 t U3 PQ tS U PL, .o ^ ■a M S .53 Is Q eg tR m £& w S Q& ^ p« 5 ■" f^' -S CQ aj o3 =3^ SW ^ w .'"■.w -: ,? 03 tj ^ a 3 K.-\ ;> ■^ o 2; CU > F-1 01 Pi 1 a a i3 5 oj o O W OJ :2 « X o u.* w fc- o C3 .;-. Q IS a u m pm "3 2 ^ 2 s K 6 o o o V. ^ :z; :z; ^ o . - - » £ -3 3 "a O. a; J2 TJ tc ° -^ S § m I a; ""■ gillM'^"|2 w ^dSQ S S -11 o W & ^ S ^ rt 1 ^ town eld. nt. 2 o m d si 1 t-i o elcher Brimfi arlemc 01 « 0 - o w w d d & 2 P3 Ward, E Srown, kes, Ch U o3 F. D. odney M T. Dav • > d 6 Q yron G. Ibert R. . A. Haw o « H 5: W a S < O . S. I) a '^ 6 d" s a a 1 1 1^'" CO 6 6 d 2 Z 6 ■^ o ^ II X o d 111 o > 01 J,J a .2 O 3 d « 2 d Pi a o "o "z 2 . o M td a bD :d d U cq :,^ PS < « o rt M CO ^ „- S 42 S 6 § 6 ^ S Z -- ■S >7 . o . d S - d : 2 § •-a o d •» d g ^ I o y3 ^ a 5 2 1^ § I 3 3 M P C Jd O < W : a O 350 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. M o tS 'S :9 S •s o e .2 CO g a I g Q g -g. -^ i^ ^ ^ • O 3 . ^ Q O iJ «2 n 0) fi< ffi .2 l.s 2 ca "H ^ Ft U £ :^ ?■, s >-» 0) ;^ < m :S ■ CQ S aK o M o i^ a o 0) 3:2 ^ 2; 3 3 C 5 J2 5 . g >-' ? 2 8-2 ^ 3 '-' t: g -ffl >-i O 5 S > - W g S -s I M J Id . < . OJ O > >-, . ffi ffi tf W ;^0 -I a « m d 03 6 u w S Q 2 fe ■& g !S 3 S w -^ "^ W -s ^ a « g" = 0:5 EQ^ *^ . o m^ > ^ d O "oj o F -d "o "O i" W O ^■S §1^ 111 "3- o S □ M S S K W K cK I ^ S s s s f*) OJ CD « <; S ^ 03 "d' Q . . Q ►^ O pa ^• c3 a .2 ^ 0) d g 2 J:^ n « Q W ^ O -^ S(S ci > & S tf H . P ^ E S ^ 2(232 O '^. O . 2 .2" £ S ■ ;;1 •— -.J ^ !^ 5 £ ■» ^ C in CD .^ Oj !-• ^ s s s s S Q pa . i 2 i^^ •■? ■» -o £ £ •3 E ■- H^ g «ji .S o .M fe 2 ^^d „• js K a fe f^ w ^ ^ •a ^ 2 E . K ^"1 2 E c B r3 » sis = ^ o P2 pa _. Z B 1-1 -e -B fc- fe ^ .-S J>! ■C =^ .S . ^ pa "^ 8 a ^ ^ M a Ti E >, t4 Q O J 3 n ft & i; b >. rt Z (^ o ja O g o r^ 2 S g -S ^ .5 £§ a B « w >> ^ I-; a fe ^ 5S to ^ K V J3 M < ffl K 00 g Z ^ Z ^ Z ^ 5 -g B- S a fe"H J O »« "^ 00 17 00 . . . << . 4) O . O M >- 2 2 S . s" ? -S O B 6 2-z ^ ■S'Z 2 . ^ a" ° s ■e h >-? fe P o O (5 No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY. 351 « a « 5 ^' -"! a ^ o ^ S ^ £ 3 "^ £§ ^ I - .t 2 S >- -s ^ « a ^- „- t - - 3 ^ ._, .03 . -; .3«mSS^M. . . • . .m . . . ^ . .m>-'3 a; 6 «^ . a J a Q Q T3 M «c3 1 I ^« «cicj^-. fl| fe'E libel §51 «'3 i:-s«.s -Is i'^ .^og I J 6 '^. S s . — c ^S■^ 5^ so wi I g.i- s-i^r : 2 5?-:: .t^ci i.2« ,« 2. .J2C9.2.2 .s.:n.32cc'^. S£fa222(^22.2 2.2 2oj2 P . ^ 0 &< '^ 03 n ... r_ *~* I- O hr — '_ fc* « « '^. -2 (§^ f=i«fl 2 'agf„ og ij -Sb o9 & " So S_§a.2^ ^3o .•5^2-r2^^=2 ^« o g XL ^ ,S-£5=3 SB'S feStsa'^^Sj.iMa s^ J" I II ||:-3 =11 s iS = |li«"-: o- "-I CM -w-a ^aiJ-Oi ■<.-« •S^.agor?=3C i S > d d g E^ a a* ^ ,?! CJ U :s: si &"% r& aiu lis iiiiiiiiiia -^OoX^ «o^ f^ -- j= ^ "" ^ sf 2 S " o ii T3 o ^ o -P o S >3 $. S5 3.ao32 5;o_3 |§o|3S"^-S^3a 352 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. O o < s O O HH 'S "S S -3 2 &: W g m 2 ■3 Q U3 . • M iL, ^ ° ■ o - o « ;!« 83 > t-- o O U ffi . S PQ W . o m CO "a^ < eq O o oi P. (^ s . CO o .2 (n ca C3 • ^ 8 J ^: ssss s:^ s;^ ss ti^ ^ a a •- g £ g^ -I S 0 T3 S ' °* a • o fe S S en . O , ^ m 1J "^ TS S 1^ .2 c3 T3 1-1 ^ m M ^ S o K T3 _a ^ hJ « Q) n cj ■^ .a a fl f^ "« O "« • a ^^ •< KJ .2 g tf 1^" p w -J H o = . o o jd ja T3 >; .2 o ffi ^ S >ir " .a ta fQ 2 ^ -J .9 -« o fc- :3 - w .3 oo PQ S 11 Is o . B. a a « a . W w -am -M :3 ^ S a a o ^ CS O T3 „ O Ph S W.2 Pi o^ sS S^jS f^ -; n :?; Oj a p o (J fe \~t (:« \A P fe tf 5-3 H 1-1 H ^ O -a . d P^ o . a«5 2 , PQ a Si a X^ iH " u a T3 PQ s 0 o WOW CO a Si - ^ 8 6 :z; J?; ■o -2 o fe o o -< ^. ° a . p a ^ a PQ J -a . .2 t) is S !» PQ ■ • ■ o :?; c.- 5" S" S ? 2 a m » ^ ^ I^ ^3o « sSmz^ w:^ wis s« s£p&& No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY. 353 > a> ^^ 23 2 p c -a 0 rs ^1 0) lies ,^ cQ t; » S ^ 3 9 0 ^ 0= Q s P^ -1 • W 9 f^ 5E rl5 i-s (^ s 1-5 fi< S s £ e^ SS "c S -e P o '^ Q T3 2; f^ II tf 0 t* Q 0) 3 ffl 0! C3 'RW U4 .C.^ 3 0 1 li ssions, Ham s, Needham snry, Rowe. a) S ill ■S -13 -^" 3 0 -a Si5 _M Q iss Madora R. No. 1. rs. Mary A. Se illiam A. Park rs. Anna L. H t3 mas Aker, L Kittie C. P Cora L. 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O Q a .-:3 c3 ^£ Spq ii Cti s ^ ssssssso -a _2 sa m 3 m .2 XI .2 ts - ^ Hq A £. - «» s -a "> v 3 (£ K P O - o o ^ [£ o o U^ o o ■u <"". pq w m n i-i S g ^ O g a •o h li. -. © . fa « 2 - -a m ^ m =« S -« O S "i C3 « S ^ >> S3 d 5 W g s o S Q a) r • 3 .• m Eh gSSSW. . ^- o IK >< Qi at. *^ -a - s o „ 73 O" : o is S S fa s g i .t o 2 a .2 tf "S "0 i3 f- « H ^ "« Q 3 ^ o 2 ■^ c^ o K g M a >, J « "S o -53 n«-: J3 S S ^ & <; lien, rsha s fa a w 6 .- O 03 o m w .M o3 M tH ^ < J3 a o W o fa 6 a S s 03 fa a5 -0 bf) g^ s -o m rt t4 0 9 tf to ^ S g 3 .2 O O ^ m ? XI H -: £g:OfaS^^d o tJJ 3 O n T3 t-< 03 J3 <: i^ a >^ BJ ..j:. 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'2 fa > fi ^ . < ^< o ^ > n . £ §■= c3 >-5 S ■< >>J lo o - ^- '^ Pi d^J 8 " as o s s SfaSSSSCS::^^ 6 03 a c _^ tf r^ ^ ej r^ ■:n K 3 ^ ISI JB Q . d ^ g I z ^ a .2 S 1 ^ § g I M 1— I ^ o ■^ 3 <- ^ « u >:^ J c^ S Q. < 3 fa p 3 P^ O -B -s s c o ^ m c ^ c3 "^ £2 S, -SOS 6« 5 -< .o ^ 6 Z bi E-ifflS^^KcoOH :S^ i: o rt Ch .S E g S .3 § o > -- O : o ca No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY. 357 o P^ — t-H a "6 IH 3 W .5 := c E c • 1-1 D O M O . SS K O u w c c » H H pi . a • ^ '- K S < I w t^ "o "2 0^. fel ^ ^ js 2 P=J a H ss ^ o "^ O fi< O 02 c3 O . E 2Q ■ ^ s S '^ O o .S E 3 a^ .2 W cs .2 U 00 t. << ^ .s .2 . .S s h^ s s Ji K 3 O 1° j= -2 J g 9 . N O) ^ ^ W ^ m a ■ 2 .2 g £ S S fcn S H ^ 11 wis OS « S"- P fa 0 O C3 -a h^H 2 "S - -- ^- & 9 « 2 S m — 5 t3 n3 CJd ■2 .2 a~ 3 . O a 2 2 >3 2 fa n --i 5 s j2 o fa ^ Z ^ fa ^.9 Quo -d 2 S ~ a n 3(^ . . n fa 3 - 5 - o X J — n ^ O cj tn — — > j3 ^ « a fe B ^ .4 «■ ^ "? 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Doc. ^ fe-9 >! ? tjOn 1^ •^ n ^M (in ■3 '^ ^ g o ►^ n a o ^►2 3 W S !^ & ;2 M ss -^ a odK S IS 3f -s u o o h - ti tf ^■s « :», n IS -fl a is d o XI 3 o i- 'A 3 « a dj M (<- « A - O m T-. .9 ^^ H 1-j O d o g .9 o w ^ g S E £ n .s ?. ^ ^, O S S U S O <5 oJ m ^ w a 3 03 ^ ci >> , a a '*-' ■^ S g "« 9 « o 1 ■ ^ 1 _ J S _ I O t' 3 0 I 3 m M K T3 tf '^ ■D cj q il « d --s • ^ § . ^ ^- a a^ln a ^ 3 m a ii J ^ ,=3 . ^ <; O 12; o « H Ph ja a 3 >. pi 2 i^' a tf w C3 •^ 3 « p S Ph H O^- W fe § H-l S -H a > g a (^ ■a 5 =2 .9 ^ ^ ^ T3 pq IS E cc =1 i: S" m 1^ .9 ;g ^ K m :S ^ WiHtJ WoWSoW d >-H -2 pR s ;^ s gwsss ^s ss T) ^ 03 CO d •"• > T3 +J 03 ^ ^ 0 01 J3 W aj eq 01 g o Q -d pj -^ ■2 d| TS c3 m m B S g is fcT a3 aj S JS & s . cj 03 1^ pQ T3 S ^ ? 5 S "^ & ri 3 £?|^ d 03 'a 2; > ^ ^ E O . Pi -s B - 0 .S ^ 03 a -- 13 a a >. 3 5 IS 03 a 6 -^ P5 s d & <^ § t^ - -^ Ph ^ o . -M CO fe P3 « <; IS 03 M ^ O > O O P^ S W 1-1 a r3 d ^ ^ P^ ^. o o ^ 1-; t 6 Q M o s^^^ tf >> Walt Wint D. Fran Albe 3 J3 2 a t H ^ T:«^ ■§ a=3 50fa Pi&: W tJ W -»j d 00 fe •^ CD S ft "^ >• .« 6 ^ o 12 o ja . S2 C.1 J* o 3 P. S £ « :z; H o3 D rd a Ph : 9 ^ 'g S o — S >• r^ s '^ IS : g '"• i ^. ;g c^ 12; SI 8 I CD t, n ms«w^^ :P4 o;? ^ M P3 W < Xo. 4.] AGRICULTURAI. DIRECTORY 359 o -a D- o — O o 3 S o .-^ « o o CO (5 diw 3 5 ^ 5 '^ IS ■S ^ ri n ■ T3 . 0) t—i t3 bO . ^ E ta ■> Z -< ^ HH ■sal Q 3 I bC to >H ^ S - - c3 - -! ; 1^ a ffl Ph ■S 1= j3 . • -■ O ^ illl pq 5 .2 2 oj PQ I^S ^ u O a' t-" S .=3 1-1 fe 3 S- £ Q ■S ° . 3 iz; O >H o .2 -2 J fl S S o ^ '^. 5 i CO 3 a 13 < Yea ton ams, H 6 P < ? t- o 2 ^^2 i-j ^ K -; fS 5= is Q >^ 6 0 c:^ -a 55 O P s § to a 2 S M O 0 3 M ?, zsS is O INDEX. INDEX. Address of welcome, by Mayor Calvin Coolidge, Response to, by John Bursley, Agricultural College, Massachusetts, concerning the Agricultural organizations, directory of. Miscellaneous, officers of, list of the, Agricultural societies, concerning, Financial returns of the, Institutes of the, . Membership of the. Officers of the. Premiums and gratuities awarded by the. Agriculture, bulletins of Massachusetts, concerning. Agriculture, State Board of, bulletins of the, , Appropriations for the, .... Cattle Bureau of. See Cattle Bureau. Changes in the, ..... List of members of the, .... Meetings of the, concerning, . Organization of the, for 1910, Public winter meeting of the, at Northampton, Report of the secretary of the. Summer field meeting of the, at Amherst, Agriculturist, usefulness of bees to the, . Alfalfa, amount and quality of lime needed for. Annual top-dressing for. As a crop in Massachusetts, essay on, by Prof. Wm. P Brooks, Fertilizer for, Harvesting, . Leaf spot or rust on, Preparation of the soil for. Seed, .... Soil inoculation for. Soil requirements for. Time and method of seeding. Use of manure for, Aliens, song birds destroyed by, America, the starling in, Animals, farm, neat cattle, etc., inspection of, by Cattle Bureau, 364 INDEX. PAGE Apiaries, State Inspector of, acknowledgments by, . . . 217 First annual report of the, ...... 201 Miscellaneous work by, ....... 214 Apiary inspection, concerning, ...... xviii Appropriations, legislative, for the State Board of Agriculture, concerning, xxviii Artificial heat, use of, in curing tobacco, .... 79 Asparagus, growing and marketing, essay on, by Frank Wheeler, 121 Attracting birds, European methods of, .... 170 Bee diseases, status of, ....... 208 Problem of, 215 Beekeeper, concern of the, in inspection, .... 205 Beekeepers, voluntary inspection by, ..... 206 Bees, brood diseases of, ....... 201 Usefulness of, to the agriculturist, ..... 203 To the cranberry grower, ..... 204 To the cucumber grower under glass, . . . 204 To the market gardener, ...... 204 To the orchardist, 203 To the small fruit grower, ..... 204 Better-farming special trains, concerning, .... xxix Birds, European methods of attracting, . . . . .170 Feeding on the eggs of the gypsy moth, . . . .168 Song, destroyed by aliens, . . . . . .167 Bleaching celery, ........ 139 Brood diseases of bees, . . . . . . .201 Brooks, Prof. Wm. P., essay by, on alfalfa as a crop in Massachu- setts, 127 Brush, slashings or, disposing of, . . . . . . 287 Bulletin on reforestation and nursery work, by State Forester's assistant, ........ 292 Thinning, by State Forester's assistant, .... 292 Bulletin of Massachusetts agriculture, concerning, . . . xxvi Of the State Board of Agriculture, . . . . .111 Burbank Hospital, forest working plan for the, . . . 272 Bureau, Cattle. See Cattle Bureau. Bureau, Dairy. See Dairy Bureau. Bursley, John, response to address of welcome by, ... 5 Butter, concerning, . . . . . . . . 233 Renovated, 232 Catalogue, farm, concerning the, ...... xxii Cattle Bureau, annual inspection by, of neat cattle, farm animals and premises on which the former are kept, . . 302 Concerning the, ........ xx INDEX. 365 Cattle Bureau — Con. Eighteenth semiannual report of the Chief of the, Financial statement of the, Recommendations of the Chief of the, Work of, changes in the. On glanders, . On miscellaneous diseases. On rabies. On tuberculosis. Cattle, neat, farm animals and premises on which the former are kept, annual inspection of, by the Cattle Bureau . Celery, bleaching, Cultivating, .... Growing, storing and marketing, essay on, by Henry M Howard, Marketing, .... Preparation of the soil for. Soils for, .... Storing, .... Varieties to plant. Chestnut bark disease, the, . Chief of the Cattle Bureau, recommendations of the. Clean milk, the food value of, lecture on, by Prof. R. M Washburn, ....... Clinton, Prof. L. A., lecture by, on corn growing in New Eng- land, ..... Condensed and evaporated milks, . Milk, Coolidge, Calvin, address of welcome by. Co-operation in the dairy business. Corn E.xposition, New England, the, concerning. Corn growing in New England, lecture on, })y Prof. L. A Clinton, ....... Seed, distribution of, concerning, .... Selection for seed and show, essay on, by Prof. Wm. D Kurd, Cotton, J. S., lecture by, on New England pastures, Cranberry growers, usefulness of bees to the, . Creameries, milk depots, etc., list of the, Crop conditions of 1910, summary of, . Crop reports, concerning, ..... Cucumber grower under glass, usefulness of bees to the, Cultivating celery, ...... Curing cigar wrapper tobacco, harvesting and, lecture on, by Dr. W. W. Garner, Tobacco, the most favoral^le conditions for, Cutting the tobacco plant v. picking the leaves. PAGE 299 314 320 318 300 311 299 304 302 139 139 136 141 138 136 140 136 292 320 47 98 234 225 3 227 xxi 98 xxix 113 7 204 240 XXX xxvi 204 139 75 77 81 366 INDEX. PAGE Dairy Bureau, State, concerning the, . . . . . xix Expenses of the, ........ 242 Personnel of the, ........ 228 Police work by, summary of, . . . . . . 228 Twentieth annual report of the, ..... 223 Dairy situation, the, . . . ... . . . 223 Deer, wild, concerning, ....... xiii Deputies, forest-fire, needed, ...... 286 Diseases, miscellaneous, work of Cattle Bureau on, . . 311 Encouragement of orcharding, concerning the, . . . xxiv Europe, the starling in, . . . . . . .172 Evaporated milks, condensed and, ..... 234 Extracts from the trespass laws, concerning the, . . . xxviii Farm catalogue, concerning the, ...... xxii Management, lecture on, by N. P. Hull, .... 64 Farmers' clubs, officers of, list of the, ..... 342 And mechanics' associations, officers of, list of the, . . 341 And mechanics' clubs, officers of, list of the, . . . 342 Institutes, concerning, ....... xvi Farming, special trains, electric railroad, .... 265 Steam railroad, . . . . . . v . . 263 Specials, better, concerning, ...... xxix Farrar, Edward R., essay by, on grape culture, . . . 151 Fertilizers for alfalfa, . . . . . . . .131 For grapes, ......... 151 Soils and, for quinces, ....... 143 Firemen's association. State, ...... 292 Fires, forest, in 1910, 280 Food of the starling, ........ 188 Food value of clean milk, lecture on, by Prof. R. M. Washburn, 47 Forest-fire deputies needed, ....... 286 Equipment, ......... 284 Power sprayers as, . . . . . . . 290 Lookouts, 287 Forest fires in Germany, ....... 290 In 1910, 280 Forest nursery, ......... 277 Wardens, State foresters and, conference of, . . . 293 Working plan for the Burbank Hospital, .... 272 Forester, State, acknowledgments by the, .... 262 Concerning the, ........ xx Examinations of woodlands by the, .... 268 Expenditures and receipts of, ..... 294 Instruction in planting by the, ..... 278 INDEX. 367 Forester, State — Con. Lectures by, before scientific organizations, Organization of department of the. Public addresses by the. Publications of the, .... Reforestation work by the, Seventh annual report of the. Surveying by the, .... Foresters, State, and forest wardens, conference of the, Forestry, general, report on, New legislation on, .... Fruit Show, New England, of 1911, concerning the, Fruit, thinning the, of grapes, Fruit-bearing and pruning of quince trees. Fungous pests of quinces, insects and, . 291 246 291 266 275 245 275 293 268 258 xxii 154 146 147 Garner, Dr. W. W., lecture by, on harvesting and curing cigar wrapper tobacco, ..... Germany, forest fires in, .... . Girdling grapes, ....... Glanders, work of the Cattle Bureau on, Grange, Massachusetts State, officers of the, list of the. Granges, Pomona, officers of the, list of the, . Subordinate, officers of the, list of the. Grape culture, essay on, by Edward R. Farrar, Grapes, fertilizers for. Girdling, Marketing, . Planting, Pruning, Soils for, Spraying, Summer pruning of. Thinning the fruit of. Varieties of, . Growing and marketing asparagus, essay on, by Frank Wheeler Growing, storing and marketing celery, essay on, by Henry M Howard, ....... Gypsy moth, birds feeding on the eggs of the, Gypsy moth thinning, marking for, .... Harvesting alfalfa, Harvesting and curing cigar wrapper tobacco, lecture on, by Dr. W. W. Garner, 75 Horticultural societies, officers of, list of the, . . . .341 Howard, Henry M., essay by, on celery growing, storing and marketing, 136 75 290 154 300 345 347 348 151 151 154 155 153 153 151 155 154 154 151 121 136 168 274 134 368 INDEX. PAGE Hull, N. P., lecture by, on farm management, ... 64 Hurd, Prof. Wm. D., essay by, on corn selection for seed and show, . . . Insects and fungous pests of quinces, Inspection, apiary, concerning, Nursery, concerning. Inspectors, milk, local, list of the, . Institutes, farmers', concerning, Legislation in 1910, concerning, For forestry, new, .... Milk, concerning, .... Lime, amount and quantity needed for alfalfa. Lookouts, forest-fire, ....... Management, farm, lecture on, by N. P. Hull, Woodland, ........ Manure, use of, for alfalfa, ...... Market gardener, usefulness of bees to the. Market milk, the production of, lecture on, by A. J. Pierpont Marketing asparagus, growing and, essay on, by Frank Wheeler Marketing, celery, ....... Grapes, ........ Quinces, picking and, ...... Storing and growing celery, essay on, by Henry M Howard, ....... Massachusetts Agricultural College, concerning the, Massachusetts agriculture, bulletins of, concerning, . Alfalfa as a crop in, essay on, by Prof. Wm. P. Brooks, Meetings of the State Board of Agriculture, concerning, . Members of the State Board of Agriculture, list of the. Milk, clean, the food value of, lecture on, by Prof. R. M. Wash- burn, ..... Concerning, ..... Condensed, ..... Depots, creameries, etc., list of the, Inspectors, local, list of. Legislation, concerning, . Market, the production of, lecture on, by A. J. Pierpont, Milks, condensed and evaporated. New England, corn growing in, lecture on, by Prof. L. Clinton, ....... New England Corn Exposition, concerning the, New England Fruit Show of 1911, concerning the, . 113 147 xviii xviii 239 xvi X 258 xi 129 287 64 270 131 204 24 121 141 155 149 136 xxi xxvi 127 XV v,335 47 236 225 240 239 xi 24 234 98 xxi xxii INDEX. 369 New England pastures, lecture on, by J. S. Cotton, Nursery, forest, ...... Nursery Inspector, State, ninth annual report of. Nursery inspection, concerning, Office, work of the, concerning, Officers of, agricultural societies, list of the, Fanners' clubs, list of the, Fanners' and mechanics' associations, list of the Farmers' and mechanics' clubs, list of the. Horticultural societies, list of the, . Miscellaneous agricultural organizations, list of the, Pomona granges, list of the, . Poultry associations, list of the. State Grange, list of the, Subordinate granges, list of the. Oleomargarine, concerning, . From a national standpoint, . Orcharding, the encouragement of, concerning Orchardist, usefulness of bees to the, Ornithologist, State, concerning the. Educational work of, . Third annual report of, . Pastures, New England, lecture on, by J. S. Cotton Picking and marketing quinces, Picking the leaves of the tobacco plant v. cutting the plant, Pierpont, A. J., lecture by, on the production of market milk. Planting, forest, instruction in, .... . Grapes, ........ Pole sweat on tobacco, ...... Police work by the State Dairy Bureau, summary of, Pomona granges, officers of, list of the, .... Poultry associations, officers of, list of the. Premises on which neat cattle are kept, annual inspection of by Cattle Bureau, ..... Production of market milk, lecture on, by A. J. Pierpont, Pruning of grapes, ....... Summer, ........ Pruning of quince trees, fruit-bearing and, . Publications, State Board of Agriculture, concerning, Of the State Forester, list of the, .... Quince culture, essay on, by Prof. F. C. Sears, Quince trees, fruit-bearing and pruning, .... Selecting and planting out, !70 INDEX. Quinces, insects and fungous pests of, Picking and marketing, . Soils and fertilizers for, . Uses of, .... , Varieties of, . Rabies, work of Cattle Bureau on, Railroad, electric, farming special trains. Steam, farming special train, . Reforestation and nursery work, bulletin on, by State For ester's assistant. Reforestation work, Renovated butter. Reports, crop, concerning. Response to address of welcome, l)y John Bursley, . Rust, or leaf spot, on alfalfa, .... Sears, Prof. F. C, essay by, on quince culture, Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, report of the Seed, alfalfa. Corn selection for, and show, essay on, by Prof. Wm. D Hurd, Corn distribution, concerning, Seeding, time and method of, for alfalfa, Selection for seed and show, corn, essay on, by Prof. Wm. D Hurd, Shacks, steel, portable, Show, seed and, corn selection for, essay on, by Prof. Wm. D Hurd, Slashings or brush, disposing of, Small fruit grower, usefulness of bees to the. Societies, agricultural, concerning. Soil, preparation of, for alfalfa, Preparation of, for celery. Requirements for alfalfa, Soil inoculation for alfalfa, . Soils^ for celery, . For grapes, . Soils and fertilizers for quinces. Specials, better farming, concerning, Sprayers, power, as forest-fire equipment Spraying grapes, . Starling, the, concerning. Food of the, . In America, the, . In Europe, the, PAGE 147 149 143 149 145 299 265 263 292 275 232 xxvi 5 133 143 vii 132 113 xxix 132 113 279 113 287 204 XV 128 138 128 133 136 151 143 xxix 290 155 171 188 178 172 INDEX. 371 on, by Henry M State Board of Agriculture. See Agriculture, State Board of. State Forester. See Forester, State. State Grange, Massachusetts, officers of, list of the, State Inspector of Apiaries. See Apiaries, State Inspector of. State Nursery Inspector. See Nursery Inspector, State. State Ornithologist. See Ornithologist, State. Status of bee diseases, . Steel shacks, portable, . Storing, marketing and growing celery, essay Howard, Storing celery, .... Subordinate granges, officers of, list of the. Summary of crop conditions, 1910, Summer pruning of grapes, . Surveying by the State Forester, . Thinning, grapes, fruit of, Gypsy moth, marking for. Thinning bulletin, by State Forester's assistant. Tobacco, cigar wrapper, harvesting and curing, lecture on, by Dr. W. W. Garner, Harvesting by cutting the plant v. picking the leaves, Most favorable conditions for curing, Pole sweat on, ...... . Use of artificial heat in curing, .... Top-dressing, annual, for alfalfa, ..... Trees, quince, selecting and planting out of, . Trespass laws, extracts from the, concerning, . Tuberculosis, work of Cattle Bureau on, ... Uses of quinces, ........ Varieties, of celery to plant, . ..... Of grapes, ........ Of quinces, ........ Voluntary inspection by beekeepers, .... 345 208 279 136 140 348 XXX 154 275 154 274 292 75 81 77 78 79 134 146 xxix 304 149 136 151 145 206 Washburn, Prof. R. M., lecture by, on the food value of clean mills:, 47 Welcome, address of, by Calvin Coolidge, . " . . . 3 Wheeler, Frank, essay by, on growing and marketing asparagus, 121 Wild deer, concerning, ....... xiii Woodland, examinations of, by State Forester, . . . 268 Management, ........ 270 Work of the office, concerning the, ..... xii Public Document No. 31 TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Part I., Being Part III. of the Forty-eighth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. January, 1911. BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 18 Post Office Square. 1911. Approved by The State Board of Publication. TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station Part I. DETAILED REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION. INTRODUCTION. In accordance with the provision of the act of the Legislature relative to the publication of the reports of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, the report of the experiment station, which is a department of the college, is presented in two parts. Part I. contains the formal reports of the director, treasurer and heads of departments, and papers of a technical character giving results of experiments carried on in the station. This will be sent to agricultural colleges and experiment stations and to workers in these institutions, as well as to libraries. Part I. will be published also in connection with the report of the Secre- tary of the State Board of Agriculture, and will reach the gen- eral public through that channel. Part 11. will contain papers of a popular character, and will be sent to persons on our mail- ing list. WM. P. BROOKS, Director. CONTENTS. Part I. PAGE Station organization, 11 Report of the director, 13 Changes in staff, 13 Lines of worlc, 16 Dissemination of information, 16 Publications, 16 Publications during 1910, ... .... 16 Publications available for free distribution, .... 17 Circulation of publications, . 18 Correspondence, 20 Lectures and demonstrations, 20 Future provision for extension work, 20 General experiments, 21 Co-operative experiments with alfalfa, 22 Research, 23 Asparagus substation. Concord, 24 Breeding experiments, ,. . .24 Fertilizer experiments, 25 Chemical work on asparagus roots, 25 Cranberry substations, 26 Fertilizer experiments, 27 Insect work, 28 Control work, 28 Fertilizer law, 28 Dairy law, 29 Feed law, 29 Inspection of apiaries, 30 Buildings, 30 Report of the treasurer, 32 Report of the agriculturist, 34 Comparison of different materials as a source of nitrogen, . . 34 Muriate compared with sulfate of potash, 36 Nitrogen fertilizers and potash salts for garden crops, . . 38 Relative value of different potash salts, 40 Comparison of different phosphates, 42 Manure alone compared with manure and sulfate of potash, . 44 Average corn fertilizer compared with fertilizer richer in potash, 45 South acre soil test, 46 8 CONTENTS. PAGB Report of the agriculturist — Con. North acre soil test, 47 Top dressing for hay, 48 Winter v. spring application of manure, 49 Report of the chemist, 51 Correspondence, 51 Numerical summary of work in chemical department, . . 51 Laboratory work of the research section, 52 Research work in animal nutrition, . . . , . .53 Tabulations, 53 Report of the fertilizer section, 54 Fertilizers licensed, 54 Fertilizers collected, . . . 55 Fertilizers analyzed, 55 Trade values of fertilizer ingredients, 56 Summary of analyses and guarantees of licensed complete fertilizers, 57 Commercial shortages, 59 Quality of plant food, 60 Grades of fertilizer, 60 Composition according to grade, 61 Unmixed fertilizers, 63 Miscellaneous substances, 63 Nitrogen compounds, 65 Potash compounds, 65 Phosphoric acid compounds, 66 Miscellaneous work, 66 Report of the feed and dairy section, 67 The feed law, 67 Analytical work, 67 Compliance with the law, 68 New law, 68 Definitions, 69 Weight of sacked feeds, 69 The dairy law, 69 Examination of candidates, 69 Examination of glassware, ...... 70 Inspection of Babcock machines, 70 Creameries, 71 Milk depots, . . 72 Milk, cream and feeds sent for free examination, ... 72 Analysis of drinking water, 72 Miscellaneous work, 73 Testing of pure bred cows, 74 CONTENTS. 9 PAGE Report of the botanist, 75 Diseases more or less common during the j'^ear, .... 75 Report of the entomologist, 77 Goessraann, Charles A., tribute to, 80 Studies in milk secretion, 86 The effect of protein upon the production and composition of milk, 86 The determination of arsenic in insecticides, 122 Methods, 122 Iodine method, 124 New processes, 125 Practice at Massachusetts station, 127 Iodine methods for arsenates, 129 Purification of insoluble fatty acids, 131 Distillation of the fatty acids in vacuo, 131 Crystallization from alcohol, 132 Distillation of the ethyl esters in vacuo, 133 The soluble carbohydrates in asparagus roots, 135 Seed work, 1910, 141 An outbreak of rusts, 144 Sweet pea troubles, 145 A spinach disease new to ]\Iassachusetts, 146 Abnormalities of stump growths, 149 Description of mosaic disease, 150 Relation to mosaic disease, 154 Experiments in inoculation, 154 Relation of root area to intensity of disease, .... 156 Chemical tests of abnormal leaves, 157 Conclusions, 159 Peach and plum troubles, 161 Brown rot, scab, gummosis, etc., 161 Climatic adaptations of apple varieties, .177 I. Introduction, 177 II. The causes of varietal variation, 179 Cultural variation, 179 Soil variation, 180 Climatic variation, • . . . 180 The mean summer temperature, . ■ . . . .182 III. The development of the apple, 183 IV. The perfectly developed apple, 186 V. The individuality of the tree, 194 VI. The modifying effect of climate on the development of the apple, 199 On form, 199 On size, 204 10 CONTENTS. PAGE Climatic adaptations of apple varieties — Con. VI. The modifying effect of climate on the development of the apple — Con. On general development, 205 Apple belts in North America, 205 Distribution of varieties, 207 The relation of temperature to development, . .221 The mean summer temperature, . . . .221 The winter minimum, 221 The heat of summer, 222 The effect of low and of high mean summer tem- peratures, 222 The optimum mean summer temperature, . . 227 Chemical determinations, 232 VII. Summary, 243 Compilations, 246 Analyses of fodder articles and dairy products, .... 247 Composition and digestibility of fodder articles, .... 249 Fertilizer ingredients of fodder articles, 266 Analyses of dairy products, 272 Coefficients of digestibility of American fodder articles, . . 273 Analyses of agricultural chemicals, refuse salts, phosphates, guanos, ashes, lime compounds, marls, by-products, refuse substances and animal excrements, 304 Chemicals and cefuse salts, 306 Phosphates and guanos, 308 Ashes, lime compounds and marls, 310 By-products and refuse substances, 314 Animal excrements, 322 Insecticides, 323 Analyses of fruits and garden crops, 324 Fruits, 325 Garden crops, 327 Relative proportions of phosphoric acid, potassium oxide and nitrogen in fruits and garden crops, .... 334 Composition of some Massachusetts soils, 339 Description of types, 339 Miscellaneous soil analyses, 341 European standards for comparison, 346 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS. TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT. Part I. ORGANIZATION. Committee on Experiment Department. Charles H. Preston, Chairman. 3. Lewis Ellsworth. Arthur H. Pollard. Charles E. Ward. Harold L. Frost. The President of the College, ex officio. The Director of the Station, ex officio. Station Staff. William P. Brooks, Ph. D., Director, 28 Northampton Road. Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D., Vice-Director, 47 Lincoln Avenue. Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer, Mount Pleasant. Charles R. Green, B.Agr., Librarian, Mount Pleasant. Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry. Joseph B. Lindset, Ph.D., Chemist, 47 Lincoln Avenue. Edward B. Holland, M.Sc, Associate Chemist, in charge of Research Division, 28 North Prospect Street. Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Research Chemist, 44 Pleasant Street. Henri D. Haskins, B.Sc, In charge of Fertilizer Section, 87 Pleasant Street. Philip H. Smith, B.Sc, In charge of Feed and Dairy Section, 102 Main Street. Lewell S. Walker, B.Sc, Assistant, 19 Phillips Street. James C. Reed, B.Sc, Assistant, Nutting Avenue. Joseph F. Merrill, B.Sc, Assistant, North Prospect Street. Clement L. Perkins, B.Sc, Assistant, 32 North Prospect Street. Joseph P. Howard, Collector, North Amherst, Mass. Harry J. Allen, Laboratory Assistant, 89 Main Street. James R. Alcock, Assistant in Animal Nutrition, North Amherst, Mass. Department of Agriculture. William P. Brooks, Ph.D., Agriculturist, 28 Northampton Road. H. J. Franklin, Ph.D., In charge of Cranberry Investiecation, Wareham, Mass. Erwin S. Fui.ton, B.Sc, First Assistant, North Amherst, Mass. Edwin F. Gaskill, B.Sc, Second Assistant, North Amherst, Mass. 12 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 1911. Department of Horticulture. Frank A. Waugh, M.Sc, Horticulturist, Massachusetts Agricultural College. Fred C. Sears, M.Sc, Pomologist, Mount Pleasant. Jacob K. Shaw, M.Sc, Assistant Horticulturist, 1 Allen Street. David W. Anderson, B.Sc, Graduate Assistant, 32 North Prospect Street. Department of Botany and Vegetable Pathology. George E. Stone, Ph.D., Botanist and Vegetable Pathologist, Mount Pleasant. George H. Chapman, M.Sc, Assistant Botanist, 13 Fearing Street. Sumner C. Brooks, B.Sc, Assistant Botanist, 28 Northampton Road. Department of Entomology. Henry T. Fernald, Ph.D., Entomologist, 44 Amity Street. Burton N. Gates. Ph.D., Apiarist, 42 Lincoln Avenue. Arthur I. Bourne, B.A., Assistant in Entomology, 66 North Plea.sant Street. Department of Veterinary Science. James B. Paige, B.Sc, D.V.S., Veterinarian, 42 Lincoln Avenue. Department of Meteorology. John E. Ostrander, A.M., C.E., Meteorologist, 35 North Prospect Street. Charles M. Damon, Observer, Massachusetts Agricultural College. Other Officers of the Experiment Station. Miss Rose J. Brown. Secretary to the Director, Draper Hall. Miss Jessie V. Crocker, Stenographer, Department of Botany and Vegetable Pathology, Sunderland, Mass. Miss Harriet Cobb, Stenographer, Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry, 35 North Pleasant Street. Miss Bridie O'Donneix, Stenographer, Department of Entomology, Hadley, Mass. Miss Alice M. Howard, Stenographer, Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry, North Amherst, Mass. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Changes in Staff. The experiment station staff during the past year has suffered the loss of two of its oldest and strongest men: Dr. C. A. Goessmann, who died in September, and Dr. C. H. Fernald, who retired on a Carnegie pension at about the same time. Dr. Goessmann had been connected with the experiment sta- tion from the very first inception of station work in the State, in 1882. He was director of the State Experiment Station until it was combined with the station later organized under the Hatch act, in 1895. Dr. Goessmann, however, although giving up his duties as director at that time, retained active supervision of the inspection of commercial fertilizers and the general work in the fertilizer and soil laboratory until his retirement in 1907. Subsequent to retirement he was retained as consulting chemist, and continued his active interest in the station and its work until almost the end of his life. Goessmann was one of the great pioneers in the work of agricultural investigation. It seems eminently fitting, therefore, to present at this time a brief account of his life and work. Dr. J. B. Lindsey, vice-director and chemist of the station, one of Dr. Goessmann's pupils, pe- culiarly fitted through long and close association with him to write such an account and estimate, has at my request kindly prepared a tribute which will be found in following pages. Dr. Charles H. Fernald, head of the entomological depart- ment of the coHege and station, became connected with the sta- tion work at the time of organization under the Hatch act, and continued at the head of the entomological department until his retirement, the first of September last. Dr. Fernald's work was of great value to the station. Of him, as of Goessmann, it is largely true that to a considerable extent his work was of a pioneer character. He was one of the earliest station entomolo- gists, and as such he had much to do with the establishment of a 14 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. general policy for station entomological work. It was in con- siderable measure due to his influence that the policy that orig- inal descriptions of insects should not be published in ordinary station bulletins was adopted. During the early years of his station activities he devoted a large amount of time to the study of the gypsy moth, and the recognition of this insect and the scientific work connected with it were due to his efforts. His work in connection with the gypsy moth greatly strengthened the entomological department of the station, and resulted in mak- ing its work better understood and appreciated. Dr. Eernald's bulletin on household insects is believed to have been the first of its kind ; but the value of such work was promptly recog- nized. His monograph papers, which have been published as station bulletins, are constantly quoted as standard works on the subjects of which they treat. He was the first to undertake in- vestigations on cranberry insects, and the work he did in rela- tion to them proved of great value to cranberry growers. His work in systematic and economic entomology has been extensive, and he instituted numerous linos of investigation which have since been greatly extended and developed by others better situ- ated to prosecute them. While Professor Fernald did a very large amount of strong original work, I think it will be generally admitted by those who know him and his influence that his great- est work was in the line of stimulating others by his personality to accomplish what he himself had no opportunity to do. The death of Dr. Goessmann did not involve important changes in the chemical department as his services during the past few years had been simply advisory, and, owing to failing health, largely nominal during the last year or two. On the retirement of Dr. C. H. Fernald, his son, Dr. H. T. Eernald, was made head of the entomological department. The retirement of the elder Fernald imposed additional duties on his son, and some reorganization of the department became neces- sary. Mr. John IS". Summers, a graduate assistant, who had been giving one-half his time to the experiment station, retired, and in his place, Mr. A. I. Bourne, B. A., who has had a valu- able experience in graduate and investigational work, was made assistant. Mr. Bourne is allowed a certain amount of time for 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 15 graduate study, but he will give nearly all bis attention to tbe work in. the experiment station. His employment relieves Dr. H. T. Fernald of almost all of the routine work of the entomo- logical department, and of the necessity of giving direct personal attention to the experimental work in its simpler phases. This will make it possible for Dr. Fernald to devote a very large pro- portion of his time to research work in entomology. In this connection attention should be called to the extremely valuable work which Mrs. C. H. Fernald, with some clerical assistance, carried on for a period of more than twenty years, in, editing the index cards with references to entomological litera- ture. The work of Mrs. Fernald has been characterized by ex- treme accuracy and thoroughness, and up to the present time no less than 50,000 cards, with many times that number of ref- erences, have been prepared. A large proportion of the entries on these are in Mrs. Fernald's own hand. Advancing years have led Mrs. Fernald to desire to be relieved of this work, so important to all investigators in all lines of entomology, and arrangements have been completed whereby it will be continued under Dr. H. T. Fernald's supervision by his stenographer and clerk, Miss O'Donnell. The retirement of Dr. E. D. MacLaurin, referred to in my last annual report, left a vacancy in the research division of the chemical department. This place was tilled in January by the temporary appointment of Fred W. Morse, Ph.D., for many years chemist of the New Hampshire Experiment Station. His appointment was made permanent in July. Mr. Morse is de- voting himself entirely to research problems connected with the nutrition of crops and the productive capacity of soils. The staff of the station has been strengthened by the addition of two men; David W. Anderson, B.Sc, has been made gradu- ate assistant in the department of horticulture ; Sumner C. Brooks, B.Sc, has been made assistant in the department of botany and plant pathology. The appointment of these men relieves their superiors in these departments of routine work, and will enable them to devote their time in larger measure to research. The work of the station has been broadened in scope and fur- 16 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ther strengthened by the appointment of Dr. B. K". Gates, Ph.D., as apiarist. It is the expectation that Dr. Gates will devote about one-quarter of his time, so far as possible consecutively, to research work on problems connected with beekeeping. ]\Ir. James Alcock replaces Mr. Roy Gaskill in charge of the animals used in feeding and digestion experiments, and Clement L. Perins, B.Sc, has taken the place of Carl D. Kennedy as assistant in the chemical laboratory. Lines of \York. There has been no essential change in the character of station work during the year. It covers a field of constantly broaden- ing scope and increases steadily in amount. As heretofore, our efforts may be classed under the following principal heads : gen- eral experiments, research, control and dissemination of infor- mation. The relation of the lines of work which come under the last class to the possibility of adequate attention to and of financial support for the experiment and research, for carrying on which the funds for the support of the station which come from the federal government are designed, is so vital that while in logical sequence these lines of work would seem to come last, they will be considered first. Dissemination of Information. The principal methods whereby the station now endeavors to serve the public by dissemination of information are by means of its publications, through private correspondence, through lec- tures by members of its staff and by demonstrations. Puhlications. — Our publications are of three kinds, an an- nual report in two parts, bulletins and circulars. The follow- ing tables show the publications of the year 1910 and those still available for distribution : — Publications during 1910. Annual report : — Parts I. and II. 338 pages. Bulletins: — No. 132. Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, P. H. Smith and J. C. Reed. 64 pages. No. 26. No. 27. No. 28. No. 29, 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 17 No. 133. Green Crops for Summer Soiling, J. B. Lindsey. 20 pages. No. 134. The Hay Crop, William P. FJrooks. 68 pages. No. 135. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, H. D. Haskins, L. F. Walker and J. F. Merrill. 76 pages. Meteorological bulletins, 12 numbers. 2 pages. Circulars : Fertilizers for Potatoes, William P. Brooks. 4 pages. Seeding Mowings, William P. Brooks. 8 pages. Rules relative to Testing Dairy Cows. 8 pages. Chemical Analysis of Soils, William P. Brooks. 4 pages. Miscellaneous circulars (unnumbered): — Fertilizer for Corn, William P. Brooks. 2 pages. Home-mixed Fertilizers, William P. Brooks. 4 pages. Fertilizers for Turnips, Cabbages and Other Crucifers, William P. Brooks. 2 pages. Dairymen losing Money on Low-grade Feeds, J. B. Lindsey. 2 pages. Orchard Experiment, William P. Brooks. 2 pages. Summer Soiling Crojjs, P. H. Smith, 1 page. Balanced Rations for Business Cows, J. B. Lindsey. 2 images. Corn for the Silo. 2 pages. Publications Available for Free Distribution. Bulletins: — Glossary of Fodder Terms. Fertilizer Analyses. The Imported Elm-leaf Beetle. Fertilizer Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses. Cranberry Insects. Seed Separation and Germination. Fungicides, Insecticides and Spraying Directions. •Bee Diseases in Massachusetts. Shade Trees. Insects Injurious to Cranberries and how to tight them. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1908. Meteorological Summary — Twenty Years. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1909. Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, 1910. Green Crops for Summer Soiling. The Hay Crop. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1910. No. 33. No. 68. No. 76. No. 83. No. 84. No. 89. No. 90. No. 103. No. 113. No. 115. No. 121. No. 123. No. 124. No. 125. No. 126. No. 127. No. 130. No. 131. No. 132. No. 133. No. 134. No. 135. 18 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. No. 13(). Inspeolion of Commercial Feed Stuffy, 1911. Technical Bulletin No. 2. The Graft Union. Technical Bulletin No. 3. The Blossom End Rot of Tomatoes. Index to bulletins and annual reports of the Hatch Experiment Station 2:)revious to June, 1895. Index to bulletins and annual reports, 1888-1907. Annual reports: 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 20th, 21st, Part II., 22d, Parts I. and II. So far as our publications treat primarily of the results of station observation, experiment antl research, they are to be looked upon as a necessary and important feature of station activity, — indeed, to be the crowning result of such activity ; but the demand for bulletins and circulars of information of a general character, already widespread, is most active, insistent and growing, and the force of circumstances has seemed to com- pel us to make at least some effort to meet it. To fully do so has been impossible ; indeed, must probably be recogiaized as in the very nature of things always likely to remain so, since noth- ing less than a complete library covering every conceivable agri- cultural topic woidd enable us to meet the denumd. A considerable share of the contents of the popular part of our annual report (Part IT), most of our circulars and some of our bulletins have, however, aimed to furnish information of a more or less general character on topics of immediate interest to the public. These papers have, it is true, been based upon our own observations and experiments in so far as possible, and to that extent are to be regarded as legitimate station publica- tions. To a considerable extent, however, they arc of a general character. United States funds cannot be used in their publica- tion, and since the demand's for other purposes upon the rela- tively small appropriation which comes to the station from the State are heavy, and since, further, furnishing this literature is rather extension than experiment, provision to carry the costs should be made in the extension departnient of the institution. CircAilafwn of PuUicaiionf!. — In accordance with an act of our Legislature Part I. of our annual report is printed with the report of the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, and those on the mailing list of that P>oard will receive this publica- tion. Five thousand copies of Part T. of our annual report also 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 19 iirc I'linii.-licd to the station. These are sent to ]il)rai"i(>s and directors of agricidtural experiment stations, to jiresidents and libraries of agricultural colleges, to the public libraries of Mas- sachusetts, and all other libraries on our mailing list, to the mailing list of the United States Department of Agriculture and to those on our exchange list. This part of our annual rcjxirt contains technical monographs giving the results of re- search work, and a large number of copies are reserved to meet future dcnumds. Part II. of our annual report, which contains the more })opular papers, and our bulletins are sent to all those on our general nuiiling list, to the public libraries of the State, to those on the mailing list of the United States Department of Agriculture likely to be interested, and to experiment stations and agricultural colleges. It is our aim to reserve a consider- able number of each i)ublication to meet subsequent demands, but the demand has grown so rapidly that the supply of most, as will be noted from the above list of available publications, has been exhausted. The meteorological bulletins are sent only to agricultural college and experiment station libraries, presidents and directors, to the Department of Agriculture and Office of PLxpcriment Stations, to newspapers and to libraries and indi- viduals who have especially requested them. Our circulars are printed for use in connection with the cor- respondence of the station. It is only by the use of such cir- culars that we are able to give information and advice on the many problems on which we are consulted. These circulars are sent only as above stated or on request. An abstract of all im- |'lots of one-twentieth acre each. The crop of 1910 was rather seriously injured by frost, but it was nevertheless fairly satisfactory as to quantity and quality. The past season was the fourth since the plants were set. The first cutting was made on April 23, the last on June 29. The total yield of all the plots was 9,020 pounds and 6 ounces. Attention is called to the following conclusions, based upon results, as of possible interest : — (1) The use of fertilizer made up of a combination of ni- trate of soda, acid phosphate and muriate of potash, in addition to an application of manure at the rate of 10 tons per acre, has not materially increased the crop in whatever quantity applied. (2) The use of nitrate of soda in addition to manure at the rate above named, in quantities ranging between the rate of from 311 ])0unds to G22 pounds per acre, has not increased the crop. (3) The use of nitrate of soda in addition to a fairly liberal application of acid phosphate and muriate of potash has some- what increased the cro]), l)nt a quantity in excess of 311 pounds has not resulted in further increase. Cliemical Worh on Asparagus Roots. — It is a part of the ])lan of the experiments with fertilizers to study the effects of varying treatment njjou the composition of the roots. This in- vestigation on the chemical side is being carried on by Prof. F. W. Morse, who will in due time report fully upon the results of the analytical work. It was thought that a study of the re- serve material stored in the roots in the autumn might offer results of especial interest and im])ortance, and although the 26 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. investigation is not jet completed, this expectation has been largely realized. The special object in view in the first collec- tion of roots made was to study the effect of the varying nse of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda upon the reserve mate- rial in the roots in the antnnm. The following points appear to have been well established by the analyses so far made : - — The amonnt of nitrogen in the roots in the fall: (1) is in- creased by application of nitrate of soda; (2) is greater where nitrate was used at the rate of 4GG pounds per acre than where it was used at the rate of 311 pounds per acre; (3) is not greater where the nitrate of soda was used at the rate of 622 pounds per acre than where it was used at the rate of 4G6 pounds per acre. It is believed, although this has not yet been proved, that the crop of the following season must bear a rather close relation to the amount of reserve material in the roots in the fall. If this be so, and if further investigation gives results in agree- ment with those already obtained, the conclusion that the use of nitrate of soda among our growers is not infrequently in excess of the most profitable quantity would appear to be justi- fied. This conclusion should, however, for the jiresent be re- garded as tentative rather than fully established. Cranberry Substations. During the ]iast year our work in the interest of cranberry growers has been put upon a much more satisfactory basis than heretofore, through a special appropriation by the Legislature to provide for the work. The amount of this appropriation was $15,000. A bog containing about 12 acres, lying near Specta- cle Pond in East Wareham, with a small amount of adjoining upland, two small buildings and a powerful gasoline engine and pump, were purchased for $12,000. A building to contain screen and storage rooms, living and offi-ce rooms for an assist- ant, and a small laboratory will be erected early this year at a cost of about $2,000. The balance of the appropriation will be used for the purchase of additional upland to provide readier access to the building above referred to, in the making of needed 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 27 improvenicuts in llie i)innping machinery and in preparations for experiments. The cranberry bog pnrchased is planted with Early Black and the Howe varieties. It lies a little above the nsual level of the water in Spectacle Pond, the lift required to flood it nsually varying between about 3 and 4 feet. The capacity of the })0wer and pumping machinery is such that the bog can be completely flooded in about six hours. The area of Si)ectacle Pond is nearly 100 acres, and the supply of water is constant and abundant. Being a " great pond " the waters are under State control. Only one other bog, and that a relatively small one, draws water from the pond, so that there must always be water enough for any possible need for all kinds of experimen- tal work. The bog when purchased was in exceptionally perfect condition. It is one which has the reputation of more than average fruitfulness. The crop last year^ as was the case with most of the bogs in the cranberry districts of Massachusetts, was moderate, and the net revenue derived from it was small. It is, however, confidently anticipated that the product of the bog will, over a series of years, be sufficient to produce a con- siderable net income, which will be used in helping to meet the expenses connected with our experimental work. The crop of the past season brought $1,255 more than the costs of ordinary maintenance, harvesting, packing, etc. The net sum available towards the costs of experimental work, however, was substan- tially $100 less than this, that being the amount which we were compelled to pay for taxes, since the bog had not been the prop- erty of the Commonwealth on the first of May. It will be remembered that our cranberry work thus far has followed two principal lines of inquiry relating (1) to the fer- tilizer requirements of the crop; (2) to insects affecting it. Fertilizer Experiments. — The fertilizer experiments begun four years ago in Red Brook bog at Waquoit have been con- tinued. The bog, however, gave only a very small crop during the past season, — a result which we believe to have been due in large measure to the effects of frost. The variations in yield caused by uneven amount of frost damage were so great that it 28 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. was impossible to draw conclusions as to the specific effects of the different fertilizer combinations. The fertilizer experiments in the Red Brook bog at Waqnoit will be continued during next jear, but meanwhile similar experiments will be begun in the Spectacle Pond bog. It is believed that it will be best to dis- continue the Waquoit experiments after next year, since thev lie at such a distance from the station bog in Wareham as to make proper attention to the work somewhat ditficult and ex- pensive. Insect Worh. — Dr. Franklin has devoted himself with great enthusiasm and faithfulness to observations and studies on the insects having a relation either injurious or beneficial to the cranberry industry. He has accumulated a large amount of valuable data, but his work is not advanced to the point where publication seems called for. Control Work. Detailed reports concerning the various lines of control work carried on by the station, prepared by the chemists in charge, will be found in the later pages of this report. Fertilizer Law. — We have found it impossible during the past few years to exercise an efficient control over the trade in fertilizers and to publish the reports without expending an amount exceeding the sum brought in by the analysis or license fees required by our law. The expenditure in 1909 exceeded the amount of the license fees to the amount of nearly $1,000. To provide for this excess expenditure by the use of other sta- tion funds seriously reduces the amount available for experi- mental work. Accordingly, the amount of analytical work in connection with the fertilizer control during the past year has been somewhat restricted, and the size of the bulletin giving the results has been reduced. These reductions, while for the time being necessary, are undesirable, and for this reason, as well as for other important reasons, it has been decided to ask for a revision of our fertilizer law. The preparation of the new draft has required a great deal of study and many conferences with parties affected by the law. The more important of the 11)11.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 29 changes which it provides arc an increase in the analysis lee per fertilizer clement from $5 to $8, and bringing the various grades of agricultural lime within its scope. The other changes which have been made have been designed to remedy defects from the standpoint of administration which the execution of the old law had disclosed, and to make it more dctinite and ex- plicit on a number of rather important points. The fertilizer law at i)rcsent in force requires us to publish the dealer's cash price and the percentage of difference between this price and the commercial valuation of the fertilizer. It is not proposed to retain this provision in the new law, as it is felt that it is on the whole likely to prove misleading to the farmer, almost inev- itably unfair to dealers, and from no point of view apparently- serves any important use. Dairy Law. — Much time has been spent during the past year also in studying and rewriting the so-called dairy law. Besides various perfecting changes, the most important moditi- cation is to bring milk inspectors and the Babcock machinery and apparatus which they use within the scope of the law. There would seem to be equal reason that steps should be taken to insure accuracy of work on the results of which, if unfa- vorable, the milk dealer or farmer may be prosecuted for in- fringement of one of our State laws, as for bringing those test- ing milk and cream for determining its value within the scope of the law. Feed Law. — The increasing number of feedstuflCs in our markets, and the increased extent to which materials of coni- ]il('x character are purchased and used by our farmers, have gi-eatly increased the amount of work required to exercise effec- tive control over the trade in feedstuff s, and we find it to be impossible at the present time to properly execute the law and to publish the results of our inspection for the sum of money provided by the State legislative appropriation for the purpose. It will be necessary, therefore, in the near future, to ask for a revision of this law. The amount of the appropriation should lie moderately increased to provide for the much greater amount of work now required than was necessary when the amount of 30 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. the .'i]>proi)riation was fixed some eight years ago. In the case of this hiw, also, practical experience in its execution has made it ajjparent that some perfecting amendments are necessary in order that it may operate smoothly and etfectively. Inspection of Apiaeies. The great desirability of the passage of a law providing for the inspection of apiaries, with a view to the eradication and control of contagious diseases of bees, was set forth at some length in \ny last annual report. It seems proper, therefore, in this report to refer to the fact that the Legislature of 1910 passed such an act. The execution of the law, however, was placed with the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, but the expei-imcnt station and college are working in harmony with the secretary. He has named as inspector of apiaries the apiarist of the college and station, Dr. Burton N. Gates, whose appointment has already been referred to. Buildings. The new building for the departments of entomology and zoology has been completed during the year and has been occu- pied since September. It is a commodious, fireproof structure, costing $80,000, and paid for by special a|)propriation. It pro- vides ample accommodations for the experimental work in en- tomology. The hothouse, a comparatively new and modern building used in connection with the old insectary for experi- mental work, has been moved on to new foundations and is con- nected with the new building. The necessity for increased accommodations for the research chemical work of the station was pointed out in my last annual report, in which it was stated that plans for enlargement and modification of the old building for the purpose of securing the increased accommodations needed were under consideration. Mature study of the problem as to the best means of providing the needed room, in connection with more exact estimates of the cost of so enlarging and modifying our old laboratory as to meet the requirements, has led to the conclusion that it is un- wise to make the relatively large expenditure required for such 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 31 tiilariitMut'iit iiiid iii'.itash plots by only GOO pounds. The average yield of rowen on the potash plots exceeds the yield on the no-potash plots by about 1,000 pounds. These iigiircs indicate that the grasses, timothy and redtop, which make U]) the bulk of the first crop^ are not dependent in very high degree upon an application of potash, and the much larger increase in the yield of rowen on the potash plots is clearly to be atti'ibulcd to the fact that clovers make up the greater part of the rowen. (2) The kainit, while favorable to the grasses, such as tim- othy and redtop, and therefore giving a first crop nearly equal 42 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. to the average for the potash salts, is distinctly inferior to any of the materials supplying potash in its effects npon the rowen. This is nnJonbtecUy due to the large proportion of chlorides which kainit contains. (3) It will be noticed that the yield of rowen on muriate of potash is considerably less than on either of the sulfates, the nitrate or the carbonate. We have noticed in our experiments that the muriate almost always proves distinctly less favorable to clovers than the sulfates. On the other hand, this salt ap- ])ears to be highly favorable to the timothy and redtop, as is indicated by the relatively high yield of hay. (4) The yield of rowen is highest on the low-grade sulfate of potash^ and there is a noticeable difference in its favor in the yield of hay also. It is possible that the magnesium con- tained in this salt is proving of value for the hay crops. The most marked result of the substitution during the past few years of feldspar for the silicate of potash used in the earlier years of the experiment on Plots 8, IG, 24, .32 and 40 has been the rapid disappearance of clover from these plots. This fact indicates that the claim of the manufacturers that the potash of the feldspar has been rendered available by the treat- ment to which it has heon subjected is not justified by the facts. After two years the clover has disappeared from these plots almost as eom])letely as from the plots to which no j^otash has been applied throughout the entire period of the experiment. Y. Comparison of Different Phosphates. Ten of the leading materials which may be used as a source of phosphoric acid have been under comparison in one of our fields since 1897. The different materials are applied to the sep- arate plots in such quantities as to furnish equal amounts of actual phosphoric acid to each. There are three check plots to which no phosphate whatever has been applied during the entire period of the experimeut. All the ]ilots receive annually equal and liberal quantities of materials sup]ilying nitrogen and pot- ash in highly available forms. The field has been used for a large variety of crops, the succession having been as follows : corn, cabbages, eoi-n, oats and Hungarian grass (followed by 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 43 11, mixed grass rvc iilowed under), onions, onions, cabbages, coi and clover three years, cabbages and soy beans. The crop this year was potatoes. The results are shown in table : — Comparison of Phosphates. the following Plot. No phosphate, Arkansas rock phosphate, South Carolina rock, . Florida soft rock, Phosphatic slag, . Tennessee phosphate. No phosphate, . Dissolved bone black, Raw bone meal, . Dissolved bone meal, . Steamed bone meal, . Acid phosphate, . No phosphate. Yield Merchant- able Potatoes per Plot (Pounds). 2,148 2,170 1,986 1,761 1,841 1,773 1,831 1,859 1,941 1,982 1,964 1,929 1,610 Yield per Plot (Pounds). Small. Rotten. 94 6 89 12 53 23)4 107 24 76 18 109 34 53 36J-^ 90 12.^ 140 12 121 15 101 IIH 120 9,4 107 11}^ Yield Merchant- able Potatoes per Acre (Bushels). Loss or Gain per Acre (Bushels). 286.4 - 289.3 +40.9 264.8 + 16.4 234.8 —13,6 245.5 —2,9 236.4 —12,0 244.1 - 247.9 —0.5 258.8 +10.4 264.3 + 15.9 261.9 + 13.5 257,2 +8.8 214.7 - The yield, as will be seen, was good on all plots. The aver- age on the three check plots is 244.8 bushels of merchantable ])otato€s per acre. It will be noticed that the only one of the phosphates used which has given any very considerable increase in merchantable potatoes is the Arkansas rock phosphate, but I am con\'inccd that the superiority of this phosphate is more apparent than real. The field declines somewhat in fertility from Plot 1 to Plot I.']. It will be noticed that Plot 1 without phos])hato gives a yield of merchantable tubers larger than any of the phosphate plots, with the exception of two, and that the crop on two is practically the same in amount as on one. The superior yield on these two ])lois is in my judgment merely a consequence of the fact that the soil texture in that part of the field is; more favorable to the crop. The conclusions to which I would e;dl particular attention may be stated as follows: — (1) The potato would apj^ear to be a crop relatively inde- 44 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. pendent of a supply of iiiiniediat'ely available phosphoric acid. The result with potatoes offers a striking contrast to the result obtained in 1908 with cabbages, with which the crop on some of the best jihosphate plots was more than six times greater than that produced on the no-phosphate plots. (2) Although the phosphate used affected the total yield but little, it was noticed that during the first few weeks of their growth the vines on the plots to which the more available phos- jihates had been applied (phosphatic slag, dissolved bone black, dissolved bone meal and acid phosphate), made a much more rapid growth than on the other plots. The use of a little phos- phoric acid, therefore, in highly available form, seems likely to prove a distinct advantage by pushing the crop more rapidly forward, so that it may better resist attacks of insects or un- favorable conditions which may occur later. It seems likely, further, that where the crop is cultivated for an early market the use of moderate amounts of highly available phosphoric acid may prove beneficial. (3) The potatoes produced on the plot to which phosphatic slag has been annually applied for so many years were very scabby, although the seed planted was treated with formalin, as was that planted on the other plots also. So serious was this trouble that the market value of the crop was very greatly reduced, and the conclusion appears justified that a free use of phosphatic slag in the same season that land is to be planted with potatoes must in general prove highly undesirable. Slag meal is a strongly alkaline fertilizer, and this is undoubtedly the cause of the very scabby crop produced, since the scab fungus is known to be most troublesome in soils which are alkaline. VI. Manuee Alone compaeed with Manttee and Sulfate OF Potash. This experiment, which occupies what is known as the south corn acre, has been in progress since 1890. The field is divided into four plots of one-fourth acre each. Good barnyard manure from milch cows, at the rate of 6 cords per acre^ has been ap- plied annually, with the exception of those years when it was 1911.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 45 feared so doing M'ould cause the newly seeded grass and clover to lodge, to two of these plots. Manure at the rate of 3 cords per acre, together with high-grade sulfate of potash at the rate of 160 pounds per acre, was applied to the other two plots from 1890 to 1895. Since the latter date the manure has been ai)plied to these plots at the rate of 4 cords per acre in connec- tion with 160 pounds of high-grade sulfate of potash, and whenever, for the reasons above stated, the application of ma- nure has been omitted from the other tw^o plots, both the manure and the potash have been withheld from these plots. The plan of cropping this field for the last twelve years has been corn and hay in rotation in periods of tw^o years for each. During the i)ast season the crop on this field has been hay, and the average yields per acre have been as follows : — Pounds. !Maniu'e alone : — Hay, 4,480 Roweii, 1,050 Manure and polasli: — Hay, 4,400 Rowen, 940 The rowen crop of the past season was very small, owing to the marked deficiency in rainfall. The corn cropS raised in this field throughout the entire period of the experiment have been very nearly e(pial under the differing nianurial treat- ments. The hay crops have usually been somewhat larger with the manure alone. The difference during the past season is considerably less than the average. ^'I^. Average Corn Fertilizer compared \vith Ferti- lizer Richer in Potash. These experiments occupy wdiat is known as the north corn acre. They have been in progress since 1891. This field, like the south corn acre, is divided into four plots of one-fourth acre each. Two of the plots receive a mixture furnishing ni- trogen, phosphoric acid and potash in the same proportions in which they arc contained in the average corn fertilizers offered m our markets. The other two plots annually receive an ap- 46 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. plication of a honicMnade niixtnre, containing mnch Iojss phos- phoric acid and more potash than is applied to the other plots. For the past fifteen years corn and hay, two years each, have regularly alternated. The crop of the past season was hay. Owing to the marked deficiency in rainfall already referred to the ro"wen crop was almost an absolute failure. The average yields were at the following rates per acre : — Pounds. On the fertilizer rich in phosphoric acid and low in potash : — Hay, 3,200 Rowen, .......... 330 On the fertilizer low in phosphoric acid and rich in potash: — ■ Hay, 3,500 Rowen, 240 The results of the past season are similar to those which we have usually obtained, except that owing to the protracted drought the production of rowen on the plots receiving the larger proportion of potash is much lower than usual. In an average season the yield of rowen on these plots has invariably been greater than on the others. VIII. South Acke Soil Test. The crop raised in the south acre soil test which has continued in this field since 1889 was corn. The succession of crops grown on this field from the beginning of the experiment up to the present time has been as follows: corn, corn, oats, grass and clover, grass and clover, coru (followed by mustard as a catch crop), rje, soy beans, white mustard (plowed in), corn, corn, grass and clover, grass and clover, corn, corn, corn, grass and clover, grass and clover, corn, oats and clover, buckwheat plowed under, corn. During the continuance of the experiment the field has been limed at the rate of a ton to the acre three times. The results of the past season with corn were entirely similar to those which have usually been obtained with that crop. Pot- ash is still the dominant element. The average yield on the no- fertilizer plots, three in number, was at the rate of 4.05 bushels per acre. Muriate of potash alone increases the crop to nearly 23 bushels. Nitrate of soda alone gives a crop of 9 bushels. Dissolved bone black alone gives a yield at the rate of 4.21 1911. J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 47 bushels. The average iiiereases due to the api)lieatioii of the (.iift'erent fertilizers (used iu each case on four plots) were as follows : — Bushels per Acre. Nitrate of soda, 3.2 Bone black, . . . . . . • • . • 6.8 Potash, 28,3 If wc represent the average increase in grain due to the ni- trate at 100, that due to the bone black is 21-2, that due to the jiotash 880.9. Similar figures for the stover are: — Pounds per Acre. Nitrate, 186.2 Bone black, 406.5 Potash, 1,922.7 IX. XoKTii AcKE Soil Test. The soil test in this field was begun in 1890, and the crops grown since that year in the order of succession have been as fol- lows : potatoes, corn, soy beans, oats, grass and clover, grass and clover, cabbages and turnips, potatoes, onions, onions, onions, pi^tatoes, grass and clover, grass and clover, corn, soy beans, grass and clover, grass and clover, grass and clover. The crop the past year was soy beans, for which the potash appears to be the dominant element. In this field one-half of each of the plots, which are long and narrow, has received three applica- tions of lime, respectively, in 1899, 1904 and 1907. On the limed portion the increases due to the application of single fer- tilizer materials for the muriate of potash alone was 10.22 bushels per acre; for the nitrate of soda alone, 0.12 bushels; for the dissolved bone black alone, a loss of 4.45 bushels. The umriate of potash in combination with the other fertilizer ele- ments did not give as large an increase in the crop as when used alone. The results will not be discussed in full at this time, but I may add that they are such as to suggest that the soda of the nitrate of soda is to a considerable extent either rendering the natural potash compounds of the soil available, or is itself to some extent taking the place of potash in the economy of the plant. 48 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. X. Top-dkessijng for Hay. The experiments in the production of hay, by using in rota- tion as top-dressing barnyard manure, wood ashes and a mixture of bone meal and muriate of potash, have been continued during the past year in the nine-acre field where these experiments have been in progress since 1893. The average yield for the entire area this year was at the rate of 5,853 pounds per acre. The yields on the different materials used in top-dressing were at the following rates per acre: — Pounds. Barnyard manure, ......... 5,641 Fine ground bone and nuu'iate of potash, ..... 6,076 Wood ashes, 5,523 The crops this year were lighter than usual, as a consequence, without doubt, of the marked deficiency in rainfall already re- ferred to. The average yields to date under the different sys- tems of top-dressing have been at the following rates per acre : — Pounda. Barnyard manure, 6,343 Wood ashes, 5,789 Fine ground bone and uuuiale of jjolash, ..... 6,159 The average yield of the 9 acres from 1893 to 1910 inclusive has been at the rate of 6,134 pounds per acre. The rates of ap- plication per acre are: — 1. Barnyard manure, . 8 tons. 2. Wood ashes, 1 ton. I Ground bone, 600 i)ounds. ^- \ Muriate of potasli, 200 pounds. XL Winter v. Sprincx Application of Manure. The experiments in progress for the purpose of testing the relative advantages of applying manure in the winter or in the spring were begun in 1899. There are five pairs of plots. In each pair the manure is applied to one plot some time during the winter. At the same time sufficient manure for the other and of the same quality is placed in a large heap, from which it 1911, PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 49 is spread in the si)ring-. The lickl in which these experiments are in progress has a decided slope lengthwise of the plots, which lie side by side. The manure which is put on in the winter is applied to the various plots at different times. The crop of the past season was hay, mixed timothy, redtop and clovers. The supply of manure for use in the experiments this year was not as large as usual and Plot 4 was not top-dressed. The results on this plot, therefore, for this season illustrate simply the residual effects of the two systems of applying manure. It must be pointed out, also, that owing to the relatively slow accumulation of manure used in this experiment the quantity available for Plot 3 was not sufficient until the last of March, so that this year the manure was applied both to the north and south half of this plot on the same date, March 31. The results are shown by the following tables. Yield per Acre (Pounds). North Half. Winter Application. South Half. Spring Application. Plot. Hay. Rowen. Hay. Rowen. 1 6,312 534 6,925 1,009 2 6,252 1,049 6,826 950 3 7,004 811 6,905 1,068 4 5,857 534 6,114 752 5, 8,904 930 8,528 1,563 Relative Yields (Per Cent.). Plot. North Half. Winter Application. South Half. Spring Application. Hay. Rowen. Hay. Rowen. 1 2 3, 4 5, 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 109.7 109.2 98.6 104.4 95.8 188.9 90.6 131.6 141.0 168.1 50 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Hay and Bowen {combined).- — Average Yields. North Half. Winter Application. South Half. Spring Application. Per Acre (Pounds). Per Cent. Per Acre (Pounds). Per Cent. 1 2 3 4, 5 6,846 7,301 7,815 6,391 9,834 100 100 100 100 100 7,934 7,776 7,973 6,866 10,091 115.9 . 106.5 102.0 107.4 102.7 I'Jll.l PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 51 KEPORT OF THE CHEMIST. JOSEPH B. LINDSEY. This report is intended to give an outline of the work ac- complished and in progress in the department of plant and animal chemistry for the year 1910. 1. CoRRESPOIvDEISrCE. There have heen substantially 5,000 letters sent ont during tlie year ending Dec. 1, 1910, the estimate being made on the l)asis of stamps used. The correspondence divides itself into (a) answering letters of inquiry, (h) the execution of the fer- tilizer, feed and dairy laws, (c) the testing of cows, and (d) the ordering of supplies. 2. NUMEEICAL SUMMAEY OF WoRK IN THE ChEMICAL LAB- ORATORY. From Dec. 1, 1909, to Dec. 1, 1910, there have been received and examined 101 samples of water, 459 of milk, 2,799 of cream, 151 of feed stuffs, 223 of fertilizers and fertilizer mate- rials. 44 of soils and 48 miscellaneous. In connection with o.\|)ci-inionts made by this and other dei;)artments of the station, tlicrc h-ave been examined 247 samples of milk^ 115 of cattle feeds and 300 of agricultural plants. There have also been collected and examined 890 samples of fertilizer, in accord- ance witli the requirements of the fertilizer law, and 1,055 sam- jiles of cattle feeds, in accordance with the requirements of the feed law. The total for the year has been 6,432. This sum- mary does ur>t include Avork done by the research division. In addition to the above. 10 candidates have been examined 52 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. aud given certificates to oi3erate Babcock machines, and 4,047 pieces of Babcock glassware have been tested for accuracy of graduation, of which 41, or 1.01 per cent., were inaccurate. 3. Laboratory Work of the Research Section. Messrs. Holland and Reed have continued work on the prep- aration of chemically pure insoluble fatty acids, and on the perfecting of methods for their quantitative determination. In- vestigations have also been continued relative to the cause of rancidity of fats, and upon the composition and preparation of chemically pure insecticides, particularly Paris green, arse- nates of lead and arsenite of lime. Papers entitled " The Purification of Insoluble Fatty Acids " and " The Determina- tion of Arsenic in Insecticides " are presented elsewhere in this report, and likewise in the " Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry." Mr. Morse has devoted his time to studying the effect of fer- tility on the chemical composition of asparagus roots, and pre- sents a preliminary paper in this report and in the " Journal of the American Chemical Society " entitled " Soluble Carbo- hydrates of Asparagus Roots." Chemical analyses showed clearly that there was a marked increase in the total nitrogen in the roots, produced by the addition to the soil of different amounts of nitrate of soda. Low applications of nitrate gave an increase, medium still more, but high applications did not appear to be more effective than medium ones. The carbohydrates in the reserve material of the roots con- sisted mainly of a soluble sugar, made up of fructose and glu- cose, the former decidedly in excess. Nitrogenous fertilizers apparently had no direct effect on the carbohydrates. In gen- eral the increase in protein accompanied a lower proportion of total carbohydrates, including fiber. Seventy-six samples of roots were gathered in iS^ovember to repeat the nitrogen series and to extend the investigations to the effect of phosphorus and potassium. Mr. Morse has also done some preliminary Avork in studying the character of the drainage waters from miniature cranberry bogs constructed under the direction of Director Brooks. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 53 At iiitcrviils stiulj has also been given to the chemistry of the soils oil Field A, in hopes of ascertaining the cause or causes of clover sickness, but no definite results can be reported. 4. Research Work in Animal J^TuTKiTioisr. Work is in progress to study the effect of lactic and butyric acids upon the digestibility of food. It has been shown that molasses is responsible for a decided digestion depression upon the foodstuffs with which it is fed. It being recognized that such material in the digestive tract is a large yielder of organic acids, it seemed at least possible that it is these acids which check the further action of the micro-organisms, and prevent their attacking the more difficultly digestible fiber, pentosans and gums. A paper is presented elsewhere in this report attempting to show the protein requirements of dairy animals. Most dairy animals respond to increased amounts of protein over a protein minimum. By minimum is meant the amount required for maintenance plus that required in the milk. An excess of 25 per cent, over the minimum seems to give very satisfactory results, and is sufficient under most conditions. Two experiments with dairy cows have been completed to note the comparative effects of corn meal, dried beet pulp and dried molasses beet pulp for milk production. Another experi- ment with corn meal versus ground oats has also been com- pleted. The results have not been worked out. The complete records of the station herd have been tabulated from 189G through 1909. giving such data as food cost of milk production, dry and digestible matter required to produce defi- nite amounts of milk, total solids and fat, relation of grain to roughage, etc. The food cost of 5 per cent, milk for 1909 was o..'] cents per quart. Talmlntions. There has been prepared and will be found elsewhere in this report the following tabulations: — 1. Analyses of all cattle feeds made in this laboratory throiiiih 1010. 54 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 2. Important ash constituents in cattle foods. 3. Composition of dairy products. 4. Digestion coefficients obtained from experiments made in the United States. 5. Composition of fertilizer materials and of natural and waste products. 6. Fertilizer constituents of fruit and garden crops. 7. Relative proportion of phosphoric acid, potash and ni- trogen in fruit and garden crops. 8. Composition of some Massachusetts soils. 5. Report of the Fertilizer Section. Mr. H. D. Haskins makes the following report : — The principal work of this section has had to do with the execution of the fertilizer law of the State. Our experience this season indicated a very active demand for both chemicals and factory-mixed commercial fertilizers. There was a larger num- l)er of brands licensed than ever before. The inspection did not include the collection of as large a number of samples as during the previous year, although about the same number of brands were analyzed. It has been necessary to curtail somewhat, in order to keep as nearly as possible within the income derived from the fertilizer analysis fees. The expense of the inspection work has increased from year to year, and necessitates a larger income. It has also become evident that the old law requires many changes in order to make it applicable to present condi- tions. An attempt to improve the law is now under consid- eration. Fertilizers licensed. During the season of 1910 analysis fees have been paid by 88 manufacturers, importers and dealers, including the various branches of the American Agricultural Chemical Company, upon 465 distinct brands of fertilizer, including agricultural chemicals and by-products. Five more certificates of compli- ance have been issued, including 34 more brands than during 1909. Thev mav be classed as follows: — 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 55 Complete fertilizers, Fertilizei-s furnishing; phosphoric acid and potash, Ground bone, tankage and dry ground tish, . Chemicals and organic compounds furnishing nitrogen, Total, 316 14 53 82 465 Fertilizers collected. With but few exceptions, representative samples of every brand of fertilizer sold in the State have been secured. The collection work was in charge of Mr. James T. Howard, the regular insj^ector, assisted by J\Ir. A. B. Harris. As a gen- eral rule an effort has been made to collect samples of the same brand in different parts of the State, and to make one analysis of a composite sample made up of equal weights of the several samples. It is believed that this method will prove more sat- isfactory than when the results are based upon the analysis of a single sample. In all cases at least 10 per cent, of the num- ber of bags found present were sampled; in cases where only a small amount of any particular brand was found in stock a larger percentage of the bags was sampled (often 50 to 100 ])cr cent.), and in no case were less than five bags sampled without the fact being stated on the guarantee slip which is sent to the station laboratory with every brand of fertilizer sampled. One hundred and fourteen towns were visited, and samples of fertilizers were taken from 291 different agents. Eight hun- dred and ninety samples were drawn, representing 487 distinct brands. Some of the brands represent private formulas which farmers have had manufactured for their own use. The analy- ses of such brands were published in the bulletin in a table by themselves. Fertilizers analyzed. A total of 612 analyses was made in connection with the inspection of 1910. They may be grouped as follows: — Complete fertilizers, ..... Fertilizers fuinishing potash and phosphoric acid superphosphates and potash, Ground bones, tankage and fish, . Nitrogen compounds, Potash compounds, ...... Phosphoric acid compounds, .... Total, such as ashes 418 21 71 50 32 20 612 56 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The analyses were made in accordance with methods adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. The analysis of a composite sample was made whenever possible, and in instances where such an analysis has shown a brand to be seriously deficient in one or more elements, a new portion was drawn from each original sample collected and a separate analy- sis made. This was done to determine whether the shortage was confined to one sample or whether it was general in case of that particular brand. Twelve samples of lava fertilizer, so called, were analyzed. Although these materials have not been offered for sale in Massachusetts, considerable literature concerning them has been circulated, and it was thought best to have representative samples examined and the results published. Thirty-two more analyses \vere made than during the pre- vious year. Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredienis. The following table of trade values of fertilizer ingredients was used. It was adopted by the experiment stations of l^ew England, New Jersey and Isew York at a meeting held in March, 1910. For purposes of comparison the 1009 schedule is also given. Cents per Pound. Nitrogen: — In ammonia salts, ........... In nitrates, ............ Organic nitiogen in dry and fine ground fish, meat, blood, and in high- grade mixed fertilizers, ......... Organic nitrogen in fine ' bone and tankage, ..... Organic nitrogen in coarse ' bone and tankage, ..... Phosphoric acid: — Soluble in water, . . . . . . . Soluble in neutral citrate of ammonia solution (reverted phosphoric acid),^ ............ In fine ' bone and tankage, . . . . . • . In coarse ' bone and tankage, ........ In cottonseed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace and ashes, . Insoluble in neutral citrate of ammonia solution (in mixed fertilizers), Potash: — As sulfate, free from chlorides, ........ As muriate (chlorides), .......... As carbonate, ............ > Fine and medium bone and tankage are separated by a sieve having circular openings one- fiftieth of an inch in diameter. Valuations of these materials are based upon degree of fineness as well as upon composition. * Dissolved by a neutral solution of ammonium citrate; specific gravity 1 09 in accordance with method adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. 1011. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 57 These trade values will be found to correspond fairly with the average wholesale quotations of chemicals and raw materials as found in trade publications for the six months preceding .March 1, plus about 20 per cent. They represent the average pound cost for cash at retail of the various ingredients as fur- nished by standai-d unmixed chemicals and raw materials in large markets in Xew^ England and jS^ew York for the six months preceding March 1, 1910. The cost of the mineral forms of nitrogen (nitrate of soda and sulfate of ammonia) has been somewhat lower than for the previous year, which has led to a more general use of these forms of nitrogen. Xitrogen from organic sources has been a cent higher than for the season of 1909. The cost of phosphoric acid was one-half cent higher than for the previous season. There was no material change in the cost of the various forms of potash. >'^ii]jiiii(irij of Analyses as compared iviiJi Guarantees of Licensed Complete Fertilizers. Manufacturers. " 13 2 « = 11 t. * Q Number equal to Guarantee in Com- mercial Value. Number with One Element below Guarantee. 0 is ^^ 4) u ? a E.2 3 3WO 8& ^■^ . Za a £-2 3 atqO 2; W. H. Abbott 3 1 3 1 1 - American Agricultural Chemical Company, . 78 55 75 19 3 - Armour Fertilizer Works, 11 11 11 - - - Baltimore Pulverizing Company, . . . . 4 - 2 4 - - Beach Soap Company 5 3 5 2 - - Berlishire Fertilizer Company, . . . . 8 6 8 2 - - Boiiora Chemical Company, . . . . 1 - 1 1 - - Bowker Fertilizer Company 30 21 27 7 2 - Joseph Breck & Sons Corporation, 3 1 3 2 - - Buffalo Fertilizer Company 8 1 6 6 1 - Coe-Mortimer Company, 13 6 10 3 3 1 Eastern Chemical Company, 1 1 1 - - - Essex Fertilizer Company, 12 4 10 5 3 - R. & J. Farquhar & Co.,. 3 1 3 2 - - The Cireen Mountain Plant Food Company, 1 1 1 - - - 58 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Siuirmary of Analyses as compared with Guarantees of Licensed Complete Fertilizers — Con. Man UFACTURER8. 'A <3 8 1^ ° ^° 5 6 0 U §^ - s ^n — , o OO 3 fl 3 A ® (! 0) »> "3 I. 0 0 ^ S 3 « E-Si § 30g §HO Z ;?; - 1 1 3 6 3 - 1 1 6 17 9 8 12 3 3 5 2 4 6 1 1 7 4 - 1 2 1 2 - 1 1 - 3 9 5 6 8 2 2 3 1 1 1 - 5 6 - 4 15 9 1 1 - - 5 4 5 6 1 - 3 2 s& 5j= . ^ M S t. o o S « oJ ■SIS 3HO 2; .5.2 E-i » x-^ . ■f m a SiJ3 12; C. W. Hastings Lister's Agricultural Chemical Works, . James E. McGovern, ..... Mapes' Formula and Peruvian Guano Company National Fertilizer Company, New England Fertilizer Company, Olds & Whipple Parmenter & Polsey Fertilizer Company, R.T.Prentiss Pulverized Manure Company, W. W. Rawson & Co Rogers Manufacturing Company, . Rogers & Hubbard Company, Ross Bros. Company N. Roy & Son, Sanderson Fertilizer and Chemical Company, M. L. Shoemaker & Co., Ltd., Swifts' Lowell Fertilizer Company, W. G. Todd Whitman & Pratt Rendering Company, Wilcox Fertilizer Works, A. H. Wood & Co The above table shows that 306 distinct brands of licensed complete fertilizers have been collected and analyzed. That 140 brands (45.75 per cent, of the whole nnniber an- alyzed) fell below the mannfactnrer's guarantee in one or more elements. That 104 brands were deficient in one element. That 30 brands were deficient in two elements. That G brands were deficient in all three elements. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 59 That 24: out of the 300 brands (7.85 per cent, of the whole number) showed a commercial shortage; that is, they did not show the amount and value of the plant food as expressed by the lower guarantee, although the values of any overruns were used to offset shortages. The deficiencies were divided as follows : — GO brands were found deficient in nitrogen. 80 brands were found deficient in available phosphoric acid. 71 brands were found deficient in potash. When the data furnished by the above summary are compared with those of previous years, it is clear that greater care has been exercised on the part of the manufacturers, the guarantees being more generally maintained. More brands were deficient in potash than during the pre- vious year, a fact which may be due to temporary shortage in the supply of German potash salts in this country and corre- spondingly higher prices. These conditions were due to Ger- man legislation, which prevented the carrying out of contracts with German mine owners held by American fertilizer manu- facturers except on payment of heavy production taxes. Commercial SJioriages. The brands having a commercial shortage were mucli fewer in number than for 1900, and the amount or value of the short- ages was much less, as may be seen from the following table : — Commercial Shortages in Mixed Complete Fertilizers for 1910, as Com- pared with the Previous Year. Number of Brands. Commercial Shortages. 1910. 1909. Over $4 per ton, . . .' Between $3 and $4 per ton Between $2 and $3 per ton, .' • Between $1 and $2 per ton Under $1 but not less than 25 cents per ton None None None 6 18 1 2 5 14 35 GO EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. There were a few brands showing rather serious deficiencies in some element of plant food, but which did not suti'er a com- mercial shortage on account of an overrun of some other ingre- dient. Such brands, of course, may be seriously out of balance, and wdiile not excusable, the manufacturer evidently had no intention to defraud. Quality of Plant Food. As a general rule the potash and phosphoric acid were fur- nished in the forms guaranteed. It is hoped that methods of analysis may soon be perfected so that it will be possible to indicate the relative availability of the organic nitrogen in mixed fertilizers. The importance of this may, in a measure, be realized when it is remembered that nearly 45 per cent, of the nitrogen used in the complete fertilizers this year was derived from organic sources. Grades of Fertilizer. The following table shows the average comparative commer- cial values, the retail cash prices and the percentages of difference of the licensed complete fertilizers analyzed in Massachusetts during the season of 1909 and 1910, grouped ac- cording to commercial valuation. Those having a valuation of $18 or less per ton are called low grade ; those having a valua- tion of between $18 and $24 are called medium grade ; and those having a valuation of over $24 are called high grade. High Grade. Medium Grade. Low Grade. 1909. 1910. 1909. 1910. 1909. 1910. Average ton valuation, $27 63 $28 81 $20 69 $21 04 $15 32 $15 61 Average cash price, . $39 05 $38 40 $33 85 $33 51 $29 51 $27 80 Average money difference, $11 42 $9 59 $13 16 $12 47 $14 19 $12 19 Percentage difference, 41.33 33.28 63.61 59.26 92.62 78.03 The percentage of difference column becomes a convenient method of comparing the commercial worth of fertilizers of the same grade and cost, and usuallv indicates fairly the most eco- 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 61 iioiiiieal fertilizer to purchase. It should never be interpreted jis representing only the profit which the manufacturer makes on his fertilizer. It must include not only the profit, but all other expenses connected with the manufacture and delivery of the goods, such as grinding, mixing, bagging, transportation, agents' profits, long credits^ interest and depreciation of factory plants. Composition according to Grade. — The following table shows the average composition of the complete commercial fer- tilizers, according to grade, as sold in the Massachusetts mar- kets during 1910: — ^^ B Per Cent, of CJ o Z d Phosphokic Acid. J3 ^s Grade. T3 B n o 'o £ Z 5 i "o 'So <" C e a g a o 01 1 .2 1 111 •z PL, d. CO Ph < Ph Ph High 151 44.67 4.22 3.88 3.26 7.14 7.63 18.90 Medium 120 35 50 2.65 4.86 2.81 7.67 5.06 15.38 Low 67 19.83 1.77 4.55 2.46 7.01 3.06 11.84 A study of the above tables shows : — 1. That the percentage difl^erence or percentage excess of the selling price over the valuation in the low-grade fertilizer is over twice what it is in the high-grade goods. 2. That with a 88 per cent, advance in price over the low- grade fertilizer, the high-grade furnishes over 84 per cent, in- crease in commercial value. 3. The average high-grade fertilizers, with a 14.6 per cent. advance in price over the medium-gi'ade goods, furnishes about 28 per cent, more plant food and about 37 per cent, increase in commercial value. 4. That wnth a 38 per cent, advance in price over the low- grade fertilizer, the high-grade furnishes more than 78 per cent, increase in available plant food. 5. The medium-grade goods cost about 20 per cent, more 62 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. than the low-grade goods and furnish over 34 per cent, greater commercial value. 6. That the per cent, of nitrogen and jx)tash is very much higher in the high-grade goods than in the low or medium grade. 7. A ton of the average high-grade fertilizer furnishes about 49 pounds more nitrogen, 21/2 pounds more available phos- phoric acid and 91 pounds more actual potash than does a ton of the low-grade goods. 8. A ton of the average high-grade fertilizer furnishes about 31 pounds more nitrogen and about 51 pounds more potash than does a ton of the medium-grade goods. Table showing the Comparative Pound Cost, in Cents, of Nitrogen, Potash and Phosphoric Acid in its Various Forms in the Three Grades of Fertilizer. Element. Low-grade Fertilizer. Medium-grade Fertilizer. High-grade Fertilizer. Nitrogen, Potash (as muriate), Soluble phosphoric acid, .... Reverted phosphoric acid, .... Insoluble phosphoric acid 35.62 7.57 8.01 7.12 3.56 31.85 6.77 7.17 6.37 3.19 26.66 5.67 6.00 5.33 2.67 This table emphasizes the marked increase in the cost of plant food wherever the low and medium grade fertilizers are purchased. It shows that nitrogen has cost 8.96 cents, avail- able phosphoric acid about 2 cents and potash 1.9 cents per pound more in the average low-grade fertilizer than in the high- grade goods. It shows that nitrogen has cost 5.19 cents, the available phosphoric acid 1.11 cents and the potash 1.10 cents more per pound in the average medium-grade goods than in the average high-grade fertilizer. A comparison with the previous year shows that more high-grade brands have been sold this season than for 1909. There is, however, altogether too large a proportion of low and medium grade brands sold at present (55.33 per cent, of the whole). It is evident that too many purchasers select a fertilizer for its low cost, and without much 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 63 regartl for the plant food which they are getting. The object in buying a fertilizer should be to get the largest amount of plant food in the proper form and proportion for the least money. The high-grade goods approach as near this ideal as is possible in case of factory-mixed fertilizers. It costs just as much to freight, cart and handle the low-grade fertilizers as it does the high grade. Nitrogen and potash in low-grade fer- tilizers cost from a third to a half more than if obtained from high-grade goods. The farmer cannot afford to buy low-grade fertilizers. Unmixed Fertilizers. Miscellaneous Substances. — Ground Bone. — Thirty- nine samples of ground bone have been inspected and analyzed. Nine* were found deficient in phosphoric acid and 5 in nitrogen. None of the brands, however, showed a commercial shortage of 50 cents per ton. The average retail cash price for ground bone has been $31.13 per ton, the average valuation $29.75, and the percentage difference 4.G4. Ground Tankage. — Twelve samples of tankage have been analyzed. Four were found deficient in nitrogen and 4 in phosphoric acid. The average retail cash price per ton was $31.82, the average valuation per ton $31.28, and the percent- age difference 1.73. Nitrogen in fine tankage has cost on the average 20.34 cents, while nitrogen in coarse tankage has cost 15.25 cents per pound. Two samples have shown a commercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. Dissolved Bone. — Two samples of dissolved bone have been analyzed and botli were up to the guarantee placed upon them, riie average retail cash price per ton has been $29.07, the aver- age valuation $20.17, and the percentage difference 13.37. Dry Ground Fish. — Twent^^-three samples of dry ground fish have been examined, of which 5 were found deficient in nitrogen and 4 in phosphoric acid. The average retail cash price per ton was $39.05, the average valuation $38.89, and the percentage difference 1.95. Nitrogen from dry ground fish has cost on the average 20.39 cents per pound. Two brands have been analyzed, which show a commercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. 64 P:XPERIMENT station. [Jan. Wood Aslies. — Thirteen samples of wood ashes have been- analyzed, of which 1 was deficient in potash and 2 in phos- phoric acid, although none of the samples showed a commercial shortage. Three samples put out by H, C. Green & Co., im- porters, were simply guaranteed " Pure wood ashes." The agent for three ears of these ashes, Ross Bros. Company, Worcester, Mass., stated that the ashes were of such j)oor qual- ity that no charge would be made for them. Under present conditions of price and quality, the purchase of wood ashes is of questionable economy. They should never be bought with- out a guarantee of potash, phosphoric acid and lime. Ground Bock. — The Farmhood Corporation of Boston, Mass., has offered a product called " Farmfood " which is un- questionably a ground mineral. It was guaranteed 2 per cent, phosphoric acid and 5 per cent, potash, both " in bond," mean- ing presumably associated with silica and not soluble. An analysis reveals the presence of 2.55 per cent, phosphoric acid, of which only .38 per cent, was available (dissolved by neutral citrate of ammonia). Only .56 per cent, of potash was found soluble in boiling water, and only .06 per cent, was found solu- ble in dilute hydrochloric acid. The commercial value of the product was $1.65 per ton, which would hardly pay cartage. The New England ]\Iineral Fertilizer Company ^ of Boston, Mass., has put out a product called " New England mineral fertilizer," which is apparently largely ground rock. The ma- terial was guaranteed .23 per cent. ]ihosphoric acid and 1.50 per cent, potash. Our analysis showed .18 per cent, phosphoric acid, .10 per cent, water-soluble potash and .35 ])er cent, potash soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. The plant food in a ton of this materia] is valued at 24 cents, although $17 is the adver- tised price in ton lots. Aside from the guarantee of potash and phosphoric acid, the firm makes a claim for a given percentage of soda, lime, magnesia, iron, sulfur, silica, chlorine and alumina. Although some of these elements are essential to the growth of ]ilants, yet they are found in most soils in sufficient quantities to meet the needs of growing vegetation, so that they ' The New England Mineral Fertilizer Company, 19 Exchange Place, Boston, should not be confused with the New England Fertilizer Company, 40 North Market Street, Boston. The latter is an old company which has done business in Massachusetts for many years, and disclaims any connection with the New England Mineral Fertilizer Company, 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 65 have no particular significance in this connection. The extrav- agant claims made by the company for this " New England mineral fertilizer " are overdrawn, and border somewhat upon the ridiculous. NiTiiOGEN Compounds. — Sulfate of Ammonia, — Two sam- ples of sulfate of ammonia have been analyzed and found well u]) to the guarantee. The average cost of the pound of nitrogen in this form has been 15.65 cents. Nitrate of Soda. — Sixteen samjjles of nitrate of soda have been analyzed and only 1 was found deficient in nitrogen. The average cost of nitrogen per pound in this form has been 1(5.50 cents. Dried Blood. — Three samples of this material were exam- ined, 2 of the brands showing a considerable overrun and 1 a slight deficiency in nitrogen, the latter containing, however, considerable phosphoric acid. The average cost of nitrogen from blood has been 20.16 cents per pound. Castor Pomace. — Six samples of castor pomace have been inspected and the guarantee was maintained in each instance. The average cost of nitrogen in this form has been 22.29 cents per pound. Cottonseed Meal. — Nineteen samples of cottonseed meal used for fertilizer have been examined. These were licensed by 6 companies doing business in Massachusetts. Nitrogen from cottonseed meal has cost on the average 28.47 cents per ]>ound. Seven out of the 19 samples analyzed showed a com- mercial shortage amounting to over 50 cents per ton. Potash CoMPOUNns. — Carbonate of Potash. — Only 1 sample of carbonate of potash was analyzed during the season. Tt sold so that the pound cost of actual potash was 7.54 cents. ITigh-grade Sulfate of Potash. — Nine samples of high-grade sulfate of potash have been examined and the potash guarantee was maintained in every instance. The pound of actual potash in this form has cost, on the average, 4.64 cents. Potash-magnesia Sulfate. — Seven samples of double sulfate of potash and magnesia have been examined, and all have been found well up to the guarantee. The pound cost of actual pot- ash in this form has been 5.46 cents. Muriate of Potash. — Eleven samples of nmriate of ]iotash OG EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. have been examined, and only 1 deficiency was fonnd. The jjonnd of actnal potash as nmriate or chloride has cost on the average 4.06 cents. Kainit. — Two samples of kainit have been analyzed and fonnd well np to the guarantee. The ponnd of actnal potash from kainit has cost 4.21 cents. Phosphoric Acid Compounds. — Dissolved Bone Black. — Three samples of dissolved bone black have been examined. Two of these were fonnd somewhat low in available phosphoric acid, although only 1 showed a connnercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. The pound of available phosphoric acid from this source has cost, on the average, 5.91 cents. Acid Phosphate. — Ten samples of acid phosphate have been examined, all but 3 being found well up to the minimum guar- antee. No commercial shortages of over 50 cents per ton were noticed. The ponnd of available phosphoric acid from acid phosphate has cost 5.76 cents. Basic Slag Phospliate. — Five samples have been analyzed, and the phosphoric acid ran low in 2 instances. There were no commercial shortages of over 50 cents per ton. The pound of available phosphoric acid (by Wagner's method) from basic slag has cost, on the average, 5.01 cents. The complete results of the fertilizer inspection may be found in Bulletin 135. Miscellaneous Woi'k. During the early part of the year some two months were devoted to the detailed mineral analysis of asparagus roots, in connection with fertilizer experiments carried on by the agri- cultural department. There has also been examined a number of cases of abnormal soils due to over-fertilization ; such condi- tions are found particularly in greenhouse and tobacco soils, and in the latter case is confined to soils possessing an impervious subsoil, which will not permit of the free circulation of soluble saline materials. In addition to the above work the fertilizer section has an- alyzed home mixtures, chemicals, by-products, soils, insecti- cides, etc., for farmers and farmers' organizations. We have insisted that all such material be taken according to furnished directions, which is more likely to insure representative sam- 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 67 pies, without wliicli an analysis is of little value. In case of soils, but few complete detailed analyses have been made, and those only when abnormal conditions pointed to malnutrition or over-fertilization. In many cases tests were made to deter- mine the relative amount of organic matter present and the acidity. Advice as to the use of fertilizer on any particular soil has been based more particularly upon the general charac- ter of the soil, previous manurial treatment, crop rotation, cul- tivation, and upon the crop to be grown. In the analysis of by-products, refuse salts and materials used as fertilizers, the report has included the relative commercial value of the material and the best method of utilizing the same. During the year 300 miscellaneous analyses were made for citi- zens of the State and for the various departments of the experi- ment station. They may be grouped as follows : — Fertilizers and by-products used as fertilizers, .... 223 Soils, 44 Miscellaneous materials, 33 Total, 300 As in the past, co-operative work was done in connection with the study of new methods of analysis for the Association of Offi- cial AgTicultural Chemists. Much time and study were also given to perfecting a suitable method to determine the relative availability of nitrogen from organic sources in mixed fertil- izers. Tests were also made on 80 brands of fertilizer selected from the 1910 official collection, to ascertain the efficiency of the improved alkaline-permanganate method in detecting the presence of low-grade organic ammoniates. G. Repokt of the Feed and Daiky Section. Mr. P. H. Smith- reports: — Tlie Feed Law. During the past year 1,055 samples of feedstuff s have been collected by Mr. James T. Howard, official inspector. These sam])les have been analyzed and are soon to be published, to- gether with the necessary comments. Analytical Work. — The analvtical work has consisted of 68 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. protein and fat determinations on all samples, a fiber estimation in many eases and a microscopic examination when further in- formation seemed desirable. A protein and fat guarantee are required bj law. It is felt, however, that the protein and fiber content of a feedstuft' are a much better index of its true value. Protein is the most valuable constituent, while fiber is of least value, and it is a fact that any feedstuff which contains a rela- tively high fiber percentage is quite apt to contain some infe- rior by-product. For this reason more fiber determinations have been made this year than ever before. Compliance with the Laiv. — Fewer violations of the law have been noted than in previous years. Reputable manufac- turers and dealers are coming to believe that the statute works no hardship in honest products. The time is not far distant when to neglect to brand a feedstuff will make the purchaser suspicious of its merits. In the future, violations of the feed- stuff's law will be placed in our attorney's hands for settlement. In several instances this has already been done, and one case, where goods were not guaranteed, has been taken into court. The dealer entered a plea of guilty and the case was j^laced on file. It is not the intention of those having the enforcement of the law in charge to be overbearing in regard to this matter, but any law which is not enforced soon becomes inoperative. The benefits of the law are so obvious as to render it unwise to allow it to become a dead letter. New Law. — At the time the present law was passed it was not possible to secure the requirement of a fiber guarantee. Since that time other States have enacted statutes which not only require a protein, fat and fiber guarantee on all feedstuff's, l)ut in addition a statement of composition in the case of all compounded feeds. It is believed that Massachusetts should enact a law requiring every package of feedstuff sold or offered for sale to have attached the following information : — 1. The number of net pounds in the contents of the package. 2. l^ame, brand or trademark. 3. l^ame and principal address of the manufacturer or job- ber responsible for placing the commodity on the market. 4. Its chemical analysis expressed in the following terms: 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUxMENT — No. 31. 69 (ound per sack. Co-operaiion. — It is a difficult matter to enforce the provi- sions of the feedstuffs law without the co-operation of both re- tailers and consumers. Consumers should refuse to buy goods which are not guaranteed, and retailers should refuse to handle goods which are received without a guarantee. The Dairy Lrnr, The work required by this act is divided into three natural subdivisions: (1) the examination of candidates, (2) the testing of glassware, and (.'>) the inspection of nuu'hines. (1) Examination of Candidates. — During the past year 10 candidates were examined for ])roficiency in the Babcock test. 70 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. All candidates are refused a certificate who fail to show profi- ciency in manipulation or who do not have a good working knowledge of the principles underlying the test. Eight candi- dates passed the examination at the first trial, and 2 certificates were withheld until further proficiency was acquired. The idea has been prevalent that the experiment station gives instruction in Babcock testing. Such is not the case ; all candidates must, before presenting themselves for examination, have acquired a thorough knowledge of the test. (2) Examination of Glassware. — During the past year 4,047 pieces of glassware were examined, of which 41 pieces, or 1.01 per cent., were inaccurate. This is the lowest percent- age of inaccuracy found during the ten years that the law has been in force. Following is the summary of the work for the entire period : — Year. Number of Pieces tested. Number of Pieces condemned. Percentajre condemned. 1901 5,041 291 5 77 1902, 2,344 56 2.40 1903 2,240 57 2 54 1904 2,026 200 9.87 1905 1,665 197 11.83 1906 2,457 763 31.05 1907, ...;.... 3,082 204 6.62 1908 2,713 33 1.22 1909 4,071 43 1.06 1910 4,047 41 1.01 Totals 29,686 1,885 6.34' The passage of this law has prevented 1,885 pieces of inac- curately graduated glassware, representing 6.34 per cent, of the entire number tested, from coming into use. (3) Inspection of Bahcock Machines. — Since the 1909 in- spection 1 creamery has suspended operations. During the present inspection, recently completed, 28 places were visited, of which 15 were creameries, 12 milk de])ots and 1 a chemical laboratory. Ten of the creameries were co-operative and 5 ' Average. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. "1 were proprietary. The 12 milk depots were iu every case pro- i^rietary. Twenty-eight machines were examined, 2 of which were condenmed, but on second inspection a few weeks later they were found to have been put in good condition. Those in use are 10 Facile, 0 Agos, 5 Electrical, 4 Grand Prize, 2 Wizard, 1 unknown. The glassware was, as a whole, clean, and with two exceptions Massachusetts tested. Where untested glassware was found in use, the provisions of the law were made plain, and it is not expected that there will be a repeti- tion of the offense. Unless machines are set on firm founda- tion and the bearings kept well oiled, the required speed cannot be maintained economically, and machines will not give satis- faction. The Babcock machine should be as carefully looked after as the cream separator in order to give efficient service. The creameries and milk depots where machines were in- spected are as follows : — Creameries. Location. Name. President or Manager. 1. Amherst, . 2. Amherst, . 3. Ashfield, . 4. Belchertown, 5. Brimfield, . 6. Cummington, 7. Egremont, . 8. Easthampton, 9. Heath, 10. Hinsdale, . n. Monterey, . 12. New Salem, 13. North Brookfield 14. Northfield, 15. Shelburne, 16. Wyben Springs Amherst Fort River,> . . . . Ashfield Co-operative, Belchertown Co-operative, Crystal Brook, Cummington Co-operative, Egremont Co-operative, . Hampton Co-operative, . Cold Spring Hinsdale Creamery Company, Berkshire Hills Creamery, New Salem Co-operative, North Brookfield, . Northfield Co-operative, Shelburne Co-operative, Wyben Springs Co-operative, . VV. A. Pease, manager. E. A. King, proprietor. Wm. Hunter, manager. M. G. Ward, manager. F. N. Lawrence, proprietor. D. C. Morey, manager. E. A. Tyrrell, manager. W. S. Wilcox, manager. F. E. Stetson, manager. W. C. Solomon, proprietor. F. A. Campbell, manager. W. A. Moore, president. H. A. Richardson, proprietor. C. C. Stearns, manager. I. L. Barnard, manager. H. C. Kelso, manager. ' Pays by test. Testing done at Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 2. Milk Depots. Location. Name. Manager. 1. Boston, . 2. Boston, 3. Boston, 4. Boston, . 5. Boston, 6. Boston, . 7. Cambridge, 8. Cheshire, . 9. Dorchester, 10. Slieffield, . 11. Southboro, 12. Springfield, 13. Springfield, D. W. Whiting & Sons, H. P. Hood & Sons, . Boston Dairy Company, . Boston Jersey Creamer j', . Walker-Gordon Laboratory, Oak Grove Farm, C. Brigham Company, Ormsby Farms, . Elm Farm Milk Company, Willow Brook Dairy, . Deerfoot Farm Dairy, Tait Bros Geo. Whiting. W. N. Brown. W. A. Graustein. T. P. Grant. G. Franklin. C. L. Alden. J. R. Blair. W. E. Penniman. J. K. Knapp. L. C. Smith. S. H. Howes. Emerson Laboratory, . H. C. Emerson. Milh, Cream and Feeds sent for Free Examination. During tlie past year the experiment station has analyzed a large number of samples of dairy jiroducts and feedstuffs sent for examination. Such work, where the results are of general interest, is a legitimate part of the station work. The station will not, however, act as a private chemist for manufacturers. Correspondence is solicited before samples are shipped, as in many cases the required information can be furnished without resorting to a chemical analysis, which will save shipping ex- penses to the applicant and the exj)ense of a costly analysis to the experiment station. Upon application, full instructions for sampling and directions for shipping will be furnished, which will often obviate the necessity of sending another sample for analysis in place of one improperly taken. Analysis of Drinking Water. During the past year 101 samples of drinking Avater have been analyzed for residents of the State. The greater part of these were farm supplies where pollution was suspected. On reporting an analysis, suggestions are in all cases made as to 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 73 improviuii,' the suppl,y when necessary. Parties wishing for water analysis should observe the following points : — 1. Application should be made for analysis. 2. A fee of $3 is charged for each analysis, payable with the application. 3. Only samples of water received in experiment station con- tainers are analyzed (containers sent on application). 4. The experiment station does not make bacteriological ex- aminations. 5. The experiment station does not undertake a mineral examination of waters for medicinal properties. Miscellaneous W()7-l: In addition to the work already described, this section has conducted investigations and made other analyses as follows: — 1. It has co-operated with the Association of Official Agri- cultural Chemists in a study of the methods for the determi- nation of acidity in gluten feeds. 2. It has co-operated with the officials of the ^ew England Corn Exposition in making analysis of corn in connection with the awarding of prizes. 3. It has co-operated with the Bowker Fertilizer Company in making analyses of corn in connection with the awarding of prizes. 4. It has arranged and furnished exhibits and speakers in co-operation with the extension department for (a) the better farming special; (?>) the better farming trolley special; (c) an exhibit for several of the Massachusetts fairs; (d) an ex- hibit for the New England Corn Show. T). It has conducted an investigation in connection with cases of alleged arsenic poisoning of horses through eating sulfured oats, with negative results. 0. In connection with the experimental work of this and other departments of the experiment station, this section has made analyses of 247 samples of milk, 115 samples of cattle feeds and 300 samples of agricultural plants. 74 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Testing of Pure-hred Cows. The work of testing cows for the various cattle associations continues to increase. Such work is a tax upon the time of the head of this section, and, owing to the uncertainty of steady em- ployment, it is often difficult to secure men to do the work. Two men are now employed permanently in connection with the Jersey, Guernsey and Ayrshire tests. The rules of the above associations require the presence of a supervisor once each month ■ for two consecutive days at the farms where animals are on test. The milk yields noted by the supervisors at their monthly visits are used in checking the records reported by the owners to the several cattle clubs. The Babcock tests obtained at that time are likewise reported, and used as a basis for computing the butter fat yield for each month. Up to June 1, 1910, the supervisors were only required to spend one day in testing Guernsey cows. At the annual meeting of the American Guern- sey Cattle Club, in May, 1910, the rules were changed so as to require a two-day monthly test. While this practically doubles the work for this breed, it is felt that a two-day basis is much more accurate in computing tests. During the past year 1 214-day test and 44 yearly tests with Guernsey cows, 10 7-day and 88 yearly tests with Jersey cows, and a number of yearly tests with Ayrshire cows have been com- pleted. The Holstein-Friesian tests usually cover periods of from 7 to 30 days, and require the presence of a supervisor during the entire test. During the past year 16 different men have been employed at different times in conducting these tests, which give rather irregular employment during the winter months. On account of the uncertainty of the work such men are diffi- cult to obtain, but thus far it has not been necessary for the ex- periment station to refuse an application. For the Holstein- Friesian association 11-2 7-day, 5 14-day, 11 30-day, and one semi-official year test have been completed. There are now on test for yearly records 96 Jersey, 28 Guernsey and 8 Ayrshire cows. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 75 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. G. E. STONE. The routine and research work of the botanists and assist- ants for the past year followed similar lines to those of other years, except that perhaps the routine work has had a tendency to increase, leaving less time for research work. This has been remedied to a considerable extent, however, by the addition of Mr. Sumner C. Brooks as laboratory assistant. Mr. Brooks was graduated from the class of 1910, and his appointment as assistant relieves Mr. Chapman of much routine work and gives him time for research, for which he is well fitted. Miss J. V. Crocker has, as usual, been of much service in attending to the correspondence and records, and has given valuable as- sistance in the seed testing. Much assistance has, as formerly, been obtained from the undergraduate students, and Mr. E. A. T.arrabee and Mr. Ray E. Torrey have devoted all their spare time to the department, and were employed during the whole summer vacation. Diseases More or Less Common during the Year, The season of 1910 opened unusually early, as is shown by the meteorological records and by the blossoming of trees, shrubs and flowers. The season was, on the whole, rather dry, and crops suffered to some extent from drought, a condition which was emphasized by the severe droughts of the two pre- ceding years. The peach leaf curl, which naturally follows a cold and rainy period, was quite common. Some frost occurred in IMay, and in some localities it was reported in June. The effects of this showed on asparagus, and frost blisters were common on apple foliage. An unusually large amount of apple foliage was sent in to this department for examination in early sum- 76 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. nier. This was affected not only with frost blisters, but con- siderable injury was caused by a mite, the effect being in many cases similar. An early outbreak of apple scab was also noticed on apj)]e foliage. Strawberries were of poor quality, and considerable rot of the fruit occurred, owing to excessive rainfall. The foliage of rock maples and oaks was affected to an unusual extent with Gloeosporium. In many sections maples in general were af- fected with this fungus, causing a browning of the leaf and inuch defoliation, and many inquiries were received concern- ing this trouble. Some of the diseases which were more common are as fol- lows: hollyhock rust, sweet pea trouble, apple rust, hawthorne rust, quince rust, black rot of grapes, crown gall, sycamore blight, blossom end rot of tomatoes, ])ear blight and pear scab, corn smut and maple leaf spot (Rhytisma). Considerable in- terest is also manifest in the chestnut disease, which is becom- ing more noticeable in this State. The following is a list of the less common diseases reported during the year : ash rust, bean rust, rose rust, pea mildew, rose mildew, currant Anthracnose, Anthracnose of melon, rust on strawberry leaves, cherry leaf spot (Cylindrosporium), potato rot, horse chestnut blight (Phyllosticta), apple scab, cane blight of raspberries (Coniothyrium), blackberry Anthracnose and cherry leaf blight (Cercospora). Besides these may be men- tioned troubles with which no organisms are associated, namely, frost blisters, frost effect on asparagus, sun scald and sun scorch, malnutrition of cucumbers and aster yellows. lUll.l PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 77 REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. H. T. FERNALD. The year 1910 has been marked by numerous changes in this department. The resignation of Prof. C. H. Fernald in June, as station entomologist, marks the first change in the head of this portion of the station work since the department was established in 1888. The resignation, at the same time, of Mr. J. N. Summers from his connection with the station, and the poor health of the writer during the early part of the year, neces- sarily seriously affected the work accomplished, and the time taken in the fall by moving into new quarters has practically prevented anything besides routine work. The development of a new line of investigation has been made possible by the appointment of Dr. B. N. Gates as station apiarist. Dr. Gates's work will be, at least for the present, en- tirely under the Adams fund. Mr. Arthur I. Bourne has been appointed assistant in ento- mology, and is, in general, in charge of the correspondence and of considerable of the experimental work. His appointment will enable the head of the department to devote more time to the larger problems relating to insects in this State, both in general and in connection with Adams fund projects, than has heretofore been the case. It has ])roved to be impossible to obtain an orchard near the station in which to continue the observations on the size and importance of the different broods of the codling moth. The movement for better fruit in Massachusetts has been nowhere more evident than in Amherst, and the results, though most desirable iu general, have been disastrous for the continuation of this series of observations, which must now be discontinued. A loTi'i' delay in moving the greenhouse to its new site, and in making it ready for use, has prevented taking up this year the 78 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. experiments on the resistance of muskmelons to fumigation. These can be resumed during 1*J11, however. Further tests of methods of controlling wire worms attacking seed corn have been continued on Mr. Whitcomb's farm. The results of the tests already made were referred to in the last report, and were also published in the '^ Journal of Economic Entomology " for August, 1909. It was distinctly stated in the latter publication that these methods were still in the exper- imental stage, but that it seemed desirable to test them on a larger scale in different parts of the country. Several of the agricultural papers suggested this to their readers, and the re- ports received as to results varied from excellent to failure, by preventing germination. A few cases of failure have been in- vestigated, and in every case so far appear to have been due to the use of coal tar instead of gas tar, or to giving the corn such a heavy coating of the tar as to, of itself, prevent germination. On the whole, the treatment can hardly be considered as having been fairly tested in all cases. One objection to the method is that the seed must be treated first with tar and then with the Paris green. During the past season it has been attempted to avoid this, while obtaining equally good results, by the use of arsenate of lead. The par- ticular brand used in these experiments was disparene, which comes in paste form. This was diluted till about as thick as paint. Then the corn was added and the whole thoroughly stirred. The corn was then spread out till dry. Unfortunately, wire worms proved to be few in the fields where the treated corn was -planted, so that the value of the test was restricted to a determination of the effect of the treatment on the germination of the seed. From this standpoint, however, it was a success, having no injurious effect whatever. Plans have already been made to continue this work another season, and fields badly infested with wire worms are to be made use of, so far as these can be found. Bates of the hatching of the young of the oyster-shell scale, the scurfy scale and the pine-leaf scale have been continued as far as possible. The object of this has been stated in previous reports, and it need only be added here that the observations ]911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 79 should be continued for several years, if averages of value are to be obtained. Nearly ten years ago a study of the Marguerite fly, a pest too familiar to many florists, was begun, but was soon dropped for lack of material. More having been obtained, this investi- gation has been resumed, and it is hoped that the entire life history of the fly may now be learned, together with effective methods for its control. Observations on the distribution limits of insect pests in Massachusetts have been continued as opportunity has offered, and some interesting facts on this subject have been obtained. Work of this kind must, from its very nature, be fragmentary for a long time, and for years the gathering and preservation of the observations made are all which it will be possible to accomplish. As the time required for this is but a few mo- ments per week, or even per month, however, the results are well worth the trouble. Investigations on the importance of the Sphecidae as para- sites have been continued, and a number of additions to our knowledge of the group have resulted. The subject is a large one, however, and the amount of time available for this pur- pose has been much less than could be desired. Experiments M'ith insecticides have been almost at a standstill from their entomological side, waiting for pure materials of known compo- sition to be provided by the chemical department. Some of these have been satisfactorily obtained during the fall and the tests of them can be begun in the spring of 1911. The chemical results of this work will be reported upon by that department. so EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. CHARLES ANTHONY GOESSMANN. Charles Anthony Goessmann, chemist, investigator, teacher and phil- osopher, passed to the higher life Sept. 1, 1910. Karl Anton Gossmann was born in Nanmburg, in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, Germany, June 13, 1827. He was the son of Dr. Heinrich Gossmann, who was a fellow student of the noted chemist Frederich Wohler. When the boy was seven or eight years of age the family moved to Fritzlar in Hesse and here young Gossmann spent his boy- hood days. His father wished his son to become a pharmacist, and he received training in pharmacy previous to his becoming a university student. He entered the university of Gottingen in 1850, and studied chemistry, botany, physics, geology and mineralogy. He received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1851 for a dissertation on the " Constituents of the Cantharides." Wohler early recognized the ability and industry of the young chemist, and made him assistant in his laboratory, and upon the appointment of Limprecht to a pro- fessorship, Gossmann became a privatdocent and Wohler's first as- sistant. He assumed charge of the chemical laboratory, and lectured on organic and technical chemistry as well as to students of pharmacy. His American students during the period were Chandler, Marsh, Joy, Nason, Caldwell and Pugh. During his stay at Gottingen he received a number of flattering offers from other institutions, and made the acquaintance of Schonbein, the chemical physicist who discovered gun cotton and ozone; of Schrotter, noted for his researches in phosi:)horus ; of A. W. von Hoffmann and of the celebrated Fi-ench chemist Sainte Clair Deville. In 1857 Gossmann left Gottingen on leave of absence, and visited the universities and a number of manufacturing establishments in Germany, Austria, France and England, and then journeyed to the United States upon invitation from Eastwich Brothers in order to become scientific director of their large sugar refineries. It was his intention eventually to return to Germany and teach technical chem- istry, but he became so interested in the new country, and observed such a wide field of futui-e usefulness for the technical chemist, that he decided to make the United States his permanent home. After completing his work at Philadelphia be went to Cuba in order to study the methods of handling sugar then in vogue. On returning to the United States he Avas engaged as chemist by the Onondaga Salt Company of Syracuse, a position which he retained until 1869. e,^. f/>-4^- BoKN June 13, 1827. Died Skft. 1, 1910. [Brief sketch of life, page 80.j 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 81 Wliile in ils employ, he visited and exaniinod the salt springs in Canada, Michigan and Louisiana. During the latter part of this Syracuse period he spent a i)ortion of each year as professor of chemistry and physics at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, and he was invited to occupy the position permanently. In 1868, at the earnest solicitation of his friend, the late Col. Wil- liam S. Clark, he accepted the professorship of cTiemistry at the ]\Iassachusetts Agricultural College, and held it continuously until Lis retirement in June, 1907. He was placed at the head of the Massachusetts Exj^eriment Station, a private enterprise started in 1878, and was instrumental in securing" the establishment of the Massachu- setts State Agricultural Experiment Station in 1882, being made its director and chemist, — positions which he held until it was merged with the Hatch Experiment Station by act of the Legislature in 1895. Professor Goessmann served as chemist to the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture from 1873 until his retirement, and for many years also acted as associate analyst of the Massachusetts State Board of Health. He became the first president of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and w^as a charter member of the American Chemical Society, which he also served as president and vice-president. He w'as a member of the German society of naturalists and physicians, of the Physico-Medical Society of Erlangen University, a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and a mem- ber of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and of the Massachu- setts Meteorological Society. In 1889 Amherst College conferred upon him the degxee of Doctor of Laws. In this connection space forbids any extended reference to his work. Briefly it may be classihed into four periods : — 1. The Goitingen Period of Seven Years, 1850-57. In addition to his work as teacher in the university he found time to make and publish the results of twenty-five distinct investigations, all of which may be found in the "Annalen der Chemie u. Pharmacie." Among the most important of these papers may be mentioned the discovery of arachidic and hypogseic acids in the peanut oil, the con- stituents of the cantharides, the composition of cocoa oil and the constitution of leucine. This latter paper was considered of so much importance that it drew forth a letter of commendation from Wohler to Dumas and secured for Gcissmann membership in the Physico- Medical Society of the University of Erlangen, an honor which he highly prized. 82 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 2. The yimerican Period of Eleven Years previous to the Massachu- setts Agricultural College, 1858-69. He made a number of contributions to the "American Journal of Science " on the chemistry of brine and salt, and while in the em- ploy of the salt company at Syracuse devised a process for the re- moval of calcium and magnesium chlorides from salt which was of inestimable value to the salt industry of the United States. He also contributed papei'S to the " London Chemical News " on sugar refining. S. The Massachusetts First Period, 1869-86. During this jjeriod, in addition to teaching, Professor Goessmann made a study of the agricultural conditions in the State, was a fre- quent contributor to the agricultural press, and gave numerous lec- tures before the State Board of Agriculture, His more prominent investigations may be briefly referred to under the following headings : — (a) Beets for Sugar, and Sugar Beets as an Agricultural Enterprise. — He carried on investigations with the sugar beet both in the field and laboratory, and demonstrated the feasibility of growing beets for sugar in certain sections of Massachusetts, and concluded that, with the proper education of the farmer and capitalist, the production of sugar from the beet should prove a jorofitable American industry. (Reports of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1876.) {h) The Value of Early Amber Sorghum as a Sugar-producing Plant. — His study of the plant as a possible source of sugar led him to conclude that " the presence of a large amount of grape sugar in all the later stages of growth ... is a serious feature in the com- 130sition of the juice, impairing gi'eatly the chances for a copious separation of the cane sugar by simple modes of treatment." This prophesy has been literally fulfilled, in spite of the later efforts to utilize this plant as a commercial source of sugar. (c) Reclamation of Salt Marshes. — Goessmann made a thorough investigation of the condition of the marshes in southeastern Massa- chusetts, and embodied his results in a number of valuable papers before the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. His studies included the chemical conditions of the soils, and he recommended diking when necessary, suitable fertilizers and especially thorough drainage and cultivation. (Reports of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 1874, 1875, 1876.) (d) The Application of Chemistry to Fruit Culture. — His studies were devoted particularly to the composition of the ash of different fruits, and to the influence of the various forms of mineral fertility upon yield and quality. He emphasized the need of a thorough study of the functions of the several mineral elements in plant growth, a 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 83 subject still calling for much careful investigation. lie proved to his own satisfaction that muriate of potash promoted particularly the growth and improved the quality of fruit; and, further, that an in- crease of potash was accompanied by a corresponding decrease in lime and phosphorus. He called attention to the fact that the young branches of peach trees affected with *' yellows " contained excessive amounts of lime and phosiahoric acid, and that a judicious pruning, together \\ith liberal applications of muriate of potash, restored the affected trees to a vigorous growth, which contained normal amounts of potash, lime and phosphoric acid. (Twenty-seventh and thirty- second reports of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture.) (e) The Chemical Composition of Different Varieties of Corn, and the Preservation of Corn in Silos. — Goessmann gave considerable at- tention to the value of corn for cattle, and in a comprehensive paper l)ul)lished luunerous analyses of different varieties of the entire corn plant, as well as of the stalks, ears and cobs. About 1880 attention was being given to the method of preserving corn in the silo, and the claim was made by Dr. J. M. Bailey and others that corn thus pre- served (ensilage) did not sutfer loss by the process, but Avas actually superior in feeding value to the original product. Goessmann in two admirable papers exi^lained and discussed the principles of animal nutrition founded upon the researches of German investigators, showed the i^lace of corn in the animal economy, pointed out the changes that took place during the process of fermentation, and made clear the relative merits of the drj^ and preserved corn. His statements concern- ing the relative value of silage and dry corn, made in 1880, hold true at the present time. (Reports of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 1879-80, 1880, 1881.) (/) The Inspection of Commercial Fertilisers. — Goessmann was instrumental in securing the passage of a law authorizing the inspec- tion of commercial fertilizers, which became operative Oct. 1, 1873, and as State Inspector of Fertilizers under the new law he made a ]n-eliminary report the same year. (Twenty-first report of the Mas- sachusetts State Board of Agriculture.) It is believed that this was the first law enacted in the United States requiring an official inspec- tion of fertilizers. He found many of the materials offered to be of uncertain composition, and to vary greatly in price; "these same articles cost the farmers . . . about one-half the amount more than they ought to ". His work along this line from year to year cor- rected most of these abuses, and was unquestionably of great pecuni- ary value to the farmei's of the State and nation. 4. The Massachusetts Second Period, 1886-1907. The Massachusetts State Agncultural Experiment Station was es- tablished by act of the State Legislature, and Goessmann was made 84 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. director and cliemist. The yearly grant of $5,000 was soon increased to $10,000, and in 1885-86 a new chemical laboratory was completed. He relinquished most of his college work, and devoted his energies to a thorough organization of the station. The chief lines of work pursued by the station under his guidance are mentioned under the following general headings : — 1. The free analyses of fertilizers, refuse materials suitable for fertilizing purposes, coarse and concentrated feeds and drinking waters. 2. Experiments with dairy cows to test the relative feeding values of home-grown fodders and of commercial feedstuffs. 3. Feeding experiments with soiling crops, and the introduction and testing of new fodder crops. 4. Experiments with pigs to determine the rations best suited for 13ork production. 5. Feeding experiments with steers and sheep to determine the cost of beef and mutton, and to study the rations best suited for such pur- poses. 6. Field experiments to determine the nitrogen-acquiring power of the legumes. 7. Field experiments to study the best fertilizer combinations for market-garden cro^DS. S. Field experiments to ascertain the relative values of different forms of phosphoric acid. 9. Fertilizers best suited for })ermaneut grass lands. 10. The effects of various forms of plant food in modifying the quality of the jjroduct. 11. Compilation of tables of analyses of fertilizers, cattle feeds, dairy products and fruits made at the station. He devoted himself to the executive work of the station, and care- fully supervised all of the experimental work as well. While not a rai)id worker, he succeeded in accomplishing a great deal because of his steady and long-continued application. Since 1886 practically all of his papers were published in the annual reports of the experiment station. After the merging of the State and Hatch stations, in 1895, advanc- ing years made it necessary for him to relinquish many of his re- sponsibilities. He continued, however, until his retirement to supervise the inspection of fertilizers and the general work in the fertilizer and soil laboratory. Aside from his services as investigator and teacher, it is important to remember that he inspired in others a zeal for further study and accomplishment. There are to be found among his pupils presidents of colleges and schools of agriculture, directors of experiment station^, research and technical chemists, teachers, as well as workers in many lines of industry having a direct bearing upon agriculture. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 85 Pi'ofessor Goessmann possessed a wonderfully retentive memory, and l)eing' a great reader he was especially well informed on a wide variety of topics. He was a good conversationalist, and if interested in a subject poured forth a torrent of information, interspersed with opinions of his OAvn. He had a genial disposition, a winning pei'son- ality, and when he was amused his smile of appreciation was not soon lo be forgotten. One did not need to be long associated with him to feel his influence for good and to realize that he was much i^iore than an ordinary man. In fact, his verj'^ presence seemed to exhale a sort of spiritual essence which lifted one to a higher level of thought and feeling, Goessmann was indeed a pioneer in the cause of agrienltural investi- gation in the United States, or, as one of his students expressed it, he was a foundation builder. He was a leader, and pointed the way to a fuller understanding of the principles of science as applied to agrieultu.re. Every experiment station woi-kei", every tiller of the soil, and in fact every citizen in our great country, either directly or in- directly, has been benefited by this man who has recently ]iassed into the Great Beyond. J. B. LINDSEY. 86 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. BY J. B. LINDSEY. The Effect of Protein upon the Production and Com- position OF Milk. Investigations and observations indicate that milk is not a simple fluid secreted directly by the blood, bnt a complex sub- stance resulting from the activity of the milk cells. The cells and milk glands take from the blood and lymph vessels sub- stances suited to their purposes, and by chemical and physiologi- cal processes convert them into a different substance, namely, milk. Milk, therefore, consists for the most part of recon- structed cell substance, and it is not possible, by any system of feeding, to produce very great modification in its composi- tion. The composition of milk depends principally upon the breed and individuality of the cow, stage of lactation and de- velopment of the milk cells. G. Kuhn,^ M. Fleischer ^ and E. Wolff,- during the years 1868 to 1876, studied the additions to the different basal rations of increasing amounts of protein upon the composition of the milk, and noted only very slight variations. They observed that of all the milk components the percentage of fat was the most influenced by the food supply. N. J. Fjord and F. Friis,^ as a result of experiments by the group method with 1,152 cows, concluded that the protein was practically with- out influence in varying the proportions of the several milk ingredients. ^Y. II. Jordan '^ has conducted a number of trials, and failed to note any specific influence of the protein in ■ Landw. Versuchsstationen 12 Bd., 1869; Journal fiir Landw., 1874. 2 Die Versuchsstationen Hohenheim, Berlin, 1870; R6sum6 in Die Ernahrung der Landw. NiUzthiere, E. Wolff, 1876. ' Beretning fra den Klg. VeterinEer. og LandViohoiskole Lab. for landokonomiske Forsog. Kopenhagen, 1892; R63um6 in Centralblatt f. Agricultur Chemie, 22 Jahrg., 1893. s. 604. < Maine Experiment Station, reports for 1885-86, 1886-87; New York Experiment Station, Bulletin 197, 1906. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 87 varying the proportion of the milk eonstituents. Armsby,^ as well as Whitcher and Wood,- has drawn similar conclusions. Morgan et aJs. conclude from numerous investigations that protein is without specific influence in the formation of milk fat.^ Kellner,'* in summing \\\) the results of numerous ex- periments, especially of German origin, says '' in so far as it is possible by means of food to effect the action of the milk glands, the protein of the several f(Jod groups exerts a very pronounced influence. This influence is especially noticeable in increasing the quantity of the milk. Only after the long- continued feeding of a ration known to be deficient in protein does the water content of the milk increase, and the dry matter and fat show a noticeable decrease." This station from time to time has conducted a number of experiments to observe the influence of difterent amounts of protein in increasing the quantity of milk, to note the protein re(piirements of dairy animals and also to study its influence in modifying the })roportions of the several milk ingredients. Some of these results have been published in reports of the station. It is proposed to briefly summarize the results already given publicity, and to describe somewhat in detail our more recent observations. Experiment I.^ — 1895. This experiment was undertaken wuth six cow^s by the re- versal method. The animals Avere from five to ten years of age, had all calved in the early autumn, and none had been served when the experiment began. Weighing Animals. — The animals w^ere weighed once be- fore feeding and watering at the beginning and end of each half of the trial, and once each week during the continuance of the experiment. It would have been better to have weighed each animal for three consecutive days at the beginning and 'Wisconsin Experiment Station, reports for 1885-86, New Hampshire Experiment Station, Bulletin 90, pp. 12-14; Bulletin 18, p. 13. ' Ibid. ' Landw. Vers. Stat., 62 (100.5), nos. 4,5; pp. 251-286; Ahs. Experiment Station Record Vol. 17, p. 286. * Die Ernahrung d. Landw. Niit^^thiere, erste Auflage, p. 519; aI.so, funfte Auflage, p. 539. ' Ninth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 100-125. EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. end of the experiment; the weights, however, were prubahly sufficient to give an accurate average weight of each animal. Sampling and Testing the Milk. — A composite sample of each cow's milk was made for five consecutive days, and pre- served with bichromate of potash. Great care was used to se- cure representative samples. The total solids and fat were determined by approved gravimetric methods. Dates of the Experiment. Dates. Days. High Protein. Low Protein. Oct. 24 through Nov. 18, 1895, . Nov. 28 through Dec. 23, 1895, . 26 26 Cows I., IV., VI. Cows II., III., V. Cows II., III., v. Cows I., IV., VI. At least a week elapsed after the animals were placed upon full rations before the experiment proper began. Average BniJii Balions fed to the Six Cows {Pounds). Character of Ration. Wheat Bran. Chicago Gluten Meal. Corn Meal. Hay. Sugar Beets. High protein Low protein 3 3 5.83 5.83 15.17 16.17 12 12 Each of the cows received 3 pounds of bran and 12 pounds of beets daily. One of the cows, Ada^ received only 5 pounds of corn or gluten meal per day, while the others received each 0 pounds. The amount of hay fed differed slightly in the case of individual cows, depending upon their ability to utilize it. The hay was of good quality, containing 9.73 per cent, of crude protein; the brau 10.20 per cent.; the gluten meal 42.73 per cent., and the corn meal 11.36 per cent., all on a dry-matter basis. Tt will be seen that the basal ration consisted of hay, beets iiiid bran, and that the variable factor was the corn or gluten meal. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 89 Average Weight of Animals and Average Digestible Nutrients in Daily Rations (Pounds). Weight of Animal. Digestible Nutrients. Character of Ration. Protein. Fat. Fiber and Extract Matter. Total. Nu- tritive Ratio. High protein, .... Low protein, .... 941 938 3.07 1.46 .59 .52 10.23 12.45 14.06 14.43 1:3.86 1:9 43 Three of the cows varied in weight from 800 to 900 poniids, and three others from 1,000 to 1,000 pounds. During the high- ])rotein period the cows gained in total 101 pounds, and during the ]ow-i)rotein period there was a total loss of 64 pounds. The average weight of the herd during each of the two halves of the experiment was substantially the same. The figures for digestible nutrients were secured from actual analysis of the feedstuffs used, together with average diges- tion coefficients, actual digestion tests not being made. The total digestible nutrients consumed was the same in case of each of the halves of the experiment, the difference being in the excess of digestible protein and the corresponding deficit of carbohydrates. The high-protein ration had evidently too narrow a ratio, and the low-j^rotein ration too wide a ratio for the be.st results. Protein Balance (Pounds). Character of Ration. Cows. Protein digested. Protein required for Main- tenance. Protein contained in Milk (N.X6.25). Protein Excess over Main- tenance and Milk Require- ments. Hiffh protein, Low protein. Ada, Una, Bessie, . Beautv, Red, . Spot, Ada, . Una, . Bessie, . Beauty, Red, Spot, 69.16 79.56 81.12 84.24 82.16 82.16 33.54 36.40 37.96 40.82 39.00 39.00 14.56 16.38 15.60 18.98 19 24 17.94 14.56 16 12 15.60 18.98 18.72 18.20 20 31 18,66 26 03 22.28 24.26 28.00 17.84 17.84 22 51 17.92 22.08 20.72 34.29 44.52 39.49 42 98 .38 66 36.22 1 14 2,44 — .15 3.92 -.1.80 Total hisrh, . Total low. Average per cow, high. Average per cow, low. 478 40 226.72 79.73 37.79 102.70 102.18 17 12 17.03 139.54 118.91 23 26 19,82 236.16 5.63 39 36 .94 ' Calculated by allowing .7 of a pound digestible crude protein per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. 90 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. In this experiment the percentage of protein in the milk was nut determined, and the average figures secured for the exper- iment innnediatelj following were employe;cess. High protein, . Low protein, . 941 938 4,241.5 3,095.5 478.40 226.72 242.24 221.09 230.16 5.63 97.5 2.3 It is quite evident that the ration with the large excess of digestible protein exerted a marked influence on the milk-secret- ing organs, causing an increase of approximately 15 per cent, in the milk yield. The average daily milk product per cow during the high-protein period was 27.2 pounds, and during the low-]U'oteiii ])eriod 23.7 pounds, and it therefore may be said that both rations produced a fair yield. The period was too short to note the effect of the larger amount of protein on the general condition of the animal; it is believed, however, that if such an amount had been fed for a long period of time, the result would have been over-stimulation, indigestion and a re- fusal to eat the large amount of gluten meal. Effect of the T! at ions on the Composition of the Milk (Per Cent.). Character of Ration. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. High protein, Low protein 13.67 13.45 4.51 4.28 9 16 9 17 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 91 Composite samples of each cow's milk were secured for five (lays of each week. These composites were averaged, and this average represented the composition of the milk of each cow for the period. The a\erage percentage produced by each cow was nndtipled by the pounds of milk she i)ruduccd, thus secur- ing the weight of total solid matter and fat yield by each ani- mal in the herd. These totals were added and the amount di- vided by the total amount of milk given by the herd, and the quotient represents the average percentage of total solids and of fat, as stated in the table. The results indicate that during the low-protein period, the cows produced milk containing .23 per cent, less fat than in the period when the high protein was fed. The difference is not pronounced and may be considered within the limit of a reason- able experimental error. Experiment II. ^ This experiment immediately succeeded experiment T. and was conducted with the same cows, excepting that cow IT. (Una) was replaced by Guernsey. The general plan of the experi- ment, methods of caring for the cows, feeding and sampling of milk were all identical with the preceding experiment. Bates of the Experiment. Dates. Days. High Protein. Low Protein. Jan. 27 through Feb. 16, 1896, . Feb. 29 through March 20, 1896, 21 21 Cows I., II., VI. Cows III., IV., V. Cows III., IV., V. Cows I., II., VI. It will be seen that each period lasted twenty-one days, with a ]U'oliniinary feeding of seven or more days. Averarje Daih/ Bntions fed to the Six Coivs {Pounds). Character of Ration. Wheat Bran. Chicago Gluten Meal. Linseed Meal. Corn Meal. Hay. Millet and Soy Bean Silage. High protein, . Low protein, 2.83 1.92 3 00 1 92 5.83 10 33 10 33 28.33 28.33 ' Ninth annual report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 100-125. 92 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The bran contained 18.87 per cent., the Chicago gluten 39.75 per cent., the old-process linseed meal 41.99 per cent, and the corn meal 11.36 per cent, of protein in dry matter. The Ksilage was a mixtnre of barnyard millet and soy beans, the latter being quite well podded; it contained about 81 per cent, of water and 12 per cent, of protein in dry matter. Each aiiiuuil received from 9 to 11 pounds of hay, 20 to 30 pounds of silage, during each half of the experiment. In the high- protein ration from 2 to 3 pounds of bran were fed, 3 pounds of gluten and 1.5 to 2 pounds of linseed meal. In the low- protein ration 1.5 to 2 pounds of bran were given and 5 to 0 pounds of corn meal. The above table shows the averages. The cows ate their rations clean in every case. Average Weight of Animals and Average Digestible Nutrients fed daily (Pounds). Character of Ration. Weight of Animals. Protein. Fat. Fiber and Extract Matter. Total. Nutritive Ratio. High protein, . Low protein, . 899 900 2.85' 1,45 .65 .54 9.96 11.44 13.46 13.42 1:4.04 1:8.85 The individual weight of the individual cows varied from 703 to 1,004 pounds. The cows changed very slightly in weight during each half of the experiment. The digestible nutrients were calculated from the analyses of the feed, with the aid of a^^erage digestion coefficients. The high-protein ration contained substantially twice as much di- gestible protein as the low-protein ration. The fat varied but slightly, and the difference in the amount of carbohydrate mat- tor depended naturally upon the different amounts of ]u-otein fed. The total nutrients consumed in two rations were the same. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. :U. 93 Protein Balance {Pounds). Periods of Twenty-one Days. Ch.\R-\ctbr of R.WION. Cows. Protein digested. Protein required for Main- tenance. Protein contained in Milk (N x6.25). Protein Excess over Main- tenance and Milk Require- ment. Higii protein, Low protein. Ada, Guernsey, Bessie, . Beauty, Red, . Spot, Ada, . Guernsey, Bessie, . Beauty, Red, . Spot, 50 61 60.61 ■ 61 53 62.58 62.58 62.58 25.20 31 50 30 24 31.29 31.29 32.55 11.21 12.60 12.18 14 41 14.91 13.86 11 34 12 30 12 09 14.07 14.70 13.84 15.42 19 52 18.98 16.22 17 37 20.29 12.83 16 36 15.90 15.08 16.05 16.65 23.98 28.49 30 37 31.95 30.30 28.43 1.03 2.84 2.25 2.14 .54 2.06 ToUil hish Total low, .... .\verage per cow, higli, . Average per cow, low, . - 360.49 182.07 60.08 30.34 79 17 78.34 13.19 13.06 107.80 92.87 17.97 15.48 173.52 10.86 28.75 1.81 Influence of Protein on Milk Yield. Herd Results in Pounds. "o ^ °1 PI m ■^ ■n -a ?-. Character of 60 ^ 0) £ P d D' a "■j £1 ''i o'5 d Ration. >0 «5 a a d '5 ■9.Sg gs.s rotein E that re Mainten Milk. 60 d < >-' Q Ph CL, Ph fU High protein, 899 3,261.0 25.82 360.49 186.97 173.52 92.8 Low protein. 900 2,877.0 22.73 182.02 171.21 10.86 5.1 It will be seen that on the high-protein ration the cows re- ceived 92.8 per cent, more digestible crude protein than was reqnired for maintenance and for the milk produced, while in low-protein ration the excess was only 5 per cent., the amount digested and the amount fed being substantially equal. The figures show that for a period of twenty-one days, while not changing in weight, the herd produced 13.3 per cent, more milk on the high-protein diet, showing very distinctly the in- fluence of the excess of protein. This experiment exactly con- firms the experiment immediately preceding. 94 EXPERIIMENT STATION. [Jan. Composition of the Herd Milk [Per Cent.). Characteu of Ration. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. Nitrogen. Protein Equiva- lent. High protein Low protein 13.82 14.10 4.83 5.02 8.99 9.08 .526 .518 3.28 3.23 The samples were taken and averages secured in the same way as in the previous experiment. Here we have a direct reversal of the results, the low-protein ration showing a trifle higher average fat percentage than the high-protein ration. This may also be regarded as within the limit of error. The percentage of nitrogen in the milk produced during each half of the experiment is substantially the same, and this in spite of the fact that the low-protein ration contained but 1.45 pounds of digestible protein, and the high-jn-otein ration 2.85 pounds. Experiment 1 11.^ This experiment was one of a series designed to study the effect of food stuff's upon the composition of milk and of butter fat. Only that portion of the experiment is here published which shows the influence of jDrotein upon the 3'ield and com- position of the milk. It was planned on the group system, five cows composing each group. The first two periods of the experiment only are needed in this connection. Duration of Ex periment. Periods. Dates of E.xperiment. Length Weeks. First period: both herds standard ration, . • <^prnr,r\ nprinrl- / Hp^d I., Standard ration, . \ Second period. | jj^^^ jj _ cottonseed ration, / Nov. 17, through Dec. 7, 1900, Jan. 5, through Feb. 8, 1901, 3 5 See r6suni6 in fourteenth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 162-168. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 95 Average Daily Ilalions {Pounds). First period: both herds, standard grain ration. Herds. Standard Grain Ration. Meal. H^>- Rovven. Herd I Herd II., 9 9 - 8-12 8-12 10 10 Second period: Herd I., standard ration; Herd II., cottonseed ration. Herd I Herd II 9 5 3 8-12 8-12 10 10 Tke standard ration consisted of 3 pounds of wheat bran. 5 pounds of ground oats and ^ pound each of cottonseed and si'luten meals. The cottonseed meal contained some 9 per cent, of oil and 54.54 per cent, of protein in dry matter. Average Dry and Digestible Nutrients in Daily Hat ions {Pounds). First period: both herds, standard grain ration. Herds. Dry- Matter. Protein. Fiber and Extract Matter. Fat. Total. Nutritive Ratio. Herd I Herd II... 26.15 26.97 2.44 2.49 12.84 13.25 .68 .69 15.95 16.42 1:5.8 1:5 9 Second period: Herd I., standard grain ration; Herd II., cottonseed ration. Herd I Herd II 25.00 25.69 2.34 3.20 12.27 11.62 .66 .73 15.27 15.55 1:5.8 1:4.1 The digestibility of the standard grain mixture was asccr- lained by actual experiment. Average coefficients were used for the other feeds. Both herds received substantially the same amounts of protein and total digestible nutrients in the first period. Each herd averaged in live weight about 950 ])onnds. In the first period the amount of digestible protein was ample to enable the cows to do good work. In the second period Herd II. received .SG of a pound more of digestible protein than did Herd I. 96 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Total and Average Daily Yield of Milk (Pounds). First period: both herds, standard grain ration. Herds. Total Herd Yield. Average Daily Yield. Herd I., Herd II., 2,332.5 2,405.3 22.2 22.9 Second period: Herd I., standard ration; Herd II., cottonseed meal ration. Herd I., Herd II., 3,856.3 3,898.1 21.9 22.2 111 the first period Herd II. produced 3.1 per cent, more milk tlniii Herd I., and in the second period 1 per cent. more. It would appear, therefore, that the amount of protein fed in the first jjeriod was ample, and that the increase given to Herd II, in the second period was not needed and did not increase the milk flow. In the first period Herd I. gained 6 pounds in live weight, and Herd II., 83 pounds. In the second period Herd I. lost 87 pounds, and Herd. II., 73 pounds. Average Composition of the Herd Milk {Per Cent.). First period; both herds, standard grain ration. Herds. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. Nitrogen. Protein Equiva- lent. Ash. Herd 1 Herd II 14.15 14.27 5.00 4.93 9.15 9.34 .538 .546 3.36 3.41 .73 .72 Second period: Herd I., standard ration; Herd II., cottonseed meal ration. Herd I Herd II 14.16 14.30 5.06 4.98 9.10 9.32 .550 .562 3.44 3.51 .73 .71 The analyses for the first period represent the average of 3 separate samples, each covering a period of five days; those for the second period represent the average of 5 separate samples, each covering a period of five days. Each five-day composite represented the average composition of the herd milk for one week. The separate analysis of each cow's milk was not made. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 97 In the first 2)eriod the milk of the two herds showed itself to be practically identical in composition. In the second period the substitution of 3 pounds of cottonseed meal for 4 pounds of the standard ration, thereby increasing the digestible pro- tein in the ration .86 of a pound, had no effect whatever in varying the proj^ortions of the milk. It is well to remember in this connection that nearly a month intervened between the first and second }»eriodH ^, and that the period itself covered five weeks. It is possible that, if the standard ration had contained a pound less of digestible protein daily, some difference may have been observed in the composition of the milk produced by the two herds in the second period. Influence of Protein on Ike Milk Yield {Pounch). Herd Results, Second Period. 1.4 o ^ •2 5; o g E" 0) -i a a2 "5 9 .9 .9 ...9^ a t6 5 2 Ss o o-SSS < H Ph cu'^ ^ p-i PH Standard, . 94tj 3,856.3 409.5 115.5 132.6 161.4 65.0 Cottonseed meal, 939 3,898.1 560.0 115.5 136.8 307.7 122.0 In so far as this experiment throws any light on the protein requirements, it indicates that Herd 1. was receiving ample protein (65 per cent, above the minimum requirement), and that the addition of more protein (122 per cent, above the minimum) was without any noticeable influence upon the milk yield. Experiment IV. This experiment was completed during the winter of 1897- 98, although the results have not been published. It was conducted on the reversal method, with twelve mature grade Jersey cows, all of Avhich had freshened the previous summer and autumn. Weu/hiiif] Animals. — Each animal was weighed for three • This excessive lapse of time was due to some of the cows not being in best of condition. 98 EXrERliAIENT STATION. [Jan. consecutive tlavs, before feeding in the afternoon, at the begin- ning and end of each half of the experiment. Weighing and Sampling the Milk. — The weight of each milking was taken on a spring balance sensitive to 1 onnce, and the weights preserved on prepared record sheets. The milk was samj^led for five consecutive days by the usual method, as described in accounts of the many feeding experiments given in previous reports. It was preserved with bichromate of potash and analyzed by gravimetric methods. Character of Feeds. — The feeds used were all of good qual- ity and of average composition. The hay was composed largely of Kentucky blue grass, sweet vernal grass and a liberal admix- ture of clover. Dates of the Experiment. First Half. Dates. Weeks. High-protein Cows. Low-protein Cows. Nov. 13, 1897 to Jan. 14, 1898, 9 Guernsey, Midget, Susie, Beauty, Sadie, Alice. Bessie, Mary, Mildred, Nina, Blossom, Jennie. Second Half. Jan. 24 to March 27, 1898, . 9 Bessie, Mary, Mildred, Nina, Blossom, Jennie. Guernsey, Midget, Susie, Beauty, Sadie, Alice. It will be observed that ten days were allowed for changing the feeds given the animals. Average Daily nations f cd to Each Cow (Pounds). Charactku of Ration. Wheat Bran. Gluten Feed. Corn Meal. English Hay. Corn Silage. High protein, .... Low protein, .... 3 3 5.5 15 4 10.9 11.0 25.7 25.7 It will be seen that the two rations were practically identi- cal, excepting that 4 pounds of corn meal were substituted for a like amount of gluten feed. Different cows received from 10 to 12 pounds of hay and from 20 to 30 pounds of silage. Each animal received exactly the same amount of gi'ain daily. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 99 Average Dry and Digculible Xulricnts in Daily Rations {Pounds). Dry Matter. Digestible Organic Nutrients. Nu- tritive Ratio. Ch-^Racter of Ration. Protein. Carbo- hydrates. Fat. Total Nu- trients. Iligli protein, .... Low protein, .... 24.17 24.24 2.10 1.G7 13.00 13.70 .50 .53 15.60 15.90 1:6.7 1:8.9 The herd averaged about 900 pounds in weight. The amount of dry matter and of total digestible nutrients fed in each ration was substantially the same; the high-protein ration contained about .4 of a pound more digestible protein than the low-protein ration. The excess over the low-])rotein ration is not marked and is very much less than that fed in experiments I. and II. , I )rcviousl v mentioned. Herd Gain in Live Weight {Pounds). Character of Ration. Gain or Loss. High protein. Low protein, -f353 -1-223 Both rations caused a gain in weight, the excess being in fa\or of the high-protein ration. This may have been ex- pected, as the low-protein ration had rather too wide a ratio to be productive of the best results. Protein Balance {Pounds). Herd Results; Periods of Sixty-three Days. Character of Ration. Protein digested. Protein required for Main- tenance. Protein contained in Milk (N.X6.25). Protein Excess over Main- tenanre and Milk Require- ments. High protein Low protein 1,587.6 1,262.5 476.28 476.28 591.76 563.23 519.6 223.0 100 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Influence of Frolein on Milk Yield. Herd lleaulta in Pounds. Character of Ration. Average Weight of Cow. Yield of Milk. Daily Yield of Milk Per Cow. Protein digested. Protein Excess over that required for Main- tenance and Milk. Per- centage Excess. High protein, . Low protein, . 900 900 16,257 15,347 21.5 20.3 1,587.6 1,262.5 519.6 223.0 48.6 21.4 The {U'erage amount of digestible protein fed daily per cow in the high-protein ration — 2.10 pounds- — could not be. con- sidered excessive, although it was 48.6 per cent, more than was required for milk and maintenance. The average amount of digestible protein fed daily per cow in the low-protein ration was 1.07 pounds, which was 21.4 per cent, above that neces- sary for milk and maintenance. The high-protein ration, being 48.6 per cent, in excess of the protein minimum, pro- duced 5.9 per cent, more milk than did a ration made up of similar feedstulis which was 21.4 per cent, in excess of the minimum. Such a diiference in an experiment extending over a period of sixty-three days is believed to be too i^ronounced to be attributed to an experimental error, and is evidently the result of the increased amount of protein fed. In this con- nection it may be remarked that if the practical feeder pur- chased all of his grain, it would be to his advantage to buy gluten feed rather than corn meal. If he produces his own corn, the feeding of one-third bran, one-half corn and cob meal and one-sixth siluten feed would be advisable. Composition of the Herd Milk {Per Cent.). Character of Ration. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. Nitrogen. Protein Equiva- lent (N. x6.25). Ash. High protein, . Low protein, . 14.55 14.44 5.11 5.01 9.44 9.43 .58 .59 3.64 3.67 .75 .74 lUll.l PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 101 Samples of milk from each cow were taken weekly for five fonseciitive days, aud tested for total solids and for fat. The average percentage prodnced by each cow for the nine weeks was mnltiplied by the amonnt of milk prodnced during the same period, and the amounts of total solids and of fat pro- duced by the entire herd on each of the two rations calculated. These amounts, divided by the total milk yield, gave the aver- age percentages of total solids and fat produced by each herd for the entire period. The product of each milking of the six cows receiving the two different rations was also mixed, and composite five-day samples tested for total solids, fat, nitrogen and ash. In case of total solids and fat the average results varied less than .1 ])er cent, from those secured by the other method. The average results stated in the table above represent those secured by the last-described method. It will be seen that the two rations produced milk of sub- stantially the same composition. While the excess of protein appeared to have noticeably influenced the amount of the milk produced, it was without influence on its composition. Experiment V. — 189S. This experiment was conducted on the same plan as experi- ment IV., and the conditions were substantially the sauie. Nine cows only were used, being divided into herds of five and four. Dates of the Experiment. First Half. Dates. Days. High-protein Cows. Low-protein Cows. April 4 to April 29, 1S08, 26 Blos.som, Jennie, Bessie, Mary, Mildred. Beauty, Alice, Guernsey, Midget. Second Half. May 8 to June 2, 1898, . 26 Beauty, Alice, CJuernsey, Midget. Blossom, Jennie, Bessie, Mary, Mildred. Nine days elapsed between halves, and the halves themselves lasted twentv-six days each. The " cow balance " was hardly 102 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. satisfactory in this experiment, five cows receiving one ration at the same time fonr were receiving the other, and vice versa. These were the only animals at the time that were in sni table condition. Average Daily Rations fed to the ^ 'ine Cows {Pounds ^). Character of Ration. Wheat Bran. Gluten Feed. Corn Meal. English Hay. Rowen. High protein Low protein, .... 3 3 5 1 4 9 3 9.3 9.3 9.4 These two rations differ only in that -i ponnds of corn meal took the place of a like amonnt of glnten feed. Areracie Drt/ and Digestible Nutrients in Daily Rations (Ponnds). Dry Matter. Digestible Organic Nutrients. Nu- tritive Ratio. Character of Ration. Protein. Carbo- hydrates. Fat. Total Nu- trients. High protein Low protein, .... 23.62 23.44 2.41 1.96 11.97 12.39 .43 .44 14 81 14.79 1:5.4 1:6.8 In the so-called low-protein ration the herd received snhstan- tially 2 ponnds of digestible protein daily; in the high-protein ration this was increased .4 of a ponnd. The total digestible nntrients fed were the same in each case. The cows averaged 970 to 900 ponnds in live Aveight during the two halves of the experiment. In the low-protein ration the amonnt of protein fed was sufficient to give satisfactory results. Herd Gain in Live Weight (Ponnds). Character op Ration. Gain or Ix)S3. High protein, Low protein, +76 4-115 [911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 103 Protein Balance (Pounds). Herd Results; Periods of Twenty-six Daya. Protein Protein Excess Cn.\R.\CTER OF R.VTION. Protein required Protein over Main- digested. for Main- contained tenance tenance. in Milk. and Milk Require- ments. High protein, 563.9 156.8 184.4 222.7 Low protein, 458.6 155.5 174.8 128 3 Influence of Protein on Milk Yield. Herd Results in Pounds. Ch.\racter of R.\TION. Average Weight of Cow. Yield of Milk. Daily Yield of Milk Per Cow. Protein digested. Protein Excess over that required for Main- tenance and Milk. Per- centage Excess. High protein, . Low protein, . 960 950 4,693.5 4,370.6 20.06 18.68 563.9 458.6 222.7 128.3 65.3 39.0 The average amount of dige.^tible protein fed daily to each cow ill the high-protein ration was 2.41 ponnds, and the excess over that reqnired for milk and maintenance was G5.3 per cent. In the low-protein ration each cow received 1.96 ponnds daily, and an average excess of 39 per cent, above requirements. Dnring the high-protein feeding the herd produced Y.4 per cent, more milk than when it received the low-protein ration, showing the influence of the larger amount. Whether all of the milk increase was due to the extra protein consumed is uncertain. The low-protein ration naturally had a wider ratio, and evidently was rather better suited to fatteniing than to milk |)roduction, and was indicated by the increase in live weight. Composition of the Herd Mill; {Per Cent.). Character of Ration. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. Nitrogen. Protein Equiva- lent (Nx6.25). Ash. High protein, . Low protein, . 14 83 14 90 5 00 5 07 9 84 9.82 .63 .66 3 93 4 00 .74 .76 104 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The above figures represent the average of five-day composite samples of the milk produced by the herd of nine cows while on the two different rations. Samples of each cow's milk were also tested five daj^s in each week for total solids and fat. The aver- age of the two herds by this method varied less than .1 per cent. fr()m the above figures. It is^ therefore, evident that the differ- ence in the amount of protein in the ration did not vary the fat, solids not fat, nitrogen or ash content of the milk. Experiment YL — 1905-06. This experiment, hitherto not reported, was carried out by the group method, six coavs constituting each of two groups. The object of the experiment was to note the effect of a ration low in digestible protein, — the amount required in the milk ])]us that for maintenance, — as compared with one containing approximately ^ pound in excess. The effect of the two rations was to be noted (a) on the condition of the animals; (h) on the yield of milk, milk solids, fat and nitrogen; (r) on the relative shrinkage; {d^ on the composition of the milk. Plan of the Experiment. — The twelve cows were divided as evenly as possible into two groups. The first few weeks both groups received the low-protein ration in order to establish a basis for comparison. The record of the milk yield and its composition is reported for the last week of this preliminary j)eriod. At the beginning of the period proper, Group II. re- ceived the high-protein ration, and Group I. continued on that low in protein. Tlisiori/ of ilie Cows. Name. Breed. Age (Years). Last Calf dropped. Davs with Calf, Beginning of Test. Blanche, Daisy, Fancy, Gladys, . Maude, May, Betty, Dora. May Rio, , MoUv, RedlL, Samantha, Grade Guernsey, Grade .Jersey, Grade Jersey, Pure .Torsey, . Grade Guernsey, Grade .Jersey, Grade .Jersey, ( irade .Jersey, Piue .Jersey, . (irade Jersey, Grade Jersey, Grade Jersey, October, August, August, December, December, July, November, August, October, July, November, August, 1005 1905 1005 1905 1905 1905 1905 1905 1905 1905 1005 1905 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 105 Weighing Cows. — Each cow was weighed for three con- secutive days at the beginning and end of the period proper, before watering and feeding in the afternoon. These weights were also taken twice during the intervening time. Sampling Feeds. — Samples of hay and silage were taken at the beginning of the period, and every two weeks thereafter. In case of the hay, forkfuls were taken here and there from the entire amount to l)c fed for the day, run through a feed cutter, subsampled, the final sample brought to the laboratory in glass-stoppered bottles, dry-matter determinations made at once and the sample saved for a composite. The silage was similarly sampled, excepting that it was not run through the cutter. The grain was sampled daily, preserved in glass- stoppered bottles, and at the end of the period analyzed. Sampling Milk. — The milk of each cow ^vas sampled for five consecutive days in each week by the usual method, and the composite tested for fat. total solids, nitrogen and ash. Dates of the Experiment. Preliminary Period. Herd. Character of Ration. Dates. Weeks. Cows. I n.. . Low protein, . High protein, . January 27 through February 2. January 27 through February 2. 1 1 Blanche, Daisy, Fancy, Gladys, Maude, May. Betty, Dora, May Rio, Molly, Red II., Samantha. Period Proper. I., II.. Low protein. High protein. February 10 through April 27. February 10 through April 27. Blanche, Daisy, Fancy, Gladys, Maude, May. Betty, Dora, May Rio, Molly, Red II., Samantha. Average Daily liations consumed by the Two Herds {Pounds). Preliminary Period. Herd. Character of Ration. English Hay. Corn Silage. Wheat Bran. Corn Meal. Gluten Meal. I II., Low protein, . Low protein. 12.6 12.6 22 5 22.2 3.4 3.4 3.3 3.3 - Period Proper. 1., II.. Ix)w protein. High protein. 12.6 13 0 22.2 21.0 3.4 3.7 3.3 1.2 2.2 106 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The amount of hay fed to the different cows varied from 11 to 15 pounds; silage, from 20 to 30 pounds; bran, from 3 to 4.5 pounds; corn meal, from 3 to 4.5 pounds, and gluten meal, from 2 to 3 pounds daily. Average Amounts of Drij and DigcsPihle Matter consumed by Each Cow daily {Potinds). Preliminary Period. Herd. Character of Ration. Dry Matter. Pro- tein. Fiber. Ex- tract Matter. Fat. Total. Nu- tritive Ratio. I II., . Low protein. Low protein. 21.75 22.51 1.22 1.27 3.58 3.63 8.39 8.68 .42 .43 13.61 14 02 1:10.6 1:10.4 Period Proper. I.. .. . II., Low protein, High protein, . 21.70 22.18 1.22 1,76 3. 58 3.60 8.37 8.14 .41 .41 13.58 13.91 1:10.5 1: 7.2 Herd T. averaged 912 pounds and Herd II. 903 pounds in live weight. On the basis of 1,000 pounds live weight. Herd I. would be receiving 1.34 pounds of digestible protein and 14.9 pounds total digestible matter, and Herd II., 1.95 pounds digestible protein and 15.4 pounds of total digestible matter daily in the period proper. The digestible matter' was calcu- lated from actual analyses of the feeds, and average digestion coefficients. It seems probable that the results are a trifle low, and that more material was actually digested than the calcula- tions show, for the animals appeared well nourished. Herd I. gaining 225 pounds, and Herd II., 215 pounds during the eleven weeks of the period proper. The low-protein ration was evidently somewhat deficient in protein and too wide. The high-protein ration must have satisfied the protein require- ments, and on the basis of 1,000 pounds live weight, it con- tained .6 of a pound more of digestible protein daily than did the other ration. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 107 Weight of Animals at Beginning and End of Experiment {Pounds). d Herd. -a .2 1 a i3 "5 >> -a 3 0! >> 03 >> i « ^ "o T) 03 s a '3 FL| m Q ^ O S S PQ M S g « 0^ O I.. . Beginning, . 1,167 837 835 732 778 1,010 - - - - - - - End, . 1,230 892 865 707 813 1,077 - - - - - - +225 Beginning, . _ _ _ _ _ 672 843 758 1,018 1,007 1,013 _ II., . \ End, . ' " " " " " 712 877 808 1,088 1,063 978 +215 Judging from the above weights it would appear that both herds were well nourished and able to add slightly to their live weight. Crude Protein Balance {Pounds). Preliminary Period: One Week. Character of Ration. Protein digested. Protein for Main- tenance. Protein for Milk. Protein Deficit. Per- centage Deficit. Low protein, Herd I., High protein. Herd II., 51.3 53.3 30.4 30.4 27.18 28.66 —6.28 —5.76 —11.0 -9.7 Crude Protein Balance {Pounds). Period Proper, Eleven Weeks. o a h^ a •a -a "g^ ^s^ 1 a •s 3 C! 2.x T3 a t- 9 S Herd. ■5 p a S2; o cj s 0) C3 s o a 'S 8 at 2S „, 0 3 O G > •5-2 £ Oj o S. Pi 2 Q 73. S Ph . Ration. Ic3 ercentage or Excess over ments. o & "o 2 o 2 Oco is < Q PL, H < >H >-l ;>H Low, - 1.22 —11.0 747.8 17.80 108.95 37.97 27.18 Low, - 1.27 —9.7 821.3 19.55 115.66 40.67 28.66 Percentage excess, Herd IV. over - - - 9.8 - 6.20 7.00 5.50 Herd I. Period proper: Herd I., low protein; Herd IL, high protein Low, High, . 912 903 1 22 1.76 31.3 7,415.6 8,906.5 16.05 19.28 1,102.10 1,294.80 398.90 473.00 272.60 328.30 Percentage increase, high over low. - - - 20.1 17.50 18.60 20.00 It was hardly possible, with the cows at our disposal, to select two herds of six each that would produce substantially equal amounts of milk. It will be seen, therefore, that Herd II. in the preliminary period was producing nearly 10 per cent, more milk and from 5.5 to 7 per cent, more protein and fat than Herd I. In the second or period proper, covering eleven weeks, this percentage was increased from 9.8 to 20 in case of the milk; substantially similar increases were also noted in case of the milk ingredients. Otherwise expressed, Herd II., receiving the high-protein ration, nearly maintained its flow during the second period, while each cow in Herd 1. showed an average daily decrease of 1.75 pounds, or practically 10 per cent. In the preliminary period both herds were receiving from 10 to 11 per cent, less protein than was actually needed for maintenance and milk. In the second period the low-protein herd had approximately reached a balance between income and outgo, while the high-protein herd was receiving 31.3 per cent, of crude protein in excess of requirements. The effect 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. ;jl. 109 of this extra protein may be elearly seen in iiiaintaiiiinii; the flow of milk. It would be of interest to know whether it would have maintained its influence throughout the entire milking period. The herd receiving the shortage of protein was obliged to adjust itself to the low-protein diet. It was able to increase somewhat in live weight (fatO, but its milk flow was of necessity noticeably checked. It is quite probable that some cows of pronounced ability as milkers would not shrink as rapidly as others on a low-protein diet, but for a time would have taken the needed protein from that stored in the body. Effect of Prolcin on Average Composition of the Milk {Per Cent.). Herds. Period. Character of Ration. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. Protein. I I I., II., . Low protein. Low protein, 14.57 14.86 5.08 5.38 9.49 9.48 3.63 3.69 Increase, - - .29 .30 ± .06 II II I.. II., . Low protein, High protein, 14.08 14.54 4.95 5.31 9.13 9.23 3.49 3.69 Increase, - , - .46 .36 .10 .20 The above average figures were secured by taking the average of the weekly analysis of the milk produced by each cow and multiplying it by the pounds of milk produced, the result being the pounds of the several ingredients produced by each cow. These were added, and gave the total milk and milk ingredi- ents produced by each herd. The total ingredients divided by the total milk produced gave the average percentages. The fact that the milk produced by each herd did not show the same composition in the preliminary period prevents a direct com- parison. It will be observed, however, that in case of Herd I. the milk in the second period changed but little in composition from that produced in the first period, the principal difference being a slight increase in the fat, due evidently to the ad- vance in lactation. Herd IT. produced milk also with only slight variations in the two periods. The fat increased .86 of 1 110 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. per cent., being abont the same increase as with Herd I. The protein showed rather more of an increase than in case of Herd L, and this may possibly be attributed to the influence of the extra protein in the food. It must be remembered that Herd 1. received a ration deficient in protein, and the increased amount given to Herd 11. may have had a slight eftect upon the milk protein. With this exception it is safe to state that the protein was entirely without influence upon the composi- tion of the milk. Experiment VII. — 1907-08. This experiment was conducted with six cows, the only ones avaibible at the time, and was by the group method. The object of tlie experiment was jJrimarily to note the effect of rations low and high in jjrotein (a) upon the condition of the animals, (b) upon the yield of milk, and (c) upon the rela- tive milk shrinkage. TJie plan of the experiment consisted in dividing six cows into two herds of three each, wdiich were known as Herds D and E. The first ten days were regarded as preliminary, to accus- tom the two herds to their distinct rations. Herd D received the low-protein ration and Herd E the one high in protein. Wcighi7ig Cows. — Each of the cows was weighed for three consecutive days at the beginning and end of the experiment, and every fourth week during its progress. They were weighed in the afternoon before being fed or watered. Sampling Feeds. — The hay was sampled in the usual way at the beginning of the experiment, and every two weeks there- after. The grain was sampled daily and preserved in glass- stoppered bottles, and eventually tested for dry matter and for the ordinary ingredients. Character of Feeds. — The hay w^as a mixture of grasses, the finer varieties, such as Kentucky blue grass, predominating. It contained a noticeable admixture of clover. Samplinrj MiU\ — The cows were milked twice daily, and the single milking of each cow in each herd was poured into a common receptacle, mixed and the herd mixture sampled. This method was continued for five consecutive days, each single 1911.] PUBLIC DOCOIENT — No. :J1. Ill sample composited, luid eventually tested for solids, fat and nitroiien. It will therefore be seen that herd samples only were analyzed, and not the product of individual cows. History of Coxos. Herd. Cows. Breed. Age (Years). Last Calf dropped. Days with Calf at Begin- ning of Trial. D, . . . E, . . . Samantha, . May Rio, Daisy, . Fancy, Gladys, Red III., . Jerscy-Holsteiu, . Pure Jersey, Grade Jersey, Grade Jersey, Pure Jersey, Grade Jersey, 4 4 8 7 4 2 September 3 September 12 August 23 September 1 October 7 October 27 8 I)i(ralio)i of iJte E.r peri mot t. IIekd. Character of Ration. Dates. Number of Weeks. Cows. D, . . . E, . . . Low protein, . High protein, . Nov. 23, 1907, through Mav 8, 1908. Nov. 23, 1907, through May 8, 1908. 24 24 Samantha, May Rio, Daisy. Fancy, Gladys, Red III. Bat ions consumed daily by Each Cow (Pounds). Herd. Character of Ration. Cows. Hay. Wheat Bran. Corn Meal. Gluten Feed. D, . E, . . . Low protein, High protein. [ Samantha, May Rio, [ Daisy, [Gladys, . Fancy, . [Red III., 20 20 20 22 •16 3.40 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.40 2.50 4.50 4.00 4.00 3 90 4.60 3.40 Average, Herd D, Average, Herd E, - - 20.7 19.3 3.13 2.97 4.16 3.97 The difference in the two rations consisted in the substitu- tion of corn meal for gluten feed. The latter, as is well known, 112 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. is a by-product of the former, hence the general character of the two variables was the same, and particularly the protein. Diyestible Matter in Daily Rations {Pounds;). Character of Ration. Cows. Digestible Nutrients. Nu- tritive Ratio. Herd. Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates. Total. D, . E, . Low protein, . High protein, . [ Samantha, May Rio, I Daisy, [Gladys, . l Fancy, . Red HI., 1.44 1.29 1.29 1.88 2.14 1.58 .48 .43 .43 .38 .43 .31 14.27 12.87 12.87 12.23 13.65 9.97 16.19 14.59 14.59 14.49 16.22 11.86 1:10.7 1:10.6 1:10.6 1:6.9 1:6.8 1:6.6 Average, Herd D, Average, Herd E, - - 1.34 1.87 .45 .37 13.34 11.95 15.12 14.19 1:10.6 1:6.7 The above figures were secured from the actual analyses of the feeds and average digestive coefficients. It is clear that Hei'd 1^ received a ration with a very wide nutritive ratio, while Herd E received a ration with a medium ratio. Average Weight of Cov\s at BeginniiKj and End of Period (Pounds). Herd D. Herd E. Daisy. May Rio. Samantha. Fancy. Gladys. Red HI. Beginning, End, 920 923 898 907 1,003 1,063 973 1,013 810 818 680 782 Total gain. Herd D, 69 pounds. Total gain. Herd E, 150 pounds. Herd E made a larger gain than Herd D, but this appears to be due largely to the gain made by Red III., a heifer with first calf. Crude Protein Balance (Pounds). Herd. Character of Ration. Average Weight. Protein digested (N.X6.25). (Protein required for Main- tenance (N.X6.25.) Protein required for Milk (N.X6.25). Protein Excess or Deficit. Per- centage Excess or Deficit. D, . E, . Low protein. High protein. 935 832 675.36 942.48 328.00 291.75 351.50 389.37 —4.14 261.36 — .6 38.4 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 113 The total pi'oteiu digested was calculated from the amount digested daily multiplied by the number of days of the experi- ment. The protein for nuiintenance was calculated from the average weight of each herd, allowing .7 of a pound of digesti- ble protein per 1,000 pounds live weight. The protein in the milk was calculated from the actual analysis of the milk. It is admitted that the above results are only approximate, being secured partly from average figures, and on the basis of crude in place of true protein. They indicate, however, that Herd D was receiving a ration rather deficient in protein, and that Herd E was receiving at least 38.4 per cent, over that required for maintenance and milk. Milk Yield and Milk Shrinkage. Character of Ration. Milk produced and Shrinkage. Herd. Total Yield (Pounds). First Week (Pounds). Last Week (Pounds). Per Cent. Shrinkage. D E. Low protein, High protein. 9,287.1 11,161.5 446.3 514.5 368.8 401.6 17.4 21.9 In spite of the fact that the three cows comprising Herd D received hardly sufficient protein for maintenance and milk produced, they did not shrink as much during a period of twenty-four weeks as did the three cows in Herd E, which re- ceived substantially 38 per cent, protein in excess of supposed requirciiicnts. Such a result can only be explained on the ground that the animals were too few in number to give accu- rate results by the grouj) method, and that individuality rather than food appeared to be the controlling factor. See also Exper- iment VIII. Experiment VIII. — 1908-09. This experiment was planned primarily to study the protein requirements of dairy animals. It will not show the effect of protein upon the chemical composition of the milk. Plan of the Experiment. — Inasmuch as the cows in the herd calved at different times, the experiment was planned with pairs of cows, i.e., each pair of cows, when ready, was started, 114 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. one on a diet approximately sufficient to furnish protein for maintenance plus that contained in the milk, and the other on a diet containing some ^ pound more protein daily than the maintenance and milk requirements. Duration of the Experiment. — The experiment was planned to continue substantially through a milking period, or until the animals were so far advanced in lactation as to cease to respond to the influence of food. Weighing the Cows. — Each animal was weighed for three consecutive days at the beginning of the period, and for three days each two weeks thereafter. Sampling Feeds. — The hay fed was sampled at the begin- ning of the period for each pair of cows, and each two weeks thereafter. The samples were placed in glass-stoppered bottles, taken to the laboratory and dry-matter determinations made at once. The method of sampling has been described in preced- ing experiments. Each kind of grain was sampled daily during the process of weighing out, and the composite samples preserved in glass- stoppered bottles. Dry-matter determinations were made once each month, and the monthly samples composited. Character of Feeds. — It was intended to procure one lot of ha}' of the same quality sufficient to last during the entire experiment. Owing to several unfortunate circumstances this was not possible. Three different lots were secured, and com- posite samples of each analyzed. The digestibility was not determined, but approximate coefficients applied, depending upon the analysis and general appearance of the hay. The several grains were procured in large amounts and average digestion coefficient applied. Sampling Mill'. — The milk of each cow was sampled for five consecutive days at the beginning of the period, and each two weeks thereafter. It was tested for total solids, for fat by the Babcock method in duplicate, and for nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 115 History of the Cows. Pairs. Cows. Breed. Age (Years). Last Calf dropped. Daily Yield at Beginning of Ex- periment. Pounds. ■ 1 .... . . I III., . .v., . . { v.. . . 1 Minnie, Mary, . Samantha, . Chub, . Betty, . May Rio, Daisy, . Cecile, . Red m., . Betty II., . Grade Holstein, . Grade Holstein, . Jersey-Holstein, . Grade Holstein, . High-grade Jersey, Pure Jersey, . High-grade Jersey, Pure Jersey, . High-grade Jersey, High-grade Jersey, 8 10 6 10 4 6 11 4 2 2 September 12, September 5, August 27, September 1, September 25, October 13, October 22, October 10, October 30, 26.0 26.0 26,0 20.0 26.3 27.5 28.7 25.7 29.0 Duration of Experiment. Cows. Preliminary Period began. Period Proper. Number of Days. Minnie, October 10, October 17 through April .30, 196 Mary, October 10, October 17 through April 30, 196 Samantlia, October 10, October 17 through May 28, 224 Chub, October 10, October 17 through May 28, 224 Betty, October 24, November 14 through June 11, 210 May Rio, . October 24, November 14 through June 11, 210 Daisy, October 31, November 14 through May 28, 196 Cecile, October 31, November 14 through May 28, 196 Red III., . November 28, December 12 through June 11, 182 Betty II., . December 17, December 26 through June 11, 168 IIG EXPERIMENT STATION. L'ations consumed daily by Each Cow (Pounds). [Jan. Character of Ration. Number of Days. Cows. Hay. Wheat Bran. Corn Meal. Gluten Feed. 196 Mary, . 21.4 3.0 - 3.93 224 Chub, . 17.6 3.0 - 3.51 High protein, . 210 Betty, . 19.4 3.0 .80 3.87 196 Cecile, . 17.0 3.0 .43 3.48 168 Betty II., 16.4 3.0 1.00 3.00 196 Minnie, 20.0 3.0 3.51 .51 224 Samantha, 22.0 3.9 3.90 - Low protein, 210 May Rio, 19.6 3.0 4.80 - 196 Daisy, . 19.3 3.0 4.00 .44 182 Red III., 19.5 3.0 4.00 .41 Average, high protein, . - - 18.4 3.0 .74 3.56 Average, low protein. - - 20.1 3.2 4.10 .45 The substantial difference in the rations of the two lots of cows consisted in the fact that the high-protein cows received the gluten feed and the low-protein cows the corn meal. Dry and Digestible Matter in Daily Fat ions (Pounds). Dry Matter. Digestible. Character of Ration. Cows. Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates. Total. Nu- tritive Ratio. High protein, . Low protein, . Mary, . Chub, . Betty, . Cecile, . Betty II., Minnie, . Samantha, May Rio, Daisy, . Red III., 25.1 21.3 23.9 21.1 20.7 23.8 26.0 24.2 22.7 23.7 2.05 1.79 1.95 1.74 1.61 1.47 1.44 1.36 1.34 1.36 .55 .38 .43 .38 .38 .42 .43 .44 .39 .41 12.26 10.41 12.04 11.06 10.32 12.23 12.90 12.70 11. el 12.63 14.86 12.58 14.42 13.18 12.31 14.12 14.77 14.50 13.34 14.40 1:6.57 1:6.28 1:6.66 1:6.84 1:6.93 1:8.95 1:9.62 1:10 51 1:9.30 1:9.95 Average, high protein, Average, low protein. - 22.4 24.1 1.83 1.39 .42 .42 11.22 12.41 13.47 14.27 1:6.65 1:9,61 It will he seen that the cows receiving the larger amount of protein did not receive by .8 of a pound as much total digesti- 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 117 ble matter as the low-protein cows. The amount of food fed daily to each cow was ganged partly by the appetite of the animal. The high-protein cows received only .44 of a pound more digestible protein than the other herd. Influence of Eations on Weight (Pounds). Characteu of Ration. Cows. Average Weight. Weight at Beginning. Weight at End. Total Gain or Loss. High protein, Low protein, Mary, . Chub, . Betty, . Cecile, . Betty II., Minnie, . Samantha, May Rio, Daisy, . Red III., 1,074 1,011 869 sor) 743 971 1,068 826 830 837 1,047 , 955 843 783 742 923 995 825 798 807 1,102 1,067 . 895 827 745 1,018 1,142 827 862 867 -f55 + 112 +52 +44 +03 +95 + 147 +02 +64 +60 Herd average, high. Herd average, low. - 900 906 874 869 927 943 +266 +368 The cows receiving the low-protein ration gained rather more in weight than the other herd ; whether this was due to the character of the ration, or whether it simply depended upon the individuality of the animal, it is difficult to say. Tnie^ Protein Balance (Pounds). Character of Ration. Cows. True Protein digested. Protein required for Main- tenance. Protein found in Milk. (N.X6.25). Excess over Main- tenance and Milk Require- ments. Per- centage Excess. High protein, . Low protein. Mary, . Chub, . Betty, . Cecile, . Betty II., Minnie, Samantha, . May Rio, Daisy, . Red III., 350.97 368.24 380.61 316 38 256.82 277.15 320.40 284.48 259.20 247.13 147.35 158 52 127.74 110.45 87.37 133.22 167.46 121.42 113.87 106.63 143.10 124.71 156.35 136.07 114.69 143.73 168.14 136.07 140.52 119.58 60.52 85.01 96.52 69.86 54.75 00.20 —15.20 26.99 4.80 20.92 20.8 30.0 34.0 28.3 27.1 + —4.5 10.5 19 9.2 The high-protein cows received an average of 28 per cent, of protein over maintenance and milk requirements, while in case of the low-protein cows the percentage varied from an actual shortage of 4.5 per cent, to a surplus of 10.5 per cent. ' Amines were determined and deducted from the total protein, the above results being ex- pressed as tru-^ albuminoids. 118 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. R^ f/2 ^ Weekly hrinkage (Per Cent.). 0 ■< US t>- y^ to CO (M 05 o> «n t^ a> •* ■* "^ ^ ■^ '^ '"' '^ '"' " '^ M S n M ^1 0-3 o -* "5 O 00 o o u:s CM o 00 0 0 05 CO ■* CO (M CO ■* ■o ■^ ^ o ■*}< "5 im' oi oi o CO Tf CO QO 1 1 •^ CO "o CM tn o t^ o> c» 1 1 H o i^ I--^ •o CM o o ^ o> CO >o CM ** 0 H H *o ■^ >o ■^Jl •»! CO CO "O 10 S, a) do. c CO o o - lO CO □0 o OO >o oo o> Tft •* o < ui CT CO CO CO CO CO - o OO '^ - 05 CO ^ CO C-1 CM CO •* ■* 2 5 n m Q ■< t^ O •* -«< ■* QO CO o> CO Ml ■* CO oo CO "J H O ►-1 a 0 o a. ■<»< to '^. '^ o -H UO •^ c» >o 1 1 II CO CO UO r^ M ■* ■s o oo C-i o >o 10 J CO CO CO CO CO S f^ 1^ „ o ^ CO CO o o W5 CO 1 1 5 "^ ■^ CO f^ lO CO C5 CO CO 0 QO oo OO r^ CM ■* o ^1 CO o CO > 5 >> j£ ^ « 0) '5 a « 3? ^ u* rt 3 (U 1 OJ a a >> OS ■5 a) s O m o « s s Q « b , C es « w o <5 ^ . «05 '3 a o ^ o o a> OP o. a ^ C3 ja t~> M ^ <0 ^ .3^ ^ > < > < f 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 119 Influence of Protein on Milk Shrinkage {Average Results). Character of K.^TION. Weight of Cow (Pounds). Digestible Protein consumed dailv per Cow (Pounds). Percentage Excess of Protein over Require- ments. Total Shrinkage (Per Cent.). Weekly Shrinkage (Per Cent.). High protein, Low protein. 900 906 1.83 1.39 22 3 34.7 33.9 1.4 1.4 The average amount of digestible protein consumed daily l)_v each of the high-protein cows (1.83 pounds) was not quite as high as intended, hence the difference between the low and b.igli protein rations was not particularly pronounced, i^ever- theless, one would expect if the conditions were reasonal)ly satisfactory that the low-protein cows would have shrunk in their milk yield (over an average of two hundred days) rather more than the high-protein cows. Such, however, was not the case, the shrinkage of both herds being substantially i«dentical. The only explanation that can be offered is the undue influence of individuality and the small number of cows in each group. For example, Mary shrunk 49 per cent, during the experiment, it being characteristic of this animal to dry off quite rapidly after she had been four months with calf; Daisy also had such a tendency. The individuality of each animal, as well as its age and condition, all have a pronounced influence, especially when the experiment is extended over a long period of time, and in order to arrive at the truth a large number of animals must be used with as near similar conditions as it is possible to secure. Is it probable that if an animal receives sufficient protein to supply the daily demands of her body (maintenance) and of the milk produced, she will not shrink in her yield during a milking period any more than when she is receiving 25 to 50 per cent, protein in excess of the actual re- quirements? In other words, is it not possible that the excess protein acts as a stimulus for a time, after which the in- dividuality of the animal becomes the more pronounced factor ? 120 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Conclusions. The following general conclusions may be drawn from the experiments reported : — 1. A large excess of digestible protein (1.5 pounds, or 100 per cent.) above the protein minimum increased the flow of milk some 15 per cent, in experiments extending over periods of four weeks. 2. No particular difference was noted in the milk yield in case of two herds of cows receiving the same amount of total digestible matter, one receiving 65 per cent, and the other 122 per cent, of digestible protein above the protein minimum. Such a result indicates, at least, that the former excess was sufficient. 3. A 50 per cent, excess of digestible protein daily above the protein minimum in an experiment by the reversal method, extending over a period of nine weeks, produced some 5.9 per cent, more milk than did a ration with 21 per cent, excess protein. 4. Under similar conditions an excess, above the minimum, of 05 per cent, digestible protein produced 7.4 per cent, more milk than did an excess of 39 per cent, (experiment covered twenty-six days ) . 5. In experiment YL, extending over a period of eleven weeks with twelve cows, by the group method, an excess of .54 of a pound of protein, or 31.3 per cent., over the protein minimum, produced an apparent increase of 10 per cent, in the milk yield. In experiment VIIL, extending over periods of twenty-four to thirty weeks with ten cows, by the group method, the cows receiving the protein minimum did not shrink any more than those receiving each .44 of a pound, or 28 per cent., protein abo\'e the minimum. G. The group method of experimentation is best suited for conducting experiments where a relatively large number of ani- mals — twenty or more — is available. With a less number the influence of individuality is altogether too pronounced. 7. An excess of 30 per cent, of digestible crude protein above the protein minimum (equal to 1.80 pounds of protein per 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 121 day) will be productive of satisfactory results iu case of cows weighing 900 pounds and i)roducing daily 12 quarts of 4 per cent, milk.^ An excess of 50 per cent, of digestible crude protein above the protein minimum is believed to be ample for all ordinary requirements. 8. Protein in excess of the above suggested amounts may temporarily increase the milk yield, but it seems probable that in many cases the influence of individuality is likely to be more pronounced than the efi^ect of the protein consumed. 9. Under the usual conditions, varying amounts of protein appear to be without influence upon the composition of the milk, ' Armsby, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 346, United States Department of Agriculture, expresses substantially the same idea in allowing .05 of a pound of digestible true protein for each pound of average milk, in addition to the maintenance requirement of .5 of a pound of digestible true protein per 1,000 pounds live weight. It is possible that animals can even do very good work with .04 of a. pound of protein for each pound of milk. 122 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. THE DETERMINATION OF ARSENIC IN INSECTICIDES. BY E. B. HOLLAND. During the past three years the writer ^ has given considerable time to the study of arsenical insecticides, with special reference to their manufacture, composition and use, — the main object of which was to provide the entomological department of this station with chemicals of known composition, suitable for an extended investigation to determine their effect in practical ap- plication under varying climatic and atmospheric conditions. For more than a decade the analysis of arsenicals has received marked attention because of the high value of a number of these salts as insecticides. The sale of inferior, adulterated or imita- tion products lacking in efficiency, or causing severe injury to foliage, has rendered necessary a certain amount of supervision by the agricultural experiment stations of the country. In sev- eral States special laws have been enacted to regulate the sale and to provide for an inspection of such materials. Arsenic as trioxide or pentoxide is the active constituent of these com- pounds, and various methods of several distinct types and nu- merous modificatious have been proposed for its determination. Some of the methods are applicable to arsenous acid and others to arsenic acid. Methods. As the work planned l)v the entomological department would require many analyses, it was desirable that the methods adopted should be reasonably short and simple, though accuracy would 1)0 the controlling factor. The literature on the determination of arsenic was reviewed at some length. The results, while somewhat overwhelming, can be roughly summarized under gravimetric methods, volumetric methods and processes for the elimination of substances liable to affect the determinatiou. A » Assisted by Dr. R. D. MacLaurin, Prof. S. F. Howard, C. D. Kennedy and J. C. Reed. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 123 classification of this character is open to criticism, but will serve the purpose intended. The gravimetric methods include the hydrogen sulfide pre- cipitation of arsenous acid ^ weighable as arsenous sulfide after removal of the excess sulfur; the jSTeher modification- of the Bunsen method," precipitating arsenic acid with hydrogen sul- fide, Aveighable as arsenic sulfide ; the modified Levol method, precipitating arsenic acid with " magnesia mixture," weighable as magnesium pyro-arsehate ; and the Werther method,^ precipi- tatiug arsenic acid with uranyl acetate, weighable as uranyl pj'ro-arsenate. The inherent faults of the sulfide methods render them impracticable. The modified Levol method, the most ])rominent of the gravimetric, is complicated, tedious and tends towards low results. All of these methods are time consumers, and none of them appear to have met with favor, having of late been almost entirely superseded by volumetric. The volumetric methods include the Kessler method,^ oxidiz- ing arsenous acid with potassium bichromate and titrating the excess chromic acid with standard ferrous sulfate, using potas- sium ferri-cyanide to determine the end point ; the permanganate method, titrating arsenous acid with standard potassium perman- ganate to a rose color; the ]\lohr method, titrating arsenous acid with standard iodine in the presence of sodium bicarbonate, using starch paste as indicator; the Bunsen method,*^ based on the difference in amount of chlorine evolved from hydrochloric acid by a given weight of potassium bichromate in the presence of arsenous acid, the gas being conducted into potassium iodide and the free iodine titrated with standard sodium thiosulfate, using starch paste as indicator ; the Krickhaus method,^ reducing arsenic acid to arsenous with hydrochloric acid and potassium iodide, and titrating the free iodine with standard thiosulfate ; the Bennett modification ^ of the Pierce method,^ precipitating arsenic acid with silver nitrate and titrating the silver in the precipitate with potassium sulphocyanate, according to Vol- hard; ^^ and the Bodeker method,^ ^ titrating arsenic acid with » Fresenius, Quan. Chem. Anal. » Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 21, 431 (1899). = Ztschr. Analyt. Chem., 32, 45 (1893). » Proc. Col. Sci. Soc, Vol. 1. ' Ann. Chem. Pharm., 192, 305. '" Liebig's Ann. Chem., 190, 1 (1878). * Jour. Prakt. Chem., 43, 346 (1848). •' Ann. Chem. Pharm., 117, 195. » Poggend. Ann., 118, 17, Series 4 (1863). s Ann. Chem. Pharm., 86, 290. ' Engin. and Min. Jour., 90, 357. See Sutton for earlier references. 124 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. standard uranyl nitrate, using potassium ferrocyanide to deter- mine the end point. The Kessler and Bodeker methods are ob- jectionable in their requirement of an '^ outside " indicator. The Bunsen and Bennett methods are lengthy, and demand very careful manipulation. The permanganate titration is not as sensitive as the iodine, and the Krickhaus method offers no ad- vantages in its application to arsenic acid over a similar reduc- tion and titration with iodine. In other words, the iodine titra- tion method (Mohr) seemed to us rather superior to any otlier in point of accuracy, manipnlation and time, and was adopted for the work in view. There are a number of processes that are noted more particu- larly as a means of eliminating impurities likely to effect the arsenic determination, among which may be mentioned the dis- tillation processes of Fischer,^ Piloty and Stock,- Stead, ^ and Jannasch and Seidel,^ using hydrochloric acid in connection with reducing substances such as ferrous salts, hydrogen sulfide, and potassium bromide and hydrazine hydrochloride. The above list of methods is far from complete, but attention has been called to practically every type applicable to commercial products. loDiXE Method (Moiir). As previously stated, the iodine method appeared to off'er the greatest advantages, and was selected. A clear understanding of the character and limitations of the reaction underlying the method is necessary at the outset. Iodine is an indirect oxidizer, acting on the elements of water with the formation of hydriodic acid and the liberation of oxygen. AS2O3 + 4 I-f 2 HoO = AS2O5 + 4 HI. The oxidation cannot be conducted in an acid or neutral solu- tion because of the reversible action of the hydriodic acid. If the latter is neutralized with sodium bicarbonate as rapidly as produced, the reaction will proceed to completion. Caustic alkali or carbonate cannot be employed, as they absorb iodine, the former being especially active. The reaction between starch 1 Ztschr. Analyt. Chem., 21, 266 (1882). 2 Ber. Deut. Chem. Gesell., 30, 1649 (1897). 3 Sutton, Vol. An.il., Edit. 9, 159 (1904). « Ber. Deut. Chem. Gesell., 43, 1218 (1910). 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 125 and ioJiiK! in the presence of liydriodie acid or solu1)le iodide is one of the most sensitive in analytical chemistry, forming the characteristic bine iodide of starch. A more delicate indicator conkl not be desired. Since the method was first api)lied to the analysis of arsenicals nnnierons modifications have been devised to insnre complete solution of the arsenic, to prevent oxidation, to eliminate or render innocuous substances that might effect the titration, and to enlarge its field of application so as to readily include the arsenates. The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists began work on insecticides in 1899 and has rendered valuable service. New Processes. The introduction of the Thorn Smith process ^ marked a turn- ing point m the analysis of arsenicals. It was intended particu- larly for Paris green, and is the official method for that sub- stance. Solution of the arsenic is effected by boiling the sample with a slight excess of sodium hydrate, which readily unites with the free arsenous acid, and also with the combined after displacing the copper. In presence of a reducing substance like sodium arsenite, the copper is precipitated as cuprous oxide and a portion of the arsenous acid oxidized to arsenic. This oxida- tion necessitates a subsequent reduction of the filtrate with hydrochloric acid and potassium iodide (hydriodic acid), and the removal of the excess iodine with thiosulfate. The solution is neutralized with dry sodium carbonate, an excess of sodium bi- carbonate added, and titrated with iodine. The process is accurate, though the double titration is objectionable. Avery and Beans devised a very ingenious process - noted for its simplicity. The Paris green is pulverized, solution effected with concentrated hydrochloric acid in the cold, neu- tralized Avith sodium carbonate, the precipitated copper redis- solved with sodium potassium tartrate and titrated as usual. The copper held by the alkaline tartrate colors the solution but does not effect the titration. Plydrochloric acid, however, is a poor solvent for free arsenic, and unreliable, which constitutes a very serious objection to the process. Avery noted this error and advised ^ that samples showing a tendency to separate white » Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 21, 769 (1899). 3 Jour. Amcr. Chem. Soc, 25, 1096 (1903). 2 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 23, 485 (1901). 126 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. arsenic slionld be treated with N/2 hydrochloric acid, 5 to 10 cubic centimeters for each ,1 of a gram, and boiled gently. In case arsenic remains undissolved, a cold saturated solution of sodium acetate, 3 grams salt for each .1 of a gram of substance, is added, and boiling continued until solution is effected. By another modification ^ suggested by Avery, and reported by Thatcher,- 1 gram sami:)le is boiled five minutes with 25 cubic centimeters of sodium acetate solution (1-2), dissolving the free arsenic which is removed by filtration. The residue is dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid and both solutions titrated. Haywood attempted, in several ways,^ to modify the original A very-Beans process so as to insure solution of the free arsenic. After treating the sample with a slight excess of hydrochloric acid at laboratory temperature, sodium carbonate was added and the solution boiled. In another case sodium bicarbonate was employed, but the results were unsatisfactory in both in- stances, due to more or less reduction of copper and accompany- ing oxidation of arsenous acid. Accurate results were secured, however, by filtering off the hydrochloric acid solution and boil- ing the residue with 5 grams of sodium bicarbonate, titrating both solutions. Haywood proposed still another modification ^ which might be considered a simplified Avery-Thatcher process ; ^ .4 of a gram sample is boiled ten minutes with 25 cubic centimeters sodium acetate solution (1-2) to dissolve free arsenic, and con- centrated hydrochloric acid carefully added UJitil solution is effected. After neutralizing with a solution of sodium carbonate, avoiding an excess, alkaline tartrate and sodium bicarbonate are added and titrated as usual. The Avery, Avery-Thatcher and Avery-Haywood processes employ the same reagents, dift'cring only in their application. The co-operative investigation ^ of the association in 1904 showed that the three above modifications, together with the Haywood, gave closely agreeing results, with little, if any, advantage in the * Optional official method, Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. 2 Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 20, 196 (1903). 3 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 25, 963 (1903). * Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 20, 197 (1903). Optional official method of the association. * Loco citato. . « Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 21, 98 (1904). 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 127 two-solution processes over the one. In 1905 the results ^ with the Avery-Thatcher and Avery-Haywood modifications were not as satisfactory though the average difference was not excessive. In weighing the merits of the Thorn Smith process and various modifications of the Avery-Beans, with apparently little choice as to accuracy, the Avery or Avery-Haywood process, with one titration of a single solution, certainly appeals to chemists in '' control " work from the standpoint of manipulation, possible mechanical losses and time. This does not warrant any less care in conducting the analysis, but, if anything, demands greater attention. The essential features of the Avery-Haywood process have been employed at the Massachusetts station for the work on arsenites, though considerably modified as to detail. Practice at Massachusetts Station. Having adopted Thatcher's suggestion ^ as to ratio of sample to acetate solution, 1 to 25, and finding 25 cubic centimeters rather inadequate for proper boiling and agitation, double quan- tity of each is taken. To prevent slight loss of sample in trans- ferring to flask, due to both adhesion and dusting, boats of folded filter paper are employed, and found very serviceable, particularly for Paris green and arsenic for standard solution. After boiling the solution five minutes with acetate, the direc- tions call for the careful addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid until solution is effected. Such a procedure in our hands gave extremely variable results and generally a low test for arsenic. This error necessitated several weeks of experiment- ing, and was found to be due to the addition of concentrated acid, dilute acid (1-3) giving uniform results in practically every instance, and a higher test. Probably this has been one of the sources of trouble v/itli the chemists reporting on association samples by the above process in past years. Neutralizing with sodium carbonate, in dry form or concentrated solution, will introduce an error if added in excess. The use of sodium bicar- bonate is preferable for the purpose as the latter salt does not absorb iodine and eliminates an unnecessary reagent. As con- ' Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 22, 27 (1905). 2 Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 21, 99 (1904). 128 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. centratioii lias a certain influence on titration, it is advisable to maintain approximately the same volume in every case. The tendency of some solutions to become muddy on titration can often be relieved by additional bicarbonate, though the condi- tions involved seem to have no appreciable influence on the results. The quality of all reagents employed in the determina- tion should be proved by blank tests, which should not exceed .10 of a cubic centimeter iodine solution for the amounts em- ployed. Some lots of bicarbonate have been found unfit for such work. Due recognition should be given the blank in calcu- lating results. Considerable trouble is often experienced in determining in- soluble matter with hydrochloric acid, due to the splitting off of Avhite arsenic, especially with Paris gi'een. To offset the diffi- culty it was found advisable to combine the determination with that of preparing the arsenic solution by simply filtering off the residue. The points noted above may be briefly summarized : — Transfer 2 grams of finely ground sample, together with 50 cubic centimeters of sodium acetate (1-2), to a 500 cubic centi- meter graduated flask, and boil five minutes. Cool under tap, add about 00 cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid (1-3), and shake until solution is effected. Make to volume and filter. Pipette 25 or 50 cubic centimeters into an Erlenmeyer flask, neutralize with dry sodium bicarbonate, add 25 cubic centimeters of sodium potassium tartrate ^ (1-10), to redissolve precipitated copper, approximately 3 grams of sodium bicarbonate, water sufficient to make a volume of 100 cubic centimeters, 2 cubic centimeters starch paste (1-200), and titrate with 1^/20 iodine to a permanent blue color. Toward the end of the reaction cork the flask and shake vigorously, to insure proper end point. Cal- culate results as arsenous oxide. The residue in the graduated flask is brought onto the filter, well washed, calcined in a porce- lain crucible and weighed as insoluble matter. The above process has given excellent results with copper aceto-arsenite, copper arsenite and calcium arsenite. Sodium acetate does not prevent hydrolysis of copper and calcium arse- nites, as in the case of Paris green, but serves to take up free ' Used only with the copper arsenites. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 129 arsenic. The presence of such inii)uritics as cuprous and ferrous compounds, sulfurous and nitrous acids or other oxidizable sub- stances is a source of error by the iodine titration method. Iodine Method for Aese nates. The increasing use of lead arsenate as an insecticide resulted in a demand for a rapid volumetric method for the determina- tion of the arsenic acid. The Gooch and Browning process,^ as modified by Haywood,^ serves to readily reduce arsenic acid to arsenous, in which form the iodine titration method is applicable. The process in our hands did not at first prove satisfactory, but eventually yielded concordant results after minor changes. As the differences are largely a matter of detail, not involving principle, only the modified process will be given. Transfer 2 grams of finely ground sample, together with 60 cubic centimeters of nitric acid (1-3), to a 500 cubic centimeter graduated flask; bring to boil, cool, make to volume and filter. Pipette 50 or 100 cubic centimeters into a 150 cubic centimeter Jena Griffin beaker, add 10 cubic centimeters of sulfuric acid (2^1), evaporate, heat in an air bath at 150-200° C. to expel last traces of moisture, and then on asbestos board, to the appear- ance of dense white fumes, to insure complete removal of nitric acid. Add a small quantity of water, and when cold, filter through a sugar tube under suction into a 300 cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flask, and wash to about 150 cubic centimeters. Add 10 cubic centimeters of potassium iodide (165-1,000) and boil until free iodine is expelled, — solution practically colorless, — Avith the reduction of arsenic to arsenous acid. AS2O5 + 4 HI = AsoOs + 41 + 2 H2O. Dilute, cool immediately, neutralize approximately three- quarters of the free acid with 20 per cent, sodium hydrate solu- tion, add starch paste, and if any free iodine remains, add dilute (Isr/50) thiosulfate carefully, with vigorous shaking, to the absence of blue color. 2 1 + 2 Na2S203 = Na2S406 + 2 NaT. ' Amer. Jour. Sci., 40, 66 (1890). 2 Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 23, 165 (1906). Provisional method of the association. 130 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Make up to about 150 cubic centimeters, add excess of sodium bicarbonate and titrate as usual with N/20 iodine, reporting as arsenic oxide. The residue in the graduated flask is brought onto the filter, washed, calcined and w^eighed as insoluble matter. Care should be taken to have sufficient sulfuric acid to cover the bottom of the beaker when heated on asbestos. A decided excess of acid is also necessary when boiling with potassium iodide to insure vigorous action and rapid volatilization of iodine. Undue concentration should be avoided. If free iodine persists add more water and continue the boiling. The use of caustic soda is permissible under the conditions described. The hydrate is a much more convenient and rapid agent than the carbonate. Practically no difference was noted in the titration when the lead sulfate was allowed to remain, but the data at hand do not cover a sufficient number of samples to warrant a statement that this will always hold true. The iodine method, as modified for arseuites and arsenates, has been given a careful study, and proved repeatedly, in the work at the Massachusetts station, to yield excellent results in the analysis of the insecticides mentioned, if reasonable attention is paid in following the details. While no radical changes in the method have been recommended, this article is offered in hopes that some of the points noted may prove of assistance to other analysts working along similar lines. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 131 PURIFICATION OF INSOLUBLE FATTY ACIDS. BY E. B, HOLLAND. Workers in oils and fats experience the same difficnlty in obtaining chemically pure products as investigators in other lines of organic chemistry. The best insoluble fatty acids on the market — judging from our experience — are unsatisfactory in both physical characteristics and neutralization number. In general appearance the acids that are offered resemble granu- lated curd, though varying in color from white to yellow, and contain considerable dust and dirt. The molecular weight, as measured by titration in an alcoholic solution, may deviate from the theoretical by 10 to 15 points. These statements apply to chemicals marked " C. P." and bearing the name of a reputable manufacturer or dealer. The writer required stearic, palmitic, myristic, lauric and oleic acids for certain tests, and, finding it impossible to purchase them of the desired quality, was forced to undertake a study of various methods for their purification. As the character of the unsaturated acids is so unlike that of the saturated, only treat- ment of the latter will be considered at this time. The methods that seemed the best adapted for the purpose were (a) distilla- tion of the fatty acids in vacuo, (b) crystallization from alcohol, and (c) distillation of the ethyl esters in vacuo, and all were given extended trial. A. Distillation of the Fatty Acids in Vacuo. Direct distillation under reduced pressure was successfully employed a few years ago by Partheil and Ferie,^ starting with Kahlbauni's best acids. Upon careful test the writer found that the method possessed certain objectionable features which render it rather impracticable for ordinary use. Tf it was merely a > Arch. Pharm., 241, 545 (1903). 132 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. question of distillation of the acids the process would he less difficult, but for fractionation, using a Bruehl or similar type apparatus, it proved almost impossible, in case of the higher acids, to prevent solidification in the side neck (outflow tube). The danger arising from a plugged apparatus at the high tem- 2)erature involved has also to be taken into account. An attempt was made to heat the tube and keep the acids liquid by means of a hot-water jacket, also by an electrically heated asbestos cover- ing, but neither process fully met the requirements of the case. The slow distribution of heat in vacuo is, of course, one of the obstacles in the way. Eor the distillation of solids of high melt- ing point Bredt and A. van der Maaren-Jansen ^ devised an elaborate piece of apparatus having a flask and receiver of spe- cial construction, and an overflow tube heated by electricity, but it is hardly suited for a general laboratory or for handling any considerable quantity of material. There are two other conditions necessary for a successful dis- tillation of fatty acids, namely, absence of moisture and' a cur- rent of hydrogen or carbon dioxide to prevent bumping and to lessen decomposition. Overlapping of the acids in different fractions cannot be obviated entirely, and if an unsaturated acid was present in the original, it will probably appear in nearly every fraction. Students under the direction of Professor Burrows of the University of Vermont have applied this process for a partial separation of the insoluble acids of several oils with a fair meas- ure of success. With all due allowance for the possibilities of the method in the production of pure saturated fatty acids, the inherent difficulties render it inadvisable in most instances. B. Crystallization from Alcohol. Crystallization in this connection is practically limited in its application to the removal of a small amount of impurities, especially unsaturated acids. It can hardly be considered other than a supplementary treatment, though excellent for that pur- pose, to follow either of the distillation methods. Dry neutral alcohol suitable for such work can be prepared by distillation after treatment with caustic lime. In dissolving the acids care 1 Liebig's Ann. Chem., 354, 367 (1909). i 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 133 should be taken to avoid heating to a higher temperature than is required for solution, or to prolong the heating unduly, as it will cause the formation of esters. Several minutes' boiling of the different fatty acids in alcohol caused the following loss in neutralization number : — Stearic acid, ...... 1.70 Pahnitic acid, ........... .56 Myristic acid, 2.24 Laurie acid, . 89 Oleic acid, 28 Esterification undoubtedly causes a serious error by this process of purification. Under more careful treatment the change is not as rapid as shown above, but is evidently cumula- tive and may even exceed the figures given. Further study may warrant the substitution of a more stable solvent, such as acetone. For the filtration a water or ice jacketed funnel is almost neces- sary, particularly for the acids of low melting point, and suc- tion is a time saver. Repeated crystallization is needed to bring out the true crystalline structure and silvery luster of the leaflet. Vacuum drying at a low temperature is one of the most efficient means for removing adhering alcohol and traces of moisture without injuring the structure. Crystallization as a whole is wasteful of acids and solvent unless both are recovered, but is essential for the production of a superior product. C. Distillation" of the Ethyl Esters ix Vacuo. As ethyl esters distill freely in vacuo, the process admits of a more ready application, and to products of a greater range of purity, than docs a distillation of the acids. After considerable experimenting it was found that the esters are easily prepared by heating in an open flask equal parts (100 grams) of fatty acids and alcohol, together with a small quantity (10 cubic cen- timeters) of concentrated hydrochloric acid, using capillary tubes to prevent bumping. The reaction requires about thirty minutes, after which the excess of hydrochloric acid can be removed with a scparatory funnel. The distillation is con- •luctod in a .''jOO cubic centimeter " low " side neck flask, with a small (8 inch) Licbic; condenser and a large size Druehl frac- 134 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. tiouation apparatus. Heat is furnished by means of a linseed oil bath, and suction bj a pump of any type, using a mercury manometer to prove constancy of vacuum. The neck of the flask from the shoulder to an inch or more above the side tul>e should be wound with asbestos paper to prevent cracking, due to sudden changes of temperature. The condenser should be kept full of water, without circulation, to serve as a hot-water jacket. The vacuum should be as high as the flask will safely withstand, but above all uniform, otherwise the fractions are of questionable value. The temperature range of an ester also varies with the distance between surface of liquid and side tube. At least one redistillation of like fractions is necessary. As the esters are very stable, more difficulty was experienced in finding some means for their quantitative decomjoosition than in any other portion of the work. Heating with mineral acids hydrolizes the fatty acids very slowly, even under pressure. If, however, the esters are first saponified ^ by heating over a naked flame with twice their volume of glycerol and an excess of caus- tic potash until all the alcohol is expelled, and then the result- ing soap dissolved in water and heated on a water bath with a slight excess of sulfuric acid, the separation is readily accom- plished. This plan was suggested by the Lefi"mann-Beam sapon- ification for volatile acids, and after extended trial proved the most thorough and rapid means for decomposing the esters. The resulting acid should be washed in a separatory funnel with boiling water until clear, and the cake allowed to drain. As previously stated, several crystallizations are necessary if a crystalline product of satisfactory melting point and neutrali- zation number is to be secured. When crude acids are employed it is also advisable to crystallize at the outset to exclude a major ])art of the unsaturated acids, which otherwise would prove troublesome. To summarize : saturated fatty acids may be purified by dis- tillation of the acids or their ethyl esters. The latter method is less hazardous and easier to manipulate, although more steps are required. Crystallization is a finishing rather than an ini- tial process of purification. 1 Observing the usual precautions given for the determination of insoluble fatty acids, Massa- chusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, twenty-first report, p. 130 (1909). 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 135 THE SOLUBLE CARBOHYDRATES IN ASPAR- AGUS ROOTS. BY FRED W. MORSE. This paper is a simple statement of progress in a stndj of the composition of the asparagus plant, and is part of an investi-" gation of the fertilizer requirements of asparagus now being conducted at this agricultural experiment station. The nutrition of asparagus shoots in early spring necessarily depends on the material stored in the roots, since the mode of growth of the young shoots up to the time, of cutting for the table renders assimilation from the atmosphere nearly impossi- ble. Hence, roots were selected as the first portion of the plant to be studied. A search of the literature of asparagus failed to show any- thing about the composition of the roots beyond a few scatter- ing ash analyses and a brief article by Vines ^ on the reser^'e proteins. Very recently, however, Wichers and Tollens - have reported an extensive study of asparagus roots, and called attention to similar work by Tanret,^ brief abstracts of whose articles had been overlooked. Since the work has been wholly independent of that just men- tioned, it is believed that this report of progress will be of value at this time. All the material for the work here reported was prepared in other divisions of the department, and consisted of finely pul- verized samples of individual root systems. All of the plant below the surface had been dug up, freed from earth and dried 1 Proc. Royal Soc, 52, 130-132: Abstr. Jour. Chem. Soc, 64, 431. 2 .Tour. f. Landwirth., .58, 101-llfi. ' Bui. Soc. Chem. (4), 5. 889, 893; Compt. Rend., 149, 48-50; Abstr. Jour. Chem. Soc. (1909), Abatr., 634; Chem. Abstr., 3, 2677. 136 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan. at about 50° C. The roots were secured in November of the second year after setting, when translocation from the tops was believed to be complete. Eor subsequent study of the effects of different fertilizers the individual samples were separately analyzed ; but for this report detailed results are unnecessary. The average proximate comj)osition of the dry matter of IH roots was as follows : — Per Cent. Protein (nitrogen x 6.25), 11.03 Fat, 1.00 Fiber, 15.39 Nitrogen-free extract, 66.34 Ash,' 6.24 The proximate composition showed clearly that the soluble non-nitrogenous matter included most of the reserve material of the roots. The methods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists - for sugars, starch, pentosans and galactans were em- ployed for estimating the different carbohydrates in the reserve material. An examination of 25 roots showed 12 to contain no reducing sugars^ while most of the others had only traces present ; there- fore reducing sugars were not estimated, but were reckoned with total sugars. The latter were especially abundant, and ranged from 26.4 per cent, to 50.8 per cent., only two samples contain- ing less than 35 per cent, calculated to dry matter. Pentosans were determined in 16 samples, and ranged from Y.32 per cent, to 10.68 per cent, in the dry matter. Galactans were determined in 4 individual samples and in a composite sample, but were insignificant in amount, averaging only 1.04 per cent. In the estimation of starch by the diastase method, it was found that there was no more glucose obtained than was account- able from the diastatic extract. Subsequent examination re- vealed starch in only microscopic traces. Six different sam- ples, after having undergone the diastase treatment as for starch, • Ash determinations were made in the fertilizer division of the department. 2 Bulletin No. 107, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, pp. 38-56. 1911.] • PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 137 were filtered and washed, and the residues then subjected to two hours' boiling under reflux condensers, with 100 cubic centi- meters of HCl of approximately 6 per cent. After cooling the solutions they were nearly neutralized with NaOH, and made up to 250 cubic centimeters. The reducing sugars were then determined by Fehling's solution and the weights of copper cal- culated to glucose. The G samples averaged 8.6 per cent, of glucose by this hydrolysis ; but since the same samples averaged 8.G7 per cent, of pentosans, reckoned from furfurol-phloro- glucid, it is improbable that there are any hydrolizable carbo- hydrates unaccounted for by the usual analytical methods. From these different analyses it was found that the dry mat- ter of 16 roots contained — Per Cent. Sugars calculated as invert sugar, 41.43 Pentosans, ........... 8.78 Galactans, 1.04 The carbohydrate forming over 40 per cent, of the dry matter was at first assumed to l)e sucrose. The analytical procedure had shown it to be soluble in cold water and inactive to Feh- ling's solution until hydrolized, which was easily accomplished by dilute acids. Repeated attempts to recover sucrose by means of strontium hydrate ■^ resulted in securing only very small quantities of a straw-colored syrup which could not l)e crystal- lized, but did not reduce Fehling's solution. Methyl alcohol was found to extract considerable quantities of the sugar from the roots, which suggested raffinose; but no mucic acid could be obtained by oxidation with nitric acid, although a parallel test with lactose under the same conditions yielded it in abundance. Osazones were prepared from both methyl alcohol and water extracts, before and also after inversion. The characteristic yellow, crystalline precipitate was easily obtained in every case. Five such precipitates had their melting points determined, and thoy ranged between 203 ° and 210 °, and were accom])anio(l by an ('\'(ilution of gas. Glucosazone was evidently lho only one forniod. I E. Schulze, Zeitschr. Physiol. Chem., 20, 513-515. 138 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. About 100 grams of roots were extracted by cold water and the extract concentrated on the water bath to a thick, black, tenacious syrup, which was strongly reducing to Fehling's so- lution. Heat and probably acid salts had brought about a nearly complete hydrolysis during the evaporation. This ex- tract failed to yield mueic acid, but oxalic acid was readily formed. Portions of the syrup were subjected to distillation with HCl of 1.06 specific gravity, and yielded a small quantity of furfurol. The furfurol-phloroglucid, after being dried and weighed, was found to lose about two-thirds of its weight by solution in hot 93 per cent, alcohol, indicating that it was largely methy 1-f u r f u rol . The action of polarized light was observed upon freshly pre- pared water extracts of two different roots, and upon three syrups which had been fractionated by strontium hydrate. The solutions were clarified by lead subacetate, and the readings were made in a Schmidt and Haensch triple shade sacchari- meter through a 200 millimeter tube. The solutions were then inverted and again polarized, together with two solutions of the dense water extract above mentioned. Subsequent to the readings, the actual strength of sugar in each solution was determined with Fehling's solution. The solutions were necessarily dilute, because the roots on moisten- ing swelled to a large volume and small charges had to be used. The three syrups were small in amount, as before mentioned, and the black syrup from the water extract was difficult to clarify to a point where light would pass through it. Polarization before Hydrolysis. Root 34, Root 40, Syrup A, Syrup B, Syrup C, Sugar in 100 Cubic Centimeters (Grams). 1.738 2.259 2. 023 2.775 Saccharimeter Reading. +0.5 —1.4 +2.88 —1.6 zero Specific Rotatory Power (Degrees). +5.0 — 10.0 + 18.9 —10.0 zero 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 139 Polarization after Hydrolysis. Root 34, , Root 40, , Syrup A, Syrup B, Syrup C, Extract 1, Extract 2, Invert Sugar iu 100 Cubic Centimetera (Grams). .893 1.189 1.381 1.4G1 .452 .936 2.350 Saccharimeter Reading. —2.33 —4.10 —3.45 —5.25 —1.30 —3.00 —7.80 Specific Rotatory Power (Degrees). — 4S —59 —49 —62 —49 — 55 The action on polarized light both before and after inversion excludes the possibility of the carbohydrate being pnre sucrose, while the failure to secure it with strontium hydrate renders its al)sence probable. Fructose was clearly demonstrated by the osazone and the negative optical activity, also by fine reactions with resorcin and hydrochloric acid. Glucose is indicated by the osazone and the fact that the specific rotatory power of the inverted solu- tions is not high enough for pure fructose. Fructose clearly predominates over the glucose, and the non-reducing property before hydrolysis indicates some condensation product formed between them. The behavior of individual root extracts does not point to any fixed proportion of the two sugars. These results are, on the whole, in close agreement with those of Wichers and Tollens. There was, however, a marked differ- ence in the behavior of the water extract of the roots, which con- tained the sugar-like carbohydrate. Wichers and Tollens used boiling water, and state that only a portion of this carbohydrate was soluble in water w^hen extractions were made on the water bath. Their solutions also reduced Fehling's solution before hydrolysis. My extractions were all made with water at 20° C, and until liydrolized, had either no reducing action or precipitated no more than traces of copper. This difference in solubility and reducing action is doubtless 140 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. due to the stage of development of the roots, since Wichers and Tollens worked upon roots gathered in April and July instead of in November. Tanret isolated two distinct crystalline carbohydrates from the root sap, one of which had a rotation of — 35.1 and the other + 0O.3. Syrups A and B fractionated with strontium hydrate showed opposite rotations before inversion, but lack of material has given no opportunity to confirm further his obser- vations. Grateful acknowledgment is made of suggestions received from T)r. Joseph B. Lindsey during the jirogress of this inves- tigation. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 141 SEED WORK, 1910. BY G. E. STONE. The seed work for I'JIO iucliulcs seed germination, separa- tion and the testing for purity. The number of samples of seed sent in for germination exceeded that of 1909, the total num- ber being 296. This germination work seems to be on the in- crease from year to year, and a great many more varieties of seed are tested for germination than has been the case in the past. Of the total number of samples sent in this year. 152 Avere miscelhnieous seeds, a trifle over 50 per cent, of the total number. The number of samples of onion seed sent in was a little less than in 1909, and tobacco averaged about the same. The average germination of the tobacco seed, 95 per cent., was slightly better than usual. The lowest germination of any sam- ple of tobacco seed sent in was 89 per cent. On the whole, onion seed last year did not seem to be up to the previous year's standard, as the average germination of all samples was only 77.4 per cent., as against 82.2 per cent, in 1909. The germina- tion of the tobacco seed, with a lowest percentage of 89, tends to prove the theory that large seeds produce large plants ; there- fore in succeeding years better crops are obtained, and, as a result, better seed. Table 1. — Becords of Seed Germinai'wn, 1910. Number of Samples. Averace Per Cent. Per Cent, of Germi- nation. Kind of seed. Highest. Lowest. Onion, Tobacco, Lettuce, Cucumber, . Alfalfa, Clover, Red clover. Miscellaneous, 75 7 41 10 4 4 77.4 95 0 77.7 93 7 98 2 93 0 lon.o 66.0 100.0 99.0 100.0 99.0 100.0 97.0 99.5 100.0 3.0 89.0 15.0 85.0 97.0 88.0 98.5 Total 296 - - - 142 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The work in seed separation for 1910 was carried on as usual, and altbough a smaller number of samples was separated than in 1909, the total amount of seed separated, 1,552 pounds, was greater. Of this, 1,183 pounds were onion seed. The principal varieties of seed separated were onion, tobacco and lettuce. The separation of onion seed also tends to show that the seed was not as good this year as it was in 1909, as the average percent- age of good seed was only 88.7 per cent., while the amount of discarded seed was slightly larger than in 1909. As in years j^ast, several growers have requested that this station test the germination of seed both before and after separation, and the results this year resemble those of previous seasons so closely that they will not be inserted in this report. In the case of the separation of lettuce seed, the grower sending the seed often requests that a certain amount, sometimes in excess of the actual need, be taken out. This, however, is believed to be a good practice in the case of lettuce or tobacco seed, as it is certain that better germination results from removing more than is abso- lutely necessary. Table 2 shows the records of seed separation for 1910. Table 2. — Records of Seed Separation, 1910. Kind of Seed. Number of Samples. Weight (Pounds). Per Cent. of Good Seed. Per Cent. of Discarded Seed. Onion, Tobacco Lettuce, 40 62 13 115 1,183.82 44.96 323.45 88.7 89.6 74.4 11.3 10.4 25.6 Total, 1,552.23 - - No effort has been made on the part of the station as yet to establish and maintain a seed-control laboratory for the purpose of testing the purity of seed, and therefore in the past year the number of samples of seed sent in for examination as to their purity has been small. In all, some 30 samples have been ex- amined ; mostly clovers and grasses, but as this work takes con- siderable time, no grass mixtures have been examined for purity. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 143 The station is always glad to receive samples of seed for ger- inination, and it is believed that if the fanner would send his seed in for examination for purity also, he would very often save himself a great deal of trouble arid expense, as much of the seed sold in this State is full of weed seeds. It is believed that there should be a seed-control act in Massachusetts, as has been stated in our previous reports, and the sooner this comes the better the farmer will be served by the seedsmen, since they are perfectly willing to handle good seed if it is what the farmer wants and demands. All samples of seed to be germinated or separated should be addressed to G. E. Stone, Massachusetts Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Andierst, Mass., and the express or freight on these seeds should be prepaid. 144 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. AN OUTBREAK OF RUSTS. BY G. E. STONE. For the past three years certain rusts have increased mate- rially in this State as well as in other sections of the United States. The rust on the apple, which has been scarcely notice- able for years, at least on our cultivated fruit trees, has become quite common the last three seasons. It was particularly prev- alent three years ago, and quite a little of it has been noticed on api^le leaves the past two years. The hawthorne (Crataegus), a plant closely related to the apple, has shown a much greater tendency to rust in the period above mentioned than formerly, and some anxiety has been felt by nurserymen who have had to contend with this in their nurseries. The ash rust, which is supposed to have as one of its hosts the grass known as Spartina, has occurred much more com- monly than usual during this period. It is to be found on young growths of ash trees, distorting the twigs. There have also been severe outbreaks of the bean rust lately, although this has given little trouble in former years ; and the hollyhock, rose and quince rusts have been much more common than formerly. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 145 SWEET PEA TROUBLES. BY G. E. STONE. One of the most unsatinftietory types of troubles with which the pathologist has to deal is that having no specific organism as its primary cause. It is especially difficult to diagnose such diseases where the conditions of growing the plants are almost entirely unknown, and this is the case with most of the miser- able, sickly looking sweet pea plants sent into the laboratory for diagnosis. There may be well-defined troubles associated with sweet peas, but from 1)0 to 100 i)er cent, of them may bi; ])re\ented if the grower has even an elementary knowledge of the conditions required by this plant. When sweet peas are planted in ])oor soil, without care or j)reparation, unfavoral)le results may be looked for. That such is too often the case is evident from an examination of the ma- terial which is sent in for examination. To obtain a good cro]) Reod, in Stevens & Hall's" Diseases of Economic Plants, — Heterosporiose," p. 288, 1910. 148 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. to employ sanitary methods in growing the cro}i, to nse seed from healthy and vigorous i)lants, and try to prevent injuries from insects, etc. Additional References. Reed, Science, ii. s.. Vol. 31, p. 038, 1910. Cooke, Grevielea, Vol. 5, p. 123, 1877. Tnbeuf & Smith, " Diseases of Plants," p. 51(i, 1897. "Market Gardener's Journal" (Louisville, Ky.), Vol. 7, No. 5, 1910. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCOIFAT — No. 31. 149 ABNORMALITIES OF STUMP GROWTHS. BY GEORGE H, CHAPMAN. For the past few years there have been called to our attention on stnmp land and burned-over wood lots various malformations and abnormalities of the leaves of sprouts growing from the sluiu])s; and in connection with other physiological work being done in the laboi-atorj,- these conditions were studied, with the idea of discovering, if possible, the cause and relationship to other physiological diseases, such as those arising from mal- nutrition; also mosaic disease, overfeeding and o'dema. These diseases are all different in character, but it might be well to give a brief description of them at this point. Overfeeding, particularly with nitrates, may be recognized by a slight increase in size of leaf, the color being darker and the leaf stifFer in t< xture. The cells of the leaf, with the ex- ception of the bundles, are normal in form and are larger, but the bundles are distorted, and this causes a distortion of the leaf, due to the form of the bundles. The leaf is usually some- what larger than normal, and the distortion curves the edges of the leaf downward, i.e., rolls them toward the under side. All investigators agree that the mosaic disease is purely a physiological one, but there seems to he much doubt as to whether it is infectious or contagious in character, or both. Therc^ seems to be some difference in opinion, also, as to the direct cause of the disease. In tomatoes it is always produced when the vines are heavily pruned, and in the work here it has been shown that it is connected in no wav with methods of transplanting the youug plants, and only results from subse- (pient ])rnning. It has been found that tobacco is much moi-e snscejitible un- ' Presented as part, work for degree of M.Sc. ' Dept. of Veg. Plus, and Path., Ma.ss. .\Kr. Exp. Sta. 150 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. cler conditions wbick tend to produce the disease than is the tomato. In the case of tobacco, A. F. Woods ^ found that when a plant was grown in soil containing small roots of diseased plants the disease occurred in a short or long period of time, as the case might be. In our observations on the tomato we have been unable to verify this statement, as in no case has the disease appeared when normal plants were grown in soil which con- tained roots of plants which had been badly diseased, and in the growing of tomatoes year after year in the station green- houses there has never been the slightest evidence of infection arising from the soil. In the case of the tomatoes grown under glass, the disease did not make its appearance when the plants were left normal, but occurred when the plants were pruned. These conditions held true for soils in which there were diseased roots as well as for those in which tomatoes had not previously been grown. The appearance of mosaic disease has been described by many investigators, and nearly all have described it in a similar man- ner^ but more particidarly with reference to tobacco than to the tomato. The general characteristics of the disease are the same for both plants, but some difference is found in its appearance in extreme cases on the tomato, as Avill be noted from the following description. In the first stages of the disease the leaf presents a mottled appearance, being divided into larger or smaller areas of light and dark green patches. At this point, however, no swelling of the areas is noticeable, but as the disease progresses the darker portions grow more rapidly, while the light-green areas do not grow so rapidly, and leaf distortion is brought about. In the case of tomato, the light-green areas become yellowish as the disease progresses, and in badly affected plants become finally a purplish red color. This purplisi coloration is found principally on plants which are exposed to strong light, but does not always occur, as it has been found that sometimes, even in badly infested plants, the disease may reach its maximum without showing any reddish coloration whatever. The reddish « U. S. Dept, Agr., Bur. of Plant Ind., Bui. No. 18. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUIMENT — No. 31. 151 r.i)pearance is noticeable only on the npper surface of the leaf, and appears to extend only through the palisade cells. As yet no investigation has been made with reference to its character, but from its appearance nnder the microscope it is thought that it may be due to the breaking down of the chlorophyll grannies as a resnlt of the diseased condition of the leaf. Under all conditions of disease, however, the leaves are much distorted and stiff, and often very badly curled, usually with the edges rolled up over the leaf, and never possessing the flexi- bility of healthy, normal leaves. CEdema is perhaps the least liable to be confounded with other physiological troubles as its appearance is more strongly characteristic. Only a brief description will be given here, as this trouble does not enter into the discussion in this paper. L^sually the leaves, as a whole, hang pendent, but the leaflets curl strongly upward ; on close examination it is found that the veins, midrib and surface of the leaf show elevated more or less frosty areas, somewhat resembling the masses of conidia of some of the Erysyphas; although in mild cases this condition is not striking, but the leaves usually have a more or less pearly luster at some stage of its development. The epidermal cells are very much enlarged in these areas and turgid, and the chloro- phyll-bearing cells are also greatly changed. For a detailed description and discussion of this trouble no better work can be found than that of G. F. Atkinson.^ It can be seen from these brief descriptions that unless care were exercised it might be easy to confound these troubles, espe- eiidly in the case of the first two. Keeping this in mind we will pass on to a more detailed description of the malformation of stump growth subsequent to the burning oif or cutting do\\ai of large trees. The malformation appears to be worst in the first two or three seasons' growth, the sprouts outgrowing the trouble as their age increases. From our observations this trouble appears to occur in two distinct forms: first, as an abnormal growth of stem and leaves, they sometimes reaching a size five to ten times that of normal young plants of the same species. This form of the • N. Y. (Cornell Univ.) Agr. Exp Sta., Bui. No. 53, "(Edema of Tomato." 152 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. leaf was especially noticeable in such sprouts as asli, poplar and plane tree, and sometimes occurred also on chestnut and oak, although it may be mentioned that they were occasionally very much distorted. When the leaves were simply abnormally large it was foimd that tlie structure of the cells and their relative positions were analogous to a healthy, normal leaf, but that they were rela- tively much larger, and were of a stiffer texture than the nor- mal specimens. Very often it was found that the cell contents, especially the coloring matter, were brought into undue prominence, richly colored red leaves being of frequent occurrence. Occasionally, also, leaves having a decided yellow color, but otherwise ap- pearing strong and healthy, were observed. This excessive col- oration was evidently due to the abnormal deposition of pigment or activity of colored cell sap. When the leaves were green, the color seemed to be deeper than that of normal specimens. The second form of the malformation has much the appear- ance of that caused by overfeeding, or excessive use of nitrates ; i.e., a severe distortion of leaves, but in this case accompanied by excessive ju-oduction, usually smaller in size than the normal, but thickly clustered. Distorted leaves did not usually show much abnormal coloration, but occasionally a reddish or yellow- ish color was observable. Usually the leaves were much more numerous and very badly distorted, the veins and ribs being especially twisted in various ways. The texture of the leaf was very stiff, much more so than in the case of the abnormally large leaves, the tissue having hardly any elasticity, and breaking easily, with a crackling sound. Plates I. and II. (Figs. 1, 2 and 3) show the two forms of this trouble better than mere description. There is a remarkable dearth of literature bearing on this specific trouble, although much has been written in a general way on somewhat similar physiological troubles, but dealing principally with field crops and forced plants. In the reports of the various experiment stations will be found more or less lit- erature on physiological troubles, and Woods,* Suzuke,^ Stur- 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. No. 18. 2 Bui. Col. Agr., Tokyo, Vol. IV., repts. for 1900. Fig. 1. — C'liestnut (Castanea dentatu), showing Diseased (Left) aud Healthy (Right) Shoots. Fig. ■>.— Ked Oali {Qiierrus rubra), sliowing Diseased (Left) and Healthy (Riglit) Shoots. PLATE I. Fig. 3. — Poplar {I'aptilds fjruiididentata), sliouuij; l)i.?L'asi.'d ^Rijilit; and lluallliy (Left) Shoots. Fig. 4. — Jlosaic Disease on Tomato. PLATE II. Fig. 5. — AVhite Oak, showiuj Diseased Shoot. PLATE III. Fig. 1. — Mature pycnidia, showing a few iiuic-ellular hyaline spores and orifice from wliicli tliey have been expelled. Fig. 2. — Nearly mature pycnidia, with attaclied Altcrnaria spores. Fig. 3. — Mycelium threads giving rise to AHernaria spores and an immature pyciiidium. Fig. 4. — Common type of AHernaria. Fig. 5. — Conidial form of Cladosporium developed from niicrosclcroiia found on gummy excre- tions. All from camera lucida drawings. PLATE III. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 153 gis/ Czapek,- Stone/ Atkinson ■* and others have dealt with various physiological tronhles more in detail. From onr observations and experiments in the field and green- house we have come to the conclusion that it is a well-developed form of malnutrition, using malnutrition in its broadest mean- ing, i.e., to include any physiological troul)le which is caused by an excess or lack of any one or more nutritive substances necessary for the normal metabolism of a plants, and is allied to the phenomena exhibited in a severe case of overfeeding. Logically it is what one would expect when a large tree is suddenly cut oif or the top killed, and practically all transpira- tion, respiration, or, in short, all photosynthesis and leaf metab- olism, is suddenly arrested. We have a violent disruption of the normal metabolism of the tree. The balance between root ab- sorption, photosynthesis, etc., and the metabolic processes of the leaves is suddenly broken, and we have the roots, which are still alive, attempting to do their normal work without the aid of the leaves ; starch formation is arrested and carbon assimila- tion cannot take place. In the roots there remains a great re- serve store of food and during the winter no root pressure. As most woods are cut in the fall and winter, the trees are dormant, and forest fires also occur largely in fall and spring during this dormant period. Now, when spring comes and circulation starts, the adventitious buds are called upon to produce new shoots for the utilization of the reserve food in the roots. This they try to do in the manner we have described, by producing abnormally large leaves or a great number of small and dis- torted leaves. This distortion will l)e discussed later. Of the trees which have come under our observation, maples, oaks and chestnuts seem to l)e the most susceptible to leaf dis- tortion, while such trees as the ash, poplar and plane usually have abnormally large leaves with very little distortion. How- ever, in some cases both conditions are observable. The theory which has been advanced above as to the cause of the disease has been borne out ly experiments carried on in the ■ Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1808, and others. 2 Biochemie der Pflanzen (general). ' Ma.ss. Agr. Exp. Sta. report.s. * N. Y. (Oornell Univ.) Agr. Exp. Sta., Bill. No. 53. 154 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. field and laboratory. The results of these experiments will be discussed later in the paper. Relation to Mosaic Disease. It was at first thought that there might be some relation be- tween the so-called " mosaic disease " and this, but from our observations we have been able to find only a superficial rela- tionship, i.e., as regards the distortion of the leaf in its first stages. Other investigators,^ as has been previously mentioned, have proved that the " mosaic disease " can be communicated from one plant to another l)y inoculating a healthy plant with the juice of a diseased plant, and that the new growth subse- quent to the inoculation will come diseased in nearly every case. This is not so in the case of sprout growth, however, as in no instance were we able to bring about a diseased condition of normal plants by inoculating them with juice taken from dis- eased leaves. As it was impossible to carry on these inocula- tion experiments in the laboratory, the work was done in the field, and observations taken from time to time. Experiments in Inoculation. In order to prove that, unlike mosaic disease, this malfor- mation could not be communicated from a diseased sprout to a healthy one, the following experiments were made. Two series of ten inoculations each were made ; in one case diseased tissue was inserted at the base of the terminal bud of normal, healthy sprouts; in the second series the terminal buds of healthy sprouts were inoculated with the filtered juice from diseased plants. In all cases a healthy plant was inoculated with the tissue or juice of a malformed plant of the same kind, i.e., a maple was inoculated with juice from a diseased maple shoot, etc. In not one case could we find that the trouble was either contagious or infectious in character. The results of these inoc- ulations are given in Table I., and from these results it is evi- dent that the disease cannot be communicated from one plant to another. > a. F. Wootls, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. No. 18. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 155 Table 1. Series A. — Showing Results of Inoculation of Healthy Young Grawth with Tissues from Malformed Plants. Plant. Numlier inoc- ulated. Number dis- eased. Remarks. Maple (Acer rubrum), 10 None. The terminal bud died in two cases, hut this was due to mechanical in- Chestnut {Casta:iea denlata), . 10 None. jury. Oak iOuercus alba). 8 None. Poplar (Populas tremuloides). 10 None. The terminal bud died in three cases, but this was due to mechanical injury. Series B. — Filtered Juice used for Inoculation. Plant. Number inoc- ulated. Number dis- eased. Remarks. Maple {Acer rubrum), 14 None. Chestnut {Castanea dentala, Borkh.), 11 None. Oak {Quercus alba). 10 None. Inoculated twice two weeks apart Poplar {Populus tremuluides), 10 None. with juice. Ash (Fraxinus Americana), 5 None. The appearance of the leaves of " mosaic " plants is usually different from that of diseased shoots in the case under discus- sion. In mosaic these are flattened areas of cells which are lighter in color than the normal areas, and which are also smaller in size, growing more slowly than the normal cells, this causing a general unevenness or distortion of the leaf. On the other hand, in the troul)le under discussion, where fibuormality occurs, the tissue of the leaf itself is not so much distorted as the vessels and veins. These are usually curved more or less, and thus distort the leaf. The leaf, also, is always of a healthy dark-green color, and shows no division of color into light and dark areas. Plate II. (Figs. 4 and 5) shows a typical mosaic loaf and some from affected sprout growth. The cause of mosaic is not exactly known, hut it has been produced re])eatedly by severe ])niiuiig in the case of tomatoes, 156 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. tobacco and other allied plants. It occurs on tobacco, also, without pruning in the field, due to some functional disarrange- ment in all probability; but in the case of tomato we have not been able to find a case in which the disease occurred on a plant which was allowed to grow normally, that is, without pruning. Plants in the field are also not so susceptible to it. and it is rather difficult to conceive just why it is that under similar conditions, but with different plants, we sometimes get the char- acteristic mosaic disease and sometimes only a condition such as the one under discussion. IiELATION OF PtOOT AreA TO INTENSITY OF DiSEASE. In the course of our experiments it was observed that in the same locality, with the same kinds of trees, there was a marked difference in the intensity or severity of the malformation. It was thought that the size of the original tree and its correspond- ing root area might liear some relation to the severity of the disease. I\ough estimates were uuide of several root systems from which first-year sprouts were growing which were dis- eased, and in general it was found that the larger the root area the more distortiou of the leaves. This seemed to be the gen- eral rule, l)ut from the limited munber of observations we were able to make it would be unwise to make a positive statement as to the absolute truth of this observation. When young trees had been cut down or killed by burning, there was not such severe distortion, but more of a tendency to produce abnormally large leaves. As a result of our observa- tions it may be stated that there is a relationship existing be- tween the amount of active root surface and the severity of the trouble along the lines we have pointed out. It has been stated elsewhere in this article that the severity of 'the disease diminishes from year to year as the plant grows older, and it would be natural to expect stich a recovery for two reasons : first, the shoot is larger the second year than the first, thus having more leaf surface to effect transpiration, respira- tion, carbon assimilation, etc. ; and secondly, some part of the root system, owing to lack of food (available), which the first year's leaves have been unable to supply, has died from general 11)11.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 157 wcakeiiiug; lliu.s the second year, and so on from year to year, we have a general attempt to balance np the root system and the leaf system. It is believed that this view is in accordance with the trnth, although no specific Avork has been done here to prove it other than general observations. Chemical Tests of Abnormal Leaves. In view of the fact that physiological diseases in general are principally caused by derangement of the function of some organ of a plant, as a result of poor nutrition (lack or excess of some necessary plant food), it was thought that it would be well to obtain, in a general w^ay. an idea as to the presence and ab- sence of certain substances in the leaves of diseased plants. Owing to pressure of other work it was necessary to use dried specimens for examination. The specimens, however, were not over one or two months old when the examinations were made, therefore no great change of constituents could have taken place, with the exception of loss of water, and this was not of any importance. A complete analysis was not made of the leaves, but comparative tests were made, comparing the sub- stance in healthy leaves A\ith the same amount of diseased leaves. The substances tested for were principally nitrates, enzymes and starch. As Woods ^ in his bulletin on mosaic disease advances the theory that it is caused by an excessive amount and increased activity of oxidizing enzymes, such as oxidase and peroxidase, equal amounts of leaves from healthy and diseased leaves were tested to see if there w^as any increase or decrease in the relative amounts i)resent. It was found that in general there was usually present in diseased leaves a slightly larger amount than in the healthy leaves, but it was not necessarily so, as in five cases out of eighteen there was less present ; but this may pos- sibly have been due to individual variation in the leaf itself, as the method of taking equal weights of leaves for examination has some drawbacks, but no better method has as yet suggested itself. It was found that catalase, another ertzyme which was discov- ' Loc. cit. 158 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ered in connection with tobacco by Loew,^ was present in both healthy and diseased leaves in comparatively small amounts, 1)1 it that there was practically no dilt'erence in the amounts pres- ent. Twenty samples of healthy and diseased leaves were tested, and below will be found a table containing the averages of these tests. The comparative amounts present were repre- sented by the oxygen developed from a standard solution of hydrogen jjeroxide, which contained 3 per cent. H2O2. Table II. — A)nount of Oxygen developed from Healthy and Abnormal Leaves. [Averages of twenty samples.] Number of Samples. Amount of Oxygen developed. Time. 20 20 118.5 114.0 30min. Healthy, 30 min. The samples were shaken during the test, as this has been found to increase the amount of oxygen developed. Fifteen grams of leaves were used in each eai3e. Individual variations were found in most cases between leaves of different kinds, but not suffi- cient to warrant distinctive mention. Thus, in respect to the amount of catalase present we find that there is a difference between this disease and mosaic, for in the case of mosaic disease there is less catalase present in the diseased leaves than in the healthy ones.^ Colorimetric tests of healthy and diseased leaves were made to determine the relative amounts of nitrates present, and it was found that in the case of diseased leaves a deeper color was obtained than in the case of healthy specimens. The test for nitrates used was the well-known diphenylamine reaction. Only approximate results were obtained, but sufficient to show that nitrates were more abundant in diseased leaves than in normal specimens. This tends to confirm the idea that this dis- ease is more a form of malnutrition or overfeeding than a spe- cific trouble, such as " mosaic." Aside from the direct work on the disease it was observed in some few cases that diseased leaves were more liable to the 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Report No. 2 Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. report, 1908. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 159 attacks of leaf-suckiiig insects, such as aphis, etc., as in a few instances specimens of diseased shoots were obtained which showed the effects of these insects, and some aphides were found also. No insects were observed, however, on healthy shoots, or to so great an extent on shoots which had only a slight indica- tion of the disease in question. It appears from our observa- tions that the disease renders the shoot more liable to the attacks of insects on account of its weakened condition, in some respects it being far more normal ; also, the attacks of insects intensify the disease by taking from the leaf a large amount of proteids and sugars. The effects of insects have been noted by various authorities, among which may be mentioned Woods ^ and Suzuki.- More specific and interesting facts on this point might be brought out by further observations and detailed study in conjunction with entomologists, but this is without the scope of the present paper. It is, however^ true that insects seem to in-efer a diseased leaf to a healthy one under these conditions. More purely chemical work would undoubtedly be of great interest in connection with this interesting disease, and no doubt will find a place in a future report, but it is thought that enough has been done with the disease to bring out several new points in regard to it. CoNCLrSIONS. (1) The abnormal condition of leaves, shown by severe dis- tortion and increase in number, and also sometimes in size, may be classed under the malnutrition diseases, due to functional derangement, as no fungi or bacteria have been found associated with it. It must therefore be due to internal conditions, such as an abnormal metabolism. (2) It is allied to those pathological conditions which may be brought about by excessive use of nitrates or overfeeding. (3) It is not allied to mosaic disease, which it somewhat re- sembles, as this is capable of transmission from one plant to another, and in no case have we been able to bring this result about by inoculation with tissue of malformed leaves. (4) From our observations it is not of a permanent character, « U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. No. 18. 2 Gen. Bui. Col. Agr., Tokyo, Vol. IV.. No. 4. 160 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. as the sbodl will uutgruw it in from three to five years, and does not seem to suffer any serious ill effects from the trouble. (5) It is caused by a sudden disruption of the metabolic processes of the tree, all leaf activity being suspended ; and there being no normal relationship between root metabolism and leaf metabolism, the new shoot is unable to properly bring into avail- able form the food supplied for the nourishment of the tree. In other words, there is an attempt on the part of the leaves to cor- relate their functions with a root area many times larger, and consequently a pathological condition is set up within the tissue, due, as has before been said, to imperfect metabolism. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. '61. IGl PEACH AND PLUM TKOUBLES. BY KAYMONL) DblAN WHITMARSH, B.S. ^lany diseases uf the plum and peach have been known and described for years. Standing probal)ly first among the most serious of the fungi are '' l)rown or fruit rot," or Monilia (Scle- rotliiia frucligena (Pers. ) Sehroet.), and scab {(Jladosporiu7tL carpopliylhim, Thilmen). These fungous troubles have been Aery noticeabk^ in the peach and j)lum orchards at the college during the past year or two. The writer began investigations early in January, 1909, nuiinly to determine the cause of so much gum flow on the peach, almost every tree being affected to a greater or less ex- tent. In connection with this study nearly every phase of the above diseases as they are described by various writers was noted, and a brief resume of their characteristics and methods of treatment is given here, with observations on "" gummosis " of the peach. This paper has lieen prepared under the supervision of Dr. G. E. Stone of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and to him I wish to express my heartiest thanks for his many sugges- tions, criticism of manuscript and verification of observations. Beown Rot ok Fruit Ivot, ]\[onilia (Sclerutinla frucUgena (Pers.) Schroet.). Distrihiifioii ojid Hod Plants. — This disease is reported by Saccardo as being found in Germany, France, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Great Britain and the United States, where it is known as Monilia frucUgena, one of the " imperfect fungi," Tubeuf and Smith speak of the disease as being very common in the United States and Great Britain. It was first described in the United States by Dr. C. H. Peck in 1881 ; since that time 1G2 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. a great many investigators have been at work on it. Finally, Prof. J. B. S. Norton in 1902 sncceeded in giving us its life liistorj in full, having found the ascos])ore stage. Within the United States, at least, the greatest damage is caused to the stone fruits. Symptoms {on Fruit). — The first indications of the disease on the fruit are Itrown spots of a leathery ajipearance, which enlarge rapidly, and after the mycelium has become mature, the conidiophores break through the epidermis and give to the spots a downy, dirty, grayish-bro^vn color, due to the great quantity of couidia produced by the fungus. The fruit then shrinks and withers to a thin, tough pellicle. In this " mummied " condi- tion it hangs on the trees over winter or falls to the ground, where the fungus remains dormant until the right conditions of moisture and temperature cause it to become active and attack its host the following spring. The dormant or sclerotium form of this fungus occurs where the '' mummied " fruit has laid on the ground over winter, covered by a thin layer of soil. These sclerotia give rise to apothecia, which are funnel-shaped, re- sembling small toadstools. The asci line, the cup-shaped por- tion of the apothecia and each ascus, contains eight ascospores. So far as I know this has not been found by any of the Massa- chusetts Experiment Station staff. The fungus will attack the fruit at different stages of its growth, but it makes the greatest headway on fruit that is almost mature. If the fruit has been attacked by the curculio, or injured in any way, the fungus readily takes advantage of the injury to get in its deadly work. It might be said, however, that althongh it attacks the fruit most readily where it has been injured, it will also attack the ])erfect fruit should the humidity and the temperature of the atmosphere be right. In the case of plums the fungus may have been working for some time within the tissue without being outwardly noticeable. This fact has put many shippers to great disadvantage and caused them much loss. On Floivers. — The fungus usually first attacks the flowers just after the petals fall, but it has been known to attack them previous to that time. The first iuflication that the fungus is present is a slight brown discoloration on some part of the lull.] rUBLlC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 163 Howers. This rapidly spreads until it altects the whole flower, and frequently extends into the pedicles. These diseased flow- ers often remain on the tree several weeks, until a heavy rain or damp weather comes, when they begin to fall, and as they are very sticky, owing to their decaying condition, they adhere very eftectively to leaves and fruit, and serve as a new place of infection. They may remain in these new locations for some time before they are washed to the ground. When the fungus from the flower penetrates the pedicle, we have what is com- monly called "' twig blight." On the Twigs. — One form in which the fungus attacks the twigs is commonly known as twig blight, and it is apparently a result of the early attacks on the blossoms. I have noticed it attacking both the peach and plum, but more often the former. The fungus penetrates the pedicle and into the tissues of the twig, causing a flow of gum. This fungus often works around the entire stem, cntting oft" all source of nourishment from the distal portion of the twig, causing it to die. The gummy por- tions and girdling resemble quite closely the symptoms of an- other disease, known as canker. In summer and early fall, as well as in spring, we often find this blighting of twigs, the source of infection being the fungus from the decaying fruit. This bores through the pedicle and then ramifies through the stem, often girdling it, as in the case of the blight, where the source of infection was the flowers. The injury in both cases nearly always is confined to a point near the attachment of the fruit or flowers. When the girdling is complete the leaves beyond the point of attack dry np and die. Another form in which I have noticed it might be called the " Ijrown spotting of twigs." This phase of the disease has been described by Dr. G. E. Stone of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. The spotting occurs on the new shoots, and was not noticed except in the case of the peach. These spots may be single, or several may come together, forming a more or less irregular mass. In these spots we find Monilia, which presents similar characteristics to the one found on the fruit. The prin- cipal distinction between this and the common Monilia of the fruit consists in the smaller spores of the former. Numerous 164 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. cultures and comparisons made of the two types of Monilia — that on the fruit and on the stem, made by Dr. Stone — show that the spores of the one on the twig are always smaller when grown in any media than those of that on the fruit, and the two species react quite ditferently chemically when grown in solu- tions on diflt'erent media. ^ On the Leaves. — In wet weather, especially, one often no- tices spots on the leaves. These are found on both the upper and lower surfaces, but are generally most conspicuous on the upper. During wet, warm weather, if one examines these spots carefully he will find here and there small grayish masses of powder, which are in reality the conidia of the '' brown rot " fimgus. Spoj'es. — The spores, more or less oval shaped, are one celled, and their coutents are quite noticeably granular. These spores germinate readily in water, producing a mycelium whose contents are granular, as in the case of the spores. The myce- lium is broken up here and there by cross walls. The spores are produced in chains by a sort of budding, the last one of the chain being the newest one. When grown on cidture media (prune agar) these spores form much longer chains than on the fruits out of doors. Means of Spore Dispersal. — The influencing factors in the spreading of this fungous disease are wind, rain, insects (espe- cially plum curculio), etc. Many minor ways in which the spores are disseminated might be enumerated, but the three above-named methods are probably by far the most influencing. Methods of Control. — I would suggest the following ways in which to lessen the attacks of this disease. Destroy all " mummied " fruit which hangs on the trees or has fallen to the gTound. Cut off and burn all twigs that are infected with the fungus luycelium. Keep the trees pruned, so that there will be a free circulation of air and plenty of light, because a tree which is crowded with cross limbs and has in consequence too much foliage acts as a convenient forcing house for " brown • Dr. Stone has observed this species on the twig for many years in Massachusetts, the twig sometimes being very badly spotted. .l/oniVi'a isalso sometimes associated with C/nrfosporn/?H, but the Monilia by far predominates. Where lime and sulphur has been used as a spring spray these spots have beenentirely absent, with a much better annual growth of the twig as a result. (See Nineteenth Annual Report, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 166.) 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 165 rot." Thin the fruits so tbat they do not at least come in con- lact with one another. By using the above precautions and applying the following s])ray mixtures for "' brown rot," '' scab " and '' plum curculio '' 1 believe that the fungus can be almost entirely controlled. For the Elberta, Belle, Reeves, and other varieties of peaches of about the same ripening season, the fol- lowing is advised: (1) about the time the calyces of shucks are shedding, spray w'ith arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 jwunds to 50 gallons of water. In order to reduce the caustic proper- ties of the poison, add milk of lime made from slaking 2 pounds of stone lime. The date of this treatment is too early for scab, and ordinarily no serious outbreaks of brown rot occur so early, so that the lime sulphur may be omitted with reasonable safety ; but during warm, rainy springs, especially in the south, the lime sulphur will doubtless be necessary in this application. (2) Two or three weeks later, or about one month after the petals drop, spra}^ with self-boiled lime sulphur; 8 pounds of lime, 8 pounds of sulphur and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to each 50 gallons of water. (3) About a month before the fruit ripens, spray with the self-boiled lime sulphur, omitting the poison. For earlier maturing varieties, such as Waddell, Carmen and Hiley, the first two treatments outlined above would probably be sufficient ordinarily, but in very wet seasons varieties sus- ceptible to rot would doubtless require three treatments. Late varieties, such as Smock and Salway, having a longer season, ^\'ould not be thoroughly protected by three applications. In view of the results obtained on midseason varieties it seems likely that three ti-eatments will ordinarily be sufficient for the late varieties. Black Spot or Scab (Cladosporium carpophylhim, Thiim.). History and Disfrihufioi). — This fungus was first noticed in 1876 by Von Thiimen of Austria, who was at that time botanist to the Austrian Experiment Station. In the year following, 1877, he described the fungus, giving it the above name. Since that time it has been met with quite commonly in this country. In Saocardo's " Syllogo Fuugorum " we find a co]iy of Von IGG EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Tbiiiueu's description^ which mentions only that it was found in tlie locality of Klosternenburg, where the Austrian Experi- ment Station was located. On the Fruit. — Small, round, blackish spots on the skin of the fruit are the first indications of the disease. These spots usually appear when the fruit is about two-thirds grown, most frequently on the upper side of the fruit, and if the spots are very numerous they will, as they grow, coalesce and form a large, irregular, diseased area. When the fruit is thus attacked it becomes one-sided, due to the fact that a corky layer of cells is formed by the fruit under the diseased area as a protective layer. This corky layer is incapable of further growth, and hence we get, as a result, the ill-formed fruit. The corky layers are often ruptured, leaving deep cracks, which furnish an ideal place for the growth of the spores of Monilia, which are always ready to take advantage of such injuries. Hence we often find both troubles on the same specimen. This disease attacks the fruit much in the same way as the scab of apple and pear. Its attacks are generally most noticeable on the late varieties of fruits, and it thrives most luxuriantly during damp weather. On the Leaves. — This fungus causes a shot hole appearance of the leaves. The first indications one has of the disease upon the leaves are scattering brown spots. These spots, as a rule, spread over the leaf, and as the fungus matures the tissues dry up and the diseased portion falls out, leaving a circular opening. This fungus seems to prefer the part of the leaf between the veins. The spores of the fungus attacking the leaf agree with those growing on the fruit, with the possible exception that they are somewhat smaller, but no doubt this slight variation is due to the environment rather than being a specific character. On the Twigs. — Sturgis gives an account of this fungus at- tacking the peach twigs. He states that the twigs are marked more or less abundantly with circular spots, somewhat resem- bliug in appearance the " birds' eye rot " of grapes (Spaceloma ampelinum, DeBarv). Frequently the spots join together and cover the twig so thoroughly as to destroy the pinkish-brown color of the bark. Although not having seen this phase of the 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 167 disease, it apparently resembles in outward appearance very much the spotting that I described as due to the brown rot fungus.^ Peach Leaf Cuel {Exoascus deformans (Berk.) Fuckel). This disease is found commonly in Massachusetts, and, as a matter of fact, more inquiries are sent to the station in regard to this trouble than any other peach disease. It is found in almost all ]iarts of the world where the peach is grown to any extent, and has been seen by the writer in great quantities in the large orchards along the shores of Lake Erie. It attacks the leaf buds just as they begin to open in the spring, also the tender shoots, flowers and young fruit, but is not so noticeable as on the leaves. The leaves become very much swollen, wrinkled and curled, and a little later take on the appearance of a moldy gray covering. In the earlier stages of the disease the leaves often show red or pinkish blotches, but they turn a brownish color as they grow older and fall to the groimd. Cold and damp, or rainy, weather in the spring greatly favors this disease, and in fact determines the degree of severity of the attack. It often defoliates the trees to such an extent that they are not able to lay up sufficient material for their needs, or ripen the wood properly, so that when winter comes the trees are often found to be much weakened. In some cases the disease has been so severe that the trees were not able to endure the cold of winter, and consequently were winter killed. It was previously thought that infection took place only by perennial mycelia. but this theory has gradually been discarded. Infection may take place by perennial mycelia, but most writers and observers now agree that infection is due almost entirely to the spores, which live over winter on the bark of trees and in other places. The Elberta peach is one of the most susceptible varieties to the attacks of this fungus, but all varieties seem to be more or ' For other points of interest in regard to the fungus not given in this paper see Arthur's and Chester's writings. 168 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. less subject to the disease. Trees injured by other agencies, and consequently weakened, seem to be more susceptible to at- tack than healthy, vigorous trees. It will be readily seen that it is probably useless to spray the trees after the leaves become infected, but since the spores live over winter on the bark, the trees should be sprayed in the spring, while the spores are still dormant. It is generally accepted by all the largest and best growers that the lime sulphur wash, used for the control of San Jose scale, is by far the best remedy for this trouble, although some prefer Bordeaux and others copper sulphate solution, where the scale is not present. Since there is nearly always danger from scale infestation, however, it seems wiser to use the lime and sulphur, which is undoubtedly of great fungicidal value, as well as one of the best remedies for the scale. The spray should be ajiplied to the trees from one to two weeks before the buds open, if possible on a quiet day when the atmosphere is free from moisture. If the above directions are followed, this treatment should suffice for the leaf curl and the San Jose scale. For this spray mixture use 10 pounds of good fresh stone lime and 15 pounds of sulphur to each 50 gallons of water. Make up the above spray solution as recommended by Quaintance. Heat in a cooking barrel or vessel about one-third of the total quantity of water required. When the water is hot, add all the lime and at once add all the sulphur, which previously should have been made into a thick paste with water. After the lime has slaked, about another third of the water should be added, preferably hot, and the cooking should be continued for one hour, when the final dilution may be made, using either hot or cold water, as is most convenient. The boiling due to the slak- ing of the lime thoroughly mixes the ingredients at the start, but subsequent stirring is necessary if the wash is cooked by direct heat in kettles. Tf cooked by steam, no stirring will be neces- sary. After the wash has been prepared it must be well strained as it is being run into the spray pump or tank. The wash may be cooked in large kettles, or, preferably, by steam in barrels or tanks. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 1G9 Plum Pockets (Exuascus Pruni, Fiickel). The organism causing the disease known as " phnn pockets " is closely related to that causing peach leaf cnrl, although not occurring on the peach. It was previously thought that the source of infection was only tlii'ough the hibernating mycelium in the twigs and branches, but from what can be learned in re- gard to this more investigation seems to be needed on this point. A short time after the young fruit forms, it becomes yellowish, much swollen and stoneless. These hollow, dropsical-like plums are often streaked \vitli red at first, but after a time they take on a moldy, grayish ap- pearance, similar to the peach leaf curl, and soon fall to the gi'ouud. This moldy covering is composed of sacs (asci) which contain the spores. The attacks of this parasite are generally local, possibly only one tree in a large orchard being affected, and the treatment given for peach leaf curl would ])robab]3^ suffice here. Black Knot {PloirrirjJitla morhofin (Schw.) Sacc). One often notices in small family orchards containing a va- riety of trees, where little care is given them, that some of the plum trees show signs of a disease known as black knot. The knots often extend entirely around the limbs, and as a conse- quence the more distal parts of the limbs receive but little nour- ishment, and finally die. Black knot, if given no treatment, usually destroys the value of the tree within a year or two, even if it does not kill the tree in that time. Almost all varieties of plums are subject to this disease. The first noticeable indication of the disease in the spring is the enlargement of liud)s and branches affected. The bark then breaks open, and this new surface soon becomes cov- ered with a moldy, green-like sulistance which contains the spores. This is followed by black knots containing s]X)res which become mature before the next spring. The spores evi- dently obtain a foothcild on their host through cracks or injuries caused bv various agencies. It is iherefore essential in llie care 170 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. of an orclmrd that one should be careful not to bruise or injure the trees. The wind is probably the greatest agent for conveying the spores from tree to tree. Eemedial measures consist in prun- ing off the knots and burning, and it has been advised that they be cut out when young, and the exposed area coated with paint. Observations and experiments have shown that early spring spraying materially lessens the infection. Plum Leaf Spot or Shot Hole (Cylindrosporkim Padi, Karst). This disease causes spots on the leaves somewhat circular in outline, which often become joined. These aifected parts usually have a reddish outline, and finally the diseased tissue turns dark brown and falls out. The leaves turn a yellowish color and often begin to fall in July, but the most severe defo- liation usually occurs in August and early in September. The great loss from this disease is caused by defoliation before the tree stores up sufficient starch and ripens its wood enough to enable it to stand the cold of winter. Continual attacks very much weaken the tree and eventually kill it, but if lime sulphur , is used thoroughly, little trouble will be experienced from this disease. This same disease also affects the cherry. Peach Skot Hole (Cercospora circumscissa, Sacc). The effects of this disease resemble those caused by Cylindro- sporium of the plum. The diseased spots fall out. and the small branches are also attacked, often causing a great nundier of the young shoots to die. Spray with lime sulphur, as for j^each leaf curl. Shot JTolc Effort caused hy improperly mixed Bordeaux. When improporh^ mixed Bordeaux is used for a summer spray, we invariably find the leaves badly riddled with holes, due to the burning of the tissues. One can readily distinguish this type of shot hole from those previously described, for the leaves which come out ou the new shoots remain unaffected, 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 171 Avliereas. it' the troiil)Ic had been due to a fungus, tbo iicw leaves Avuuld also become affected. Bordeaux is not, therefore, always safe to use on nuiture foliage, even at reduced strengths, for it has often been known to cause trouble when used at only half strength. GUMMOSIS OF THE PeACK. For the past two years there has been an abundance of gum flow in the college peach orchard. This has been found to the greatest extent on the early varieties, and owing to the poor condition of many of the trees it has seemeil best to destroy them. The following gaim disease which I am about to de- scribe resembles almost identically in most of its life history the gummosis of Frunus Japonica, described by Massee as due to Cladosporhim epipJiylhiin, Fr. In this ease (gummosis of peach) I believe the species to be Cladosporhim, cai-pophylum, Thiim. Massee mentions in his paper a species of Macrospo- riuni that is often found in connection with this gum flow, but he is unable to find any genetic connection between the two fungi. Instead of finding a Macrosporium fungus in connec- tion with the gummosis of peach, I have, with very few excep- tions, found a species of Alternaria ^ or AUernaria form, which is apparently something new, as the fungus, in addition to the ordinary alternaria spores, bears pycnidia bodies containing many minute byline spores. These in turn give rise to Alter- naria spores and more pycnidia. I could not, however, estab- lish any genetic connection between this form of Alternaria. and the Cladosporium. Prohahle Cavse of Gummosis. On the trunks and large branches the gum flow is evidently due to borers, frost cracks and sun scald, and a copious flow of gum at any place of injury is generally found. These places serve as a refuge for the spores of Cladosporium and Alterunria, and we find some form of Penirilliiim inhabiting the same mass. Put whatever the original cause of the flow, it is certain that these forms of Cladosporium and Alternaria take a hand in ' The organism which we term Alternaria here may possibly bean undeveloped form of some other type, such as Pleospora, etc. 172 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. sti Ululating' the host to a more abundant How. The niyccliuni of these fungi penetrate every portion of the gum, and their fungous threads may be seen even penetrating the host itself. On the Finiit-hearing Wood. The gum flow is almost without exception found at the base of the pedicle bearing diseased fruit. These gummy masses may be confined to a small area in the region of the pedicle, or may extend some little distance below and above the pedicle, sometimes becoming so bad as to entirely girdle the branch, thus killing the entire distal portion. When this happens it is best to cut the diseased member off some two or three inches below the gummy area. I believe this gum flow is first caused on these small branches by the brown rot fungus, which is, without an exception, found on the fruit attached to the diseased pedicle. But as soon as this fungus causes the flow of gum the Cladospo- rium and Altcrnaria come in, as in the case of the injuries on the trunks and large branches. After the above fungi, Cladospo- rium and xilternaria, get a foothold, it would seem that the brown rot fungus is less noticeable. Monilia is often to be found in these gummy masses, but in masses containing Clad- osporium and Alternaria this fungus has been found very spar- ingly. These masses become soft during the damp spring weather, and are usually washed to the ground by rains. Appearance of Cladosporium and Alternaria, under the Above Environment. At first the gummy mass is light in color, but after it remains on the tree some time it becomes browned and blackened. On sectioning one of these masses it is found that the darkened area is near the surface, due to the formation of dark, thick-walled cells, while farther in the mycelium becomes gradually lighter in color, until nearly colorless at the center. On inoculating branches of peach trees with the conidial form of Cladosporium grown on prune agar it was found that some little time after- wards a greenish growth of Cladosporium appeared. After the spores had disappeared there soon appeared small, tear-like drops, which, as the season advanced, grew larger and darker Sliowins] a Cross-section of a Three-year-old Peach Twi^ " Gummosis." affected with 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 173 ill color. On exaiiiiiiation in the fall these masses were found to contain inycelium and spores similar to those found in other gummy masses in the orchard. These chains of dark spores produce many thick-wallod spores, or micro-sclerotia, as de- scribed by Massee, and these thick-walled spores, or niicro- sclerotia, in turn give rise to many small byline conidia, while another form of the micro-sclerotia gives rise to a mycelium which bears numerous conidia. In the gummy mass one finds j)rcs{>iit many pycnidia of a brown color, similar in color to the micro-sclerotia, and from their situation, color, etc., one would take them for different stages of the same fungus. However, on isolating these pycnidial bodies, which were tilled with myriads of minute byline spores, and growing them on pure cultures, I was unable to get any connection between the two; but I found that the minute byline spores without exception gave rise to other pycnidia and Alter naria spores; the AUernaria spores, growing on the same mycelium as the pycnidia, in turn gave rise to i\vcnidia and AUernaria spores. Histological Changes Accompanying Guniinosis, The cut facing this i)age represents a cross-section of a dis- eased twig of a i)each tree, showing two well-developed annular rings and a third ])artly developed. This twig was probably at- tacked by the brown rot fungus, together with Cladosporium and a form of AUernaria. This section, which is a typical one, shows that the disease did not destroy the cambium ring until the fall of the second year, but the disease may have made its ai)pearance even a year earlier. The noticeable feature in this illustration is that the last layer of wood formed was very much thinner towards the uninjured side of the twig than the injured side, and ibis ring of wood is not complete near the area where guniinosis had set in. There is also a noticeable thickening of the incomplete I'ings of wood near the point of injury, a fact due probably to the difference in tension occurring in the stem produced by the injury from gummosis. The cambium, at the margin of the diseased area where it has attempted to heal over, is also much 174 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. thicker tliaii at the opposite side of the twig, where the tension is different. Microscopical examinations of sections also showed that con- siderable healing of the wound caused by gummosis took place. The callus forming as a result of this healing developed ridges along the side of the wound. The cavity of the wound was entirely filled with gum, which contained Cladosporiuni and a form of AUcrnaria. Suggestions in Begaid io tlie Treatment of Gummosis. In very l)ad cases of gunnnosis it would be best to destroy the tree, since it is of little value and may possibly furnish an ideal place for the development of undesirable organisms. Eranches may be cut off a few inches below the affected areas. Since this disease undoubtedly originates from the practice of leaving " mummied " fruit attached to the tree, it is best to remove and destroy them. It is even a question whether " mum- mied " fruit should be left on the ground. Practically all cases of infection from giimmosis have occurred where the " mum- mied " fruit was left on the tree, and came in contact with the limb or branch. Care should also be exercised in pruning, and this should be done in winter or early spriug. A clean, sloping cut should be made, and large wounds should be covered with paint or coal- tar. This treatment will prevent infection from the wounds. The practice of good sanitation and systematic spraying of peach trees, together with cultivation and feeding, will un- doubtedly hold this disease in check. DlRECTlOA'S FOR MAKING SuMMER SPEAY MiXTURE. Essentials. In making the self-boiled lime sul])hur, plus arsenate of lead. as recommended for the summer sprayings, the first essentials are to have good stone lime, a perfect mixture of the ingredi- ents, and tw^o men to attend to the mixing. After being mixed it is necessary that the mixture l)e kept well agitated while in the taid\, for if not it will settle, no matter how well made. To 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 175 acconipli.sli this it is suggested that those using a power outfit employ an agitator of the propellor type, as most others will allow a little settling; and where this occurs an eveu mixture of the sjH'aying materials is not obtained. Directions. The following method has been found to woi'k out satisfacto- rily in making 250-gallon quantities. First, weigh out AO pounds each of good stone lime and flour of sul])hur. Take the above (piantity of lime and place in the bottom of a barrel (one holding 50 gallons is a convenient size to use Avhen not making over 300 gallons at a time) ; then pour on water slowly and evenly. A good way to do this is to use a fine spray from a nozzle. As soon as the lime begins to slake have the sulphur sifted over the lime, adding just enough water while doing this to keep the lime from burning. By the time the sulphur is added the lime has become very active, and requires one per- son's attention to stir the mixture while another adds the water just fast enough to keep the mixture from burning. AVatcr should be added cautiously to obtain the best results in slaking. If the above directions are followed there will first be a thick, pasty substance which gradually becomes thinner as more water is added. The lime ought to keep the mixture well heated for several minutes, but as soon as it becomes well slaked water should be added. If allowed to cook too long the sulphur will go into solution and combine with the lime to form sulphides, and this form is harmful to the foliage. Weigh out 10 pounds of arsenate of lead, add water, aud stir until thoroughly mixed ; then strain through a sieve (20 to 30 mesh to an inch is satisfac- toi-y) either into the s])ray tank or Ijarrel containinji' the lime- sulphur mixture. On the addition of the arsenate of lead to the lime sulphur, a dark-colored mixture is obtained. If the mix- ture has been pro]ierly made there will be very few settlings, and very little, if any, sulphur floating on the surface. The ingredients of this mixture ought not to settle for nearly half an hour. The above mixture should be strained into the spray tank and the tank filled with water. The solution is then ready to be sprayed on the trees. 176 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. COJ^CENTRATED LiME-SULPHUR SOLUTION. The iiicoiiveuienee experienced in preparing- the linic-snlphm- wash by cooking with steam or in open kettles at homo has been one of the principal objections to this spray. Certain mann- factnrers have therefore put on the market concentrated solu- tions of lime-sulphur wash which have only to be diluted with Avater for "use. These commercial washes have proved to be {iliout as effective in controlling the scale as the well-cooked lime- sulphur wash, «nd, although somewhat more expensive, have been adopted l)y many commercial orchardists in preference to tlie home-prepared spray. They are especially useful for the smaller orchardist, whose interests do not warrant the construc- tion of a cooking plant. In other ways, too, they possess ad- vantages ; for instance, those using the commercial washes may always have on hand a stock solution, so that the spray may be quickly prepared and advantage taken of favorable weather conditions. These preparations should usually be used at the rate of 1 gallon to 10 gallons of water. Literature Ctped. 1. 8accartlo, P. A. Syllojje Fungoruiu, Vol. IV., j). :?4, 188(i. 2. Tubeuf & Smith. Diseases of Plants caused by Cryptogamic Para- sites, p. 497, 1897. 3. Peck, C. H. Thirty-fourth Report of the New York State Museum, p. 35. 4. Norton, J. B. S. Transactions of the Academy of Science, St. Louis, Vol. XII., No. 8, pp. 91-97. 5. Stone, G. E. Nineteenth Annual Report, Massachusetts Agricul- tural Experiment Station, p. l()(i. 6. Scott, W. M. and Ayres, T. Willard. Bureau of l^lant Industry, Bulletin No. 174, pp. 24, 25. 7. Saccardo, P. A. Sylloge Fungorum, Vol. IV., ]i. 353, 188(). 8. Sturgis, W. C. Twentieth Annual Kei^ort, Coiniecticut Agricul- tural Experiment Station, p. 269. 9. Arthur, J. C. Indiana Bulletin No. 19, pp. 5-8, 1889. 10. Chester, P. D. Delaware, Eighth Annual Report, pp. 60-63, 1896. 11. Massee, George. Kew Bulletin, p. 1, 1 pi., 1899. 12. Quaintance, A. L. Bureau of Entomology, Circular 124, The San Jose Scale and its Control, pp. 12, 13. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 177 CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS OF APPLE VARIETIES. BY J. K. SHAW, I. INTKODUCTION. The conditions of soil, climate and culture under which our nianv varieties of fruit succeed are little understood. Most of the publications dealing with varieties concern themselves with histories and technical descriptions, and but very little with the conditions under which the planting of this or that variety is to be recommended. As a result of this lack of information a given variety is planted under widely varying conditions, under some of which it docs well and under others it does poorly. At the present time fruit growing, more especially the grow- ing of apples, is entering a new era. The increased demand re- sulting from the lessened production during the past decade ; improved methods of culture, especially a better understanding of the combating of insects and diseases, and better business methods have stirred up growers all over the apple regions to a renewed interest in the business. This movement has had its origin in the Pacific coast and intermountain regions, but will soon, if it has not already, become general over a large portion of North America. This movement will result in more or less change in the rela- tive importance of commercial varieties, some becoming less esteemed and others gaining in favor. The consumer will come to prefer varieties of better quality and those better suited to various purposes. The same is true within a variety, where specimens grown to more perfect d(n^elopment will receive pref- erence. To attain the highest degree of success it will be more neces- f^avy than in the past for each grower to choose those varieties which he can grow, under his conditions of soil and climate, to 178 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. their highest perfection. A mistaken choice will be a serious thing, and one that will require valuable time and much cx^jense to correct. The present paper is the result of a study, carried on for the past four years, of the effect of varying climatic conditions on varieties, and an attempt is here made to lay down certain prin- ciples as to the climatic adaptations of varieties. Questions of soil and culture are given only incidental consideration. For the former there has not been sufficient opportunity, and a con- sideration of the latter would lead into the whole field of orchard management. Many samples of different varieties, grown under widely varying* conditions, have been examined pomologically, and some of them chemically, and a study made of the pomologi- cal and meteorological literature available. This paper does not make specific recommendations of varie- ties for any section of the country or for the country in general. That is more or less a local problem into which enter questions not considered here. Among them are those of soil, market demands, methods of culture to be followed, the individual preferences of the grower and many others. If the conclusions of this paper are sound, they should aid in such choice, for many varieties that might otherwise be considered are excluded as not being suited to the climatic conditions of the locality under consideration, while from those that are adapted climat- ically, the ones best suited to soil and other conditions may be singled out. The subject under consideration is a large one. To under- stand at all fully the relations of apple variation to climate will require prolonged study and experiment. This paper is, in a large degree, introductory, and may contain errors and omissions which should be corrected. The writer will greatly appreciate any suggestions as to corrections or additions that should be made. The work has been done as Adams fund research, and at the same time in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the de- gree of Doctor of Philosophy from the Massachusetts Agricul- tural College. It has been done under the direction of Prof. F. C. Sears, to whom the thanks of the writer are extended for 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 179 advice ;uk1 criticism, and to Prof. F. A. Waugh as well, who has givcu inauj helpful suggestions. The chemical work has been under the direction of Dr. Charles Wellington, and assist- ance in the analytical work has been rendered by Mr. E. L. Winn and Mr. B, Ostrolenk of the senior class in the college. Many experiment station horticulturists and fruit growers in many sections of the country have aided by giving information and by furnishing samples of apples. It is impossible to name them all here, but their many favors are here acknowledged and hearty appreciation extended. II. THE CAUSES OP VARIETAL VARIATION. The causes of the great differences in apple varieties may be gr()U]:ed under three heads: those arising from (1) cultural conditions, (i^) differences in soil types, (3) differences in climate. CuLTUKAL Variations. The methods pursued in the growing and in the care of the trees have great influence on the character of the fruit. It is affected in every way, in size, form, color, keeping (piality, ship- jnng quality and dessert quality. These variations have been given only incidental investigation of such ])hases as relate directly to the climatic differences that have been the special object of study. A few of these may, however, be given pass- ing attention at this [xiint. Every orchardist growing any number of trees is aware that there are great differences in the individuality of the trees, even when grown in the same orchard and under apparently identical conditions of climate and soil. One tree may be very produc- tive and its neighbor only moderately so. The apples may differ in many of their characters. Further along in this j^aper some data are presented bearing on this question (see page 194). These individual differences have been ascribed to various causes, the principal ones of which are. perhaps, those of bud variations or varietal " strains," and that of the influence of the stock. The method of handling the soil has great influence on the fruit, especially Avhether the orchard is in sod or is cultivated. 180 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. This lias been shown in various bulletins from dilTercnt experi- ment stations. The Baldwin seems especially intlueuced hy con- ditions of orchard culture, and other varieties more or less so. Certain experiments at this station -^ have shown marked ef- fects from the use of different fertilizers. This question has been little investigated, but no doubt great variation in fruit may be produced by the fertilizer used on the land. Differences in pruning also have their effects. A tree kept Avith an open top will admit an abundance of sunshine, resulting in a higher colored fruit ; in many other w^ays the effect of pruning may be shown in the character of the fruit. Many fruit growers have discovered, to their grief, that Bor- deaux mixture has a decided effect on many varieties, by pro- dncing russetiug. On the other hand, the liuie-sulphur prepara- tion has frequently been found to render the appearance of the fruit better than when not sprayed at all. Soil Yakiation. It has been shown that the nature of the soil has great effect on the character of the fruit. Bed apples are likely to be higher colored on sandy soils than on clayey soils, Not enough is known regarding this question to make any very definite gen- eralizations on the subject. H. J. Wilder has determined the soil adaptations of various varieties, and shown that different varieties have decided preferences as to soils.^ The question of the adaptation of varieties to soils is much complicated by the question of stocks already alluded to. 'No doubt varieties have soil preferences w^hich are general to the variety, and not seri- ously modified by differences in stock. ISTevertheless, the writer is satisfied that much greater uniformity w^ould be found in the adaptation of varieties to soils were they grown on their own roots. Cliimatio Yariatiox. In a l)road Avay, the limits of apple growing are governed by climatic conditions. The apple is a fruit of a temperate cli- mate, and does not flourish in the far north nor in the warmer ' Report, Massachusetts Experiment Station, 22, Part II., p. 10. 2 Proceedings American Pomological Society, 31, p. 138 (1909). 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 181 sections of the temperate zoues. The apple adapts itself imder cultivation to a considerable range of rainfall, and in districts of deficient precipitation irrigation is practiced. Therefore, the question of rainfall has comparatively little weight in the general cultivation of the apple. Sunshine has considerable effect, but it is not a limiting factor anywhere in the apple belt. The great climatic factor which limits the distribution of apjdes in general, and of the different varieties in particular, is tem- perature. Over the greater part of the North American continent the northern limit of successful apple growing is fixed by the min- imum winter temperature. Different varieties of the common apple vary greatly in their ability to withstand minimum win- ter temperatures, and the condition of the tree, particularly as regards moisture content at the time minimum temperatures occur, has great influence in determining whether the tree survives. Very few, if any^ varieties will withstand a tem- perature much below — 40° F. without being killed back more or less. In many cases a considerably less severe temperature is fatal to even the hardiest varieties. With the possible excep- tion of the extreme northern Pacific coast, under conditions of a maritime climate, there is nowhere in North America a region where certain varieties will not produce fruit in summer, pro- vided they can withstand the cold of winter. In other words, the summers are warm enough to mature fruit of short-season varieties, provided the winters do not kill the tree before it has reached the bearing age. The apple does not succeed in the southern portions of North America, although fruit may be produced in every State of the I^nion, and probably in portions of Mexico. The diffi- culty in the way of the southern extension of apple growing seems to be largely the heat during the summer. The trees fail to grow during hot periods in the growing season, and fail to set, or at least to mature fruit. The latter is especially true of winter sorts, and many varieties grown in the south are short- season ones, which are able to nurture fruit before the hot pe- riods of Julv and August arrive. 182 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The Mean Sutniner Temperature. For this work we have used as a measure of the summer heat an average monthly mean for the growing season. This has heen taken as comprising the months of March to September inclusive. The monthly means for these seven months, as given in publications of the United States Weather Bureau and Can- adian Meteorological Service, are averaged. This gives, for points within the apple-growing regions of Xorth America, tem- peratures varying from about 52° to about 70° or 72°. Sum- mer means have been computed for a great number of stations, and from these the isotherms given in Fig. 16 are drawn. This map is intended principally for study in connection with the matter given later in this paper, but it may be proper to explain it at this point, and to discuss the variations in the summer mean that occur and the causes thereof. In connnon wilh other questions of temperature, the summer mean for a given section is determined by a number of considerations. Among these are the following: (1) latitude, (2) elevation, (3) site and aspect, (4) soil, (5) culture, (0) prevailing winds, (7) sunshine. The first two require no explanation. Temperatures vary inversely with the latitude and altitude, but, owing to the in- fluence of the other features mentioned, no ratio can be lai Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 94, p. 92. 191 ] .] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 187 the after-i'ipeniiiii,- stage is complete and before any signs of dete- rioration appear. A variety in this condition is at the point of highest dessert quality. Especial consideration will be given in this discussion to the question of high quality in each variety. Before entering into this discussion, it may be well to con- sider the relation between chemical composition and quality. In the first place, it may be said that quality is used with sev- eral different meanings. It may refer to the dessert quality of the fruit or to its value for kitchen purposes. The apple of high dessert quality is different from the apple of high kitchen quality. We also speak of the shipping quality of fruit, and high shipping quality is in a measure opposed to high kitchen, and even more to high dessert quality. The apple which ships well will usually be a fair keeper, but these two qualities are by no means coincident. The chemical determinations which throw the most light on quality are those of the sugars and acid and of the insoluble solids, the latter being of greater impor- tance than is usually considered to be the case. The apple of high dessert quality is low in its content of in- soluble solids, this signifying a tender flesh and prol)ably thin- walled cells. It is high in sugars, more particularly sucrose.' The amount of acid is proportional to the quantity of sugars; the higher the content of sugars the higher must be the content of acid, in order to bring an agreealile blending of these two constituents. If a large proportion of the sugars is sucrose, the proportion of acid needs to be larger than if the proportion of sucrose is low, in order to give the same quality. The ratio of acid to total sugars most favorable to high dessert quality will vary greatly with iutlividunl tastes. Some prefer a sweet a]i])le, and, on the other hand, many like a fairly acid frnit. If the sugars are in the proportion approximately of two-thirds reduc- ing sugars to one-third sucrose, the following may be taken as a -fair estimate of the varying ratio of total sugars to acid for different flavored fruits. These ratios will not hold for fruits that have eutci'cd into the stage of ]ihysiological decay. 188 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Total Sugars to Acid as Malic .010 to .025 .025 to .035 .o:« to .045 .045 to .060 .060 to .085 Sweet apples, Mild sub-acid. Sub-acid, Acid, . Very acid, . It has been said tliiit a low percentage of insoluble solids is necessary for higli quality in dessert frnits. For cooking purposes this is of minor importance, and the ratio of sugars to acid is narrowed ; that is^ the relative amonnt of acid should be larger than in dessert frnits. Apples of good shipping quality have invariably a high per- centage of insoluble solids, and as this is opposed to high dessert quality, it follows that we should not expect to find the highest table quality and highest shipping quality in the same fruit. Most varieties that keep well have a relatively high proportion of their sugars in the form of sucrose. It ap]iears that an apple in order to keep well must be well nourished, and have stored up a large amount of soluble solids, principally in the shape of sugars. Table 1 shows the averages of a number of analyses of most of the varieties that have been examined. In these aver- ages only analyses of normal, well-grown and well-ripened fruit have been included. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 189 o CO Oi ^ 1^ ^ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 tfH^-< -^ — ' '^ -" '^ '^ — ' — ' -' -^ -* -^ -^ -" -^ -^ -^ —1 •-' M 0 CO 02 00 >o 00 c» -i< 10 CO 10 ^ tX U5 •0 10 .-s-^ <-^ 0 c^ CO 0 (M (N 10 CO CO a> t~ aa Oi o> C-5 0 0 0 0 0 ^s 6 ■^ 00 in 0 t^ 1^ o t^ »"' CO CO c^ C^ ** '—I CO 0 ^^ CO .-< r~^ r-t M< (M CO (M CO CO CO IM CO CO ■M ^ CO c<> 3 . CC H^ .9 m s ,_^ 1^ 0 Q ,_, f^ ^^ ■IJ la ^ t^ IM t^ 0 •— ' t^ •* OS a> *s-) 1^ ■* t-^ 1^ 00 00 00 0 OO 0 (^ t^ 0 00 CO [^ CO ^- ^ » . CO ^ ■.t< ^, ^ ^ in f. ^^ ^ 0 ^ ■§3 t-- ■^ 10 t^ •* ■ CO ■^ '^ CO 0 So M OJ c^ C^J 01 CO o ". 00 **< ■c « H,o "^ '^ '^ " "' ■"■ '^ "^ '^ "" '^ "" " C^ «3 Es Ti ■^.^^ >. m 0 IM •>!< 0 01 (M (M t- CO CO IM -* I iJ pa S '3 a) d 0 & 0 0 ja 3 s a 0 ■a 'S 0 J3 1 a d" -d CI a d d" d d d e 3 0 a B '> i 3 B J3 0 >-> 0) a 6 a ■d 0 -a 1 0 2 P3 3 a 1 a 0 a 1 M ^ Q a Hi 190 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. We may now proceed to the discussion of each of these varie- ties, and will endeavor to set forth the appearance and quality of these varieties when grown to their highest perfection. The conditions nnder which perfection is attained, and the effect of nnfavorahle conditions, are discussed in detail in a later section of this paper. These descri2)tions are not intended to be coni- j)lete descriptions of the variety, but should be read in connec- tion with a technical description, if one is not already familiar with the general appearance of the variety. WeallJiij. — AVell-gTown AYealthies should be about 75 to 80 millimeters in diameter and well colored over the entire surface. The color should be a deep, rich red, distributed in the form of stripes and splashes, deepening to a blnsh on the sunny side. Poor color is a sign of imperfect development in this fruit. The apple should be very synnnetrical in form and appearance. It is altogether a handsome fruit when well grown. The chem- ical analysis shows that the variety is low in total solids, a con- dition that we find in most summer and early fall varieties. It is low in all the constituent solids except acid. This high ratio of acid to sugar makes it a good cooking apple, but its low con- tent of insoluble solids makes it acceptable for the table, in spite of its rather low content of sugars. Maiden BlusJi. — The well-grown Maiden Blush is of about the same size as the Wealthy, of a clear waxen yellow color, with a generous bright red blush on the sunny side. It is fairly high in solids, and, for a fall apple, is especially high in sucrose. The total sugars are, however, rather low, and the insoluble solids and acid high. Its chemical analysis indicates it to be a good cooking ap])le and fairly good for table use for those pre- ferring an acid fruit. Fajucusc. — Fameuse should attain a diameter of at least 70 millimeters, and a deep red, almost crimson color, over nearly its entire surface. Its chemical analysis shows its excellent table quality, although the percentage of insoluble solids is some- what high. The relation of sugars to acid is good. It is re- markably low in sucrose and not ]»articularly high in total sugars. Mcintosh. — The Mcintosh should grow a little larger than 1911.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 191 the Fiuiieiisc, reaeliiiig about SO inilliineters. The color shoiihl be a dee}), rich crimson, a little lighter on the shady side and showing sometimes rather obscure splashes and stripes. This variety is one of the most highly esteemed as a dessert fruit. The low content of insoluble solids is in accordance with this estimate, though it does not express fully the excellent texture of this variety. Xeither does the analysis give indication of its agreeable aroma and flavor. The content of sugars is good for a variety of its season and the ratio of acid is excellent. The analysis in many ways closely resembles that of the Fameuse, thus indicating the relationshij) considered to exist between the two varieties. Jouaihan. — This is a favorite table apple of high quality. It should attain a diameter of 70 to 75 millimeters and be of a deep rich straw yellow, almost completely covered with a deep, rich crimson blush. It is a very handsome apple when well grown. Its tender flesh is indicated by its low content of iusoluble solids. It is only fairly high in sugars even for a variety of its season, and on this account lacks the richness of flavor of the Grimes and lloxbury Russet. Its ratio of sugars to acid places it among the sub-acid varieties. Grimes. — Grimes when well grown should reach a size of 75 to 80 millimeters or more, and should be, when ripe, a clear waxen yellow, and may be covered with a slight russeting over the entire surface. When grown in dry climates this russeting may appear in only a slight degree or not at all, a condition which perhaps adds to the good appearance of the fruit. The Grimes is remarkable for its high content of total solids, largely in the form of sugars, and of these a large proportion is in the form of sucrose. The last fact, together with its rather low content of acid, accounts for the almost sweet taste of this variety. King. — The King when well grown should be not less than 80 to 85 millimeters in diameter, and may be quite variable in form, but should be colored over its entire surface with a deep, rich red, somewhat splashed and mottled. Inasmuch as only two samples of this variety were analyzed, less dependence can be put on the figures given than could he if a larger number had 192 EXPERIINIENT STATION. [Jan. been examined. Its high (jnality is shown in its analysis, but it is due to no one constituent. The King is good in every respect. It is a more acid apple than the Grimes, although the ratio of sugars to acid is the same. This is due to the fact that a smaller proportion of the sugars is in the form of sucrose. Bhode Island Greening. — The Rhode' Island Greening should reach a size of about 85 millimeters and possess a clear, greenish-yellow skin. It may shoAV a faint red blush on the sunny side, although this character may not appear in fruit that is otherwise well developed. It is generally considered a variety of excellent cooking quality, and this is shown in its high ratio of acid to sugars and in its relatively high sucrose content, while its high content of insoluble solids does not detract from its value for this purpose. Northern Spy. — The Northern Spy is reputed to be one of the highest quality of winter varieties. It should reach a size of 80 to 85 millimeters, and be well covered with bright red stripes and splashes. Spies of poor color are frequently, though not always, of inferior quality, depending on the nature and cause of the inferiority. The low content of insoluble solids of the Spy is in accordance with its well-known tenderness of flesh and the readiness with which it bruises. Baldwin. — The Baldwin should reach a size of 75 to 80 mil- limeters, and be of even deeper color and more evenly distrib- uted. It is a better shipping apple than the Spy, but hardly as good for the table. This condition of affairs is indicated in its higher percentage of insoluble solids. It is also higher in su- crose and in the ratio of acids to sugar. Esopus. — This variety should reach a diameter of 75 milli- meters at least, and the skin should be a deep, rich straw yellow, almost completely covered with deep, rather dull red splashes and stripes. This, like the Jonathan, often appears with a poor color, indicative of imperfect development. The Esopus stands among the best as an all-round high quality variety, and its chemical analysis is in accord with this. It is about medium in its content of insoluble solids, indicating that it is sufficiently firm of flesh to ship and cook well, but not enough to seriously 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. ;il. 193 injure its table quality. It is about iue trees are on nearly level land at the lo[) of a slope. The soil is a nniforni gravelly, clay loam, and the trees are of the same age, and vary only a little in size. In the years 1908-10, every apple home to matnrity by these trees has been measured, as described in the last report of this station,^ and the results for the individual trees are presented in Table 2. ' Report Massachusetts Experiment Station, 1910, p. 198. 196 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. O^ o ^ M M rococo •«'■«' ■« ■«' -h'-h' gs^ ^CO toco •^ Tf< T}^ -^ mm is So oo 88 M M ■H -B ■H -H a CO il oo f5 ^°1 T3 O *Q -h'-h-h' -h'-h'-h' -h'-h'-h' -h'-h' t-- ei oo (M »0 » CO CO cc »o oo r^oi ■H -H OCI O "O ■V M ■H -H ■H -H rt rx t^c^ tx ofroRn 1.1315 _ __.j 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 70- A O- ^ ^ / \ / \, / \ . >k_ 40- / / s ^ \ ^ *^ A \ ^ v^ "' 1 f — / / y ■"^ / 909. inOLX orfORn 1.1336 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 70- 60- t >50- 40- t ■v / \ ^ S / X r -i^ 1 — ' ^ • V __ J. -^ ^ fe> , ^ ^ ■A ^^ y' V ^ ^ — A :::::; — 1— — ^^ '^ — — — — ' — 1 _ 1910. int>c:x w TORn 1.123a ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 *nARK:> t>ATt Of r f \ ■ 1 . (HAHKAin VALLtY.VT. JCJHL. Pi?i'f., ?iV i^i^i^ 2$ lJ if 1 f « / \, / ^ / s >. ^ .^ ^ ^ -T — J V. ■ — 1 s <- >> ^ / V y —- - V ^ ' ,--' 907: IMDEX or fORH I.I54K - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 aa- 1 / A ■ / ^ s / /S y ^ ■ \ .• / 's -**. ^ .1.^ y \^ \ r V, ^ ' •-^ ^ 1 / 909. in >ti. orroRn i.i47%5. . 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 * IARkIs I)ATE or fULL ftLOOM " __ .1.1 Fig. 2. do not know the date of bloom in 1008, but it was probaldy not far from June 8. In Fig. 3 the temjierature data are from 50 V. J ' ) 1 1 1 A 5 l>F 5IL 5 1 • ' 9 ^ 1 2 3 l 5 2 z ) S. <-• ■ — J y V X V y" '^ 1 s ^ \ y^ k k^ / \ / s / v ^ \ '^ s / "'■ 1 S i~~. s. / 908. IHD>tA cr^ f=-Onn 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 \\13Q>. \ ^ \ f / ^ ^J , / s / / / \ /j 50 / J is 5v^ / N ^ \ / s / y / \ / \ /. r — ^ > :;;- — 1 ■7^ V \^ ^, /* ' \ y --^ 910. iri[>E:A of-rORH 1.155^.. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 \ HAftK.S DATf. or Nil. FSLOOM .,, Fig. 3. Salem, Ind., and the apples from ^Mitehell ; in Fig. 4 both ajiples and temperature data are from Bentonville, Ark, An examination of these charts shows a reasonably close agreement with that for Amherst. A period of cool weather, 202 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. probably during a space of two or three weeks, results in greater elongation of the fruit, presumably through a prolongation of the period of relatively greater axial elongation before re- ferred to. This theory explains not only the seasonal variations but the greater elongation in the vicinity of large bodies of water, for the fact that in such locations the weather is relatively cool during the spring needs no discussion. In this connection we have observed that the seasonal fluctuation in form is less near 1 5 1 7 1 9 n 21 2 . 5 :^1 i L 9 m J 1 / \W w 1^ K ). APR\L. a 10 \z T 1 i 1 1 1 4 16 1 IS 10 60-- 70- 60- 50- -J- :^ :s ^ I , _ , , 1 — , 71 — — — ''^ 7^ ^^- ■=^ \ — ' — — — — — — ' — — — A /- v; \ ^ s, v ^ -^ -/ r bs / ■^ V V y \ - / 907. mPtX orfORH 1.1565. s 60- 1 \. ^ ^S \, s / s V v.^ / \ ^ s / — 1 — 5 "/ \ *o- ^ ^ . V — / ^ sx 1909. int5t,x o^f■0Rn i.i9oa." 70- 60- 50- 40- 1 ^ — ■ ^ :^ ^S- — / N .-X- _^ _ -^ ^ _ -^ 7^ — — — — — — — -s - f- ^ =J ■/■ ■* ^ — — ■^ p y W ^ ' / 910. inc>u orfonn 11797 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ij ^ s / * nARK& I>ATt »f^ ^ n,^^ TVvJr%i ^l_ ^^ r^ ' _-X- I \ / — ^~-\ — { ^ T ^J- P-- v J ^Ant<^6t ^ MAlbtM b»-y5H Fig. 8. favor. It is grown with success as far north as Long Island and southern Connecticut, and west through southern Indiana and central and southern Illinois. It does not withstand the dry climate of the plains as well as some others, but reaches as far west as eastern Xebraska and Kansas. It is cultivated suc- cessfully south into the mountains of Virginia. Gould says : — - On Cecil sandy loam, at 900 to 1,000 feet elevation, it is inclined to rot severely, but on the more clayey soil of the Piedmont regions it does well. Its season of ripenings varies considerably, ranging' from summer to early fall. In the middle Piedmont orchards it Avonld probably ripen in August or early September. At one point in North Carolina having an altitude of 3,500 to 4,000 feet, with rather less friable loam, some very fine sj)ecimens have been seen the middle of October.^ » Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 135,- p. 38. 210 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. It will be seen that the Maiden's Blush belongs to the central belt and the northern part of the south central belt. Fameiise. — The Fameuse is one of the most northern of commercial apples. It is grown in most parts of the northern belt, also in northern Indiana and Illinois and in southern ]\Iichigan, though in these regions the variety does not attain the quality of the St. Lawrence and Champlain valleys. It becomes a fall apple, and is of poor color and inferior flavor. Specimens received from Prince Edward Island were dull red and green, and small in size, while those from southern Quebec w^ere very good spcciuiens of the variety. /9CrrT ^ (/ n,^^ Wl^ Ci^'^ y r '^--^ ^^^\\ \.^ '-v^'^ / \ nossesses good keeping qualities for the variety. On the same farm, at a point having somewhat lower eleva- tion and a looser type of soil, it matures considerably earlier, and is not of such excellent flavor as from the location above mentioned. Produced at elevations of 2,000 feet in the upper sections of the Blue Eidge region, it may be kept under fairly favorable conditions until early winter. ... At ]>oints south of Virginia, at the elevations of the Pied- mont region, it is inclined to drop prematurely, but when grown at points having not less than 1,500 feet altitude it is highly prized in its season. One grower in the southwestern part of North Carolina has this variety at 2,500 to 2,800 feet elevation, and also at an altitude 400 to 600 feet higher. It is his experience that the fruit grown at the latter elevation will kee]) two months longer than that from the lower level. The fruit is also finer in appearance and more satisfactory in every way at the greater elevation. For best keeping qualities it should not be allowed to become too mature before j^icking.^ Favorable reports on it have been received from certain localities in l^ew York, but in general as grown in this State it does not develop in size, color or quality as well as it docs in more southern latitudes, and there is a high percentage of loss from drops and cnlls.- Tompl'ins King. — The King is a variety found over a limited portion of the north central belt. It is a standard apple in western Ncav York, and is grown in southern Ontai-io and to some extent in Michigan. It is also a favorite variety in Annapolis valley in ]^ova Scotia, where it succeeds to a high degree. The tree is weak, and requires high cultivation and good care. It is scarcely known west of Lake Michigan, and is met with scatteringly ns far ns Virginia, where it is found in the higher levels of the Blue Ridge. The tree is 1 Bureau of Plant Industry, Rulletin 135, p. 36. 2 Beach, Apples of New York, Vol. 1, p. 154. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 213 evidently not able to withstand the hot dry summers of the middle west. Esopus. — This is an old variety, but one that has never been very largely cultivated. This may be partially accounted for by the fact that the tree is not particularly vigorous nor es- pecially productive, and is somewhat susceptible to diseases. The apple is of suj>erior quality, being much better than the Baldwin, which it considerably resembles. It has been grown somewhat in the Champlain and ]\Iohawk valleys. It is an apple of limited cultivation for the Baldwin belt. Gould says, regarding its behavior in Virginia and Xorth Carolina : — At lower levels it usually drops prematurely, and even on Porters black loam at 2,000 feet elevation it often rots and drops seriously. At 3,000 to 3,500 feet altitude in North Carolina, on a rather loose loamy soil with porous subsoil containing more or less red clay, it develops more satisfactorily, keeps well into the winter, and does not manifest in any marked degree the defects observed at the lower levels.^ It has recently attained high favor with the growers in cer- tain portions of the Pacific northwest. In our opinion this variety is deserving of wider cultivation inasmuch as it is an excellent variety for all purposes. In fact, so far as the fruit goes we believe that none of the better known varieties of com- mercial apples answers so well the requirements of a general purpose market apple. When well grown it is of good size and attractive appearance, and is adapted for both dessert use and cooking. It is also a reasonably good shipping a])ple. It re- quires the better care and higher cultivation which orchards are destined to receive in the near future. RJiode Island Greening. — The distribution of the Rhode Island Greening is very similar to that of the Baldwin, but is perhaps adapted to somewhat wider range of conditions; being a green apple it does not call for conditions adapted to the pro- duction of good color necessary for the Baldwin, It attains better size and appearance than the Baldwin when grown towards the northern limit of its culture. It is possibly some- what hardier in tree. It is grown all through the north central > Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 135, p. 34. 214 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. belt, and extends somewhat further south in the higher eleva- tions. In the south it becomes a fall apple, and is apt to ripen prematurely and drop and sometimes to decay on the trees. Northern 8py. — This is a variety of the Baldvi^in belt, and its distribution is very similar to that variety, although less general. It is at its best in the Champlain valley and in west- ern New York. Some excellent specimens have been seen from southern New England, but they do not keep as well as those from farther north. It seems to be somewhat capricious as to soils and culture, and in localities of ill success it is not always possible to determine the cause of the difficulty. When grown BAuowm ORK inp. Fig. 10. in the south it rots badly and drops, nor does it attain the high color and quality that characterize it in its more northern home. Baldwin. — The Baldwin is the standard winter apple of the northeastern United States. It is distributed all over the north central belt, and is so nearly confined to it as to lend its name to that zone. It is also grown to a considerable extent in the Annapolis valley and very sparingly in the central belt, although it rarely attains any cominercial standing in this re- gion. It is not grown west of Lake Michigan, owing to the extremes of maximum and mininumi temperatures which there 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 215 prevail. In the iiortliwcslern belt the winters are too severe and the trees winter-kill; while .sonth of this region the summers are so warm that the variety ripens prematurely and is apt to rot and drop. These same remarks will apply to many other varieties of the Baldwin belt, most of them being too tender to withstand the winters west of Lake Michigan. The Wealthy, which is very well adapted to the Baldwin belt, is an exception t(j this, and grows to perfection in both regions. We have ob- served the Baldwin for several years in an orchard growing on the higher elevations of the Green Mountains. Here it occa- sionally matures pretty well. In other years it is small, dull r7r-_^^ /^^^\^& />2VW^^I^% m ^ I ( / ^V~~~-^~i aV -yf \ \ / / — f~\ — / "^^ /^~v ^T ^-~L / P-S^ r'^ \-^ y ^Hi Si^ Y 'X R.I. Massachusetts Experiment Station Report, 1910, p. 107. 220 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. been studied and additional data as to variation in form and size have been secured, and these are set forth in an earlier portion of this paper. It cannot be grown to its full develop- ment north of southern Pennsylvania, central Ohio and In- diana, north central Illinois and central Iowa, although it is often a profitable commercial variety further north than this. It is, however, inferior in most respects to the variety grown south of that line. It is apt to be hard and astringent and poorly colored, and undersized unless grown under relatively high cultural conditions. The map given in Fig. 14 shows the Fig. 14. distribution of this variety. This shows it extending farther north than the map given in a previous report. It should be borne in mind that the previous map shows the area over which it is the leading commercial variety and the present map the area where it may be said to rank as a valuable commercial sort. SJiocHey. — Shockley is a variety belonging almost exclu- sively to the southern belt. It flourishes in regions where the summer heat is greater than that favorable to most commercial varieties. It is recommended for cultivation in the hill and pine belt regions of South Carolina, and west through northern and central Alabama to northeastern Texas. Gould gives the 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 221 following concerning its behavior in the southern Appahichian Mountains : — At 1,500 feet altitude in Albemarle County, Va,, on Porters clay, this variety is not considered of special value, but at the same elevation in Georgia on a soil containing rather more sand than Porters clay does, with good culture it comes to a high degree of perfection, and when held until midwinter it generally brings very satisfactory prices in local markets. In the southwestern part of North Carolina, at 1,700 feet elevation, on a friable, porous loam, with good culture it bears annual crops of highly colored fruits, which develop to a larger size than under most conditions. In North Carolina at 3,500 to 3,800 feet, while the Shockley bears heavily and colors well, it is usually too small to be of much value, especially as other more desirable sorts succeed at these elevations. The clay and clay loam soils of the Piedmont region, with the usual elevations of those soils, may be expected, as a rule, to produce this variety in a fair degree of perfection.' The Relation of Temperature to Development. The Mean Summer Temperature. — There is a close relation between the mean summer temperature and the development of the fruit. For every variety there can be determined a mean summer temperature at which it reaches its highest and most satisfactory development. Any departure from this mean re- sults in greater or less inferiority of the fruit, the degree of in- feriority depending on the amount of the departure, and the variety. For the successful growth of the tree the mean sum- mer temperature is of little significance, but the major control- ling factors are the minimum winter temperature and the mean of the hottest part of the summer. Other factors enter in, but Ave believe that these are the principal ones and nnist first be complied with if a variety is to succeed. The Winter Mitiimum. — The temperature which a tree of a given variety can withstand cannot be stated with definiteuess. If depends not only on the degree of cold, but also on the con- dition of the tree and the rapidity and amount of the fall anf] subsequent rise of the temperature. In the northwestern belt ibis is the great problem of apple culture, and much study has been given to it. The Minnesota ITorticnltnral Society men- > Bureau of Plant Industry. Bulletin 135, p. 43. 222 EXPEPvIMExNT STATION. [Jan. tioiis tbe following varieties as of sufficient hardiness to endure the severe winters of that State : ^ — Of the first degree of hai'diness, Oldenburg, Hibernal, Charlamofif, Patten, Okabena. Of tlie second degree of hardiness, Wealthy, Tetofski, Malinda, Peer- less, Northwestern Greening. Many other sorts thrive in the more favorable parts of this belt, but the great bulk of the varieties grown in localities of similar summer temperatures in the east perish from winter- killing. The minimum winter temperatures in this territory, according to the records of the Weather Bureau,- are around — 40° F., which may be considered a degree of cold which any tree of Pyrus mains can rarely endure without injury (see Fig. 15). It should be borne in mind that this temperature must be taken in accordance with the methods of the Weather Bureau and with correct instruments, else the figures obtained are likely not to be comparable. The Heat of Summer. — A glance at the figures (Figs. 6-14) giving the distribution of varieties shows that some extend the entire length of its belt, while others succeed well only through the eastern portion. There are three differences between the eastern and western portions of these belts. Tn the west we find (1) lower humidity, (2) less precipitation, (3) more severe heat during the summer. Probably all these have their influ- ence in limiting the western spread of certain varieties, for their effects on the plant are similar, in that they tend to dry it out. In relative importance the greater heat is probably of the great- est significance followed by rainfall and humidity. The Effects of Low and High Mean Summer Temperatures. — The effects on the fruit of a low summer heat, as indicated by the mean summer temperature, are as follows : — 7. Greater Acidity. — It is shown that the acidity of the fruit steadily decreases all through the stages of growth, ripen- ing and decay. It naturally follows that if the fruit does not have time to mature properly it will be acid, and this is clearly shown in the table of analyses. 1 Report, 1907, p. 34. " United States Weather Bureau, Bulletin Q. PIQ. 16. — ISOTHERMS OP MINIMUM WINTER TEMPERATnBE. 221 tio the ( Pal ( less \ bel sin kil ace tre' 15; be aiu not giv eiit the eas hea enc eff( In est by frn ing ha\ sho \ lull.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 223 '^. A Higher Content of Insoluble Solids. — The analyses show that there is a decided tendency for the insoluble solids to decrease during the stage after ripening. The figures do not show just when the content of insoluble solids is highest, but it must be at or before the time of picking. The analyses also give clear indication of the immaturity of the fruit when grown too far north. This is especially marked in the case of the Ben Davis, doubtless owing to the fact that some lots of this variety came from the far north of the region in which it matures prop- erly, and it falls far short of full maturity. It shows an average content of 2.97 per cent, for the Ben Davis belt and 3. GO per cent, for the specimens from north of this region. Other sorts show similar differences. 3. Greater Astringency. — All apples in an immature state doubtless contain small amounts of tannin. No determinations of tannin have been made in connection with this work, nor have we discovered any report that shows conclusively just what changes in tannin content go on in the growing and ripening fruit. Nevertheless, it is evident to the taste that green apples have greater astringency than do ripe specimens, and we have rejieatedly observed a markedly greater astringency in northern- grown apples than in the same sort grown farther south. ^. Less C oloration. — It is well known that plants exhibit brighter, more intense coloration when grown in high latitudes and altitudes. This is true of the coloration of red apples. In the north we find bright intense reds, which become duller towards the south, with a tendency toward a pinkish red towards the southern limit. The proportion of the fruit covered, how- ever, behaves in a different way. We find the greatest pro- portion of color near the middle of a distribution, with a decrease to both the north and south. We find then, near the center of a distribution of most varieties of red apples, fruit well covered with fairly bright color, which is brighter and more intense in northern varieties than in those of the south. 5. Decreased Size. — When the season is short or cool it i«? natural that a variety should not reach the mnximiim size. It is somewhat difficult to determine, in lots of varying size, how much of the difference is due to climatic causes and how much 224 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. to cultural methods and conditions. However, in the case of the Ben Davis a study of the table on page 199 shows clearly not only the general influence of the different regions on size, but also that of different seasons, and almost invariably a lower summer mean is accompanied by decreased size. 6. Scalding in Storage. — It has been shown by Powell ^ and Beach - that immature apples are more likely to scald in storage than are those that have been well matured on the trees. In order to keep longest in storage an apple should have fully com- pleted the stages of growth and ripening on the tree, and been picked and without delay placed and kept in a temperature barely above the freezing point of the fruit. In practice it is necessary to allow a margin for safety, owing to possible lack of uniformity of the temperature at dift'erent times and in differ- ent parts of the storage rooms, but the better the control of the temperature the closer may the ideal conditions be approached. It is probable that scalding may also appear on fruit that has I'cen poorly grown, but still has reached full maturity. The chemical work here reported indicates that fruit matured on poor soil or under unfavorable cultural conditions may be in some respects similar to immature fruit. The poorly grown fruit is lower in most of the soluble solids. When a variety is grown where the summer mean tempera- ture is excessively high we note the following effects : — 1. Uneven Ripening. — Summer and fall varieties always show a tendency to ri])en unevenly, making it desirable to make two or more pickings as the different specimens reach maturity. Late fall and winter sorts show less evidence of this, though a difference in the maturity of specimens in a lot of winter fruit may be detected without difficulty. Inasmuch as the result of growing a variety south of its natural range is to cause earlier maturity, and fall varieties tend to become summer varieties, it is to be expected that the uneven ripening characteristic of sum- mer sorts should follow. This is not marked with winter varie- ties unless they are grown a considerable distance south of their most favorable localities. ' Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 48. 2 New York Experiment Station, Bulletin 248; Iowa Experiment Station, Bulletin 108. 1011.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 225 2. Premaluve Dropping. —It is but natural that dropping of ripened fruit should follow uneven ripening, and this is conimonlv observed to be the case. We find, also, that apples may drop even at immature stages when the summer heat is too great for the liking of the variety, particularly when the heated period closely follows the period of blossoming. 3. Rotting on the Tree. — This is another sign of summer heat too great for the variety, which is right along the line of those already mentioned. It occurs with most varieties only when the heat is excessive. The Jonathan is especially subject to this trouble, because the margin k-tween temperature that will give the maximum size, color and quality and one that will cause rotting seems to be narrow, and perhaps within the range of seasonal fluctuations. Therefore there is great danger that (he apples will become overripe and decay before being picked. Ji. Poor Keeping Quality. — This defect of southern-grown specimens is also along the same lines of those already dealt Avith. The apples mature to the end of the ripening or after- ripening stages, and being still subject to high temperature, con- tinue rapidly on the road to decay. It is probable that in many cases this difficulty might be largely overcome by picking the apples at the proper stage and placing them at once in cold storage. I am informed by Mr. W. A. Taylor of the Depart- ment of Agriculture that Baldwins grown in West Virginia kept in a satisfactory manner when handled in this way. The chemical work here reported shows no material difference in the chemico-physiological processes of the growth and maturing of the fruit of a given variety^ whether grown in the north or m the south, but only in the degree of completeness with which they are achieved. The converse of this proposition is that northern-giwvn fruit, if well matured, will keep better than that variety grown far- ther south, and this indicates that any variety should be grown as far north as possible to fully mature it in the coolest seasons that are likely to occur. The progress of the stage of after ripen- ing may be easily controlled if the proper facilities are at hand, hut It is an advantage to have the air temperature low at this time unless it is desired to hasten instead of retard this stace. 22G EXPERIMP:NT station. [Jan. 5. Lack of Flavor'. — The basis of flavor iu apples has already been discussed. The leading element of flavor for discussion here is that of the flavoring oils. It appears that for high de- velopment of these a relatively cool atmosphere is desirable. Summer and early fall varieties do not, as a rule, possess high flavors, and any late fall or winter variety grown so far south that it ripens before the cool weather of autumn comes is likely to be inferior in the development of flavoring oils. 6. " Mealiness." — This is another sign of overripeness that is an indication that the variety is grown in too great summer heat. Mention has already been made of the softening of the middle lamelLr, which is the cause of this mealiness (see page 186). The result is that wdien eaten the cells separate from each other without breaking open and releasing the juices contained therein, and the apple is said to be " dry," whereas it probably contains a normal amount of water. Some varieties, the Jona- than, for example, do not show this characteristic in marked degree, but most varieties do if they can be kept long enough without parasitic decay, and the warmer they are the shorter the time necessary to bring about this result. 7. Less Intense Color. — A red variety grown to the south of its normal range is apt to show a less intense color, though it may be pretty well spread over the fruit. There is often a decided tendency toward a pinkish red, which may appear pale or faded in extreme cases. Bright sunlight during the ripening period of the fruit has much to do wdth the attainment of high color, especially if at this time the nights are cool and frosty. But in order for these influences to have their full efl^ect the apple must have been brought to the proper stage of development by a sufficient amount of heat during the ]ieriod of growth. Under- developed apples do not take on a satisfactory color, no matter how favorable the conditions may be during the ripening period. 8. Smaller Size. — This effect does not manifest itself unless 1hc variety is grown far to the south of its most favorable region. The signs of overripeness show themselves much sooner as one goes south over the distribution of a variety. Nevertheless, in some cases, at least, it is evident that a variety may fail lUlL] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. ;il. 227 to reacli its uonual size on account of too severe summer heat. It is probable that this occurs most noticeably in the extreme south of the apple region. Wo have seen evidences of it in the Ben Davis and Winesap that were grown about as far south as these varieties are much cultivated. The Optimum Mean Summer Temperature. — It is evident from the foregoing discussion that the development of the high- est perfection in any given variety is closely related to most favorable mean summer temperatures. In Table 5 is given a list of varieties, with an estimate of the optimum temperature for each sort, and in some cases of their possible range and hardiness with respect to the cold of winter. The list of vari- eties includes all those that are given the double star, indi- cating highly successful varieties, in the list of the American Pomological Society, with a number of additions of varieties that, for various reasons, seemed worthy of consideration. In- asnnich as we consider keeping quality of considerable account with most sorts, the policy has been to prescribe about as low a temperature as will suffice to thoroughly mature a variety, leaving a margin of about 2° for seasonal fluctuations; that is, we believe that any variety may be matured when the sum- mer mean is 2° lower than the one given. This applies more particidarly to the fall and winter varieties. We believe, on the other hand, that any increase in the summer mean for any variety, unless it be the earliest ones, will be a disadvantage, though a very slight one, if the rise is not more than 1° or 2°. Up to a certain degree the overmaturity of the fruit in a too warm climate may be overcome if the grower will pick at the time of full maturity and put the fruit at once in cold storage. If the heat is too great, however, even with this method the fruit will be inferior in flavor and color, and, in very ex- treme cases, in size. We believe that a departure of more than 2° in either direction from the temperatures given will be a noticeable disadvantage with any of the winter varieties. This remark will apply less to the fall sorts and still less to the sum- mer varieties ; or, to put it in other words, the earlier the variety the greater may be its range of temperature without marked deterioration of the fruit. There are doubtless errors in the ease of some varieties, concerning which we have limited infor- 228 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Illation. It is hoped that these may, in time, be corrected, as we are able to learn more concerning the behavior of these varie- ties under different conditions. In Table 6 these same varieties are grouped under their op- timum temperatures for convenience in reference. In Table 5 there is also given for some varieties the range of temperature which they can stand without serious deterioration. This is, as already stated, closely connected with the season of the variety, being wide with early sorts and relatively narrow with most winter sorts. Just how much difference there is be- tween the ranges of varieties of the same season is difficult to say. It is complicated with a variety of related questions. In the case of a few of the varieties given in Table 5 an at- tempt Is made to give their hardiness with respect to the winter cold. Inasmuch as the ability of the tree to withstand cold de- pends on a variety of factors other than the temperature, it is of no use to attempt to state this in degrees. The designation Ex. H. is used for the varieties equal in hardiness to those classi- fied as 9f the first degree of hardiness ; the designation V. 11. for those of the second degree of hardiness (by the Minnesota Hor- ticultural Society) ; and the designation H., M. and T. for vari- ous degrees of hardiness below these two classes. Many of the more southern sorts are not gi*own far enough north on account of a lack of summer heat to test their winter hardiness in a satis- factory manner. Therefore it is impossible to make any state- ments regarding them, nor would there be any practical value in such statements were they possible. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 229 Table 5. — Mean Su mmer Temperatures 2 H§f H If SQ SS i .§£ 0 ■3 3 a "5 ■w 3 c »; •— 3 0 a O C5 O a Akin 52 Holland Winter, . 57 Alexander, 54 H. Horse, .... 66 Arctic 53 H. Hubbardston, 57 Arkansas, 65 Huntsman, . 62 N. N. Arkansas Black, 63 Hyde King, . 60 Babbit, . . . . 57 Ingraham, 62 Bailey Sweet, 58 Baldwin, 56 N. M. Jefferis 57 Baxter, .... 53 H. Jewett 54 Beach, .... 65 Jonathan, 59 N. N. Ben Davis, . 64 M. H. July 59 Benoni 59 Bethel 53 H. Kent Beauty, 58 Bietigheimer, 53 Keswick, 58 Bismark, 53 King David, . 59 Black Gilliflower, . 55 Kinnaird, 59 Blenheim, 55 Blue Pearmain, 54 H. Lady, .... 58 Boiken, .... 57 Lady Sweet, . 57 Bonum, 65 Lankford, 61 Borovinka, 53 Lawver, 64 Bough 57 Limbertwig, . 66 Buckingham, 66 Longfield, 57 Buncombe, . 66 Lowell Lowland Raspberry, 58 68 Cabashea, 58 Cannon Pearmain, 65 Maiden Blush, 61 M. V. H. Charlamoff, . 53 Ex.H. Malinda, 54 N. H. Chenango, 57 Mann, .... 55 M. Collins 65 McAffee. 60 H. Cooper Market, 60 Mcintosh, 56 W. H. Cox Orange, . 35 McMahon, Melon, .... 55 57 Delicious, 59 Milden, .... 58 H. Dominie, 60 Milwaukee, . 54 H. Dudley, 53 M inkier, Missouri Pippin, . 60 64 Early Harvest, 56 V. VV. Monmouth, . 57 Early Joe, 56 Mother 58 Early Pennock, 56 Early Strawberry, 58 Newell, .... 55 English Russet, 56 Newtown Spitzenburg, 60 Esopus, .... 59 N. Northern Spy, 56 M. H. Ewalt 58 Northwestern Greening, 55 V. H. Fallawater, 60 Okabena, 52 Ex.H. Fall Harvey, 57 Oldenburg, 52 V. VV. Ex.H. Fall Orange, . 57 Oliver 64 Fall Pippin, . 58 Ontario, 56 H. Faineuse, 54 M. H. Ortley 61 Fanny, .... 63 Flushing Spitzenburg, . 58 Paragon, 64 Foundling, 54 H. Patten Payne, .... 55 62 Ex.H. Gano, .... 64 M. Peck Pleasant, 58 Gideon 54 H. Peerless, 56 V. H. Golden Rus.set, 56 Pewaukee, 53 V. H. Golden Sweet, 58 Plumb Cider, 57 Gravenstein, . 55 M. M. Pomme Gris, 55 N. Green Sweet, 58 Porter, .... 57 W. Grimes 62 M. H. Primate, Pumpkin Sweet, . 57 57 Haas 59 H. Hagloe, .... 60 Ralls 62 Hibernal, 52 N. Ex.H. Rambo, 60 Holland Pippin, . 57 Red Astrachan, 54 W. H. 230 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table 5. — Mean Summer Temperatures — Concluded. 2 1^ §S Bi SQ m SQ i 3^ 6 s t with the facilities at hand. Insol- uble solids were deternuned by washing 25 grams with 500 cubic centimeters hot water on muslin filters, and drying on pumice fourteen hours at 95° to 98°. The reducing sugars were determined by reducing Fehling's solution and weighing the precipitate as cuprous oxide ; the sucrose, by means of the ])olariscope; and malic acid, by titrating with N/10 alkali with ])henolphthalein as an indicator. Most of the analyses were made during the winter of 1910-11. All samples, save those from Amherst, were shipped direct to cold storage in Holyoke, Mass., and transferred to Amherst a few samples at a time, as needed, where they were held as cool as possible. The Andierst samples, as well as all those of 1910, were kept in an excellent cellar storage at the college. The lab- oratory numbers were given in order of analysis, work being begun with No. 1 in November. 1910, and completed about ]\rarch 1. 1911. The samples of 1910 were analyzed in March, and while no notes of their condition were taken, it can be said that they were in excellent condition, most of them eating ripe. These analyses form the basis for the chemical side of the discussions of the different varieties in this ])aper. There are, however, certain questions not dealt with elsewhere which may receive consideration at this point. Nearly all the differences in analyses between the different samples, aside from those fairly attril)utable to the unavoidable errors of sampling and analysis, can be traced to one of two causes: (1) varietal differences; these are brought out in Table 1; (2) those attributable to different stages of maturity of the fruit. The chemical changes occurring in the growth and ripen- ing of the apple are clearly brought out in the work of the Bureau of Chemistry, reported in Bulletin 94 of the Bureau, and the reader is referred to that publication for a discussion of this question. During the past winter analyses were made of four samples in November and again in Februnrv. These were : — 234 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. November. February. November. February. Greening, Baldwin, No. 4 No. 1 No. 93 No. 98 Baldwin, Mcintosh, No. 2 No. 27 No. 97 No. 102 Reference to the analyses of these samples will show that they are in entire accordance with the resnlts reported in the above- mentioned pnblication. A stndy of the figures given shows that, as a rnle, varieties grown to the north of their natural range exhibit the characteristics of immatnre fruits. The analysis of the Ben Davis, sample 91, indicates an apple that failed to mature on the tree, and has gone down in storage after the manner of immature fruit. In general, the analysis of this variety shows that the more northern-grown specimens are low in solids and sugars and high in insoluble solids and acid, and the same is generally true of the other varieties. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 235 o p 03 _2 o a >. .§ 1 - a 6 a J3 "3 . .s s o a g 1 C 2 Msa 0 2 w '^ a -a a ii o ? •-.M .. a >. •^ 4) =^■1? ■S a 0^ 03 .2-: .. -1 1^ J2 'a q= > >> o J5 a-E- *C a a:^ ipe, or a li ficient; si ather flat; ripe. .a-3-C ■3 £? ^'S2 0 S2 a > o a M 8 3-i 3.S « 0 « as 013 q3 2?_g bC 01 03 rt K 05 Oi 6^ ^ <; 0 r/3 0 -d a -^ >. a o ta a ja 3 ■i" "2 J3 -3 0) 6 ■Ej2 ., s 0 J3 3 3 y. m 2 •o > J2 -3 J a o «a g 3 -3 £ T) C3 o to 60 per cen splashed; so sunny side, air. air; well cov intense. oor to good. ale; poorly stripes, ood; nearly b! pinkish. 2 3 *f ■3 8 £ a 0 -3 8 2 3 -* P^ fe P-t fL, 0 0 0 0 Q ^ ^ 2 0> to to a 3 s i a 3 a 3 — X § X X X •a X ^ •n -3 •o s § 3 «o t^ 0) S S «- s S s 4) 13 M s •(•^uao jaj) p '<*• .? ?2 to s? pioy o'l^M ■(■laao jaj) ■5 g s >C 00 S s 2 •* 0 sjBSng iB^ox o 00 1^ C-l o 0 CO 0 00 t^ "(tnao jaj) 00 g i? to 00 00 s 0 aeojang "^ rt — to M •* 00 o= 0 g s CO CO ejuSng anianpay 00 to to "5 00 to M iO M5 •0 ■(■jaao jaj) c^ 2 § to ift 0 CC CO CM s spipS aiqniog CO rf 2 s :: 0 S 2 ■M 0 •(•jnao jaj) ^ O 05 § § OJ 2 § s •* spijog aiqniosni "^ (M e-j « "^ IM £ 1 2 "« W c < > S 2 S 2 ^1 -o 1 S a 3 0 d a a -3 bC a 0. 1 o -< M o w r^. r^ 0 H ■Ji \ 236 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 3 a '■+3 d o O a; O a o -6 3 a is o T3 O 00 6 5^ a SI a '3 "a 3 o P 03 _2 -a a 03 (3 C3 o, 1 ^ o-no h u 1 •a 13 03 S 33 M "o I. 03 a 9 03 •q M O 03 •a 03 > O ja. a 01 T3 a 03 _o 2 S = 2 > O a C3 a 03 1 2a ia -a •d" 1 -5 8 0 0) § •^ s S § 8 V 3 m o 0 a o o b o fe :s o ta flH o > S S fe :^ O T3 -a a 03 3 -d o 1 — 3 -a j3 3 T) J3 -d 3 13 a 3 ^ ja o* • a S "o o 0) 0 o a TJ -s a a 3 T3 _3 3 •a -d o a 2 1 o a ^■6 13 a 1 a 03 8 bl 2 T3 1 bC 3 (-1 t-> ^ t: 01 01 >. u* ^ u >1 tH kt frt rt cS « o ca CS nt 0) ca Cli O ta U^ U< Uh rt o > Ix, (i< M (^ > (X4 k. Uh si > o a -2 T3 JD 3 1) s ^_ __ CO a 3 2 o 03 ^ ■* to ■« S oj s •ra •o ■ra to ^ X X X X X X X X a X X b 3 o g^ to to "ca to to to 0) 1 0> •(•^nao aaj) ^ o: 5 M) CO ■* ^ 00 CO J§ C5 s- o pioy a'FK •(•^uaO Jaj) in s 2J 00 s § o 03 s? 00 s o 00 g BJB3ng [TS'^OX CX3 o t^ O o 00 ■^ o o Ol C-l *•" Ol o> o •(•■4030 Jaj) 05 f2 -* (© s s 2 ■* ■f -* r- o s :2; s CO S aeojong •^ '"' ^^ *^ CO (M "^ CS CS '■' e^ •(■■jnao jaj) 00 ss § to 00 8 g 05 o 1^ to s g ■* CO o sj83ng Suionpay t^ ^ to 02 00 00 to t^ 00 00 o lO *^ a> 00 •(•^nao ia n s g s a> to CO spiiog aiqniog " - 3 22 CO ^ CO - 2 - CS - o CI 2 •(•4uao jaj) s g M CO ?i "5 s ^ S g M 53 S s spijog aiqniosai « (M (M CVI cq (M o ^ t^ 00 o •«f -* CO •o ;2 " U5 lO CO ^ ^ ^ to 00 f^ ^, oo CO u^ OJ f-H t~ ■* »— ' Ol o O ^ Xjo^Bjoq^q H fl S '-' '- 1^ W W m Sg CM . . ■^ eu aj 0! e S 3 C3 5 - • ■ r "trt -c ^ < s ^ a d O, . ►5 i o- % § >< c > § >i Q X <2 2 ■2 a a bt 3 o > 2 • S 'A ??; 3 6 1 ^^ bC ■< > J3 o Si E Q -5 a 3 a 5 a 1 1 J2 s > a 2 1 4i g 43 o >> O -<; 02 1-1 O M U < <1 ^ o fK m 0 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. ;jl. 237 6 «5 ±? d ^ .S- 3 « ^ — c3 a.:3 .3.. .- 2 .. a.a ■^. -^^ -5J ^ sis S •- S ^S 2 oooxiS g .ti > 2 S ^ 3 • - is ^* -S ^ "d"d o d 2 ^ o bc -- §£-§,, , , 8 a ^ a^:f - tn ■rT3 QO -^ -•** — * xxxfxx'' '■ xxxxxxxxx OS I- -H , ^ _ _ <© <© t~* r- 56 t-- o i^ i^ CI ■rf _ => >o 0 SB 0 05 ^ ^ ^^ S ^ m "^ CO CO •r; Co 00 t. 00 f. 0 to 00 _ (M <3> •0 CO ■^ r^ 0 ■0 i(5 00 00 00 U5 OS O) 0 0 -H 05 t^ 03 05 ^^ 05 0 ^H 0 C^ _, ^H ^^ '^ '^ "^ '^ "• -^ — ' c^ ^ ^ 00 Cq •4< 0 0 0 IM QO CO _ Tt< ^ 00 CO CO r- 05 CO '^ "• CO "^ "" C^l CO **« ^ .0 CO CO •^ 1< 10 CO c^ ■M CO CO ao to 0 0 -0 -x> 00 _ _ _ UO uo c^ 0 -^ I~* CO TJ< 0 00 CO CO CO 00 00 00 OS 05 35 ao 30 0 to to t^ to UO CO •^ 10 00 00 00 to to t^ -4 § 0^ QO s c^ to ^ c^ ^ 05 CO ^^ to to ■* CO 0 r^ f ^ CO C^I — ro ::2 ^ CO CO to 2 U5 s 23 ^ 2 0 "1* 2 2 ■^ ^ 0 ?3 0 5? •0 00 ■* •* <» _ f^ cq S ■n "5 0 ■ra 00 0 ■* to < o> C-I 0, CJ o 20 00 SS _ ^ to •^ ^ g 00 05 ■0 0 OS to 00 CO 00 Tft ■0 2 ■■0 2 CO CO to to 05 :2; 00 r^ ^ ^ 2 2 to t2 to to -t< CO 0 a> ?5 to s „ oa ■yf 0 0 2 ^ ^ a ^ ^ O r O S. g O s . O a* -3 ." .- . :3 '^ (2 s' ^ n =2 5 S "I § d i sf ° 1 :^ i 0 > J?; J' 3 _- .> r*^ •3 ~' '^ 2 n. -3 ^ O S o 238 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. a o Eh i i u ■a a 03 a) _5) 03 _2 a 03 qa -a a; j3 a 3 1 [m o o o I 1 2 ft 3 O d 2 03 3 C3 it u > o 5 "2 '3 d a o > d a 03 03 J3 i 3 d 03 ;^ 03 bO 3 O a 0. 3 O -a 73 1 a •13 1 u Q) 0, 1 ^ . S 03 ■- o-e o^T3 bC O ■a § 1^ ^ § >> o m '^ o o'F" 8l 01 fc- •a § O O > O I" > O (n Ph o > t-H O Dh O 1 bi) 6 a 03 0 0) bl 13 d 03 73 > o o d o 0) 1 o ^ J ja 1 a o 0) o h o a a o S m u >^ .5? tH |3 J3 bb bi ^" 1 "3 d ft o > o ^ > o ^ a g "3 >> o "3 'S 01 bi) 1 0) -a 1 S.i3-a 111 s o "3 c 3 J2 is ■ ja' 13 -a •T3 13 -a T3 „ o: ■•b 43-S^fT) ^T3 S R R R^ .t3 C i.2^8 0 03 rt o O o o o o fe > O « o o a aj 3 a S (M IM •^ f. en ■a hf) a S -a X X X X X 1 X X X X X ►J s S' OO 00 00 00 OO 00 t^ a> o o X! M C^uao J3J) J? 'J" S c^ I^ 00 00 CO s -^ m OO •^ 5: ppv ^n^'M C^aao Jaj) o o CO CO g 'S, ?? g 00 CO o g 10 BJBSnc^ IB^ox o o 00 t^ o ^ a, o «n o o 00 o 0 ■(•■jaao Jaj) 05 r; o ■^ 00 ,-: r^ ^ M< § s s CO 00 00 asojong CI (M •* "^ CO CO '^ CO **^ c^ ^ c^ '•^ ^ lO ^^ ^ ^ •* f^ •(:^n80 jaj) CO (M 05 '»t< Cs ■^ o> o OO T)< siBSng 3aionpa-jj 00 00 CO CO CO I>. 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CO N •0 tH CO > '^ (M 5^ N Ol Oi a> rt CO ■* 01 en ^ >o CO CO _, CO ir> •-< r— C^ c^ CO CO 00 o» 00 t- t^ ■* ■0 '»' CO CO 0 0 « t^ ■0 ■n ■^ 00 00 0 ;3 0 ^3 CJ 0 ^ ^ CO ■* 00 CO OJ 00 10 ^ ^, to 0 0 0 CO *-" t-* a> CO 00 ^H en 0 " 2 2 - a> ■^ 2 CO -»< ^ - 3 2 2 - -.1^ ^ CD -* 0 "5 ^ ^ CO CO CO s „ c^ ^-1 QO >« 'J" l« 00 « (M (M ^ (M N N IM (M C<1 IM - o> 00 R ^ t^ _ c^ ^ 00 8 > 0) » -3 o a) O S '^ « K « S -3 & 2; z w 2 S ■« 240 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan. o ^ > .2 'f 3 J2 73 Is i > 'i ja t-t ^ 73 § 0 M Lh "a 3 3 e -0 a o -a 0 a 01 > 4) 73 g 1 o ^ 0 s ° O 03 1 gS O CL, H k< > fa o ^ fa fa 73 O a> >> , « 73 t . <2 0 ^ m fl.tl ■a +j a 2 3 3 s 0 a =3 g 73" J ■a M OJ ^ fe i^ Z-^ _o 3 s is'"' sa > 8 0. E.S 0 03 S ft O > O a ^ -a g M 073 0) >- 5 So "3 is -J o-cS 0 O O J3 J3 -b % u i-A 73 SP 5^ 5 " 12 73.a' 85 0 S i; 0 oj 3 u £ '$■ fl( ^ O tf 0 a fa a o B S ■o t^ -3 X X X X X X 73 X X s " 00 00 S 00 N •(•jnao jaj) s C-1 S o -^ ■* o s r^ -*i ppv ^il^M •(■^uao jaj) t^ s S >o s C9 ■* s CO ■* Bjn3ng iB^ox s 02 ^ ^ ^ » C5 0 01 0 •(•}n80 jaj) s § o o g3 CO K 00 1^ TO TO asojong CO -* IM TO CM TO CM CM •(•jaao Jtaj) O >ra '^ lO TO 05 CO 0 § s sii33ng Snpnpajj o> c» t^ 00 00 CO t^ t~ 00 Cinao jaj) ffl o >n TO 00 s r^ •(5 S I^ spiiog eiqniog M< 2 TO TO ^ ^ ^ ■«:*< 2 2 •(■qaao jaj) s S S O £3 00 CO 22 CO 10 0 epijog ajqnjosni CM >ra g f2 CO 01 S gpnog iB^ox - »o CO to -^ t!2 £2 ^ ^ ^_, C^ f^ 05 00 •jaquiniiq; « CO t- 00 00 XjOiBJoqBq o n. P o O O S * »^ w ( ) . :; -a 3 ^ Q 1 e e g - - >5 ^ 0 0! . S5 a, e c" ^ 01 Q M a "3 s (V d a 03 < 0 1 i a w 73" K fe J -< Sn s •^ S UJ fa ^ 0 > Hi R 03 >. 03 s OS S 01 ^ ^ w o ^ ^ M lull. rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 241 T3 Z > O fe ba' -»•<-» j-t ^ O > > '^. .£? -wot- o o u 3 si?' 3 a^' * t- . .. 3°T3 5 O O > o o - 3 a o o > (i< a, PL, o O XXX xxxxxxxx a s ►J Q Q 2 e .ii .^ a ^ < jS ^ U ra ►3 ^ 5: Q CO O OO O 00 lO »0 »C CD WD X X X X X '5. o ;-j ^ ^ rvi ^ <-l ^ r-1 ^^ e^ '^. ^ "^ ^ "*. CO ■* 00 ■* lO 02 CO (M a> CO CO _, o> CO Oi o „ 00 c^ M M 00 c>? ■o lO W3 00 00 CO -tf* C^ ■» o ^H ^^ cq ^H o t^ oo o t- o '-' "^ "^ '^ — ' -' '^ •* s CO CO lO CD _, CVl CO CO Q CO CO ^ t~ CO 05 ■* CD CO o (M o ^H ^ •^ r^ •" '^ (N •* CO CO CO c^ CO CO « (M " CO e>> 3 ^ CO f^ f^ ^ 00 O) r. 00 'l* ■* tn "5 a> CO «5 CO '^ CO o ^ «n CO CD f^ oo ^ ^ f^ '^ 00 00 t^ I^ 1^ CD '^ lO ^ 00 M ^ r» ^^ ,^ ^ s o CO ^ 00 ■* lO t^ CO t-^ r- 00 o U5 CO ■O >ra ^ !M C<1 2 £3 "* CO CO ■>J< 22 s - o « " ■* IM Ol .ra CO §8 00 .* ^ c^ ^ rH t^ Tf CO CD N M W CO c^ Oq CA C-) IM C-) ^ ■^ IM M •^ CO CO ■>!< CO 1^ 2 ^ lO >ra CO CO ::; 2 2 ^ >o >n -* ■^ 2 t~- •* „ _ _ CD 05 o o _< I^ CO IM Oi 05 "1 1 eg 01 . ■* d C3 i i Z is ^ i '£ a a 0 to a .9 J3 as M u bO a 1 d -** ■-3 a 8 o M s l •E £ o £ 1 0) o ■« 3 2 -a 0) i I! 0 >. 6 1 0. •a .2" 3 o "0 i 03 .5" '5 o 8 '5 c o H .2 X e! g 1 8t^ a ci >. 1 fa < > Z H C > c > S > ■a •3 o o o o fe 1-1 01 1 3 o 6 a i 8 "3 > 8 "3 > o o s d o 15 c '5. 3 ■0 a 'o 2 ^ •a ^ a q o i^l a 8 J3 -0 1 i- £ h 1 O ■3 hi 0 0 1 CS ^ C3 01 71 a O O *3 0 0 fa fa > > W O > fa a 0 § •ca 00 B ■40 u 53 -2 3 gi ra CO ■* ■^ g 1; i pi3\r oipn s ■(•?nao J3J) ^ " ^ o § ^ ■^ to OS g to 1 BiBSng iwjox oi o ^ o OS o o 00 ci 0 1 1> •(•^uao jaj) 5g CO ~W ". to ^ co 10 CO t>- asoaong N CO '^ CO CO CO CO '" e^ co H PQ •(•jnao J3J) ^ "^ ~H" s OS « ^ ^ Oi < Eh sjB3ng Suionpa^ to *" >n to to to CO '^ '^ to •(•;u90 jaj) s ^ n; 1^ s ^ ^ 0 00 0 SPHOS ^iqnios ^ CO -" ci ci ci c^ N ^ CO •(nuao Jaj) Ol ^ f^ o 'W OO « ° ^ ^ spiiog aiqnioeni M CO oi CO ei cq c^ CO (M CO ■{■%U90 Md) « s ^ lO CO •^ C; ^ s CO epilog itnox U5 to m lO i« "5 •« >o i«5 to ■jaquinjsj 00 s Sg s S 'J" 00 3 •>»< 00 Xj(n'BJOqBT[ o B D O a r 6 1 Q i ^1 . . .i< ji •< d -a a "3 Q M a a" a* a' ■0 -< ■a a 2 a < > a 5 1 1 o 1' a 1 1 a a ■3 a be a *c a fa 1 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 243 VII. SUMMARY. Some of the more important results of this work may be sum- marized as follows : — 1. The many variations in apple varieties arise from many- causes, which may be grouped as (1) cultural, using the word in a broad sense; (2) soil; and (3) climatic. Of climatic in- fluences, temperature is the most potent. 2. The life history of the apple may for convenience in dis- cussion be divided into four periods: (1) growth, extending from the blossom to the attainment of full size; (2) ripening, extending to the time of harvest; (3) after ripening, extending to complete edible maturity; and (4) decay, covering the period of physiological breaking down. 3. The apple of superior table quality is high in sugars, espe- cially sucrose, and low in insoluble solids, indicating a tender flesh and fine texture. The acid is proportionate to sugars; the ratio may vary somewhat to accord with different tastes. Good kitchen apples are wider in ratio of sugars to acid, and the pro- portion of insoluble solids is of little significance. Good ship- ping apples are high in insoluble solids. 4. In any variety of apples, high development at full nui- turity is marked by the attainment of full normal size for the variety, high color, well spread over the apple, and a high devel- opment of sugars, especially sucrose. .5. Each variety has a characteristic chemical composition, fairly constant when perfect maturity is attained. Most of the difi'erences found in difi'erent samples of a variety are due to a difference in the stage of development reached. 0. The fruit of individual trees shows slight differences in A/c, color, form and abundance that are characteristic and not due to environmental conditions. Some of this may be due to bud variation, but it is believed that most of it is due to the in- terrelation of stock and scion. 7. Variation in form in the Ben Davis, and probal)ly in other sorts as well, is due principally to the temperature during n period of about two or three weeks following blossoming. The lower the temperature the more elongated the apple. This elon- 244 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. gation is seen in apples grown near large bodies of water, which lower the temj^erature at this season of the year, and in seasons when the tem^Derature is low owing to seasonal fluctuations. This influence is also seen in the form of apples in different parts of the tree. Those in the lower north portion are more elongated than those from the warmer, upper south portion. 8. Seasonal temperature aft'ects the size of apples, a cool season resulting in smaller fruit. This is marked only in full- season varieties, and is especially noticeable in the more north- erly portions of their distribution. On the other hand, in the extreme south a variety is apt to be smaller than when grown in a somewhat cooler climate. 9. For convenience in discussion, IvTorth America may be divided into seven apple belts, each having a fairly character- istic list of varieties. These are named and illustrated in the text. 10. Some varieties are of wide distribution; others more or less limited. Varietal qualities favoring a wide distribution are (1) great hardiness of tree, (2) a short season of development, (3) great vigor and ability to thrive under generally unfa- vorable conditions, (4) productiveness and good market qual- ities. 11. The northern limit of apple growing is fixed by the min- imum winter temperature, and the southern limit by the heat of the hottest part of the summer, occurring usually in July or Augaist. 12. The attainment of the highest quality, appearance and keeping quality is very largely dependent on the warmth and length of the growing season. This may be measured with fair satisfaction for the apple-growing regions of ISTorth America by an average of the mean temperatures for the months of March to September inclusive. This is called the mean summer tem- perature, and give temperatures ranging from 52° to 72°. 13. Factors determining the mean summer temperature in a given orchard are (1) latitude, (2) elevation, (3) site and as- pect, (4) soil, (5) culture, (G) prevailing winds, (7) sunshine. 14. The optimum mean sunnncr temperature for different va- rieties may be determined with fair satisfaction, and some deter- ii i 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 245 ininations are shown in Tabic 5. A departure of over 2° from this mean will result in less desirable fruit, though this may not be marked in short-season varieties. 15. A summer mean too low for a variety results in (1) greater acidity, (2) increased insoluble solids, (3) greater as- tringency, (4) less coloration, (5) decreased size, (6) scalding in storage. 16. A summer mean too high for a variety results in (1) uneven ripening, (2) premature dropping, (3) rotting on the trees, (4) poor keeping quality. (5) lack of flavor, (6) "meali- ness," (7) less intense color (8) decreased size. 246 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. COMPILATIONS. Introduction. BY J, B. LINDSEY. A compilation of the chemical composition of fodder articles, agricultural chemicals and manurial residues was first made by Prof. C. A. Goessmann and his assistants in 1887, and published in the fifth report of the Massachusetts State Agricultural Ex- periment Station, pages 181-227. This compilation included all analyses made by Goessmann and his co-workers since 1868. It was later enlarged to include compilations of the analyses made at this station of dairy products, fruits, garden crops and insecticides. The parties largely responsible for the details of the several compilations were W. H. Beal, C. S. Crocker, J. E. Lindsey, H. D. Haskins, E. B. Holland and P. IT. Smith. In 189G the classification of fodder articles was considerably modi- fied and improved ; the present compilation of agricultural chemicals and manurial residues has undergone a similar re- arrangement, and the available analyses have been added to the compilation of fruits and garden crops. Naturally a few mate- rials, being no longer of interest, have been omitted. The tables of compilations are as follows : — Table I. Composition and Digestibility of Fodder Articles, pp. 247- 265. Table II. Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles, pp. 266-271. Table III. Analyses of Dairy Products, p. 272. Table IV. Coefficients of Digestibility of American Fodder Articles, pp. 273-303. Table V. Analyses of Agricultural Chemicals, etc., pp. 304-323. Table VI. Analyses of Fruit and Garden Crops, pp. 324-338. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 24: Compilation of Analyses of Fodder Akticles AND Dairy Products, made at Amherst, Mass., 1868-1910.^ p. H. SMITH AND J. B. LINDSEY. Table I. — Composition and Digestibility of Fodder Articles. I. Green fodders, (a) Meadow grasses and millets. (b) Cereal fodders. ( c ) Legumes. (d) Mixed and miscellaneous. 11. Silage. III. Hay and dry, coarse foddei-s. (a) Meadow grasses and millets. (b) Cereal fodders. (c) Legumes. (d) Straw. (e) Mixed and miscellaneous. IV. Vegetables, fruits, etc. V. Concentrated feeds. (a) Protein. (b) Starchy. (c) Poultry. Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles. Table III. — Analyses of Dairy Products. Explanation of Table I. Under composition the figures mean that each 100 pounds of the fodder contains so many pounds of water, protein, fiber, etc. Water. — The approximate average which is likely to occur in the material is stated. Ash refers to the residue which is left behind when the material is burned, and consists of lime, potash, soda, magnesia, iron, phosphoric and sulfuric acids. Protein is a collective name for all of the nitrogenous matter; it corresponds to the lean meat in the animal, and may be termed > Part III. of the report of Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry. 248 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. " vegetable meat." It serves as the exclusive source of flesh, as well as a source of heat or energy, and fat. Fiber is the coarse or Avoody part of the plant. It may be called the plant's framework. It is a source of heat or energy and fat. Nitrogen-free extract represents the sugars, starches and gums. It is the principal source of heat or energy and fat. Fat includes not only the various oils and fats in all grains and coarse fodders, but also waxes, resins and coloring matters. It is also termed ether extract because it is that portion of the plant soluble in ether. It serves as a source of heat or energy and body fat. Under digestibility the figures mean that so many pounds of protein, fiber, nitrogen-free extract and fat in 100 pounds of the fodder are actually digested and made use of by the animal. No feed is entirely digestible; concentrates are more digestible than coarse fodders. The data inider digestibility have been worked out by actual experiment. In cases where no figures appear, data as a result of experiments are lacking. Net Energy Value. — The entire amount of heat or energy contained in a feeding stuff is termed its total heat or energy value. All of this heat or energy cannot be utilized by the animal for the purposes of maintaining its body in a state of equilibrium, or for aiding in the production of growth and milk. The several losses may be enumerated as follows: (a) the undigested material, i.e., the faeces; (b) the incom- pletely used material of the urine; (c) the work required in the proc- esses of digestion and assimilation in preparing the nutrients so that they can be used for maintenance and for the production of growth and milk. These several sources of loss expressed as energy, deducted from the total energy, leaves the real or net energy value. The calorie is the unit of energy measurement. The small calorie represents the amount of heat required to raise 1 gram of water 1° C. The large calorie represents the amount of heat necessary to raise 1 kilogram (1,000 grams) of water 1° C. The therm, a name proposed by Armsby, represents the amount of heat required to raise 1,000 kilograms of water 1° C. It is to be pre- ferred to the small or large calorie as a unit of measurement be- cause it can be expressed in fewer figures. In the last column of the following table, headed net energy value, is given the number of therms contained in 100 pounds of tlie different feeding stuffs, based on the results of very carefully conducted experi- ments by Kellner, a German investigator.^ > For a fviU explanation of the components of the animal body, the composition of feeds, the different ways in which the food is ixsed in the animal body and the explanation for using the therm in the calculation of rations for farm animals, see Farmers' Bulletin 346, United States Department of Agriculture, prepared by H. P. Armsby. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 249 s a M .3 •(stujoqx) '^''•^ 1 o a> •>* <3I -JBA A3-iaua »3N 0:> o> o> o> ~ c^ CO !>^ •jBj O o o 1 1 1 d B •■tOBJixg 1 1 1 1 o o •^ J aajj-aaSoJH^ 1^ t^ t~ ' ' ' ta U » ^H •jaqij ■q< 1 1 1 1 M Ol •uiaiojj; o d 1 1 1 m a> to in n •^ „ •* "* 00 ■<*< -.J* CO ■* "i^d o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ■^OBJixa c^ t^ ^ lO o ,^ t^ "5 « r- t~ e» •* ^ z aaj}-aa3onijvj ^ CO M* o o ai o o o ^ o o ^ OS 05 •* 00 o ^ Tt* o 00 M CO ■* lO M to •wqiKi 00 o o to t^ t^ J-^ H 00 O Ci< a C CD >o o •-1 00 05 1^ T-i CO lO Oi c» o •uia^oaj -^ ■M cq "^ "^ '"' o '-' "" " ■" — o " ■* ^^ o o to -.1* (N •>*< « .-< c^ •* (M r* •qsV -■ - •4< CO ^ -. -H CO 22 -^ - -H N 00 JO jaquin^ ^ s 3 to ^ .o H a c ^ ^ '^ K Q Q o 05 .Jg 'oc ^ 3 • fV, r^ 2; 1 1 a 1 s .3 1 1 g 5 e J a T3 1 'o £ s 3 1 '2 S 1 1 § d Oh 1 t I g 3 C e ■^ Q ^ ns 1? o bC a o ? s t -^ .*.:> ^-^ '—' h u> > n3 d b a. — d bi) d i s 6 6 1 bi d 4) .3 K d B. 4 J? B S 1 ^ E -0 a >. d ^ o e2 siail!"! JIBI-XOJ njoo-iuoojg e 250 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. H [a o Q S Q a O - f^ -§ a o a ^ ! H 8 o O u m (sniaanj^) sen 1 00 t^ en 1 1 o CO 1 00 o. -IBA A3J9aa iON 00 o " (M -" '-' CO CO -* CO »< OO o 00 'i^VA -* "5 •j es - - '^ - ^ ^ '- -' " 05 ^ ■* CO o o eo o to t— OS o CO ••laqij O t>- OS t>- ■* CO CO to U5 Hj4 •a ■»< ■♦ •* t: to g •>(l - ■<(< o o a. C^ o „ OS •qsy '"* "^ c^ "^ o o c^ ^ '"' o '^ '^ ^^ o ••i*»BM g s s JO g s m s s § s § s § saS/'Li'Buv ,H CO ^ ^ ^ to -* ■^ o r^ to JO aaquin^ a o U 8 1 1 CO 00 ii § ■ H •w o H Q e > * fc. S o e s a C ^; 3 c3 8 d o 1 1 s 1 c e 3 >. .2 — -o ^' 1 1 -2- C3 1 a o Q Id 3 1 d 0 be d d CIh a a a ^ ^ T) 0) T1 1 ID ;„• 0) 2 3 T1 T1 T) ■n -w 13 a E o o o o 0 >, :>, -— V » a fl a a a 0 d d d d Ah ►-3 0 d 6 d 6 d 6 d d O i 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCOIENT — No. 31. 251 _H 00 00 o o 00 •* CO e» ,, ^ 0 -r 0 to C-1 M •* ^H o .-1 Ol o ^t< CO _H ' " ^ „ N „ « „ CO c^ CO to ■o lO •* ■* CO •.J" c^ CO M U5 CO o o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •.*« CO ^ 00 OS ^ ^ -* ■* 10 0 (M ^ to IM 02. CS 05 CI 00 to '^ (^ o 00 00 01 00 00 to to to o o 00 00 rt o ^ ^ to ,^ •.** >o 00 ^ ."f 0 CO CO CI C-l ■.*< m "* to to ■* ■^ CO CO . to rt o •o rt ^ "5 >ra to 0 r^ ^ o '"' o o IM '^ c<> ^ ■M 0 0 0 0 IM (M o CO rX ■.*< ■* a> in o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N CO ^ CO f~ ■* o to (M (M ^ 05 ^ 0 (M CO CO 2 2 s 22 - ^ " •* CO - 0 - - - OJ to 00 av ■>X o Tjl to .* to o. lO o to a> o CO IM en ■.* !M IM CO •.J* •0 "5 •^ CO ■* ■* "* T»< t^ 02 00 o 00 00 to >o to to to ■* in> ■^ n ^ o 00 o to ^ 1(5 CO to ci 00 s» " 0 IM IM ^ Ui 10 CO CO OS 00 o 02 o c^ o r^ lO o •* to (M 0 05 0 to a> ^ to o o o ^^ o '"' '^ c^ "^ *"* ^ ^ ^ ^^ *"* 0 '^ "^ 0 IM 2 a, s "a g CI 3 fi T5 ^^ 0 s •.a ■9 la > > 1 a 8 s ^" 8 XI a 0) =3 < 1 CU 1 01 0 •Si ■a 1 a 3 -a -a o •73 1 t3 T3 T3 ■a o T3 ? -a -a o 5 a s a E 3 s 3 a" 3 a 2 1h a a £ 2 2 Z 2 o a ■s M bO M ,03 >> >. d d d d d d is 6 ^ 6 5 « 5: 0 0 72 -2 -/^ < rg c? 0 J3 ^ if 0 S 0 bn n -0 m e s 252 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. o o « Q Q O o M CS « a H a Q I o q .n ^ bO o o o O m •(suijaqx) san .^^ =•' o r. CO ■* 1 o CO -H o= c, w -jTSA XSaang ^3n ci Cji o oo _ ^ ^ p^ CO CO CO ■* CO CO CO Tj* -* '* T>< CS •}T?J o o o o o o o o o O o o •^OBJ'JXa o CO 1(5 CO IM (M 1 CO 1 CO CO « o> „ >J aajj-aaSoj^i^ CO ■o O CO c> CO CO t^ o ra H M -tj< 00 CO t^ 1-H a> ■* o m CS 00 .-H O ■j^qM !M (M (M CM (M ^ CO CO (M CO CO (M Q IM CO ^ in o CO ■* o ■^ CO •n ^_, •uiajojj M CO CO CO CO CO M C^l " C<1 IM M CD W5 U5 ^ o CO o >o ■* CO CO CO ^ CO ■« CO o> 00 o o o ■* CO t^ t^ ''^ 00 00 CO 00 *^ 00 00 cr> OS == t~ CO i. ca «5 •o o t. (M ■* o 00 f. t^ o IM CO U5 0 •wqw •o •ra X5 o •^ '^ lo CO in U5 TJH CO t^ CO CO H 0 s O —I <^J O lo 00 CO CO rt o « CO «5 00 00 00 •uia^ojj rf •n CO CO 00 O! 00 ^ CO CO 05 o •qsy (M M OJ o, ■* 00 -a o ■a fc^ j3 d a a n Cj C3 a a a a a a o s S i~. XI ^ J2 XI ^ ^ > > > > ^ > 11 03 5 >, >, >, >, o 0 o o o o o s ^ m ^ :^ c^ o C O o O o O 11)11.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 253 o CO TO o o ^ cc 00 m „ m a> 00 00 00 00 00 to to r- t^ c» 00 00 « ^ „ (M C-l Ol CO C>1 c^ C c^ CO CO CO (M o o 1 ^ to c^ « r 1 1 1 1 1 en oo ' CO 1 o (M n lO CO .* »1< in -K .* >o lO to 05 CO f_ Td .* -.^ ^ in to in o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ^ f ^ to 00 _ oo CO >o o o to lO in ^ r^ ■* T)H ■o< C<1 (M CO ^ « . ^, ■* - - ^. . 3 F O S p. ■B o o 3 U . , J5 XI y •^ ■a 3 ■T3 a C3 .9 _fl "a IS a a a _c ^ 'w 1 5 "^ a 1 "a 1 e a ■a -- s ;^ i s L. •£ 1 '1 3 o ! & Q, c o t3 e e ^ V ^ a — ^— ' '■—' ^ ^^ OS u. 0^ Q.' (C 0^ tt," tt. » « 3 a. J.. o e JS J3 ja 0. >> 1 1 03 a 3 o ^ > -a -a s "5 — 3 j3 3 2 2 2 2 c3 _3 13 ■J o ■1 d 05 a S TJ > -3 D ta ta 1 1 1 ^ -s ^ ^ ja a C3 s 0 I £ > O Ui s a o 2 a o s a ^ OJ 03 fe ^ & 3 3 § s § To « ^ a 1 _d a "u d d d a a c3 6 a w £ CJ 3 0. ^ & ^ W 05 a o o ■2s eu a . e a « a> to 05 ■■5 % a O S 2 T)-« e a 254 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. o H o « Q Q O O O s o u ■(suuaqx) ean 1 1 1 1 0 CO r ■* r. 1 1 -IBA ^Siang ^8>j '-" ■* (M CO •«< ■^■eg. 0 0 0 0 "joBJ^xg 1 1 1 1 1 CO 1 W 1 0 0 0 1 J aojj-aaSoj^i^ n H H 00 CO •* 0 1-4 0 •»qi5 ' ' CO Tfi ■4< ^ I 0 0 0 CO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •■joBJIxg eajj-uaSoj^if^ ■^ •"J" m 0 >o 0 00 CD •* 00 ^ CO 05 CO !5 0 0 0 00 Oi Cs 00 OJ 00 00 00 - >ra CO 0 CO IM "5 00 >CI 0 ta CO 0 ■* en xo CO 0 •wqu in 10 0 t>- «o' CD to CO CO CO CO M C-J C^J H 01 0 to —< t^ ■* t^ •* 01 CO 0 t^ ■<»< 0 T(< CO 0 •uiajojj (M c^ ^H M IM C-1 N ^^ CO (N CO ^ ^ CO U •« 00 t^ 00 U5 >« ^ CO 00 00 CO CO ^ 05 •qgy '^ '^ "^ '~' ^^ ^^ '^ '^ ^ ^^ ^^ 0 0 M< ■ja^BM s g s s s § § s § g s 00 § S •saB^CBuv CO -H ■* ^ cq - ■* ^ CO -H ■»< CO r- - JO jaqmn^j d • 0 ^ 0 1 ■ 0 1 i on 0: s ■ w ^ a a ■^ s 0 U z a (S 0 ^ ■ ■B e e -^ ■s 1 c > > i • Si 0 T3 a a 8 1 3 T3 0 cj -0 c3 ^ § -a 1 1 "' 1 1 s C3 a cl 0. d 03 1 M J g cl c3 a C3 a T3 a 0 •T3 d 03 0 03 1 e a ■3. 1 L4 ^ 0 u 02 s H 0 CL, !» > > < SC U 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 255 CO o> -H o o a> oj o ■* to d d 0» I -H lO t^ »c lO CO CO ■.«< W (M ^ CO eq us (N eo r- c» o 00 dooooodo 00 00 d d ^^ t>. .-I iooo3r>-ooiOO'* ^HT-lc^(M.-tW3t>»03 -H O 00 CO c^ c^ c^ OOUS-^OOCOCOCOCO l>> -H IM c. J ■m S O W O w 2oG EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. , 'IS nuatrT.) san cc t- ^ _ X _ „ ^ — «o -jBA-iSiana wx ^ " CM r* ?= g ^ X S § = X _ ^ _ X ^ _ t^ » •IB J ~ ~ " " ~ — — •" = = •lOExirj r, = r. = -r X c^ ^ - = a aajj-aasonix =•"' CJ S =■' ri C-i « r; =. ;£ 0 t^ N 3 •<=• 0 -t _ 3 X ■raqrj _■ (^ — " X f^ t~- 0 ' ^' ~> t- ">? 1 a ~ " ~ _ _ ^ _ _ _ „ _ _ X -a- ■^ •maioy — 0 e; ^- — ^ r» ' ' .,- « M ,."*^ 1 1 _ f^ ^ t~ ^ _ ^ ^ ^ „ ^ ,^ c^ — -^ •»bj: 1 _^ _^ __ _ Aj _ _ ^ ^ -^ _^ D M c^ n m a r;. •lasnrj - = - — - - C; - ra = -' u: - — X ^ aaji-aa3 2 •ni3iai(j t; — X X X — — i:; — _ r- — t^ := 0 ^ : ^ >• - _ ^ _ „ _ ^ _ _ _ ^. ^ _ ^ rs M T. 1 1SV t^ x. t^ — t= — ^ ^ ^ e s t^ t^ t^ » — 5 = r ^ ^ ^_ ^ ^ _ . ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ .- ■~ s ^ t i •jais_ii r •S^AfCTTV t-- - X r-. t~ -r == - - tJ •<< -»• r-. c. - z z :o jaqtur.^s; o J 1 1 i 1 ,5 T X s 1 1 ■5 e f ■A I ■« a: ■5 :5 -? ^ ^ - .= -i < 2 ; ~. i •^ e ^ 0 >> 3 9 5 5: 5 ■£ e 0 :§ S 1 1 ■SS 1 1 5 § 3 ^ s :5 1 2 - ■3 - s "s ^ V, 'i 5 •2 ^ u * ■< ■e 39 i _o 1 1 »: e 3 1 3 ■£ i !< ^ 1 I 1 "S 5s a: tf 5 E c "^ >. >1 H. tt u " " "— >. r= ^ i : ^ 53 ^ — -■' ^ ~ ^ S* ^ ^ * — C u ^ •5 = =: = ^ Si ~ ~ ~ s .s 5 - - ^ 1 s •namK c C :; £ J :2 ^ :l •sXcq Ji^a' 191.1. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 257 C^ C^ CO 00 00 f* o d d o d X O C5 3 C3 CS -^ d o ^ O O C5 t^ ■^ "(J* -^ ^o w c^ c^ c^ ■* CC CO lO 30 C4 CO o ■^ C^ Cv< C^ O 00 cs — :D Cs O O oo O ro •^ CO cc c^ ■*** X C^ C<1 c^ ro ro c^ r* X t* d t- t^ ddow5Ci^^rOrc»o — C^ !N c^ — ; X — C^ C^ C^ M r^ c^ C* C^ !M X O o -^ ro lO !>. o x -^ O O lO C^ -^ -H — -^ — X ^ ^ 1-1 »o :] ^ Cf 2 ja 5 3 g •(-» 'S •n a 1 ■a ^ S • s o » s o 3; -3 a a 1 J 3 O 3 3 > *a 3 s 2 6« 3 o c ! 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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 259 »0 00 O CO -• ' ' ' !-i I I I I "3 - O O ^ t^ C^ t>- Tt« ^ ^ OOJiOCOcOCOOWS-^fO^H i--^^c7io.oooscqMiooo o— irtd_ddd-i-H'd — I o o C^ 00 O O (M CO »0 ^H CO ^H -^ C^ C ^ ^ •lOBJ^xg; t^ 1 1 -* t^ 1 0 1 t^ 0 a> to 0 CO J aajj-aaSoj^i^ (M 5^ r^ t-- n !0 M to 0 ^^ CO 0 (N 00 10 r^ o ■•laqid: to ^ ' ci t^ 05 to CO rt Q "^ ^ 00 •* CO ^ W5 o> ^ ^ CO ^ •niajojj oi ":> CJ ' 00 02 to ^ ?5 n IM CO 0JJ »o ^ ^ to U5 to 00 0 ^ •* •0 OS t^ ^^ U CO ^ 00 C<) to ■* _, to „ C^ t>. N r- t~ to (< C-J ■«< to ■* to ■<1< CO ^~* -* 00 ^ o r^ 0 0 a> 05 ^ 00 r>- 01 00 00 •ja^iJM •sasAiBny « ^ CO 2 -H 0, CO « CO s CO - - - 00 }0 jaqninN s O to Q fl ■ • a fa 6 0 H a 1 ■ • fi a a Ij 0 Z ■< ■2^ • «*-. a Oh o O Sfl ^ ■0 2 s a ^ o O > 1 s 5 8 a a? d >) *t-. 0 S i 1 a ■3 Ml ■n 2 £ i s IS 2 T3 i 3 1 s 3 s 6 1 s 3 a 1 s -s 2 6 i 1 a 0 1 g 0 a 0 ■3 J 0 0 3 P3 a 1 '3 1 ■3 Q bC •3 Q 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 261 00 1 1 •* 1 1 CO d ' 1 1 d ' 1 OS CM 00 1 00 CO 1 CO 1 1 :■ d 1 1 •* d - 00 •* :■ OO d d 1 ' to d •* ' ■* •4> c» CO o 00 ' ' CO (M 1 1 d od to CO CO 00 o 00 s Tf ' 1 M d 1 ira 5i ' ' 1 1 1 ' d 00 s o CI 00 ^. to ' ' O 1 ' CM ci o d o 1 1 CO O ' 1 o «3 d d o CO CO 00 CO o 00 d 1 ' 00 1 d 00 CO d CO o to CO d to CM CO ^ CO d CO CO d CO CO §5 •* 5 CO d c-i CO od 00 o "5 n "5 00 00 d in d 00 d CO CO •* 05 o s o "5 CO to CO 00 •^ o 00 Oi d us " d 00 d oq CO d CO d C31 00 CO to o o ■^ c o en d o :^ o d CO to d d d to c^i to CI OO CO o CO CO CM CM co' CO d iOiOO»OOOOOiOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 00»0000iOS00t^Ci00^HO00Ci0lO»0C000'— 'OOOO ^ ^ — ^ — ■ -d 1 'a 'e ||||a^iii"^l£sa|||-f«||i 262 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. o o ^ O [X. » 3 « O O •(suijaxix) eon 1 o 1 1 CO 1 -. 1 1 1 1 1 -IBA XSjaaa }a>j -<*< 00 o 00 (M OS (M W5 •Vi^ M IM CO ^ t^ " •^DBJixg <» 00 Oi - lO Ol -H ^ aajj-uaSoj}!^ M CO •*^ CO n fn N CO sn CO CO CT> o oo o ■■i8q!>i Tjl CO ■. o CO •uiajojj t^ (M <» - - o CO CO M* o o t^ CO oo f. lO CO ■* t^ ^ 00 •IB J CO Tf lO IM •^ W5 ^^ O o CO (M o z aajj-naSoji!M s s? lO >o s s CO o CO CO s ■^ -"f o o lo CO ^ CO t~ CO rt ■^ CO „ lO 05 u •wqij >o o o 00 Ol o W5 00 ■* J^ o CO lO lO 0 CO ,_) _. CO CO o •* ,_! 05 ■>)< CT> CO ■* o o •nia:)Oij M CO CO lO >ra CO rt' OS CO o CTi o •* oo U " CO M 00 Cd o ^ ■o CO 00 t^ 05 CO CO ■* •qsy •^ «5 lO CO ^ o IM CO lO IM '^ ^ CO 00 o O o o o o O o o o O o o o •J8;t3M o O o o QO CO S2 c::> oo e-1 ^ ^ ^ "5 ■s8sX|'Bnv t- •* CO -H - f- C-) ■* CO -H - -. ^ JO jaqamjsi e • Ci I •^ • o o a P^ s • e • s H CO y-. 5 « H is N o 1 C3 "tfl \-i S ' a 3 > 1 a a '3 ^" "3 0. i 1 XI a a a C3 J3 2 S 2 1 n "o R g o i 1 CS 3 "3 rt "S "S -fc3 CS C >. 13 -0 a 3 > CJ A A Jd J3 A -M Lri 3 o ^ 5= IS n « « 0 m m O u U 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 203 I I I I .-I (M O CO O CO I I I I O U5 d CO CO o I I I CO OS o r^ o CO I I I I I I I 00 ■* CO US O ■*' I I I I iOO-.l^COOi 05C0C^t^00l0O'o-*dcoco ' cot^coco-*->»<-a*0i'*CaC^Cl ^lo>oSt--St-cococococot-cO'*cocqcOcoo ta M CO o 1 o ^ ci OS CO CO 00 00 OS c-i OS o o CO CO e-1 - t^ n 1 o oi 00 o (M 00 00 05 r 00 03 "5 OS CO 00 •* " ;^ o Ol «5 CO o ■* '^. '^. :^ oo o o ■<»' ^ CO 1 CO CO o >n « o :: CD OS CO 5 « oi OS CO ^- CO CO o o o 00 o o o o o o o o o o o 00 o o o o o o o o o o CO - c, ■o 00 o 2 o CO 00 OS CO 00 >o - lO - •* - i - ■<»l -- lO • 1 a • o — -^ 2 S 3 S = s OOOOOOOO! cj o O rr' h-i »s OOUOOOOOf^K 264 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. '« s « Q O O o o U •(Binjaqx) ^^^ t^ N 05 CJ >« t- c» CO -\-e\ XSjaaa C|ajs[ »^ ^ CO en 00 00 s ^ ^ — 00 r- "5 ■o CO ■ >n o» CO CD 00 CO 03 o CO CO ^^ o; o CO CO U5 Oi "* -* N ""^ Tt< '^ CO o CD cq >o CO ^^ CO '"* •^OBijxg ■* t. o M< t^ CO a> 00 00 00 tH Oi CO -# OO 13 O 38JJ-n9§OJ|I|^ U U5 "5 5 CO CD t^ 'Jl s s CO CO CO g in n< OO •»*^ OO r^ CO ^ CO CO CO ^ 00 CO ^ '^^V.d 00 00 ._^ CD o ^ o o lO CO ,_, CO CO CO H CO c» Oi S o CO Ol 1— 1 d o ■* 1^ 00 1^ >o 00 OO UO o •ara^ojj »< 00 ^ u ^~' '"' '^ '"' ^^ " O o ■o •o ''^^ ,^ •*f CO ^ IM CO o 00 t^ 1^ •qsy CO CO lO lO »o C-1 (M o c^ 00 CO CO ^ '^ '^ o o o o o o •<** o o o o o o o o •Ja^HAV ,_, N t^ f^ ^^ Ci ,_, ^^ ,_, _, OO CI CO CO ^ " " " " •sasA]Bny o o (M t^ c^ •z < H Z W o a o ■ ■n t C3 -a c 3 O bl "cB 3 "3 a u M i ■V. & 3 m 13 bO a <1> ^ 0 a n T3 T) o T3 a 2 X3 1 g s 2 1 ^ -d 3 "cB 1 3 J ■2 % 3 o s a N ja ^ 1^ 1 a 6 > CO 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 265 O 00 I I I I I I I I I I I I I t : I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I J I ^C^OOOOO^Ht^OSOOO 00 ■* 00 CC C5 lO CO -< O T)< CO -< •* -H lO T** ■<** 00 to -H ci o o OS CO c» 05 CO CO M o rt ■^ OS CJ 05 f^ s s C»< t^ rt 05 ^ >o ,^ o 05 CO 00 ,_^ CO ^ ,^ CO M CO CO o o O o o O o o o o o o M M r- 00 o CO o; o t^ ,_, o " ^~* 5 iz n) a c -n rt fl) .D O .2 la a> S Sfi iii U > 266 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles.^ [Figures equal percentages or pounds in 100.) Name. I. Green Fodders. (o) Meadow Grasses and Millets. Orchard grass, Millet Barnyard millet, Hungarian grass, Japanese millet, ...... (6) Cereal Fodders. Corn fodder, Oats Rye (c) Legumes. Alfalfa, Horse bean, ...... Soy bean (early white), . . . , Soy bean (medium green), average, . Soy bean (medium green), in bud, . Soy bean (medium green), in blossom, Soy bean (medium green) in pod. Soy bean (medium black). Soy bean (late), Alsike clover, Mammoth red clover, ... Medium red clover, average. Medium red clover, in bud, Medium red clover, in blossom, Medium red clover, seeding. Sweet clover, White lupine, Yellow lupine, ..... Canada field peas, average, 85 80 0.43 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.33 0.39 0.72 0.27 0.44 0.41 0.57 0.64 0.66 0.64 0.72 0.70 0.60 0.53 0.50 0.52 0.58 0.51 0.61 0.43 0.45 0.40 0.50 0.56 0.43 0.67 0.42 0.22 0.30 0.56 0.57 0.31 0.21 0.55 0.53 0.58 0 60 0 52 0.50 0.68 0.50 0.272 0.57 0.71 0.58 0.65 0.40 0.26 0.44 3.08 • Many of these analyses were made in earlier years by the Massachusetts State Experiment Station. The percentages of the several ingredients will vary considerably depending upon the fertility of the soil, and especially upon the stage of growth of the plant. In the majority of cases the number of samples analyzed is too few to give a fair average. The figures, therefore, must be regarded as close approximations rather than as representing absolutely the exact fertilizing ingredients of the different materials. (J. B. L.) 2 Evidently below normal. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 2G7 Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con- tirmed. [Figures equal perceutages or pounds in 1(X).J Name. I. Green Fodders — Con. (c) Legumes — Con. Canada field peas, in bud, Canada field peas, in blossom, . Canada field peas, in pod, .... Cow pea, average, Black cow peas, Whip-poor-will cow peas, .... Flat pea Small pea, Sainfoin, Serradella SuUa Spring vetch Hairy or sand vetch, average, . Hairy or sand vetch, in bud. Hairy or sand vetch, in blossom. Kidney vetch Average for legumes, (d) Mixed and Miscellaneous. Vetch and oats, Apple pomace, Carrot tops, Prickley comfrey, ..... Common buckwheat, ..... Japanese buckwheat, ..... Silver-hull buckwheat, .... Summer rape, ...... Sorghum, Teosinte II. Silage. Corn, Corn and soy bean Millet Millet and soy bean ' Too low; 0.43 nearer correct 0.50 0.45 0.52 0.45 0.40 0.49 0.75 0.40 0.68 0.36 0.68 0.36 0.55 0.52 0.65 0.44 0.53 0.30' 0.21 0.69 0.37 0.44 0.26 0.29 0.34 0.26 0.47 0.42 0.65 0.26 0.42 0.44 0.32 0.37 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.32 0.31 0.57 0.37 0.58 0.45 0.51 0.54 0.57 0.28 0.44 0.30 0.12 1.08 0.76 0.54 0.53 0.39 0.78 0.29 1 18 0.39 0.36 0.62 0.44 0.11 0.11 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.20 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.13 0.12 0.16 0.08 0.12 0.14 0.02 0.13 0.12 0.09 0.14 0.14 0.10 0 11 0.90 0.18 0.35S 0.14 0 11 2 Evidently too high. 268 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table II. — Feetilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con- tinued. (Figures equal percentagea or pounds in 100.] Name. III. Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders. (a) Meadow Grasses and Millets. . Barnyard millet, Hungarian grass, Italian rye grass, Kentucky blue grass, .' Meadow fescue, Orchard grass Perennial rye grass, Red-top, .......> Timothy English hay (mixed grasses), . . . . Rowen, Branch grass, Fox grass Salt hay (variety uncertain), . . . , (6) Cereal Fodders. Corn stover, from field, .... Corn stover, very dry Oats, (c) Legumes. Alsike clover. Mammoth red clover. Medium red clover. {d) Straw. Barley, Soy bean Millet (e) Mixed and Miscellaneous. Vetch and oats, Broom corn waste (stalks), Palmetto root, Spanish moss, White daisy, • O m t. >, d 1 2 J3 1 ^ ^ Z (2 3 14 1.29 2.88 1 14 1.29 1.79 4 14 1.12 1.19 2 14 1.20 1.54 6 14 0.93 1.98 4 14 1.23 1.60 2 14 1.16 1.47 4 14 1.07 0.95 3 14 1.20 1.42 13 14 1.34 1.61 13 14 1.72 1.58 1 16 1.06 0.87 1 16 1.18 0.95 1 16 1.05 0.64 17 40 0.69 0.92 17 20 0.92 1.22 3 15 2.451 1.90 6 15 2.26 2.10 3 15 2.14 1.162 10 15 2.21 2.42 2 15 0.95 2.03 1 15 0.69 1.04 1 15 0.68 1.73 4 15 1.29» 1.27 I 10 0.87 1.87 1 12 0.54 1.37 1 15 0.61 0.56 1 15 0.26 1.18 0.43 0.52 0.53 0.39 0.37 0.38 0 53 0.33 0.33 0.32 0.48 0.19 0.18 0.23 0.20 0.26 0.65 0.63 0.52 0.47 0.19 0.25 0.18 0.60 0.47 0.16 0.07 0.41 > Too high; 1.90 nearer correct. 3 Too low; 1. 2 Evidently below normal, nearer correct. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 269 Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con- tinued. [Figures equal percentages or ixjunds in 100.] Name. •23 J' a a) l-i 2 03 78 0.12 0.17 78 0.46 0.48 88 0.24 0.44 86 0.24 0.52 89 0.23 0.56 88 0.15 0.34 89 0.16 0.46 89 0.08 0.10 80 0.22 0.62 80 0.29 0.51 93 0.08 0.40 90 0.17 0.38 89 0.19 0.49 3.27 1.55 3.45 1.53 2.08 2.09 5.61 2.12 13.55 0.18 8 3.68 0.86 7 7.08 2.05 8 4.50 0.31 8.5 4.13 0.40 9.5 5.87 0.21 9 5.97 1.42 8.5 5.35 1.30 11 4.32 2.00 10 2.94 1.67 10 2.62 2.08 10 3.04 0.98 8 7.84 1.54 8 3.04 0.58 IV. Veget.\bles, Fruits, etc. Apples, Artichokes, Beets, red Sugar beets, Yellow fodder beets, Mangolds, Carrots, Cranberries, Parsnips Potatoes, ....... Japanese radish, Turnips, Ruta-bagas, V. Concentrated Feeds. (a) Protein. Red adzinki bean, White adzinki bean, ..... Saddle bean, ...... Soy bean Blood meal (Armour's) Brewers' dried grains, .... Cottonseed meal, Distillers' dried grains, .... Gluten feed, Gluten meal, ...... Linseed meal (new process). Linseed meal (old process). Malt sprouts, Bibby's dairy cake, Sucrene feed, Pea meal, Peanut meal, Proteina, ....... 1 1 1 3 1 2 167 20 106 46 21 56 12 1 1 1 1 1 270 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table XL — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con- tinued. [Figures equal percentages or pounds in 100.] Name. V. Concentrated Feeds — Con. (o) Protein — Con. Rye feed 11 11 2.36 1.08 1.60 Wheat middlings (flour) 44 10 3.06 1.01 1.65 Wheat middlings (standard) 103 ID 2.88 1.28 2.06 Wheat mixed feed 282 10 2.72 1.44 2.57 Wheat bran, 116 10 2.59 1.45 2.79 (6) Starchy. Ground barley 1 13 1.56 0.34 0.66 Buckwheat hulls 1 12 0.49 0.52 0.07 Cocoa dust, 1 7 2.30 0.63 1.34 Corncobs, 8 8 0.52 0.63 0.06 Corn and cob meal 29 11 1.38 0.46 0.56 Corn kernels 13 11 1.82 0.40 0.70 Corn meal, 3 14 1.92 0.34 0.71 Corn and oat feed (Victor) 2 10 1.38 0.61 0.59 Corn, oat and barley feed (Schumachers), . . 1 8 1.80 0.63 0.83 Cotton hulls 3 11 0.75 1.08 0.18 Hominy meal 125 11 1.65 0.76 1.27 Common millet seed 2 12 2.00 0.45 0.95 Japanese millet seed, 1 12 1.58 0.35 0.63 Molas-ses (Porto Rico) 1 24 0.51 3.68 0.12 i Dried molasses beet pulp, 1 8 1.60 1.47 0.16 Oat kernels 1 11 2.05 Oat feed, 14 7 1.26 0.75 0.48 Oat feed (low grade) 15 7 0.88 0.70 0.35 Peanut feed 2 10 1.46 0.79 0.23 Peanut husks 1 13 0.80 0.48 0.13 Louisiana rice bran, . 1 11 1.42 0.83 1.70 Rye middlings 1 11 1.87 0.82 1.28 Damaged wheat, 1 13 2.26 0.51 0.83 Wheat flour 2 12 2.02 0.36 0.35 (c) Poultry. American poultry food 1 g 2.22 0.52 0.98 Meat and bone meal, 10 6 5.92 - 14.68 Meat scraps 4 9 7.63 - 8.11 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 271 Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con- cluded. [Figures equal percentages or pounds in 103.) Name. 1.^ d 2 J3 0-6 1 VI. Dairy Products. Whole milk 297 86.4 0.57 0.19» 0,16 Human milk, 3 88.1 0.24 - - Skim milk, 22 90.3 0.59 0.182 0.20 Butter milk 1 91.1 0.51 0,05 0.04 Whey 1 93.7 0.10 0.07 0,17 Butter, 117 12.5 0.19 - - ' From Farrington and WoU. 2 From WoU's Handbook. 272 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. t3 o o « Q o 12: n Eh „ •^ o o •qgy o o »-l 1 1 1 1 1 ^ •?i^s r 1 1 1 1 CO 1 ei ^ •n 00 •**« to •(S2-9 X -N) ■ra ■»< 00 1 1 1 ^. •^ spiajoij co 00 o •aSBieAy 03 00 d to o 00 a CT 10 0 o 00 -* 0 •uinuiinij^ o o ^ I^ CO 00 cj C lO 00 CO 00 ■^ to "5 ^ 00 00 CO •iuninixt!j\[ OS M ■*' d im' W5 CO Cft 00 - n M a> Oi ■* •BaeXiBnv co_ n " i 00 JO jaqumfsj to" 1 u: S a •< >> Z 1 O G 2 _>> 1 ft >, a 1 0 -a "1 a 3 'a 2 0 "a 2 1 _2 6 1 0 tl « ja 3 ■q 15 3 t-i 3 3 ^ III O iC « 0 « M 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 273 Table IY. — Coefficients of Digestibility of American Fodder Articles. Experiments MADE in the United States.' J. B. LINDSEY AKD P. H. SMITH. Experiments with Ruminants. Experiments with Swine. Experiments with Horses. Experiments with Poultry-. Experiments with Calves. Complete through Aug. 1, 1910, Explanation of Table IV. The first compilation of all digestion coefficients resulting from ex- periments made in the United States was made and published by J. B. Lindsey in 1896." Jordon and Hall also published very comi^lete data in 1900." Since then the writer and his co-workers have revised and published similar tables in 1902^ and 1906.^ The present publica- tion is intended to be complete to December, 1910. By coefficient of digestibility is meant the percentage of the ingi'e- dients which the animal can actually digest. Thus, of the 6.3 pounds of total protein in 100 pounds of Timothy hay, experiments have shown that 48 per cent., or 3 pounds, are digestible. The figure 48 is the digestion coefficient. The average coefficients determined have been applied to the average fodder analyses in Table I., and have enabled us to calculate the average amount of each fodder constituent digesti- ble. > Being a portion of the report of the Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry. 2 Ninth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 157-170. ' Bulletin 77, United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. * Fourteenth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 195-216. 6 Eighteenth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 224-248. 274 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. •A t— I W H 'A 0,03 0 >H o n OXIQ 2oO "^^i. «|^ .9-G CO r* lO O CO iM I'M «0 OO CO IC^ I< I ^- lO '<*' Q OO CD S »0 i-H ub CO -^ lO 00 i-H Ol>.l-* Ico |co IcO \_t>- |cO |cO It If: IS IS IK Ts IS IS IS IS OCOi-HOiiO Oat-cO TtN_ CO t-- 00 I c^ I 00 I -* t^ =0 L CO ^H IS IS IS I CT> CT> t^ CO ■^ CO h I- ' ' ' ' IS I 1^ c I to It (M CO O 3 ^ '-' ^ :? 2 ^ -5 o a e i o o o a o o m .2 — 0 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 275 0 t^ ^ 00 CO ■^ ■^ (M "^ CO 00 00 CD i« k^ ,i^ i^ i^ I 0 IS I- 1^ Ts l"" cl- ,[§ i" i^ CD CD t^ t^ I>- CO "5 CD 0 00 05 ■<^ CD os CO U5 t^ 00 o r^ r* 00 t^ 00 00 h* 1 ^ 1 o 4- i^ ^^ i^ tl« Ts "I- J.^ i- cl- i^ i- 00 o t^ r- t>. 5 00 c- CO t-^ S: 0 CO ■* CO S CO (N g lO T^ 0 CO t>- 3 I- S 1 CT> 1 0 1 => 1 —' 1 '=° 1 '^ 1 "5 1 "5 To 1 ^'^ i° 1 >o U5 1 0 1 to CO 1 to 0 1 lO 1 t^ 1 t^ to 1 I-- o 0 to ci QO ■* ■^ ■rt< '^ 0 so U5 c6 ■0 10 CO CO ■o "* 00 CO 00 00 0 00 ■0 3 1^ 00 CD s CD U5 CO 0 >o CO S 1 '* IS CO i^ Js i- J^S ci- l^ J^S I" =L^ Ts N 0 10 0 ■0 •^ CO ■o .2 05 00 CO ^ 0 0 ^ 0 d a n CO 1 1 Ts 1 CO I- To 1 CO 1 CO =?00 1 a 10 05 »J^ g S r;- 0 S 1 1 t^ 1 t^ ^ t-^ ^ CO CD >o " ■ 1 -'* i^ i° 1 <3> "Ti— 1 1 1 1 1 -* 1 CO t^ J^>o 1 t^ 1 t^ 1 to 1 t^ 1 1^ 1 to 1 1-- 1 t-; c>» CO CO CO ■o CO to CO to CO "^^ ~— ^— ' ^^^ ^■^^ --- -— -^^ ^-- ■— — - -— ' ^-^ --- ^ CO M CM li (M M >o oT _d 0) g C3 m C3 0) 8 a d a 3 a 3 ^ > < IB O 6 03 1 0 0 1 'a 1 1 -3 > 2 a .a 1 1 a bO 0 d 1 03 1 £ 3 C3 3 a 0) & u 0 M J d 1 '0 3 d 03 m c3 1 1 >> 1 2 d a fl a a d d 0 3 d a a d d 1 0 a 3 T3 0) -0 0 0 0 0 T3 0) •3 0 & 1 8 3 "2 0) 0 0 Q) Q) 0 OJ 0 H) a> a) u 0 T) -3 ■T3 -0 •3 ■3 ■3 13 -3 13 13 ■S 13 © iS <^ •v -3 ■3 13 ■3 ■3 ■3 -3 -3 -3 13 13 -S ■S 13 B 3 t2 s s 0 0 2 0 3 _o ^ ^ •2 1 13 •2 d a £3 a d a d d d a d d d bO ki u M L< L4 (-< Lrf 1-, u p a o O c3 0 0 0 a 0 0 6 a 0 U 0 0 6 a 03 0 eg 276 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. o < w J_^ 0) 0)^ -a 0-1 ^ li =31 oo OS ■^ Oi Oi CO ,_, CO _J co ^ >o CO CO CO To. ci'" i S o CO CO k- i- ■* j,S IS s Ts IS i^ " a -w *^ m _ p □ •* IM CO >o CO ^ o 00 05 ^ trog free xtra rCe: 2 CO Ts Ts J," I- I- I- I c^ T- i.«' g «g r* '~ •^ t^ CO "" t^ CO K ^^ ojPLh-:. CI CO >o CO C3 CO CO CO Tfl "^ C-3 ? t^ CI t. 0) 0) I s s I^ IS I- T^ 1 "^ 1 «= to Ts I» Tj< CO CO o •<*< M ^ •o s s lO >o &H ^ ^•r^ T-H lO S ^_^ oo ^ r>- 00 (M 00 ^ XJ 01 (U lO 00 t^ I- CD CO 2oO 1^ Ts IS 1 <=> 1 CO Tk IS If: J^S V5> 1 CO 1 t^ u£s 00 CO !>. oo CO ••J^ 1^ r* t^ CO t^ CO 3 t- fe t. M o 00 ko 00 T o g g 1° 1 r 1 1 too 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 7cO ^ ^ M s s (11 .2^^ CO CO £32 o (M CO bi) 0* ?, 1 1 1 1 1 I- Ts I- Ts 1 o> CO 1 1 Ts CO I^ fc-i -*^ .r* s oo o o^^ CO CO CO CO CO CO t^ s s (^^ CT> ^ 05 J^ r^ ^ >)^« O CO t^ SSS 1 lO 00 1 —1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 >" 1 r 1 CO 1 1 1 ^ 1 00 1 CO CD 1 CO 1 CO 1 CO 1 CO 1 CO C^l »o t^^ 3 CO CO s CO CO ._ ~" ._^_- ~-^_- . ^-^ -^— - ^^_. .—^-^ _^^^ ^^_ ^^-- ^»-- ffi oi 11 ■* to (M (M (M (M C-l CO N C^ d" d* 3 S a' m Q Z •a H « % s 3 .d" d" g 3 a 9 a i a as 1 i S > 1 a .2 cS > d 2 cj a a U) a .2 '■3 o a d* o a m 3 o 3 3 -2 _c3 d 01 1 2 •2 •2 o m m m m -a o m a ct a d d O S C3 C3 > J2 > o 0 !> o O 1 O O < O 02 o o o 02 o O C 5 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMExNT — No. 31. 277 >I5 s o ^ ^ 0 •2 CO to M ■«< -n to CO kO to 00 kO lis Ta IS J,S l;^ i^ Ts IS i^ i^ Tco 1 CO T§ J 3 Ts CT o lO CO tH ■^ c>^ 10 5! lO ■* lO to CO t^ >o CO CO s "^ 3 ^ o 3 0 to to t^ tH 00 !>. 0 t- S a> GO 00 t^ t>. Ts i'~- 1!^ 00 1 "^ I» ti- !,» Ts IS Is i^- ti- o t^ to 00 10 00 00 t^ t^ to to to C' 1 ^ 1 CO 1 '" 1 ^ 1 <^ 1 ° 1 f' 1 "^ 1 o> X- 1 "5 1 lO 1 o \ ^ 1 to 1 to 1 -o 1 >o 1 -i< 1 CO 1 CO 1 to CO to" CO ^ s CO •* ■^ >s^ lO CO ■0 CO ■0 "^ to It CO C ■0 - 00 t^ t^ t^ s to C5 o 3 c2 Its <3i •^ s to to c^ ■^ t5 Ts "3 CO to 1 CO to CO t '^ 1 1 1 t^ 1 1^ 1 ^ 1 ^ 1 -** 1 cn CO 1 ^ 1 CO 1 as Tf- 1 CO 1 -^ 1 -i< cl'" 00"' 1 to oo"" 1 -o 1 -* 1 ^ CO o ■^ ■^ 1^ 01 10 CO ^ c-i CO >o "^ to to CO ■^ CO fM 05 0 Ts 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 lo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l^< 0 1 CO ■0 t^ " to CO 10 ■>H r- 00 0 to 05 Oi CO 03 c^ to CO to t^ to CO CO 1 «) 00 1 1 '^ 1 =■■< 1 ~* 1 "^ 1 '° 1 1 1 f^ 1 '^ CO 1 00 ■^ T"=' 1 1 1 as to o to to to to t~ to 0 CO CO ^ c. to ^ - 0 ., ■^ c^ (M c^ Tf CO to 10 - - ., - <* M - CO - - - IM - M CO • • "b c •r* Q> • • M a 8 3 0 0 a ■2 -«; 0 g a i a e 8 o 1 "a 5 0 .C3 ■5 s a 49 a •a a 3 2 ^ 0 & 0 ta a a '2 0 S C3 s 3 a 8 s a 3 a '5. 3 o c3 s 8 i C3 > p -a u 0 ^ ■ i 6 a a 3 _o 3 i a *« a cl .8 2 3 3 J2 e 2 c3 s, a 0 % d C3 -a a 3 © .9 a 0 a" 8 3 a a cl a T3 a _2 CJ a Cj d to s a "a 1 4) 0 2 ■a 2 2 a 03 a cj cS Q* a 15 C3 ja "S a ■g 3 o o m s < « n ffl si & H 0 0 0 278 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ^id QO OS 00 CO CO "2 2 .s is i.s j,K ^s x^ li 1^ 1^ 00 -H O 1^3 I — i^ i" X^ i 3 I- fl fc. 0) (U E 5 I — I rt o 1^ 1^ CO o 10 "^ CO »0 Oi loo l-J II 1"5 It^ 10 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 279 o I'S o >o o . I^ 00 i- lO 1 05 1 00 1 "^ T^ 1 '" 1 =o 1 "^ i^^ 1 "• 03 1 o> Tco CO 1 o 1 t^ -l^ i=° 1 i-i 1 CO 1 t^ 1 oo ol- CO -i.'^ 1 t^ ff "5 t-* CO CO CO CO t^ t~ CO CO lO 00 o •* CO en 00 00 CO lO CO CD 1 <=> 1 '^ 1 CO 1 °o 1 oo 1 "O 1 =o T-* Tco 1 =0 7 00 tr> 1 "^ 1 '^> fiO 1 "5 *o 1 CO 1 CO 1 ^ 1 CO 1 CO 1 CO 1 r^ 1 c^ 1 0 1 I^ CO 1 t^ 1 r~ 1 r~ ■* ■o •^ CM r^ K CO >o ■* >o ■* lO CO "5 t^ t^ Ol c^ oo o tn CJ> o >o -^ CD •<*< o CO CO Ts CO CO CD 10 10 ■^ 1 --I CO 1 t^ 1 CO I CO 1 — * 1 'f 1 »^ I Oi 1 -^ 0 1 ^^ i^ 1 00 ^o CO 1 X3 1 CO 1 -o 1 U5 f 1 CO ■* J^CO 1 to >o \ CO 1 CO ■* IM CD 05 -^ 00 «o >o -n CM ->J< to Tl< 00 o ■* •ra ■^ 00 GO ' ' 1 1 1 I' Is Ts? foo 4." I" ?=> i^ "^CO 1 CM 1 1 I^ 00 CO 1 1 CO 1 1 !M CO s CO S -<*< « >o ^ ifi r^ 0 •a r>- 00 Ts CO 1 1 1 s cl- Ts 1^ 1 •* Jo 1 1 1 1 I- ci^ 0 ci^ IK CM 1 1 «) r>- CO CO CO io CO t- «5 lO CO e^ 00 CO (M CO ^ 0 00 0 00 CO CD t^ 1 oo CO 1 "^ "Ten 1 'i' I^ ^Tco I Cr~ 1 1~- 1 CO 00 CM r~ '^ 00 ■5 0 lO U5 CO CO lO "5 lO CO 10 CO CD ^^^ ~-^-' --^ -— ' -— -^— -— -— - ■— - ^-- — —^ '— ^ CO ■^ ^ 00 i<5 J:; t^ -* CM CM •* ^ a 'S. d o > bO O > C5 1 a a 2; 3 bD a 'u a 03 o s a d a g > c3 1 CI (-1 a" 3 a .a .a a 1 a a a 1 o Pi C3 a 5 '3 1 bC 0 "3 a> bc t "3 a 6 3 13 0 M C3 S -3 3 0 cj -*S qT o ^ a a cl a a a "a a a fl § Cj T3 T3 - 13 T3 -o ■o •a T3 X T3 S s ta a cj _3 6 oT oT © a? a a d a 0 a a a a 0 3 >, >, >> >^ o k4 (-• u u i~t c8 o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 M W W U O O O O O 0 0 0 0 0 0 280 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. E-i 'A < 1— I t. o cu,< Oi o o o lO -# I- 'I' o 00 -aCL, • 1- CO CO 2rg QO 00 I- I» 1 ■=> j eft I- TS3 Is I" CO j,S cl^ I- o^o to CD o t^ 00 ■* CO , -^ trogen free stract ■Cent ^ ^ 00 CD C-) M M o CO t^ ■^ »o t^ t^ t^ h co ci^ t^ >ra i^^ i^ 1 "S i- i^ IM i- Ts 9 W53 << P-i s t^ '^ lO CO U3 t^ M oCb^ CO CO § JO s ■^ 05 lO •* CO ■* -d'— -^ r— »o lO CD CO S M fl Ts ai o Tis i^ 7s: j^S ol- 15 1 CD IS i^ i° (H a) Q C5 >o QQ t^ o Oj^O o S t^ CO CO lO lO s UO S ^ IM ^ CO ts u^ CO »0 oo CO iC »o lo CO o »o »o IM t^ lO CO a; u> o JO CO eo 1-4 1 1 1 1 CO 1 1 "Tco 1 ^ r 1 1 1 1 h 1 1 1 1 o O^o ^ U3 -* » .Ht^-^ o t^ IsS 1 1 1 1 J=- 1 1 1 1 ' ' X- ci- Ts ' ' 1 "^ i^ o^u t^ CD •o CO lO CO s O fe- CO M< CO o t^ t~- CD CD >o CO W3 »o CD ~-..^— ^^w ^_^_^ ^^_. ^^^ -^_^ _,^_ -— ,-- --^— ' ■ — ^^ —.^' 0) ^ ■^1 N - ^ IM IM N N IM CO cq ■^ CO " »H fe S -S 2 o5 i^°s3 2; 0 3" 03 a Si t4 O ja T3 d OJ «■ s 13 / ■S 0 o o I & ^ >. >. "S 8 o 1 a s 01 .2 .2 1 1 bD & O O S « a 1 1 •c -S a7 © CD » 01 O < ^ ^ bO ^ ^ 1" T3 o3 a 'a •n (J d d fl d d d d d m d c3 ft bC o to Ut b4 t-< t-. J-. d o O o o o o o o tl C3 O O U U O O O O ^ O O O X i 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 281 o CO o, c CO Ut o"^ IS cl- J>- 1 "5 ^ is; s CO ,1" IS 4,- I5 15^ •K ^ (M >ra «, 3 95 =2 o iJt [5 IS IS IS 1 02 o ■^ X- o o 1 '^ 1 "O .),- X^ .^- 1:^ o o •^ -^ lO kO ■^ 00 ^ CO s \^ IS X^ IS X- 1 ('■i CO .1- "^ CO -i- IS ^s IS I" CO lO »o '^ 05 to CO c^ c^ IS IS IS IS -K 1, o o Is z ^ x^ Ts J,- Tg I" lO O -Jl •* Tt" »o CO CO "J" t» o (M (M 00 oo r-. 1 '-^ T- IS tco I- 1 1 1 1 1 o CO T« l"^ 7co 1 1 1 -< 1 C~J L ^ 1 <^^ 1 1* -* 1 — 1 ci >o d> cb a> 'O C>1 ■* -H ^^ o r^ 1 ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I ■= C^ 1 1 1 1 1 '^' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 a w TJ4 ■o CO 00 >o CO ^ t~ -* CO o to r^ 1 *A 1 CO I- O 1 1 ^1 I cn O 1 1 »o »o 1 CO 1 [ 1 CO 1 1 1 I 1 CO 1 CO lO J ^ 1 CO ^ «5 ■o 1"' ■^ t^ CO CO CO rJH -* -^ ---^ — -^ -— - ^— -^ — -^ ^— - ^-^ ■— -- -— ' — • ■ 3 I? >] Q < 2 o § O a o fl a a o c s C3 .2 .2 O 1 1 K 3 2 o 0^ C3 to H J a 8 1 'a .1 5 *^ cj o "3 >, a T> d "a 3 o a a a. o C3 '3 a a Q. -d a _d "E 3 J3 3 o -o C3 a c! 6 3 ;3 i i a s o 3 o i S O o te ci r3 1 C3 c« C3 M > > M O 5 s ffl CQ O o O O P Q 282 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. w iH aj <»^ O o oo o 1 CD 1 ira CD m ■* t- i^"*^ X , 00 o •o 00 CD CD CO ^ PL, lO lO »o »o CO U5 UO iO M ©(i,„ M^ ..^ 03 oo CD 00 o CO o> ■C^4i CO g M a '5 g I- i^ 1 '^ CO rl^ Js I- I- I- 1^ CO CO CO CO CD T(" -* CO t^ E ^ «.9 a CO •* 05 >n Ol >n "^ r- C<1 T3 cu S >o CO CO SoO 1 c^ o 1 -^ 1 CO I CO CO 1 o 1 '-' 1 f~ 1 "^ 1 •* 1 '-' J^-o ^ 1 CO ■ra 1 CO CO CO 1 lO 1 CO 1 w '-^fi o CD o t-- lO CD CO CO co CO t^ Pj, t-l -§^2 •* C<] o CO (-• _OCL(^ CO 'S"^3 CO CD ^ c3 ti rt 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 «5 1 1 1 |^> 1 oo 1 1 1 1 CO 1 CO 1 "5 CO o c5io CO xa tiH -5 t4 ,_, CO C^7 ^ CO OO OS <35 o 1^ >-,"^ ^ CO CO >o Ts r^ psS 1 '^ 1 c^i •* 1 ^o 1 CO O J,- 1 CO lO J_>o 1 CO 1 CO 1 CD 1 >o 1 o 1 "O o -^ ■^ cn CO ^u CO 'O •ra CD CO >o -*!< t^ 1^ — - -^ ^- — - ^— - ■— ' -— ' — - ---- -^ "S-a M M CO C<1 C^ ^ Co c^ ^ Q e • o 1 a o s o s ^ m K 1 8 a <0 g a Q •2 J2 ^ t-t T3 K o >2 ^ ? §. X Q O 0 ») K o -5 'S 1 j T3 "3 o .S 3 e o s oo d a 1 b, o i V 1 £ e •S "3 S ^ 'a a a i m ui o 1 s O a z « Q Q d M fc a a a i -a ^ si a & 03 o 1 i J3 ^ CQ C3 O 1 1 -d .a o -a c3 > 0) o s O •BiaiUH s s S z 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 283 'J' OO CO Oi lO •O U5 •O i^ IS 00 i^ i'^ i- Is J^S in to "5 IS 1^ 5 I- «3 to >o CO lO ■<1< Tji 05 O) ■^ o> 9; ^ Ol o to CO >o to _ "? - o i^ IS 00 I- IS 00 J^g IS 05 CD >n -* to 1 to i^ s I^ U3 "3 U5 to to C-J CO to lO to Ts t^ t^ l^ 1 to 1 '^ 1 to 1 O 1 <» 00 i- CO I to 1 CO to 1 CO t^ 1 U5 1 to lO to to 1 to 1 to to >o CO lO CD t^ to to to to -^ 05 OO 4§ IM o> I- I^ T5 '3 ] "O ira s S 00 1 3 1 o Too 1 to to OO U5 •* to -J< ^ s S § ■* in I- o •^ Ts IS T^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 s 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 C3 ■* o " CO OS "i" 00 Ts to CO to 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 r to 1 1 CO 1 1 -■ 1 "^ 1 '*' in ■o lO 1 o 1 to 1 to XI "5 s t^ tn >o 00 s C^ to t^ % T§ fas 1 ■" J* 1 -^ 1 -^ -# 1 ■=» CO 1 1 1 1 to 1 to 1 "5 to lO 1 "O lO r- "O U3 •^ •^ S o r^ 00 to to t-* >o -— ^ -— - ■— ■—^ -— ' — • — -^ •— -^ -— - (N Oi cq (M "Td a ^ 3 0 C3 03 ">. >1 C3 3 rt s ■2 J3 h. c 3 3 o a ui £ .5 'a' o 3 d a C3 K > pq $ S s. u OO g. ^ _>. >> _>. a S > ^ ^ o o "3 a) fe .a "3 'EL o - 3 8 >> c3 o d J3 3 in X ^ >> >; ;^ ;^ ^ e 13 d a) 2 k. 1 2 bO s :^ ^ J J J K S q 1 > 03 a 'X^ "3 <0 o a> o ^ CO Ti >> If _> _> _> _> ffi ^ o tn 2 S C3 2 2 2 w y. Q> « a ■^ n 2 So 611 bCi 2 a 3 > c3 c3 c3 > 0) c3 ■a OS > 1 o o 2 •s o 3 C3 bO .s I d 0 d" o o d" o d' 01 o :z; ;? ^ ■^ H ^ O o CD e^ P-, r~i " rt f^ 284 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 2s P I? S- H *-• . 2rs 1—* (M o ,-< o aa N o 1^ "^ .1^ I^ 1 to 1 CO 1 to I- V Too I" 1 1 g i" u^o « >o CO 1 5^ 1 "5 1 CO Vo5 1 1 1 C-? 1 o i*" Js 1 "3 1 lO 1 O 1 "5 1 to 1 >o CO 1 to 1 CD ■m"" X t. «o -* t^ g «| ■^ ^ lO ■o >o ■* to >o s 40 fc^ tgan" CO f^ rt o ^ OO c^ f^ CI .^ TJ^--^ o »o CO IO lO 3 t, a (^ Q) fli 1 ■" 1 •<*< ■o 00 Is I- I- j^g I- 1 to 1 1 g I- ci^ ^ to 1< >o lO IO CO •^ ^ S ^ ^■S^ M lO CO CO to o s ^ (M 00 "d (D (D CD I- ■^ J° CO 2oO 1 00 'S o Is tl^ J'' cl^ cc I" >o >o w ■^ CO CO « o» Ph t. ,^ c^ 03 o ,_, ■* oo ■^ 00 o to m >o CO I-J3 S 1 o» 1 oo IM 1 00 *To i^ T^ 1 o> 1 «o 1 o o> 1 o tl'^ U5 1 to .1"' 1 CO rl"' CO jl^ ■i^- «o to »o § " " •* Lj OjLl^ t^ OJ S)a3 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 r I 1 1 1 Ts Ts to IS CO >o 1 1 1 1 1^ oiu IO ^ >o s b (M f^ 00 CD CO to ^_^ C4 to »o >>'^« >o lO to to to >o •o qIS 1 to I- 1 "^ 1 "^ 1 1 1 o= o 1 IO »o IO to o ; ^ B i C3 Q '^ ^ ^ft d G O 5 e o 13 S 1 "a O O O % 13 fi a -0 a -a P 3 S d •S £ a ."i a d W Q S o IS e 3 3 a 1 03 e a »2 d C9 J3 o 2 a 8 13 .3 s 8 1 H .id d 3 a> s m "3 o to 2 a) S o >> 0 s 1 o 00 0 '§ !« I- Is CO 1 ■* 1 >o 5 !- fg I- °Po Tf •* t^ (M to lO CO 0 m CO CO « CO W3 00 0 a> 0 0 0 0 0 CR m t-- f to 1 >o t>- CO CO 00 X- I- X^ 1^ s 'g IS J^S IS CO J,S 0 'I- J_o J,§ Jl" *o O 0 <£> 115 >ra 0 CO iO »o s CO ■^ CO 0 ■* 1 « 1 0 •* ^ ■^ 00 r^ '^ I' I' fs -* •^ 0 "Ts CO IS CO IS 3 I» to '!» 'Is I- Ts -* '^ CO c^l s ■* CO iO >o 'tf ■* 0 •* 00 cc g ^ ^ 1^ 0 I^ 1 CO 1 1 0 I" I" != I- 1 00 1 to S To 1 »o I« I- 2 CO CO ■»< m 10 •^ " ■^ M o -*** 0 10 "s: ^ 0 "?_ T 70 1 1 1 CO 1- 0 1 1 Ts 1 3 15S 1° ' ' ' 1^ 1 1 1 1 IS CO IM 00 05 CO CO IM n •^ CO t^ 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ I ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 J^o CO J^CO CO 10 00 0 10 M< 0 CO 0 I- f^ IS 10 § Ts 1 1 1 0 h !- en 0 'fs CO IS Ts Ts iO CO •* Ci ■w -o c N C4 M 2 M t>. 0 •0 c» ■* ■* 2 ■"Jl - 0 - - - - CO - " - C-l ■* , >. >^ >, cJ e3 CQ a T3 a T3 I a 3 0 3 1 2 1 0 1 1 0 J4 a 3 S 2 0 2 2 ft e> S C! (^ -CJ a c 'a 8 1 J3 8 0 u 0 0 > _0 a p 0 2 > 0 2 .9 a 0 a a 0 '$ '% ■? '% 'S "3 M .^ > H -a •0 •0 T3 T3 -d -d ■73 ■a -a a T3 a g 1 "S jj C u jj 0) Q 0) a> © J3 >^ s> 0 (D a> >. >> >. >> >. >> cj >> is C3 s= S J T3 •0 T3 •0 T3 ■^ ja ja ^ ja j3 J3 C3 2 bCi .^ «s *2 .s .2 -4^ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 ja d a 0 a S E S S a a 1 B 1 a 6 a 0 286 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. a 1 ^■?-r 1-1 o ^H CO £; t- 0 10 >o eo U3 U3 1 "Cjj-J t^ t^ "^^^ 0 00 CO 00 00 5|a 1 f* 1 o i- ct- ct^ cl^ CO i° IS i- 1 ?^ J," I» 1 00 i-T o o 0 « 0 K 00 g 1 ^ a *a*i o c> c 00 eo US 3 s CO 00 CO M CO U ® c3 o t^ t^ 10 «o 0 CO 0 gSiso 1 — 1 —I 1 oo 1 -^ 1 C5 1 <=> 1 c •* 1 t^ 1 <^ 1 0 1 ^- 1 t^ 1 t^ 1 o 1 kO 1 >S 13 1 0 >o 1 >o 1 0 1 aa 1 CO •r«i m CO 10 0 ITS ^ o lO iO •o to CO 0 U5 CO "3 "5 k< o . cCH'7 n g CO 10 •^ to T3--'jJ 1:0 t^ CO »-o CO 2sg Vm 1 «5 1 -*■ 1 l» 1 -* 1 -* 1 CO 1 « 1 t^- 1 t^ J_ t^ 1 3 1 0 1 0 1 t^ 1 t^ X ^ 1 ^ 1 « 00 CO cr- r- = r- 10 0 0 r^ co s 0 CO 00 ■fe ^ o.S^ n cs M 1^5 00 00 t-^ ^ 05 C) Q --5 t-o 0 '—I ^^ 1—1 0 >-o (£ u _2X° 'T- CO CC CO ».o i-O «3 IS! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1;; T3 T^ 1 1 t 1 1 r 0 15 Ts 1 U3 0 0 0 CO CO o«o Cl •* ■» ^ L.I o .2--' -A n •* 00 0 0 10 to 1 1 1 =3 1 1 1 1 1 '-'' 1 1 1 1 1 f^ 1 1 1 f- gs § 1 t>. 1 t^ 1 ta 0 1 >o C^ 0 10 »o c -^ t~ O Tj* 10 «o s Ci ■—^ ^ rN] n ^^ ■ii •* •* c: cc 1^ -J< 0 •»** >-'^^*S r~ t^ •-O CO CO CO LO LO CO 0 CO o 'ro t^ 1 -i" 1 » 1 t^ 1 '^ 1 '-'5 1 '-'5 1 CO 1 '^ 1 00 1 t^ 1 1- 1 o 1 0 1 ■-■3 1 0 1 0 1 -O 1 O 1 -s JL"* 1 10 ^4,9 C5 « cc •^ CO CJ CO o o 10 UO U3 CO 10 10 CO >o 0 ^ -H_2 ^-^ -~-- ^-^ — — ^ ~— ' ^— ' — ■ ■— ' •— ' ^-^ — ^ !^ =i CO o c^ ■^ M CO CO CO «» .^ '-' ^ « xH — ci X l-o eo — ^ >^ 2 Z Q ■73 0 a • g o 1 ' 1 0 CJ 2 IH 0 a td 3 Ul _ a a a li o o a ';^ , a 0 "a a o •a 0 ^ O _,- .2 ■T3 a a 0 a 2 i ■ J a 13 C3 c5 fa b 0 < c O o If 0 5 jn a a -3 3 e ■a a 0 > a < 1 3. p g a "o ^ J t^c u C3 ^ Q ^ 5 3 g c 1 1 a 3 H i i cj 0 0 0 p 0 i 'a a a 'a a a 3 a a s 3 0 Si C3 S a e ■g u L4 tT C ^ u C (H Ut h t4 t^ o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e "3 > > > > > > > > > ■-1 o 1 -a o 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 tn n « Bl jj a c a a a a a a a g a Ur u u tl fc« u ki u u t o O o 0 c3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O o O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 287 s C4 U5 <» US N ^ lO 00 t- o "?-« '9 ^ CO oo CO to CO oo 1 30 J.^ J.S CD IS 1 CO 1 M X3 1 ^^ S "5 J.3 cl^ g 4.- cl» i- «o " O O o o l>- ■V lO e^ CO g T§ I- ' t2 J§ foo o g g J§ us us !^ 5 IS 3 is C3 o us o o o -.a* ■«■ ■<9« s O C<1 o ^ M fO o 5 » Op o 50 CO f- 1 ^ 1 -^ 1 3 1 s 1 o E:; 1 00 1 00 Tea 1 t^ I r-^ 1 o CO O 1 >o •V us I CO ^ 1 ?- r^ U5 ■* 30 !S a !M o t>- >o U5 lO us CO ^ -.J* us 1/5 35 2 S C^ -f** o O ^ Ts U5 1 "5 1 lO Ts l^^ I^ Ts Ts 1= o S CO ^15 Ts CO to 7- % Ts ^^ 30 CO -*< ^:j^ CO o o .o -•i. C^l C^ c^ CO ?1 " CO >o ^ CO ■* CSl us U5 us CO I^ us 1 « 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 ^ 1 =5 n 1< 1 >» 1 t^ o 1 00 1 CO 1"=^ 1 1 — * •* 1 'I" 1 CO CO 1 CO 1 c^ kO iO ro US o o M c^ c« "* CO us o us us 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 US 1 "S* 1 ^ 1 "^ 1 1 1 us 1 us us J^US 1 us o 00 -* us ■* 3 us oo ro Oi 00 CO o O CO r>. CO lO us CO 1 "5 1 ■•=' 1 '■'' 1 -■ 1 ^ 1 3 1 =3 M t^ 1 '•'' 1 ^*^ 1 -»* 1 00 1 1 1 O 1 o 1 o 1 CO 1 c^ 1 o CO >o 1 us us us us us o C5 >o CS -^ CO e^i oo o o "3 o iO o US n. -^^^^ ^— ■— ' ^— ^^ ^— — -^- ■— - -— ' — - "~^~ -— •* ^ C^ ^ ■* c^ 'l" •^ '^ la CO ■* o cq CO o - - - - .. - - - - .. « ■^ CO -.3* - - rn ^ E < ■S "3 *^ "C c ^ *^ Xi 1 5 j2 •a 1 1 5 c -o tc o 3 a cS a a 2 3 > 3 g > 3 O ]3 1 c c .2 d > > J i > 3 o -3 <2 > 1 > 2 > 2 2 s 8 2 "3 i •3 •3 > -3 (-• C E > o o o o o o a a a a 3 rf > > > > > > u k. 1 o 2 o o 3 8 8 8 8 X >> >J £ 3 E 3 a a c ^ I- s b. a J J J ki u i^ a 5 cS d a 6 c3 :! _d o =5 o 3 o 1 1 =2 288 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. o ^ r^ *2 ,— t »o lO OS o IM o t>- •^ tt tD C3 CU "? .^ !>. t>- 1-^ t^ to j,S j^s I" Is I- I- ?2 i^ i- J^S g «g «o to to i^ to to to S U3 ira ^ ^ • OJpLi--, to ^2 o (M o 00 •* I- I to "Tos 1 to J^t^ 1 t^ 1 to 1 to 1 o 1 l^ t>. 1 to 1 to '^fiS ■^ oo ■^ s ^ u? s to to to to K to Ph L4 t?J3 0) 05 >o o 1 1 1 to 1 ^ 1 "M t^ o CO 1 CO o 1 1 1 (M 1 1 1 lO 1 -O I T)( 1 IM >o ■* ■^ o >o •^ o^o C<3 CO ^ CO (M CO ^ Q> .2^^ 00 >o oo 0""'^ »o ass 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 Is 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 Is 1 =° o^o ■o lO U5 s L^ 0) to >"~'^ tp to to >o o Ts to T " Tco CO ti- to Its 1 1 IM 1 (M 1 CO to to 1 CO •o >o to 1 fi 1 to ci o to ■* r^ t^u to >o >o "O to •o >o S — ,^ ^_^_- ^~^^ • — . — ■ ■ — ,-- --^— • — ^-- --^— ■ — ^-- ■-^^ "Si's C9 ^ CO t>- (M (N (M to O 6 1 S a a ta " ^ 10 C8 0 03 "3 O 3 3 C3 03 c3 03 s ea 03 a M XI jd XI $ 03 M hO 3 "3 "3 "cS "3 "3 "3 >. > > O Ul 5 o O 02 s ^ < ^ ^ ^ 5 o w. O 6 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — xNo. 31. 289 CO '-• IS ISIiooo lo Ico IS IS IS IS IS lo M»oo cooor^cociooooco O I — . lO |s IS '^ Is Tk Tf2 Tfe '-< CO C5 ITS ci . I CO T «D I t— ^ »c —< C^ CD C<) ^ ^ O ■^ ^H ^ (M i-H C-l «-• T « :S •? C -S 3 !Z ^ ^ - O O O O n o 290 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 00 O CD >« «D loo loo 00 00 lt~ liO ItO |U3 lO l>o \ fO o It- eo^-H oo»-Hoot^ c±)C^ CO ^ US kO ^^ bjO o rt o g "iu to U5 O ■* to m Ui t£i CO CO cs TCD m CO CO 13 I UO I CO -* 00 -* <-H lo m - t. o (U lA CO lA CO *^ CD CO |0 |h-r>-t— r- oo oi t~>o oo u5co In oo-o •>* 2|o Ah IS T lO -ff ^H Tt< CO lO IC GO CO i-H . s «) m t'- CO s 00 00 § o To Ci C5 en 05 00 OS CO IS 1^ 1 "5 i» l"" i^ i« J.- 1 1 i^ h I- Ts o 03 00 a> ra CD o r^ t^ 3 t^ »o CO CO Ol CO c« CO OO 7S 1 «1 1 1 °P^ To 1 Ml 1 1 I- Tco 1 1 CO 1 C3S T- 1 ^n 1 >o -H 1 -K 1 t^ 1 o en -1< 1 — < 1 o 1 rr s en en OO 00 00 00 ^"^ i^ I^ IS el- OS ol- 1 CO CO 00 Js- i^ IS 00 X^ i« 'I^ ."Jl t-- 00 CXI OO "5 CO o5 s OO o •* o W3 o 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Td5 1 CO •Tos 1 CO 1 1 1 1 I- 1^ fco C 00 00 en s O o lO 05 00 ■* IM OS I^ 05 OO 05 en t-- OS 00 OS CO 1 "> 1 c> t^ t^ CO 1 00 1 o 1 o 1 ^^ 1 1 1 '^^ T'« 1 OS I "^ 1 Ol ^t^ 1 r^ 00 J^CTl 1 t^ J^OS J^t^ 1 00 o 1 t^ 1 CO ■<1< 3 >0 IM CO 03 t^ t^ 05 !>. 00 s CO >o ^-' —- -^ --— ' ^- ^^ -— ' ^- -— - --- ■— —■ --- ^-^ c» (M CO IM IM CO •* CD CO M X5 CO (M c-> - - - - - ^ .. ^ .. - M - - - ai b b •a (D t> d Bi a 3 H ' (C o B) D til) i o O m 1 a 1 ^ i s •^ § d" >s o H -z- ^ £ o Z 3 d bO ■3 tf o O O > 3 s 3 - . T3 •a > a 'a .2 > ■5 o Q i a 2 a d o S 3 O g d ^d -a 1 1 cj 8 J3 c S c5 3 c3 J3 "3) "3 o a 1 a d § '3 < "3 a o •1 -a o J a g u "3 "3 < a 'a a 292 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. o m 8 >rt CO s § 00 00 00 00 -C3CLi ^ t^ 05 03 00 CJS 03 2^1=1 1 t^ 1 '^> 1 ■* o >o o Is Too 1 -^ 1 ■* 1 >o 1 to 00 t^ Oi o 03 1 en Oi 1 00 J 00 1 o5 03 ,*- « « 00 t^ >o o Ol 00 00 T§ i- 1 00 to 03 1 «^ 1 00 Ts cl- I- JS Jfe 1 00 g^ ■^ W 5 ^ lO to •^ to t^ o> to to to u + o . SPLi^ to O) 3 UO CO 0 -0^ J, 00 to ■^ ■^ 3 t. a Jl- 18 ti^ 1 1 "* 4" 1 0 1 1 1 "^ 1 CO 1 1 Tid 1 1 O-DQ to to IM •^ CO g p=< ^ «9S o o to to CO 0 CO 0 CO 0 f^ SoO t^ o r^ 00 t^ 1 °o 1 t^ 1 -^ CO 1 '* 1 CO 1 00 1 CO f to I- 1 CO 1 =0 1 to 1 'J' 00 00 1 00 1 t^ 1 t~ 1 00 1 (^ t- 1 t^ r^ S r •^ to M to ^Ph « to ^ 00 t^ t^ 00 to 10 to to 0-1 u ^ 00 3^ a 1 1 1 1 'S 1 1 1 1 1 1 '^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 o^o do oOh^ m CO t~ 10 '3"^jj 05 to 05 C3 t- rt 1 I 1 1 1 °o •n 1 00 1 ^ 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 >o 1 00 CO 1 t^ 1 to 1 OS CO 10 00 r- to 00 S S f^.-; a> 00 o 03 CO to ^ ira o> 0 CO &~^^ to >o 05 t>- OS »o CO 00 1 =o 1 «= 1 a> o 1 " 1 '^ 1 00 1 =0 1 "> 1 °° tl"' 1 =» 1 to pSS 1 to J,"" tl*^ en ^r- 1 to 0 J^oo J=^ 1 1^ ^u to lO to to to to 00 to 10 s _^_, w^— ■ — ,-- _^^ — ^^ . — --^ ^^ — • ^> — • — ^— ' ^-v — w,. — ® r,; y'rt CJ (M c^ c^ c^ c^ c^ M -* C<1 f^ >o .9-c '^ '^ MH fc a ^ £ m i°f5| ■* c^ 00 2: Q 1 1 m • DQ T3 2 g 1 >> •3 • e d ^ ■a a Q C5 o 19 1 • 1 a '3 "o 3 1 "o 0 a t4 0 a 0 Q a s ^ 0 0 0 Q i 2 ■3 c3 1 >> H u 1 . 3 1 bl a 3 0) <» -d M & T3 cs 1 J3 1 .i 2 o -a 3 a _o _o 13 ■g 03 u -2 . ^ .. . . d M bi) i d "^ "3 1 a "? "3 "3 T3 T3 > t 2 0) a a 0 a 0 a a m .2 .2? 1 ■6 ■o -d 13 ■d T3 -a T3^ T3 •o ^73 a i o (D o CD 1 2 a J a> It ■3 0 rt c a □ a fl a-- 2 2 o o o 3 2 2| .? •3 3 s tD en o u o o o 0 O o O 0 0 a cS^ p Q S 0 ij 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 31. 293 ^ f2 s CO 0 I" r^ Ci ■.*< C5 CO 'f "? 10 0 CJ 0 i^ CO C35 CO 1 r^ o 1 "^ 1 ■* 1 •» 1 00 ?■* i^ 1 CO 1 o J? 1 O) o 00 oo o 1 00 0 1 05 1 "3 ti" i.*" 1 OS to . OS -* 05 1^ 1^ -* CO OS ^ Oi 05 00 o> GO 0 0 r- C?S 00 0 ■==* 00 VoO 1 o o o 1 "^ 1 ■« 1 == 1 ^ 1 ••** 1 « 1 CS 1 Oi 1 00 1 t^ 1 00 oo CO 1 00 1 00 1 0 CS 1 ti 00 1 00 52 00 o M< CO CO CO oo oo 00 C3> ca t^ OS 00 00 + o 0 o 0 CO CO >» ^ I~-. r^ To CO CO « 1 "^ • 1 1 "^ T-K 1 1 ■* •>*< To T"^ 1 0= 1 CO 1 •* 1 1 1 30 "O 1 t^ t^ CO 1 05 t^ 1 'J" •^l CO 1 f2 s 00 o 00 00 •0 CO c-q CO •^ 0 ■M CO CO 0 CO CO CO 00 -f CO 10 o> o> Ol 00 CO 00 00 r^ 00 i^ J>» i» J,3 'S3 s o 00 IE2 1 'J' 1 00 CO i- i» i'' I- IS GO IS CO CO 00 00 00 l>- 00 00 00 t^ o>_^ co 0 >o CO 0 1 oo 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CO 1 "=" 1 1 Is 1 1 T"' T?3 T"' Ts CO 1 ^ 1 CO L n QO CO IM >n CO M IM 0 00 1 « 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o» en CO 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 =0 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 o> t^ r^ o t 00 la 00 OS tfi 00 CO 00 CO o> 00 CO 00 03 00 CO 00 00 00 1 00 1 f^ 1 Oi 1 00 1 CO CCI 1 ^ 1 •* 1 0 1 f^ 1 "5 i f^ 1 CO ■0 00 t^ t^ r^ 00 00 CO 00 00 -- - -^ •— - --- ^- --- -— - -— ^ ^-^ "-— ' ~--^ ^---^ ^— ' 00 00 CO CO Ol !M ^ CO c^ e^ -^ bO a m en m s ■n o (0 u 03 3 J3 . r3 c 0 0, T3 0. 0) 1 -a 1 a a 1 S 1 a 1 a 1 i 3 o 3 0 T3 CJ a '3 Q 5 ■5 Q a 1 1 a u 0 0 0 >> 9 3 a fl a a ■3 "d '3 c3 Cj s 'S O O 3 3 3 ;3 s s s 0 flj eu 0 tf u* 294 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. w H J^ M o oo c^l CO W5 f^ C5 (M QO 00 05 o> 05 00 2rg I CO 1 '*' m 1 1 to 00 1 r~^ 1 -* 1 to ti* 00 1 CO 1 o 1 -T) 00 1 to to 00 00 J^oo 00 1 o> 1 t^ co°° -^ fl -u *i . " c o to CO a> ■* OJ ■* to bO O e! S 00 CJ t^ Oi 22^U i^ 1 "5 Fto 1 oo 00 'l"t-. 1 -< f >n 1 CO 1 c^ 1 to I^ 1 CO t^ 1 00 1 Ol 1 ca CO ■<*< -^ 00 1 «| to 1^ CO o 00 oo tH i" • o^^ to o a to >o to 00 T3 — . £, -M *y o CO o^u to t- 00 t- CO s ^^ o to 1^ to 00 lO J^ ^^ Tt^ Is to h 7=-, 1 Tk T" T» 1 <== 1 1 1 1 1 o to 00 to 1 1^ rl°° CO o o t^u s to E5 to t^ •o t^ 00 — ^^ w..^ -_^_- _^^ _^^ _^^ — ,-^ w^— --^^ ■ — ^^ — m "mIj t-- eo o c^ •»*< to CO .9-c; *-< MH 1 s. i°P M '^ "* '"' « (M CM '^ "' ^^ CO "^ :z; Q e o I • M 03 o b u K 0 d ■ 1 d Q i s bD d 8 O K) 1 J a) O H 1 5 ■j^ 'y Cq fe s T3 > fe . O Q a w H 1 1 ■73 d c3 -a 2 1 c3 « 3 "3 c d -73 d 1 d 3 o ffl o ^ C3 Z bB u, M w o d , O a d 0) > 03 1 bO d o a) ■2 d i a ^ M > d" g d* d" 03 1 -a •d "d i .2 ^ J2 ^ "s '1 'a a c5 J> Ut d ■^ -U ■»:» •4-3 Xi J3 s 1 1 (D tS 1 g i "S d S x) ja jd jj j3 ^ ja J3 P4 c3 cd & ^ & ^ ^ ^ ^ & ^ w ;s 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 295 00 QO 00 »0 Ci it^ \ a> lira II II II I "> I 00 II — 1| 13 ISIS I C^ '* O lO lO lO CD S I »0 I r^ ^H r* lO 0 r-. O M CO CO lO o I O I 00 ■^i X^ X' I II II II II I 00 ig IS ig IS IS Ts5 IS IS IS i^ 00t>-t^»Ot^Ci0b»l:^t^O4 — NC^-HC^iOcM.-li-INM-^CO (D — . >. iJ E S .^ .i:' E £ w w tf: Q a K 296 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. t4 • oj a)-": T»l o >o U5 t^ as oo 05 en 00 IS CO i» 1^ i^ J 00 i» j^K 05 1 00 I" CO 00 i^ oo 00 t~ t* '^ 00 ^^ ■^ t^ M « . o ■* ni ■-^ ■— ^ — >— -— — ^^ ^-' — ^ —-^ ~-— ' '--— — 'm'3 M M (M C^l CO OS s o ^ 8 6 > 1 a '3 S li s a J O s O S -a la o a C3 5 a O 3 3 ■| "o K 1 a 3 to d 8 1 -0 3 i XI (U O (2 1 XI S o > o >> C3 T3 >> 1 -3 d 1 a i •spaaj BassBjoj^ 03 0 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 297 (M I— o c. ^ UO -^ O) o> Oi CD OS Oi °p =? , CO 05 CO CO s GO 1 00 1 00 J.^ g i- i^ x^ J^S cl- l^ i- i" 28 ,138 X2 S^ Ts 00 OO 00 s a> iO CO a> 00 s CO ■^ CO iO 00 0 ^ 0 Oi c^ lO CO iO CO s ro 4- 1 CO IM 1 'f 1 °^ 1 SJ ci- 1 a 1 2 1 i^ 1 f^ 0 '7(35 1 (M I c^ 1 CO •* ci=° 1 1< i'^ 1 Oi 1 0 to"' 1 00 00 J.'- 1 s J^o 1 0 u^ s CO "l* 00 r- 00 01 03 s o> o> 0 o CO ■0 0 ■^ CO >o ■^ 00 CO »o i^ 1 "^^ !2 T<^ 1 c^ 1 -^ 1 I '] M "3! 1 =■ 1 <>' 0 1 0 1 r^ 1 1 CO CO 1 -^ J. -" 1 C^l 1 Ti I OD 1 o 1 >o ^ ^ t— U3 >o c6 CO M -»J< c<< 00 ■^ -.1* CJ 00 1i CO 0 IM 0 00 CO CO t^ 00 00 CO 00 Y as 1 '^^ lO 1 o> 1 -^ 1 . 1 CO 1 00 -f* o o ■0 00 CO CO CO 00 o M* CO CO 0 -a< CO ■^ 1 f^ 1 ^ o 1 <^^ 1 1 1 1 00 1 1 1 CO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 00 1 0 « •M 1 ^ 1 ^ 1 CO 1 'O cq CO M 00 o t^ CO 0 o 1 CO 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 1 1 1 -Jt C-) ■.*< 00 CO (M CO CD 0 ■^ CO 0 00 0 00 1 t^ 1 ■* o 1 CO 1 "*< 1 <^> 1 t^ 1 CO ^ 1 1 1 T-^ 1 1 CO 1 00 1 ^ CO Tj" •o 1 CO 1 t^ CO 1 00 00 05 1 1- 00 1 00 05 lO CO ■0 C-) CO A CO s " " 00 00 OJ 00 00 CO CO CO M cq e^ C-) 0 (M IM 01 - (M C-J CJ IM - - c - ^, -< - - - - CO ■* - - - - >1 Ji m 60 ^ XI a 'a. c3 TS a 03 SJ 1 1 „- 1 cS 1 s 0 a (Q ^ 1 a 3 o T3 3 -q -73 a 2 c3 Q d 0 1 a a J3 ^ _^ d d 0 > ^ 1 "« > c3 -a 0) a a 0 0 a a 0 tt> d g 0 1 1 a 1 xs M ^ o s s » o -a i 1 :3 1 a "c a) B ■3 a i 1 a t-i -< • -§^2 o s -^ 1 00 00 OO •0 10 to 1 1^ 1 -~- a w *i O U fl r^ ^ CO 10 M y c3 £ 2 £i30 00 1 '" o> 1 'i' ^ M 00 ■* 1 t^ Y to 00 1 00 00 1 en CO CO a> I^ 00 00 to S"" « ^ •^ in to 2 "tS OO CO 0 b » . a(i^^ -J< 0 00 ro 2 ^ a k. oj a) o 1 '^1 00 To Oi CO 00 1 0 0 Ts 1 05 -* 1 —1 CO J n to CO o A 10 0 ii^ , — -i 2oO o 0 >o to 1 ^ o 1 « to 00 0 ^ 0 0 1 « 1 s CO 1 00 to 1 00 to 00 00 t^ 00 1 l^ o£ s CO 00 t^ t^ Ph P( 1 Ts 1 I 1 1 05 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 'jja 0) 00 O.Q cu oa^^ 'S'~'2 en §2g o 1 1 1 <^' I^ 1 M 1 1 1 J 1 1 1 00 OO 1 0 r^ OS" OS g [_ 1^^ a> 0 05 00 Q-2 S o 1 f^ CO To to IM 1 «^ CO t^ OO CT. I^ 1 t~ CO 0 ■* ■* t^U t^ 00 t~ 0 S ^^^ —^^ ^„— . — ,— ■!> m "M-g ^ ■^ ^_, bo ft "o 8 j3 T3 .9 1 1 a a 1 s "3 "^ 1 01 i 2 1 >> a> 0) a s ta C3 cj ci N bn c: aJ aS (U « 1 1 a ■3 'ci ■3 0 c3 1 J3 ja J3 ^ 1 P s s S W &: ^ &: ^ 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT No. 31. 299 *-• . -s^:- M to C^ lO ,_, _, "9^ r^ OO oo 1^ CO I^ i° i- i° oo i^ ^ oo (^ •<»< 1 ^ a -^ -J o o d a> CO t^ s til li C3 ID ? oo 00 2 £SO 1 95 as 1 "^ c» 1 <0 C5 1 r-- 1 00 1 oa 1 'ji t^ 1 oo 00 -^ ■5— ■■< u >iO 4< :Z W « 00 Oi n t~ -* z; "^ft. L. §°S^ 2: Q i a "a 01 oj "i a a (3 a o S tJ b a o 3 2 ^' Z > bD o J3 >5 o OS "3. d a d a 03 "3 a u a o a a 3 o c3 M s u J3 d a a M m in O s u o o o cj r! c5 O O O o o o H 300 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. H O w I— ( Oh 3 a in t^ 00 ■>*< 00 CO rH 05 i 0 Cft QO 00 a> 00 r~ 00 00 00 OS 0 1 c 00 1 00 00 01 1 00 1 0 1 t. ^ o r^ t^ to o^o 00 00 00 0 00 t>. 00 00 t^ QO 00 1 ^ to IM 05 M 00 00 t^ "5 I^ 00 bfi aJ cj o 05 00 a> en 05 00 S £i3o ■* 1 1?^ 1 0 00 Tto 1 to 1 to 1 t 1 'To> 1 to 1 r^ X'=' 1 05 1 00 1 S Loo 1 CO 1 o> 1 to 1 00 1 00 2 «£ 0 t^ -* »c OS 00 00 c» s o» 01 CO 00 00 ' — M >o « IM ^_, CO o r 1 I- 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ts 1 "O 1 CO 1 1 1 73> 1 r Ts ■* -:, 3 a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r'^-O S o«o 0) oaH__^ ■^ ■^ 00 a^i 00 00 00 to QO 1 to 1 f^ 1 CO 1 in 1 CO 1 00 1 r^ 1 f^ 0 1 CO 1 <^^ 1 -H CO 00 1 00 1 QO 00 00 1 00 00 1 to 1 00 t^ ET*^ ® 0 OS 03 O^C) 00 00 00 00 >o t^ a » w-^ >1 ♦j Q2g 1 1 1 t 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' ' ' 1 1 1 1 3" ^ — .,^ ■ — ,_- — ^- ^^— ^^^^ . .-_. ,^ ^_,_^ >_^-- ^..^ • . ^ ^ '5"3 CO M to „ CO C-J CO CO (M (M 3 1-, 3 3" 3 3 S6 Efi "^ 0 -S -2 s 0 0 0 0 0 ci rt 0) 0 c4 cj 0 o 0 c c c 0 M M s M 0 0 0 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 301 00 .!« ■5 .J,^ .1" J.^ ■>»■ M 1 00 00 oo 00 oo ■^ Ol 1 o 1 1 1 t~ 1 "* ol-- lO o T:? 1 =~' 1 ■" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 to 00 OO 1 1 to 1 1 CO CO f-i 03 55 U Lh g 05 o3 g Jd ^ J3 <<-> fe g J5 c3 Xi ■3 O is &: is ^ < II II I 00 lO 05 C3 OS 00 CO r^ I lo I -t< TO I 00 I Oi I 05 ) O -* CO II II II I OJ _. ^ ^ Ja © S 3 IS s 302 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Average Digestion Coefficients obtained with Poultry.^ IGerman and American Experiments.! Kind of Fodder. Number of Experi- ments. Organic Matter. Crude Protein. Nitrogen- free Extract. Fat. Bran, wheat, Beef scrap, . Beef (lean meat), Barley, . Buckwheat, . Corn, whole. Corn, cracked, Corn meal, . Clover, . India wheat. Millet, . Oata, Peas, Wheat, . Rye, Potatoes, 46.70 80.20 87.65 77.17 69.38 86.87 83.30 83.10 27.70 72.70 62.69 77.07 82.26 79.20 78.33 71.70 92 60 90.20 77.32 59.40 81.58 72.20 74.60 70.60 75.00 62.40 71.31 87.00 75.05 66.90 46.94 46.00 85.09 86.99 91.32 88.10 86.00 14.30 83.40 98.39 90.10 84.80 87.04 86.70 84.46 37.00 95.00 86.30 67.86 89.22 88.11 87.60 87.60 35.50 83.80 85.71 87.89 80.01 53.00 22.60 1 Compiled by J. M. Bartlett, Bulletin 184, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 303 LiTERATUKE. The following publications have been consulted in compiling the foregoing tables of digestibility : — Colorado Experiment Station, Bulletins 8, 93. Connectient (Storrs) Experiment Station, reports for 1894-96, 1898; Bulletin 43. Illinois Experiment Station, Bulletins 43, 58. Kansas Experiment Station, Bulletin 103. Louisiana Experiment Station, Bulletin 77, second series. Maine Experiment Station, reports for 1886-91, 1893, 1894, 1897, 1898, 1900; Bulletins 110, 184. Maryland Experiment Station, Bulletins 20, 41, 43, 51, 77, 86. Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, reports for 1895-99, 1901-05, 1907; and Digestion Experiments, Series XII., XIIL, XIV., XV., unjiublished, Massachusetts, State Experiment Station, reports for 1893, 1S94. Minnesota Experiment Station, reports for 1894r-96; Bulletins 26, 36, 42, 47, 80, 99. Mississippi Experiment Station, report for 1895. Nevada Experiment Station, Bulletins 64, 66, 71. New York Experiment Station, reports for 1884, 1888, 1889; Bulle- tin 141. North Carolina Experiment Station, Bulletins 80c, 81, S7d, 97, IIS, 148, 160, 172. Oklahoma Experiment Station, Bulletins 37, 46. Oregon Experiment Station, Bulletins 6, 47, 85, 102. Pennsylvania Experiment Station, reports for 1887-94, 1897, 1898, 1900-01, 1903-04, 1906-07. South Dakota Experiment Station, Bulletin 114. Tennessee Experiment Station, unpublished data. Texas Experiment Station, Bulletins 13, 15, 19, 104. Utah Experiment Station, Bulletins 16, 54, 58. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal In- dustry, Bulletins 56, 106. "Wisconsin Experiment Station, report for 1889; Bulletin 3. Wyoming Experiment Station, Bulletins 69, 78. 304 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table Y. — Compilation of Analyses of Aghi- cuLTURAL Chemicals, Refuse Salts, Phos- phates, Guanos, Ashes, Lime Compounds, Marls, By-products, Refuse Substances and Animal Excrements. H. D. HASKINS AND L. S. WALKER. A. Chemicals and Refuse Salts. (a) Nitrogen chemicals. (b) Potash chemicals. (c) Refuse salts. P). Phosphates and Guanos. (a) Natural phosphates. (b) Dissolved phosphates. ((') Guanos. C. Ashes^ Lime Compounds and Marls. («) Ashes. (6) Lime compounds. {c) Marls. D. By-products and Refuse Substances. (a) Abattoir products. (t») Fish products. (c) Seaweeds. (d) Vegetable products. (e) Wool products. (/) Miscellaneous substances unclassified. E. Animal Excrements. F. Insecticides. As a rule, the analyses reported in the following compilation were made at this laboratory.' Some of them were made many years ago. Eefuse products from various manufacturing in- dustries are likely to vary more or less in composition, due to frequent changes in the parent industry. The revision of the 1 In the compilation of analyses of seaweeds, five of said analyses were taken from Bulletin No. 21 of the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 305 compilation every five years, however, insures quite reliable figures in most instances. In case of the agricultural chemicals and by-products which are commonly known to the fertilizer trade, the present compilation includes the samples collected by our inspectors during the last five years, as well as those samples sent by farmers and farmer organizations. In all cases where samples are forwarded for analysis, they are taken according to printed directions furnished from this office, which is a reason- able assurance that the analyses are representative of the mate- rials sampled. In many instances extremely wide variations occur in different analyses of the same product. This empha- sizes the importance of careful sampling as well as the purchase of such materials on a specific guarantee of plant food which they furnish. In the majority of instances only the highest, lowest and average percentage of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid are given in the tables, but it should be remembered that blanks do not imply the absence of the other ingredients. 306 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 1-1 CO S ^ u •ja^iTJj^ 8iqn]osni 1.00 .50 2.28 .82 .39 2.13 14.96 •anuono 9.74 .50 41.56 20.64 6.63 •pioy oiuoqjBQ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •pioy ounqdjng 12.46 60.00 .56 20.25 31.94 •saprxQ otnuu -tqV put^ oujaj 2.10 api.^o uinisauSBj^ 19.52 13.19 6.37 8.79 •(araiq) apixQ uintojBQ 63.19 29.30 2.37 12.45 •apixQ uinipog 35.50 7.66 18.97 5.27 •pioy ouoqd -soq j a[qniosai 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •priy oi.toqd -ioqj^ pajjaAaji 43.86 •pioy ouoqd -soq^l aiqnjog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o a •a&BaaAy 43.86 ■uinuiiuij^ I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 •uinmixBn 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 a m o •aSBiaAV 44.20 63.02 19.24 13.68 17.30 13.07 8.42 ■iunuiinij\[ 43.48 55.68 18.48 10.90 •uinuiixBi^ 45.62 67.20 20.00 16.50 ^5 W o 0 « •aSBJaAV 19.06 22.23 12.57 15.38 12.00 9.11 10.87 20.91 •uinuiinij^ 11.42 14.14 8.42 19.44 •ranuiixBj^ 14.58 16.57 9.88 22.72 •qsy 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 ■ajn;sioi^ .71 1.58 1.76 5.88 .78 6.05 1.01 2.25 18.22 .45 3.04 4.82 •eas/CiBay ^ oo CO (M sr" o in 1 m 1 1 ^: 1 1 1 r 1 1 o CO •.s* CO S " — t-» ' r 1 1 1 1 1 f t 1 = = — — = (-^ ' C) ' ' ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 __ 1 1 t 1 00 >o CO CO lO CO 00 00 C^ »c -.:». CO ■.s. _ 1^ ' ' ' (^ CO C O z CO 3 308 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. •jajI'Bj^ aiqniosni .96 3 64 6.46 4.50 9.14 •auuoiqo J 1 J 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II •piay oinoqaBQ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 "^ •pioy ounqding 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II •eaptxo atnioi -niy p'aB ouaaj 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' •apixQ mnisauSBjij 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II •(amiq) aprxQ rantojBQ 41.27 52.12 44.89 44.33 •apixQ tnntpog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II •ppv otJoqd -soq j aiqnpsai 33.09 31.89 36.62 22.40 22.90 24.60 1.92 2.79 •pioy ai.ioqd -soq j^ pajaaAay^ 2.09 4.07 .10 .85 1.66 3.40 4.62 14.17 •piay ai.ioqd -soq J aiqnpg CO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ro ' m o O " 12; .S •< « 0 a H 0- •aSBjaAy 35.18 25.10 9.54 35.96 28.28 35.21 36.72 23.24 24.56 35.89 26.62 27.97 16.07 18.08 •ninraiuii^ 32.62 28.38 16.56 33.10 20.60 11.60 •3 -5 0 •oinuiix'Bj^ 37.74 39.14 30.54 40.34 31.87 19.44 K (1( •aSBjaAV ^ 00 -^ CO CO M •umraiuij^ 1 1 1 > 1 1 1 ^ CO _ 0 % P-i » ■ranaiixBj^ II 1 '^ 0 •aSBiaAv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II W .1 fa •nintinntif 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II •mnraixBpi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II •qey 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II •8Jn^BlOJ\[ .07 .91 .21 3.09 4.60 2.50 .53 5.22 5.77 7.00 1.36 1.09 10.49 .68 •eas^IBuy ^H ^ C^ Tjl \ « Ed (a) Natural Phosphate. Apatite Arkansas rock phosphate. Bone ash, Bone black, Brockville phosphate, .... Florida rock phosphate, Florida soft phosphate, .... South American bone ash. South Carolina rock phosphate, Tennessee phosphate, .... (b) Dissolved Phosphates. Acid phosphate, Basic slag phosphate, .... 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 309 0 0 CO •!< r* E5 CD 10 s m CO -^ 03 (M CO " CO 1 1 1 1 . — CO Cil UO ' . . UO . M 0 CO e^ M . 0 cq N ._4 C5 c^ ' CO CO t^ CO 1 I r CO 1 0 i 1 1 oo ra r— ^4* i-^ ^^ '— » o -rt* ?? S « ' ■0 t^ « ' o •^ CO (M C^ C^ t^ r^ CO (M 00 ' ' ' ' O oo lO •0 l-V) *n l,^ ■»■ CI ^ -* —^ CO ' ' <-l ' CO c^ ' ' ' ' ■"* ,_, CO ' ' ' ' ' no ' ' CO t^ t^ CO f>. .^ C'l c^ '* 00 C-l CO CO 10 CO oo m CCt o. 0 0 •0 >ra .«< b.. j:; CO CO 0 ,^ f^ ^ ^ ^, ^ ^ ^ cj © a o a 3 3 Xt § o XI -a <» 3 o a o -3 1 a S a =3 1 a 0 JS 0, 0 1 0 s 1 u cj" B c3 > CS a .a a a X: 3 0 0 3 0 3 1 C3 s Q -a 3 .2 s' > "3 0 1 > > o ■5. a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 3 3 3 rt 51 c^ 00 C^ ■o Cs| 1^ o 00 f-) >o 00 CO (M >o cq cq ^ o CO apixQ uinpj'BQ ^ - ■ri< f- 1^ CO o T»l lO o to t^ -* CO "^ • "spixQ rantpog 1 c 1 1 1 1 •n 1 ' 1 CO 1 1 1 •ppy ouoqd §§ -eoqj aiqniosai -' •ppv ouoqd 00 -soq^j pajiSAay; ' ' ' CO ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' •praV ouoqd -soqd siqniog — f^; — — f;; — "c^ 05 ^3 « Q •a3BJ8AV ■"^ ■* t^ o >o 00 1.o CO "^ o ^^ CO c^ OO »o rS| CO r^ to »o OO ,_, CO t^ OO •aSBjaAV °^ M Tji o •^ 1 ■^ "^ M (^J o to ■< ■uininiuiw CO o ■* '^ ;^ CT 00 o CO .-4 to CO •oinui!XBj\[ 1 1 CO I ^ CO 1 1 1. 1 ^ 1 00 m •aSBjaAV 1 1 1 1 1 1 I "^ 1 , z *-• o o « •ranoaintj^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 ;2 •mnuiixBj^ 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •qsy 1 1 1 r- s I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 -^ t^ ,-t ■TJH o o •ain')siopi 00 I "*! a "■; s CO (M >o '" C-J '" •sas^itsny -^ ^ cq -^ (M CO UO CO -' ^ " ^ CO ^ '^ < « M H «s >«-< ^ • o r^ fs . .^ , ja [5 2 D. 3 o o e 3 O 'e ■s IS >. Ja ■z /4 2 3 q a O ■n a o o a % 6 so C3 g 'E u J3 fl i 1 =1 (-1 Cj 3. 8 to 0) f, 0^ s n? 01 s JA j: j3 -d jS j3 J3 J3 ^ J3 JS J3 ^ j3 1 < <; < < -^ <3 ~ CO CD O O t^ C>7 CO _^ Q^ C^ 00 o '-^ Tt< (M cs lO lo 00 '^i* CO O CO CO lO CO 1-^ t^ O >ra QC O) »o CO N 1^ c^ ,_ ,^ CO <-H CO C<1 ^H ■^ CJ c^ '^ 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 od 1 CO 1 o 00 -■ "• 1 1 1 ^^ iO 1 1 1 ' ' 1 ' ' ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t^ t^ o -■ ' ' ' ^ CO o o 05 05 CO "3 CO ■>»< en o> -i< 00 >o o tl '— • CA ■* e^ -* «3 "* CO '-' o lo t^ t-. c^ 1 o ' -■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 00 1 1 — — — 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 rirT" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 "5 >o 00 o - c3 rn _r t; C a 3 3 rt S o n. H ■73 i« ja 3 K "o a a i p. 1 'E o i *E -a 1 1 B 2 1 3 2 a ■3 c C3 8 1 3 T3 ! 1 -i 3 s a 1 r3 I 3 1 ■73 8 ■: i 00 C5 1 2 a i bD O 3 J ci5 ft 3 o -1 J s s S S 2 s s i' 0) CJ ^ ^ T3 8 o s J3 -a j:: ^ J j= J3 j3 j3 J3 -a J3 ■» "m t/l s < < < -^ < < < < < < < < < < <; < < < < < « 312 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. o CO 2 P o O £ O C3 u •ja;ii3i\[ aiqniosnj 24.32 1.33 .42 9.49 8.99 19.66 2.83 .26 1.33 5.79 9.83 10.08 ■9nuo[q3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •ppY omoqj'BQ 40.75 43.39 30.56 14.51 1.35 8.20 20.73 •pioy Dunqding 19.66 51.43 23.14 44.87 32.50 •sapixQ oiuini -niY puB oijja^ .62 •apixQ uinieauSBj^ .93 8.30 1.36 32.75 .76 4.66 •(aaiin[) apixQ mnio(BQ 21.92 93.63 52.33 38.18 48.19 42.56 36.00 54.78 27.51 14.86 19.62 47.55 33.74 30.00 45.87 ■apixQ mnipog .32 pioy oiJoqd '-soq j aiqniosni 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •ppv otJoqd -soqjl pa^JaAa^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •pioy oiJoqd -Eoqj aiqniog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 S2 < « H O .2a •a^BjaAv 1.14 .18 2.25 .15 .36 ■uinmiu!i\[ to r 1 1 '^- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •uinui!xt3j\[ .21 - to H 0 •aSBJaAV 4.15 .13 .22 •uinuiinipf 1 1 1 '^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •mnuiix'Bj^ .14 o a H 2; •aSBJaA-y •11-11; 11 -III •uinuiiuij^ 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■uinuiixBj^i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •qsv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O 3.44 .56 19.76 11.16 .28 8.01 .88 36.30 24.07 37.20 6.45 13.27 5.13 •easXiBuy ^HC^J-o t^ T— t CO lO o _l — — 05 o ,_, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 ' f r 1 = — <0~ en M *^ 2 CO CO o >o o 1^ <-l 05 ,_4 CO CO CO CO 1 1 1 1 ' o 1 I o t^ ^ i 03* a 3 'a y ^^ rt ^^ -n S! y M *^ s a 3 .a u cT > y •a 0) o f^ X a j- a S o '5 "3 cj o t4 a -2 ^- ^ a -.- -^ ^ > u fa < d a C3 Cl C3 Ph M M S s S s s o 314 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. H • S pq - •jai}T3i\[ aiqnjosni 1.38 .64 .26 •auuoiqo •pioy oiuoqaBQ •ppV ounqdjng ■sapixQ oiuiui -n[y puB ouaa^ apjxo mnisaaSBj^ •(siuiq) apixQ uinio[BQ •apixQ mnipog •ppV otjoijd -soqg aiqnjosuj 7.73 10.56 5.68 6.32 11.59 15.32 15.68 •pioy ouoqd -soqj pajaaAajj 4.41 7.24 6.76 3.10 - 5.26 7.43 9.25 •pioy Duotjd -solid aiqnjog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 §2 < « •a§BjaAv 3.43 12.14 17.80 12.44 9.42 .65 27.22 1.72 .07 2.69 .53 .46 16.85 22.75 24.93 ■uinuiiu!!^ 11.38 - .04 .03 13.94 23.22 ■uinuiixTjj^ 12.86 1.26 8.83 27.40 31.37 X H O ■aSBjaAy 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •lunuiinij^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 •uinmix'Bi\[ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ta o o « H •93B.iaAy 11.33 6.23 3.06 4.61 7.46 1.28 4.04 11.16 1.94 10.26 9.97 14.47 3.00 3.82 2.99 •uinuiiaipi 5.70 1.14 7.99 2.19 .97 •uinuiixBpj 7.19 1.42 13.78 6.32 3.63 •qsy 6.37 8.40 7.50 •ajn^sioi^ 5.88 5.97 5 06 5.38 7.12 87.01 7.99 81.75 10.48 14.80 10.80 24.98 6.12 6.92 •sasApuv o Fertilizer Materi.u,s. • • 1 ■ ■ ■ .A o ^ . . . oduct bon ; catt (o) Abbatioir Pr Ammoniate, Blood and bone. Bone dust. Bone fiber. Beef scrap. Bone soup. Bone scrapings, . Concentrated tankage. Condensed bone steam, Dried blood, Dried soup from meat anc Dried soup from rendering Fresh-cut bone, Ground bone (raw), . Ground bone (steamed). 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 31. 315 CO 00 «<» r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — — — 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CI CO o ■^ 00 "V .-« »o (M "J* to CM o • .— ' Tt< - lO '^ ^H CO 1 -^ . :i; OS b* CO CO CM - to CM 00 "5 CM ^ r^ 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 -^ 1 1 1 c^ ■* (M 00 ■* U3 CO o 00 to GO ira o o CO ^ ■«< '^ CO CM «5 to 2 eo CM 00 t^ o oo -^ rM CO O n o CM ' ,_, ' ' ' ' ' CM to a> CO ira o to CO CO o ■* ' ' to (M CO CO r-i ,_4 CO 00 OO C^l ^^ ^^ CM 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 " O " _4 I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 r 1 1 1 r t 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I ~~w — — ^' — p^ — CO IM »o (^ J^ CO »n CO ■* o o OO CO C5 c^ CO ^ »o o n 2 Ol en o CO iO o -' U3 ^ -^ 00 >o ■* 00 CO to CM CO to O a.- 00 O (M CM ."• c^ lO ::3 2 Oi 02 CO CO to ■* CM o. o Tji 05 o Ol ' ' CO to »o ' 05 ,_, ' ' ' ^H o t>. r* •— ' .— • -^ -^ ^^ CO (^ g C3i CO t^ W3 o . 1 . f- ■M 00 CO oo § in lO ,— < CO (^ CO o lO t^ >o ^H C-] CO -^ ^ U5 CO lO - (M ■ra ■^ 2 CO -^ f -^ - 1j< o o CO CM eo ^ a> J" 1 a Q ^ is 'n . a a .s> '^ 1 .9 3 2 o u o a. o •5 C3 •n t, s o a i 8 -T3 cl C3 a u d 2 -3 d 2 o i ■1 J3 a o a i CO a a "3 .. o J □ •3 3 2 a J3 o X! a 3 > 1 1 a 1 a o 1 1 a a a a C3 a 2 a 3 eg C3 J:! .2 't-l -a a a 2 o a CM j3 i 2 O o rt « D d o o a M W X s «5 S 3 « H u a u -^ 1^ PQ UJ H 316 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. •jow^K aiqniosnj •3UU011J3 •ppv oinoqjBQ iO lO i-t •ppv Ofjnqding •saprxQ otatni apixQ uinie8u3Bj\[ apixQ uinpiBQ CO CO oo •apixQ lunipog PPV ouoqd -soq j siqniosni •ppV OUOTJCl -soq j pa}jaA8^ •piov ouoqd -so'qj ajqniog ^ ° •aSujaAV ■iunm;uij\[ Oi CO CO •uinuiix8j\[ ■a3BJaAv •uinui!aij\[ •ramuixBj\[ CO r CO .55 _ .64 •qsv •ajo'jsioi^ •siSifj'Bnv •aSBjaAv K ;:: ^ CO IN "5 ^ t^ CO ■o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 ■ I I 1 1 I I I I I I r I I I I I I -111) 00 <© -tJ* [jOrOCiO "^C^C^ C000--- i-i i-I »-i CO ^H C^ »r3 o oo o 2 oo ^ - - (M -^ CO -I -^ •* s CD CO -^ -^ -^ - -' -< CO (M -^ '" — 1 e5~ CO — e« S CO ' ' •^ ' I^ ^t I 1 1 1 1 1 « 1 1 1 1 1 ' a CO lO t^ Oa to Ci OV c« c» «M C^l 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' ' 1 1 1 •^ 1 e» 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 c^ 1 to 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i^ — « — ..— — — —- o ■rt* 1 1 1 o r 1 r CO CO 1 ' 1 1 ' 1 1 1 S 00 1 1 1 • 1 1 I ' 1 I 1 t o 1 1 1 M o c^ CO lO to CO ^ to to CO to ^ '^ C5 c »c t^ '"' '"' 03 c^ to o o lO C3 d M Ol — C<1 -^ CO o o CM CD CD 1 to .^ iM _4 ■* ,_, c-i t-H (M ^^ in W CO (M CO 2 '-' »o CS CI CO -■ -^ "' '" '-' ' fM o »n o »-i (M . N »-H »" CO o M f^ JN. ^« CO o r» t^ o o ■v <» CO --it ■"• "^ 1 f^ c^ ^ Oi t-« ^ g - - -- (M (M - lo -^ CJ o (M -^ - -' -^ M en - - - — to ^ o a & ■ M o a > 3 2 ■2 o . -3 *3 3 >, d t-4 ■n 2 ■^ s ci a d . . o a. y a o d g ?. C3 2 "o C3 1 2 m 3 E 3 2 3 OS 3 i 3 2 (D 3 IB a a 1 2 ta M 'a 8 1 O > c5 O -^ • a o aa o =s o 3 2 a 1 o s 1 1 "3 -c d CJ o o 2 1 i i 1 > 13 i 8 -3 d ol 2 i 1 a 1 1 C5 M d Id 1 > C5 e 15 i 1 «2 02 02 M H H H 320 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. o w — ' o a 12; "" < ■71 H a rli 3 m o CO o w " m P [ii w p:5 o "rt ;?; 3 o « r/} 0) H O P O E o rt Pk >^ pq •J9')?'Gj\[ aiqnjosnj 1 O s o 1 o 1 00 -^< 00 1 1 1 uo O 1 a> •euuono 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •ppV oinoqjBQ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •piDy oianqding 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •BapixQ otnttn § o lO -niv puB oua8j[ - ' |^^ ' ' ' ' ' 2 ' •apixQ uinis3n3t;j\[ 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I I 1 1 """• 1 1 •(8tni7) o •ppV ouoqd o o -soqd; pa^JBAan ' ' ' ' -J< ^ •ppV oiJoic' oi -soqd aiqniog ,_, (M o (^ OO (M CD O CO [^ •aSTuaAv '^. o CO 1 o CO § lO o i; ■^*< o 05 01 C^l •iunuiiaij\[ '". r ^ 1 1 1 " 1 1 1 1 1 1 H 0, •uimutx'Bj^ n 1 "5 1 1 1 CO ' 1 1 1 1 1 1^ CO -^ ,_, •aSBjaAV tr^ 1 "• ■^ I I 1 1 1 a •O ^H CI c^ CO ■< •tunuiinii^ — ' Tf. 00 H O e4 CO o •uintntxBj^ CO 00 1 « 1 1 1 1 1 1 CO 1 1 '— ' ^^ ,_, Ci Oi c^ i^-^ •* 00 •aStsiaAv o CO ^ 1 '^1 1 1 o ^^ 'i^ CO '"' uj '^ ^ •uinunatj^ o> " , « ^^ H S •uiniuix'Bi\[ o •* ' 00 1 1 1 t^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 l^ CO •qsy 1 T 1 r^ 1 1 ' 1 1 (n' ' Ci •airnsiopj CO 00 ^. ^ ■"I *"! ■^ '-' '— ' 'M ^^ CO •s8ei?iBnv « >o ^ •^ '-' ^ 1 41 a a B 2 tt i a S B 2 <0 3 1 3 2 s 3 >> o 2 2 1 -n -d ji n a t>j ei 0 > o is is ^ « W t^ P^ O O O O h-1 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 321 t^ r^ o CO o •wn l^ ^ 1 1 1 " 1 1 00 ira 00 S ea ■>i< o CO 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 CO f^ 1 1 o ■* 00 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 '(Jl 1 1 1 1 1 o •»< »o 00 '- rH ' 00 CO o CO 1 1 1 CO Oi -> CM ^ CO Tfl 00 •O Ol ^^ o oo 1 J '"• *-< 05 U5 CO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 6n~ 1 1 1 1 00 1 1 CM 1 1 to I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 '"' o CO s ^H CO CO CM 00 «— ' CM CO 00 CO CO c^ t^ »o cj o o "^ ^H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 >o 1 1 1 CO CO 00 CO 115 1 >o 1 1 1 o ~7~; — — p^ — lo o CO 1 1 1 1 -* CO CM 1 cq CM ' t CO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 "*. o 1 1 C3 ■ o C) 1 1 1 1 1 1 I ' I 1 1 1 CO 1 1 "*. 1 1 ' 1 1 1 ' CO f^ OS _, ,_, crs ,_« ■^ _, CO ro CM O o ■^ CO >- to -* ■>»< f~ 2 - ■^ -^ - CO (M 2 ■* CO CO ^ CO ^-i oo t* '"' CM . '~* . . 1 in -^ CM O r^ O '— ' o CO t^ >< o 00 ' ■* 00 ' ' ,^ t>. ' CM t>. ^^ ,-( CO CO lO 'J" CO o o oo >o CO o '"' c^^ 1^ J^ _, CS 00 r- c» 1^ CO ■* CO •<»< c» •^ i-i N -^ " - - CO M cq -^ - f CO •>J< ■«< CM ^ CO '^ - " R o Xi 3 s s 2 s . li; T5 1 in •a o > 1 & 1 g 1 1 _d" o .9 1 Ut a 3 1 to a a 1 o ■a 3 1 2 3 1 "3 a a a i 1 1 4) t s s CJ i a g o 3 o 3. s 2 o 3, >> s "i >, a 'a g § o J3 i 1 B i M J3 1 1 J M S a 3 O a Q. 1 a -3 3 3 a a □ 02 a c C3 a CJ H s is 322 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. W S <1 1 •* t^ o o t~ ■ja?:>Bj\[ ajqniosni 1 lO 1 1 I 2 - CO <~> ' t^ ' 1 ■.*' C-l •anuoiqQ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 •pioy amoqjBj 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •ptoy aunqdjng 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •saprxQ otuiui -niv puB ouja^ •apixQ uin;saa3T;j^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •(8UII1) "3 £J CO CO CO K •* OS apixQ ranpiTjQ Tf '-' -' C<1 -* o> ". ^. lO o >o >o 10 ■"! 0 ^ '^ '^ '^ C.-4 CO Ol c» .— 1 r^ CO •ainuiiaii\; « T-H H o s •ranuitxt?!^ 1 1 1 1 -■ 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 0 kO •qsy 00 1 1 « 1 ' 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 CO CO 1 •8jn^sioi\[ ^- CO CO CO •* ira "^. CD Tt' C^l •eas^jBay -^ -' -' -^ (M -^ 00 ^ N « '-' > d 1 a a 1 a "5 a o 3 a 8 Q 3 '5 a a 3 3 a 3 0) 3 O d a o a "3 a d 8 60 3 a a Si W o 0 « « o O w w W W h^ Ph Ph OD 1911, PUBLIC DOCUIVIENT — No. 31. 323 •ppv 05 c<> •* cc ouonpojp.Ci4 UI 1 c^ o a35'>uj\[ d[miiosuj c^ •apixQ oiuiui CO — -niv pnB oujoj ' 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 •apixQ ranteSB^oj 1 1 1 1 «ra 1 1 " iS "^ CO CO •aptsQ umiopQ 1 1 1 1 1 S S 5 1 1 o !* S ?3 -^ tr CO « C5 •anuoiqo CO 1 r 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 •pioy ounjing > < 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •jnjing ' 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 •ifjnojan ' I 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •aniiooij.^ 1 1 1 r 1 22 S c^ _ CO to m o o a •ppv Dt;aov r 1 1 1 CO I 1 r 1 1 1 1 C) (n H ■3 •apixQ ninuBg ' ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o rn 3 o a "^ '^ o to •apixQ oujz ' ' ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 ►—1 fo CO O a •aptxo p^aq; ' 00 1 1 J 1 1 r CO r 1 r« Q) 2 a •otnasiy 8 S s QO -H CO hJ aiqniog J a i b a\ ' OO ' o ' 1 1 1 1 <3 3 -«J< •SQSsv , - ?4 O CJ t: apixQ snoinasjy ' o ira ' ' CO PSH c^ o CO r). _^ •appcQ JaddoQ i CO CO 1 1 I ' ' d -h' -1' d 1 1 •SQ^sv g M "O 1 ■^ -^ ■* >ra •^r CO CO apixQ enoiuasjy M Ira t^ CO 00 o >o >o — OJ O CO -K O O ^ •oirnsioj^ (M ira im' -«< !-■ d 00 —• OO o 00 t~ 00 I-' d CO TI- •saeXjBny - IM CO M 00 « ^ - o *»** - « -, . ^ T3 o O a S S N1 ^^ ^ d ■ 2 3 . a 5 s D. 3 ■0 J3 3 - 73 T3 e a ■ 8 2 2 IS e3 a ■S 2 2 2 d .1 1 0 8 S 55 2 v. ^ ?? S S B 0 d o- c B _3 2 2 S Cj 2 g 2 .2 s 8 8 J 1 Jag M O J i-q ij PL, (2 0, PM H Eh 1 324 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table YI. — Compilation of Analyses of Fiiuits AND Garden Crops. H. D. HASKINS. A. Analyses of fruits. B. Analyses of garden crops. C. Relative proportions of phosphoric acid, potassium oxide and nitrogen found in fruits and garden crops. The figures in A and B are in parts per 1,000. To convert into percentages or pounds in 100, move the decimal point one place to the left. Some of the following analyses were taken from the compila- tion of E. Wolff. Those marked with an asterisk (*) were made at the laboratory of the Massachusetts Agricultural Ex- periment Station, The tables will be found suggestive when one is preparing fertilizer formulas for various fruit and garden crops. One has also to consider, however, in making such fertilizer mix- tures, the influence of cultivation and crop rotation as well as the plant food in the soil. Members of the clover family are not dependent wholly upon supplied nitrogen, they having the power, after a vigorous start, to acquire atmospheric nitrogen when plenty of potash phos- phoric acid and lime are supplied. An excess of phosphoric acid may be used in formulas without danger of loss from leach- ing. The same is true, to a certain extent, in case of potash, although this element is more often found in a water-soluble form in soils than is phosphoric acid. The well-kno^vn system of crop fertilization advocated originally • by Wagner is based upon the necessity of an abundant supply of potash and phos- phoric acid in the soil, while the nitrogen is added in such lim- ited amounts and at such times as will provide for the maxi- mum growth of the crop and the minimum loss through leaching. 1 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 325 m =3 H ,!- & ^ rt •^ \^ „ =0 |X( o <» N? rO H •^ o r/) CO !« 5= ■2 1-1 O <1 — I I I 1 ^ , ^ CO 1— I O lO lO (M CO (M — I CO 00 Oi O lO CO i-H (M (M 1-H (M .— I O -* CO (N rfH CO CO CO 1— I O lO '^i T-H CO C5 (M 00 CO 00 t^ 00 00 00 w X5 Xi 1 o 0) a a; CI. CJ D CO 0 o 1—1 CO O o fe p- ■2 " li ^ t^ o •uaSoa-jiivi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I-H OJ T-H CO o o 00 (N 1 1 T-\ 1 CO o o •ejntsioj^ CO o t- o CO I-H 1 ^^ .2 13 o 'C 'C ;-, ^ 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 327 o (N o o CO o ■auuomo '"' '"' (M 1— 1 lO o IM CO •ppV auiij[ng (M o GO o t^ >o (M CO 05 •piDy ouondsoq^i I— 1 t^ I-H CO lO Tfl i-H CO I-H '^ "* •apixQ uinisauSsn T— 1 1> I-H to O o lO C^4 o CO o ■opixQ uinpicj I-H o I-H C5 -* oo o o o o •V -t< o 00 t^ OD CO T—t CCi o 00 w o > o3 T3 S d. s o o 1 CO 1 ^ ^ .^ a^ •V (h (l (h • * ci rt o3 ej ej S T"! fcJD to bfi bO fcO CO OT 3^ O 3 3 3 3 3 T3 13 1 " w 93 CO CO o o ^ if if 5" crT -1.3 tn i2 bO bJO a 2 a> (U V o o (U c3 c3 O CQ o * as * m « « ^ * ^ U ' 328 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 3 .s O o o « J o 0) ft -s^ 5 CO & ff ~^ o CO O (N -* 00 TJH •sniJOjqo o CO T— 1 •piDV ouoqdeoqj 1—1 CO 1—1 1—1 1—1 Tt< o lO TjH 00 00 IM lO •apixQ Hinipog (>i lO (M 1 00 o t^ CO Tt^ 00 t^ o> CO »o •OpiXQ UiniSSB^OJ lO c^ Oi 00 1> o o C2 05 s" ^ <^ Q n fl .s 1 > •• CO o a a 'J' rS 1 1 c3 ^-i c3 a o & ^ 1 OP O faC C3 o o3 K o c;i =1 CJ 3 o C! a -tJ -fj -1^ ^ c3 en '-I3 '-I3 -t^ -tJ +:> -i-J g 'S, a, O t- Sh 1—1 CO 1—1 lO 1 CO CO CO lO 1 CO 1 C-l -^ c^ ^ CO o Ci rH CO i> o I— I 1— ( (M ""^ 1—1 ^ 1—1 1—1 1—1 GO I— 1 '^ T— ( (M CO o t^ lO (M CO o o c^ 1—1 1— ( 7—1 (M (M 1—1 1—1 CO lO CO TlH 1—1 CO ^ 00 (M CO (M CO lO 1>. o CO CO 1—1 (^^ lO o 1—1 t^ o t^ o o CO lO 1—1 to 00 CO lO ^ 00 o 1—1 t^ o 00 1— ( 1—1 t^ o CO CO ^ CO t^ CO CO Ci o o 00 CO CO lO Tt< CO CO t^ Tfl T— 1 TtH (M CO > ci o ^ 1 o o > c3 a; > o3 IS faC o -l-> ^ m 13 3 9J o 1 ^ OJ ^ o3 o '3 t 2 o o3 1 ^ tT a > 8 !/2 '3 42 -£2 3 p:J * 5 5 * 3 fl d o t-i U U 330 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. a o O O „ "* (N lO •aauono '^ 1— 1 I— 1 CO •pioy ounjing (M o C5 O) t^ o t^ o o •pioy ouoqdsoqj 1—1 i-H t^ o lO J>. lO CO rH (M j I— 1 1— t 1—1 t>- CO 00 I— 1 1—1 1—1 T— 1 o o 00 ^ ~i* o o (M c:5 •8jn:)stoj\[ lO o O CO -* o o 00 C o m O a, t=^ 'is ^ 03 3 w a> -i^ fl CI r< d j3 -*;^ o t-c o !-i t-i L-< ^ O 3 3 d C3 3 o o o o O pL, a pq n CJ U if- * o o oS =! u O o 1911. PUBLIC DOCOIENT — No. 31. 331 1 1 1-H CO 1 1 1 CO 1 1 CO O (M 2.3 ^. 1 1 r— ( lO 1 1 1 t^ 1 1 T— 1 7—^ 'O 2.7 00 lO (M lO ■^ o o T— 1 Ci kO o t^ 00 lO o T-t CO o t^ CO CO CO CO to I— 1 o CO CO o C5 00 C5 >o o 1—1 CO lO o (M 1—1 C<1 T-H (M CO c6 1—1 lO (N o 1—i o lO CO ^ 1—1 T— ( T— 1 '~' CO 1—1 >o UO 1—1 1— ( ^ 1 '^^ '^J^ 1 1 1 CO 1 CO 'in CO CO ■ 1—1 (M CO 1— 1 CO CO oo (M o GO t^ T— 1 1—1 (M o lO CO o CO '^ LO o I^ 1—1 CO I—I CO T— 1 CO o 1—1 lO ^ ^ o c3 O w o >> tf o S2 bfl r-> <^ » O c3 ^ G, O C! u, 0) O f5 t-, >> n a a U O 1— 1 s ^ CL, 332 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 1 1—1 1 CO ■ ^ o 05 ir^ CO t^ CO t^ •ppY ouoqdsontj CD d T— 1 t^ 00 1— 1 '^" 1—1 r-l o lO (N ■* CO i Tt^ CJ Oi lO ^ 1—1 CO CO (M IM !>■ th 1— 1 •u93oj;!^ CO CO CO I— 1 CO crj 1—1 CO CO 1— 1 (m' 1 CO (M o (N t^ o O T-K lO (M CO ^ Q (M o 00 •8jrnsioj\[ Ci O 1—1 1—1 '*! CO 00 CO 05 »o o 1—1 1— ( 1—1 05 Oi CO GO t^ J> • • • • • 'co •c^ ■h • • • • • 00 !» » 'Sj • • • • • ^ CO S »v • • • 5- TJ gs o 'o ft tT ■^3 • 1 -^3 o 03 ^■^ o 1 ^ cS 03 m w CO si O 'a ft o3 o ^ :3 faC =1 :3 bC 1 s 0) .4j:> .^ 1 c3 o3 c3 co~ m o o a 02 > > > 1 si o ft < ft <1 ft CO c o '3 O C3 O 'S o o (33 "o 03 O ?« * * * .s * * * o3 * 'o h-l ^ 02 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 333 G2 00 00 lO r-l 00 CO (M CO (M CO (N O "* O o o CO 1-H Oi O 1— I (M 02 C35 T-H T-H CO (M ,T-H T-H CO ^ ^ (M 00 >o CO Tt< (M 00 1> o o lO CO (M o I— < CO 1—1 I— 1 CO 1—1 TJH rH t^ CO 00 ^ Ci 05 !>- cri Oi CO 1— 1 a> CO lO o (M 1—1 CO CO t^ o M T-H '^ CO LO i>. CO '^ t^ CO t^ CO (M 1—1 ^ CO CO I— 1 •* o CO ^ o CO o c^ CO o I— 1 OJ GO CO ^ C* o I— 1 CO 1—1 C-1 (M (N 1—1 lO 1—1 CO (M lO (M rH o lO o o CO o CO o 00 (N 00 1—1 CO CO (^ CM CO -tH o 00 o lO o c•^ o ^ a> s l^ 00 T— t Oi I— 1 ^H 1—1 00 00 00 00 !>. 00 a; > o M '^ i o . ^ -1-3 -tJ o o 03 a o o o o o CJ o c;i a v CJ rrl 03 03 c3 XI -Q -O .JO O o O O o H H H H H 03 o c3 O 03 O >v •;= O a a !=1 ^ m tn t-i Lm c\ rt fU P-, 334 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. C. Relative Proportions of Phosphoric Acid, Potassium Oxide AND Nitrogen in Fruits and Garden Crops. Phosphoric Acid. Potassium Oxide. Nitrogen. Fruits. Ericacece: — *Cranberries, 3.0 - *Cranbernes, 3.33 2.66 Rosacese: — Apples, 2.7 2.0 *Apples, 1.9 1.3 Cherries, 3.3 - *Peaches, 1.3 - Pears, 3.6 1.2 Plums, 4.3 - Strawberries, .... 1.4 - ^Strawberries, .... 2.6 - *Strawberry vines. .7 - Saxif ragaceaj : — *Currants, red, .... 2.1 - *Currants, white, ... 2.8 - Gooseberries, .... 1.9 - Viticea?: — Grapes, 3.6 1.2 Grape seed, 1.0 2.7 Garden Crops. Chenopodiacea;: — *Beets, red, 4.1 3.3 Beets, sugar, 2.88 1.75 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 335 C. Relative Proportions of Phosphoric Acid, etc., in Fruits AND Garden Crops — Continued. Phosphoric Acid. Potassium Oxide. Nitrogen. Chenopodiaccaj — Con. *Beets, sugar, 4.8 2.2 Beets, sugar, leaves, 4.28 4.28 Beets, sugar, tops. 2.3 1.7 Beets, sugar, seed, 1.5 - Mangolds, 4.66 2.0 *Mangolds, 4.2 2.1 Mangold leaves, .... 6.25 3.75 Spinach, 1.7 3.06 *Spinach, 1 19.2 6.8 Compositoe : — Artichoke, .63 - *Artichoke, Jerusalem, . 2.8 2.7 Lettuce, common. 5.3 - Lettuce, head, .... 3.9 2.2 *Lettucc, head, .... 7.7 4.0 Lettuce, Roman, .... 2.3 1.8 Convolulaceai : — Potato, sweet, .... 4.6 3.0 Cruciferae: — Cauliflower, 2.3 2.5 Cabbage, leaves, .... 4.1 1.7 Cabbage, Savoy, .... 1.9 2.5 Cabbage, white, .... 4.1 1.7 *Cabbage, white, .... 11.0 7.6 336 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. C. Relative Proportions of Phosphoric Acid, etc., in Fruits AND Garden Crops — Continued. Phosphoric Acid. Potassium Oxide. Nitrogen. Cruciferae — Co7i. Kohlrabi, 1.6 1.8 Radishes, 3.2 3.8 Radish, horse, .... 3.9 2.2 *Ruta-bagas, 4.1 1.6 Turnips, white, .... 3.6 2.3 *Turnips, white, .... 3.9 1.8 Turnips, white, leaves,. 3.1 3.3 Cucurbitacese: — Cucumbers, 2.0 1.3 Pumpkins, .56 .69 GraminciE: — Barley, grain, .... .61 2.43 Buckwheat, grain, .43 2.51 Corn, whole plant, green, . 3.7 1.9 *Corn, whole plant, green, . 2.2 2.8 Corn, kernels, .... .6 2.8 *Corn, kernels, .... .6 2.6 *Corn, stover, .... 4.4 3.7 *Corn, whole ears, .... .8 2.5 Hay, English, .... 5.03 3.93 Millet, seed, .51 2.84 Oats, grain, .65 2.38 Rye, grain, .67 2.10 Wheat, grain, .... .65 2.50 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 337 C. Relative Proportions of Phosphoric Acid, etc., in Fruits AND Garden Crops — Continued. Phosphoric Acid. Potassium Oxide. Nitrogen. Leguminosae : — Alfalfa, hay, 2.93 4.05 Bean straw, 3.3 - Clover, hay, 3.4 3.58 *Cow pea, green {Dolichos), . 3.1 2.9 Garden beans, seed. 1.2 4.0 Hay of peas, cut green, 3.4 3.4 Peas, seed, 1.2 3.G5 Pea straw, 2.8 4.0 Soy bean seed, .... 1.21 5.12 *Small pea, dry (Lathyrus sybestris), 3.4 4.2 *Velvet beans, kernel, 1.7 4.0 *Velvet beans, with pod, 1.56 2.3 Liliacese: — *Asparagus, 3.05 3.0G Asparagus, 1.3 3.6 * Asparagus roots, ^ .... 4.60 3.45 Onions, 1.9 2.1 *Onions, 2.6 - Solanacese : — Potatoes, 2.5 2.1 *Potatoes, 4.1 3.0 Potato tops, nearly ripe. 2.7 3.1 Potato tops, unripe. 3.7 5.3 » Twenty-four analyses. 338 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. C. Relative Proportions of Phosphoric Acid, etc., in Fruits AND Garden Crops — Concluded. Phosphoric Acid. Potassium Oxide. Nitrogen. Solanacese — Con. Tobacco leaves, .... 7.71 3.71 *Tobacco, whole leaf, . 13.46 5.65 Tobacco stalks, .... 4.15 1.78 *Tobacco stems, .... 10.7 3.8 *Tomatoes, 8.7 4.5 Umbelliferae: — Carrots, 2.7 2.0 *Carrots, 5.7 1.7 Carrot tops, 2.9 5.1 Carrot tops, dry, .... 8.0 5.1 Celery, 3.5 1.1 Parsnips, 2.8 2.8 *Parsnips, 3.3 1.2 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 339 COMPOSITION OF SO:\IE MASSACHUSETTS SOILS. BY J. B. LINDSEY. In the year 1892 samples of typical soils were taken from diflfcrent parts of the State under the general supervision of Prof. "William P. Brooks. Prof. Benjamin K. Emerson, the geologist of Amherst College, advised as to the most snitable location to secure some of the soils, in order that they might be representative. The soils were carefully a^nalyzed under the direct supervision of the late Prof. C. A. Goessmann, and the completed results of each soil are here presented for the first time. Description of Ty^pes. Soil N^o. 1. — Ten inches surface soil taken on the j!:rounds of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment station, north of Hatch barn. Soil No. 2. — Ten inches surface soil taken on Ag-awam Plains, not cultivated for ten years. Soil No. 3. — Twelve inches surface soil taken from hill pasture in Aga- wam. The soil known as Agawam red sandstone. Soil No. 4. — Granite till from Dedham, locality of Fox Hill; 12 inches surface soil. Soil No. 5. — Cranberiy bog from Colony Stock Farm ; 6 inches sur- face soil. Soil No. 6. — Diked Salt Marsh, Marshfield; tide shut off twenty years ago; soil cultivated. Soil No. 7. — Soil of alluvial foi-mation from Hadley meadows; over- flowed in 1862 and 1872, and a deposit of sand was left which injured it materially. Soil No. 8. — Virgin soil, taken from South River salt marsh, ]\Iarsh- field, Mass. Soil No. 9. — Natural fresh-water meadow from Sudbury, Mass. ; very wet. Soil No. 10. — Gneiss till from Shutesbury, Mass. ; very baiTon. Soil No. 11. — Mica schist from Deerfield, Mass. ; taken from base of hill. Virgin soil, good pasture land, never cultivated. Soil No. 12. — Limestone till from Pittsfield, Mass. Soil No. 13. — Copperas rock from Hubbardston, Virgin soil, very strong. 340 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. -is O CO fX ^ ^ e s ^ ^3 6 TOO o o o TO05-»0SOC^OC)CnTOOI^ 0 CO W5 CO ■<*< c^i t^ in ■'j^ O O) tH 00 o> Oi -H tP 6 2 CO— i' s s 1000>^COOO-rJ^I^05iMC500-C^l g rH Tj< o d COM* tOTO s 1 00OTOQ0C^OiCD0i^HO(TO05 OCl-HTOC»-cooitc^r^TOcooi C0--HC0eOC0-^O»0^i-HP000 ■0 CO -* 0 co oa> o o o (M0CCqrtOTOt^02>0IMh-C0 00 10 0 Oi COt— CO ^HOO C^ ^H *0 CO CO § —■ TO to d 2; TOt^ « CO Oi 8 g 3 MTOOO CO -^ Ci CI 0 1(0 lO-* OCJ IC 00 cg-H -^u:! ^ 0 0 CO ^ d o g 110 CD'<:t*^H Oi-^COCO CI ri TO O TO O TO I^ OS 05 00 CO TO 2 TOoS r^oi (MOiO (MCVl d 2 TO«D 8 ooooa>ci--ocDt^OTOOi-*c»< Oi 0 d 2; g OOTOOOOOOO— •i^ost^oc-ioo COt^^TOCDOO^rJ*C^I^^O 0 coc^co CO CI ^ 0 r^ Oi M< coo OCO CO— 1 TO "H e-1 00 0 0 TO d 2: M CO ,-i CO Ol o o o o OO^OOOOCOCOCOC<1-^»000 «-*TOC-Jt^C^lOI--C