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SIXTH ANNUAL REPOET

S E C Pv E T A P. Y

Passat|usttts §flart at Agriculture,

i^

TOGETHER ■\VITU

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES

APPOINTED TO VISIT THE COUNTY SOCIETIES,

WITH AN APPENDIX

CONTAINING AN ABSTRACT OF THE

FINANCES OF THE COUNTY SOCIETIES.

BOSTON:

WILLIAM WHITE, PEINTEE TO THE STATE.
1859.

439. 4

1% s-"^

STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
1859.

MEJIBERS EX OFFICIIS.

His Excellency NATHANIEL P. BANKS.

His Honor ELIPHALET TKASK.

Hon. OLIVER WARNER, Secretary of Slate.

APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNOR AND COUNCIL.

EPHRAIM W. BULL, of Concord.
MARSHALL P. WILDER, of Dorchester.
WILLIAM S. CLARK, of Amherst.

MEMBERS CHOSEN BY THE SOCIETIES.

MASSAOanSETTS,

Essex, .
Middlesex, .
Middlesex, Socrn,
Middlesex, North,
woecester, .
WoRCESTEK, West,
TToRCESTER, North,
■Worcester, Sonia,
Hampshire, Franklis
Hampshire, .
Hampden,
Hampdex, East,
Franklin,
Berkshire, .
HonsATONic, .
Norfolk,
Bristol,
Plymouth,
Barnstable, .
Nantucket, .

. RICHARD S. FAY, of Boston.

. WILLIAM SUTTON, of South Banvers.

. SIMON BROWN, of Concord.

. WILLIAM G. LEWIS, of Framingham.

. JOHN C. BARTLETT, of Chelmsford.

. JOHN BROOKS, of Princeton.

. JOSIAH WHITE, of Petersham.

. JABEZ FISHER, of Filchburg.

. OLIVER C. FELTON, of Brookfield.

Hampden, PAOLI LATHROP, of South Hadley.

. LEVI STOCKBRIDGS, of Hadley.

. GEORGE M. ATWATER, of Springfield.

. CYRUS KNOX, of Palmer.

. JAMES S. GRENNELL, of Greenfield.

. CHARLES K. TRACY of Hinsdale.

. SAMUEL II. BU3HNELL. of Sheffield.

. CHARLES C. SEWALL, of Medfield.

. NATHAN DURFEE, of Fall River.

. CHARLES G. DAVIS, of Plymouth.

. GEORGE MARSTON, of Barnstable. ,

. EDWARD W. GARDNER, of Nantucket.

CHARLES L. FLINT, Secretary.

SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

SECRETAEY

OF THE

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the Common-
wealth of Massachusetts : —

In presenting this Report it is proper to say, tliat the contract
between the Board of Agriculture and the Trustees of the
State Reform School at Westborough, will expire by limitation,
on the 1st of April, 1859. This contract, by which the farm
connected with that school was placed under the charge of the
Board of Agriculture, was made in March, 1854, at the joint
request of the two Boards. By it the farm was to be carried
on under the direction of the Board of Agriculture, to supply
the institution with milk, vegetables, beef, pork, and other pro-
duce, such as the interests of the school might require, to
employ the labor of the boys, purchase the oflal of the institu-
tion, &c. A systematic debt and credit account was to be kept
between the farm and the school, the Board crediting the
school with the labor of the boys, at ten cents a day of six
hours, each, and with the sum of three hundred and fifty
dollars a year for the offal, and charging it with the produce of
the farm, at the usual prices in the neighborhood, with labor
performed for the institution, &g.

The terms of this contract have been faithfully carried out
by both parties. The Board of Agriculture has cleared for the
State, on an average, over a thousand dollars a year, or more
than five thousand dollars during the period of its occupancy

6

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

of tlie farm, while the Trustees, relieved from burdensome
care of so large a farm, have, it is believed, instilled a far
greater efficiency into the management of the affairs of the
institution under their charge, so that the Commonwealth has
been the gainer in every respect.

hi order to give a more distinct idea of the comparative
operations of the Board at the farih, it may not be improper
to allude to the amount of earnings of the boys, previous to
and since the time when the Board assumed the control of the
farm. This comparison is not made to disparage the manner
in which the farm was managed before it came into the hands
of the Board, but simply to show that the management of the
farm by the Board of Agriculture has been as judicious as
could be expected from any body of men, and for the interests
of the Commonwealth. It will appear from the following
statistics, that gross misrepresentations have from time to time
been made, with regard to the expenditures of the public
money and the operations on the farm, though it should be
said to the credit of the people, and of the members of the
legislatures which have made the requisite appropriations for
the farm, that the misrepresentations referred to had little or
no influence on their action.

By an examination of the reports of the State Reform
School for the live years previous to 1854, when the Board, at
the request of the Trustees, assumed the management of the
farm, it appears that the whole amount earned by the boys was
less in proportion than during the five years since 1854, or the
comparison may be stated as follows : —

Whole amount

No. of Boys

No. of Boys

Average No

TEAR.

earned by the Boys.

employed
on Farm.

In
Shoe Shop.

of Boys
the School.

1849,

$1,598 58

44

105

334.0

1850,

3,426 20

50

100

309.0

1851,

4,039 37

59

117

324.0

185-2,

3,072 42

65

98

318.8

1853,

4,015 49

48

147

341.8

Totals, ....

$16,752 00

266

567

1,627.6

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 7

The farm came into the hands of the Board in 1854, and since
that time the number of boys worked on the farm has varied,
according to agreements made between the two boards, from
fifty to one hundred and fifty for the summer montlis. The
statement may be continued as follows : —

YEAK.

Total amount
( ariiccl by tlic Boj-s.

No. of Boy.s
employed
on Farm.

No. of Boys
in

Shoe .Shop.

Average No
of Boys in
the .School.

1854,

1855,

1856,

1857,

1858,

$6,753 06
7,835 02
0,017 72
5,610 57
3,456 50

47.5
94.4
77.6
92.8
51.0

240
140
154
224.8
91.0

472.0
562.0
5()9.0
580.5
589.8

Totals, ....

$29,672 87

363.3

849.8

2,773.3

Of the above amount of aggregate earnings of the boys, the
Board of Agriculture paid to the Trustees of the School, for
boys' labor, the following sums : —

In 1854, .

. $1,902 05

1855, .

. 1,998 30

1856, .

. 1,993 60

1857, .

. 1,961 60

1858, .

. 1,582 20

),437 75

If we deduct this amount from the $29,672.87, the aggregate
amount credited by the Trustees to the earnings of the boys,
we have $20,235.12 earned by the boys in the shoe and chair
shop, which is $23.81 for each boy annually in the shop,
against $25.98 annually for each boy on the farm, or $2.17
each more than the boys in the shoe shop.

During the five years, including 1849-53, the boys working
on the farm and in the shop, earned $20.11 a year each, and
during the five years including 1854-58, the boys working on

8 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

tlio farm and in tlie shoe shop, each earned 824,46 a year, or
14.35 a year, for each boy, more than during the first period.

So far, therefore, as the interest of the State is affected, it is
apparent tliat greatly increased efiiciency marked the manage-
ment of the institution during the five years since the Board
took charge of the farm, and that the proportional earnings of
the boys were considerably increased.

If now we consider the comparative amount of produce
raised on the farm and supplied to the institution, during the
five years preceding the occupancy of the Board, and the five
years since, we shall find the results to be as follows : —

In 1849, the quantity of milk was 6,641 gallons.

1850, " "

1851, " " "

1852, " " "

1853, " " "

And in addition to this, in 1850 there were 642^ pounds of
butter made ; in 1851, 964| lbs. ; in 1852, 877 lbs. ; making,
in all, 2,484^ lbs. During this period of five years, therefore,
when the farm furnished the school 30,421 gallons of milk, at
least 6,210^^Q^Q- gallons must have been skimmed. During the
period, from 1854 to 1858 inclusive, the Board of Agriculture
furnished the school with 40,721 gallons of milk as it came from
the cow. If the making of butter had been allowed, this milk,
at ten quarts to the pound, would have made 16,288^^q lbs.,
but the boys would have had skimmed instead of new milk.
The annual supply of milk from the farm was as follows : —

In 1854, .

1855, .

1856, .

1857, .

1858, .

5,182

a

6,494

u

5,839

a

6,265

a

30,421 gallons,

6,469t

gallons,

7,8481-

((

8,964"'

(;

7,858

a

9,581

u

40,721 g

;allons.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 9

It will be perceived, therefore, that the capacity of the farm,
in this respect, has been considerably increased, though, no
doubt, true economy would dictate the purchase of more land,
for the purpose of keeping a larger number of cows than the
farm will even now maintain. This was a prominent object
which the Board had in view, in asking an appropriation for
the purchase of land in 1855, under the impression that, though
the time would come when the present extent of land would
be sufficient to furnish full supplies of milk, it was for the
interest of the State to increase these supplies at once, as
being the cheapest and healthiest food for the inmates of the
institution.

The change has not been less marked in the quantity of beef
and pork supplied from the farm. The quantity of beef and
pork furnished was as follows : In

1849,
1850,
1851,
1852,
1853,

Beef.

Pork.

1,155 lbs.

2,398 lbs

2,849 "

4,329 "

4,721 "

3,121 "

2,870 "

5,306 «

8,828 "

-

20,423 lbs. 15,154 lbs.

The quantities of beef and pork produced by the farm during
the five years of the occupancy of the Board, were as follows :

1854,
1855,
1856,

1857,
1858,

Beef.

Pork.

7,313 lbs.

6,165 lbs

7,6471 "

5,744 »

. 6,594 "

9,844 "

8,903 "

6,400 "

5,452 "

10,040 "

35,909^ lbs.

38,193 lbs

From this it appears, that during the five years past the farm
has produced 15,486-| lbs. of beef and 23,039 lbs. of pork more
than it did during tlie five years, from 1849 to 1853 inclusive,
showing a very largely increased capacity in this respect also.

And so the yield of ordinary farm produce might and ought
to be taken into account, in arriving at a conclusion as to what
the Board has accomplished during the five years just past.
The yield of some of these crops was as follows : —
2*

10 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Indian Corn.

Hay.

Grain.

1849, .

. . 470 bush.

37 tons.

1541 bush.

1850, .

. . 800 "

60 "

127 "

1851, .

. . 684 •"

65 "

55 "

1852, .

. . 1,125 "

35 "

100 "

1853, .

. . 500 "

35 "

100 "

3,579 busli.

—232 tons.

536i bush.

1854, .

. . 900 bush.

43 tons.

00 bush.

1855, .

. . 982 "

72 "

500 "

1856, .

. . 1,470 "

•68 "

90 "

1857, .

. . 1,000 "

80 "

51 "

1858, .

. . 536 "

81 »

100 "

4,888 bush.

—344 tons.

741 bush.

Ill the above statement, no crops except those produced
by the management of the farm, are included.

It appears from the above, that the farm has produced 1,309
bushels of Indian corn, 112 tons of English hay, and 204|-
bushels of wheat, rye and oats, more, since the farm came into
the hands of the Board than it did the five years previous, or a
money value of at least 1637 a year greater in these crops
alone during the last five years, than during the five preceding
years. This large increase of crops is fairly due to the
increased capacities of the farm, since, as already shown, the
other products, as milk, beef, pork, &c., have also increased
rather than diminished under the management of the Board.

But the practical management of the farm is by no means
the extent of the operations of the Board. When the farm
came into their charge many permanent improvements were
absolutely required, some of which admitted of little delay, to
say nothing of the necessity of carrying on these improvements
as a means of employing the large number of boys which the
Board had agreed to Avork and pay for at the rate of ten cents
a day of six hours.

The amount expended for these improvements in 1851, was
11,935.09. Of this sum, 12,032.62 was paid for building a
piggery, slaughter-house and store-house ; $*1,066.35 for building
a grainery, sheds, &c. ; and $1,836.02 for the labor of boys and
teams in laying walls, removing stones, etc. ; all of which sums
were imperatively required as subsequent experience has clearly
shown. And these expenditures were needed and must have

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 11

been made by the State, even if the Board of Agriculture had
not assumed the control of them.

In 1855, a reservoir being required for receiving and econo-
mizing the waste from the institution, a large sum was neces-
sarily spent in building a permanent structure, in the location
of which the Board acted with the concurrence of the Trustees
of the institution, and this, together with trenching and
improvements in what is called the Warren lot, undertaken
partly with the design of furnishing labor and employment for
the boys, and preparing a suitable place for an orchard, and
the laying of wall, amounted to $3,349.10, as the permanent
improvement account for that year.

In 1856, tlic trenching of a garden lot was undertaken for a
similar purpose, to furnish employment for a large number of
boys not needed at all times in the immediate working of the
farm, a.nd the amount spent for this labor and for drain tiles,
laying wall, c*cc., was no less than $2,190.54. In 1857, the
trenching of the garden and the Warren lot was continued,
the former piece being completed and the latter considerably
advanced, and for labors of this description, all of which
effected valuable permanent improvements, the sum of $1,957.16
was spent; and in 1858, the permanent improvements have
consisted of gravelling garden walks, removing stones in the
Warren lot, setting apple and pear trees, and laying stone
wall, and have amounted to $1,331.02. So that the aggregate
amount for permanent improvements during the past five years,
has been no less than $13,762.91, while the aggregate amount
for boys' labor was $9,437.75 ; and for swill, $1,750 ; and
sundries, $49.34 ; making, in all, $11,237.29. The value of
personal property, as v*"ill appear by the inventories in the
Appendix, to which reference is respectfully made, is $5,177.84
greater than when the Board first took charge of the farm, or in
other words, the Board leave that amount of personal property
belonging to the State, over and above the aggregate amount
received from the Trustees in 1854. The sum spent for per-
manent improvements, for the labor of the boys, the iiicrease
in inventory, in implements, stock, &c., amounts, during the
five years, to $34,258.81. The aggregate amount received
from the Commonwealth during the same time, including the
value of the inventory received from the Trustees in 1854,

12 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

was 129,081, showing a balance of $5,177.84 which the farm
returns to the State more than the whole amount received.

The amount paid out for permanent improvements may ap-
pear to be large, but the fact already alluded to, that many
of these improvements were undertaken for the purpose of
furnishing out-door work for so large a number of the boys
in the school, v/ill sufficiently explain it. Every farmer knows
that it is impossible to employ the labor of from seventy to one
hundred and fifty boys throughout the season in the culture of
the ordinary farm crops. A few days might occur during the
season of weeding or harvesting, wlien, on a very large farm,
that number might be furnished with work, but those days
would be rare. There is an old adage among the farmers
in the western part of England, which is quite applicable here :
" one boy is a boy, two boys arc half a boy, and three boys are
no boy at all."

Could the Board have taken ten, fifteen or twenty boys,
instead of seventy-five, one hundred and one hundred and fifty,
the aggregate amount charged to labor and permanent im-
provements would have been far less. The experience of the
last five years has proved beyond the possibility of a doubt,
that, so far from being worth ten cents a day each to the farm,
this very large number has been worth far less than half that
amount, and it is not, perhajis, too much to say that it has been
an absolute cost, witliout any adequate return.

The labor of a few boys on tlio farm might be made valuable.
The farm could better afford to pay twenty-five cents each per
day of six hours for the labor of ten good boys, tlian it could
to take a hundred, from the ages of ten to fourteen, for noth-
ing, and agree to keep a careful and instructive su})ervision
over them. To superintend this hundred, in work on any
ordinary farm crops, and taking the season through, at least
three good aiul intelligent men would be required at a cost,
considerably above the average cost of common farm labor.
The time of these three men, for at least six or seven hours of
the day, would l)0 nearly wortliless for auy other purpose than
merely to superintend the boys. The amount of work whicli
they could do themselves, would be but trifling. This would
ordinarily be the case, even with so large a number of good
boys, all disposed to work and do their duty, if the object were

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 13

to teach them how to work. But especially would it be the
case if all the hundred were of a class sent to a school for
reformation, and committed for criminal or juvenile offences.

This has been precisely the case at the farm during the last
five years. The estimates on a preceding page, of the amount
earned by the boys on the farm, are based on the rate of ten
cents a day, which is the amount agreed upon between the
Board of Agriculture and the trustees of the school, by the
original contract made in 1854. That amount seems, at first
sight, to be small, but, in point of fact, as already intimated, it
was far more than double what the labor, under all the circum-
stances, was worth to the farm.

Moreover, it is to be borne in mind, that in the vicinity of a
public institution, something is required for ornament: that is,
in making improvements 1*he prospective wants of the State
must be kept constantly in view. On an ordinary fiirm, for
example, -a common balance wall would answer every purpose
of a fence, but no one, with a proper knowledge of the circum-
stances of the State Farm at Westboro', would question the
propriety of l)uilding good face walls, though the present
expense might be a little more. In fact, the Board would have
subjected itself to far more just and severe censure for disre-
garding the future wants of tlie farm and the State, and half
doing whatever was undertaken, than it has from having done
things as they ought to have been done ; for in the first case,
those who were capable of appreciating aright the position of a
great public institution and the credit of the State, would have
had just cause of dissatisfaction, while in the latter, only those
who are ill-advised or incapable of estimating what has actually
been accomplished, have been inclined to find fault.

With respect to the details of the operations of the past year,
the committee chosen to superintend the management of the
farm laid out tlie work as follows : —

CROPS ON THE PLAIN.

Oats. — Sow eight acres of oats, seeded with clover. Use one
hundred pounds of plaster per acre, sown with the seed and har-
rowed in, on seven acres, leaving an average acre without plaster.
■Use on two acres two bushels of seed, on two, three bushels, on
two, four bushels, and on two, five bushels. Let these four lots

14 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

of two acres each run lengthwise of the whole piece, and the
one acre without plaster run cross-wise through all the lots.

Onions. — Sow one acre with onions, manured with six cords
of barn manure, fifty bushels leached ashes, and one hundred
pounds of plaster. Tlie ashes and plaster to be spread and
cultivated in, the ashes to go over the whole acre, making a
memorandum of the bounds for experiment.

Turnips. — Four acres. Spread twenty cords of barn manure
and cultivate it in. On one acre put twenty-five bushels ashes,
one hundred twenty-five pounds plaster, fifty pounds bone dust,
and sow ruta-bagas, (River's stubble Swede) ; the bone dust to
be put in the drill. One acre purple top strap leaf in drill,
sown as early as the ground is suitable, manured as above.
This crop to be followed by a second crop of the same turnip.
The third and fourth acres sow with oats for soiling, and follow
the oats with purple top strap leaf, using twenty-five bushels
ashes per acre ; on one acre- a dollar's worth of plaster and on
the other a dollar's worth of bone-dust in the drill.

Carrots. — Two- acres, manured with twelve cords barn
manure cultivated in, and fifty bushels ashes per acre harrowed
in, and on one acre one hundred pounds plaster harrowed or
brushed in with the ashes. Time of sowing to be as early as
practicable.

Beets. — Two acres, manured with twelve cords barn manure
broadcast, cultivated in, and one hundred bushels ashes, and
on one acre one hundred pounds plaster harrowed or brushed
in.

Corn Fodder. — On one acre, manured with four cords barn
manure spread and harrowed in ; one-half of it to be sown
with Stowell's evergreen, the other with Southern corn.

Blillet. — One acre manured with four cords of barn manure
spread and cultivated in.

Potatoes. — Four acres, manured witli five cords per acre of
barn manure spread and cultivated in. Number tliese acres, 1,
2, 3, and 4. On number 1, put Jersey marl in the hill; on
n-umber 2, put ten bushels ashes in the hill ; on numbers o and 4,
the same quanty of ashes per acre, and one hundred pounds
plaster to the acre. Use Davis's seedling variety on the wliole.

Indian Corn. — Four acres manured with seven and a half
cords per acre of barn manure cultivated in, ten bushels of

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 15

ashes, and one hundred pounds of plaster, at the first hoeing.
Alternate rows throughout the whole field, planted in hill and
drill three feet apart. Hills three feet apart in the row, four
kernels to he left in the hill, and the stalks left nine inches
apart in the drills. Be particular to plant the seeds at exact
distances in the drill, and to leave the same number of stalks
in a row of drill as in a row of hill. Use Brigham corn on the
whole.

Beans. — Two acres. Put three hundred pounds plaster and
twenty-five bushels ashes on one acre in the drill, and three
hundred pounds plaster only in the other.

Veg-elables ami Sweet Cyrn. — Three acres. Use thirty cords
barn manure, s])read and cultivated in, and one hundred
bushels ashes and three hundred pounds of plaster.

SIBLEY LOT.

Indian Corn. — Six acres ; forty-five cords of barn manure
and sixty bushels ashes, and six hundred pounds plaster, mixed
and put in the hill. (Cutting stalks at harvesting to be con-
sidered hereafter.)

Potatoes. — Eight acres green sward on Sibley lot, ploughed
and manured with ashes, plaster and super-phosphate of lime.
Two acres ashes and plaster, two acres super-phosphate and
plaster, two acres super-phosphate alone, and two acres ashes
alone, leaving a strip entirely unmaiiured.

WARREN LOT.

Potatoes. — Four acres, under the special care of Messrs.
Bartlett and Fisher to experiment on.

Indian Corn. — Two acres. Fifteen cords barn manure broad-
cast and cultivated in, twenty bushels ashes and two hundred
pounds plaster. Use tips, middles and butts in alternate rows,
taking for tips three inches, or a little less than one-third of the
ear, and for butts three inches, and the rest use as middles.

VEGETABLE GARDEN.

Onions. — One acre. Six cords barnyard scrapings, fifty
bushels ashes, and one hundred pounds plaster on one-half of
it, and none on the other ; the ashes over the whole.

16 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

Cabbages. — One acre. Use eight cords barn yard manure'
cultivated in, fifty bushels ashes, two hundred pounds bone
dust brushed in.

Parsnips. — Half an acre manured as above.

Squashes. — Half an acre, marrow variety, manured as above.

FRONT OF INSTITUTION,

Cabbages. — Half an acre sown broadcast.
Strawberries. — Three-fourths of an acre.
Garden Sauce. — Manured at discretion,

BELOW THE VEGETABLE GARDEN,

Indian Corn. — Two acres to be sown in drill for fodder.
Use eight cords piggery manure, six hnndred pounds DeBurg's
super-phosphate per acre, one-half in the drill and one-half at
first hoeing.

FRONT OF THE FARM HOUSE.

Barley. — One acre and a half manured heavily and seeded
down.

GARDEN WEST OF THE INSTITUTION.

Wheat. — One acre and a half sown with wheat and manured
at discretion.

At the annual meeting held January 18th, 1859, the Super-
intending Committee of the farm submitted the following

REPORT.

The committee commenced the farm operations of the past
year by an inquiry into the probable wants of the institution,
and after mature consideration, laid out the spring and sum-
mer's work according to them.

They directed that the lot known as the rye field, should be
sown with oats, in four lots of two acres each. The chairman,
however, on a careful survey of the piece, found it to contain
but six acres. It was, in consequence, necessary to reduce the
size of the lots to an acre and a half each. The oats were
sown broadcast on the 27th and 28th days of April, and har-
rowed in as follows : No, 1 was seeded at the rate of five bushels
per acre ; No, 2 at the rate of four bushels ; No. 3 at the rate

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 17

'of three bushels ; and No. 4 at the rate of two bushels. The
lots were manured with 100 pounds of plaster per acre, spread
broadcast and harrowed in, with the exception of a strip of one
acre running across the several lots, which received no plaster.
The oats were harvested on the 28th of July, and thrashed on
the 2d and 3d days of September. The yield of lot No. 1 was
42 bushels ; that of No. 2 was 35 1 bushels ; that of No. 3, 40
bushels ; that of No. 4, 2Gi- bushels. The acre that received
no plaster yielded 20| bushels, the grain weighing 28 pounds to
the bushel, and being much the same on all the lots except on
No. 1, on which both the grain and straw were much the
lightest.

ONIONS.

The committee directed that two acres of onions be sown —
one on the plain and one on the vegetable garden. The acre
on the plain was manured with 6 cords of barnyard manure,
50 bushels of leached ashes, and 100 pounds of plaster. The
manure and ashes were spread broadcast over the whole acre,
and cultivated in, while the plaster was spread on half the acre
and cultivated in. The onion seed was sown April 24, and
cultivated five or six times during the season. On being har-
vested on the 8th day of October, the yield was found to be
350^ bushels. The half acre that received the plaster, pro-
duced 180J bushels, or 261^ bushels more than the half acre
that received no plaster.

The acre in the vegetable garden was sown April IG, manured
with G cords of barnyard scrapings, 100 bushels of leached
ashes, and 100 pounds of plaster. The manure and ashes were
spread over the whole acre, the plaster only on half, and the
whole was cultivated in. The lot was cultivated during the
season, the same as that on the plain, and the crop was har-
vested on the 24th of September, the yield being 358^ bushels.
The half that received the plaster yielded 198| bushels, or 38^
bushels more than the half acre that received no plaster. This
acre received 50 bushels more leached ashes than that on the
plain, and yielded but six bushels more.

The land in the garden had been recently trenched, in con-
sequence of which the soil and subsoil had not been intimately
mixed.

TURNIPS.

Four acres w^ere cultivated with turnips on the plain, two of
them being manured with 10 cords of horse manure, 50 bushels
leached ashes, 150 pounds of plaster and 50 pounds of bone, all
of which were cultivated in. One acre was seeded with the pur-
ple top strap leaf, on the 7th day of May, and hoed and thinned
out in the course of the summer, and yielded 930 bushels.
3*

18 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Another acre was seeded with River's stubble Swede, on the
8th day of June, and cultivated and thinned the same as the
first, and yielded 590 bushels. On one-fourth of each of these
acres 1"2| pounds of bone meal, dissolved in 10 pounds of sulphuric
acid, were drilled in with the seed, and the yield of this one-
fourth acre of purple top was 230 bushels, and of the River's
stubble 150 bushels ; the crops on both these one-fourth acre
lots appearing somewhat more vigorous in the early part of the
season than on the parts which did not receive the bone meal
or super-phosphate of lime, and they came to maturity earlier,
but the purple top produced only 1| bushels more, and the
River's stubble only 2^ bushels more than the two quarters of
the acre on which the same quantity of bone meal was drilled
in undissolved.

Two of these four acres were seeded with oats on the 28th
of April, and harvested July 28, and the stubble was ploughed
in on July 29, and sown with the purple top strap leaf turnips
on August 5, but the crop failed : the two acres yielding only
25 bushels.

CARROTS.

Two acres of carrots on the plain, were manured with 12
cords barn manure and 100 bushels leached ashes. One of
them received, also, 100 pounds of plaster, and the whole was
cultivated in, three pounds of seed being used to the acre. The
carrots were weeded on the 27th of May, cultivated two or
three times, and harvested on the 10th, 11th, and 12th of
November ; the acre which received the plaster yielding 590
bushels of 50 pounds each, equal to 14 tons ; the other acre
yielding 516 bushels or 12-^9q- tons, or 2,200 pounds less than
the acre which received the 100 poiinds of plaster.

BEETS.

Two acres on the plain were sown with beets, manured with
6 cords of barn manure and 50 bushels of leached ashes per
acre. On one acre, also, 100 pounds of plaster were spread,
and the whole cultivated in. Four pounds of the white sugar
beet seed were sown the 29th of May. They were cultivated
and weeded, the same as the other root crops, and harvested on
the 4th and 5th days of November. The acre which received
the plaster yielded 234 bushels, or five tons and 1,700 pounds.
The acre withou.t plaster produced 202 bushels, or five tons 100
pounds, 1,600 pounds less than the acre manured with the
additional 100 pounds of plaster. The beet seed proved to be
of poor quality. The ground was ploughed when rather
heavy, and remained heavy througli the season. From these,
and perhaps other causes, the crop maybe regarded as a failure.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 19

FODDER CORN.

Four acres were planted with fodder corn, three of which
were near the barn and the other on the plain. They were all
manured with compost from the piggery. The piece near the
barn was sown in the drill on May 17, three bushels of southern
seed being used, and two of Stoweirs evergreen corn. It all
came up well, and was cultivated in the usual manner, yielded
a heavy crop, which was cut up from time to time, from July
25 to October 15, and fed to the cows. The portion of this
piece planted with southern corn, yielded the largest crop, and
the cows relished it well, but appeared to prefer the evergreen,
which, on the whole, we consider best for sowing for green
fodder. The acre on the plain was sown in the drill June 18,
two bushels of the yellow northern corn being used. It was
cultivated the same as the three acres before mentioned, and
produced a good crop. It not being required to feed out green,
it was cured for winter use.

MILLET.

An acre and a half, on the plain, was sown with millet,
manured with four cords of horse manure to the acre, culti-
vated in, twelve quarts of seed being sown broadcast on May
25. On the 13th of August, when in blossom, it was cut for
hay, and after being well cured, weighed 2,666 pounds. This
crop was small, but, considering the light, sandy character of
the soil, it was as heavy as could be expected.

POTATOES.

Four acres, on the plain, were planted with the Davis seed-
ling, on the 2d of June, manured at the rate of five cords of
compost from the reservoir, per acre, spread broadcast and
cultivated in. In addition to this manure, acre No. 1 had 10
bushels of leached ashes, or about a gill put in the hill. Acres
Nos. 2 and 3, had each 10 bushels of leached ashes and 100
pounds of plaster mixed and put in the hill, and on one-third
of acre No. 4, a pint of Jersey marl was put in each hill, on
another third a pint of leached ashes, and the remaining third
was planted without any additional manure in the hill. These
potatoes were all hoed three times, and cultivated in the usual
manner through the season. Acre No. 1 was harvested Octo-
ber 9, and yielded 109^ bushels. Acre No. 2, harvested the
same day, yielded 94.^- bushels. No. 3, dug October 11, yielded
92 bushels. Acres No. 2 and 3, which received 100 pounds of
plaster in addition to the other manure and ashes, which was
the same as No. 1 received, yielded, respectively, 15 bushels
and 17 1- bushels less than No. 1. The land may be slightly

20 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

better on acre No. 1, owing to its lying near the ■wall, acres
No. 2 and 3 lying at a distance from it, but the mixture of
plaster and ashes in the hill on Nos. 2 and 3, may be a further
reason for the reduced crop.

On two rows of the potatoes planted with Jersey marl in the
hill, an equal quantity of seed was taken for each, hi one of
these rows the seed was cut and planted in the drill, and in
the other the seed was planted uncut, in the hill. Both rows
received the same quantity of marl, and the row planted in
the drill yielded -}^ths of a bushel more than the row in hills.

The third of acre No. 4 manured with Jersey marl in the
hill, yielded 32-j'g bushels ; the third manured with ashes in
the hill, yielded 28| bushels ; and the third without manure in
the hill, yielded 31 bushels.

Six and a half acres, in the Sibley lot, so called, wore planted
with potatoes, the land being broken up about the 15tli of April.
One acre and a half was manured with 15 bushels of leached
ashes in the hill, and planted May 22, with 8 bushels of black
potatoes to the acre. They were dug September 27, and
measured 187 bushels.

One acre and a half was manured with 150 pounds of plaster
and 15 bushels leached ashes mixed and put in the hill, and
planted ou May 22 and 23, with 8 bushels per acre of Dover
potatoes ; dug September 28, and yielded 167 bushels.

One acre and a half was manured with super-phosphate of
lime, at the rate of 150 pounds per acre, mixed with 100 pounds
plaster in the hill, and planted May 22, with eight bushels
Lincoln seedling potatoes per acre. They were dug September
29, and yielded '232 bushels.

An acre and a half of this lot was manured with 450 pounds
of Coe's super-i)hosphate per acre, and planted on the 22d and
23d of May, with 8 bushels of the State of Maine potato per
acre. The crop when dug on September 13, gave 230 bushels.

An acre and a half of this lot was planted on the 22d and
23d of May, without manure of any kind, the seed used being
known as the Maine seedling. They were dug September 13,
and yielded 89 bushels.

INDIAN CORN.

Four acres, on the plain, were planted with Indian corn,
manured with seven and a half cords of barn manure per
acre, spread broadcast and cultivated in, and 10 bushels of
leached ashes mixed with 100 pounds of plaster, per acre, put
around the corn at the time of the first hoeing. The seed was
the variety known as the Brigham corn, and was planted Juno
1, in alternate rows of hills and drills, the rows three feet apart,
and the hills in the rows three feet apart. Tlie rows in the

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 21

drills were planted with four grains for every three feet, or
nine inches apart. The corn was thinned at the first hoeing,
and an equal number of stalks left standing in each row.
The four acres were hoed three times, and looked well through
the season. One-half the piece was cut up by the roots and
stooked on the 15th of September, husked, housed and weighed
on the 18th and 20th of October, and yielded as follows : The
part planted in hills, 2,276 pounds of corn on the ear, and
2,950 pounds of stover. The part planted in drills yielded 2,700
pounds of corn on the ear, and 3,270 pounds of stover. The
part planted in drills yielded 324 pounds of corn on the ear,
and 320 pounds of stover more than that planted in hills.
The other half of the field was topped on the 18th of Septem-
ber, the tops bound and stooked, remaining in the stook till
October 20, when the corn was cut, husked and weighed. The
part planted in hills produced 2,170 pounds of corn on the
ear. The tops and butts weighed 3,020 pounds.

The rows planted in drills on this part of the field, produced
2,505 pounds of corn on the ear, and 3,890 pounds of stover.
The drilled rows on this part of the field yielded 335 pounds of
corn on the ear, and 370 pounds of stover more than the rows
planted in hills. That half of these four acres planted in
drills, produced 659 pounds of corn on the ear, and 690 pounds
of stover more than the half planted in hills.

From an examination of the weights given above, it appears,
that the corn on the ear, on that part which was cut up by the
roots and stooked, weighed 401 pounds more, and the stover
190 less than that which was topped. This apparent anomaly
is accounted for by the fact, that when corn is cut up by the
roots and stooked, the stover becomes dryer and the ears dry
less than when topped.

The two acres of corn planted on the plain, and manured
with 7|- cords of barn manure to the acre, spread and cultivated
in, 10 bushels of leached ashes and 100 pounds of plaster, per
acre, in the hill, were planted June 3, in alternate rows, with
seed taken from the butts, middles and tips of the ears. This
corn Avas hoed three times in the course of the summer. One
of the acres, through the inadvertency of the head farmer at
the time of harvesting, was cut up and stooked all together.
Whftn husked on the 18th of October, the yield of corn on the
ear was 2,66t3 pounds, the stover weighing 3,270 pounds.

The other acre was stooked separate, and was husked on the
19th of October. The rows planted with seed taken from the
butts of the ears, yielded 738 pounds of sound and 77 pounds
of soft corn on the ear, and 1,360 pounds of stover.

The seed taken from the tips yielded 747 pounds of sound
and 53 pounds of soft corn on the ear, and 1,320 pounds of

22 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

stover. On comparing the crops grown on this field and esti-
mating the sound corn and the stover at seven dollars the ton,
it will be found that the value of the crops produced by the
rows planted with seed taken from the butts, was : —

Of sound corn, 738 pounds, which, at 1 cent,
soft " 77 " " 1 "

stover, 1,360 " " at |7 a ton, .

Total, $12 53

The value of the produce of the rows seeded from the middle
of the ears, was : —

87

38

39

4

76

Of sound corn, 663 pounds, at 1 cent, . . . 86 63

soft " 164 " ati- " . . . 82

stover, 1,290 " at |7 the ton, . . . 4 51

Whole value, . . ... $11 96

The value of the produce of the rows seeded from the tips
of the ears, was : —

Of sound corn, 747 pounds, at 1 cent, . . . 87 47

soft " 53 " ati " ... 27

stover, 1,320 " at 87 the ton, . . . 4 62

Whole value, 812 36

So that the butts produced the most, the tips the next, and,
the middles the least money value ; while the tips produced the
most, the butts the next, and the middles least sound corn ; and
middles produced the most, the butts the next, and the tips the
least soft corn. It is difficult to determine by this experiment,
from what part of the ear the seed should be taken. Probably
a mixture of the grains of the wdiole ear, being most natural,
would be the best.

Six acres of corn on the Sibley lot, were manured with forty-
five cords of barn manure spread and cultivated in, and sixty
bushels of leached ashes, and six hundred pounds of plaster
mixed and put in the hill ; the ground was ploughed about the
middle, and planted on the 20th of May. It was hoed three
times, at proper intervals, and was cut up by the roots, stooked
September 15, and luisked on the 7th of October, producing
432 bushels of corn in the ear, or 10 tons 200 pounds of stover.
This was the second year of planting corn on the same land,
which is by some considered a bad practice, and may be the
cause of the smallness of the crop.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 23

Two acres of corn planted on the Warren lot, was manured
with five cords, per acre, of slaughter-house manure, spread
and cultivated in, and 300 pounds of Coo's super-phosphate of
lime in the hill ; tlie field was planted June 4, with the variety
of seed called white Flint corn, hoed as the other crops, topped
September 25, and harvested October 26. It produced 200
bushels of ears, equal to at least 50 bushels of shelled corn,
per acre. Two years ago tliis land was valueless for any crop
except pasture grass, and poor at that. The Board liave
trenched and drained it, and last spring planted upon it 92
apple trees. If the trenching and draining is continued, the
Warren lot will become the most valuable land on the farm.

BEANS.

Two acres of beans were planted on the plain, June 3, and
manured with 300 pounds of plaster and 400 pounds of Coe's
super-phospliate of lime, mixed and drilled in. The product
of these two acres was 30 bushels of shelled beans.

Half an acre of cabbages were set in the vegetable garden,
the last week of June, manured with four cords of barn manure,
and produced 2,500 heads.

PARSNIPS.

A half acre of parsnips in the vegetable garden, was manured
with four cords of barn manure, and are now in the ground for
spring use; the product will probably be equal to 400 busliels.

Half an acre of marrow squashes, in the vegetable garden,
were manured with four cords of barn manure, but, notwith-
standing the unwearied care of the gardner, the crop proved a
failure, yielding not more than 400 pounds.

One and a half acres of barley in front of the farm house,
was manured with six cords of barn manure spread and
ploughed in ; the barley was sown broadcast, May 20, and har-
rowed in. It produced 28 bushels per acre. The straw was
not weighed.

The one acre and a half of wheat, cultivated on the lot west
of the institution garden, was sown the 12th of April, broad-
cast, with four bushels of seed, and harrowed in ; the product
was 38 bushels of wheat, weighing 58^ pounds the bushel.
The straw was not weighed. The land was manured from the
barn cellar, at the rate of six cords the acre, spread and
ploughed in.

Two and a half acres of winter rye, on the hill south of the
barn, prodnced 52.} bushels of good grain, 21 bushels per
acre. This rye was grown on land upon which 300 pounds of
guano, per acre, were spread and harrowed in, and planted

24 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

"with Chinese sugar cane the last year. The crop of cane failed,
and the land was ploughed and seeded to rye in September,
1857, at the rate of one and a quarter bushels per acre.

Two acres of winter rye were cultivated on land which was
trenched fourteen inches deep, and from Avhich a great amount
of stone has been removed by the Board, within the last three
or four years. When commenced upon, this land was literally
a bed of rocks, and nearly worthless for the product of any
crop ; under the direction of the Board, it has become valuable,
and has produced, the present year, 56|- bushels of r3'e, and
5,500 pounds of straw, together with 480 bushels of purple-top
turnips, a much smaller yield than was expected, owing to the
disobedience of orders on the part of the head farmer. The
market value of this cannot be less than one hundred and
seventy-five dollars.

A portion of the half acre of Avinter rye, south of the barn,
was cut when in blossom, for the purpose of soiling four cows.
The cows were fed eight days, tlie time which the rye was in
suitable condition for fodder, and consumed the crop growing
upon 13,384 square feet, nearly five-sixteenths of an acre of
land, which would amount, estimating the rye at twenty dollars
the acre, to $6.14, showing the money value consumed daily
by each cow, to be 19 and -^^\ cents, 12 and y-^^- cents more
than the cost of pasturage, as estimated by the committee on
stock, in their experiments of 1856. The remaining part of
this half acre produced seven and one-quarter bushels of rye;
the straw was not weighed.

The principal products of the farm for the year have been
as follows, viz. : —

Indian corn, shelled, .

536 bushels.

Oats,'.

. 230

u

Wheat,

38

((

Carrots,

. 1,076

ii

Ruta-bagas,

. 590

u

Parsnips,

. 400

a

Beans,

35

ii.

Upland hay,

81

tons.

Rowen,

4

a

Oat straw, .

4

u

Millet,

2

a

Potatoes,

. 1,553 bushels.

Rye, ....

. 116

Barley,

42

Flat turnips,

. 1,520

Beets,

. 670

Onions,

. 711

Cabbages, .

. 2,800 heads.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 25

Meadow, .... 28 tons.
Rye straw, .... 6 "

Corn fodder, . . . 15 "

Winter apples, ... 24 barrels.

Besides the produce of the garden in front of the institution,
and other small articles which have been disposed of from day
to day.

The number of swine at the commencement of tlie
year was 79, valued in the inventory December 1,
1857, at 1732 00

Paid for swill from the institution for the year, . 350 00

Value of produce from the farm and milling, fed to

swine for the year, ..'.... 182 29

Purchased one boar, ...... 25 00

Making the debt for the year, .... $1,289 29

Value of swine sold the last year, . $826 52

Value of 73 swine now on hand, as per

inventory, ..... 440 00
Making the account credit, . . . 1,266 52

Showing a loss for the year, of ... . $22 77

This state of the account is not unexpected, for, in conse-
quence of the low state of the market, the 73 hogs now on the
farm have beeji inventoried $292 less than the 79 on the farm
at the close of last year, although of the same size and quality,
and but six less in number. It is also well known, that pork
has been lower in price this, than for a number of years past,
and our swill from the institution has cost the same, and for
the last six months to much reduced in quantity and quality,
as to render it necessary to reduce our number of hogs as fast
as possible, by selling sliotes at low prices, and disposing of old
hogs before they were fully fattened.

The number of neat cattle' on the farm at the close

of last year, was 37, inventoried at ' . . . $2,630 00

Eleven head of cattle have been purchased within

the year, at a cost of . . . . . . 840 00

Making the value of the cattle inventoried at the

commencement and purchased within the year, . $3,470 00

4*

26 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The nuiuber of head of neat cattle now on the

farm is 41, mventoried at -$3,040 00

Nine have 'been sold within the year, for . . 427 00

(One cow lost by death and three bred,)

13,467 00

Making the value of the stock now on the farm, and that sold
and bred within the year, $3,467, or within three dollars of the
value of that on the farm at the commencement and purchased
within the year.

The blood cattle on the farm now number fifteen. Five
Herefords, four Devons, three Durhams, two Jerseys and one
Ayrshire. Four are males and eleven are females ; seven
were purchased at a cost of $735, seven have been bred on the
farm, and are now worth more than the cost of the seven pur-
chased. One, a Jersey cow', Avas a valuable gift to the Board
from the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agricul-
ture. These cattle are of the very best blood, and the com-
mittee have inventoried them at 1 1,440. They can doubtless
be sold for this sum, and probably more.

There are five horses on the farm. Two were there previous
to 1854, one was purchased in 1855, one in 1856, and one in
1857. Last year the five were inventoried at $680 ; this year
their value in the inventory has been reduced to $500.

About a year ago one of the horses, in consequence of a bad
cold, had a violent inflammation in his forward feet, accompa-
nied by high fever, which caused a casting off of the hoof; he
was turned to pasture the last summer. New hoofs are now
grown, so as to permit his being shod and performing his usual
labors on the farm. Four of the horses are old and are begin-
ning to fail, and in a few years must be replaced by others.

The two acres of land on the plain, where millet was raised
and cut for hay, were manured with four cords to the acre, of
reservoir manure, ploughed in, and on the 3d day of September,
were seeded with three bushels of winter rye.

Six acres on the Sibley lot, where Indian corn was raised,
were ploughed and seeded on the 2d and 3d days of October,
with seven bushels of winter rye, manured with fifty pounds of
guano the acre, which was harrowed in with the rye.

There is also on the Sibley lot, six and one-half acres of
land, where potatoes were cultivated the present year, which
were ploughed on the 7tli and 8th, and seeded with nine bushels
of winter rye on the 9tli of October, Avithout manure of any
kind.

One-half acre of land near the steam mill, was manured
with one hundred pounds of guano, and seeded with one bushel
of winter rye, on the 3d of September ; the rye was harrowed

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 27

in with the guano. In all fifteen acres, the sowing of which,
with the seed, cost the Board |75, and the committee have
valued it at that sum in the inventory.

The amount charged to improvement during the year, is
11,664.47. Of this simi, $336.60 worth of the labor lias been
done by boys and men from the institution, free of expense to
the Board, reducing the amount charged for improvements to
$1,327.87.

John Beooks.

JosiAii White.

Jabez Fisher.

Simon Brown.

Thomas J. Field.

Oliver C. Felton.

Edward W. Gardner.

John C. Bartlett.

The preceding pages will give a correct general idea of the
operations of the Board upon the State Farm, at Westborough.

It will be perceived that much of the time and labor spent
there have been devoted to the development of the capacities
of the farm, and that there has been a progressive increase in
the productions upon it. Some of the lots which are now among
the most productive and valuable, were perfectly useless for
any purposes of profitable cultivation, five years ago. The lot
directly in front of the farm house, the Warren lot, and some
acres lying west of the garden in front of the institution, may
be mentioned as examples of this. These lots were so imbedded
in fast rocks as to be nearly worthless and incapable of tillage.
Thousands of tons of such rocks have been removed, either by
blasting or sinking beneath the surface, so as now to be out of
the reach of the plough ; and the land, now comprising several
acres, is some of the best, and will soon be the most productive
on the farm. To facilitate the clearing of these lots, a machine
was constructed, by means of which rocks of from four to six
tons could be easily lifted from their original bed and removed to
any desirable point where they would be most out of the way.
This machine is represented in Fig. I. It is simply constructed
and may be furnished with a purchase so powerful that two
boys can lift a rock of six tons weight, which, with suitable
wheels, one yoke of oxen can remove far more easily than a
much larger team attached to the common drag loaded with the
same weight.

28

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

It is not, therefore, too much to say that the farm is now in
a condition to produce far more largely with suitable care in
future, than it has ever done. The real benefits to be derived

from trenching and draining are not fully attained till after the
first two or three years or more after these operations. They
are rather prospective and permanent, than immediate in their
character.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 29

At the meeting held in Westboroiigh, on the 19th of October,
it was resolved that it is inexpedient for the Board of Agricul-
ture to take any steps to renew the contract for the further
possession and management of the State Farm, at "Westborough,
and thereupon a committee was appointed, consisting of Messrs.
Bartlett, Fisher, Grennell, Bull, and the Secretary, to consider
and report some plan of action for the future operations of the
Board. That committee having considered the subject, previous
to the next meeting held in Boston on the 18th of January,
submitted the following

REPORT:

It having been determined, at the October meeting of the Board,
of Agriculture, that it was inexpedient for said Board, under all the
circumstances, to renew the contract with the Trustees of the State
Reform School, at Westborough, by which the management of the
farm connected with the school was placed in our hands, the ques-
tion presented itself with much force, " What course the Board
ought to adopt in reference to its future action ? "' and the imdersigned
were chosen a committee to consider this subject, and report a plan
which should give every member of the Board, if possible, some part
in its labors. The true position of the Board *of Agriculture, in its
connections with the farmers of the State, is somewhat different from
that of any other agricultural association established by our laws,
and as its members are, in the main, chosen by the other societies, it
is to be presumed that those persons selected as its members, are of
a class calculated to exert an influence, more or less extended,
throughout the limits of the various county societies. The Board is
thus brought into direct contact with every portion of the State, and
Avould seem to possess peculiar facilities for conducting the investiga-
tions which are needed in all departments of agriculture, which, as a
science, is as yet, very far from perfection.

Hitherto the chief labor required by any course of investigation,
has been thrown upon the Secretary, and neither the Board nor the
people of the State can complain that his labors have not been v/ell
performed. But, in the vast range of subjects open for inquiry, the
Secretary, however efficient, must of necessity leave many points
untouched, and it would seem, therefore, that a much greater amount
of labor can be performed if every member of the Board is diligently
working upon the investigation of some agricultural topic. Besides,,
it seems by no means proper, that the Secretary of a body as numer-
ous as the Board of Agriculture, should be the only working agent,.

30 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the Board itself exercising only an indefinite and nominal supervision
of his labors. Having given the whole subject, as we believe, a
careful consideration, we would unanimously recommend that the
Board be subdivided into committees of such a number as can con-
veniently work in an efficient manner, each committee having assigned
for its consideration a particular subject which it maybe thought best
to investigate. These committees should be instructed to enter into
communication with the farmers of this and other States, and from
the facts thus procured, make an annual report to the whole Board
in January. Believing that but slight dependence can be placed upon
circulars addressed to the farmers by mail, which are too often laid
aside and forgotten, we would recommend that any circulars designed
to procure answers fur information, be sent to the members of the
Board in the respective societies, and that they personally attend to
the procuring the answers to the same from a sufficient number of
persons to meet the requisitions of the circular, and return the same
to such members of the Board as may have the subject of the circular
in charge. We would also recommend, that each member urge upon
farmers the necessity of forming, in each town, an efficient farmers'
club, Avhich shall eventually become the channel of communication
with this Board.

A proper blank should be transmitted to them, and as the best
form of such a blank may be an important consideration, we also
recommend the appointment of a committee to prepare and report to
the Board, at this time, a document for this purpose.

We recommend, finally, that a book shall be kept in the office of
the Board, in which shall be entered such subjects as may be sug-
gested, from time to time, for examination, and that all persons be
invited to add to the list any topic which they may think worthy of
investigation.

Believing that some course similar to that which we have recom-
mended, must eventually be adopted, if the Board would maintain a
lengthy existence, we submit these suggestions to your consideration,
not supposing them perfect, but as a basis upon which your wisdom
and future experience may build a superstructure which shall cause
the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture to be respected for its useful-
ness, through many generations yet to come.

JoHis^ C. Bartlett.

E. W. Bull.

Jabez Fisiiek.
' Paoli Lathrop.

James S. Grennell.

Charles L. Flint.

SBCRETAEY'S REPORT. 31

This report was adopted, and the following subjects were
accepted as among the most practically important for investiga-
tion at the present time, especially as the object of appointing
the committees of investigation was not to get a series of common-
place essays upon the various subjects, but to canvass every town
in the State, ascertain the names of those who are willing to try
experiments in the most exact, uniform and careful manner,
and aid in originating information, and thus gain something new.

1. Manures. — The committee on this subject was constituted
by the appointment of Messrs. Jabez Fisher, Josiali White and
John Brooks.

2. Renovation OF Pasture Lands. — Messrs. Oliver 0. Felton,
William G. Lewis and Paoli Lathrop.

3. Market Pairs. — Messrs. Richard S. Fay, William Sutton
and diaries G. Davis.

4. Root Crops. — Messrs. Simon Brown, Edward W. Gardner
and George M. Atwater.

5. Fruits and Fruit Culture. — Messrs. Marshall P. Wilder,
Ephraim W. Bull and Nathan Durfee.

G. Farm Fencing. — Messrs. Charles C. Sewall, Charles G.
Davis and John C. Bartlett.

■ 7. Cattle Husbandry. — Messrs. Paoli Lathrop, Charles K.
Tracy and John Brooks.

8. Sheep Husbandry. — Messrs. James S. Grennell, Samuel
H. Bushnell, Cyrus Knox and Richard S. Fay.

9. Diseases of Vegetation. — Messrs. John C. Bartlett,
William G. Lewis and William S. Clark.

10. Improvement of Horses. — Messrs. George M. Atwater,
George Marston and William S. Clark.

11. Grain Crops. — Messrs. Ephraim W. Bull, Charles C.
Sewall and Levi Stockbridge.

At the same meeting, Dr. Bartlett from the committee
appointed to investigate the remedies proposed by various appli-
cants for the reward offered by the State for a discovery and
cure for the potato disease, presented the following

REPORT:

The legislature having referred the award of the premium offered
by the State for the cure of the potato rot to the Board of Agriculture,
the undersigned have, under the direction of the Board, given the

32 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

subject a fair examination. We regret, however, that the gross and
culpable carelessness of those who have had charge of the papers and
applications transmitted to the Office of the Secretary of State, should
have suffered the larger portion of them to be irrecoverably lost,
previous to the passage of the Act referring them to the Board of
Agriculture. We have no means by which to determine with accu-
racy, at what stage of their progress to our hands this loss occurred,
but the blame is by no means lessened by the fact that the intrinsic
value of these papers was, in the aggregate, of but small amount.
They were public documents, awaiting their final disposition under a
special Act of the legislature, and their destruction is a deep reproach
to those who are the legal guardians of such documents.

In the year 1852, there were in the State department, according to
a synopsis published by Hon. Amasa Walker, then Secretary of State,
fifty-two communications by as many diff"erent individuals resident in
Massachusetts, besides many others from persons residing in other
States, which did not accord with the requisitions of the law, and
therefore have not been examined by us. Of these fifty-two commu-
nications about twenty are now in existence, and the most careful
research by advertising and otherwise, has failed to discover any
portion of the remainder.

Of those in our possession, some do not propose any distinct remedy
for the diseases of the potato, and of course could not be made the
subject of any experimental tests. Twelve of them, however, give
distinct formula of preparations, and the manner of preparing the
soil ; and we obtained leave from the superintending committee of the
State Farm, at Westborough, to select a proper portion of the farm
for applying the remedies recommended. The piece of land selected
was in the Warren lot, which had been trenched, and was so situated
that each lot (containing one-eighth of an acre) sloped gradually from
dry to moist land.

These experiments Avere conducted under the direction of the under-
signed, with quite as much and probably more care than the various
processes would be likely to receive at the hands of any farmer man-
aging a large farm, and in one point or another, all failed to give
such results as would entitle them in any- way to the confidence of
the community, or as answering the requisitions of the law. Under
these circumstances, we do not hesitate to report decidedly, that no
one of the applicants is entitled to the premium off'ered by the State.

John C. Bartlett.
Jabez Fishek.
Nathan Durfee.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 33

This report was accepted, and it was voted that the secretary
he authorized to transmit the report of the committee to the
legislature.

Dr. Bartlett afterwards submitted to the Board the following
as a supplementary

REPORT:

The committee to whom was referred the investigation of the
diseases Avhich have for many years heen so destructive to the potato
crop throughout the world, beg leave to offer a partial report of the
results to which they have been able to arrive. The importance of
the subject to the general interests of the inhabitants of the civilized
portion of the world, and its very close connection with the pecuniary
interests of the farmer, have been duly felt by us, and we have
labored perseveringly, though quietly, to carry on our investigations
in the manner which our own judgments taught us was likely to be
the only one through which the truth could be reached, and we regret
to say that we have received, from the ignorance of those whose inter-
ests are most deeply involved in our success, more sneers at what
they regarded as our folly, than encouragement and aid in our work.
We had hoped that an examination of the papers in the State depart-
ment, communicated by the various claimants of the bounty of the
State, would furnish us with such records of facts as would enable us
to form some well digested plan of action in our investigation. But
we were doomed in this expectation to be grievously disappointed,
and we are constrained to say that we do not believe a more degrad-
ing record of ignorance of the first principles of natural science can
be found than those papers, as a whole, manifest, although we should
cheerfully except from this condemnation a few which seem to have
heen Avritten with something of the modesty which always character-
izes the cultivated writer.

Failing to find the information which we needed in these sources
from which we had a right to expect it, we prepared and distiibuted
in large numbers, circulars asking the aid of the farmers throughout
the United States, in the collection of facts upon the subject com-
mitted to our hands, and here again we have not only failure and
disappointment, since out of the very large number distributed in all
directions, we have received returns from less than thirty, and those
are mainly from the applicants for the premium ofi'ered by the State.
We cannot but regard tjhis want of interest on the part of the agricul-
tural portion of society as somewhat disgraceful, and as indicative of
6*

34 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the necessity of greatly increased exertion on the part of the friends
of agricultural education.

Thrown upon our own resources, we have studied the symptoms of
disease in the fields during every period of the growth of the potato,
and have noted the indications of derangement in the organic action
of the plants as they have occurred, and these we propose to speak of
in the first place.

Early in June most potato fields exhibited, to a greater or less
extent, a blackened appearance of a portion of the leaves, commencing
generally at the tip of the leaf, but sometimes upon its side, and
gradually extending until often the whole organ in a short time was
entirely deprived of vitality. Such leaves subjected to the microscope
manifested no indications of the depredations of insects, but appeared
to have been cast ofi" by a natural effort, as though having performed
their functions they had simply died because their sources of nourish-
ment were cut off. This appearance of the leaf gradually increased
until so many were involved that they could be seen at a long distance
from the field. It does not however appear to have been a precursor
(of any value) of the future local disease of the tuber, since many
fields which were most affected by it presented very little indication
of disease upon harvesting the crop.

About the last of June, Chenango potatoes planted without forcing,
displayed their blossom buds freely. On the first day of July it was
found that a very slight jar of the stem caused them to fall to the
ground, leaving only the bare flower stalk.

This condition of the bud proved a tolerably good indication of the
future development of the tuber, since in all cases which were exam-
ined, where this blight of the buds occurred, either the tubers were
very little developed in size or quantity, or they manifested a great
propensity to take on the form of disease to be hereafter described.

Those fields which had a healthy inflorescence, and matured their
seed, with a single exception, gave a good return of healthy tubers.
The above affections, both of leaf and bud, although appearing first
in the Chenango potato, afterwards became common to many, if not
most others. On the eighteenth day of August, after an extremely
sultry period of weather, during which the tops of the potatoes looked
as vigorous and healthy as at any previous period in the season, there
occurred a severe thunder shower, followed by a clearer and cooler
condition of the atmosphere. This change was immediately followed
by a very marked change in the appearance of the leaves and stalks
of the potato vine, the leaf dying more or less over the field, and
becoming somewhat shrivelled as though frost bitten, but less black

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 35

tlian in the affection first described. The progress of this attack was
rapid in many instances, but slow in others, whole fields in some
localities looking brown and withered, while spots of similar brown
color were exhibited by the stalk. About the middle of August
diseased tubers began to be found among the earlier varieties of the
potato, and on the 29th of that month the first thorough examination
of the actual disease was made. In this instance the variety was the
Chenango, planted for early marketing. The soil was a light gravelly
loam and was heavily manured the previous year with barn cellar
manure spread and ploughed in.

The crop at that time was corn and the yield heavy. The past
season the same kind of manure was applied for the potatoes, in the
hill. The growth of vines was very vigorous and rank, but although
the inflorescence was good no capsules were formed in the field.

Not far from the first of August the proprietor commenced digging
for market, when the tubers were found abundant and of large size.
The leaves at that time presented to some extent the blackened ap-
pearance first described in this report. As the price of potatoes fell
rapidly, the digging was suspended, and in the mean time the decay
of the leaf contiinied to progress, and a week previous to the visit of
the committee, indications of disease were found upon the tubers. At
the time of the visit, from six hills dug and yielding a large number
of tubers, only three were found to be healthy. The following is a
description of the disease of the tuber, which we have had many
opportunities of examining. As we have been favored with ample
opportunities for microscopic inspection, your committee would here
express in a public manner their great obligations to that able and
thorough microscopist, Dr. Silas Durkee, of Boston, for his very
efficient aid in this department, and Ave regret very much that the
policy of* retrenchment was carried quite so far by the last legislature,
that by its refusal to grant the small pittance asked for by your com-
mittee, under the sanction of the board of agriculture, we have been
unable to remunerate him for his valuable services, otherwise than
by recomniending that the Jhanks of the board be given him by a
special vote.

The first indication which the tuber presents to the eye of the
access of disease, is a brownish discoloration of the skin, limited
sometimes to small points, in other cases presenting itself in irregular
patches. A more careful examination shows the skin to be nearly or
quite detached from its connections, its removal showing a small
quantity of colorless fluid. If this fluid is removed and the diseased
spot thoroughly dried, the progress of the disease in that portion of

36 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the potato is arrested. Placed under the microscope, the cuticle or
skin is found considerably more opaque than when in a healthy con-
dition, but is entire and presents no indication of insects or of their
devastations. The external surface of the tuber is discolored, and
presents no appearance of either insect or fungus. As the disease
progresses the substance of the potato presents the same brown tinge,
first manifested by the cuticle. A very gentle pressure by the finger
separates this portion of the tuber from the more healthy part below,
and if examined microscopically, it presents the appearance of fungi
shooting through it, while the beautiful egg shaped particles of starch
present themselves entirely unaffected by the diseased action, which
has broken down the cellular walls in which they were originally
inclosed. The softened matter thus removed from the tuber has,
naked to the eye, a marked granular appearance, similar to the
discharge from a suppurating tubercle of the human lungs.

The third and last stage of this disease converts this granular sub-
stance into a thick, ropy, cream-colored fluid, A'ery adhesive, and of a
faint, sickish odor, when brought close to the nostrils. This substance
being partially soluble in water, may be readily washed off, leaving
the portion of the potato, as yet undiseased, which presents a very
uneven surface, sometimes cavernous, like the inner surface of an
abscess in the animal tissues, at other times irregular like the granu-
lations of a healing ulcer. Every portion of the matter alluded to is
filled with grains of starch, which, through every stage of the disease
are unchanged in character. And also in every period except the
first, various fungi are to be seen beautifully ramified through the
diseased portion of the tuber, but although subjected to a Spencer
microscope, magnifying from three to seven hundred diameters, not
the slightest indications of insect life or ravages were visible.

The extremely offensive odor of the decayed potatoes arises only
from the putrefaction of the ropy matter above alluded to, in which
state it becomes almost black. This condition, however, is not a
part, but the consequence of disease occurring only after vitality has
ceased.

We now come to speak of the causes of the disease just described,
which is that commonly known as the " soft rot," in distinction from
another disease yet to be investigated, and usually designated as the
" dry rot."

Every reflecting person must see at once that disease is an unnatural
condition of every organic being, and can only exist in consequence
of a disturbance or change of the vital actions.

The causes which produce this change of the natural actions, may
therefore be very gradual in their progress, tending less to induce of

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 37

themselves active disease, than to produce such a state of the system
as shall lessen the vital power to resist other causes. Such influences,
as they do not produce of themselves specific disease, physicians have
properly called remote or predisposing causes, and it is mainly upon
their removal that we must depend to diminish the tendency in
organic matters to take on disease.

Other causes, which act either directly or indirectly to produce
immediate disease in the previously debilitated tissues of a living
body, have received the name of exciting or proximate causes, and
may be as various as the circumstances surrounding the various indi-
vidual organic bodies which take on diseased action. It is of the
latter class of causes only that we propose to speak in this report,
reserving the consideration of the predisposing cause or causes for
another report, after we have had farther opportunity to trace them.
We have been able to trace clearly three distinct causes, which pro-
duced immediate disease in the potato, viz. : the atmospheric change
before alluded to, after a severe thunder storm, when the leaves and
stalks of many fields in a few hours presented a diseased and almost
dying appearance, but whether from electrical change, or the sudden
abstraction of the caloric from the atmosphere, or from the water
applied through means of the shower, we cannot determine. And
here let us remark that we have no intention of covering our igno-
rance under that convenient scientific cloak, to which many men
resort when saying that disease is propagated by the atmosphere,
which is only a learned method of saying we know nothing about the
subject.

Another cause which was followed in a few hours by a virulent
attack of the local disease of the tuber, was mechanical injury of two
kinds, viz. : contusion, as when the tuber was violently struck against
a stone, or was brought strongly into contact with another tuber.
Having from some circumstances suspected this to be the case, we
made some careful experiments, which very clearly revealed the fact
that a moderately severe blow by any hard substance, sufficient to
leave upon the surface of the tuber the slightest mark, was, during
the period while the disease was epidemic, in most instances fol-
lowed by the local disease commencing at the bruised spot as a
centre. Cutting with the hoe in digging, was in certain varieties
almost invariably followed by the access of disease, commencing upon
both the divided surfaces, and proceedingrapidly to involve the whole
tuber.

The cause, however, which produced the most malignant type of
disease was exposure to the sun for a few hours during the intensely

38 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

hot days whicli occurred in the month of last August. Not many
hours were required to change the exposed surface to such a degree
that the expanded fluids burst through the cuticle and stood in
black, inspissated masses upon the tuber. In such instances, we have
seen the potatoes entirely destroyed in less than thirty-six hours. It
may be suggested by some persons that the fungi which exhibited
themselves in the diseased matter of the potato might have been after
all the exciting cause of diseased action, but we think the fact that
the first stage of the disease, upon a most careful examination, mani-
fested not the slighest trace of any fungus, is amply suihcient to war-
rant the conclusion that the sporules which by some yet hidden law
exist in every conceivable position, vegetate whenever the decaying
matter of the nidus in which they are deposited, affords the requisite
nutriment for the fungus.

After a very careful consideration of all the facts which we have
observed, and in connection with the perfect uniformity exhibited by
the disease to which we have called attention, we are constrained to
regard it as an epidemic disease having a strong analogy to the inflam-
mation of animal tissues, but diflering of course from animal inflamma-
tion, because of the difference in the kind and number of tissues and
artal actions involved, yet bearing a marked resemblance in its access
and subsequent progress to ulceration. In concluding our report, we
wish to make one suggestion to our brother farmers, the reasons for
which we may give after Ave have had more extended opportunities for
experiment. Let every farmer at the proper season of the year care-
fully save a quantity of the capsules or balls of the potato, and plant
the seeds in suitable soil. It is probable the first year will exhibit
marks of disease in some of the varieties obtained. Throw such
aside, and plant only such as manifest vigorous growth and in every
way a healthy appearance. Pursue this plan year after year, reject-
ing every variety which easily takes on disease, and planting seeds
each year to supply, the want for good potatoes, and carefully note
year by year the results, -which we think, in any view of the matter,
will be found to be valuable. Asking leave of the Board to continue
our investigations, and proposing, if opportunities should occur, to
make an examination of the other disease which has sometimes
ravaged our potato fields under the common name of " dry rot," we
submit the foregoing, with the hope that what is therein contained
may, if of but little value in itself, be an aid in any farther investiga-
tions that shall be carried on in the future.

John C. BartltlTT.

Jabez Fishek.

Nathan Durfee.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 39

The above report was accepted, and it was voted that the
thanks of the State Board of Agriculture be presented to Dr.
Silas Durkee, of Boston, for his valuable aid in microscopic
examinations of the potato disease, and that the Secretary be
requested to transmit to him a copy of this vote.

It having been voted, at a meeting held in Westborough, on
the 7th of July, to appoint a committee, consisting of Messrs.
Atwater, Marston and Brown, to take into consideration the
subject of collecting and publishing information on agricultu-
ral subjects, for distribution in pamphlet form, that conunittee,
at the meeting held on the 21st of January, 1850, submitted
the following

REPORT:

The committee to whom was referred the consideration of the sub-
ject of publishing information on agricultural topics, in tract form,
respectfully report : —

That it is of great importance that reliable facts and theories, which
have been tried and proved, should be communicated to the farmers
of the Commonwealth. Ihis department is already rich in such
matters for publication, which might be condensed, and ia a concise
form, be published for general diffusion among the people. There is
an abundance of agricultural publications, but they are either st)
diffuse or so contradictory as to mislead or confuse those Avho are
seeking for knowledge. Very many agricultural writers have theo-
ries of their own to sustain, and the farmer is often led into the error
of taking for an established system, what is in fact only a favorite
theory of some interested agricultural writer. From some impartial
source our agricultural population should receive, in a popular form,
what they can depend upon as either positive truth, or the most com-
plete information that is possible. Brief essays, upon important
topics, upon which there are no contested questions open, will be of
great value ; such as agricultural chemistry, improving exhausted
land, the choice of stock for dairy or other purposes, the culture of
root crops or other specific crops, the choice of soils adapted to vari-
ous crops, the selection and planting of fruit trees, and others of like
character. These might be published in tracts of fifteen to twenty
pages for one cent, and might be very widely diffused. We have no
doubt an appropriation sufficient for this purpose can be obtained of
the present legislature without difficulty.

40 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The action of the Board, looking to the reference of specific topics
to committees, for future report, has reference to a time considerably
remote. The publications which Ave propose may be entered upon at
once, and in season to have its effect upon the farming operations of
the present year. And we recommend that a committee be appointed
to superintend the publication of such tracts as may be approved by
them, under the direction of the Board.

Geo. M. Atwatek.
Geo. Makston.

This report was accepted, and it was voted to appoint a com-
mittee to carry out the objects proposed. This committee was
constituted by the appointment of Messrs. Atwater, Marston
and the Secretary.

At the same meeting, January 21st, a committee was
appointed consisting of Messrs. Davis, Brooks and Sutton, to
consider and recommend some uniformity of action on the part
of the societies in awarding premiums. That committee having
attended to the duty assigned it, at the next meeting, held
February 2, submitted the following

REPORT:

The committee appointed to inquire into the propriety and means
of producing greater uniformity in the action of the several agricul-
tural societies of the State, respectfully report that it is desirable that
there should exist uniformity in the action of the societies in the fol-
lowing particulars.

1. Uniformity in the mode of weighing or measuring the crops
offered for premiums.

2. In offering premiums only for such animals as are owned or kept
in the county or territory in which the society is located.

3. Regulations with regard to the days of exhibition, and a return
of the day of exhibition to the secretary of the Board on or before
the first of January in each year.

These rules your committee think are desirable for various reasons.
All the comparative estimates from the product of the various sections
of the State depend upon the uniform and reliable measurement by
the county societies, of the amount of produce, and until these are
effected no valuable deductions can be drawn. The basis is rotten
and shifting, and the whole superstructure falls to the ground.

The controlling argument in favor of the establishment of new
societies in a county, rests upon the consideration that certain sec-

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 41

tions of a county are not accommodated by the existing society. If
such be the case, there seems to be no good reason why the same sec-
tions should be afterwards allowed to compete for premiums in both
or all of the societies in the county, after the new organization is
affected. The great object of the societies is to encourage competition
among farmers, but if a person having an accidental product of the
first quality be allowed to sweep the premiums in more than one
county society of equal grade in the State, it tends to discourage
farmers throughout the county.

Some regulations with regard to the time of holding fairs are abso-
lutely necessary, and the collision which now exists could be easily
avoided if societies would hold their fairs on Tuesdays, Wednes-
days, Thursdays, and Fridays in each week, instead of Wednesdays
and Thursdays, as is generally the case, by which means four societies
at least, in each section of the State, could hold their fairs in the
same week.

But your committee, from an investigation of the power and duties
of this Board, are met with the objection that it has only power to
make to the legislature in its annual reports, such recommendations
and suggestions as the interests of agriculture may require. These
are all the powers which this Board has in the premises. They may
prescribe forms and regulate returns of the societies, and may investi-
gate subjects relating to agriculture, but have no power to regulate
the action of the societies, but only to make suggestions and recom-
mendations through their report to the legislature.

If the suggestions of this report meet the views of the Board, the
committee would respectfully suggest that the same be communicated
to the legislature as their suggestion, and recommend that such action
may be taken upon the rules herein suggested as may be deemed
advisable by the legislature.

Chakles G. Davis, Chairman.

This report was discussed at great length, when it was

Voted, To refer that part of the report which relates to the
measurement of grain crops, &c., to the committee, consisting
of Messrs. Brooks, Davis and Grennell, to lay it before the
Committee on Agriculture of the legislature.

The following resolve was also passed, after mature delibera-
tion, as an expression of opinion as to what the law ought to be,
to correct some of the evils which have grown up as an incident
to the multiplicity of societies in some sections : —

6*

42 . BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Resolved, That no animal or article for whicli a preminm
shall be awarded to the owner by any incorporated agricultural
society receiving the bounty of the State, shall at any time
thereafter be considered a subject for any further premium
of such society, except it be for qualities different from those
for which the former premium was awarded ; provided, how-
ever, that nothing in this act sliall affect, restrain, or limit a
competitor for premiums offered by the State Board of Agricul-
ture, or the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture.

The subject of holding market fairs was introduced by the
committee appointed to investigate and collect statistics in
relation to it, and it was

Voted, That this Board recognizes the great importance of
establishing frequent markets, or fairs for the sale of agricultural
products.

Voted, That the subject be brought before the county agri-
cultural societies, with a request that they will take early steps
for the establishment of markets within their respective districts.

Voted, That the Secretary communicate the above to the
several agricultural societies.

At the meeting of the Board, held on the 18th and 21st of
January, it was

Voted, To appoint a committee to consider and report upon
the propriety of instituting meetings similar to Teachers' Insti-
tutes, for the discussion of agricultural topics.

This committee was constituted by the appointment of Messrs.
Bull, Brown, and Bartlett, and at the meeting held on the 2d
of February, they submitted the following

REPORT:

Nothing is so difficult as the true adjustment of theory and practice
in agriculture. The modifying influences of soil, climate, exposition,
require on the part of the farmer a larger experience, and in the proper
application of the soundest theory a larger intellectual force than falls
to the lot of most men. The longest life is often inadequate, on the
part of an individual, to accomplish results which, by aid of and com-
munication with his fellows, might be made possible.

The theory of manures, for instance — the successful application of
which lies at the base of all good farming — is probably understood by

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 43

very few farmers in the State, and the proper mode of preparing and
applying them to different soils and to different crops has so many
phases that it is hardly too much to say that one man cannot under-
stand it in all its length and breadth. But if you bring together the
farmers of a town or district and discuss the matter fully, their various
experiences throw a flood of light upon the whole subject, and diffi-
culties are mastered by the aid of many minds, which would be
insurmountable to one.

Again, the theory of rotation of crops, giving rest to the ground
and enabling it to put forth its full powers, increasing crops while it
saves the soil from exhavistion, requires many experiments, and can
only be proved to be correct — and consequently adopted — by the aid
of many minds.

The writings of a Pickering, a Lowell, a Buel, a Downing, and the
essays of able cotcmporaries, do not, after all, reach many minds, and
really influence but a few thinking men who adopt their suggestions,
and apply them in their practice. But if you bring men together,
their effects are multiplied. Thought kindles thought, and one suc-
cessful experiment, leads to frequent imitation, so that, if the experi-
ment has been successful, not because of some axjcidental or concealed
cause, but becaiise it was founded on a sound theory, it becomes the
rule of action, and improves the condition of whole masses of men.

The farmer feeds the nation, and without him society is impossible.
What a dignity does this give to his profession. But most fcirmers
look upon their labor as drudgery, and their sons escape from it into
the crowded avenues of the professions, or commerce, or trade ; yet
no calling is so conducive to mental and physical health. In no pur-
suit can he find so complete a development, so true a manhood.

" JSTature is a bride to him who wins her,"

and in penetrating her secret arcana, he compels her choicest favors.

Assemble the farmers then, and impress upon them these great
truths. Show them your experiences and your successes ; inoculate
them with the desire of progress ; bring them face to face with the
science of agriculture ; help them to explore its mysteries, to adapt its
formulas to their daily necessities ; induce them to take an active part
in these discussions and investigations, and you will inaugurate a real
progress.

In this mode theory and practice will find their true relation.

Public meetings, under the direction and control of the Board of
Agriculture, Avill best subserve this purpose.

44 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Your committee therefore recommend that the Board of Agriculture
authorize a committee for each county in the State, the members resi-
dent in the county, whose duty it shall be to call a meeting of the
farmers at such time and place as in their best judgment may be
proper, to promote the interests of the farmer by discussions, lectures,
essays, or otherwise, and who shall communicate to the Board a full
report of their doings.

Your committee would also recommend that these meetings be
commenced as soon as possible.

E. W. BuLi-.
Simon Bkown.
JoHK C. Baktlett.

The above report was unanimously adopted, and the members
of the Board in the various sections of the State were consti-
tuted committees accordingly.

Mr. Lewis presented his final report as Treasurer of the State
Fair held in Boston, which was accepted, and a committee was
appointed, consisting of Messrs. Wilder, Bull, and Sutton, to
audit his accounts.

During the past year the Board has met with a severe loss in
the death of the late Hon. Moses Newell, delegate from the
Essex society. At the meeting held at Westborough, on the
7th of April, the first after this event took place. Colonel Wilder
called attention to it in appropriate terms, and offered the
following : —

Resolved^ That we learn with the deepest sorrow, the death
of the Hon. Moses Newell, of Essex county, in the full maturity
of his powers, and at a time when his services were so highly
regarded and so generally recognized.

Resolved, That we fully appreciate the obligations which rest
upon us and iipon the community to cherish his memory for
the interest which he always manifested in the cause of agricul-
ture in this Commonwealth, and for the uniform kindness,
courtesy and benevolence of heart which endeared him to all
who knew him.

Resolved, That we sympathize most deeply with the family
and relatives of the deceased in their severe affliction, and that
the Secretary be, and he is hereby requested to furnish to them
a copy of these resolutions, and to enter them upon the records
of the Board.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 45

Messrs. Fay, Brooks, and others also paid a high and deserved
tribute to the memory of the deceased, when the resolutions
were unanimously adopted.

At the same meeting, it was

Voted, That a first premium of ten dollars be awarded to
Mr. J. B. Hull, of Stockbridge, for the best acre of carrots
entered at the State Fair held in Boston.

Voted, To award a diploma to Mr. Benjamin Hull, of Lee,
for his crop of turnips entered at the State Fair.

Voted, That it is expedient to hold the second State Fair in
the city of Springfield, in 1860, provided a satisfactory guarantee
fund is secured.

Voted, That the county agricultural societies be requested to
express an opinion as to how frequently State Fairs should be
held thereafter.

Voted, Tliat tliis Board do most heartily approve of the
objects of a bill presented in the House of Representatives in
congress, December 14, 1857, by the Hon. Justin S. Morrill, of
Vermont, requesting congress to donate public lands to each
State and Territory which may provide colleges for the benefit
of agriculture and the mechanic arts, and that our senators and
representatives in congress be requested to render their best
aid in securing the passa aid bill into a law ; and that the

Secretary be requested to rnish each of our senators and
representatives with a copy of the above.

At the meeting held on the 7th of July, delegates were
appointed to attend the exhibitions of the county agricultural
societies, and their reports, presented at the annual meeting in
January, will found on a subsequent page.

In accordance with my usual custom, to develop some special
subject in each of my annual reports, I have devoted much
time to the collection of statistical and other information in
reference to the Indian corn crop, the most important, all things
considered, that is known to American agriculture. Accord-
ing to the United States census, the number of bushels of
Indian corn raised in the country in 1850 was no less than
592,071,000, or nearly six hundred millions. The land occu-
pied by this crop was 31,000,000 of acres, and the value was
estimated at $296,035,552. This formed about three-sixteenths
of the total agricultural product.

46

BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.

From the same source it appears that in that year there were
20,000,000 of acres devoted to meadow and pasturage, while
the hay crop covered 13,000,000 of acres, and was valued at
•$90,000,000. The same year 11,000,000 of acres were devoted
to wheat, which was valued at $100,000,000, and 7,500,000
acres to oats. The number of acres devoted to cotton was but
5,000,000, and the aggregate value was but ^98,000,000.

The above product of Indian corn was distributed over tlie
various sections of the country, so as to give the comparative
yield to each person and the proportion of improved land
devoted to this crop, as follows : —

1850.

Bushels to each
person.

Propovtion of Im-
piMvtd land de-
voted to corn.

Whole United States,

25.53

.333

North-Western States,

44.02

.029

South- Western States,

39.45

.025

Southern States,

28.22

.056

Middle States, .

9.12

.308

New England States,

3.73

.702

California and Territories,

2.20

.002

Planting States,

3G.12

.028

Other States, .

18.00

.081

The details of this important crop will appear more clearly
in the following table, showing the number of bushels produced
in each section, and the number of bushels per acre in each in
the year 1850. It will be seen that the avera,ge yield per acre,
for the Avhole United States, is about twenty-five bushels, and
that of the New England States thirty-one bushels, while the

aggregate amount raised in New England
bushels.

was 10,171,000

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

47

STATES AND TEKIUTORIES.

Bushels of Corn
#roclucecl.

Average per
Acre.

Ratio of
ropulatioii.

Katio of Corn
produced.

Oliio, .

59,078,000

33

8.54

9.97

Kentucky,

58,672,000

24

4.24

9.91

Illinois, . • . .

57,646,000

33

3.07

9.73

Ihdiana, ....

52,964,000

33

4.26

8.95

Tennessee,

52,276,000

21

4.32

8.83

Missouri,

36,214,000

34

2.94

6.12

Virginia,

35,254,000

18

6.13

5.95

Georgia,

30,080,000

16

3.48

5.08

Alabama,

28,754,000

15

3.33

4.86

North Carolina,

27,941,000

17

3.75

4.72

Mississippi,

22,446,000

18

2.92

3.79

Pennsylvania,

19,835,000

20

9.97

3.35

New York, .

17,858,000

27

13.36

3.02

South Carolina,

16,271,000

11

2.88

2.75

Maryland,

10,749,000

23

2 90

1.82

Louisiana,

10,260,000

16

2.23

1.73

Arkansas,

8,893,000

22

.91

1-50

New Jersey, .

8,759,000

33

2.11

1.48

Iowa, . . . .

8,656,000

32

.83

1.46

Texas, . . . .

6,028,000

20

.92

1.02

Michigan,

5,041,000

32

1.71

.95

Delaware,

3,145,000

20

.39

.53

Massachusetts,

2,345,000

31

4.29

.40

Vermont,

2,032,000

32

1.35

.34

Florida, ....

1,996,000

-

.38

.34

Wisconsin,

1,988,000

30

1.32

•34

Connecticut, .

1,935,000

40

1.60

•33

Maine, . . . .

1,750,000

27

2.51

.30

New Hampshire, .

1,573,000

30

1.37

.27

Rhode Island,

539,000

-

.64

.09

New Mexico, .

365,000

-

.27

.00

District of Columbia,

65,000

-

-

L.

Minnesota,

16,000

-

-

-

California,

12,000

-

-

-

Utah, . . . .

9,000

-

-

_

Oregon, ....

3,000

-

48

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

There are no means of ascertaining with positive accuracy
the yield of this crop in 1858, but from the most reliable
sources at command, it is safe to say there were no less than
670,000,000 of bushels, and this at an average value of fifty
cents per bushel would be worth 1335,000,000 ; and if we add
to this the value of the fodder it yielded in addition, the value
of the cobs and the cords of manure produced from this croj)
alone, the aggregate value to the United States for 18o8, can-
not be set down as less than $700,000,000.

To show how rapidly the culture of this plant has extended,
it may be stated that France produced 17,280,000 bushels in
1826, and in 1847, about 33,400,000, an increase of nearly one
hundred per cent, in twenty years. Russia produced 16,000,000
bushels in 1850.

The yield of Indian corn in the different counties of Massa-
chusetts may be stated as follows : —

COUNTIES.

No. of Bushels,
1850.

No. of Bushels,
1855.

No. of Acres,
1855.

Worcester County,

476,107

485,565

16,185^

Hampshire County,

272,370

291,189

10,041

Middlesex County,

269,908

331,934

11,446

Hampden County,

252,213

220,412

8,816^

Berkshire County,

240,899

293,072

9,158^

Frankhn County,

223,359

253,616

7,925^

Bristol County, .

164,064

210,235

7,7861

Essex County, .

158,264

186,031

5,4711

Norfolk County,

112,132

150,465

4,299

Plymouth County,

105,243

139,617

5,171

Barnstable County, ,

52,639

70,480

3,524

Dukes County, .

12,395

16,023

763

Nantucket County, .

3,206

7,980

380

Suffolk County, .

2,691

3,256

88

The number of acres of Indian corn cultivated in Massachu-
setts in 1855 was 91,056. The number of acres in 1858 was
undoubtedly considerably larger, and the yield, as nearly as
can be estimated from various data, about 3,643,440 bushels,

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 49

wliicli, at the price of eighty-three cents per busiiel, is valued at
^3,016,156.

The statistics given above are sufficient to show the compara-
tive importance of this crop in the agriculture of countries
adapted to its growth. Some account of its history, its varie-
ties, its cultivation and its uses, can never be out of place,
therefore, in treating of the crops most profitable for cultivation
in American agriculture.

The vast importance of this plant has naturally attracted the
attention of agricultural writers, and no point connected with
it has passed unnoticed, it can hardly be expected, therefore,
that the subject can be invested with any great degree of
novelty, or that much can be said which has not been said
before. Something may, however, be done by way of bringing
together the information which is now scattered and inaccessi-
ble to the great majority of readers, while on some points, the
results of practical experiments may be of service to the farmer
and contribute something to our present stock of knowledge.
Nor is the labor required to do this so trifling as might at first
sight be supposed, for it must be borne in mind that on the most
important practical points connected with its cultivation the
opinions of farmers differ widely, and even the results of expe-
rience, and the statements of practical men are in many cases
full of contradictions and discrepancies which it is not possible
to explain or reconcile.

Most farmers have opinions upon the questions which suggest
themselves to the mind of the inquirer, but few possess a
sufficient store of facts to satisfy his expectations. Who can
say with certainty what variety is best for particular localities,
or from what part of the ear the seed should be taken, or
whether it is best to prepare the seed by soaking previous to
planting, or not ? Who can give the exact depth at which the
land should be ploughed for corn, the kind and quantity of
manure it is best to use, the distance the hills or the drills
shoidd stand apart ? How many can say with exactness what
is the cost and the profit of raising an acre or a bushel by any
particular method of culture ? Or who even with the aid of a
thousand reports of agricultural societies, can form a practical
opinion as to whether this will be the most profitable crop for
him to cultivate in his own field ? Even in Massachusetts, the
7*

60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,

statements of practical farmers differ so widely that some esti-
mate the cost of cultivating an acre at ten dollars, and others
at seventy-five. One farmer shows a profit of seventy-eight
dollars from an acre ; another says he can clear the stover,
while another can barely make it pay the cost, and if he can
keep the homestead in his own hands, it is all he expects to do
in raising Indian corn.

There are, no doubt, great difficulties in the way of forming
an accurate estimate on these points. The culture of Indian
corn is usually connected with that of other crops and other
farming operations, and it requires much time and care to
arrive at a result absolutely correct on many of the points of
investigation ; and few men have the time to devote to it, to say
nothing of the infinite number of varieties of corn, each of
which modifies the result ; to say nothing of differences of
climate, soil, elevation, exposure, facilities of marketing, com-
mand of labor and manures. These items may have an
ultimate certainty in them, but it is rare that they are all so
closely observed and noted as to enable an individual unac-
quainted with the locality to grasp and understand them all.

I cannot hope to answer the innumerable questions which
suggest themselves on this subject, but I shall endeavor to indi-
cate in the course of the following pages, some points which
may be considered as already settled, and others on which we
need further information, more accurate observation and experi-
ment, and more exact and careful statements of the results
attained.

As already said, Indian corn has often been the subject of
scientific investigation, both in Europe and this country.

In 1784, M. Amoureux presented a memoir upon maize to
the Academy of Sciences at Bordeaux, France. In 1785,
M. Parmentier wrote on Indian corn an essay which was
crowned by the Royal Academy of Bordeaux. In 1788, Signer
Harasti published in Italy, " Practical Instruction " on the same
subject. In 1809, M. Burger wrote, in Germany, a work " On
the Natural History, the Cultivation, and the Use of Maize."
Other works on maize appeared in Europe from time to time.

In 1828, William Cobbett sought to give his name to it and
introduce it into England. He eat it, he smoked its husks, he
planted it, imported it, published a book printed on the husks,

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 51

and finally published a work upon the subject. In 1836,
M. Bonafous, of Sardinia, published at Turin and at Paris a
magnificently illustrated book on the native country, the varie-
ties, the cultivation, the harvesting, the maladies of Indian corn,
and the use of it in the family, the farm, the arts, and lastly,
in relation to health and in medicine.

In the United States, though no complete and elaborate work
has been written upon it, the shorter essays and articles upon
the subject are innumerable.

The materials for a complete civil history of Indian corn must
be sought for in old and uninviting volumes, in the narratives
of voyages and travels, and in no less than five or six different
languages. One should know something of the botany of the
western continent, as well as of Asia and the Asiatic isles, to be
able to draw the most natural and correct conclusions. I have
mentioned several works on Indian corn. In Spain, though no
very valuable work has appeared on its history, such frequent
allusions are made to it in the narratives of the voyages of
Columbus, Alonzo Vega, Penzon, Vespucci and Cortez,as to be
of very great service in determimng its native country. The
works of Oviedo and Hernandez, also, are worthy of mention.
Still more important is the authority of Humboldt.

Naturalists have long disputed the origin of maize. The
question is one of some interest, inasmuch as some claim our
own as its native country, while others contend that it came
from the East. It is proper to state, briefly, the argument as it
stands, after which we shall be better able to draw somewhat
satisfactory conclusions.

Bock, the first botanist who wrote of it, forty years after the
discovery of America, asserts that it came from Arabia, and was
called ivheat of Asia, (ble d'Asie,) great wheat and great reed.
But four years after, the same opinion is maintained by Ruel-
lius, whose assertions are perhaps worthy of respect. Fuchsius
also declares that it came from Asia to Greece, thence to Ger-
many, and was called ivheat of Turkey, because the Turks at
that time possessed all Asia. Many writers have taken the
authority of the old map or chart of Incisa, of the thirteenth
century, to prove that it came from the East. Of such we
may mention Sismondi, M. Michaud, Gregory, Lonicer, Amo-
reux, and Reynier, who was familiar with the history of agri-

52 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

culture. This chart describes a grain of a golden color, and
partly white, — " granis de colore aureo, et partim albo," — under
the name of meliga. Crescenzio describes the method of culti-
vating this grain, which is very nearly the same as that of culti-
vating maize at the present day. The Portuguese writer, Sata
Roza de Viterbo, also, asserts that it was known in the thirteenth
century. Whatever may be said of its origin, it seems to have
been first introduced into Turkey, from whence it made its way
to the West. This is shown by the names which have been
given to it in Europe, several of them indicating that it came
through Turkey. But according to some Spanish authors, it
was brought into Spain by the Arabs. A Chinese writer of the
middle of the sixteenth century, draws the figure of the maize
as known in China, which is said to correspond with some species
of maize now known. Some travellers who have visited the
Asiatic isles, have inferred that it was cultivated about the
equator, in that vicinity, from great antiquity, and that it passed
from these isles into China, and thonce to the interior about the
Himalaya. John Crawford, who lived for years in the Island of
Java, says : " Maize is, next to rice, the most important agri-
cultural product among the great tribes of the Indian Arcliipe-
lago." Mr. Rifaud asserts that some kernels were found in the
sarcophagus of a mummy in Thebes, in 1819. The well known
orientalist, D'Herbelot, mentions, a passage of Mirkond, a Per-
sian historian, which might lead us to suppose that maize was
known to the old world, long before the discovery of the new.
Now the question arises, whether the meliga described in the
old chart of Incisa alluded to, was identical with the zea mais ?
Bonafous says on this point, that the description of the meliga
from the East corresponds to maize, but that according to the
learned author of the " Flore d'Egypte," in tlie description pub-
lished by order of Napoleon, it can equally well be applied to
the millet of India, in which the grains pass in some of the
varieties from yellow to white. But Cardan says, distinctly,
that maize strongl}^ resembles the plant known in Italy asmelica,
or sorghum^ which is the meliga of Incisa. So of several otlier
authorities, as Matthioli and Georges de Turre. Moreover,
Bonafous himself declares that it is evident, to look at it, tliat
the meliga is a real maize, and he is, therefore, inclined to
believe that it was known in Asia and Europe before the
discovery of America.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 53

After this accumulation of evidence in favor of its eastern
origin, it is worthy of remark that some have even asserted that
it was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. But such
conjectures as that the black millet brought from India to Italy
in the time of Pliny, was the maize, are probably ill-founded.
Even Mr. St. John, whose great familiarity with the domestic
affairs of ancient Greece entitles him to the highest respect,
says : " In the region beyond Bactria, a species of corn was
found which must unquestionably have been maize, since the
grains are said to have been as large as olive stones, and to maize
alone can we apply Herodotus's description of the wheat found
in Babylonia, the straw of which was encircled by leaves four
inches in diameter, and its return from two to three hundred fold.
Now in wheat I believe so prodigious an increase is all but
impossible ; whereas a still greater return might be obtained
from the Indian corn." And there have not been wanting those
who think that Homer distinctly mentions maize, as well as the
naturalist, Theophrastus, in his history of plants, and that allu-
sions are frequently made in the Bible to a grain that could
have been no other than maize or Indian corn. Such was the
opinion of William Cobbett. It arose, however, from utter
ignorance of the ancient mode of planting or sowing wheat,
which will be alluded to hereafter.

It is now proper to enumerate, briefly, the authorities on the
other side of the question ; those who believe maize to be indi-
genous to America, and that the New World should have the
credit of having given it to the Old. And here, it may be, we
shall find naturalists not less celebrated than those already men-
tioned. Among the first, in point of time, is Dodonajus, who
lived in the middle of the sixteenth century, and wrote but
shortly after Bock and Fuchsius. After him came Camerarius,
then Matthioli, one of the most learned and justly celebrated
men of his time. He affirms that Turkish wheat {ble turc) is
not a proper name for maize ; that " it should be called Indian
wheat, (ble crinde,^ and not Turkish wheat, because it came
from the West Indies, and not from Asia nor from Turkey, as
Fuchsius believes." So Ray and others say that Fuchsius was
mistaken, and that it came from the New World. M. Dumeril
thinks it was called Turkey wheat in consequence of its long
stalks. So the authority of Heynius is to the same effect.

54 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Turcici nomen non ex vulgo accepit, quod ex Turcoriim terris
exportatum fuit, verum ah aristarum similUudine aliqua cum
crista seupluma in opice Turcorum capitibus imposita.

Gerard, after describing several kinds of " Turkey wheat,"
which were evidently species of maize, goes on to say : " These
kinds of grain were first brought into Spain and then into the
other provinces of Europe', not (as some suppose) out of Asia
Minor, which is the Turk's dominions, but out of America and
the Islands adjoining, as out of Florida and Virginia, or Norem-
bega, where they used to sow, or to set it, and to make bread
of it, where it groweth much higher than in other countries."
He also takes care to say that it was not known to the ancient
Greek and Latin authors. M. Parmentier is of opinion that it
had an American origin.

M. E. Discourtilz also says maize was introduced into Europe
by the Spaniards, who brought it from Peru. It is important
to mention, also, the authority of Thomas Nuttall, who thinks
it was indigenous to tropical America. The same conviction
is expressed by the learned Mrs. Somerville.

It remains to speak of the important conclusions of Baron
Humboldt. " It is no longer doubted," says this learned natu-
ralist, in his Essay on New Spain, "it is no longer doubted
among botanists, that maize, or Turkey corn, is a true American
grain, and that the old continent received it from the new."
Again, he says : " On the discovery of America by the Euro-
peans, the zea maize (tJaolli in the Aztec language, mahiz in
the Haitian) was cultivated from the most southern part of
Chili to Pennsylvania." Massachusetts, he might have said,
for such was the case. " According to a tradition of the Aztec
people, the Toltecs in the seventh century of our era, were the
first who introduced into Mexico the cultivation of maize,
cotton, and pimento. It might happen, however, that these
different branches of agriculture existed before the Toltecs,
and that this nation, the great civilization of which has been
celebrated by the historians, merely extended them successfully.
Hernandez informs us, that the Otamites even, who were only
a wandering and barbarous people, planted maize." Thus we
see it was cultivated in America long before the discovery, and
formed a most important article of food for centuries.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 55

Having candidly stated the various authorities on this ques-
tion, we are now prepared to proceed in our investigation.
And first, let us say, that though we should consider it no small
gift of the New World to the Old, it is not difficult, on a ques-
tion which does not affect either personal or national honor, to
free our minds from prejudice and partiality, and study with a
desire to ascertain and establish the truth. We are not con-
vinced, by the assertions of some or by the arguments of
Bonafous and others, that maize originated in the East. They
have not made out a satisfactory case. It should be borne in
mind that the authority of the early writers is not always to
be relied upon. They possessed none of the advantages which
modern science has laid open, to pursue their investigations.
They could not be accurate on questions of this nature. It is
very probable that maize came into Europe by way of Turkey
and the Levant, which gave it the name whicli it then bore, of
Turkish wheat, &c., and which would be likely to deceive a
naturalist of the sixteenth century, in regard to its origin.
Then it is very easy to conceive how a careless statement made
by a writer three hundred years ago, would be taken on his
authority, and thus gain a credit which it did not deserve.
Instances of this occur on almost every page of the old histori-
cal writers, as any one who is at all familiar with the works of
Sir Thomas More and the old chroniclers, can testify. The
name Turkey or Ble Turque, or even Ble d'Inde, is no proof,
because we know that the very w^ord " Turkey " in English
and " Dindon " (D'Indon) in French is applied to a bird that
is allowed to be indigenous to America, and not elsewhere.

It is a remarkable fact that maize is not mentioned by travel-
lers who visited Asia and Africa before the discovery of America.
These travellers to foreign parts were often very minute in
their descriptions of the productions of the soil. But the maize
was never described in Europe until after the discovery. This
most certainly argues very strongly that it was not known. In
fact it was introduced into Africa by the Portuguese, in the
sixteenth century. Into Europe at the beginning, and into
England in the middle of that century.

It is also a remarkable fact, that it was universally cultivated
on the western continent at the time when the Europeans
landed here. This is proved by P. Martyr, Ercilla, Jean de

56 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Lerj, not to mention Torqucmada and others, who tell us that
the first Europeans who set foot on the New World saw, among
other wonders, a gigantic wheat with long stalks, and that this
wonderful wheat was the maize. The harvesting of it was
celebrated by the people with religious festivals. Sacrifices
were prepared with it: With it the Mexicans formed idols. It
constituted almost the only food for all the tribes in Mexico, in
Peru, in Brazil, at the Orinoco and the Antilles. It served for
money. A theft of seven ears the Mexican laws punished with
death. The Mexicans offered the first fruits of their corn to
their goddess Oentl ; they called its leaves Tonacayohua, or
" she who feeds us," and their maize feasts were annually held
in May, by the Incas and their followers, on an island in Lake
Titicaca. Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the earliest Peruvian
historians says, the palace gardens of the Incas were ornamented
with maize in gold and silver, with all the grains, stalks, spikes
and leaves ; and in one instance, in " the garden of gold and
silver," there was an entire corn field of considerable size, repre-
senting the maize in its erect and natural shape ; a proof no
less of the wealth of the Incas than of their veneration for this
important grain. At the old ruins of Copan and Central
America, are found paintings and statuary ornaments of maize.
At Cusco, the " Virgins of the Sun," priestesses, prepared of
maize the sacrificial cakes which they soaked in the blood of
the victims. The Indians of South America call hot and
boiled corn, which they eat, "mote," and the Creole Spaniards
there call their hot corn cakes " Arepas."

The Indians atNemasket, (in Middleborough, Massachusetts,)
in 1621, regaled some of the Pilgrims with bread called
mazium, made of Indian corn.

In Canada, while the Adirondacs hunted, the Five Nations or
Iroquois, made planting' of corn their business. The Lenni
Lennape, (or original people,) the grandfathers of the other
Indians, called maize " Lenchesquen," the original or native
grain. The natives of North America called it generally wia-
chim, while in some southern parts they called it mayse.

It is a still more curious fact,^that immediately after its intro-
duction into Europe, it spread with great rapidity into every
country and province where the climate was thought to be
suited to it. Now if it had been known in Asia, if it had been

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 57

cultivated by the Turks, how could all these things have hap-
pened ? Why was not so useful a grain introduced into Europe
before, or why did it spread so rapidly when it was introduced ?
A somewhat extensive trade was carried on between Europe
and some of the Asiatic Isles, long before the sixteenth century,
so that if Indian corn had been known or cultivated in Asia,
there is every probability that it would have found its way into
Europe. The plant called sorglLum was known and cultivated
in Europe and somewhat in Asia and Africa, and tliis it was
with which maize was so often confounded. This, however,
was not a species of Indian corn. In Germany, in 1532, forty
years after the discovery of America, Indian corn had the name
sometimes of Asia wheat, grand grain, and giant reed, and
Turkish corn of Asia, which it actually keeps now, and grain of
India, confounding it with what they had before known. In
the Indian Archipelago it is called the Yagoong, or the native,
as the Lenni Lennape in America called the true maizo. But
this Yagoong, and the meliga of Asia Minor and Italy, in 120-1,
and the milhom of Portugal, in 1259, the picture of the
Chinese Li-ti-chin in 1578, the stalk eighteen inches long with
its leaves a«[id tlie "grains of maize " in a little earthen cup
found in the Tlieban mummy, by M. Rifaud in 1819, and the
notions of an origin for Indian corn different from America,
all arose from mistaking it for the sorghum, that is just now
exciting so much attention with us, and to which is often
applied at this day, the name of small maize.

But the strongest evidence of its American origin is, it seems
to us, that it has been found growing wild in some parts of the
western continent, wliich is not the case in any other part of
the world. This alone would seem to prove it to be indigenous
to America. We need say nothing of the fact that grains of
Indian corn have been found in the graves and mounds of Peru
and of Mexico. These mounds were probably built three or
four hundred years before the conquest. There can be no
doubt, therefore, that it v^as cultivated on this continent from
time immemorial. For we have now, in the discovery of the
Indian corn wild in Paraguay, and elsewhere in South America,
the proof which M. Bonafous required after an examination of
all that had been written and said upon the subject. " La

premiere habitation du mdis restera in'certaine, jusqu'a ce qu'on
8*

58 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

d(iCoiivre le lien on il croit sans culture, si les revolutions que
la terre a subies ne rendent cette decouverte impossible." The
original homo of the maize will remain in doubt until they
discover where it grows wild, if the changes of our earth do
not render such a discovery impossible.

But it may now be asked, how are we to explain the numer-
ous allusions to a grain, which if not Indian corn, must have
nearly resembled it ? We have already remarked that many of
the assertions of the early botanists confounded maize with
sorghum. Other allusions, and those by the sacred writers,
refer to wheat, which was indigenous to Asia, and almost uni-
versally cultivated. Mr. St. John admits that there was, and
still is, in that part of the world, " a very large grained wheat
called camel's tooth," which would naturally have given rise
to the expression, " ears of corn," so often used. The miscon-
ceptions of Mr. Cobbett and others, in regard to these references,
arise from ignorance of the ancient mode of sowing wheat, or
corn, as it was universally called by the old writers. Large
fields of it were sown, between which a narrow road or path
was left for the public. Tliis road was just wide enough for the
carriage to pass without injury to the grain, ther^ being no
fences for protection, so that it might literally be called " going
through the cornfields." It w^as sometimes gathered with the
sickle, sometimes by passing through it and plucking off" the
heads or ears, the reaper having an apron or pouch to drop
them into.

Neither wheat nor rice were known to the first inliabitants
of America, and we may with as much truth say, that Indian
corn and the potato were neither cultivated in Asia nor the
South Sea Islands.

It is well known that maize was introduced into Japan by
the Chinese. But there are no grounds for believing that the
Chinese themselves possessed it until the sixteenth century.
We persist, then, with Humboldt, in believing that maize was
not transported from the centre of Asia to the table lands of
Mexico. And, moreover, if we suppose that it was thus
transported from Asia, how are we to account for the infinite
varieties found in America, which, most certainly, were not
found in Asia ? Is it not more natural to suppose it to have
originated where every variety of it was found, than where only

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 59

one or two varieties, if they were of this species at all, were
ever known to grow before the discovery of America by the
Europeans ? We may remark, also, that if we suppose that a
species of maize was actually known in Central Asia, or to the
Chinese, it may have been the case that the Indians of the
extreme north-west of America had communication with the
extreme north-east of Asia, and that some one or two species, by
this means, found their way into Asia. If such communication
existed, which we do not believe, the fact that it was found in
China and about the Himalaya, which is by no means established,
would not prove it to be indigenous to Asia. Or, if one or two
species were actually found, the fact that there were no more
in Asia, and so many in America, would be a strong evidence
of its being exotic in Asia. It might have drifted, as many
things are known to have done, by sea, from America to Asia..
This accumulative evidence seems to us to be satisfactory
and conclusive. It was the custom among some of the earlier
writers, to speak of America as being sterile and wanting in the
most important vegetable productions. They little suspected
the surpassing richness of the country which had been made
known to astonished Europe. The infinite variety of plants
indigenous to Mexico, to Central and to South America, where
we suppose maize to have originated, is beyond description.
No country on the globe can excel them in the boundless
luxuriance of native, indigenous plants. Here even the giant
trees of the forest are loaded with flowers of every hue and
variety. The purple and the blue and the scarlet, the brilliant
yellow and white, twine and mingle with every variety of green.
Here are the fig, the sugar-cane, the indigo, the aloe and the
pepper plants, the passifloras, the pine apple and the endless
varieties of the cactus with its splendid and variegated blos-
soms. Here is the night-flowering cereus, the alspice myrtle,
the clove, the nutmeg, mango, guava, and an infinite variety of
palms, rising often to the height of two hundred feet. Here,
too, are forests of logwood and mahogany, of colossal grandeur,
often surrounded with shrubbery and parasitic plants, with a
foliage so dense that the rays of the sun can never penetrate.
Here is the mimosa, majestic in its size, the beautiful acacia,
and grasses that rise to the height of forty and fifty feet, with
tree ferns and reeds without number, often seen a hundred feet

60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

high. Tho golden and rose-colored bigiiouias add their gracG
and beauty to the teeming masses of blooming life. The laurels
become splendid forests. Plantains grow to gigantic size, and
beneath all spring lilies and bulbous plants as if not an inch of
soil could be spared. Here, also, tlie endless variety of creep-
ing plants rise through the twining limbs with their myriad and
brilliant flowers. Thousands of species still remain undescribed,
and there may be thick and tangled forests which the foot of
civilized man has never trodden. Nor is this rich luxriance for
a season alone ; for the spring, or the summer, or the autumn.
It is everlasting. The unfading verdure hides the very appear-
ance of death. The trunks of decayed plants, matted and
heaped together, form only rich beds for the living to spring
forth in the newness of life. The eye is sated with beauty.
The air is filled with perfumes, and one is lost in wonder and
amazement at nature herself. This is the native country of
maize. A country unparalleled in the magnificence of its flora,
and unequalled in the depth and richness of its soil !

America has received from the old continent, wheat, barley,
oats, rice, cotton, coffee, oranges, lemons, peaches, and other
useful plants, while she has well repaid them with Indian corn,
the potato, tobacco, cocoa, vanilla, and other grateful produc-
tions.

The names of Indian corn are various. Its synonyms in
different languages are as follows : (English,) maize, Indian
wheat or Indian corn, corn. (French,) mais or mais, Ble or
Bled de Turquie ou d'Espagne, ou d'Inde. (Spanish,) maiz,
Trigo de Indias, Trigo de Turkuia. (Italian,) Grano d' India,
Grano Turco, Grano Siciliano. (Portuguese,) mais, milho
da India, milho grande. (German,) mais, Turkischer korn.
(Dutch or Belgic,) mais, Turksch koorn. (Swedish and
Danish,) Turkish Hvede, korn. (Russian,) Tureskvichljeb.
(Chinese,) La-chou-cha. (Aztec,) TlaoUi. (Quichua,) Cara.
(Mexican,) Centli. (Lenni Lenape,) Lenchesquem. (Quon-
netiquots, &c.,) wiachin. (Coosaws, &c.,) mayze. (Ilaytian,)
mahiz, whence M. Tourneport in France adopted it in his botani-
cal nomenclature, and it was there established by Gaertner and
De Candolle.

SECRETx\.EY'S REPORT. 61

It is curious that the word maize in the Gaelic or Irish is
" food." In the Lettish and Livonic language in the north of
Europe, mayse is " bread."

The word corn is from the Saxon " corn," the Dutch koorn,
and the German, Danish and Swedish " korn." This word is
the same as for grain, and is used for that grain which is the
general one of the country. The edible seeds for man are
called bread* corn unless when growing in pods, when they are
called pulse. In England corn means all grain, as corn laws,
corn exchange — but especially " wheat ;" in Germany, rye,
which is the grain almost exclusively in use there as food ; in
the Scandinavian Peninsula, barley, and in the United States,
maize. A Pennsjdvania court has decided in that State at
least, that " corn " means maize, Indian corn.

In the United States corn was first cultivated by the English
on James River, in Virginia, in 1608, and according to the
Indian fashion. The yield then was from 200 to 1,000 fold,
and the same increase was noticed by the early settlers in
Illinois. The cultivation has increased continually since then,
and in no State has it retrograded. In New England it has
increased fifty per cent, since 1850, and it increased the same
in the ten preceding years in New England, New York, Penn-
sylvania, New Jersey, Maryland and Delaware. From 1840 to
1850, when it was 592,000,000 bushels, it increased in the
United States, forty-six per cent. In Illinois it increased
sixty per cent, in ten years. In 1858, in the United States,
the crop was probably 670,000,000 bushels.

Indian corn is one of the natural grasses. The grasses are
variously divided and classified. Some are designated as natu-
ral, some as artificial ; the former name comprising all the true
grasses, that is, plants with long, simple narrow leaves, each leaf
having many fine veins running parallel with a central promi-
nent vein or mid rib, and a long sheath divided to the base,
which seems to clasp the stem, or tlirough which the stem
seems to pass. The stem is generally hollow, but Indian corn
is one of the few exceptions and is solid, and closed at the nodes
or joints. The artificial grasses comprise those plants mostly
leguminous, which have been cultivated and used as grasses,
though not of that family, such as the clovers, sanfoin and
medic. But in botanical language, and speaking precisely, the

62 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

gramineae or grasses embrace most of the grains cultivated and
used by man, as Indian corn, wheat, rye, barley and rice, all
of •which will be at once recognized as having leaves and stems
very similar in shape and structure to most of the plants popu-
larly called grasses.

Botanists having arranged Indian corn in the order g^raminece^
or the grass family, and specify it as Zea mays. The genus
zea comprises in fact but one species, the common or cultivated
maize, and is distinguished by its simple leaves. The zea caragua
or stone maize has sometimes been regarded as a distinct species,
but I think with little reason. It was introduced from Chili,
Zea Ilirta, the hairy maize, having its leaves and husks hairy,
and its spikelets sessile or seated close on the male flower,
instead of being pediculated or on footstalks, like the common
maize, came from California. Zea Erythrolepis, or red husked
corn, with grains compressed, and glumes red, and Zea Cryp-
tosper?na, or covered maize, each grain being inclosed in a
husk, and the whole ear included in a general husk, as usual,
are other varieties. The last comes from Oregon and is found
also in South America. It is the same as mais tunicata, or
cloaked maize, which is found growing wild in Paraguay.

Zea comes from a Greek word meaning to live, because of
the great amount of nutritive matter that it contains ; mays is
the Haytien name.

Indian corn or maize, in the artificial arrangement of Lin-
naeus belongs to the order Triandria Dig-ynia, having three
stamens and two styles, or, as we have seen, in the natural
arrangement of Jussieu, to the order Graminem. It is endoge-
nous or growing from within. Its fertile and sterile organs
are arranged on distinct parts of the same plant, the former on
the side of the stalk and proceeding from the joints, the latter,
terminal, or on a panicle at the top, called the tassel. The
stem or stalk is seen in Fig. 2, while the male or sterile flower
is shown in Fig. 3, and the fertile or female flower, in Fig 4.

The cylindrical stem, column or stalk, as shown in the figure,
rises from joint to joint, clasped by the sheath of the leaf, and
at the apex, is seen the tassel, separating into several spikes on
which the sterile flowers are arranged. These contain the sta-
mens each on a little stalk or filament supporting an anther or
bag filled with fine pollen or powder.

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

63

At a particular stage of the growth of the plant the anthers
of the tassel above, bursting, scatter their pollen in clouds, as
may be seen by shaking the stalk at the proper time, and this
being heavier than the air falls down on the open ends of the

Fia. 2.

ma. 6.

stigmas or silks below, and fertilizes the new germ. Then and
not till then, the new seed begins to enlarge, and becomes, what
it could not be without this particle of pollen, capable of sprout-

64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

ing and producing other plants ; so that if Indian corn is plucked
while "in the milk," it will germinate or sprout and grow the
next year almost as well as if it is allowed to ripen, for the
germ is the first part of the seed that is distinctly formed.

If the silk does not receive any, or too little of the pollen at
the proper time, or if the silk is destroyed by insects or other
injuries, an abortive or rudimentary or nubbin ear is formed if
any ; and if such injury happens to single silks the grains to
which they are attached will not fill out. That ig the case
with the kernels at the top of the ear, where the silks are most
exposed and oftenest fail of their pollen, as being late and not
grown till most of the pollen has fallen, which therefore appear
either diminutive or imperfect.

It is said that " suckers," or the subordinate stems that often
shoot from near the root of the main stalk, are frequently useful
to supply the pollen necessary for the growth of the kernel of
the silks just mentioned, which start from the upper end of the
cob, and are later in forming than the others. If the suckers
are left in tassel, those grains will sometimes fill out as large as
the others, but the necessity for them occurs, but seldom.

The seed is covered, when mature, with a thin pericarp, or
hull, which originally formed the ovary or fruit.

The albumen or substance of the seed or grain, is farinaceous
or mealy. These seeds are rounded at tiie surface, compressed
at the sides, and arranged lengthwise of the ear or cob of the
ear of corn which contains about six hundred grains, in from
eight to thirty-six rows, but the number of rows is always even ;
when there are casually less than eight rows, there is a vacancy
on the side of the cob.

Indian corn is an annual grass, and grows from four to
twenty-two feet in height, its stalk having from one to ten cars.

As soon as the tassels are seen, or a little before, when the
height is attained, and the ears begin to grow and the whole
plant is heavy, prop roots often grow out in . a complete circle
from the joint at the surface or just above the ground, — some-
times higher, — to at least a little distance out ; but becoming
abortive, hard and woody by exposure to the air, then branching
and feeding after reaching the ground so as to be strong and
support the large plant, and to assist it in obtaining additional

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 65

sustenance just at the time of its grovrtli when it wants the
most of it.

The roots of Indian corn spread to at least the same horizon-
tal distance under ground, on an average, that the leaves do
above ground, and both should have room enough, but more
than enough is waste of ground and crop.

The seed germinates and the plant appears above ground in
from five to eight days after it is planted one or two inches
deep, depending on the variety of seed, and the heat and mois-
ture of the soil, and its depth and preparation. It ripens fit to
be harvested, according to the variety of seed, the cultivation,
the aspect and the weather, in from sixty to two hundred and
ten days, and yields its increase variously according to climate,
soil, cultivation, aspect and kind, from ten to two hundred
bushels of shelled corn an acre, the corn varying in weight
according to the variety, and some other casual circumstances,
from fifty to sixty-five pounds a bushel.

It will appear from the analysis of Indian corn, that it con-
tains not far from 68 per cent, of nutritive matter. The amount
from an acre yielding 30 bushels, or 1,800 pounds, is about 100
pounds of woody fibre, 1,260 pounds of starch, sugar, &c., 216
pounds of gluten, from 90 to 170 pounds of oil or fatty matters,
and 27 jwunds of saline matters. According to one analysis,
Indian corn meal consists of nine per cent, of oil or fat pro-
ducing principles, increasing with the degrees of temperature
in which it ripens, twelve per cent, of nitrogenous elements or
flesh producing principles, fifty per cent, of non-nitrogenous or
heating principles, with the remainder consisting of water,
woody fibre and saline matter.

As compared with wheat for human food, 138 pounds of
Indian corn are equal to 100 pounds of good wheat flour, to
171 pounds of rice, to 613 pounds of potatoes, to 810 pounds
of cabbage, and to 1,335 pounds of turnips.

The cob, though but slightly nutritive, contains some heat-
producing elements and some materials which aid in the forma-
tion of flesh and bone.

The following analyses by Dr. C. T. Jackson, show the nutri-
tive matter in cobs of Indian corn, and how much of each
mineral salt they had extracted from the soil where they grew in
Smithfield, Rhode Island. It was Canada and Red Cap mixed,

9*

eQ BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

four ears to a stalk. Weight of cob, 280 grains ; weight of ker-
nels, 2,070 pounds ; number of kernels on an ear, 325 ; yields
1,314 grains from 1. This corn yielded 4.75 per cent, of fat at
its height, in refined oil, and 4.11 per cent, in sugar and zeine.
The cob ash, 1,000 grains yielded in potash, 3.204 ; soda, 0.492 ;
phosphate of lime, 1.000 f phosphate of magnesia, 0.260 ; phos-
phoric acid (in the alkalies), 0.300 ; silica, 0.800 ; chlorine,
0.196; peroxide of iron, 0.360; unburned charcoal, 1.500;
carbonic acid and loss, 1.388. The cob yielded a drying yellow
fined oil, 0.323 per cent. ; sugar, 0.242 ; dextrine (gum) and
some albumen and extractive, 2.557 ; loss, 0.023, or about
3.145 per cent, of the whole weight of the cob.

Analysis of the ash of Burr's improved wrinkled sweet corn.
Cob weighed 480 grains, short and thick, and quite large in
proportion to the depth of the kernels. Powdered cob, gave
dry oil, 0.179 per cent. ; sugar, 0,065 ; brown extractive matter,
0.242 ; gum and albuminous matter, 3.257 ; oil, 3.743 per
cent, of the whole cob. The ashes gave, potash, 0.2581 ; soda,
0.2104; silica (flint), 0.1250; phosphate of lime, 0.0521;
phosphate of magnesia, 0.0279 ; oxide of iron, 0.0416 ; phos-
phoric acid, 0.0292 ; chlorine, 0.0292 ; carbonic acid and coal,
0.0812. Total, 0.8545 grains or per cent, of the whole cob.

Analysis of lot of Maryland white Southern corn ; cob
weighed 290 grains, was short but not large. Potash, 0.4585 ;
soda, 0.1211 ; silica, 0.1720 ; phosphate of lime and magnesia,
0.0800 ; oxide of iron, 0.0420 ; phosphoric acid, 0.0290 ; chlo-
rine, 0.0340; unburned carbon, 0.2242; carbonic acid and
loss, 0.5872. Total, 1.7480.

Analysis of Southern corn, a red variety from Cape May,
New Jersey. Cob weighed 560 grains. Potash, 0.450 ; soda,
0.220 ; silica, 0.103 ; phosphate of lime and magnesia, 0.054 ;
phosphoric acid, 0.091 ; chlorine, 0.011 ; oxide of iron, 0.032 ;
unburned carbon and carbonic acid, 0.389. Total, 1.350.

Analysis of cob of Tuscarora corn, Longmeadow, Connecti-
cut River, Massachusetts. Large grained, rich in starch. Cob
weighed 630 grains ; potash, 0.6430 ; soda, 0.1970 ; silica,
0.0714 ; phosphate of lime, magnesia rnd oxide of iron, 0.0800 ;
phosphoric acid, 0.0800 ; chlorine, 0.0630 ; unburned carbon,
0.1430 oxide of iron, carbonic acid and loss, 0.6590. Total,
1.9364.

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

67

Analysis of cob of Button corn, Massachusetts. Small, yel-
low kernel, large cob, weighed 830 grains ; powdered dried
cob. Fixed drying oil, 0.249 ; sugar, 0.333 ; gum, albumen
and astringent extraction, 2.700. Total, 3.282. Cobash,
yielded potash, 0.410; soda, 0.174; silica, 0.135; phosphate
of lime, 0.042 ; phosphate of magnesia, 0.020 ; phosphoric acid,
0.023 ; oxide of iron, 0.038 ; chlorine, 0.049 ; unburned carbon,
0.127 ; carbonic acid and loss, 0.255. Total, 1.353.

The analysis of Indian corn may be given as follows : —

Silica,

. 38.45

Potassa,

19.51

Phosphate of lime, .

17.17

Phosphate of magnesia, .

13.83

Phosphate of potassa,

2.24

Carbonate of lime, .

2.50

Carbonate of magnesia, .

2.16

Sulphate of lime and magnesia,

.79

Silica, mechanically found.

1.70

Alumina and loss, . . . ,

1.65 100

Making, in all, one hundred parts. In other words, there are
in it, of

Fat forming principles, gums, &c., . 88.43
Flesh forming principles, gluten, &c., 1.26
Water, ...... 9.00

Salts, 1.31—100

A glance will show how greatly the fat-forming principles
predominate in the one hundred parts. There is hardly any
other grain which yields so much for the support of animal
life.

It was with reference to these facts, that Boussingault and
others formed their Tables of Nutritive Equivalents, that is, of
the comparative amount of flesh, or fat, or bone, or milk-pro-
ducing substances in different articles of food for man and
beast, and they agree very closely with the results of practical
observation. Of course there will be some slight variations in
difference of climate and soil, but they will not be of any great

68 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

practical importance. This Table of Equivalents was given in
my Fourth Annual Report, page 135.

The varieties of Indian corn are very numerous, as its flexi-
bility of organization makes it easy of adaptation to different
climates and soils, and they are constantly changing in charac-
ter and in number, from the shrubby reed on the shores of
Lake Superior, to the giant stalks of the Mississippi Valley —
the tiny ears with flat, close, clinging grains of the Canada — the
brilliant, rounded little pearl — the bright, red grains and white
cob of the eight-rowed hematite — the swelling ear of the big
wliite, and the yellow gourd seed of the South.

Though it prefers moist and rich soils with strong heats, and
in the warmest regions, three crops can be taken in a season, yet
some varieties grow at the height of seven thousand feet above
the level of the sea in those regions. There are said to be one
hundred and twenty varieties in Spain. M. Bonafous mentions
ten varieties of white, twelve of yellow, and one of red, and one
variegated purple on a yellow ground. Varieties differ from
each other in the color, form and size of the grains, and of the
cob, and number of rows of kernels on the cob, in tlieir time
of maturity, their resistance to cold, to drought and to wet, the
weight of the grain, the tendency to keep, and the chemical
and economical characteristics ; and there are many differences
and many grades of value as fodder. The general preference
is for clear white or yellow, large ear, with a small cob, long,
heavy grain and early ripening.

The varieties of Indian corn differ so much in their various
qualities, that the farmer must always know what he is plant,
ing and select according to the uses he will make of it, the
length of season where he is, and the weight on an acre. The
Canada corn ripens in 100 days from planting ; the Rocky
Mountain requires 110 days. Long Island corn is said to grow
on a given space, 10 lbs. 12 oz., while the twelve-rowed red
Tariety, on the same space would grow 15 lbs. 2 oz. ; but on a
different soil and different climate the Long Island would exceed
the twelve-rowed in its returns. The large late white flint
corn yields 2j^^ tons to the acre, on the same soil where the
large twelve-rowed yellow Sioux yields o^q tons to the acre.
Some varieties make muscle most abundantly, others fat. The
large, sound, yellow corn contains I^yu P^^' cent, of albumen,

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 69

caseine and gluten, which makes muscle, while the Sioux con-
tains IQyq per cent, of these substances ; the latter is therefore
most profitable, other things being equal, as food for working
oxen or horses. The sound square corn contains of starch,
sugar, oil and gum, which make fat, 60 ^^ per cent., while the
sound, small white flint corn contains IQ-^q per cent, of these
substances, and is therefore ft^r more valuable for fattening
cattle or hogs. If the square corn is worth fifty cents a bushel,
the flint would seem to be equally cheap at fifty-eight cents a
bushel.

The composition and nutritive qualities of corn also vary
with the varieties, as they depend on diflerent circumstances.
But it is curious that in mixture each variety, though growing
on the same plant or ear, retains its power of selecting its
appropriate quantity of inorganic salts from the soil. Every
yellow flint kernel found on a mixed or variegated ear, shows
the same constituents when chemically analyzed that the same
quantity on a whole ear of pure yellow flint would show.

Sweet corn contains most phosphates, twice as much as the
common Tuscarora, and must take it up from the soil. It has
little starch, much sugar and gum, and the small stalks exhaust
the land but little. Southern corn contains more starch than
northern ; common Tuscarora the most, and rice and pop corn
the least. Baden corn has a very fine, white oil ; rice corn
contains most oil ; pop corn, Canada, eight-rowed, yellow, brown
and King Philip corn rank next. Common Tuscarora has
neither oil nor gluten, but the Tuscarora called also Turkey
wheat, from New York, yielded 6.32 per cent, of oil.

The southern and Dent varieties of corn have their oil and
gluten on the sides of their elongated seeds, and the starch
projects quite through the grain to its summit, and by its con-
traction in drying forms the dent or depression. Pop, called
also pearl corn, contains its oil in little subdivided cells in the
horny portion of the grain in minute drops. When heated,
the oil is decomposed into carbonated hydrogen gas, the same
kind we use for light, and it explodes and every cell is broken
and the grain turned wrong side out. The meal of oily varie-
ties is less liable to ferment and become sour. The oil being
next the hull, if that is not given or digested, the fatty property
is lost. The horny and yellow as a general rule have more oil

70 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and nitrogen and less starch, and the indented and white more
starch. The inorganic salts, and especially phosphates, are
confined to the chit and germ. If a farmer wishes then to give
young animals large bones, let him feed them on sweet corn,
but at the same time manure with bones or other phosphatic
manure. The stiffness of joints and lameness of feet in horses
fed too freely with such kinds of corn, may arise from an
unnatural growth of bone from the corn. A farmer cannot so
easily fatten stock with common Tuscarora, but it makes the
best bread and the best and most corn starch. The hard
northern gluten bearing varieties are better for working animals
and make more flesh than the southern starch bearing varieties,
though independent of their oil they make most fat.

The white and yellow gourd seed corn is adapted to the
southern States, prhere they grow large stalks without corres-
ponding increase of grain. The middle States have the gourd
seed or flint varieties, pure or mixed, and the crop consists of
the big white and yellow, the little white and yellow, and the
white Virginia gourd seed ; it occupies the ground in the
southern or middle States from five to seven months.

The northern and eastern States cultivate almost exclusively
the heavy, flinty grained kinds, which grow and mature with
great rapidity, and thus accommodate themselves to short
northern summers. Like all early maturing corn they are
dwarfish, though very productive, and occupy the ground only
three or four months — some varieties only six weeks.

The cobs of the big white and yellow are thick and long,
grains much wider than deep, thin where they meet ; the ends
of grain are prominent and round, and the ear looks like a fluted
column ; so that these hard, flinty corns are less productive in
proportion to their cob than the gourd seed. The little white
and yellow are more solid and hard than the larger, the yellow
color is deeper, they have cobs considerably smaller and are
still less productive, but ripen earlier. The grain of all four is
firm, without indenture in the ends. The ears of the Virginia
gourd seed are not very long, nor the cob so thick as the big
white and yellow ; but the shape of the grain makes the ear very
thick ; it has thirty to thirty-six rows of very long, narrow
grains of a soft, open texture, almost flat at the outside ends,
compactly united from the cob to the surface of the ear, with-

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 71

out a fluted appearance, and is by far the most productive,
though it ripens later than the others ; it is invariably white,
unless mixed. If the smallest perfectly natural indenture
appear in the grains of the hardest corns, they and their
descendants, whatever their color, will come to a perfectly white
gourd seed. The Canadian corns are too small to be productive,
are solid and very early, but are seldom planted in fields where
the larger corns will ripen ; though they may be planted closer
and if weli manured will produce well, while so far as nutritive
qualities are concerned, they are among the most valuable.

In the southern United States, the southern or white corn is
used for human food. They hold there that the yellow corn of
the north is strong and heating, and fit only for brute beasts.
In Pennsylvania and in England the southern corn sells
higher by the bushel, while the northerners think the reverse,
and call the southern or flint corn " horse corn," and insipid,
claiming that their own only is sweet and savory, and that the
corn grown in high latitudes is always (and the same is said of
the sorghum or African corn) richer in saccharine matter than
that grown at the south. The kernels of the southern corn are
larger and flatter than the northern, and the ears nearly twice
as long on the average. Stalks of the southern corn have been
measured in eastern Tennessee that were twenty-two feet and
three inches long ; there are whole fields of it with stalks
from twelve to sixteen feet high, and looking like saplings ; it
rarely bears more than one ear on the huge stalk, and that six
or seven feet from the ground. The species most common and
valued for human food in Massachusetts are the large yellow,
the red, which difiers from it only in color, the sweet corn, and.
what is perhaps the most important, the Canada corn mentioned
above. The meal of the northern corn is here considered
better, and brings at all times a considerably higher price in our
market. In London, in 1851, the price of yellow or northern
corn was 29 shilflngs ($6.38) to 30 shillings (|6.60) a quarter,
or eight bushels, or 79| to 82|- cents a bushel ; and white or
southern corn, 30 shillings (16.60) to 31 shillings ($6.82) a
quarter, or 82^ to 85 cents a"quarter.

In the Philadelphia market, southern flat yellow gourd
seed, for sixteen years up to 1812, averaged 68 cents a bushel,
and the Pennsylvania round or flint corn, (Pig. 7,) which is

72

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

three to four pounds heavier per bushel, sold at 6Q cents, the
yellow flat corn, also selling for about three cents a bushel more
than the white flat, which is sold but little at Philadelpliia, and
for an occasional shipment to southern ports.

The white corns are said to produce
more and ripen earlier than the yellow.
The white makes much handsomer meal
for cooking purposes, and is also free from
the strong taste of the yellow, though
those from Pennsylvania north, who have
been accustomed to the yellow, like that
taste. White corn is much cultivated in
Rhode Island, and generally commands a
higher price for breadstuffs than the yellow.
The Sioux or yellow gourd seed, eiglit-
rowed, the Button, the smutty white, and
the Canada, are mostly cultivated in the
other eastern States.

For table corn, the best are the early
golden Sioux, Canadian, early Tuscarora,
the sweet ; and the late sorts, white hominy,
and Button, when green. For field corn,
there are numerous varieties. The favor-
FiG. 7. ites in the middle States are the yellow

gourd seed, and the Virginia white gourd seed of twenty-four to
thirty-six rows. The red, blue and purple corns are not used
for field planting ; they are sometimes enamelled, even their
leaves ; the leaves and stalk of the purple are of that color, or
between it and green ; and some corn has red stalks and leaves,
but with more or less green. Jet black corn is found in Mexico.
The color of Indian corn usually depends on that of the epider-
mis or hull, and sometimes on that of the oil, or of the combined
particles of which the corn is composed when the hull is trans-
parent, as the golden Sioux is yellow from the oil, and the
Rhode Island white flint is white from its starch and oil seen
through its hull ; but if the hull is opaque, the grain presents
the same color, as in the red, blue, and black varieties.

A late writer, in some remarks on the subject, says : What
is yet wanted is to determine whether it would be more profita-
ble in our climate to cultivate the early varieties of Indian corn,

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 73

which yield a small crop but a sure one, or tlie later varieties,
which are not so sure but are more productive. Perhaps the
early varieties may admit of an after crop. No grain can
be sown after the late varieties, but after the early Canada is
gathered, grass and several kinds of grain might be profitably
sown for next year, and get along out of the way of winter inju-
ries. The great desideratum with Indian corn in this latitude
is, to increase its precocity witliout diminishing its productive-
ness ; this may be done by hybridization or mixture of selected
varieties, and watching for those which are accidental. And
we want yet to learn the difference, if any, of the cultivation
demanded by the different varieties, as well as the chemical and
economical characters of more of them.

The varieties are owing, as already stated, in part to differ-
ence of climate, culture, and soil, but especially to selection,
and to mixing of the pollen of different kinds called hybridi-
zation.

By examining the characteristics of the different varieties of
corn, one can determine what kinds have been mixed to make
up any specimen he has, and how to get it back, or to change it
to such a mixture as he wishes for any properties or purpose ;
or he can, by selecting and planting, begin such a mixture as
he wants, for it is only necessary to plant two kinds near each
other to have them mixed, and in a few years one can get just
what he pleases. The long cobs of the big yellow and white may
more than make up for the shortening the grains of the gourd
seed, and so the mixture, which should always be made under
favor of a climate which will ripen it, will be even more produc-
tive than the original gourd seed. The little yellow and white
should be mixed with the gourd seed for short climates. One,
fact should, however, be known. Northern corn, it is said, will
improve in size and productiveness if removed southwards, but
southern corn taken to the north will either not ripen, or soon
degenerate.

The change in color, &c., of Indian corn from admixture is
generally gradual ; we first see scattering, slightly marked look-
ing grains, resembling those from which the mixing pollen has
come. By taking care not to plant mixed grains, rejecting all
such as seed, and to plant all of one kind together, these mix-
tures and varieties may be prevented, and the desirable, clear,

10*

74 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

uniform kind be obtained. Sometimes a mixture is desirable,
and can be made at will, as I stated before.

An instance among several, of success in improving corn, is
in Mr. Thomas M. Baden, of Prince George's County, Mary-
land, who says he begun with common corn of Virginia, which
had hardly two ears to a stalk ; selected for seed from stalks
having most ears, only the sound and ripe, of deepest and best
color, and least cob, rejected the irregular kernels at both ends ;
followed it twenty-three years and more, (several before he saw
much improvement,) when he took them only from stalks
having more than four ears — some have borne ten. It yielded
more shelled corn than other sorts. Ten bushels of ears yielded
six bushels of shelled corn ; the common corn will measure but
about five bushels. He believes he can raise nearly twice
as much as of any other corn. He plants about the first of
May, hills five feet apart each way, and two stalks in a hill.
One hundred and twenty bushels, it is claimed, have been
raised to the acre in Illinois, and it produced more fodder than
any other kind ; it is rather earlier than other corn there. It
is a white gourd seed, with stalks twelve to sixteen feet high ;
ears six to eight feet from the ground, short, and considerably
under average size of common varieties ; grain excellent ;
removed a little north, to Philadelphia, it seldom matures
properly, being injured by autumnal frosts, like all tall oorn ;
does not answer for high lands, even in the southern valley of
Virginia, but produces abundant grain and fodder in the rich,
flat lands of the southern and south-western States.

I subjoin accounts of some other striking varieties. The
Button corn was so called from Salmon Button, of Vermont,
who introduced it in 1818 ; it is said to be in the latitude of
New England, earlier than any other field corn, being cut from
the last week in August to the second week in September ; it is
twelve-rowed, and though the cob is large, gives the greatest pro-
duct, as two bushels of sound ears yield one and three-eighths
bushels of shelled corn, weighing fifty-six pounds to the bushel.

The white flint corn is cultivated for making the beautiful
white hominy of the Philadelphia market. The flour corn, with
a round, thick grain, filled with a snowy white powder, resem-
bling starch, is much used in New Jersey for grinding up with
buckwheat, in proportion of one-fifth or one-fourth of the corn,

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 75

giving the buckwheat meal a lighter color, and otherwise
improving it.

In Virginia is foimd tlie Tappahannock or Rouzie corn, the
result of experiments for thirty-two years ; it is said to give
more to the acre and more meal to the bushel, than others,
even as much as one-third more. Its cob is red, and the fangs
of the kernel so tinged. It is said the red cob corn matures
more rapidly and perfectly than the white in that neighborhood.
It is there planted the first of April.

The Wyandotte corn, first introduced in 1853, by I. R. Thomas,
of Waverly, Illinois, who got it from the Wyandotte Indians, is
pearl white, and the meal white as wheat flour, large grain,
shaped like the yellow flint, soft, twelve-rowed, small cob,
twelve to fifteen inches long. It requires but one grain in a
hill, more is useless ; five feet each way is near enough ; per-
haps it may, on some lands, be planted closer ; 2,500 hills, or
one quart of seed to an acre. Each grain yields from three to
eight stalks full grown, each nine to twelve feet high. Each
stalk bears from two to four ears, so that each hill or grain
produces from eight to twenty ears ; and if only six, — though
Mr. Thomas says his field in 1855 averaged ten ears to the hill, —
the yield is 15,000 ears, 120 ears to a bushel, and 125 bushels
to an acre. By actual measurement, three of the average sized
ears of the Wyandotte corn will make one quart of shelled corn ;
the largest ears of corn about Albany are mentioned as giving
two gills to an ear, and 100 fair ears a half bushel of corn.
The accounts of the Wyandotte corn are conflicting. The
Indians are said to use it as easily when raised and prepared
without a mill ; probably its meal will not keep, or do for
shipping, as it is almost destitute of oil, and is too tasteless for
bread. But others say it yields 8,960 grains from a single
kernel.

This matter of varieties is one of the most important in the
economy of Indian corn, and we earnestly desire that any one
having well-defined varieties, of which he knows the history
and qualities, the analysis, ripening, cultivation or yield,
in blades, stalk, cob, grain, ear, or height, earliness, hardi-
ness, or any peculiarities and locality, will send a specimen,
with a particular and full account of all he knows about it, to
the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture at the

76 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

State House, Boston, Massacliusetts. There is a cabinet to
receive it, and each specimen will be labelled and thankfully
acknowledged.

Most of the cereals ripen a great abundance of seed, and are
therefore comparatively exhausting to the soil. Indian corn
yields a larger return for its seed than most other plants, not-
withstanding its great nutritive qualities, yet it takes but a
small proportion of its bulk, say from ten to fifteen per cent.
of its whole weight, though about half of its dry weight, from
the soil. Much of its bulk and about half of its dry weight,
appears to be drawn from the atmosphere.

Indian corn, like other herbaceous plants, when cut for
forage or green fodder, does not exhaust the soil so much as if
suffered to go to seed and be harvested. When the offal is
properly managed it returns more than other grasses to the
soil. It also returns more manure to the farm when used as
forage than when used as grain ; indeed, in the latter case,
commerce too often wholly deprives any given farm of its
manure from corn.

An acre of corn, where only twenty-five bushels is to be
expected, requires to restore and constantly improve at the
same time, 1,000 pounds of inorganic matter to be added to it,
which is rather more than twice the amount which a good crop
removes from an acre, in its stalks, leaves, roots, husks, cobs
and kernels.

Corn will not germinate unless the temperature of the soil is
at least 58° Fahrenheit, and not above 110°, for then it never
germinates. It requires, during the summer months, or in
northern latitudes, two and one-half months for its ripening,
with a mean temperature of 65°, which is the limit that per-
mits any yield of corn, and 68° for a profitable I'cturn.

When first up it is very susceptible to frost. That and wet
weather sometimes require it to be re-planted several times.
The early parts of autumn are not so apt to injure the grain in
its hardened covering.

The geographical and climatological limits of the cultivation
of Indian corn in the latitude of this North American continent,
as determined by the mean ripening temperature of 65°, are
almost its limit of cultivation at the north, for even in the valley
of the Red River, at the parallel of 51° of latitude, a small

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 77

variety may be successfully grown, and in the St. Lawrence
valley, it is the 47th parallel. The most important exception
is a narrow line of the Pacific coast, and to this there is a gen-
eral addition of some of the most considerably elevated localities
in mountainous portions, — say the mountainous elevations of
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
northern New York, east of the Rocky Mountains.

The maximum capacity of the production of Indian corn is
nearer its northern than its southern limit, and indeed even in
those States where it may sometimes be cut off by extremes of
temperature, say Wisconsin, northern Illinois, Michigan, central
New York, and southern New England. This is doubted by
some, as large yields have been made at the south. There are,
however, great irregularities in the climates within these limits
and they correspond in the produce of Indian corn. The tem-
perature extremes sometimes seem to sweep over large tracts of
country. In eastern Oregon, valley of the Great Salt Lake, and
the upper (but not the lower) valleys of the Grand and Green
Rivers, (Colorado of California,) and Rio Grande, it is injured
by the daily changes of temperature, though the mean is high
enough.

On the coast of the Pacific, west of the coast range moun-
tains, from San Diego to Puget's Sound, nowhere does any
month attain a mean temperature of 65°, or permit the ripening
of Indian corn. From the sea to that range it is less than 60°
mean in July, and where the range is low, this low mean
extends inland as far as the principal mountain ranges ; but
the San Joaquin and the Sacramento valleys are nearly all that
have a sufficiently high and equable summer temperature in the
middle of the day, which corn indispensably demands for ripen-
ing and will not do with any less, unhindered by the daily
changes. The cool mornings, evenings, and nights of the east
do not affect it, if the midday be very light and beyond the
temperature of 65° during its growing and ripening months.
In this, corn is not elastic or adaptive.

The northern line of cultivation of Indian corn, then, starting
in 64° to 67° of west longitude from Greenwich, at the Bay of
Fundy and the valleys of New Brunswick, at the 46th parallel
of north latitude, and going west, falls to less than 45° in high-
lands of Maine, in New Hampshire to 44°, then rises abruptly to

78 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

47° at St. Ann's, near Quebec. The mountainous parts of New
York, and Canada West between Ottawa River and Lake
Huron, can grow no corn ; but the river valleys have its line on
the 46° of latitude as far west as Lake Huron in 82° west
longitude. The elevation of the country and the lakes reduce
the temperature and the Indian corn line to 45° of north lati-
tude, and this line continues west almost to the Mississippi ;
passing this elevated district to the warmer summer of the
plains, it goes abruptly north to 50° of north latitude, at Lake
Winnipeg, 97° west longitude, which is its highest point, giving
on this meridian 23 degrees of latitude in the United States,
and the whole amount of 35 degrees of latitude for the North
American continent as the range of this single cultivated staple.
Westward of this meridian the line becomes irregular and
exceptional. On the upper Missouri and to the base of the
Rocky Mountains there is some cultivation to 41^° of north lat-
itude. West of the mountains it reappears in the same latitude,
and in the lower valleys of the north fork of the Columbia, it
goes to Fort Colville, near 49° of north latitude, with a tem-
perature very nearly like Laperai and Fort Vancouver. At
120 its range ceases for all latitudes on the continent of North
America. Africa is too tropical and has little place for Indian
corn, but near the Mediterranean, in Europe, Spain, a small
part of the south of France, say Rochelle, Italy, the valleys of
Austria and Hungary and of Turkey, with the islands of the
Mediterranean, comprise its range. The high element of greater
midday heat for one month of the summer is wanting, and
therefore no skill can acclimatize Indian corn for profitable
growth in the densely populated parts of Europe, or in the
British isles. Corn may be accounted a sure crop in almost
every portion of the habitable globe between the 44th parallels
of latitude, north and south, with the exceptions named.

The climate is said to be too cool during summer in Oregon
for the crop to do well, being like England. In 1857 as far
north as Aroostook, Maine, corn silked out at the end of July,
and fifty-one bvishels of sound corn has been raised ; forty is
the average, which equals any in the United States returns of
1850. Kamtz limits the growth of Indian corn in Europe, to
Rochelle, in France, on the Atlantic coast, and to Strasburg on
the Rhine, and they appear to have very nearly the precise

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 79

temperature of 65°. On that account it cannot grow in Eng-
land, in every part of which the mean temperature is only from
55° to 62°. It has too little sun, but two varieties have been
said to ripen there in ordinary seasons — the French mais a
Poulet, or chicken corn, as used in France, brought from Egypt,
which ripens in 120 days from planting, but with too scanty a
crop to pay for cultivation. The other, Cobbett's mais quar-
antain, a forty days' corn, though it takes 140 days to ripen,
from Artois, in France. Indian corn will never be cultivated
where it does not yield crops which will pay better than the others
fitted to the place, the grape, &c., &c. The highest vertical
point of cultivation of Indian corn in Europe is at the the vil-
lage of Lescaus in Basses Pyrenees, France, 3,280 feet above
the sea. In tropical America, at 7,600 feet high. In Beechel-
broune, Europe, mean temperature 68° Fahrenheit, Indian corn
ripened in four months. In South America it comes to matur-
ity in three months or ninety-two days, the mean temperature
81° and 82° Fahrenheit; but on elevated plains, as Santa F^, it
requires six months or 183 days, with a mean temperature of
59° Fahrenheit, and therefore does not pay.

The southern corn 'crop of the United States is earlier by one
or two months, than Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsyl-
vania and New York. Several varieties of maize alter some-
what in size and time of ripening by change of climate. This
is imputed to the selection or change of seed. Generally
those brought from south to north, after a little while lose any
dent, become earlier and the plants diminish in size ; while if
they are transferred from a colder to a warmer region the
reverse of this takes place. In the colder climate the harder
or horny part increases in size and firmness, and the farinaceous
or mealy part, diminishes in bulk, but is more compact ; while
in warmer climates the kernels become more farinaceous at the
expense of the harder part, and the farinaceous portion fills
up less perfectly with starch granules and other matter.

No plant will stand the effect of drought so well as Indian
corn while it is young ; but when its top blades begin to be
heavy, its demands for moisture increase so as to cause it to
suffer greatly from very dry weather. The ease and rapidity
with which it recovers from a drought is truly remarkable.
Many predicted during the summer of 1857 that the corn crop

80 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

in Massachusetts would be destroyed. The leaves were badly-
curled, and there was every indication that the crop would
greatly suffer. But it is on record how speedy was its recovery,
and how rapid its growth after a change of weather. So great
is the dependence upon heat and moisture combined, that,
knowing the results of observations of the thermometer and
the rain gauge in any section, during the three growing months
of April, May and June, one might predict with great certainty
the results of the harvest in that section ; and, on the other
hand, the returns of practical farmers in different sections of
the State, indicate so clearly and uniformly the excess above
the average, or the partial failure of the crop, that a meteoro-
logical map of the State might be constructed from them.

Corn will often succeed well in the Northern States, with a
cool, rainy summer, provided there is a week or two of hot
weather in the month of June, or early in July, and a late
fall with warm weather at the period of ripening, A high,
midday heat is so essential, that without it there will be no
formation of saccharine matter in the plant, nor will it mature,
though with it, the night temperature may be quite low without
apparent injury to its growth. This is, therefore, one of the
most eHential conditions of its successful culture, and this con-
dition is fulfilled in almost every part of the country, except in
the mountainous districts already alluded to.

The season of 1858 was remarkable in most parts of New
England, as a season of frequent rains and cool weather in July
and August, and farmers generally predicted a failure of the
corn crop, and wondered all the summer at the luxuriant
growth of this plant. The secret of it was, without doubt,
that the last week of June and the first week of July were
excessively hot, though the rest of the season was unusually
cool and moist. The ground had become warmed to a great
depth, and this was sufficient to give the plant a rapid growth
during the remainder of the growing season.

Nearly every part of the country is, therefore, adapted to the
growth of Indian corn, so that, though there are great staples
of the Southern States which are more profitable owing to their
extremely limited range of climate, yet as a plant for the whole
country, there is no other which can compare with it in
importance.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 81

The germ or chit is nourished, after the sprouting lias com-
menced, by the starch, sugar, &c., contained in the other parts
of the grain, until its roots have so far extended as to secure
nourishment from the soil, and the blade shoots up to obtain
its nutrition from the air. But if the weather is too cold after
the seed is planted, or if the soil is too wet and cold, the main
body of the seed or grain is dissolved and rots, so that when
the soil and weather become sufficiently warm, the chit may
still germinate, but it will find no nutriment in store, when it
will wither and die. In such cases the corn must be replanted.
The conditions of germination, as already suggested, are heat,
moisture, air, and absence of light.

It is plain, therefore, that in a loose, porous, or sandy soil,
the seed may be planted deeper than in a stiff soil, where a
shallow planting will best secure these conditions of germination.

In the process of growth, the plant takes its food from the
air in part, and in part from the soil in solution in water.
Corn is said to require the largest proportion of inorganic
matter for its thrifty growth about ten or twelve days after it
has made its appearance above ground, though not, of course,
so large an actual amount as during the subsequent periods of
its growth. This amount, doubtless, increases up to the time
of ripening. This inorganic matter, taken up by the plant in
growth, comes from the soil. It has been estimated that an
average acre of the small white flint corn requires and abstracts
from the soil no less than 881 pounds of these inorganic sub-
stances, of which about 210 pounds are in the form of silica
or silicic acid, 91 pounds in the form of phosphate of lime, iron
and magnesia, 64 pounds of potash, 63 pounds of soda, 15
pounds of lime, 9 pounds of magnesia, 19 pounds of chlorine,
and 30 pounds of sulphuric acid. Most of the other parts of
the crop, the organic or combustible matter, are derived from the
atmosphere, though some part of it is also derived from the
soil.

The crop of white flint corn, on which the estimate stated
above was made, took 22,546 pounds of organic matter, con-
sisting of 2,900 pounds of sugar and extract, 5,100 pounds of
starch found in the kernel, 15 pounds of rosin found in the
cob, 10 pounds of dextrine, 312 pounds of oil, also found in
the kernel, 1,150 pounds of fibre, 817 pounds of albumen, 396
11*

82 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,

pounds of caseine, 143 pounds of zeine, found in the kerne? ^
171 pounds of wax and chlorophyl, and about 420 pounds of
glutinous matter. Of these substances, 8,000 pounds were
taken off the farm and sold in the grain, while the biilk of the
remainder, 14,500 pounds, was fed out on the farm and returned
in the form of manures. Of the inorganic substances, of
which there were, as already stated, 881 pounds, about 100
pounds were carried off in the grain, and the remainder, about
781 pounds, consumed on the farm and returned in the
manure.

The soil best adapted to the growth and perfection of Indian
corn, is a deep, rich, mellow loam. The roots extend to great
depths in such soils. A light porous soil is permeable to the
heat and air, which contribute to its rapid growth, while a stiff
clay or hard soil are unfavorable to it. At the same time it may
be said, that this plant has a wonderful degree of flexibility, and
easily adapts itself to a great variety of circiunstances and soils,
so far, at least, as to give remunerative crops, on such as are
not in the highest degree favorable to it. INothing more need
be said on this point.

The manures best adapted to it depend somewhat, of course,
on the character of the soil to which they are applied, but on
an average of the soils of New England, organic manures, such
as barnyard dung and muck well decomposed, decayed vegeta-
ble matters, &c., may be said to be the best. At the same time
it should be stated, that some soils are lacking in a proper
amount of phosphates, and these can be supplied in ground
bones, ashes, salt, and plaster. On this point, the statements of
practical cultivators, given from year to year in my previous
Reports, are so full and valuable that it is superfluous to dwell
upon it here, and reference is respectfully made to those state-
ments and to the essay on this subject presented in the second
part of this Report, page 195. The bestmodesof preparing the
ground by ploughing, &c., will also be found in full from the
same sources.

With respect to the selection of seed, after the choice of the
variety is determined upon, and this will be governed by local
circumstances, the reader is referred to the experiments on a
previous page in the report of the committee on the State
farm, showing, so far as they go, the relative advantage of using

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

83

that taken from the tips, middles, and large ends of the ears,
and to the Report of the committee on farms in the second part
of my Report of last year, page 150, where a farmer planted
only the corn from the small end of the ears, choosing such as
were well filled out ; then only from the middle of the ears ;
then only from the big ends. After ten years of trial, he found
that in seven years of the ten, the crop from the tips was the
the largest and best.

The corn-planter is an invaluable labor-saving machine, and
the thrifty farmer who studies economy, will not fail to avail
himself of tliis as well as other improved implements.

With respect to the mode of planting, whether in hills or drills,
there is considerable diversity of opinion, but in practice it
doubtless depends much on the variety of corn planted. Larger
crops can be obtained, I think, in drill planting, especially witli
the smaller varieties of corn, but there is no question that tlie
labor of cultivation in New England and the older parts of the
country is somewhat greater than it would be if planted in
hills. Some varieties require greater space than others. On
this point, the remarks of Mr. Allen, in an essay on this subject,
in the second part, are valuable and to the point.

It is often convenient to know the number of hills and the
quantity of seed required on an acre planted at different dis-
tances. The following table will be valuable for reference ; — •

Table of the Numher of Hills to the Acre, and the Quarts of Seed
required at four and five kernels to the hill.

Distance apart.

Number of Hills.

Quarts at four
grains.

Quarts at five
grains.

3 feet by If feet, .

8,712

_ _

_ _

3 " 2 "

7,250

14.52

18.15

3 " 21 "

5,808

-

-

3 " 3 "

4,840

9.68

12.10

3 " 31 "

3,960

8.30

10.37

Z\ " 3^ " . .

3,554

7.11

8.89

3 " 4 "

3,630

7.26

9.08

3i " 4 " . .

3,111

6.22

7.78

4 " 4 "

2,722

5.44

6.80

84 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Drills 3 feet apart, and 6 stalks 1 inch apart in the drills, will
give 29,040 stalks.

Drills 3 feet 9 inches apart, 2 rows in a drill 6 inches apart,
and stalks 9 inches apart in the drills, will give 30,970 stalks.

Drills 3 feet apart, 3 rows in a drill 6 inches apart, and
stalks 9 inches apart in the drills, will give 43,560 stalks.

Whether planted in hills or drills, it is now pretty well settled
among farmers, that it should not be hilled, as was the custom
but a few years since. There seem to be several reasons for
this. If the earth is drawn up around the stalk at the last
hoeing, it sends out new roots which divert much of the
nourishment which would otherwise have gone into the stalk
and the ear. It is not unfrcquently the case that aerial or
"prop" roots, even, are emitted from the lower joints of the
stem above the ground, and descending, fix themselves in the
soil. This takes place on a very much larger scale, if these
joints are surrounded Avith earth. If the earth is taken from
the intermediate spaces, so as to leave hollows, the long branch-
ing roots become exposed to the sun, and cause the plant to feel
the drought too severely.

A level surface on a cornfield does not wash so badly as an
uneven one. The custom of hilling corn Avas derived from the
Indians, who planted it so, and even occupied the same hills or
mounds year after year successively, raising three clusters of
stalks on each large hill, and scraping fresh soil upon thou, so
that they remain to our day. The similar cultivation now even
sometimes followed, is called planting in Indian hills.

For fodder, corn is usually sown in drills by hand at the rate
of about three bushels an acre. Forty stalks to a foot, it is
said, will produce one-third more than twenty stalks to a foot,
in furrows wide enough apart for a one-horse cultivator to go
through once, as it should do, when the corn is a foot high.

The practice of raising corn to cut and feed out green by way
of partial soiling, is very common. This culture has been car-
ried still farther by many farmers, and many acres are raised
in various parts of the State of Massachusetts for the purpose of
cutting and curing for winter use.

The common practice with regard to this crop, is to sow in
drills from two and a half to three feet apart, on land well tilled
and thoroughly manured, making the drills from six to ten

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 85

inches wide, with the plough, manuring in the furrow, dropping
the corn about two inches apart, and covering with the hoe.
In this mode of culture the cultivator may be used between the
rows when the corn is from six to twelve inches high, and unless
the ground is very weedy no other after culture is generally
needed. The first sowing usually takes place about the 20th of
May, and this is succeeded by other sowings at intervals of a
week or ten days, till July, in order to have a succession of
green fodder. But if it is designed to cut it up to cure for win-
ter use, an early sowing is generally preferred, in order to be
able to cure it in warm weather, in August or early in Septem-
ber. Sown in this way, about three or four bushels of corn are
required for an acre, since if sown thickly, the fodder is better,
the stalks smaller, and the waste less.

The chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this purpose
and after the methods spoken of, arises mainly from the fact
that it comes at a season when the weather is often colder, the
days shorter, and the dews heavier than when the curing of hay
takes place. Nor is the curing of corn, cut up green, so easy
and simple as that of drying the stalks of Indian corn cut above
the ear, as in our common practice of topping, since then the
plant is riper, less juicy, and cures more readily. The method
sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles, after it
is somewhat wilted, and stook upon the ground, where it is
allowed to stand, subject to all the changes of the weather, with
only the protection of the stook itself. The stooks consist of
bunches of stalks first bound in small bundles, and are made
sufficiently large to prevent the wind from blowing them over.
The arms are thrown around the tops to bring them together as
closely as possible, when the tops are broken over or twisted
together, or otherwise fastened in order to make the stook
" shed the rain " as well as possible. In this condition they
stand out till sufficiently dried to put into the barn.

But Indian corn stocked in this way often becomes musty or
covered with dust, while the rains often soak it thoroughly and
wash out much of its soluble matter, and its nutritive value is
in a great measure lost. Besides, every one knows that to cut
up a green plant, as a willow or any other thriftily growing
plant or shrub, and set it up with the cut end resting upon the
ground where it can still derive moisture from the soil, will

86 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

prevent its drying. There can be no doubt, also, that the
exposure to the sun, wind and rain, greatly injures it by remov-
ing much of its sweetness, or changing it to woody fibre, while
it takes from it its beautiful fresh green color.

To avoid the losses necessarily attending these modes of
curing, some have suggested kiln drying as far preferable, and
on the whole, as economical. I have known the experiment tried
in one or two instances with complete success, the fodder coming
out with its fresh green color, and apparently better relished by
cattle than that dried in the ordinary way. This method
appears to me to be worthy of much more extended and careful
experiment. The kiln need not be elaborately or expensively
contrived. The process of drying would be short and the labor
light.

Another mode which has been suggested is to hang it up in
sheds open to the air, precisely as tobacco is cured in the west-
ern part of the State. This process would be longer, but the
nutritive qualities of the plant would probably be better preserved
than if cured in the open air with the exposure to the frequent
changes of the weather. It is hardly necessary to say that if it
is proposed to cure in this way, it should be hung up thinly and
the air should be allowed to circulate through it. After being
well dried it is taken down and stowed away in the barn for use.
This method avoids the trouble of stooking and the liability to
injury from rains and dews, which blacken the stalks, though it
requires considerable room, and is, of course, attended with
some additional labor.

The modes of cultivating Indian corn as a field crop are too
familiar to need explanation. The yield will generally be in
proportion to the thoroughness of the tillage. It is enough to
say, that the ground, after being properly ploughed and planted,
should be hoed and stirred often enough, at least, to keep it
free from weeds, and to refer the reader again to the full and
detailed statements of practical farmers which have appeared in
the annual reports. It was not my purpose to repeat what I
considered well said and sufficiently settled in the more recent
reports, but only to call attention to those points which had not
been touched upon to any extent, either in the statements of
practical cultivators or in the reports of committees of agricul-
tural societies. Nor would it be proper to designate in this

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

87

connection the particular machines which I thought, on the
whole, the most valuable for use in the various processes of cul-
tivating and harvesting the crop. The comparative merits of
each are within the easy reach of every intelligent farmer, and
he can avail himself of them with all the light of the experience
of farmers, as given in the transactions of the societies from
year to year.

After it is harvested and husked, it will usually shrink more
or less, depending upon the degree of ripeness it has attained,
and the variety. The shrinkage is often as great as 25 per
cent., and even more.

On tliis point, the careful statements of the supervisor of
the Plymouth County Agricultural Society, Mr. E. P. Howland,
are full and valuable. He says : —

" From each of the seven acres, I harvested two rods in
October, selecting, as near as we could judge, average rods, or
as good as the fields would average.

" This corn I took home with me, spread it separately on
high scaffolds in my barn, where it had a good circulation of
air through two open windows, and I shelled, weighed and
measured it, on the first week of January, 1859, with the fol-
lowing results : —

Tabic of Weight of Two Rods, kepi by the Supervisor.

Oct. 1858.

Jan. 1859.

Shelled.

Shrinkage.

Shrink.

Kobert Perkins, .

lbs.

118i

lbs.

92

lbs.

77

lbs.

26i

per cent.

22.20

George W. Wood,

128^

951

78

32f

25.53

James Howard, .

100

77

65

23

23.

Friend W. Howland,

97

75

62i

22

22.60

Nathan Whitman,

96

m

591

21i

22.40

Jona. Copeland,

90

n\

5H

18^

20.

Nahum Snell, .

88

67^

55f

201

23.20

88 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Table of We.ight of Whole Acre, inclvding' the livo rods.

Oct. 1858.

Jan. 1859.

Shelled.

Shrinkage.

Shrink.

Bushels
meas'rd.

Bush, of
56 lbs.

R. Perkins, .

lbs.

8,518 ■

lbs.
6,827^

lbs.
5,716

lbs.

1,6901

per ct.

19.84

103^

102

G. W. AVood, .

6,998f

5,601^

4,588

1,3971

19.90

901

81||

Jas. Howard, .

6,356

5,175|

4,364

1,180|

18.57

-

77|f

Nahiiin Snell,

6,303

5,074

3,8221

1,229

19.49

65^

681|

J. Copeland, .

5,585

4,353^

3,635

1,2311

22.50

62f

6iM

" Calling 56 pounds of shelled corn a bushel, the greatest
amount was 102 bushels, by Robert Pcrkhis, of Bridgewater ;
the next was that of George W. Wood, of Middleborough,
81|| bushels ; the next James Howard, of West Bridgewater,
77|| bushels.

" The other com^^etitors for this premium raised corn of
excellent quality, mostly yellow, and very heavy: weighing 58
pounds and upwards per bushel, as commonly measured.
■ "Mr. F. W. Rowland, of South Hanson, had a very fine
field of corn, a part of which was white, and a part yellow.
The land was an old bushy pasture. It was cleared and planted,
and attended with much labor and care, and had he been per-
mitted to harvest it, he would doubtless have given us an
accurate and interesting statement of his proceedings and suc-
cess. But some of the corn having been stolen from the field
a short time before harvest, it was impossible for him to give
an accurate statement of the full amount of the crop. The
corn, however, that was saved, was shelled and weighed in
January. It weighed about GO pounds per bushel.

" A few days in the month of October greatly varies the
weight of a field of corn. The shrinkage on the corn which I
took home from the 6th to the 9th of October, was found to be
from 20 to 25|^ per cent, when weighed in the first week of
January ; while the corn which remained in the field from five
to ten days later, shrank from 181 to 22| per cent, between the
time of harvest and January, making, on an average, about
three per cent, difference.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 89

The five lots of corn in the foregoing table, together weighing
in January 27,032 pounds, and yielding 395 bushels of 56
pounds each, required on an average 68.43 pounds of ears for
one bushel of shelled corn.

Now if we estimate 85 pounds of ears at harvest to yield 56
pounds of shelled corn, and the shrinkage is upon an average
23 per cent., we have heretofore committed an important error
in acknowledging 85 pounds for a bushel of the specimen rod.
For although 85 pounds of ears at the time the farmer gathers
in a field of maize may on an average give 56 pounds of shelled
corn, yet the supervisor usually selects his rod or two rods
several days before the rest of the field is harvested, and in those
intervening days the ripening corn will shrink from two to five
per cent.

" Take Mr. G. W. Wood's corn for example. The two rods
which I harvested October 7th, shrank 25^ per cent., while the
rest of the field, harvested about the last of October, shrank
only 19.96 per cent., making more than 5| per cent, difference.
This corn was rather green at the time of harvest, and being on
low ground, did not ripen so fast as it would on higher and
warmer land.

With Mr. James Howard's corn the case was different. His
two rods, gathered October 6th, were riper and on higher land.
This shrank in weight 23 per cent., while the whole acre har-
vested some ten days later, (being in such a state of forward-
ness that the ripening process was more rapid,) arrived to such
a state of dryness, during the intervening ten days, that it
shrank in weight only 18.57 per cent, to the first of January;
thus making a difference of nearly 4| per cent, in the shrinkage
between the specimen rods and the whole acre.

" Thus you may perceive that the difficulties are numerous
and various in obtaining an exact estimate of an acre of corn,
from the weight of a single rod taken from the field even but a
few days before the whole is harvested.

" But with all these difficulties so various and so numerous,
the experiments which have been made under the offer of this
premium, have shown us to a demonstration that more than one
hundred bushels of good sound corn can be raised on one acre
of land in Plymouth county ; also, that 85 pounds of ears at the
time corn is usually harvested, will yield a bushel or 56 pounds

12*

90 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

of shelled corn, and yet if we take 85 pounds of ears from differ-
ent fields, of different varieties of corn, and different degrees of
ripeness consequent upon the varieties of soil, the modes of cul-
ture, the kinds and application of manure, several days or weeks
before the whole field is in a suitable state of ripeness to put away
in the cribs, 85 pounds of ears would not be sufficient to allow
for a bushel ; and I know not what number of pounds could be
adopted as a uniform standard ; and to make an allowance in
weight where corn is dry, — and very dry, — damp, and very
green, — would be as uncertain a method of computation as
resorting to guess work.

" Let us take the weight of George W. Wood's acre at the
time of harvest, 0,998.75 pounds, and divide it by 85 pounds,
and we have 82.33 as the number of bushels of 56 pounds each
on the acre ; which differs but a small fraction from the amount
actually weighed and measured. Now suppose we estimate
the specimen rods, to learn how many pounds of ears were
needed for a bushel of shelled corn, and we have the following
answer : — 78:128. 5::56:92. 9 ; thus — if 78 pounds of shelled corn
required 128.5 pounds of cars, 56 pounds of shelled corn Avill
require 92.9 pounds, or nearly eight pounds more than the
standard, 85.

" Now if we had, in this case, estimated the whole acre from
the specimen rods, and reckoned 85 pounds of ears for a bushel,
we should have called the product 120 bushels ; whereas it was
only about 82, a little more than two-thirds of what we sliould
erroneously have supposed. How many such estimates have
been made in years past, it is not easy to determine.

" So of Mr. Perkins' corn. Divide the whole weight at the
time of harvest, 8,518 pounds by 85, and we have a quotient of
100, and 18 remainder, coming within two bushels of the actual
measurement. But had we estimated the whole field from the
specimen rods, when taken, we should have reckoned nine
bushels too much. And yet this corn would from the specimen
rods, have required 86 pounds of ears for a bushel of shelled
corn. For 77:118. 25::56.86."

Two bushels of ears will almost invariably make one of shelled
corn, and some varieties have been known to give a bushel of
shelled corn to a bushel and a half of ears.

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

91

Corn is usually measured and sold in New England by the
bushel of fifty-six pounds, though at the south it is most com-
monly spoken of and sold in barrels of five bushels.

The imperial bushel now used in the United States, contains
80 pounds of water, or 2,218.192 cubic inches of capacity.
The old Winchester bushel formerly used in England and this
country, was of 2,150.42 cubic inches capacity. A bushel of In-
dian corn in Massachusetts weighs 56 pounds statute weight. The
legal weight of a bushel in England is 60 pounds. In Vermont,
New York and Delaware, the legal weight is 56 pounds. The
weight of corn and other grains is regulated by the laws of the
several States. The imperial measurement is adopted by the
United States, and applies to the whole country, and standard
or uniform weights and measures furnished by the government
to all the States.

It may be proper in this connection to state the results of
some experiments in the raising of corn at the State Farm, at
Westborough. In the year 1856 there were planted tliere over
thirty-five acres, beside a considerable amount of sweet and
fodder corn.

The yield was 2,910 bushels of ears, estimated at 1,470
bushels of shelled corn, an average of 42 bushels per acre.

Experiments in Manuring Corn Lands — Fertilizers all spread
and ploughed in.

So.

Acres.

Cost of

Total

Sound

Soft

Weight of

Manures.

Bush.

Corn.

Corn.

Stover.

1.

Barn compost, 8^- cords, .

1

$25 00

100

94

6

3,205.

2.

Guano, ....

1

15 00

88

68

20

2,010

8.

Potash, dissolved and mixed
Avith coal ashes,

1

15 00

73

68

5

1,885

4.

Mapcs' super-phosphate, .

1

15 00

44

26

IS

1,585

5.

De Burg's super-phosphate,

1

15 00

57

43

14

1,565.

6.

Barn compost, .|7 ; Gould's
muriate of lime, i^S,

1

15 00

82

75

7

2,190'

7.

Liquid manure from i-eser-
voir, at cost of carrying
out — 2 acres, av. per acre,

1

5 00

88

82

6

Not weigh'd

92 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The first six acres, in the order of numbering, had been
planted three years in succession with corn, and manured with
the same kind of fertilizers, except No. 3, which was guanoed
in the hill. In 1854-5 the fertilizers were used in the hill, but
in 1856 mixed with moist loam and sown broadcast in damp
weather and covered with the harrow.

The corn came up well and grew thriftily until tlie first of
August, when an unfavorable change became apparent. On
No. 1, the ears were large, long and sound. Upon 2, 3, 4, 5,
the corn was not so good. No. 6, was sound and handsome,
but not equal to No. 1.

No. 7 was manured with two dressings, one before ploughing,
of 45 loads of 326 gallons per acre, and the other of 30 loads
at the time of the second hoeing. Until August, the corn
looked very inferior. It then put on a thrifty appearance.

Again, two acres were manured with barn-cellar compost,
8^ cords per acre, spread and ploughed in. The yield was 77
bushels of ears per acre. This piece of land had been planted
six years with corn. For the above named crop it was manured
with a compost of swamp muck, cornstalks and waste, with lime,
which will account for its deficiency.

Two other acres were manured also with 8|- cords of barn
cellar compost, and 150 pounds of guano per acre, and produced
146 bushels of ears per acre. The corn was large and sound.

Another two acre lot was manured with 8^ cords of barn
cellar manure per acxe ; yield, 123 bushels of ears per acre.
These last lots had been planted to corn three years in succes-
sion, and 8i cords of barn cellar manure were applied per acre
each year, spread and ploughed in, witli the exception of
one, which received $6 worth of barn cellar manure and 300
pounds of super-phosphate of lime. The field of fourteen
acres was ploughed nine inches deep, planted in hills three feet
by two and a half apart. May 28 and 29, with " smutty white,"
or Plymouth corn, thoroughly hoed three times, harvested and
measured with results as stated.

Five acres, after having produced a crop of rye the year
previous was manured with stable compost and guano, and
produced 36 bushels of ears of corn per acre. The land is
inferior in quality, not easy of access, and has, therefore, been
■lightly manured in former years.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 93

Another lot of three acres, had, hitherto, been lightly
manured. Ten cords of reservoir compost were applied, and
it was planted with Connecticut River corn, and produced 210
bushels of long, full ears of corn.

Three and a fourth acres of land manured with 8| cords of
best barn cellar compost per acre, spread and ploughed in, and
planted May 23 with King Philip corn, yielded 273 bushels of
ears of corn, or 84 bushels of ears per acre. The stalks were
small and the corn ripened early.

Another lot of seven acres of old pasture was manured with
300 pounds of guano per acre, planted May 20 and 21 with
Brigham corn and produced 607 bushels of ears of corn, or
86| bushels of ears per acre, manure never having been applied
to this land.

Two acres manured with piggery compost, 6| cords per acre,
spread, ploughed in, all furrowed three feet apart one way, and
one acre four feet apart the other way ; the other, eighteen
inches. On the former acre five stalks stood in a hill, and the
other, three. Both were planted the same day, one with a hoe
and the other with Randall's corn planter ; both hoed three
times. The corn was all good ; that produced on that part
of the field planted four feet apart one way was better filled
and every way superior to the other.

Of the thirty -five acres of corn, twenty-four were cut up and
stooked, eleven topped ; and in every lot, says the farmer, the
corn was better with the former mode of harvesting than the
latter.

The corn was all measured in the ear.

The following statements exhibit the results produced by the
application of the various fertilizers to the same land, on the
corn crops, for the years 1854 and 1855.

Corn on the Plain, six lots of one acre each.

No. Bush, of ears per acre.

1. Reservoir manure, ......... 87

2. and 3. Guano, 72

4. Mapes' super-phosphate, 85

5. De Burg's super-phosphate, 101

6. Bones, ground, 90

Expense of fertilizers per acre, 1854, $10 00

94

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

No. Bush, of cars per acre.

1. Stable compost, ......... 99

2. Guano, (com did not come np well,) 59

3. Potash, ■ ... 70

4. Mapes' super-pliosphate, 86

5. De Burg's super-phosphate, 72^

6. Muriate of lime, 65

Expense of fertilizers per acre, 1855, $12 00

Synopsis of the three years, in their order, giving' the number of
bushels of ears of corn per year.

No.

1854.

1855.

1853.

1.

Stable compost, ....

87

99

100

2.

Guano,

72

59

88

3.

Guano,

72

70*

73*

4.

Mapes' super-phosphate.

85

86

44

5.

De Burg's super-phosphate,

101

701
'-2

57

6.

Bones, ground, ....

90

65t

88t

t Muriate of Lime.

X Manure and Muriate of Lime.

In relation to the fertilizers used for corn, stable manures
have been and will continue to be appropriate. Guano mixed
with these and ploughed in before heating, has proved beneficial,
by giving an excess of 23 bushels of ears of corn for 150 pounds
of guano as seen in the experiments above. The application
of guano to the old pasture, which had never been manured,
as seen, produced exceedingly good results, as in the seven
acres of the Brigham lot, and would seem to warrant its appli-
cation by farmers to such land, as a very cheap fertilizer, if $9
worth per acre, as in this case, produces 87 bushels of ears of
corn per acre.

With respect to the uses of Indian corn and Indian meal, a
volume might be written. I do not propose to enter very
minutely into detail on this part of the subject.

Count Rumford maintained that practically Indian corn was
next to wheat the most nutritive of the grains. It is more

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 95

stimulating than any other kind of bread used by us. Its
fattening qualities are great. If less nutritive than wheat its
bulk is scarcely less important than its nutritive qualities. The
average price of wheat has sometimes ranged as high as two
and a half dollars, when that of Indian corn was at one dollar.
If prices were based on actual nutritive value, we should get
less than half the nutriment in the wheat, that we should get
in corn of the same money value.

Oily corn makes a dry bread and is not so adhesive. Rye is
generally mixed with it. Tlie southern and Oregon corn con-
tain a large percentage of starch, and are therefore preferred
by some for bread making. 150 pounds of corn it has been
found in France, make from 215 to 223 pounds of bread.
Experiments there show that the yellow corn is dryer and harder
and resists moisture better than the white, giving less bran and
more meal by about one-twentieth. Here, fourteen pounds of
good corn meal make about ninety pounds of mush, so thick as
not to run.

If ground too fine, Indian meal is liable to suffer injury from
exposure to the air. The difference in meal depends a good
deal on the miller and the mills. Some samples are soft, others
sharp and gritty, the effect not so much of fine or coarse grind-
ing as of other causes, as tlie manner in which the mill stones
are dressed, &c. So that the quality of bread made from Indian
corn will depend much on the manner in which it is ground.

Common brown bread, or what is often called Boston brown
bread, contains ordinarily two parts of corn to one of rye meal
by measurement. To three quarts of this mixed meal a gill of
molasses is added, two teaspoonfuls of salt, one teaspoonful of
saleratus and a teacupful of home-brewed or a half teacupfiil
of brewer's yeast. An article known as maizena, manufac-
tured at Glen Oove, Long Island, of white southern corn, and
put up in pound packages of snowy whiteness, is said by some
to be equal to the best Bermuda arrow root for blanc-mange,
minute puddings, &c., &o.

Large quantities of early sweet corn are scalded when green,
separated from the cob, and kiln dried for winter use. It may
be preserved, as it often is, in its green state, by hermetically
sealing in cans.

96 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

When ripe, the grain is often hulled by means of a weak ley,
or in a machine made for the purpose, then boiled and eaten as
hulled corn or samp. Hominy is corn broken or coarsely ground
with the hulls blown off when it is boiled in water.

Southern hominy is of two kinds, large and small ; the first
is beaten in a wooden mortar a foot deep and twelve to fourteen
inches wide ; the last is ground in a corn mill. One or two
quarts of white flint corn are put in the mortar and a little
boiling water poured on occasionally, to keep it moist and cause
the skins to slip off the corn and prevent the flinty portion
from being beaten into meal. During the beating, remove the
whole contents into a tray and toss in a current of air, to fan
out meal and bran ; beat till every grain is broken and skinned.
If not used soon after it is beaten, it should be carefviUy dried,
or it will be likely to sour. Small hominy is the same corn a
little moistened, and then ground like corn meal, except raising
the stone about three times higher, so as to crush the grain to
about the size of wheat (small wheat) ; this is in general use
at the south and called " grits." It is cooked thus : sift the
flour from the grits, scour it to get off the hulls, put two quarts
of water to one of grits ; boil till the water is all absorbed,
cover the pot and set it on hot ashes to soak for fifteen or
twenty minutes, not forgetting to season with salt. Large
hominy is cooked similarly, but before being taken up should
be well mashed against the sides of the pot ; a half a pint of
white beans added to a quart of hominy is considered an
improvement. If seasoned with lard, put it in before taking
off the fire ; butter can be put in at any time. Preserve the
corn white, and never use mixed corn in making hominy.

The details of cooking the infinite variety of delicious dishes
which may be made of good Indian corn meal, are already too
familiar, perhaps, to need repetition, but as an example, a few
of these recipes may be stated as follows : —

Hasty Pudding. — The simplest and most common way of cooking
corn meal, is to put two quarts of water into a clean pot or sauce-pan,
set it over the fire, adding a teaspoonful of salt, and when it begins to
boil, stir in a lump of fresh butter, say about tAvo ounces, then add (a
handful at a time) sufficient Indian meal to make it very thick, stirring
it all the time with a mush-stick. Keep it boiling well, and continue to
throw in meal till it is so thick that the stick or paddle stands upright in

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 97

it. Then send it to table hot, and eat it with milk, cream, or molasses
and butter. What is left may be cut into slices and fried for breakfast
next day.

Plain Johnny-cake. — Sift a quart of Indian meal into a pan, make
a hole in the middle and pour into it a pint of warm water, adding a tea-
spoonful of salt ; with a spoon mix the meal and water gradually into a
soft dough, stir it very hard for a quarter of an hour or more, till it
becomes light and spongy, then spread the dough smooth and evenly on
a stout, flat board, a piece of the head of a flour barrel will serve for this
purpose, place the board nearly, but not quite upright, and set a smooth-
ing iron or a stone against the back to support it ; bake it well ; when
done, cut it into squares, and send it hot to table, split and butter ; some
prefer sirup or molasses with it.

Nice Johnny-cake. — Sift a quart of Indian meal into a pan, rub two
table-spoonfuls of butter into it, add a small teacup of molasses, and a
teaspoonful of ground ginger, and pour on by degrees sufHcient warm
water to make a moderately soft dough ; it may be stirred very hard ;
then grease with fresh butter, small tin pans about 2^ inches in diameter
and I of an inch deep, fill them with the dough and bake with a strong
fire. They must be well baked, taking care that the surface does not
burn while the inside is soft and raw.

Hoe-cake. — Take an earthen or tin pan and half fill it with coarse
Indian meal, which should be sifted in, adding a little salt ; have ready
a kettle of boiling water, pour into the Indian meal sufficient hot
water (a little at a time) to make a stiff dough, stirring it with a
spoon as you proceed. It must be thoroughly mixed and stirred hard.
If you want the cakes for breakfast, mix this dough over night ; cover
the pan and set it in a cool place till morning ; if kept warm it may turn
sour. Early next morning as soon as the fire is burning well, set the
griddle over it and take out the dough a handful at a time ; flatten and
shape it by patting with your hands till you form it into cakes about
the size of a common saucer and half an inch thick ; when the griddle
is quite hot lay on as many cakes as it will hold and bake them brown ;
when the upper side is done slip a knife beneath and turn them over ;
they must be baked brown on both sides. Eat them warm with butter,
molasses, or whatever suits best. They will be less liable to stick if
before each baking the griddle should be greased with a bit of fat pork
or butter.

13*

98 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Indian Mush. — Have readj on a clear fire a pot of boiling water,
stir into it by degrees (a handful at a time) sufficient Indian meal to make
a very thick porridge, and then add a very small portion of salt, allow-
ing not more than a teaspoonful to a quart of meal ; the pot must be
kept boiling all the time you are stirring in the meal, and between every
handful stir hard with the mush-stick, (a round stick about half a yard
long, flattened at the lower end like a paddle,) as if not well stirred the
mush will be lumpy ; after it is sufficiently thick and smooth keep it
boiling an hour longer, stirring it occasionally ; then cover the pot and
set it where it will simmer slowly for another hour. The goodness and
wholesomeness of mush depends greatly on its being long and thoroughly
boiled. It should also be made very thick. If well made and well
cooked it is wholesome and nutritious, but the contrary if thin and not
sufficiently boiled. Send it to the table hot and in a deep dish ; eat it
with sweet milk or cream, or with butter and sugar, or with butter and
molasses. When cold it may be cut into slices and fried in butter
or lard.

Indian meal Gruel. — This is an excellent food for the sick.
Having sifted some Indian meal, mix in a quart bowl three table-spoon-
fuls of the meal with six of cold water ; stir it smooth and press out the
lumps against the side of the bowl ; have ready a clean saucepan
entirely free from grease, with a pint of boiling water ; pour this scald-
ing hot on the mixture in the bowl, a little at a time and stir it well,
adding a pinch of salt ; then put the whole back into the saucepan, set it
on hot coals and stir it well till it boils, making the spoon go down to
the bottom to prevent the gruel from burning ; after it has come to a
boil let it continue boiling half an hour, stirring it frequently and skim-
ming it. Give it to the invalid warm in a bowl or tumbler, to be eaten
with a spoon ; it may be sweetened with a little sugar, and when the
physician permits, some grated nutmeg may be added, also a very little
wine.

Corn Bread. — Rub a piece of butter the size of an egg into a pint
of corn meal, make it a batter with two eggs, and some new milk and a
spoonful of yeast, set it by the fire an hour to rise ; butter little pans as
above, and bake in an oven with a quick heat. Or —

Take three quarts of milk, if a little sour all the better, seven eggs,
two ounces of butter, one teaspoonful of saleratus, and mix with corn
meal to the consistency of a thick batter, and bake with a brisk heat.

Corn Batter Bread. — Take six table-spoonfuls of flour and thi-ee
of corn meal, with a little salt, sift them and make a thin batter with

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 99

four eggs and a sufficient quantity of milk, bake in small pans in a
quick oven.

Superior Breakfast Corn Cakes. — Take three teacupfuls of corn
meal, one cup of wheat flour, two of milk and one of cream, (or in the
absence of cream a little butter,) one egg, one teaspoonful of salt ; bake
in small pans as above with a brisk heat.

Corn Meal Breakfast Cakes. — Mix over night a quai't of
Indian meal, a teacupful of wheat flour, a table-spoonful of salt, a quart
of warm water ; pour on gradually the warm water, and stir it in with
a large spoon, so as to foi'm a very soft dough, cover the pan and set it
by until morning. In the morning thin the dough with another pint of
warm water so as to make it into a batter, having first dissolved in the
water a salt-spoonful of saleratus or a bit the size of a hazlenut ; beat the
mixture hard, then cover it and let it stand near the fire for a quarter of
an hour before you begin to bake it. Bake it in thin cakes on a griddle,
send them to table hot, and eat them with butter and molasses or honey.

Missouri Corn Cakes. — Sift three pints of corn meal into a pan,
add a teaspoonful of salt, a table-spoonful of lard or nice drippings of
roast beef, a teaspoonful of soda in a little warm water, make it into a
soft dough with a pint of cold water, then thin it to the consistency of a
moderate batter by adding gradually not quite a pint and a half of warm
water ; when it is all mixed beat or stir it well for half an hour, then
have the gi'iddle over the fire, and when hot grease it with beef suet or
a piece of salt pork. Put on the batter and bake quick ; send them hot
to table as fast as baked ; eat them with butter, &c.

These cakes are excellent and very convenient, as they require neither
eggs, milk or yeast. They may be baked as soon as mixed, or they
may stand an hour or more.

Indian Corn Biscuit. — Sift a quart of corn meal and a pint of
wheat flour into a pan with a teaspoonful of salt and three joints of milk,
mix tliem well, beat the whites of four eggs and the yolks separately in
two pans ; the yolks must be beat until very thick and smooth, the
whites to a stift' froth that will stand alone by itself, then stir the yolks a
little at a time into the milk ; butter a sufficient number of cups or
small deep pans, nearly fill them with the batter, set them immediately
into a hot oven and bake them fast ; turn them out of the cups and send
them warm to the table, pull them open and eat them with butter. They
will puff up finely if at the last you stir in a teaspoonful of soda,
dissolved in a little warm water.

100 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Boiled Coun Pudding. — Mix one quart of corn meal with three
quarts of milk, take care it is not lumpy, add three eggs and one gill of
molasses. It must be put on the fire at an early hour to eat at dinner.
The great secret of this pudding is tying the bag properly as the meal
swells very much.

Farmers' Corn Pudding. — Set on the fire a large pot of water
which must boil hard by the time the pudding is mixed. Put one quart
of milk by itself into a saucepan and give it a boil ; when it has come
to a boil, pour it into a deep pan and stir into it a pint of molasses, then
add by degrees three pints of Indian meal, and lastly a teaspoon ful of
ground cinnamon or ginger ; have ready a pudding bag, dip it into boil-
ing water, shake it out, then pour the batter into a bag, tie firmly, leaving
about one-third vacant as it requires room to swell ; put the bag into the
large pot of boiling water, cover it closely, and let it boil steadily for
at least three hours, four will not be too long. While boiling it should
be turned frequently ; as the water boils away, replenish it with more
water kept boiling for this purpose in another kettle ; on no account put
in cold water as that will render the pudding heavy. Turn it out of the
bag immediately before it goes to the table, and eat with butter and
molasses. It will be found excellent.

Boiled Indian Pudding. — Three pints of corn meal, half a pound
of beef suet minced as fine as possible, a quart of milk, half a pint of
molasses, six eggs, three or four sticks of cinnamon broken small, a
grated nutmeg. Having cleaned ihe suet from the skin and strings,
chop it as fine as possible and mix it with the corn meal ; boil the cinna-
mon in the milk till it is highly flavored, then strain the milk boiling hot
into the pan of corn meal and suet, and add the molasses ; stir the
mixture very hard, cover it and set it away in a cool place ; beat the
eggs till quite light and add them gradually to the mixture as soon as it
is quite cold, then grate in the nutmegs. Dip a thick square cloth into
boiling water, shake it out, dredge it with flour, and then spread it open
in a deep pan and 'pour in the mixture, leaving one-third of the space
vacant allowing for the pudding to swell, tie the cloth very securely and
to guard against the water getting into it, plug up the little cracks at
the tying place by plastering on a bit of dough made of flour and
water. Put the pudding into a large pot of boiling water, (having an
old plate at the bottom,) and boil it six hours turning it often, and
replenishing the pot when necessary with boiling water from another
kettle. Serve it hot; eat with wine-sauce, with butter and molasses, or
with a sauce of butter, sugar, lemon juice and nutmeg, beaten together
to a cream.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 101

Baked Cron Meal Pudding. — One pint of corn meal, half a
pint of molasses, a quarter of a pound of butter, a pint of milk, four eggs,
the rind of a large lemon grated, or teaspoonful of powdered cinnamon
and nutmeg mixed. Boil the milk, sift the meal into an earthen pan,
pour the milk over it and stir them well together ; cut up the butter into
a small saucepan, pour the molasses over it, set it on the fire and let
them warm together till the butter is soft, but not oiled ; stir them well,
and mix them with milk and corn meal, set the pan in a cool place ; in a
separate pan, beat the eggs very light, and when the mixture has become
cold, add the eggs to it gradually, then stir in the spice and grated
lemon-peel, stir the whole very hard ; put the mixture in a buttered dish
and bake it well ; serve it up hot, and eat it with a sauce made of pow-
dered white sugar and butter, seasoned with nutmeg and lemon or
orange juice, and stirred together to a cream, or with a liquid sauce of
melted butter, wine and nutmeg. This quantity of ingredients will
make a small pudding ; for a larger one, allow a double portion of each
article, and bake it well.

Corn Cup Cakes. — One and a half pints of yellow corn meal, half a
pint of wheat flour, one and a half pints of sour milk, (buttermilk is best,)
a small teaspoonful of saleratus, or soda, dissolved in warm water, two
eggs, and a teaspoonful of salt. Sift tl>e corn meal and wheat flour into
a pan, and mix them well, adding the salt ; if you have no buttermilk, or
other sour milk at hand, turn some sweet milk sour by setting a pan
of it in the sun, or stir in a spoonful of vinegar ; take out a small cupful
of the sour milk, and reserve it to be put in at the last ; beat the eggs
very light, and then stir them gradually into the' milk, alternately with
the meal, a little at a time of each ; lastly, dissolve the soda or saleratus,
and stir it into the cup of sour milk that has been reserved for the pur-
pose ; it will effervesce ; stir it into the mixture while foaming, which
should be a thick batter ; have ready some teacups, or little deep tins,
butter them well, nearly fill them with the batter, and set them immedi-
ately into a rather brisk oven. The cakes must be thoroughly baked
all through ; when done turn them out on large plates, and send them
hot to the table.

Corn Crumpets. — One quart of corn meal, half a pint of wheat flour,
one quart of milk, one teaspoonful of salt, three eggs, two large table-
spoonfuls of fresh yeast. Wa:rm the milk, sift the corn meal and the
flour into a pan and mix them well, then stir them into the milk a hand-
ful at a time, adding the salt ; beat the eggs very light in another pan,
and stir them gradually into the milk and meal, add the yeast and stir
the whole well, then cover it and set it to rise in a warm place ; when it

102 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

has become very light and is covered, with bubbles, have the griddle
ready heated to begin to bake the cakes, first greasing the griddle. For
each crumpet pour on a large ladle full of batter ; send them to the table
as hot as possible ; eat with butter to which molasses or honey may be
added.

If the batter should chance to become sour by standing too long it may
be remedied by stirring in a 'teaspoonful of soda or saleratus dissolved in
a little lukewarm water ; then bake it.

Baked Corn Pudding. — To one teacupful of corn meal add one
quart of milk, three eggs and a little ginger. Bake one hour.

Rye and Indian Griddle Cakes. — Take one cupful -of corn meal,
two cups of rye flour, one egg, a little salt, and three spoonfuls of soda
and cream of tartar, one of soda and two of tartar, make a batter the
same as for buckwheat cakes and bake on a griddle.

Rye and Indian Bread. — Take three pints of rye flour, one table-
spoonful of salt, four teaspoonfuls of soda and cream of tartar as above,
one teacupful of molasses, one quart of boiling water, the whole to be
mixed and thinned sufficiently with sweet milk.

Hominy is prepared by grinding or cracking white corn in a mill or
mortar, then it is sized with riddles or selves of various sizes, and the
hulls or chaff blown off. There are generally thi'ee sizes, big, middling
and small hominy.

One quart of small hominy will absorb about two quarts of water ; the
same quantity of meal will absorb about five pints of water. The coarser
the hominy the longer it Avill I'equire to boil it.

It should be boiled in the following manner. Wash in two or three
waters, taking care each time to let them settle ; when the water is first
put on it should be well rubbed with the hands, in order to separate the
husks or skins and flour if any arise, then put it in a sauce-pan with
two quarts of soft water, slightly salted, (one teaspoonful to the quart,)
and let it boil slowly two hours or more, occasionally stirring it as
soon as it begins to boil to prevent its burning. It may be boiled to any
consistency that may be preferred, from that of mush to the dryness of
rice, the latter is generally preferred. If any should be left from dinner,
add a little hot milk or water, and one egg, and flour enough to give it
consistency ; bake on a griddle and you have a dish not inferior to that
of rice.

Hominy Breakfast Cakes. — Boil two cups of small hominy very
soft, add an equal quantity of white corn meal, with a little salt, and a

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 103

large table-spoonful of butter, make it into a thin batter with three eggs
and a sufficient quantity of milk, beat them all together some time,
and bake them on a griddle, or in waffle irons. When eggs are dear or
scarce yeast makes a good substitute ; put a spoonful into the batter and
let it stand an hour to rise.

Hominy Dessert Pudding. — Wash a pint of small hominy very
clean and boil it tender, add an equal quantity of corn meal, make into
a batter with eggs, milk and a piece of butter ; bake it like batter cakes
on a griddle, and eat with butter, sugar or sirup : some prefer wheat
flour instead of the meal.

Hominy Bread. — Break two eggs into a bowl and beat them from
ten to twelve minutes ; add, by continually stirring, a teaspoonful of fine
salt, four or five table-spoonfuls of hot hominy, rendered nearly to the
consistency of thick gruel with hot milk, one large spoonful of butter,
and a pint of scalded meal squeezed diy. Make up the mixture into
small loaves or rural cakes one and a half inches thick, and bake in a
quick oven.

Hominy Pudding. — Boil half a pound of fine hominy in milk, add
three-quarters of a pound of sugar, and the same of butter, half a nut-
meg, six eggs, a gill of wine and a little grated lemon peel. Bake in a
dish.

Samp is corn hulled and broken into quarters either in a mortar or in
a mill for the pui-pose. It is perfectly white, being made from pure
white corn. It is sometimes divested of its outer skin by scalding in a
white ley, and then dried, broken and winnowed. Having washed it
through two or three waters pour boiling water on it, cover it and
let it soak all night or for several hours, then put it into a sauce-pan,
allow two quarts of water to each quart of hominy and boil it till per-
fectly soft, then drain it, put into a deep dish, add some butter to it and
send it to table hot, (and uncovered,) to eat with any sort of meat, but
particularly with corn beef and pork. Many use it for a vegetable
instead of potatoes. If any should be left it may be made the next
day into thin cakes and fried in butter. To be very good, hominy should
be boiled four or five hours.

To Boil Indian Corn. — Corn for boiling should be full grown but
young and tender and the grains soft and milky ; if its grains are
becoming hard and yellow it is too old for boiling. Strip the ears of
then- leaves and husks and the silk ; it is best to leave one thickness of the

104 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

husks on the ear, it keeps it hot longer and adds sweetness ; put them
into a large kettle of boiling water and boil it rather fast for half an
hour or more, in proportion to its size and age. When done take it up,
drain it, dish it under a cover or napkin, and send it hot. Before eating
it rub each ear with salt and pepper and then spread it with butter.
Epicures in corn consider it sweetest when eaten off the cob ; and so it
is, but before company few persons like to hold an ear of Indian corn in
their hands and bite the grains off' with their teeth ; therefore it is more
frequently cut off" the cob into a dish, mixed with salt, pepper and but-
ter, and helped with a spoon.

Green Corn Cakes. — Mix one pint of grated green corn with three
table-spoonfuls of milk, one teacup of flour, half a teacup of melted but-
ter, one egg, a teaspoonful of salt, and a half a teaspoonful of pepper .
drop this mixture into hot butter by the spoonful, let the cakes fry eight
or ten minutes. These cakes are nice served up with meats for dinner.

Green Corn Dumplings. — One quart of young corn, grated from
the cob ; half a pint of wheat flower sifted, half a pint of milk ; six
table-spoonfuls of butter ; two eggs, a salt-spoonful of salt, the same of
pepper ; butter for frying.

Having grated as fine as possible sufficient young corn to make a
quart, mix Avith it the wheat flour, and add the salt and pepper. Warm
the milk in a small sauce-pan and soften the butter in it. Then add
them gradually to the pan of corn, stirring very hard, and set it away
to cool. Beat the eggs light and stir them into the mixture, when it has
cooled. Flour your hands and make it into little dumplings. Put into
a frying pan a sufficiency of butter, (or lard and butter, in equal propor-
tions,) and when it is boiling hot and has been skimmed, put in the
dumplings, and fry them ten minutes or more in proportion to their thick-
ness. Then drain them and send them hot to the dinner table.

Green Corn Porridge. — Take young corn and cut the grains from
the cob ; measure it, and to each heaping pint of corn, allow not quite a
quart of milk. Put the corn and milk into a pot, stir them well
together, and boil them till the corn is perfectly soft ; then add some
bits of butter, dredged with flour, and let it boil five minutes longer ;
stir in at the last, some butter, yolk of an egg, and in three minutes
remove it from the fire. Take up the porridge and send it to table hot,
and stir some fresh butter into it ; sugar and nutmeg may be added if
desirable.

Corn Oysters. — Three dozen ears of large, young corn, six eggs,
lard and butter, in equal portions for frying. The corn must be young

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 105

and soft ; grate it from the cob, as fine as possible, and dredge it with
wheat flour. Beat very light the six eggs, and mix them gradually
with the corn ; then let the whole be well incorporated by hand beating,
add a salt-spoonful of salt ; have ready in a frying pan a sufficient quan-
tity of lard and butter, mixed together ; set it over the fire, till it is
boiling hot, and then put in portions of the corn mixture, so as to form
oval cakes, about three inches long and nearly one inch thick. Fry
them brown and send them to table hot. In taste they will be found
to have singular resemblance to fried oysters, and are universally liked,
if properly done. They make nice side dishes at dinner, and are very
good at breakfast.

Corn Starch Pudding. — Corn starch is now extensively manufac-
tured at Oswego, N. Y., and for culinary purposes exceeds any other yet
made. It is now extensively used throughout the United States.

To make a nice delicate pudding, to one quart of boiling milk add
one teacupful of starch, one teaspoonful of salt, and three well beaten
eggs ; as soon as the milk boils, take it off, add first the starch, then
the eggs ; the starch to be mixed as for clothes. To be eaten with fruit,
or a rich sauce ; cream and loaf sugar beaten together, with a little wine,
make an excellent sauce.

This is a very convenient dessert when a family is taken by surprise
in having friends unexpectedly to dine, as it can be made after meats
are served. By baking, it makes a delicate baked pudding.

Minute Pudding. — To six table-spoonfuls of starch dissolved, add
three eggs ; beat them thoroughly together ; one quart of milk, a little
salted, and when heated nearly to boiling, pour in the mixture of starch
and eggs ; stir briskly until it boils three minutes, and it is ready for
use. Flavor with lemon, vanilla, or to your taste. For sauce, cream
and loaf sugar beaten together, with or without brandy, or any other
which may be preferred.

Baked Corn Starch Pudding. — Six table-spoonfuls of starch, to
one quart of milk, a little salted ; dissolve the starch in a part of the
milk ; heat the remainder of the milk to nearly boiling, then add the
dissolved starch ; boil three minutes, stirring it briskly ; allow it to
cool ; add three eggs and sugar ; flavor to your taste, and bake half
an hour.

Corn Starch Blanc Mange. — To one quart of boihng milk, add
two table-spoonfuls of starch, thoroughly mixed with a little milk, and
14*

106 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

three eggs, well beaten ; boil all together until sufficiently thick, stirring
it constantly ; sweeten and flavor to your taste ; then turn it into moulds
to cool.

Summer Succotash. — String two quarts of young green beans, and
cut them into small pieces, half an inch long, and do not split them ; have
by you a pan of cold water, and throw the beans into it as you cut them ;
have ready, over the fire, a pot or sauce-pan of boiling water : put in the
beans and boil them hard near twenty minutes ; afterwards take them up
and drain them well through a cullender. Take six ears of young corn,
full grown, (or eight or nine if they are not all large,) and cut the grains
down from the cob ; mix together the corn and the beans, adding a very
small teaspoonful of salt, and boil them twenty minutes ; then take up
the succotash, di'ain it well through a seive, put into a deep dish, and
while hot, mix in a lump of butter the size of an egg, add some
pepper, and send it to table. It is generally eaten with salted or smoked
meat.

Winter Succotash. — This is made of dried shelled beans and
hard corn. Take equal quantities of shelled beans and corn, put them
over night into separate pans and pour boiling water over them : let
them soak till morning, then pour off the water and scald them again.
First boil the beans by themselves, and when they are soft add the corn,
and let them boil together till the corn is quite soft, Avhich will require at
least one hour ; take them up, drain them in a seive, then put them into
a deep dish, and mix in a large piece of fresh butter and a little pepper
and salt. This is an excellent accompaniment to pickled pork, bacon, or
corned beef. The meat must be boiled by itself in a separate pot.

To PRESERVE Corn for Cooking. — Take corn when it is young
and tender, and barely full grown, let it remain on the cob till it has
been boiled from ten to fifteen minutes (not over) in a large pot of
slightl}' salted water, that must be boiling hard when the corn is put in.
When tlius parboiled, take it out ; and when cool enough to handle, cut
down the grains from the cob into a deep pan with a knife ; then spread
out the grains in large flat dishes or shallow pans, and set them in an
oven after the bread, pies, &.C., are done, and have been taken out : let
corn remain in the oven till it is all well dried ; if the oven is heated
every day, the corn may be put in a second time ; Avhen quite dry, and
after it has cooled, put it into a large thick bag, tie the bag tightly, and
hang it up in a cool dry room ; when wanted for use, corn thus prepared
will be found excellent for boiling in winter soup, or boiled by itself
and drained, and sent to table in a vegetable dish to eat with meat, fu'st

SECRETARY'S REPORT. lOT

mixing with it some butter and a little pepper and salt. It will boil as
soft and taste as well as when fresh from the garden. It will be better
for soaking aU night in water before cooking.

It is well known that the stalks of Indian corn, as they begin
to turn color in ripening, contain from ten to fifteen per cent,
of sugar in the juice, especially if the ears are plucked off as
soon as they form. This juice may be expressed precisely as
that of the sugar cane, and treated in the same way, but it has
not been found practicable to use it for this purpose in countries
where the sugar cane can be grown. During the Revolutionary
War it was very common to make molasses from Indian corn,
though it was liable to sour. The molasses made from it has
a corn stalk flavor, but this does not appear in the sugar. It
does not granulate as readily as the juice of the sugar cane.

Enormous quantities of our best grains are now annually
withdrawn from their legitimate uses as food for man and
beast, for the purpose of making alcoholic liquors of them.
Many distilleries consume more than 2,000 bushels of Indian
corn or otlier grains, a day, on an average, so that the con-
sumption of corn in this way is very great. Cincinnati is the
greatest whiskey market, and tbe Ohio Valley the most impor-
tant whiskey producing region in the world. One distillery in
Cincinnati consumes 1,000 bushels of Indian coi'n alone, making
from it 4,000 gallons per day, or about 1,248,000 gallons a
year from 312,000 bushels of corn. It is ascertained, that the
quantity of whiskey annually sold in the above-named city, is
220,000 barrels, or 9,000,000 of gallons, and this is only about
one-half of the production of Ohio and Indiana. The yield of
those two States alone, for 1858, was about 18,000,000 gallons
therefore, and the consumption of Indian corn 12,500,000
bushels, and the money value of the product was $5,000,000.
This business is rapidly increasing. It is said that as much
whiskey can be made from the cobs of corn, weight for weight,
as from potatoes.

The quantity of spirits which Indian corn yields depends
chiefly upon the proportion of starch which it contains, and
the small quantity of uncrystallizable sugar in it. One hundred
pounds of corn yield a spirit containing 45 per cent, of absolute
alcohol. In the manufacture of whiskey the corn oil is sep-

108 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

arated, and rises during the fermentation, and is used for
burning and other purposes, 15 or 16 gallons of oil rising, it is
said, from every 100 bushels of corn.

Starch is also extensively manufactured in this country from
Indian corn. The importation of starch into the United States
in 1857, amounted to only 118,838 pounds, valued at $3,695.
Most of this, or 51,000 pounds, came from Scotland, 44,000
from Holland, 14,000 pounds from England, and the remainder
from Mexico, Cuba, France, Canada and China.

A patent was issued in England in the year 1855, for the
use of finely ground and bolted Indian meal for sizing, stiffen-
ing and finishing textile fabrics, such as cotton and linen goods.
This is a substitution of corn for wheat flour for these purposes.

The husks of corn are soaked in warm water, and then
twisted and plaited into durable and serviceable house mats.
They are also extensively used for making mattresses, being
split for this purpose like straw for braiding. The finer they
are split the softer they are.

A beautiful writing paper has been made of corn husks in
Italy. A greyish paper can be made from all parts of the
plant. Cobbett published a book printed on paper made from
Indian corn.

A good purple dye is sometimes made from the purple
varieties of corn.

But it is as a food for fattening cattle, swine and poultry,
that Indian corn rises to paramount importance as a cultivated
crop. The flavor of corn-fed beef and pork is better than that
of any other, and the flesh has greater solidity and substance y
while in France it is thought, and not without reason, that
poultry fed and fattened on it acquire a high flavored flesh,
like that of the English pheasant, and that their eggs are of a
superior color and flavor.

Nor is it less important for feeding to stock of other kinds,
and for other purposes than fattening, as for dairy cows, &c.,
and, for the raising of young stock, well-cured corn fodder is
not only one of the healthiest, but in every other respect, one
of the most economical articles of food.

Indian corn began to be imported more extensively into Eng-
land in 1843, in which year it received 81,000 bushels, but in
1854 there were imported into Great Britain 10,797,584 bushels

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 109

of corn and 6,143,856 pounds of Indian meal. The export of
this crop from the United States has steadily increased since
1821, when the value was $319,279. In 1847 it amounted to
$18,696,546. Tliis was the year of the famine in Ireland, but
in 1849 the export of corn amounted to no less than 13,257,309
bushels, valued at $7,986,369 ; and in 1855, corn and its manu-
factures were shipped from this country to the extent of
$8,198,693.

It may remarked, in concluding this special subject, that
cotton is sometimes said to be king; but if in the agriculture of
tliis country, the genius of which is eminently republican, where
all the great staples form so important a part in promoting the
national prosperity, one can be said to hold preeminence over
the rest, the palm must be yielded to the golden corn, rearing
its " imperial form and tasselled banner" high over all its com-
peers, and founding its claim to royalty as the prince of cereals,
by the universality of its uses, and its intrinsic importance to
mankind.

THE STATE CABINET

Connected with the office has rapidly increased during the past
year, and has even now become an object of attraction to a
large number of visitors.

Of the different departments designed to illustrate the natu-
ral history of the State, that of geology and mineralogy is most
complete. It has been rearranged, and a full catalogue will be
found in the Appendix.

In the department of ornithology, the donations during the
past year have been extensive and valuable, and the special
acknowledgments of the Board are due to Prof. J. W. P.
Jenks, and to Mr. Francis E. Everett for extensive contribu-
tions, and for the preparation of many specimens donated by
others. A full catalogue of the birds will also be found in the
Appendix, together with the names of donors. The collection
now embraces about two-thirds of all the different species of
birds in the State, and it is hoped that the public spirit of indi-
viduals in all parts of the Commonwealth will aid in completing
this most interesting collection.

The department of entomology has grown up entirely within
the past year, and the specimens of insects now number nearly

110 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

two thousand species, for the most part, collected, prepared and
presented by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. A full catalogue of this
collection will also be found in the Appendix.

A collection of the shells of the State has been placed on
deposit in the museum by Mr. Samuel Tufts, Jr., a catalogue
of which will be found in the Appendix. I acknowledge, also,
the donation of forty-four species of shells from Mr. William
Stimpson, received too late to be included in the catalogue
above named.

In the department of botany the collection is numerous and
valuable, embracing several hundred species of grasses and
other plants, including a very valuable collection placed on
deposit by Dr. Edward Jarvis, and another by Dr. Cliarles
Pickering. Owing to the extreme pressure of official duties,
and the lateness of the season when these last contributions
were made, it has not been possible to arrange and catalogue
this department in season for the present Report, and the publi-
cation of a catalogue is reluctantly deferred till another year.

In the department of icthyology the donations have been
extensive, and a catalogue of most of the fresh-water fishes of
Massachusetts will be found in the Appendix. A large number
of the salt-water fishes have been presented by Capt. N. E.
Atwood. The catalogue of these is deferred till another year
in the hope of being able to present it then nearly complete,
embracing all the species found in our waters.

Among the miscellaneous specimens donated by various indi-
viduals, acknowledgments are due to Hon. B. V. French, for
specimens of Indian axes ; to Mr. James Crafts, for samples of
drain tile, manufactured at Whately ; to Mrs. Ashby, of New-
buryport, for specimens of quaking grass and rough and polished
serpentine ; to Rev. Mr. Syle, missionary in China, for models
of Chinese farming implements ; to Mr. Joseph Warren, of
Chelmsford, for specimens of old farming implements used
in that town at the time of its early settlement ; to Mr.
James Hall, for specimens of relics of the house of Captain
Miles Standish at Duxbury ; to Mr. G. P. Sargent, for a
collection of grains and plants of Switzerland, the two-headed
snake of Newbury, specimens of crystallized quartz, polished
agate from Mount Saint Gothard, Indian bark cloth, &c.;
to Mr. W. H. Floyd, of Weston, for jars of reptiles ; to

SECRETARY'S REPORT. Ill

Messrs. Curtis & Cobb, for specimens of California wheat, and
the wood, cone, and branch of sequoia g-ig-antea, of California ;
to John Brooks, Jr., Esq., for samples of wood from thirteen
different States ; to J. H. Carey, for skin pouch prepared by
the Indians, and cane brake from the Mississippi River ; to
Charles K. Willis, for four specimens of Indian arrow heads ;
to H. B. Bishop, for skin of a rattlesnake killed in Texas ; to
Mr. Cunningham, for prepared strawberries from Valparaiso.

It is the design to make a complete collection illustrating the
natural history of the State, and the aid of all public spirited
individuals is solicited in building up a State Cabinet which
shall do honor to the Commonwealth, and be a means of increas-
ing the public taste for these fascinating pursuits.

The study of natural history, whether followed as an occupa-
tion or as an amusement, does much to cultivate that gentle-
ness, refinement and virtue of chai'acter which is the fittest
ornament of every age and condition of life. It is not only an
important branch of knowledge in itself, but it opens the door
to many other branches of knowledge, and no education ought
to be considered as at all complete that does not furnish the
means of careful and intelligent observation of the works and
mysteries of nature to every diligent student. Especially is a
knowledge of the natural history of one's own region and of
the olyects with which he comes in frequent contact, important
and useful, even in a practical point of view, to every member
of the community. It is desirable also to make a collection
which will illustrate the past and present condition of the agri-
ciilture of the Commonwealth, and relics of the implements
used at a former period of our history should be studiously
collected and preserved, since the time will soon come when it
will be wholly impossible to make such a collection. It is
eminently proper, therefore, that the State should undertake to
do what individuals have neglected, and show to the eye of
every beholder, far better than any language can express, what
progress has actually been made in the practical arts of life.

The past year has been one of more than usual prosperity
with most of the agricultural societies of the State. The exhi-
bitions drew together large bodies of people, and the county
fairs all over the State may be regarded as the great festivals

112 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

in their respective localities. The financial condition of each
society will be seen in the Appendix, to which reference is
respectfully made.

The spirit of inquiry leading to farm improvements of vari-
ous kinds, was never so general, the reading of agricultural
papers, books and journals never so universal, the establishment
of farmers' clubs never so frequent, as at the present time ; and
though these are in themselves objects of the highest importance
to the prosperity of the community, yet the practical results to
which they must inevitably lead are even more encouraging,
since they are not only conducing to the well-being of the
present generation, but laying the foundation for the increased
happiness and prosperity of millions who will come after us.

CHARLES L. FLINT,

Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture.

Boston, Jan. 26, 1859.

EEPORTS OE COMMITTEES

APPOINTED TO VISIT THE

AGRICULTURAL EXHIBITIONS

16*

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 115

ESSEX.

Having been appointed by the Board to attend the annual
exhibition of the Essex Agricultural Society holden on the 29th
and 30th of September last, I attended to that duty, and submit
the following Report : —

After having spent a very pleasant night in sharing the hospi-
tality of General William Sutton, of South Danvers, and enjoyed
a stroll over his grounds and among his buildings and stock, and
finding every thing in the very best order, in company with him
on the morning of the 30th, I rode over to Danvers where the
exhibition was being held. The weather was very pleasant, and
we were greeted on our way with abundant evidences of thrift
and — onions ; the former a legitimate result of the cultivation
of the latter. On arriving in the vicinity of the exhibition, I
was much gratified to notice the large crowd of visitors with
which the whole neighborhood was thronged. It seemed as
though the people had turned out en masse to celebrate the
holiday. This is right. These occasions should be considered
what they certainly deserve to be, the great festive gatherings
of the year. The husbandman, relying upon the promise that
seed-time and harvest shall not fail, has deposited his seed in
the earth in full confidence, and watched and tended it with
perhaps the same faith, but not always without some grumblings
and complaints concerning the heat, the cold, the wet, or the
drought, at last sees his crops arrive at full fruition, putting to
flight his doubts, making him ashamed of any distrust which he
may have indulged, and filling his heart with gratitude and
thankfulness. Whose breast does not swell with emotion as he
looks upon the noble specimens of the varied products of the
soil which are displayed at these exhibitions ? Here are to be
seen the various elements of the staff of life ; luscious and
tempting fruits ; the products of the vegetable garden ; the
fragrant flower. The necessaries and the luxuries of life ; the
useful and the beautiful. In the department allotted to animals
we find the noble horse ; the patient ox ; the useful sheep and

116 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the hoggish swine, all living for the benefit of man, and finally,
man himself, the most wonderful of all, and for whom all the
others seem to have been created, subject to his dominion. It
is pleasant to know that the people appreciate these things and
give their attendance and influence for the promotion of the
agricultural interest ; an interest which lies at the foundation
of all prosperity, and is essential even to the continuance of life
itself.

I first visited that part of the exhibition which was within
doors. I found a display of fruits that for quality is seldom
equalled. Very large and perfect specimens of apples and pears
in particular, proved that horticultural skill was by no means
wanting in Essex County. I was however somewhat disap-
pointed in the comparatively small number of dishes of fruit
presented. Upon inquiry I learned that premiums were only
offered for certain varieties and that all others were excluded.
This course has been adopted for the purpose of keeping out a
flood of ordinary and inferior varieties which would otherwise
crowd the tables. Although this course may result in pro-
ducing a more select and acceptable show for the consideration
of the amateur, yet it seems to me that to ignore the existence of
a class of fruits because they do not reach a certain arbitrary
and fallible standard of excellence, is not calculated to bring
about the end sought for in the most speedy manner. It is only
by directly comparing the good with the bad that the superior
qualities of the one and the imperfections of the other are
brought out and made manifest to the looker on. In the list of
varieties admitted I noticed some important omissions of gen-
erally acknowledged superior fruits. Among the cut flowers,
a fine collection of dahlias numbering, as was stated to me,
upwards of 150 varieties from a single contributor, attracted
much attention.

In the vegetable department the specimens were of superior
excellence ; but here again I noticed that the collection as a
whole was rather a small one, though not from the same cause
as before referred to. There seemed to be no reason, so far as
I could learn, why the large number of celebrated vegetable
growers of the vicinity should not have contributed more freely.
In many of the articles there were but one and two contribu-
tors, hardly enough to excite a competition. The mechanical

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 117

interest, as I have generally noticed at agricultural exhibitions,
was but meagrely represented.

My time being somewhat limited, I hurried to the stock
department. Here I found an almost interminable line of pens,
filled with representatives of the various classes of animals. I
saw no very fat cattle but there were fine-conditioned working
oxen. Of the breeds of neat stock, the Alderney and Ayrshire,
seemed to predominate, although there was quite an infusion
of some of the other prominent breeds. I had no time to criti-
cize individuals, but feel constrained to say that a finer looking
stock of cattle, with no inferior animals, is but seldom collected
together. There were quite a number of very promising horses,
and some no doubt that could perform, inasmuch as one gentle-
man of considerable note was ready to bet that one of them
would do incredible things. That however was not in the pro-
gramme, and so he saved his reputation and his money. There
was a good cjilection of sheep and swine, and also of poultry,
but I was obliged to leave for the ploughing match.

The ploughing came off with reasonable promptness, — the
crowd being obliged to wait only a half or three-fourths an
hour, — and showed some very good work. The field was an easy
one for the purpose. I noticed the usual fault of unnatural
speed, notwithstanding, according to the rules of the society,
it detracts from the merit of the competitor. There was one
land plough i by a pair of horses that as far as beauty goes was
the perfection of ploughing. There was literally scarcely a
blade of g' ass to be seen upon the whole piece ploughed. This
bespeaks rare excellence in the workman, the team and the
plough.

After the ploughing match a procession was formed and
marched to tlie church, where an hour was profitably spent in
listening to a finely written and delivered address by Dr.
George B. I-oring, of Salem, upon the duties of the farmer ; com-
mencing with a beautiful tribute to the memory of the late Colonel
Moses Newell, who at the time of his death was a member of this
Board from the Essex Society. My own acquaintance with
Colonel Newell, although of comparatively brief duration, had
made so strong an impression upon me, that I felt his absence
from the exhibition of the Essex Society with sorrow, and I was

118 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

prepared fully to respond to all that was so feelingly and so well
said by the orator.

At the close of the address the procession re-formed and
marched to the dinner table spread under a large tent, which
was crowded with people, drawn together to listen to the magic
eloquence of the Hon. Edward Everett. After the edibles had
been dispatched, the retiring president of the society, Hon. R.
S. Fay, very gracefully introduced Mr. Everett, who cliarmed
the listeners with a sketch of the progress of the age during the
twenty-two years since he had appeared before them in the
character of an orator. A few short speeches from others follow-
ed, after which the new president, Colonel Daniel Adams,
assumed the chair, and the reading of the awards of premiums
by the various committees closed the day's proceedings.

Jabez Fisher.

MIDDLESEX.

I was delegated by the Board of Agriculture to attend the
annual exhibition and cattle show of the Middlesex County
Agricultural Society, held at Concord on the 29th day of Sep-
tember, 1858 ; and I attended accordingly. I viewed the
grounds of the society, and the exhibition in their hall, attended
the annual dinner and also the annual business meeting.
"Without proceeding to consider in detail the various portions of
the exhibition and show, I desire, very briefly, to give my im-
pressions in regard to the principal features of the occasion.

I was more gratified with the promptness with which each
separate portion of the duties and pleasures of the day was
entered upon, than with any other thing. The arrangements
had been well. made, and they were carried out with an exact-
ness and precision that added much to -their effect. I have
never seen the excellence of method so well displayed on any
like occasion. It may be inferred from this that the officers of
the society are efficient and dutiful ; and such is the fact. And
they have also, I am happy to say, the confidence of the mem-

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 119

bers, and the relations between them appear to be harmonious
in every respect.

The anniversary appeared also to have that popular apprecia-
tion which is necessary tq success. The business meeting was
well attended, and its work was done carefully and thoroughly.

The grounds and hall are much too small for the purposes
which they are designed to subserve. Tlie exhibition was
necessarily, therefore, crowded, and for that reason, less satis-
factory. The display of stock was not so well appreciated, for
a like cause. The trial of horses was within so small a space
as to impair, to a very great degree, its interest and value. The
material of the exhibition, however, — the cattle, horses, swine,
implements, vegetables, fruits, and domestic manufactures, —
gave great satisfaction to your delegate.

The dinner, which is one of the most attractive facts of the
annual shows, and one to which the farmers and their families
look forward with deep interest, was unusually interesting.
The address was given at the tables by Ralph Waldo Emerson,
and his well established reputation as a writer and thinker was
fully sustained in the department of agricultural philosophy.
The discourse will undoubtedly be published. Other addresses
were made by the venerable Joseph T. Buckingham, for many
years president of the society, by Hon. Joseph Howe, of Halifax,
N. S., E. P. Whipple, Esq., and others.

On the whole the day was one of pleasure and profit. My
report to the Board is, in short, that the affairs of the society
are in the hands of ofiicers who understand their duties, and
are conscientious in the discharge of them ; that the farmers of
Middlesex are deeply interested in the subject of agricultural
education, experiment and progress ; and that the aid given
this society by the Commonwealth is well applied, and expended
according to the intent of the laws of the State.

George Marston.

120 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

Agreeably to my appointment as delegate from the Massa-
chusetts State Board of Agriculture, I attended their annual
exhibition at Lowell on the fifteenth day of September. The
day was pleasant, but the streets of the city quite dry and
dusty.

The first business of the day was the ploughing match, where
thirteen teams contended, doing the work generally well.
Seven of them were awarded prizes.

The stock in the pens appeared tolerably well, and some
choice specimens, but quite a number of ordinary animals,
hardly a fair specimen of what this section of the county might
show.

The number of swine exhibited was quite small, bat of good
quality and well selected. Still more attention might be profit-
ably bestowed on this animal by our farmers, and stock raised
to take the place in our markets now occupied by the sickly,
still-fed, alligator breeds.

A few hogs of the right kind may be raised by every farmer,
yielding as much profit as any other stock on the farm, as well
enriching the land, as disposing of noxious weeds working over
maniire, &c., &c.

Would it not be well for some of our laboring classes, who
keep one or two useless curs annoying the traveller, and a nui-
sance to the town, to figure up the relative cost of keeping a
dog and hog, and see which is worth and which produces most,
at the end of the year. Tliis, if correctly done, would in many
cases, I think, place the pigsty in place of the dog-kennel.

The number of horses exhibited was quite large. Many val-
uable animals were on the ground, the two following days
being set apart to display them ; unfortunately the weather,
part of the time, was stormy, still a large sum of money was
received.

Few specimens of butter were exhibited, and but one cheese ;
more attention should be bestowed on the dairy, by our farmers'
wives and daughters.

Nearly fifty loaves of bread were on the tables, very much to

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 121

the credit of the fair hands who made them. No article of
domestic manufacture is better appreciated, than good, light,
well-made bread ; no article of diet contributes to home comfort
more.

The display of vegetables was quite large, and many fine
specimens adorned the hall.

Much credit is du^e to Mr. Lorenzo Phelps, who contributed
forty-seven varieties, as part of the production of the Lowell
city poor farm, also grapes and fine melons. The example of
this city in this particular is highly commendable, and worthy
the imitation of every city and town in the State having a farm
connected with their poor-houses.

The fruit offered was excellent, particularly pears, showing
high cultivation. The specimens of Bartlett pears I never have
seen equalled. Of needle work and fancy articles there was a
good display, and highly creditable to the ladies producing
them.

On the whole, the show passed off well, and much credit is
due to the officers of the society for their exertions in the cause
of agriculture.

Wm. G. Lewis.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

The undersigned, delegated by the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture to visit the South Middlesex Agricultural
Society, respectfully reports, that unavoidable circumstances
prevented his being present on that occasion. He has the
pleasure, however, to state, through the medium of a compe-
tent eye witness, that the exhibition was one which conferred
much honor on the officers and members of the society.

The Middlesex South Agricultural Society, although one of
the younger members of the agricultural family, is still one of
the most enterprising and flourishing in the Commonwealth.
This society have erected a building 58 by 90 feet, consisting
of a light, airy basement, exhibition room, assembly room, and
suitable offices, and the past year this has been completed.

16*

122 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The exhibition was held at Framingham, on the society's
grounds, on the 22d day of September. The day was warm
and pleasant, and the various committees attended with punc-
tuality, to the duties with which they were charged. Eighteen
teams competed at the ploughing match. This was contested
with commendable spirit and ability. The work for the most
part was well executed, and the trial presented one of the most
interesting spectacles of the day. The exhibition of neat cattle
was remarkable, not only for the large number of animals
brought out, but for its general value and excellence. That of
horses, swine and fowls, was satisfactory. Of fruits and vege-
tables, the quantity shown was large and of improved character.
In these there was manifest evidences of careful and suc-
cessful cultivation.

The grounds were crowded with visitors, not less than 6,000
or 8,000 being present on the two days, and it may safely be
asserted, that the interest and emulation which exists in the
association, will work out great good to the farmers of this
district.

Tlie annual address was delivered by ex-governor Emory
"Washburn. It was eloquent and instructive, and the speeches
of the other guests present were of the appropriate stamp for the
farmers' holiday.

On the whole, it was considered by those qualified to judge,
that the exhibition was equal in merit and usefulness to any
which the society ever held, and gave also encouraging signs of
a still brighter future.

Marshall P. Wilder.

WORCESTER.

At the request of the Board of Agriculture, I had the honor,
as their delegate, to attend the fortieth annual exhibition of the
Worcester Agricultural Society, on the sixth day of October
last, at the city of Worcester. It gave me great pleasure on
that occasion to know that the mantle of honor which had so
long been borne by those of the name of Lincoln in their con-
nection with that society, was still so worthily and nobly worn

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 123

by the son of an honored father, as presiding officer of the
society, by whom, and by all his associates in the direction of
the society, I was received as your delegate with much courtesy
and hospitality. It speaks well for the stability and firmness of
the society, that in a period so remarkable as the present for
frequent official changes, this should be the case. It is how-
ever to be regretted that somewhat of its pristine influence and
power has been taken from this society by the formation of
three other agricultural societies within its original limits,
which has tended to detract from the legitimate interest of its
annual exhibitions. There seems to be a peculiar fitness and
propriety in having all within the territorial limits of a county
united in one county society. The presence of farmers from all
parts of the county, at these annual reunions, has a strong
influence in producing a harmony of feeling between the resi-
dents of the different sections of the county ; it enlarges the
field of competition in the various departments where premiums
are offered, and elevates the standard of excellence by requir-
ing more of skill, industry and energy to obtain the highest
premiums, and this too, at less cost to the Commonwealth, than
under a system of undue multiplication of smaller societies.

I think that the awards made at this exhibition amounted to
about one thousand dollars, and all other expenses of the
society about five hundred dollars, making an aggregate expen-
diture of about fifteen hundred dollars. I was pleased to learn
that the society are fixed in their determination to incur no
additional debt, and to limit their future expenditures to their
income, a salutary principle which should be adopted by every
agricultural society, and which is as essential to the prosperity
of a society as to that of individuals. " Pay as you go," is
indeed a good motto for all. It is therefore to be regretted
that the society are still laboring under a debt incurred for the
purchase of their spacious grounds, and the erection of their
exhibition hall ; and it is to be hoped that ere long some muni-
ficent member of the society will relieve them from the burden
of the annual payment of interest.

As Worcester is one of the most noted dairy districts of the
Commonwealth, I was somewhat surprised at the preponder-
ance of the amount paid for premiums connected with the
exhibition of horses, above that paid for premiums for the best

124 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

neat cattle, which seemed to evince a disproportionate interest
in behalf of the horse department of the show.

There were present so many of the intelligent farmers of the
county, either of whom could have added much to the interest
of the occasion by a detail of the results of his experience, that
I regretted that the usual agricultural address, which in other
counties is delivered on such festivals, was omitted on this
occasion. I have derived so much pleasure and benefit from
the addresses to which in years past I have listened at our
county exhibitions, that I should be extremely unwilling to
dispense with this part of the programme at our annual
reunions.

Notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which the
society labored, the exhibition was eminently successful, and in
the opinion of those well qualified to judge, by a comparison of
the present with the past, surpassed any ever held by the
society, as at present constituted, in the number and excellence
of the animals offered for premiums, in the variety, ingenuity
and skill of the mechanical implements and manufactured
articles exhibited.

This is as it should be, and it must afford much gratification
and encouragement to the officers of the society, to know that
their unwearied efforts to promote the prosperity of the agri-
cultural interests of the heart of the Commonwealth, are
crowned with such success. As I was not present on the sec-
ond day of the show, which was, I understood, to be devoted
mainly to the exhibition of horses, to the trial of their speed
and other points which seemed to me not strictly within the
province of our society, and which I should fear would tend to
divert the attention of members from the legitimate objects of
that society, I am unable to furnish any account of the results
of that part of the exhibition.

William Sutton.

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 125

WORCESTER WEST.

As the representative of the State Board of Agriculture, I
attended the eighth annual exhibition of the Worcester West
Agricultural Society, at Barre, held on the 30th of September.
It was evident that the society has the ability to make one of
the best shows in the State, but being held but one day, it was
impossible for your delegate to make as thorough an examina-
tion of the several departments as he could have desired.

In stock, grade Durhams preponderate ; in fact, there were
few other cattle — and from the full-grown, fat and working
oxen, the beef cow, or in milk, steers and heifers, to the weaned
or sucking calf, it may well be doubted whether any society can
match this with cattle of their own raising.

For a considerable period the farmers in this section have
been breeding grade Durhams, procuring occasionally a new
thorough-bred bull, and perhaps for all purposes where the
farms produce so abundantly the best of grass and hay, and
where work, beef and the dairy so equally share their attention,
they have occasion to be satisfied with the result.

Though Mr. John Sanderson of Franklin County took the
first two premiums for fat oxen, there seemed no just ground
of complaint, as he had the enterprise to extend his landed
possessions into an adjoining county.

The sheep, swine and poultry, I had no opportunity to see.

The ploughing match was contested by ten teams, and though
the sward was underlaid with stone, the ploughmen, (mostly
owners of the teams,) showed by the complete manner of turn-
ing the furrow, that they were familiar with that description
of land. Some of the teams at the drawing match hauled and
backed a cart load of stone to greater perfection than is often
witnessed, with little or no whipping. There appeared to be a
good understanding between the owner and the oxen.

The exhibition of horses on the common, was excellent, and
conducted with the utmost propriety. There were some supe-
rior animals.

My opportunities were too limited to do more than to glance
at the numerous products of the dairy, the field, and the gar-

126 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

den, in the hall. Of the cheese all that need be said is, that it
was made by the dairywomen of Barre and the surrounding
towns.

The numerous articles of household manufacture and fancy
work were highly creditable to the ladies.

The annual agricultural fair is pre-eminently the farmers'
holiday, for which he has been preparing and looking forward
to with great interest. And sufficient time should be taken to
make it in the highest degree useful to the community. But
how can its full benefit be realized by any one, when the time
for examining the various kinds of stock, attending the plough-
ing, drawing, and horse show — dinner, address, and reports of
committees, are all crowded into the brief space of time between
ten and three o'clock. It should be borne in mind, too, that a
large proportion of the most valuable members of the society
are nearly all the time on duty as members of committees.
Two days, in the opinion of your delegate, is not too much time
for a fair, where so good an exhibition can be made as " Worces-
ter West;" and the cost and trouble is too great, and the com-
pensation too small when confined to one.

The address by Mr. Secretary Flint on subjects connected
with the dairy, was appropriate to the location and the occa-
sion.

L. SWEETSER.

WORCESTER NORTH.

Owing to the inability of Mr. Field to fulfil his appointment
as delegate from the State Board, at his request I attended as
his substitute.

The weather was exceedingly unpropitious, the heavy rolling
clouds early commencing to drop their moisture ; notwithstand-
ing which, however, there was a large gathering early in the
morning, of the people of Worcester North.

The president of that society. Dr. Fisher, is one who in theo-
retical and practical agriculture leads, making his theoretical
skill subservient to his practical operations, and more than any
man is developing the agricultural resources of his locality.

EEPORTS OP COMMITTEES. 127

Our steps were first directed tlirough the rain to the grounds
upon which was the stock and the ploughing match. The
greatest number of' cattle from any one town, was from Prince-
ton, and Mr. John Brooks, Jr., the largest contributor. His
milch cows were very fine, indeed the general show of cows was
exceedingly good ; superior heifers and heifer calves were exhib-
ited by liim, by Messrs. Boyles and Watson, all of Princeton.

There were thirty-two bulls of all kinds and grades. The
Devon blood seems to be getting largely introduced, and for
working oxen they have no superiors. Messrs. Brooks and
Caswell exhibited two fine Devon bulls, that would show to
advantage anywhere. There were also grades of Hereford,
Ayrshire and Jersey, with one or two fine Durhams. Twelve
head of fat cattle, most of which were about right to begin to
fat, as we count fatness. Twelve pairs of good working oxen,
some of which were superior.

The ploughing match was spiritedly contested by six double
and two single teams of oxen and four of horses and one of
mnles. The land was such as to test the skill and patience of
the ploughmen, a thin, gravelly soil, filled with stones. The
work was, however, well done and in a short time ; the single
teams in twenty-six and twenty-eight minutes, double teams
from thirteen to twenty-six, and the horse teams from nineteen
to thirty-three. The double Michigan plough was as usual a
great favorite. Rich's cast iron beam plough, manufactured
at Westborough, did its work admirably and with apparent
ease.

The drawing match attracted a crowd. A pair of Devon steers
only two years old and perfect in their build and action drew a
ton without urging, up quite a hill. They are beauties and
belong to Reed of Princeton. A pair of mules of Dr. Fisher,
weighing only 1,360 pounds, pulled a load of over 2,500 pounds
on a drag, up a hard hill.

We believe that mules ought to be worked in very many
places where horses are now used. Less expensive in the first
cost, muscular, cordy, tough, they are easier kept, and will
out-live and out-work horses by a large per cent. ; and if mules
are properly brought up, cared for, and treated kindly, there
need be no complaint of viciousness. We hope the example of
Dr. Fisher in working mules will be followed.

128 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The show of horses was very good, though the rain prevented
such an examination as would have been pleasant. There
were nearly a hundred swine, some of which were very supe-
rior ; some Suffolks would compare favorably with those of
any section.

Of that most profitable animal, the sheep, the entries were not
so numerous as we would have liked, and of those exhibited we
observed no pure bloods of any kind.

We believe there is no branch of farming more profitable than
that of raising sheep for mutton and lambs ; taking the middle-
woolled sheep and making the wool a secondary article, there
is no product of the farm which commands a readier market
than mutton and lamb, and there is none which pays so large a
percentage on the investment. We wish the Cotswold, South
Downs, New Oxfordshire and Shropshire Downs, could be intro-
duced into every town in Massachusetts.

The display in the hall was really very fine ; the different
branches of domestic industry were represented, as also the
larger manufacturers.

But the fruits shown would have done credit to any county in
the State, especially in those noble fruits so peculiarly our own,
the apple and pear. Of the latter, very fine and numerous speci-
mens were from Dr. Fisher and Mr. Wood. There were some
very handsome Isabella and Fitchburg grapes, but pre-eminent
were the splendid clusters of the Concord, at the present time
the most popular grape in New England.

The vegetables too were in large quantities and unusually
good. Butter and cheese were not as well represented as they
should have been.

At half-past twelve a very handsome collation attracted the
attention of about three hundred, after which sensible and
instructive remarks were made by Hon. Simon Brown, Charles
L. Flint, Esq., Colonel Crocker and others. Notwithstanding
the weather, the day passed off in a spirited, orderly and satisfac-
tory manner.

I suppose the officers of this society best know their own
business and the reqirements of their people, but it seems to me
that there was upon that ground plenty of material to interest
and instruct the masses for two days. It is impossible to make
the critical examinations, proper to be made, when stock is

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 129

good, all good, and much so nearly alike in excellentce. Then
those of the visitors and spectators do not derive the advantage
they should when ploughing, drawing and the exhibition of
horses, all are proceeding at the same time. One can only get
a curious glance in passing from one to another, rather than^
what one ought to have, — a thorough inspection. Certainly no
half-day could be better employed than in examination and
comparison of stock, learning one from another, the breeds, the
crosses, the mode of rearing, feeding, <fec., practiced by those
who showed the most desirable animals.

It would also give a favorable opportunity for the sale and
exchange of cattle, "mis-mating" and "matching up" of
steers and oxen — taking the first step towards what is so desira-
ble to establish through the State, a system, of fairs or open mar-
kets, a matter which is now attracting much attention here ; and
in some parts of the State, Franklin county for instance, where
it has been discussed for three years, and will probably be estab-
lished within a year. The suggestion may be valueless, but I.
desire at least to call attention to it.

I am under obligations to Dr. Fisher for kind attentions and,
for facilities of examination.

James S. Gkennelx., of Greenfield.

WORCESTER SOUTH.

The 20tli of September last, the time of the- annual cattle-
show by the Worcester South Agricultural Society, was ushered
in by severe frost ; and a keen but bracing breeze from- the
north-west whistled merrily over the hills in the neighborhood-
of Sturbridge, as in the company and by the politeness of the-
president of the society, I was conveyed to the grounds occur
pied by the various departments of the exhibition. It was an
occasion which evidently excited a strong interest among ther
inhabitants of the various towns connected with the society,^,
and the large collection of people pouring into the town,
gave a life to the scene which augurs well for the future suc-
cess of this comparatively young society.
17*

130 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

ATter a glance at the cattle pens, which were fast filling with
the various animals to be offered for premiums, we proceeded
to the hill on the south of the village, to witness the contest of
the participators in the ploughing match. The event proved,
however, that we might very well have spared all haste, as
something more than an hour passed away after the time
appointed by the published programme before the teams were
arranged and started, and this want of punctuality was carried
through all the transactions of the day, taking away much from
its pleasure by leaving much idle time to be' passed under a
cold and uncomfortable wind during the middle of the day,
and making it necessary to hurry all the closing business of the
occasion, because both managers and visitors had imperative
business demanding their attention at home.

This fault, marring very much the interest of the occasion,
seemed to me to have its origin in the want of thoroughness in
the preliminary arrangements for the exhibition, in conse-
quence of which none of the officials of the show appeared to
understand what duties were expected of them.

I would suggest to the managers of this society that hereaf-
ter there should be no waiting for committees or competitors,
but that every thing should proceed with as much punctuality
as the clock.

But to return to the ploughing. The soil was a stiff, clayey
loam, with a very tough sod, and called forth all the energies
of drivers and teams, in consequence of the frequent occurrence
of small stone, requiring great watchfulness on the part of the
ploughman to prevent his plough from being suddenly ejected
from the furrow. But, notwithstanding all the difficulties, the
work was admirably performed, without any violent whipping
of the cattle or undue vociferation. Apparently, each mau
labored much as he would have done upon his own farm, and
the Avork performed reflected great credit upon all parties con-
cerned.

After the ploughing match I made a more thorough exami-
nation of the cattle pens, .which contained many very fine
animals, the Durham and Devon blood prevailing. Very few
ordinary cattle were exhibited, and most of them exhibited the
indications of good care and keeping. Many very fine working
cattle were also present to compete for the premiums offered in

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 131

that department, and most of them performed the allotted task
of drawing and backing a heavy load upon a steep hill admi-
rably. Indeed, the display of cattle, taken as a whole, was one
of the finest I ever witnessed for its extent.

The exhibition of fruit, butter, cheese, &c., claimed my
attention as the next object of interest. It was a matter of
surprise to me to find vegetables almost excluded from the
hall, the only specimens consisting of one small lot of cab-
bages and squashes. The importance of many varieties of
vegetables for feeding stock would, I should suppose, have led
the trustees to offer premiums in this department, and I have
no doubt if this were done, the beauty of the exhibition, at
least, would be very much increased.

Residing in a county where fruit culture has received great
attention, and where very beautiful specimens abound upon the
tables at all public exhibitions, I was extremely disappointed
upon inspecting the fruit offered at the show at Sturbridge.
The number of varieties was large, and these were for the most
part valuable in kind, but very many of the specimens were
inferior and indicated a want of careful cultivation. A great
improvement, too, might be made in the mode of exhibiting, and
I have no doubt that more care in arranging the tables would
have added much to the beauty of the exhibition. If, instead
of a single specimen placed upon the bare table, the varieties
being crowded into a small space, each competitor was required
to exhibit at least eight specimens, and those specimens were
carefully selected, placed upon as many separate dishes, the
exhibition of fruit would be much more creditable in every
way to the society. It was, however, very gratifying to me to
witness the beautiful specimens offered by the dairy women of
Worcester South of the products of their labor and care, in
the form of butter and cheese which were abundant and of fine
quality, and I think no person could examine them, in connec-
tion with the bread made from the products of their own farms,
without being deeply impressed with the feeling that as regards
the care of the inner man, the farmer has a large source of
profit which the wealth of the merchant must often fail to pro-
cure in the markets of our cities. Indeed, I could not avoid
entertaining the wish that I could serve upon the bread and
butter committee, as the dinner was postponed until the late,

132 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

though highly fashionable, hour of three o'clock, P. M. Upon
the whole, the exhibition of the Worcester South Society left
upon my mind very pleasant impressions in all respects except
that of punctuality, and the hours passed in the pleasant family
of the president, Hon. 0. C. Felton, will ever be among the
bright spots upon which my memory loves to dwell.

John C. Bartlett.

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

Your delegate to the Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden
Agricultural Society, being its fortieth anniversary, held at
Northampton, October 13 and 14, 1858, would beg leave to re-
port : That he has attended to that service as well as the weather
would permit. The first day it rained hard nearly all day. The
grounds, which are finely adapted for show grounds, were like
a wet sponge; but notwithstanding the rain, the president, Col.
Edwards, accompanied by his secretary, were on the grounds
attending to their duties with as much care as though the sun
was out. I have never witnessed more fine, well-matched oxen,
at one exhibition, than at this show ; the owners or keepers were
in attendance with a just pride of their charge. The Messrs.
Lathrops, of Hadlcy, were out in all the rain in attendance on
their fine short-horns. Had the day been pleasant the show
would have been larger, and the cattle would have appeared to
more advantage, and the company would have been more
numerous. Horses, swine and sheep all appeared well. In fact,
this society has much to encourage it in its labor ; the scenery
is delightful, the town beautifully situated, and the lands are
very fertile.

At the hall there was a fine exhibition of fruits and vegetables,
and many things to amuse and instruct visitors.

The address by Dr. Loring, of Salem, was calculated to stimu-
late the farmers to renewed action and to a just estimation of
the high position they fill. At the dinner table the hall was
crowded by ladies and gentlemen, who listened to the remarks
of the governor and other speakers, and more so then the ladies

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 133

who seemed to speak with illumined countenances, which I
understood to mean that they were determined to do their part
in elevating the course of rural affairs. I cannot close without
saying, I have never attended a show where there was less bustle
and more good order than I found under the direction of
president Edwards, for the kind attention received from all, has
left on my mind a day well and pleasantly spent.

B. V. French.

HAMPSHIRE.

By appointment as delegate from the Board of Agriculture, I
was in attendance upon the ninth annual fair of the Hampshire
County Agricultural Society, and witnessed with pleasure and
profit the success and completeness of the exhibition. Notwith-
standing the weather after the opening day of the exhibition
was cold and stormy, the interest of the visitors could not be
checked until the programme had been completed.

The annual address was made before the members of the
society and as many earnest hearers as could find room in the
spacious church, by his excellency N. P. Banks. Subject :
"The development of American wealth by the labor and inven-
tive genius of the people, and the character and need of the
agricultural interest."

Such were my impressions after an examination of the con-
tributions made to the fair, and an acquaintance with many of
the active members of the society, that I was led to an examina-
tion of the history of its doings. Tlie society was formed in
the year 1850 with 340 members, and has increased to 1,010.
The treasurer has received since its organization, (independent
of State contributions,) $6,763.88, to which maybe added State
contributions, $4,800 ; making a total sum of $11,563.88. The
number of entries made on the secretary's books for premiums
as ascertained, is 7,155. The number of premiums earned and
awarded, 2,205. Amount of premiums paid and other disburse-
ments of the treasurer, as ascertained, seven thousand nine
hundred and sixty-six -^^^^ dollars ; leaving to credit of perma-

134 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

nent fund thirty-five hundred and ninety-seven -^-^^ dollars,
this being the same sum as reported in 1856.

This society has wedded to its interests J. "W. Boy den, who,
having ably served as the secretary of the society since the day
of its organization, is willingly accepted by your delegate as
sponsor for its increasing prosperity and usefulness.

The officers of the society have won the esteem and confi-
dence of a majority of the inhabitants of the county by inviting
annual addresses to be made before them by the most distin-
guished writers upon the subject of agriculture, and by hus-
banding innumerable facts bearing upon their cause, which were
garnered up in the minds of the many scientific men who have
their liomes with them.

These valuable contributions have been published by the
society for gratuitous distribution througliout the country.
The facts thus widely disseminated have made room for them-
selves by crowding out from many minds traditional notions,
and impelling men to place themselves in a position to reap their
harvests through the Avorking of natural laws, and not as by
miracles, so long after the day of miracles has gone by. Reports
made to the society on —

Farms, Farm Accojtnts, Farming Implements. — Prof. Nash, Charles
H. Field, T. P. Huntington, Prof. Snell, and Rev. John Sanford.

Ploughing, Subsoil Ploughing, Manures, Crops. — Pres't Hitchcock,
Dr. Rice, S. C. Wilder, Prof. Nash, Samuel Powers.

Reclaimed Meadoiv Land, Reclaiming Pasture Lands. — Prof. Fowler,
Hon. Joseph Smith.

Fruit, Orchards, Forest Trees. — Doct. Rice, L. Wetherell, P. Latlu'op,
Prof. Clark, and W. P. Dickinson.

Horses. — Levi Stockbridge.

Dairy Stock. — T. P. Huntington.

Oxen. — Levi P. "Warner.

Fat Cattle.— Z. C. Montague, A. B,
• Sheep. — John M. Emerson, A. M.

Swine. —

Bread. — J. W. Boyden. Cheese. — T. G. Huntington.

Butter. — John C. Carter. Honey. — Rev. J. E. Fisher and Reverdy
Emerson.

Addresses, Sfc, by Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, Prof, Fowler, Rev. W.
Clift, F. D. Huntington, D. D., Leander Wetherell, C. L. Flint, Hon.
N. P. Banks, Hon. A. H. Bullock.

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 135

All the addresses were products of minds thoroughly imbued
with the subject of agriculture, and are noticeable both for
their merit and for their undilution with any other subject.

The horses shown at this exhibition were mostly of Morgan
stock. A few were of the Messenger and Norman blood. The
Messenger and Norman stock will increase in appreciation as
fast as they are tested and known. The horses were generally
well trained for work. Some of them were also instructed by
professor Clark, wlio has found his recreation from study in
teaching them what to the lower creation is the finality of
science — obedience to man's will.

Tiie horse holds second rank in nature. Pie does not war
against any other race of animals, ever acting only on the
defensive. His power of development is only limited by the
bounds of our experience in his management. Public senti-
ment, having professor Clark and men of kindred spirit to
develop it, will speedily correct the errors of the past, and
bring into subjection the temper of that class of individuals
whose brutal practices have hitherto brutalized the horse.

The show of cattle, sheep and swine was considered equal to
that of any former year. The first premium on fatted cattle
was awarded to Chester Smith, on a yoke of oxen weighing
6,000 pounds. Of the eighteen yokes of cattle entered in the
drawing match, sixteen yokes were Durham and grade
Durham.

In dairy stock, the herd of Ayrshires belonging to Luke
Sweetser, now numbering twenty or more, arrested the atten-
tion of all thinking men present. This is the only pure Ayr-
shire stock owned in the county. As soon, however, as Mr.
Sweetser is ready to dispose of any part of his herd, and the
facts attaching to this class of stock become generally known,
this blood will be circulated through the upland counties.

Prejudice alone prevents the rapid infusion of new strains of
blood in rearing stock. It has been said that many of the
improved breeds which take such high rank in England and in
our own country wherever domesticated, would degenerate, if
once brought into our climate and pastures. It should be
remembered that they are subject to the same laws in their
being with what we call native stock ; and that if we fail to
provide necessary shelter and fail to renew the exhausted

ISG BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

condition of our pastures, the remark will as certainly prove
true in the case of the latter as of the former.

Of a catalogue of land animals numbering over 90,000, not
one hundred can be made subservient to man, or in any way
contribute to his enjoyment. It is natural to suppose that the
improvement in stock will keep pace with our industry and
intelligence, but it has not been so in the history of the Ameri-
can people. Until within a very few years, we have been half
a century behind England and Holland in this matter. Farm-
ers of New England should at once consider the fact, carefully
fix their minds upon the classes in the various kinds of animals
best adapted in all respects to their wants and circumstances,
and leave all others to die out.

That human industry cannot begin and finish any thing at
one and the same time, is clearly illustrated in the history of
farming. The impulse which a protective tariff gave to the
manufacturing interest, immediately following the declaration
of peace in 1814, partially developed the agricultural resources
of Massachusetts by the increased demand for the necessary
supplies of life. When, however, the manufacturing interest
became the dominant interest, diverting labor and capital from
the field to the loom and the workshop, promising large returns
and early independence from want and labor, farms were
neglected, and a check was given to home culture which
diminished the products of the soil when an increase was
needed.

Notwithstanding all organized effort to repair this neglect,
the evil has continued in force. The stimulus which the
exhibitions and efforts of the Hampshire Society have given to
agriculture has not yet reached the minds of the entire farming
population of the county. The masses are not yet moved to
systematic action. In old England, (I state upon the authority
of one who has travelled at home and abroad,) where it costs as
much to stock a rented farm as it does to buy and stock one of
equal relative value here, the farmer pays one-tenth of his
income to support the church and state, and lives much more
comfortably than is usual in New England. Why should so
many farmers leave the cultivation of the choicest fruits and
vegetables, the fattening and raising of small stock, and the
home consumption of these products, to the members of agri-

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 137

cultural societies, to swell alone the volume of their life cur-
rent, gladdening their spirits, giving solidity and rotundity to
their forms, and making them noticeable among their fellow
men for their readiness and ability to labor.

In journeying in various directions, the observer can easily
point out the homesteads of those whose names are unrecorded
in the books of agricultural societies ; and with equal certainty
the homes of such as are but partially interested in the welfare
of such societies, and quite indifferent to their own. These are
generally worthy men, sons of sires who worked with a will in
the days when a good portion of the value of their surplus
product was expended in transporting it to market. They do
not yet believe in the expediency of organized effort ; or they
fear that if they join an agricultural society, it will sometime
become a failure ; or they hope that the society may not be
able to do without their personal aid, and wait, expecting its
officers to come to them and ask them in. These notions ought
to be abandoned. The societies will live without their assist-
ance, but would be greatly benefited if these considerate men
would come forward and add their influence to the aggregated
power of the organizations, while there is room to receive
them. If, during the winter months, the officers of the Hamp-
shire Society were disposed to meet weekly in every neighbor-
hood within their precincts, to discuss practical agriculture, they
would, I doubt not, realize all the success and cordial co-opera-
tion which their distinguished knowledge and experience would
entitle them to expect.

George M. Atwater.

HAMPDEN EAST.

The Eastern Hampden Agricultural Society held its annual
exhibition at Palmer, on the 5th and 6th of October last, under
circumstances the most favorable. The weather proved auspi-
cious and the attendance very large upon each day. It was
evident from the great gathering of people of all ages and
sexes, that they had been looking forward to the occasion as a
jubilee or holiday where families from the remotest parts of the

18*

138 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

association might assemble for the interchange of opinions and
for the forming of new friendships. It is justly a source of.
pride and satisfaction to the farmers of this young society that
its fairs are not far behind those of more experience and greater
pretensions. In fact we were assured by those who attended
the county fair of which this is a branch, that tlie exhibition of
this society in most of its departments were quite equal to that
of the parent institution although this is but its third annual
exhibition. Your delegate would by no means represent this as
a model society, except for its earnestness. The first day was
set apart for the exhibition of all animals, (except horses,) all
agricultural products, manufactured articles, horticultural pro-
ductions, ploughing match, &c.

The show of neat stock was good, numbering about 225
animals, mostly grade stock, showing a larger proportion of the
Devon than other blood. Although the bulls on exhibition were
mostly of the Durham grade, but one pure blood Durham bull
was observed, and that owned by S. R. Burroughs, of Warren,
from the celebrated stock of Mr. Lathrop, of Hadley, which stood
at the head, and probably would with a large competition.
Several fine grade bulls were exhibited of the Devon blood ;
that of J. K. Knox, for his large size and fine proportions,
attracted much attention. There was not a large number of
milch cows on exhibition, but from the statement of the
exhibitors they were of the first class. Twenty-three yokes of
working oxen were exhibited, a large proportion of which were
good, some very superior. A pair of four years old, owned by
H. Wallace, of Holland, and a pair of five years old, owned by
A. V. Blanchard, of Palmer, were looked upon with admiration
by all, and the opinion expressed that it would be hard to find
their, equal.

The show of sheep was small, and small sheep. There was a
good display of swine and of good breeds.

The ploughing match and trial of draft oxen was not entered
upon with such spirit and ambition as this feature of the show
demands.

The exhibition of agricultural products, manufactured
articles, horticultural productions, &c., were at the vestry of
the Congregational Church. The show of vegetables and fruit
was large and in every respect creditable to this, and would be

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 139

to any other, society in the State. The society labor under a
disadvantage in being compelled to crowd their specimens for
exhibition into quite too small a space. In order to be true to
my duty as a delegate from the State Board of Agriculture, I
cannot but express my regret in tliis report that, amidst the fine
display of agricultural products, there should be so poor a show
of mechanical productions, that of agricultural implements in
particular. Not a single plough , harrow, cultivator, or any other
implement for farmers use were to be seen, and the subscriber
would earnestly liope, for the honor of the farmers and mechan-
ics of the Hampden Eastern agricultural society, that at future
exhibitions there may be a good display in this branch of the
mechanical department.

The dairy is not the staple product of this section of the
State, yet this department was very creditable.

The ladies' department, last though not least, was well filled
with the useful and ornamental.

Upon the second day, at an early hour came the show of
horses. The entries were seventy-five — a larger number, as I
was informed, than ever before exhibited. The exhibition of
horses was spirited, and every way worthy of commendation,
although there were a less number of valuable horses exhibited
than might have been expected from the number of entries.
A very fine Morgan horse owned by Dr. Wm. Holbrook, of Palmer,
and one owned by Mr. Turner, of Southbridge,gave evidence of
good blood and judicious training. Several fine specimens of
breeding mares and colts were present, with which their owners
may be satisfied and the society proud of such an exhibition.

After the show of horses came the address, which was given
by Prof. Oliver Marcy, of Wilbraham, in the Congregational
Church, upon the science of chemistry upon agriculture. The
address gave evidence of a thorough knowledge of the subject,
and is published for the benefit of all interested.

At the close of the address a procession was formed and
passed to the Antique House, where a dinner was furnished and
served by E. B. Shaw, Esq., which was bountiful and satisfac-
tory in all respects. After the inner man had been made
satisfied, came the committees' reports, which were any thing
but interesting, on account of the tedious length and uncalled
for remarks by committees at that time and place. The sub-

140 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

scriber would respectfully suggest the condensing of reports in
future, and let the remarks go into the transactions of the
society, instead of taking the time and wearying the patience
to an unreasonable extent.

I should not be true to my own feelings were I not to express
my thanks to the officers of the society, and mine host of the
Antique House, for the very polite attention and hospitality
which I received, rendering my sojourn with the Hampden
Eastern Agricultural Society during their fair exceedingly
pleasant.

JosiAH White.

BERKSHIRE.

It has been my pleasure, since I became a member of the Board
of Agriculture, to visit the extremes of our Commonwealth. I
have traversed over the sandy plains of Barnstable and Nan-
tucket, and now I am permitted to climb the far-famed hills of
old Berkshire. I find thrift and enterprise wherever I go. The
agricultural interest of our Commonwealth is evidently advanc-
ing. Our farmers are learning the true secret, that soils
exhausted by excessive culture, must be fed before a plentiful
harvest can be obtained.

On the 7th of October last, it being the second day of the
meeting of the Berkshire Agricultural Society, I arrived at
Pittsfield. It was a dreary, unpropitious day. The first day of
their exhibition was beautiful, which afforded an opportunity of
making a very fine display of their stock, which was spoken of
in terms of high commendation. On my arrival, warm-hearted
and generous friends escorted me to that delightful eminence
where stands the hall of one of the most ancient agricultural
societies in our Commonwealth. Here I found in great abun-
dance the products of the hand, as well as the products of the
soil. The fine display of an infinite variety of potatoes and
squashes, turnips and cabbages, more especially those seventy-
three varieties of corn, all tended to show that old Berkshire is
not a whit behind her neighbors in laying up in store for time
to come. Even Nantucket was there represented in her far-

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 141

famed pumpkins. Tlie exhibition of fruits, altliougli limited in
quantity and variety, was very creditable for a section of our
State, where less attention is given to this subject than in some
other counties. 1 have reason, however, to believe, that were
more encouragement given to this department, a fine display
might be drawn out from private resources, which are now
entirely withheld from exhibition. In the floral department I
could have wished a much more extensive display. I am wont
to look to this department for the taste and industry of the ladies ;
this very essential adornment of all our agricultural fairs is
mainly dependent on tliem. We seldom find men who have
much taste for the cultivation of flowers, and if we do, it requires
the skill of the fairer sex to arrange them in the most attractive
form.

I need not speak of the infinite variety of fancy articles ; they
did great credit to those who manufactured and presented them.
I was very much interested in the products of the dairy ; those
splendid cheese, not so much in repute now as in former time,
still enough so to attract the attention of many admirers.
Who could fail to desire at least one of them ? In tliis how-
ever, I was doomed to be disappointed ; my Berkshire cheese
I have never seen. The entries of butter and bread were very
large, and from appearance, of such excellence as to do great
credit to the fair housewives of old Berkshire.

I was somewhat disappointed in not finding any exhibition of
heavy manufactures as Berkshire, has the reputation of being a
manufacturing district.

The ploughing match was conducted in a manner highly
creditable to the farmers ; the entries were large, and every
part was executed in a superior and workmanlike manner.

From this interesting performance our attention was hastily
called to the gathering of the multitude in the hall where we
were permitted to take counsel together, and listen to admirable
instruction from our worthy secretary.

I could but admire the fine display of awards, so beautifully
arranged upon the platform. It was novel to me, it bein g the
first time I had ever witnessed such an. exhibition. It is
worthy of imitation by other societies. These beautiful articles?
ever present in the family, will remind the receiver of the source
from whence they came, and will act as a stimulus to farther

142 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

attainments. I have enumerated many things which command-
ed my approbation, and gave me a high opinion of the proceed-
ings of this ancient society, one of the oldest if not the oldest
society in oiir Commonwealth.

But there were some things witnessed which led me to fear,
that unless a check is put upon them, this old puritan stock, who
have so long inhabited the hills of Berkshire, will soon be
overrun by our young America. Their cattle shows will be
converted into horse shows and horse racing.

This subject has engaged the attention of the Board of Agri-
culture, and I find some admirable resolutions passed by the
Board in the transactions of 1856 ; still I fear this is a growing
evil. I have witnessed it not only at Pittsfield, but in other
places ; it permeates every class of society. In connection with
it the worst vices are engendered, such as gambling and
drinking.

I am a great admirer of the horse and would encourage our
farmers in raising the best breeds. The exhibition of these
animals at Pittsfield, showed the great care which had been
taken to select the very best, and had those on exhibition been
controlled within the design of the society, it would have formed
one of the grandest features of the occasion. As I had occasion
to say then, in remarking upon this subject, there was a little
too much horse ; so say I now, altogether too much. All other
interests seemed to be absorbed in this one thing. Nor did it
cease when the day closed, but a fresh start was taken for the
morrow ; and even after the society had finished its proceed-
ings placards announced to the public that a purse of one
hundred dollars had been made up, and a race was to take
place tlie next day on the society's grounds. Thus the fast
spirit enkindled at the opening of the exhibition could not be
checked at its close. In this whirlpool of excitement, both old
and young, rich and poor, priest and people, were borne away,
and the design of this annual festival was in a great measure
lost sight of. I am gratified to know that a large majority of
the members of this society disapprove of the course pursued ;
and as the friends of agriculture, and the lovers of good order,
they will speedily adopt measures to prevent the occurrence of
like scenes again.

Nathan Durfee.

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 14^

HOUSATONIC.

The seventeenth annual cattle show and fair of the Housa-
tonic Agricultural Society was held at Great Barrington on
Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, 22d, 23d, and 24th of
September last ; and notwithstanding the inclemency of the
weather, which was very severe for the season, the show
and the attendance were generally considered quite equal if
not superior to that of any one which has preceded it.

Early on the first day, the grounds were well filled with a
fine show of cattle, cows, heifers, sheep, hogs and poultry, and
the capacious hall of the society was occupied on the one side
with household manufactures, including paintings and em-
broidery, &c., and on the other was a fine display of upwards
of one hundred tubs of butter, and quantities of cheese, bread,
honey, vegetables, seeds, &c., and in the centre were exhibited
the fruits and flowers.

The cattle and cows were the finest which I have seen at
either of the few shows whicli I have attended.

The butter was generally of excellent quality, and the vege-
tables unsurpassed ; and finer specimens of seed corn are not to
be found. There was some good fruit and a few flowers ; but
in these I was disappointed ; and the fields of corn and other
grains of the surrounding country told that it was rather to
the substantial of life than to the luxuries that the farmers of
Berkshire had devoted most of their energies. The old moss-
grown apple trees, with broken limbs reaching to the ground,
and stunted, gnarled fruit, seen in many an orchard, told the
same tale. Occasionally there are to be seen a few vigorous
young trees with fine fruit, showing what can be done when
there is a will ; and if the farmers will pay a little more atten-
tion to this department, they will find their fruits equal in
abundance to their milk and honey.

On the second day of the show the horses were exhibited ;
and from early morn until noon the road was thronged with
vehicles, and early in the day the hall and grounds were filled
with anxious spectators ; and the show of horses, old and
young, and their trials of speed, seemed to stand first in inter-
est and attraction.

144 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

The morning of the third day opened with steady, copious
rain, and the numbers on the ground were few ; but at the
appointed hour eighteen horses and eiglit ox teams were on
hand with their ploughs and plouglimen, and at tlie word of
command all went ahead without regard to mud or rain,
showing that the ploughmen were not disposed to look back,
and that they were not salt to be dissolved. In about forty
minutes they finished their work in good style, and all i-epaired
to the hall to see the lion, and hear the reports . and the
address.

The president, Daniel B. Fenn, Esq., called to order and
introduced Stephen E. Burrall, Esq., of New York, who
extended a hearty welcome (in a speech said to be " of great
beauty and eloquence,") to Capt. Hudson of the U. S. navy ;
to which the gallant captain responded in a style characteristic
of the sailor, thanking them for the honor, and expressing his
pleasure at being present and participating in a farmers' festi-
val. Then Marshall Warren, Esq., delivered an address, full
of beauty and useful suggestions. Next followed the reading
of the reports and delivery of the awards in silver plate. This
to me was a new thing, and worthy of imitation.

The whole show was highly successful, and all seemed
pleased and happy. To the president, Mr. Fenn, the chief
marshal, Mr. Dewey, Mr. Bushnell, and a host of others, farm-
ers of Berkshire, I am greatly indebted for a hearty welcome,
and kind attentions at the fair and elsewhere ; and I shall
always remember my visit to the Housatonic amongst the
pleasant occasions of my life.

E. W. Gardner.

NORFOLK.

As the regularly appointed delegate from the State Board of
Agriculture, I attended the Cattle Show and Fair of the Norfolk
County Agricultural Society, holden at Dedham, September
28 and 29, 1858.

The weather being most delightful gave free scope for a full
manifestation of the interest felt in the society's exhibition, by

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 145

the crowding thousands who poured into the town by every
avenue and by all means of locomotion.

This society, although only in its tenth year, has in the Hon.
M. P. Wilder, its president, and some of its members, such
essential elements of success as to have placed it in position far
beyond many of the other societies, numbering over 1,300
members.

The ploughing match was largely attended, and was contested
by eleven competitors, most of whom performed their work in
a creditable manner.

The spading match which succeeded, and which afforded
much amusement, was entered into by some half dozen of our
adopted fellow citizens with characteristic impetuosity ; the sod
was thoroughly inverted, and the ground left in handsome
condition.

Lacking the attribute of ubiquity, I did not see the drawing
match which took place about the same time, but proceeded to
the examination of the stock in general. The display of horses
was very fine, said to be' the best ever made in the county ; in
number over one hundred and twenty-five.

Several very stylish and well built horses were entered as
" thorough-bred ; " some of which might have been, and others
were not. The committee properly withheld the first and second
premiums. I think there is too often a laxity on the part of
committees in not strictly requiring an authentic pedigree of
animals entered as " thorough-bred."

Men enter " thorough-bred " stock at our shows to add to
the notoriety of the animals and themselves, and to make
money from the services and progeny of such animals. On the
strength of the award of the committee, which is a guaranty of
the animal, they get great prices and reputation. Committees,
therefore, should see to it that their warranties are made good
by satisfactory evidence, and not merely by the assurance of an
obliging neighbor, or to gratify a personal friend who may be
quite sure the thing is all right, but doesn't happen to have
the proof.

Several pairs of very handsome matched horses were driven
round the track and numerous good roadsters.

Of the " neat stock " there was a large number ; some pure
blooded stock, some grades judiciously crossed, and some quite

19«

146 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the reverse. What can any person expect by crossing a Jersey
on to an Ayrshii'e ?

Fine animals are got by In-eeding the Jerseys or the Ayr-
sliires upon our larger varieties of cattle ; and probably these
crosses will be of more value to the people at large than the
pure blooded animals, which rule too high prices to become
generally owned. Great judgment, therefore, should be exer-
cised in crossing, to grade, not degrade.

Decidedly the finest part of this show was Motley's herd of
some twenty-five Jerseys — undoubtedly the finest herd of that
blood in this country, if not in the world. His cows, espe-
cially, cannot be surpassed. Mr. Hunnewell and Mr, Andrews
also showed superior Jersey stock.

Of pure Ayrshires there were but few ; a bull of Mr. Draper,
and a heifer of Mr. Capen were noticeable. Of native stock
and grades there were many — some very good. Two very fine
cows, grade Jersey, famous for their milk, were exhibited by
the able president, Hon. M. P. Wilder.

There were some capital swine, made up of different breeds ;
and the show of poultry was also remarkably good.

The sheep were not many in number, but very good. I
believe that the Oxford Downs, of Mr. Motley, are not sur-
passed as a breed by any sheep in this country.

The display in the hall belonging to the society was in most
departments excellent, particularly of fruits and flowers. Hon.
M. P. Wilder exhibited over one hundred varieties of pears.
A large entry of superior vegetables was also made.

At twelve o'clock, on Wednesday, the large church was well
filled, when after a few well-timed remarks by the president,
the address was delivered by J. S. Eldridge, Esq., of Canton —
ornate, elaborate, and well delivered. I ought not to omit
mention of a very graceful hymn sung before the address,
written by Rev. C. C. Sewall, of Medfield. From the church
we returned to the large upper hall in the society's building,
where, instead of the usual dinner provided for the society, was
a simple collation for the invited guests. The main part of the
hall was occupied by the ladies of the various towns of the
county, for a fair, the proceeds of which were to be devoted to
payment of the society's debt — a most praiseworthy purpose,
and which, judging from the hungry hundreds present, and the

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 147

captivating way in which they were served, must have been
crowned with eminent success.

The first sentiment proposed was, " The Commonwealth," to
which His Excellency Governor Banks responded in a sensible,
eloquent and effective speech, most creditable to the man, and
to the State which is honored by him. It was enthusiastically
received. A sentiment complimentary to this Board was
acknowledged by your delegate. Mr. Eldridge, Rev. Mr.
Means, and Mr. Howard, were then successively called out, and
spoke.

This tenth show of this society is said to have been the most
successful it has ever holden, and in point of numbers, the
largest in the State.

As the delegate of the State Board, I was treated with kind
attention, — and I specially desire to thank Hon. M. P. Wilder,
the ever courteous and considerate president, for unceasing
kindness.

James S. Geennell.

BRISTOL.

As delegate from the State Board of Agriculture, I attended
the cattle show and fair of the Bristol County Agricultural
Society, held at Taunton in September last.

The weather was propitious, and Taunton was thronged
with the rural population, evincing a deep and popular interest
in the exhibition.

The show of stock was upon grounds of the Messrs. White,
near the village, which was very respectable, both in numbers
and quality, comprising several different grades and native
stock, with but a small sprinkling of pure blood.

The number of horses on exhibition was small, and not of an
extra quality, though I noticed some fine young animals giving
promise of improvement in future.

The number of swine was small, but good in quality.

The small number of sheep on exhibition indicated a want
of interest in that pleasant and profitable branch of husbandry,

148 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and may we not hope that the time is not distant, when bj the
aid of the dog law, and a judicious adjustment of the tariff, we
may again see our liills and plains stocked with those useful
animals.

The show of fowls was large and excellent.

I did not witness the ploughing match, but was informed
that twenty-eight teams entered tlic list for competition, and
the contest was spirited, and the work as a whole was well
executed in the presence of a crowd of spectators.

I witnessed the drawing match, which was engaged in with
much spirit by thirty competitors. Many of the teams were
fine, and showed excellent training. The large numbers
present showed this to be an important feature of the exhibition.

Central Hall was devoted to the display of manufactures and
the fine arts, bread and the products of the dairy, fruit, flowers
and vegetables.

The show of bread, butter and cheese would be an honor to
any society in the State.

The show of fruit was rich and varied, comprising many of
the choicest varieties of apples, peai's, peaches, plums, and
grapes. The grapes particularly were the finest I ever saw.

The vegetable kingdom was not well represented, hardly a
sufficient variety for a farmer's dinner, though there were some
fine specimens.

The number and variety of manufactures was not large, but
excellent in design and workmanship. The fancy articles were
numerous, beautifully arranged, and made a fine display.

I was not present the second day, but have been informed it
was pleasantly and profitably occupied, the society holding
their annual meeting in the morning, (an arrangement worthy
of imitation by other societies,) and a public entertainment in
the afternoon, in which some four or five hundred ladies and
gentlemen participated. Dr. Nathan Durfee, the president of
the society, presiding.

In conclusion, I would mention with gratitude the kind and
gentlemanly reception given your humble delegate by the offi-
cers and others of the society.

Cyrus Knox.

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 149

BARNSTABLE.

It was ray privilege to attend the fourteenth annual festival
of the Barnstable County Agricultural Society, at Barnstable,
on the fifth and sixth days of October.

The fair was held on the grounds of the society, which are
beautifully located, and on which they have a track for the
exhibition of horses, and a large and commodious hall, well
adapted to the wants of this large and flourishing society. The
entering, arranging, and examination of stock, and articles in
the hall, and the ploughing match, occupied the first day.

But little good stock was exhibited. This county is not as
much noted for its agriculture as it is for its commerce and the
fisheries. It consists, as is well known, of the narrow peninsula
of Cape Cod, some seventy miles in length, and for a considera-
ble part of this distance not more than three miles in width, the
distance to the fair in some cases being more than fifty miles.
The soil for the most part is sand, and not as well adapted to
the raising of stock as some other parts of the State. The show
of cattle was not what it should have been. There are a great
many good cattle on the Cape — as good cows as are to be found
in the State, but for some reason they were not at the fair*
There were exhibited some very good two and three years old
steers, well matched, of native blood, some good heifers, and a
superior calf five months old weighing 470 pounds. A good
display of mares and colts, and some fine young horses. No
matched, farm, or carriage horses, or fast horses, came under
my notice ; some good swine, and a few sheep. A pair of
mammoth oxen, weighing 6,000 pounds, from the State Alms-
house at Bridgewater, were exhibited by Mr, Goodspeed, the
superintendent. They attracted great attention.

The lower floor of the hall was well filled with all those
articles of domestic manufacture, vegetables, fruits, flowers and
fancy articles, which are usually seen at any of our county fairs.
The vegetables were of the first order, and I saw some as good
apples, pears, quinces and cranberries, as I have ever seen.

In the ladies' department there was much to admire ; beautiful
flowers, and a large amount of useful, ornamental, and fancy

150 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

articles. To me there is no part of our exhibitions more im-
portant, attractive or interesting. To the ladies we are greatly
indebted for much of the success attending these annual festi-
vals, and I would that they be more encouraged to present for
exhibition those beautiful articles of their industry, by being
more liberally remembered in the distribution of the premiums.
The presence of the ladies at our fairs is indispensable. Vice
in all its forms ; profanity, vulgarity and rowdyism of every
hue, is checked and restrained, and even the drunken loafer is
more a man in their presence. Where they lead, success is sure
to follow. Of the great multitude present on the second day,
filling the hall in all its parts and the grounds adjacent, I verily
believe that more than three-fifths were ladies. The success of
this society is a " fixed fact."

The ploughing match, which is so attractive and draws
together such great numbers of people in other parts of the
State, caused but little excitement here.

There was no exhibition of horses on the course that I saw,
except the ladies' riding, which came off in the forenoon of the
second day amid a great crowd of highly delighted and interested
spectators. They were fearless, dashing riders, performing
admirably, and managing their horses with great skill and
judgment. It was the first equestrianship of ladies on the
course, and the excitement was intense. "Where thousands are
made so happy, and receive so much pleasure, at so little
expense, why not allow it ?

The dinner on the second day, was the crowning feature of
the exhibition. It was served in the large upper room of the
hall, where four hundred ladies and gentlemen and invited
guests partook of an excellent dinner. After being duly disposed
of, the president of the society introduced the Hon. Emory
Washburn, who proceeded to give the annual address in a speech
of great ability and eloquence. It was an eminently good,
practical, common sense speech, and was received with decided
approbation by an attentive audience.

After the address, a beautiful harvest hymn, written for the
occasion by F. W. Crocker, Esq., was sung to the tune of Old
Hundred, in which the whole audience joined. Some remarks
were then made by the president, relative to the affairs of the
society, followed by interesting speeches from his excellency

REPORTS OP COMMITTEES. 151

Governor Banks, Major Brinley, Commander of the Ancient and
Honorable Artillery Company, who was present, Hon. John
S. Keyes, of Concord, George S. Taft, Esq., of Uxbridge, Hon.
T. D. Eliot, of New Bedford, Colonel Isaac H. Wright, and some
others, which occnpied the entire afternoon. Never was I
present on any occasion when the after-dinner speeches were all
so excellent, and of so h'igh an order. I regretted exceedingly
that the speeches were not free to all, without the necessity of
attending the dinner, or that any should have been excluded
from the hall and dinner to mal\:e room for invited guests. And
I also regretted that there was no time to hear the reports
of the committees, or the awards of the premiums.

The exhibition closed with a splendid ball in the evening, at
the agricultural hall, in which large numbers participated.

I would here acknowledge my indebtedness to Captain Alex-
ander Baxter and the members of his family for great kindness
and hospitality.

Finally, the exhibition in most of its departments, was well
sustained, and there was evidence of an increased interest, which
speaks well for the future prosperity and usefulness of this
society.

S. H. BUSHNELL.

NANTUCKET.

In accordance with my appointment by the Massachusetts
Board of Agriculture, I attended the third cattle show and fair
of the Nantucket Agricultural Society, held on the 13th and
14th of October.

The grounds of the society for the exhibition of stock, are
just out of the village, and are very pleasantly located, having
a fine view of the village, and looking oif on to old ocean, as
though defying her and saying thus far and no farther shalt
thou come. Tlie grounds are not large, but large enough for
the use of the society, which is yet in its infancy, but whose
members are anticipating a large growth. The weather of the
first day was rainy, and very unpropitious for the exhibition of
stock of any kind. I visited the grounds about ten o'clock.

152 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and found on them thirty-two cows, two yokes of oxen, four
bulls, thirteen two and three years old cattle and seventeen
horses. The cows, some of them, would compare quite favorably
with the best at the exhibition of other societies in the State ;
also the young stock. The oxen and bulls would not. Should
judge the horses to be good for the farm ; for speed probably
would not exceed 2:89^-. Sheep, sWine, poultry — none on
exhibition. I was informed by the president of the society
that the farmers were becoming interested in it, and intended
to bring in more of their stock, but were prevented by tlie rain.

The ploughing match, it was supposed, would not take place
as by the programme, on account of the rain ; but it did. I
was not there, and therefore cannot speak of its merits.

From the show grounds I next visited the great centre of
attraction for Nantucket people, and all visitors to the island
on this occasion, — the Athenasum Hall, — which I found alive
and full of the most intelligent and industrious ladies that I
ever saw, who were decorating and fitting it up in the most
splendid style. Among the decorations were evergreens and
mottoes extending from one end of the hall to the other,
flowers of all descriptions, fruit with flowers formed into pyra-
mids, bouquets, wax figures, paintings, and shells with mosses
from old ocean and land, all, all tastefully arranged by the
ladies, forming a most beautiful sight. In one corner of the
room I observed some very nice house plants, and over them
this motto, " we bloom in beauty." Back of the stage were
hung paintings, shells tastefully arranged in frames, and over
them the motto, " These are Thy glorious works. Parent of
good," and others I might mention.

The needle work by the ladies was very fine, and much of it
was pronounced by good judges, who were visitors on the
occasion, to be equal to the best of French work. Fruit of
all kinds, very fine, (with the exception of apples,) grapes,
peaches, quinces, finer than I ever saw before. The sight was
most beautiful to behold.

In one of the lower rooms of the building was the exhibition
of vegetables, which was good, potatoes, carrots, beets, turnips?
onions, pumpkins, squash, — all were large and fine ; some corn,
which was a very good specimen of the above vegetables.
There was not a great display of butter ; there was but one

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 153

entry, which was nice. Of cheese there was none on ex-
hibition.

In the evening the hall was lighted by gas, and the scene was
magnified to its utmost extent ; it was crowded to its great-
est capacity by both gentlemen and ladies, and the evening was
spent in a very pleasant manner. Speeches were made by dif- .
ferent individuals, interspersed with music on the piano and
other instruments, accompanied with singing. Presuming that
the exercises were satisfactory to all, on the second day I took a
horse and bnggy and rode out to Siasconset, my object being to
see if the island home was as barren as represented. I found a
large part of it lying to waste, but believe a greater portion of
it might, by judicious management, be brouglit under a good
system of cultivation. In passing along I stopped and conversed
with a farmer whose lands looked as thougii they were well
managed. He informed me that he commenced there some
eleven years since, and that he carried all the hay he cut the
first year, into his barn on his one horse cart, and that without
side boards ; that this year he cut some twenty or thirty tons.
If that is a fact, it shows what may be done on a large part of
the island.

Another had raised from one acre of land sixty bushels of
corn. I believe that almost every thing that conduces to the sus-
tenance of man may be raised, if proper attention is given to it.
On my return I passed some well cultivated farms, on another
road, if roads they may be called. I presume there would be
a difference of opinion on that subject.

The evening of the second day was spent as the first, with
the addition of an able and instructive address by Mr.
Wetherell, of Boston, which was listened to with a good deal of
attention by a large portion of the audience. Also, some
remarks by Judge Marstwn, of Barnstable, which were well
received.

In conclusion, I would most truly express my acknowledg-
ment to Capt. E. W. Gardner, president of the society, and
others, for their cordial kindness extended to me, and can say
that the two days were spent very pleasantly by me.

Charles K. Tracy.

20*

154 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

NATIONAL HORSE SHOW AT SPRINGFIELD.

The undersigned, having been appointed as delegates from
the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture to attend the
National Horse Show at Springfield, attended to the duty
assigned them, and were highly pleased and gratified with the
exhibition throughout.

Limiting ourselves to a simple commendation, however, would
not be doing justice to the society under whoso auspices the
show was held, or to the spirited and energetic officers and
directors who managed it.

The whole plan of the exhibition must have been thoroughly
matured to have enabled the managers to carry it through with
so little apparent effort, and the greatest vigilance and activity
were required to execute, from day to day, and from hour to
hour, what had been carefully arranged long before.

The good order which everywhere prevailed was not the
least remarkable feature of the week's proceedings ; and the
bringing together of fifteen or twenty thousand people, men,
women and children, and again their subsequent dispersion,
without confusion and without riot, speaks volumes in praise,
not only of those who conducted the exhibition, but also of
those who were present upon that interesting occasion. Such a
scene, repeated from day to day for nearly a week, can be
witnessed in no other country.

With regard to the animals exhibited, there can be no ques-
tion as to their unrivaled superiority in one department, that of
speed, and it is believed that never before have there been
brought together so many fine stallions, both trotters and
breeders.

Whether speed, however, was not made too much the great
test, to the exclusion of other desirable qualities, in almost
every department, was a query which suggested itself to us,
only to be answered in the affirmative. Roadsters are not the
only class of horses which we require; nor if it were, is speed
the only requisite qualification.

An exhibition called " National," prepared with the expense,
the labor, and the enterprise, which crowned this with success,

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 155

should be calculated for great ulterior views, not simply to
gratify a host of people with the excitements of a race course.

The stand point at which the institution of horse shows
should be regarded is, not the temporary pleasure which they
may afford to those who visit them, but their public utility; and
in the further remarks which we have to offer, we propose to
keep this steadily in view. The result of this, and a succession
of splendid displays like this, should show from year to year a
marked improvement in the breed of horses for every purpose
to which that noble animal is subservient to man.

It is much to be regretted that more attention has not been
paid to raising a class of working horses, those especially
best adapted for the purposes of draft, and truly designated,
" the horse of all work."

The profit of breeding horses for speed is a very doubtful one.
But there is no doubt tliat if more care were used by our
farmers in breeding only from good sized mares with horses of
good size and bone, and well proportioned for work, it would
be reasonably remunerative. Horses of this description can
be bred with certainty. They may be good for the carriage,
they may prove fast ; but if deficient in speed and style, tliey
have, if of good size, a high value as horses for draft. A well
made, stout animal, fit for a tpam horse in the city of Boston, will
fetcli from two to three hundred dollars at four years old ; a
greater price than the average of all the trotting horses in the
country at the same age.

In England, where the breeding of all classes of horses is
equally attended to, the working horse, such as the Clydesdale
horse, the Cleveland Bay and the Suffolk Punch, used for car-
riage, and farming, and training purposes, are the only ones
which show an agricultural profit in raising. The horses for
the turf are bred principally by those who possess large landed
interests, and who continue the practice as much from a sense
of duty as from the individual pleasure derived from it, but
without any realization or expectation of profit. Hence it is that
fast horses in England do not appear on the premium lists of
any agricultural show in England. The race course is their
arena, and they mar, more often than they make, the fortunes of
their owners.

156 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The Cleveland Bays are perhaps the best breed for New Eng-
land use. They are lighter in form and carriage than the Clydes-
dale and serve almost as well for the team as for the road. They
are of the class of the old English carriage horses, and easily
converted to any other nse.

The introduction of mowing machines, and other new agricul-
tural implements to be worked by horses, makes attention to
this subject of daily increasing importance to the agriculturist,
both as a breeder and as a worker of horses.

The Hampden County Agricultural Society has been the first
to take the field in horse shows with a view to the improvement
of the breed, and as it should do, will retain the pre-eminence.
The grounds at Springfield are admirably adapted to such
displays, and with each successive year improvements will
doubtless be made, suggested by experience.

Your committee, in view of these circumstances, would ven-
ture to suggest that this general object, the improvement of the
breeds of horses, can be best attained by continuing and syste-
matizing an annual horse fair or market, to be held at a fixed
time and place, — for example at Springfield, — whither ease of
access by all the railways in the country, the beautiful grounds
with convenient appurtenances, and the spirit and enterprise
and open-handed liberality of its citizens, all invite.

Such a market instead of being held once in every year might
perhaps successfully commence with holding one semi-annually,
say on a given day in May and in October, and we feel assured
that our friends at Springfield, when it became a " fixed fact,"
would see a greater attendance than was brought together at
the late show, both of men and animals. The attendance
would be more gratifying likewise, because it would be the
natural, wholesome coming together of people engaged in an
important branch of agricultural industry, which the magnitude
of the transactions and exchanges effected upon the occasion
would alone serve to measure.

This market would be a school which is very much needed in
this country. It requires but little wit to know which horse
wins a race, if one stands at the winning post, or which animal
draws the heaviest weight, after looking at the tests; but it does
require sagacity and great experience to select the best horse for
any given purpose from a number which may be presented.

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 157

This knowledge is gained by large markets and by the advantage
thus afforded of observation and comparison. In this way it is,
that breeders who bring their products to a mart like this learn
to measTire the extent of their own deficiencies by seeing the
excellences of others; each finds something to learn from those
who are engaged in the same occupation, and but few will return
to their homes without having acquired some new hints and
ideas, which will appear afterwards in an improved class of
animals at the market. Thus, these markets become a practical
school of instruction, and result in the improvement of the race
of horses generally, whether bred for one purpose or another.

One very important point of view for the interest of the
breeder, we wish to suggest, which is, that the establishment of
a regular market day like the one proposed, will enable those
who undertake this branch of agricultural industry, to breed
with a certainty as to a market and with less of a lottery than
it now is, as to price. The effect of an open, large and fixed
market, as is proposed in this case, would be to bring together a
large concourse of those who wish to buy and those who wish
to sell. They stand upon a neutral ground. It is not a seller
going to seek a purchaser or a purchaser going to seek a seller ;
but they meet there fairly and openly for the purpose of a
bargain. Now it is well known that such methods of transact-
ing business, whether of horses or of any thing else, tends to
establish a general tone or rate as to prices, — an average,
which is necessarily a fair one. If a breeder or seller has in
the opinion of a purchaser pitched his expectations too high,
the purchaser looks around for some one who is more moderate
in his views, and if he finds none, it satisfies him that he has
been wrong in his calculations ; so if a seller finds he is asking
too much, because the purchaser does not come back to him,
he discovers his error and comes down in his price. A sale in
this way at a market price is made, and a market price is almost
always satisfactory. As it^ is now, there is no approach to a
market price and every man is accustomed to ask twice what he
hopes to get for any animal that he offers.

There is another advantage in these markets which ought not
to pass unnoticed. The seller and the buyer for his own wants,
are more nearly brought together and a vast saving is effected
to both by doing away with the intermediate half a dozen

158 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

jockeyings which carry the price whicli a breeder can profitably
sell at to three times that price before the animal reaches the
person who actually wants him for use. If it were known that
horses of all kinds would be offered for sale at a horse market
on any day of the year ; if the day were entered in the almanacs
as regularly as the eclipses, the time of sunrise and sunset; if
it were made known that this was a real horse market, that no
premiums were offered, no betting allowed, no racing or trials
of speed between horses ; but that every facility would be
furnished for any one to exhibit his horse, whatever his qualifi-
cations might be, a new and brilliant era would dawn upon
this branch of agricultural enterprise.

This would bring horses of every class there. Buyers would
meet what they wanted in the number thus exhibited, and
would defer their purchases to this occasion. One day or more,
if thought advisable, might be taken for an exhibition for prizes,
which need be little more than diplomas to such as deserve it.
Such charges upon stock entered and sold might be made as
would cover the expenses attending the selling department.
These fairs or open markets are common all over Europe, and
have been found to work most successfully. Should one be
established here, it would bring persons from every part of the
United States either to sell or to buy.

This is one of those cases where a great general good might
be accomplished at a comparatively small expense. The Com-
monwealth at large is interested in it, and there would seem to
be no just reason why a small appropriation should not be made
annually to assist the carrying out some such a plan as is here
suggested.

A mere show is not enough; a passing interest is excited and
then the whole thing is forgotten. But it would be very different
with a fair established permanently, and held annually. Every
farmer or breeder who has a horse to sell, prepares him for the
annual fair. Dealers and others wishing to buy would take
advantage of such an occasion to supply themselves, and the
two classes are brought thus together from motives of self-
interest, — a far better and more regular incentive, than a love
for novelty or excitement, which is tlie motive power of too
many that now attend our agricultural shows where trials of
speed are allowed.

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 159

A great many persons attended the show at Springfield for
the purpose of making purchases, who were surprised to find
that the horses, — like fruits on the horticultural tables, — were
for exhibition only. They went away disappointed in this
respect, and would not probably repeat their visit, if only an
exhibition of animals is intended.

These suggestions are thrown out, not only for the considera-
tion of the managers and others who took an active interest in
the late show, but also for the serious consideration of the State
Board, as the first step in the initiation of a most important and
desirable system of fairs or open markets, such as have for many
years been held with such success in other countries, for the
sale of horses as well as of all other domestic animals ; and we
should be glad to have this system emanate from such a respec-
table and influential starting point as Springfield.

If this plan should be approved, its execution might well be
left to the energetic zeal and judgment of those to whom was
intrusted the charge and conduct of the late exhibition, and
from whose hands it went on to the records of the past as the
most successful thing of the kind ever attempted in this
country.

It is becoming in us at closing, to mention the kind civilities
and attentions which we received from the managers and from
citizens of Springfield.

RiCHAED S. Fay.
Paoli Lathrop.
James S. 'Grennell.

APPENDIX.

AGRICULTURAL MUSEUM.

[The Collection of Rocks, Minerals and Fossils, in the State Cabinet, was
obtained during the Geological Surveys of Massachusetts, between the years
1830 and 1840, by Dr. Edward Hitchcock, State Geologist, and he has
furnished the following statement in regard to it. Later additions have been
made and the entire collection has been rearranged and relabelled by him.]

Amhekst College, December 1, 1858.

This Collection was made at different periods while the two Geological
Surveys of the State were in progress, so that three sets of numbers were
used, making the Catalogue appended to the Final Report quite incon-
venient. A diff'erent arrangement is now practicable, and has been adopted.
Each rock has now a separate series of numbers, so that additions can here-
after be made to them by merely extending that series, without disturbing the
regular order.

The progress of Geology, also, since the Surveys were made, make some
changes desirable. Additional discoveries have, in some cases, led us to alter
the place of rocks upon the geological scale. But the doctrines respecting
the Mctamorphisni of Rocks have produced the greatest alterations. Probably
all geologists now agree in the opinion that all the rocks in the earth's crust,
stratified and unstratified, have undergone important modifications through
the influence of heat and water — that is, are Metamorphic. But the inquiry
as to the nature and condition of the rocks before their metamorphosis is a
much more difficult subject, on which geologists will have different opinions.
Some take the ground that all stratified rocks were once fossiliferous ; and it
is quite common now to maintain that such was the case with all those in
Massachusetts and New England generally. Others believe that thick deposits
of stratified rocks were made before the creation of animals and plants, and
these they call Hypozoic Rocks. That they have been subject to metamor-
phosis is admitted, but it has been a change from a less to a more crystalline
condition, and not from fossiliferous to non-fossillferous. This latter change,
also, it is admitted, has passed upon some rocks, making them exceedingly to
resemble the Hypozoic Rocks. That this change has been extensively pro-
duced upon the rocks of Massachusetts can hardly be doubted. But I am
not prepared to say that we have no hypozoic strata protruding through the
metamorphic, which were once fossiliferous. Nor can I as yet identify all the
metamorphic strata with the original Silurian and Devonian formations out of

iv APPENDIX.

which they were probably formed. In such circumstances, I judge it best to
give the names according to the lithological characters, in which all agree
(ex. gr. gneiss, mica slate, talcose slate, argillaceous slate, hornblende slate,
limestone, &c.), and in the heading of each rock indicate, so far as we know»
from what fossiliferous rock it was derived. In some cases we feel quite con-
fident what that rock was. For Instance, coal plants have recently been
found in the deposits extending north-easterly from Worcester down the Mer-
rimack, marked on the Geological Map of the State and in the Catalogue as
argillaceous and mica slate. The rock near Boston in which trilobites have
been found is put into the Silurian and Cambrian formation. We are con-
vinced that the limestones of Berkshire county belong to the older Silurian
series, and not Improbably all the other beds of this rock in the State have
the same age, except perhaps that in Bernardston, which is probably as high
in the series as the Devonian. But we have thought it best to leave all the
limestones together, hoping that some organic relics may reward future
researches. It seems now, also, to be proved that the Quartz Rock of Berk-
shire county is metamorphosed Potsdam Sandstone, containing, as it does in
Vermont, the LInguIa and Scolithus. But perhaps the quartz from other
localities may not be of the same age, and, therefore, we leave all the quar-
troze aggregates together under their lithological name.

Perhaps it ought to be added that the term Mctamorphie, as here used, Is
limited to the changes which fossiliferous and not hypozoic rocks have under-
gone.

APPENDIX.

CATALOGUE.

The references in this catalogue (not as to numbers but descriptions) are to Hitchcock's Final
Report on the Geology of Massachusetts : printed in 1841.

STRATIFIED ROCKS.
ALLUVIUM.

L Soils.
■>/l. Alluvium, Deerfield.
■yy 2. Alluvium, Northampton.
~/ 3. Alluvium, Deerfield.

4. Alluvium, Northampton.

5. Alluvium, Northfield.

6. Alluvium, Northampton.

7. Alluvium, West Springfield.

8. Alluvium, Westfield.

9. Alluvium, AVestfield.

10. Alluvium, Stockbridge.

11. Alluvium, Hadley.

12. Alluvium, Sheffield.

13. Alluvium, Deerfield.

14. Alluvium, West Springfield.

15. Argillaceous alluvium, Springfield.

16. Argillaceous alluvium, Northampton.

17. Argillaceous alluvium, Plymouth.

18. Argillaceous alluvium, Barnstable.

19. Argillaceous alluvium. Sandwich.

20. Sandy alluvium, Wareham. ^

21. Sandy alluvium, Springfield.

22. Sandy alluvium, uncultivated, Northampton.

23. Loamy alluvium, Amherst.

24. Sandy alluvium, Sheffield.

25. Sandy alluvium, Truro.

26. Sandy alluvium, Barnstable.

27. Sandy alluvium, Gloucester.

v28. Connecticut River Sandstone soil, Deerfield.
\29. Connecticut River Sandstone soil, Longmeadow.
V30. Connecticut River Sandstone soil, Wilbraham.
V31. Connecticut River Sandstone soil. West Springfield.

vi APPENDIX.

V^ 32. Gray Sandstone soil, Granby.

\J 33. Paleozoic soil, Dorchester.

y 34. Paleozoic soil, Roxbury.

>/3o. Paleozoic soil, Brookline.

y36. Paleozoic soil, Walpole.

y37. Paleozoic soil, Dighton.

'y/38. Paleozoic soil, Middleborough.

y 39. Paleozoic soil, Quincy.

V 40. Paleozoic soil. West Bridgewater.
V' 41. Paleozoic soil, Watertown.

\ *42. Paleozoic soil, Halifax.

V 43. Paleozoic soil, Cambridge.
•/44. Paleozoic soil, Taunton.

/ 45. Paleozoic soil, Attleborough, east part.

V 46. Paleozoic soil, Attleborough, west part.
V47. Argillaceous slate soil, Lancaster.

V 48. Argillaceous slate soil. Sterling.

y49. Argillaceous slate soil, Townsend.

\/50. Argillaceous slate soil, Lancaster.

V51. Argillaceous slate soil, Boston Corner.

\/ 52. Magnesian hmestone soil, Marlborough.
n/ 53. Magnesian limestone soil, Lanesborough.

V 54. Magnesian limestone soil. Great Barrington.

V 55. Magnesian limestone soil, Adams.

V 56. Limestone soil. Saddle Mountain, Adams.
>y 57. Limestone soil, Richmond.

/" 58. Limestone soil. South Lee.

V 59. Limestone soil, Egremont.

V 60. Limestone soil, Williamstown.
y^L Limestone soil, Stockbridge.
■^'62. Limestone soil, Pittsfield.
V63. Limestone soil, Sheffield.

v^4. Limestone soil. West Stockbridge.

'^ 65. Mica slate soil. West Boylston.

'^ 66. Mica slate soil, Webster.

* 67. Mica slate soil, Lunenburg.

"/68. Mica slate soil, Stockbridge Mountain.

V 69. Mica slate soil, Huntington.
v70. Mica slate soil, Bradford.

y 7L Mica slate soil. West Newbury.
y/ 72. Mica slate soil, Methuen.

V 73. Mica slate soil, Pepperell.

V 74. Mica slate soil, Norwich.

V 75. Mica slate soil, Conway.
76. Mica slate soil, Russell.

V 77. Mica slate soil, West Newbury.

V 78. Talcose slate soil, West Chester.

APPENDIX. vii

'* 79. Talcose slate soil, Charlemont.

80. Talcose slate soil, Becket.
\/81. Talcose slate soil, Rowe.
\j^1. Talcose slate soil. Mount Washington.
v^83. Talco-micaceous slate soil, Florida.
V"84. Talco-micaceous slate soil, Hancock,
v 85. Gneiss soil, Tewksbury.
/^86. Gneiss soil, Stow.
v87. Gneiss soil, Bolton.
• 88. Gneiss soil, Uxbridge.
-. 89. Gneiss soil, Mendon.
"^ 90. Gneiss soil, Tj'ngsborough.

V 91. Gneiss soil, Holden.

•92. Gneiss soil, Dudley. ,

-^93. Gneiss soil, Templeton.
y 94. Gneiss soil, Rutland.
V- 95. Gneiss soil, Westminster.

V 96. Gneiss soil, Royalston.
/97. Gneiss soil, Fitchburg.

V 98. Gneiss soil. Petersham.
v99. Gneiss soil. New Braintrec.

vlOO. Gneiss soil. Palmer,
y- 101. Gneiss soil, Enfield.
\f 102. Gneiss soil, New Salem.
vl03. Gneiss soil, Leverett.
v'104. Gneiss soil. Hard wick.
1^105. Gneiss soil, Ware.

V 106. Gneiss soil, Grafton.

v< 107. Gneiss soil, Brimfield.
^108. Gneiss soil, Leicester.
'</109. Gneiss soil, Otis.
VllO. Gneiss soil, Becket.
■</ 111. Gneiss soil, Sandisfield.
vll2. Gneiss soil, Tolland.
v'llS. Gneiss soil, Northfield, South Farms.
^ 114. Gneiss soil, Buckland.

V 115. Gneiss soil, Wareham.

V 116. Gneiss soil, Sturbridge.

V 117. Gneiss soil, Brimfield.

V 118. Gneiss soil. West Brookfield.

V 119. Gneiss soil, Oakham.

^ 120. Gneiss soil, decomposing gneiss, Athol.
V* 121. Granite soil, Westhampton.

V 122. Granite soil. Concord.

V 123. Granite soil, Duxbury.
V 124. Granite soil, Andover.
Vl25. Sienite soil, Lynnfield.

viii APPENDIX.

*^126. Sienite soil, Marblehead.

V 127. Sienite soil, Manchester.

7 128. Sienite soil, Gloucester.

y 129. Sienite soil, Lexington.

/ 130. Sienite soil, Danvers.

••'131. Sienite soil, Newbury.

V 132. Sienite soil, Dedham.

/"ISS. Sienite soil, Wrentham.

"/134. Sienite soil. North Bridgewater

\/l35. Sienite soil, Weymouth.

yl36. Sienite soil, Sharon.

•f- 137. Sienite soil, Marshfield.

n/ISS. Sienite soil, Abington.

Y 139. Porphyry soil, Kent's Island, Newbury.

1 140. Porphyry soil, Medford.

\/ 141. Porphyry soil. Maiden.

, 142. Porphyry soil, Lynn.

7 143. Greenstone soil, Ipswich.

V^144. Greenstone soil, Woburn.

v'' 145. Greenstone soil, Deerfield.

/ 146. Greenstone soil, Belchertown. New land, never manured.

v/147. Ferruginous limestone soil, Saddle Mountain.

^"148. Soil from Rushville, Illinois.

^149. Soil from Sangamon County, Illinois.

\,rl50. Soil from Lazelle County, Illinois.

Vl51. Soil from Peoria County, Illinois.

\/152. Soil from Scioto Valley, Ohio.

II. Clay, Sands, Marls, Ochres and Drift.
V/' 1. Muck sand, Sunderland.
V2. Muck sand, Bradford.
/ 3. Muck sand. West Springfield.
V 4. Muck sand, Hadley.
v^ 5. Muck sand, Sheffield,
y'' 6. Muck sand, Northfield.
'^' 7. Muck sand, Amherst,
y 8. Muck sand, Leominster.
yj 9. Marsh mud, Cambridge.
y'lO. Marsh mud, Newburyport.
n/II. Marsh mud, Medford.
yd2. Alluvial clay, Newbury.
x/l3. Alluvial clay, Manchester.
>/ 14. Alluvial clay, Northfield.
\/15. Alluvial clay, Sunderland.
Vl6. Alluvial clay, Amherst.
17. Alluvial clay, Kingston.
</18. Alluvial clay, Lowell

APPENDIX. ix

»/ 19. Porcelain clay, Norwich.

u'20. Marly clay, Williamstown.

^ 21. Marly clay, North Adams.

/" 22. Marl, Buck's Farm, Stockbridge.

V^3. Marl, Pittsfield.

v'' 24. Marl, West Stockbridge.

25. Marl, North Stockbridge.

y 26. Marl, South Pittsfield.

V 27. Marl, Sedgwick's Mills, Lee.

V'28. Calcareous alluvium, Chicopee Falls.

v"29. Calcareous alluvium. Water Shops, Springfield.

V 30. Calcareous alluvium. West Springfield.

\i 31. Siliceous marl. (Bergemehl or Mountain meal,) Spencer. [See Plate
20, figures 9 to 12.]
32. Apothemite, Newbury.

V 33. Decomposing greenstone, Mount Holyoke.
v34. Yellow ochre, Athol.

35. Yellow ochre, Monroe.

v^ 36. Yellow ochre, Newbury.

•, 37. Moulding sand, Foxborough.

V 38. Moulding sand, Montague.
y"39. Decomposed granite, Norwich.

40. Siliceous marl, or fossil infusoria, Barre.

41. Fossil Infusoria, Andover.

42. Fossil infusoria, Bridgewater.

■ , 43. Marl, Bassett's bed, near the surface, Lee.
•>/ 44. Marl, 10 feet deep, Bassett's bed, Lee.

V 45. Marl, C. Bassett's bed, Lee.
\i 46. Mai, Sedgwick's Mills, Lee.
' 47. Marl, North Stockbridge.

" 48. Marl, Farmington, Connecticut.

V 49. Alluvial clay. South Palmer.

^ 50. Alluvial clay, under Connecticut River, Springfield.

\y 51. Decomposed granite, New Jersey.

^^^52. Decomposed granite, (moulding sand for brass,) New Jersey.

V 53. Moulding sand, Albany, New York.
^ 54. Moulding sand, Shutesbury.

>/55. Moulding sand, Connecticut.
\^ 56. Yellow ochre, Bedford.
'^' 57. Yellow ochre, Harwich.

58. Moulding sand, New York.
V 59. Marly clay. South Lee.
. 60. Alluvial clay, Plymouth.

61. Chromate of potassa from the Chester chromate of Iron.
• 62. Chromate of lead from the Chester chromate of Iron.

63. Bichromate of lead from the Chester chromate of iron.
■y 64. Geate of alumina from soils.
2

X APPENDIX,

/ 65. Geate of lime from soils.

v/GG. Geate of potassa from soils,

y 67. Geine from soils.

"^GS. Sand, Leominster.

V69. Sand, Amherst.

>/'70. Sand, Lock's Pond, Shntesbury,

\/71. Pyrope sand, Brimfield.

>/72. Gravel, Leominster.

V^73. Ferruginous gravel, Leominster,
-^ 74 to 89 consists of sand, gravels and clays, from borings beneath Connecticut
River, at Springfield, executed by Major Whistler. The first eight
specimens were taken from the depths indicated, at the abutment on
the east bank, shown on the section, figure 67, by the perpendicular
line most to the lefl. The second eight were taken from beneath the
fourth pier, shown by the fifth perpendicular line, reckoning from
left to right.

» 74. Coarse sand, abutment, depth 5 feet 9 inches.

V 75. Clay, not marly, abutment, depth 7 feet.

</ 76. Clay, not marly, abutment, depth 10 feet 9 inches.
y 77. Marly clay, abutment, depth 20 feet 9 inches.
v^78. Marly clay, abutment, depth 25 feet 9 inches.

V 79. Marly clay, abutment, depth 30 feet 9 inches.

'/ 80. Sand, calcareous, abutment, depth 32 feet 9 inches.
\/ 8L Sandy gravel, calcareous, depth 39 feet 5 inches.

V 82. Coarse sand, pier No. 4, depth 5 feet.

" ,-^88. Muck sand, pier No. 4, depth 6 feet 6 inches.

\/84. Marly clay, calcareous, depth 20 feet.

\/85. Muck sand, very marly, depth 30 feet.

>/' 86. Coarse marly sand, depth 34 feet.

n/ 87. Gravel, depth 35 feet.

•J 88. Coarse sand and pebbles, depth 40 feet.

v/ 89. Gravel, depth 43 feet 6 inches.

At 45 feet from the bottom of the river were found rounded stones from
6 to 12 inches in diameter.
-•"■90 to 94 consist of clay and sand from a boring made for water in East

Boston, in 1855.
v90. Argillaceous clay, depth 135 feet.

V 91. Fine whitish clay, depth 192 feet.
>/92. Sandy clay, depth 197 feet.

\/ 93. Fragments of slate, (silurian,) depth 198 feet.
V94. Fragments of slate, (silurian,) depth 202 feet.

At this depth a salt water spring was struck, and the work abandoned.

95. Sand, consolidated, Plymouth.

96. Sand, consolidated, Pownal, Vermont.

97. Coarse sand, consolidated, Pownal, Vermont.

98. Gravel, consolidated, Pownal, Vermont.

99. Gravel, consolidated, Pownal, Vermont.

APPENDIX. ll

/lOO. Ferruginous conglomerate, Montague.

V 101. Calcareous alluvium, Springfield.

V 102. Calcareous breccia. West Stockbridge.
>/l03. Hornstone, (boulder,) Plymouth.
V'lOd. Galena from a boulder, Dedham.

105. Pyrula carica, (47 feet below the surface,) Nantucket.

106. Pyrula carica, worn, Nantucket.

107. Natica heros, Nantucket.

108. Crepidula fornicata, Nantucket. !

109. Venus Castanea, Nantucket.

110. Mactra Nantucket.

111. Clay, Amherst.
vT.12. Clay, Leominster.

113. Clay, Leominster.

114. Loamy clay, Leominster.

V 115. Clay, West Springfield.

116. Clay, Palmer.

117. Clay, Taunton.

118. Clay, rhomboidal, West Springfield.
Vll9. Clay, rhomboidal. West Springfield.

120. Clay, rhomboidal. West Springfield.

Vl21. Clay, rhomboidal, Deerfield.

122. Clay, rhomboidal, Deerfield.

123. Clay, Fuller's earth, Northampton.

Claystone Concretions. Form of a Sphere.

\/124. Claystone concretions. South Hadley. (Plate 16, figure 25.)

V 125. Claystone concretions, Holyoke.
v"' 126. Claystone concretions, Holyoke.

127. Claystone concretions, Holyoke.

128. Claystone concretions, Holyoke.
. 129. Claystone concretions, Holyoke.

V 130. Claystone concretions, Amherst.

131. Claystone concretions, Hadley.

Form of an oblate Spheroid.

132. Claystone concretions, Hadley.

133. Claystone concretions, Hadley.

134. Claystone concretions, Agawam.

135. Claystone concretions, Agawam.

136. Claystone concretions, Wethersfield, Connecticut.

137. Claystone concretions, Amherst.

V 138. Claystone concretions, Amherst.

139. Claystone concretions, Amherst.

140. Claystone concretions, Amherst.
\/141. Claystone concretions, Amherst.
>/^142. Claystone concretions, Holyoke.

xii APPENDIX.

143. Claystone concretions, Amherst.

144. Claystone concretions, Amherst.

Vl45. Claystone concretion, Hadley. (Plate 15, figure 18.)

146. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

Form of a prolate Sphei-oid.

147. Claystone concretion, Montague.
v/ 148. Claystone concretion, Montague.

vl49. Claystone concretion, Montague.

V 150. Claystone concretion, Montague.

^151. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.

V 152. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
153. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.

' 154. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.

V 155. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
^/156. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.

W 157. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
vl58. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
vi59. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
*/160. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
n/161. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
vl62. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
Vl63. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
\/l64. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
\/l65. Claystone concretion, Sunderland bridge.
Vl66. Claystone concretion, Hadley.
/ 167. Claystone concretion, Hadley.
vl68. Claystone coacretion, Hadley.
./ 169. Claystone concretion, Hadley.
y'170. Claystone concretion, Hadley.
^ 171. Claystone concretion, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
v''l72. Claystone concretion, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
■^173. Claystone concretion, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
"^174. Claystone concretion, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
v475. Claystone concretion, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
V176. Claystone concretion, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
Vl77. Claystone concretion, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
\/i78. Claystone concretion, Wethersfield, Connecticut.

Annular Claystone Concretions.
"^YIQ. Claystone concretion, Hadley. (Plate 15, figure 1.)
v/l80. Claystone concretion, Hadley. (Plate 15, figure 2.)
■\ 181. Claystone concretion, Hadley.
\/182. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

V 183. Claystone concretion, Hadley.
V184. Claystone concretion, Hadley.
n/185. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

APPENDIX. xiii

V 186. Claystone concretion, Hadley.
' 187. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

V 188. Claystone concretion, Hadley. (Plate 15, figure 4.)
\l 189. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

\ 190. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

\/191. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

192. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

■^193. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

v'194. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

*''195. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

vl96. Claystone concretion, Hadley. (Plate 15, figure 8.)

V197. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

"^198. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

■'' 199. Claystone concretion, Pladley.

V200. Claystone concretion, Hadley. (Plate 15, figure 11.)

\l 201. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

-- 202. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

v'203. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

\l 204. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

■■/ 205. Claystone concretion, Hadley.

206. Claystone concretion, Hadley. (Plate 16, figure 27.)

Lenticular Claystone Concretions.
-J 207. Claystone concretion, Amherst. (Plate 16, figure 21.)

208. Claystone concretions, Amherst.

209. Claystone concretions, Amherst.

Cylindrical Concretions.
v^210. Claystone concretion, Agawam.

211. Claystone concretion, Agawam. (Plate 17, figure 55.)
^I'"212. Claystone concretion, Hadley. »

213. Claystone concretion, Holyoke.

Compound forms, &,'c., of Claystone Concretions.

V 214. Claystone concretions, North Adams.
--N/^215. Claystone concretions. North Adams.

n/'216. Claystone concretions. North Adams.
^ 217. Claystone concretions, North Adams.

218. Claystone concretions. North Adams.

219. Claystone concretion, South Hadley.

V 220. Claystone concretion, Holyoke.
' '221. Claystone concretion, Holyoke.

Ferruginous Clay Concretions.
222. Ferruginous concretions in clay, Deerfield.
"/ 223. Ferruginous concretions in clay, Deerfield.

224. Ferruginous clay concretions, South Hadley Canal.

xiv APPENDIX.

225. Ferruginous clay concretions, South Hadley Canal.
V- 226. Ferruginous clay concretions, Deerfield.

227. Ferruginous clay concretions, Charlestown.
•J 228. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.
"^ 229. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.
7 230. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.

231. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.
/ 232. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.
V 233. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.
"/ 234. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.
" ' 235. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.
' 236. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.
■ 237. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.

238. Ferruginous clay concretions, Deerfield.
''' 239. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.
\ 240. Ferruginous clay concretion, Deerfield.

V 241. Ferruginous clay concretions, Deerfield.

242. Ferruginous clay concretions, Deerfield.

243. Ferruginous clay concretions, Deerfield.

244. Ferruginous clay concretions, Hadley.

V 245. Ferruginous clay concretion, Hadley.
^246. Ferruginous clay concretions, Deerfield.

V 247. Ferruginous clay concretions, Deerfield.
248. Ferruginous clay concretions, Manchester.

\ 249. Ferruginous clay concretion, Manchester.

V 250. Ferruginous clay concretion, Manchester.

V 251. Fossil infusoria, Shutesbury.
252. Marl, Pittsfield.

/^253. Planorbis parvus and P. bicarinatus in marl, Pittsfield.

254. Planorbis trivolvis in marl, Pittsfield.

255. Lymnaja heterostropha and L. catascopium in marl, Pittsfield.

256. Cyclas in marl, Pittsfield.

— 257. Peat, Pittsfield.

- 258. Peat, Pittsfield.

259. Peat, Leverett.

260. Peat, Hadley.
— 261. Peat, Weston.

262. Peat, Weston.

•-- 263. Peat, Northborough.

• • 264. Peat, Shrewsbury.

265. Peat, Wilbraham.

266. Peat, Sunderland.

267. Peat, Westborough.

V 268. Peat, Lee.

269. Peat, Lee.

270. Peat, Hubbardston.

\/ 271. Bog iron ore, Brookfield.

APPENDIX. XV

272. Bog iron ore, New Braintree.
t/' 273. Bog iron ore with petrified carox, New Braintree.

274. Wad, (protoxide of manganese,) Conway.
V275. Wad, Leverett.

276. Wad, Whately.

277. Wad, West Stockbridge.

278. Calcareous concretion in a cave, Lanesborough.
\279. Calcareous concretion in a cave, Lanesborough.

280. Cadmia, Van Deusenville Furnace, Stockbridge.

281. Manganese from the hearth of the iron furnace, Richmond.

282. Surface soil, Truro.

283. Sand, depth 2 feet. Cliffs, Truro.

284. Sand, depth 5 feet. Cliffs, Truro.

285. Sand, depth 10 feet. Cliffs, Truro.

286. Sand, depth 15 feet, Cliffs, Truro.

287. Sand, depth 25 feet. Cliffs, Truro.

288. Sand, depth 50 feet, Cliffs, Truro.

289. Sand, depth 100 feet, Cliffs, Truro.

290. Sand, depth, 140 feet, Cliffs, Truro.

291. Sand from the base of the Cliffs, Truro.

in. Pliocene Tertiary,

1. Brown hematite, stalactical, Richmond.

2. Brown hematite, stalactical, West Stockbridge.
/'S. Brown hematite, pavonine. West Stockbridge.
\/4. Compact hematite, Richmond.

y 5. Mammillary hematite, Lenox.
s/ 6. Hematite and yellow ochre, West Stockbridge.
>/ 7. Hematite and red oxyd of iron, West Stockbridge.
>^8. Hematite and radiated manganese, West Stockbridge.
V^9. Gibbsite, Richmond.

10. Clay, West Stockbridge.
•/ll. Pyrolusite, West Stockbridge.
V12. Sphaerosiderite, West Stockbridge.
\/13. Fibrous hematite, Richmond.
"•/14. Stalactical hematite with dendrites, probably of manganese, West

Stockbridge.
v 15. Hematite with dendrites, Richmond.
16. Hematite with dendrites, Richmond.
\J 17. Mammillary hematite with dendrites, Richmond.
\.'18. Mammillary hematite with dendrites, Richmond.
19. Mammillary hematite with dendrites, Richmond.
''/' 20. Compact hematite, Richmond.
y 21. Compact hematite, Richmond.
'/22. Compact hematite, Richmond.

23. Compact hematite, Richmond.

24. Vesicular hematite, Richmond.

xvi APPENDIX.

25. Vesicular hematite, Richmond.

26. Vesicular hematite, Richmond.

~'/27. Scaly red oxide of iron, (boulder,) Carver.

28. Gibbsite on hematite, West Stockbridge.

V 29. Yellow ochre, New Marlborough.
/■30. Red ochre, New Marlborough.

IV. Miocene Tertiary.

1. Clay, Gay Head, Martha's Vineyard.

2. Green sand, Marshfield.
^3. Green sand. New Jersey.
-/■ 4. Green sand. Gay Head.

v/'S. Green sand, blackish. Gay Head.
6. White sand. Gay Head.
V 7. White clay, Gay Head.
/ 8. Red clay, Gay Head.
V 9. Variegated clay. Gay Head.
10. Yellow clay. Gay Head.

V 11. Brown clay. Gay Head.
12. Whitish clay. Gay Head.

/ 13. Red and White clay. Gay Head.

14. Yellow agglutinated sand. Gay Head.
•'■' 15. Yellow agglutinated sand. Gay Head.

16. White agglutinated sand, Gay Head.

17. Green agglutinated sand, Gay Head.
—• 18. Sand with clay. Gay Head.

19. Lignite, Gay Head.

20. Lignite, Gay Head.
•" 21. Lignite, Gay Head.

" 22. Quartzose conglomerate. Gay Head.

23. Quartzose conglomerate. Gay Head.

24. Quartzose conglomerate. Gay Head.

25. Specimen of oolitic aspect. Gay Head.
20. Indurated clay, Gay Head.

27. Leaf of Salix (?) , on argillaceous iron ore. Gay Head. (Plate 19,

figure 3.)

• 28. Leaves of Ulmus (?) , on argillaceous iron ore. Gay Head. (Plate

19, figure 2.)

29. Leaf of Ulmus (?) , on argillaceous iron ore. Gay Head. (Plate

19, figure 1.)

30. Impression of a seed vessel. Gay Head. (Plate 19, figure 4.)
V'31. Plants, Gay Head.

v/32. Cast of Venus , Gay Head. (Plate 19, figure 16.)

- 33. Cast of Tellina , Gay Head. (Plate 19, figure 17.)

34. Cast of Turbo , Gay Head. (Plate 19, figure 18.)

- 35. Concretion, Gay Head.
^ 36. Concretion, Gay Head.

APPENDIX. xvii

40. Concretions in sand, Nantucket.

— 41. Zoophyte (?) in conglomerate, Gay Head.

42. Fossil crab. Gay Head. (Plate 19, figure 19.)
-~43. Fossil crab. Gay Head.

44. Fossil crab, Gay Head.

45. Shark's tooth, Gay Head.

46. Shark's tooth, Gay Head. (Plate 19, figure 10.)

47. Shark's tooth. Gay Head. (Plate 19, figure 12.)

48. Crocodile's tooth (?), sillcified, Gay Head. (Plate 19, figure 13.)

49. Vertebra (mineralized,) Gay Head.

50. Vertebra, Gay Head. (Plate 19, figure 7.)

51. Vertebra, Gay Head. (Plate 19, figure 6.)
-« 52. Vertebra, (mineralized,) Gay Head.

-- 53. Vertebra, Gay Head.

54. Fragment of a rib. Gay Head.

55. Fragments of bones, Gay Head.

56. Fragments of bones. Gay Head.
■ 57. Bones with lignite. Gay Head.

58. Bones with lignite in conglomerate. Gay Head.

59. Bones with lignite in conglomerate, Gay Head.

V 60. Bones in conglomerate. Gay Head.
-^ 61. Perforated bone, Gay Head.

62. Iron pyrites, Gay Head.

-63. Pisiform hematite, Gay Head.

64. Mammillary hematite. Gay Head.

— 65. Nodule of hematite perforated by lignite, Gay Head.

66. Nodular hematite. Gay Head.

67. Nodule of hematite perforated by lignite, Gay Head.

68. Columnar clayey iron, Gay Head.

69. Columnar clayey iron. Gay Head.

70. Columnar clayey iron, Gay Head.
-71. Compact clayey iron. Gay Head.

—72. Compact clayey iron, Gay Head.
—73. Slaty clayey iron. Gay Head.
«V74. Ferruginous sandstone. Gay Head.

— 75. Selenite with lignite in clay, Gay Head,
x/" 76. AVhite clay, Kingston.

V77. Ferruginous conglomerate, Marshfield.

>^78. Concretion in green sand, Marshfield.

79. Fossil shell. Gay Head.

80. Fossil shell. Gay Head.

81. Fossil shell. Gay Head.

82. Fossil shell, Marshfield.
\/ 83. Fossil shell, Marshfield.

^• 84. Fossil shell, Marshfield.

V 85. Lignite, Gay Head.
^ 86. Lignite, Gay Head.

3

xfiif APPENDIX.

n/ 87. Lignite, Gay Head.
n/88. Lignite, Gay Head.
^ 89. Ferruginous conglomerate, Gay Head.
<y90. Brown sand, Gay Head.

9L Decomposed granite, Gay Head.
,^ 92. Green sand. Gay Head.
>/93. Yellow clay, Gay Head.

94. Reddish clay, Gay Head.

V 95. Light brown clay. Gay Head.
'/96. Pinkish clay. Gay Head.

V97. Red and white clay. Gay Head. ":

V 98. Red and white clay. Gay Head.
■ 99. Red clay, Gay Head.

100. Brown clay, Gay Head.
lOL Black clay, Gay Head.

V. Connecticut River Sandstone. ( Liassic and perhaps Triassic and
Permian Sandstones and Limesiones.)

1. Coarse conglomerate, Greenfield.

2. Variegated conglomerate, Deerfield.

3. Variegated conglomerate, Deerfield.

4. Granite conglomerate, Bernardston.

5. Granite conglomerate, Westfield.

—•6. Conglomerate from the ruins of arglllo-micaceous slate, Greenfield.
■*• 7. Conglomerate from the ruins of argillaceous slate, Bernardston.
--" 8. Conglomerate from the ruins of argillaceous slate, Bernardston.
— 9. Conglomerate, from mica slate, talcose slate and granite, Mount Metta-
wampe.

— 10. Conglomerate, mouth of Miller's River.

•-* 11. Epidotic conglomerate, mouth of Miller's River.

•^12. Nodule from conglomerate. Miller's River.
"wis. Conglomerate from the ruins of granite. South Hadley Falls.
— 14. Conglomerate from the ruins of granite, Mount Holyoke.

—15. Conglomerate, Belchertown.

-16. Conglomerate, Amherst.

17. Conglomerate with a ferruginous concretion. South Hadley Falls.

— 18. Conglomerate, chiefly a nodule of granite, Amhei'st.
—19. Gray conglomerate. Turner's Falls.

— 20. Tufaceous conglomerate. Smith's Ferry.
—-21. Tufaceous conglomerate, Smith's Ferry.

,-- - 22. Tufaceous conglomerate. Smith's Ferry.
-23. Tufaceous conglomerate. Smith's Ferry. "•

24. Coarse red sandstone, Hoyt's quarry, Deerfield.

— - 25. Coarse red sandstone, Westfield.

— -26. Coarse red sandstone, Whately.

^ 27. Water worn sandstone, Greenfield.
-—88. Coarse red sandstone, Greenfield.

APPENDIX. xk

29. lleddlsb sandstone, "West Springfield.

30. Reddish sandstone, West Springfield.

31. Gray sandstone, Hoyt's quarry, Deerfield.

32. Reddish sandstone, Westfield.

33. Reddish sandstone, Longmeadow.

34. Sandstone with pieces of fine red micaceous sandstone partially im-

bedded. Turner's Falls.

35. Fine red sandstone, (smoothed,) Longmeadow.

36. Fine red sandstone, Longmeadow.

' 37. Coarse gray sandstone, adit of lead mines, Southampton.

38. Light gray sandstone. Mount Holyoke.

39. Gray sandstone. Turner's Falls.

' 40. Variegated sandstone, near greenstone, Titan's Pier, South Hadley.
4L Fine gray sandstone, AVest Springfield.

42. Fine gray sandstone, Amherst.

43. (Jray sandstone, Turner's Falls.

44. Brecciated sandstone. Turner's Falls.

45. Micaceous gray sandstone, South Iladley.

46. Micaceous sandstone, under the greenstone, Mount Holyoke.

47. Micaceous sandstone, near greenstone, Mount Tom.

48. Micaceous sandstone, near greenstone, Turner's Falls.

49. Micaceous sandstone, near greenstone. Turner's Falls.

50. Micaceous sandstone, under greenstone, Mount Tom.
5L Amygdaloidal sandstone, near trap. Mount Tom.

52. Amygdaloidal sandstone, Granby.

53. Amygdaloidal sandstone, Korthampton.

54. Micaceous sandstone, South Hadley.

55. Micaceous sandstone, Sunderland Cave.

56. Nodules of carbonate of lime, Sunderland Cave.

57. Nodules of carbonate of lime, Sunderland Cave.

58. Sandstone with malachite. Turner's Falls.

59. Variegated sandstone, Agawam River.

60. Variegated sandstone. Turner's Falls.

6L Variegated sandstone, South Hadley Falls.

62. Red jointed shale, Turner's Falls.

63. Red jointed shale. Turner's Falls.
' 64. Reddish sandstone. Titan's Pier.

65. Reddish sandstone, above shale. Turner's Falls.

66. Reddish sandstone, above shale, Turner's Falls.

67. Reddish sandstone. South Hadley Falls. *

68. Reddish sandstone. South Hadley Falls.

69. Reddish sandstone, South Hadley Falls.

70. Shale breaking into cuneiform masses. Turner's Falls.

71. Hard gray micaceous shale. Turner's Falls.
' 72. Yellow decomposing sandstone, Ainhei'st

73. Black sandstone. South Hadley Falls.

74. Black sandstone, South Hadley Falls.

XX APPENDIX.

75. Black sandstone, West Springfield.

76. Bituminous marlite, West Springfield.

77. Bituminous marlite, West Springfield.
«^ 78. Bituminous marlite. West Springfield.

79. Bituminous marlite, Sunderland.

„«- 80. Variegated marlite. West Springfield.

81. Glazed marlite, West Springfield.

■~ 82. Fetid limestone, Paine's quarry, West Springfield.

'*' 83. Fetid limestone, Paine's quarry. West Springfield.

84. Hard fetid limestone, Paine's quarry, West Springfield.

85. Hard fetid limestone, Paine's quarry. West Springfield.

86. Limestone, Meacham's quarry, Ilolyokc.

87. Argillo-ferruginous limestone, Agawam River.

88. Tripoli, Paine's quarry, West Springfield.

89. Tripoli, Paine's quarry. West Springfield.

90. Tripoli, Paine's quari-y, West Springfield.

- 01. Tripoli, Holyoke.

- 92. Tripoli, Holyoke.

93. Septaria, West Springfield.

- 94. Septaria, West Springfield.
~95. Septaria, West Springfield.

*«» 96. Septaria, West Springfield.

"" 97. Concreted carbonate of lime, Mount Mettawampe.

" 98. Concreted carbonate of lime. Mount Mettawampe.

'99. Concreted carbonate of lime, Sunderland Cave.

100. Concreted carbonate of lime. West Springfield.

101. Stalactical limestone, Sunderland Cave.

102. Veins of calcite in black slate. West Springfield.

103. Satin spar in seams. West Springfield.

104. Satin spar in seams, West Springfield.

105. Satin spar in seams. West Springfield.

106. Heavy spar, Greenfield.

- 107. Celestine, Meacham's quarry, Holyoke.

108. Bituminous coal. West Springfield.

109. Bituminous coal with blende, West Springfield.

- 110. Blende and galena in limestone, West Springfield.

111. Chalybite, Turner's Falls.

112. Chalybite, South Hadley Falls.

113. Iron sand. Turner's Falls.

- 114. Copper glance, SImsbury, Connecticut.
■— 115. Copper pyrites. Turner's Falls.

~ 116. Green malachite, Greenfield.

117. Bituminous coal. South Hadley.

118. Bituminous coal. South Hadley Falls.

119. Anasphaltic coal. Turner's Falls.

~" 120. Fluor spar, incrustation, AVest Springfield.

- 121. Fossil plant, North Sunderland.

APrENDIX. xxi

"^122. Fossil plant, North Sunderland.

^ 123. Fossil plant, North Sunderland.

^ 12i. Fossil plant. North Sunderland.

125. Fossil plant. North Sunderland.

126. Fossil plant, West Springfield.

127. Fossil plant, Sunderland.
-■< 128. Fossil plant, ( ? ) Deerfield.
« -129. Fossil plant, ( ? ) Deerfield.
*•* 130. Fossil plant, Greenfield.

131. Fossil plant, Deerfield.

132. Fossil plant, Deerfield.

133. Encrinite, (?) West Springfield.

— 134. Encrinite, (?) West Springfield.

135. Ripple marks and concretions, AVcst Springfield. (Sec figure 100.)

136. Ripple marks and concretions, West Springfield.

137. Ripple marks and concretions without reticulations. West Springfield.

138. Zoophyte (?) changed into chert, West Springfield.

139. Concretion in limestone. West Springfield.

140. Concretion In limestone, West Springfield.

141. Concretion in limestone, West Springfield.
— 142. Concretion in limestone, AVcst Springfield.

— 143. Concretion in limestone. West Springfield.
--144. Concretion in limestone, West Springfield.
-~145. Concretion in limestone, West Springfield.
--«146. Concretion In limestone, West Springfield.
—147. Concretion in limestone, West Springfield.

— 148. Concretion in limestone, West Spiingfield.

149. Eurynotus tenuiceps Agass. Sunderland. (Plate 29. figure 1.)

150. Eurynotus tenuiceps Agass. Sunderland.
\/151. Ichthyolites, Sunderland.

— - 152. Fi-agments of ichthyolites, Sunderland.

-.. 153. Concretion In shale. Turner's Falls.

— % 154. Moulds of organisms, South Hadley Falls.

•— 155. Veins of clay, South Hadley Falls.

>/'l56. Gray conglomerate, (boulder,) Amherst.

Vl57. Variegated conglomerate, Southwick.

v^l58. Variegated conglomerate, Southwick.

159. Variegated conglomerate, Westfield.

v/ieO. Reddish sandstone, Westfield.

vl61. Variegated sandstone, Westfield.

162. Conglomerate, (boulder,) Belchertown.

N/163. Conglomerate, Granby.

164. Red sandstone, Wilbraham.

165. Red sandstone, Wilbraham.
^166. Striped sandstone, Springfield.
n/167. Traft tuff, ( ? ) Mount Ilolyoke.
V 168. Black shale, Montague.

xxii APPENDIX.

V169. Gray sandstone, Agawam River.

170. Calcitc, lenticular, West Springfield.

\/171. Striped sandstone, Rocky Hill, Connecticut.

•./^172. Sandstone hardened by trap. Rocky Hill, Connecticut.

173. Gray sandstones, hardened by trap, Rocky Hill, Connecticut.

•^ 174. Arragonite, Wilbraham.

y 175. Fossil plants, AVilbraham.

V 176. Fossil plants, Wilbraham.

\/^177. Fossil plants, Wilbraham.

\/'178. Striped sandstone, Agawam River.

V'179. Micaceous sandstone, Agawam River.

180. Vesicular sandstone. West Springfield.

V 181. Compact fetid limestone, Cnicopee Falls.

182. Compact fetid limestone, Agawam River.

183. Argillaceous limestone, Agawam River.

184. Septaria, Agawam River.

V 185. Branching septaria, Chicopee Falls.

186. Reniform septaria, Agawam River.

187. Septaria, Cabotville.

188. Septaria, Chicopee Falls.
v^l89. Small septaria, Agawam River.

190. Bituminous coal, Mittcancague Falls.

191. Bituminous coal with calcite, Mitineaque Falls.
\ 192. Bituminous coal with calcite, Mitineaque Falls.

193. Decomposing shale, Montague.

194. Reddish satin spar, AVcst Springfield.

195. White satin spar. West Springfield.
v/'l96. Dicotyledons with Icthyolites, Sunderland.

197. Dicotyledons with Icthyolites, Northampton.
\/L98. Stem of a plant on shale, Chicopee Falls.

199. Fragments of vegetables, South Hadley, north part.

200. Vegetable relics on red shale, Wcthersfield, Connecticut. (Sec Plate

28, figure 3.)
• 201. Large stems on shale, Sunderland.

•1202. Vegetable relics and perhaps Echini, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
V-203. Vegetable remains. South Hadley Canal. (Sec Plate 28, figure 5.)
v^04. Vegetable remains, (boulder,) Amherst.
\/205. Fucoid, Suffield, Connecticut. (See figure 92.)
\/206. Vegetjfblc stem converted into copper ore, Suffield, Connecticut.

V 207. Vegetable stem with Ichnolites, Chicopee Falls. (See figure 89.)
V208. Unknown plant, Northampton.

209. Unknown plant, Northampton.

210. Unknown plant, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
^ 211. Mud veins with plants, Cabotville.

\/'212. Mud veins Avith plants, Cabotville.
>/213. Mud veins in rehef. South Hadley.
214. Unknown relic, Chicopee Falls. (See figure 93.)

APPENDIX. xxiii

Y 215. Unknown relic, Wllbraham.

(sj^216. Unknown relic, Sunderland. (Sec fijjure 94.)

217. Unknown relic, Wetlicrsfield, Connecticut.

218. Micaceous sandstone with concretions, South Hadley.

219. Unknown animal relic, Wethersfield, Connecticut. (See figure 98.)
v220. Unknown animal relic, Montague, south-west part.

V'221. Icthyo'.ites, (Eurynotus — Agas ) Sunderland.
»/222. Animal relic, Sunderland. (See figure 99.)

223. Brontozoum exsertum in relief, Turner's Falls, Montague. (Plate 37»
figure 20, 21. Plate 28, figure 22.)
V/'224. Brontozoum exsertum in relief, Wethersfield, Connecticut. (Plate 38,

figure 23. Plate 39, figure 24. Plate 41, figure 38, 37.)
\/225. Brontozoum validum, Cabotville.
%/226. Platypterna Ueaniana, two tracks, Wethersfield, Connecticut. (Plat©

42, figure 31. Plate 32. figure 42.)
\/227. Platypterna Deaniana and P. tenuis, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
v228. Ornithopus gracilior and Cheirotheroidespilulatus, Wethersfield, Connec-
ticut. (Plate 46, figure 43 )
\/229. Ornithopus gallinaceus, Cabotville. (Plato 40, figure 42.)
>/ 230. Triacnopus Icptodactylus, "Wetliersfield, Connecticut.
V'231. Plectropterna minitans, Wethersfield, Connecticut. (Plate 33, figure'
10, 12. Plate 48, figure 48.)
232. Plectropterna minitans, Chitopee Falls.
V233. Polemarchus gigas, Chicopce Falls. (Plate 3o, figure 17.)

234. Tridentipes elegans, Montague. (Plate 41, figure 28.)

235. Tridentipes elegantior, Montague. (Plate 42, figure 30 )

236. Tridentipes elegans and Plectropterna minitans, Welhersfield, Connec-

ticut.

237. Triaenopus Icptodactylus, Wethersfield, Connecticut. (Plate 30, figure 4.

Plate 31, figures 5, 6, 7.)
V/'238. Triaenopus leptodactylus, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
V239. Argozoum pari-digitatum. Horse Race, Gill. (Plate 45, figures 38, 39.)
^240. Chcirotheroides pilulatus, Wethersfield, Connecticut. (Plato 45, figure

41. Plate 42, figure 30.)

241. Gray sandstone, at the artesian Avell, South Iladlcy.

242. Gray sandstone, at the artesian well. South Iladley.
\/243. Soft striped shale, railroad cut. West Springfield, west part.
>/244. AVater limestone, Agawam River.

245. Ripple marks. Horse Race, Gill.
^^246. Ripple marks, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
^"247. Ripple marks, Wethersfield, Connecticut. (See figure 88.)
^/248. Ripple marks, finer, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
V249. Rij)ple marks, very small, Wethersfield, Connecticut.

250. Impressions of raindrops, Wethersfichl, Connecticut.
^251. Impressions of raindrops, less distinct, Wethersfield, Connecticut. (Seo

Plate 49, figure 65.)
>/252. Imjjressions of raindrops, much enlarged, Wethersfield, Connecticut.

xxiv APPENDIX.

253. Impressions of raindrops, mucli more spread, "Wcthersfield, Connecticni
V25i. Impressions of raindrops, with fine ripple marks, Wcthersfield, Con-
necticut.
\/255. Partial concretion, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
V'25G. Partial concretion, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
257. Brontozoum giganteum, in relief, Northampton.

V 258. Cast of Brontozoum giganteum. Original specimen from Wethersfield,

Connecticut.

259. Cast of Tridentipes elcgans, from Gill.

2G0. Mould of Polemarchus gigas.

261. Cast of Brontozoum exsertum.

2G2. Cast of Brontozoum exsertum.

263. Mould of Brontozoum exsertum.
\/2Qi. Mould of Brontozoum validum.

265. Cast of a row of Grallator cuneatus, from South Hadley. (Plate 39,
figure 25.)
\ 268. Cast of Anisopus Deweyanus. (Plate 39, figure 26.)
y^67. Cast of Chiraaera barrattii.

2G8. Mould of Ancyropus heteroclitus. (Plate 30, fig. 2. Plate 34, fig. 14.)
V269. Mould of Ancyropus heteroclitus.

v'270. Mould of Ilarpedactylus gracilis. (Plate 3i, figure 13.)
y^271. Mould of Triaenopus leptodactylus.

V 272. Cast of a double track of Triaenopus leptodactylus.

273. Cast of Macropterna divaricans. ( V ) (Plate 31, figures 15, 16.)
27-1. Mould of Plectropterna minitans.
^ 275. Ti'iaenopus leptodactylus, (Mould )

276. Triaenopus leptodactylus, (Mould.)

277. Mould of a small slab of tracks.

V 278. Mould of Argozoum dispari-digitatum.

V 279. Mould of Tridentipes elogans.

280. Mould of Tridentipes elcgans.

281. Cast of Platypterna Ueaniana.
,. 282. Cast of Platypterna Deaniana.

Y 283. Cast of Platypterna Deaniana.
281. Cast of Platypterna Deaniana.

285. Cast of Ornithopus gallinaceus.

286. Cast of Platypterna tenuis. (Plate 43, figures 33, 34.)

V 287. Cast of Argozoum pari-digitatum.

/288. Cast of Platypterna dclicatula. (Plate 45, figure 40.)
V'289. Cast of two tracks of Cheirotheroides pilulatus.

V 290. Variegated sandstone, Weslfield.
291. Variegated sandstone, Westfield.

" 292. Variegated sandstone, Westfield.

V293. Fu'joides, Greenfield.

\/291. Ciathropteris rectius2ulus. E. Hitchcock, Jr., Mount Tom, Easthampton.

^295. Clatliropteris rectiusjulus. E. I litchcock, Jr., Mount Tom, Easthampton.

V293. Fucoid changed to limestone, Springfield, Water Shops.

» 297. Batrachoidoi nidlfijans, mad nests of tadpoles, South Hadley Canal.

APPENDIX. XXV

VI. Carboniferous Rocks, Common and Metamorphic.

"*■ 1. Conglomerate, the variety most common, Dorchester.
V2. Conglomerate, Swanzey.

/B. Conglomerate, with a vein of quartz, Brookline.
'. '4. Conglomerate, with a vein of quartz, Attleborough.
\^5. Conglomerate, with a vein of quartz, reddish, Roxbury.

— 6. Argillaceous slate, coal mine, Portsmouth.

V 7. Cubical pyrites in anthacitous slate, Wrentham coal mine.

— 8. Impressions of ferns, &c., on slate, Newport, Rhode Island.
\^9. Sphaenophyllum, (?) on slate, Newport, Rhode Island.

^10. Unknown impressions, on slate, Newport, Rhode Island. -

— 11. Calamites, Wrentham, coal mine.

— 12. Neuropteris, (?) Wrentham, coal mine.
— ^13. Relic on hard schistose rock, Attleborough.

^14. Anthracite, Wrentham.
" 15. Anthracite, Portsmouth, Rhode Island.
>/ 16. Conglomerate, nodules mostly quartz, Berkley.

v^l7. Conglomerate, nodules, Dighton.

V 18. Conglomerate, calcareous, Mansfield.

>ri9. Conglomerate, Roxbury. .

V20. Conglomerate, Walpole.
>i 21. Conglomerate, (boulder,) Hancock.
22. Conglomerate, West Newton.

V 23. Conglomerate, Fall River.

^y 24. Conglomerate, fine, (boulder,) West Hancock.

V 25. Conglomerate, Swanzey.

V 26. Conglomerate, Walpole.
■,-27. Coal measures, Mansfield.

28. Prase, coal mine, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

- 29. Calcite, Mansfield.

30. Gray grit, with Anthracite, Abington.
^ Zl. Shale with fossil, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

V 32. Shale, glazed, Cumberland, Rhode Island.
33. Anthracite, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

\/34. Anthracite, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

V 35. Shale, glazed, Mansfield.

36. Shale, Hardon mine, Mansfield.
v'37. Anthracite, Harden mine, Mansfield.

38. Anthracite, wading vein, Hardon mine, Mansfield.
'/ 39. Anthracite, Foxborough.

V 40. Glazed shale, Mansfield.

•"41. Calamites, cylindrical, Wrentham. (See Plate 24, figure 3. Plate 27,
figures 2, 3.)
42. Calaniites, flattened, Wrentham.
V^43. Calamites, flattened, Wrentham.
V44. Calamites, flattened, Wrentham.*
45. Stigmaria, with depression on one side, Wrentham.
4

xxvi APPENDIX.

n/46. Stigmaria, -witli central axis, Mansfield.

v^7. Monocotyledon, ( V ) upper part of leaf, Hardon mine, Mansfield.
\ 48. IMonocotj Icdon, (?) upper part of leaf, Mansfield.
v49. Monocotyledon, (?) central part of leaf, Mansfield.

50. Flattened stem, pointed, Wrcntham, south part.
V 51. Large fern, Mansfield. (Plate 23.)
-•/'52. Neuropteris, Wrentham. (See Plate 21, figure 1. Plate 22, figure 4.

Plate 27, figure 4.)
\/ 53. Splienopteris, Hardon mine, Mansfield. (See Plate 21, figure 1. Plato

27, figure 1.)
S 54. Neuropteris, Hardon mine, Mansfield.
\/55. Fern, Hardon mine, Mansfield,
y 56. Pachyptcris (?) or Odontopteris, (?) Mansfield. (See Plate 22, figure

3. Plate 23.)
v/ 57. Small reeds, Wrentham.

• . 58. Small reeds and Sphaenophyllum, Hardon mine, Mansfield.
y 59. Pecopteris and Sphaenophyllum emarginatum (?) Mansfield. (See

Plate 22, figure 2.)
•y60. Sphenopteris, Mansfield.

61. Asterophyllites, &c., Mansfield.
V'62! Annularia, Mansfield. (Plate 22, figure 3.)

V^3. Asterophyllites or Equisetum, Mansfield. (Plate 21, figure 2. Plate 22,
figure 1.)

— 64. Arenaceous mica slate, Worcester.

— 65. Arenaceous mica slate, anthracite locality, Worcester.
-^66. Arenaceous mica slate, anthracite locality, Worcester.

~67. Arenaceous mica slate with talcose aspect, Worcester.
•^ 68. Arenaceous mica slate with talcose aspect, Worcester.

— 69. Arenaceous mica slate with talcose aspect, Worcester.

— 70. Arenaceous mica slate with talcose aspect, Worcester.
~ 71. Arenaceous mica slate with granite veins, Lunenburg.
-■^ 72. Arenaceous mica slate, mostly quartz, Groton.

•^ 73. Arenaceous mica slate, mostly quartz, Groton.

"" 74. Talco-arenaceous slate, (boulder,) Worcester.

"• 75. Arenaceous mica slate, Dracut.

~ 76. Arenaceous mica slate passing into clay slate, Worcester.

— 77. Arenaceous mica slate, talcose, Lowell.
~ 78. Arenaceous mica slate, Methuen.

— 79. Arenaceous mica slate, mostly quartz, Worcester.

— 80. Arenaceous mica slate, Andover bridge.

— 81. Arenaceous mica slate with veins of quartz, Worcester.
— - 82. Arenaceous mica slate. South Hampton, New Hampshire.

— 83. Arenaceous mica slate. East Sudbury.

— 84. Arenaceous mica slate, Webster.
-'So. Arenaceous mica slate, Oxford.

— 8G. Plumbaginous mica slate, contorted, Worcester.

— 87. Plumbaginous mica slate, Ward.

APPENDIX. xxvii

— 88. Plumbaginous mica slate, Amesbury.

89. Brecciatcd mica slate, Amesbury.

90. Anthracitous mica slate, Dudley.

~~- 91. Anthracitous mica slate, anthracite locality, Worcester.
- 92. Anthracitous mica slate, anthracite locality, Worcester.
— - 93. Anthracite, Worcester.

— 94. Anthracite, passing into plumbago, Worcester.

— 95. Amianthus, Worcester.
V96. Bucholzite, Worcester.

VII. Devonian or Old K,ed Sandstone Rocks.
'. 1. Conglomerate, red, Attleborough.
x#^. Conglomerate, quartzose brecciated, Attleborough.
\f 3. Old red sandstone, red from oxide of iron, Attleborough.
"/4. Old red sandstone, red from oxide of iron, Wrentham. ,

^5. Old red sandstone, chocolate color, Rehoboth.

V 6. Old red sandstone, chocolate color, Walpole.
V'7. Old red sandstone, chocolate color, Abington.

V 8. Old red sandstone, chocolate color. Canton.

\j^ 9. Old red sandstone, chocolate color, slaty, Wrentham.

VlO. Old red sandstone, with veins of white quartz, Wrentham.

v/ 11. Old red sandstone, red, Greenbush, New York.

V 12. Gray grit, Rehoboth.

-, 13. Gray grit, reddish, Rehoboth.

V'll. Gray grit, red, Attleborough.

15. Gray slate, deep red, Attleborough.

16. Gray slate, deep red, Attleborough.

-/IT. Conglomerate, Attleborough, south-west part.
•■ 18. Conglomerate, Attleborough, south-west part.
\-'' 19. Slaty sandstone, Attleborough, south-west part.

20. Slaty sandstone, Wrentham.

21. Compact limestone, Attleborough.

22. Compact limestone, with slate, Attleborough.
v''23. Fossiiiferous limestone, Bernardston.

24. Fossiiiferous limestone, Bernai'dston.
V25. Limestone brecciated, (polished,) Bernardston.
V'26. Encrinites, Bernardston.
/27. Encrinites, Bernardston.

28. Encrinites, Bernardston.

VIII. Silurian and Cambrian Rocks. (Metamorphic.)

1. Made in argillaceous slate, (boulder,) Worcester.

2. Common argillaceous slate, Guilford, Vermont.

— 3. Common argillaceous slate, Lancaster.
4. Common argillaceous slate, Shirley.

"5. Common argillaceous slate. Harvard.

— 6. Common argillaceous slate, Pepperell.

— 7. Common argillaceous slate, passing into mica slate, Bernardston.

xxviii APPENDIX.

- 8. Common argillaceous slate, with quartz veins, Guilford, Vermont.

9. Common argillaceous slate, v/iih quartz veins, Guilford, Vermont.

— 10. Common argillaceous slate, wavy surface, glen at Leyden.

"~11. Common argillaceous slate, contorted, Guilford, Vermont,

—12. Common argillaceous slate, contorted, Guilford, Vermont.

-13. Micaceo-argillaceous slate, en echellon, glen at Leyden.

— 14. Argillaceous slate, much bent, Guilford, Vermont.

- -15. Argillaceous slate, much bent, Guilford, Vermont.

~ 16. Argillaceous slate, exhibiting a double flexure, Guilford, Vermont.

"^ 17. Argillaceous slate, red. Sand Lake, New York.

— 18. Argillaceous slate, gray beneath limestone, Chatham, New York.

— 19. Argillaceous slate, epidotic, Hancock.
—20. Chlorite slate, Guilford, Vermont.

**21. Chlorite slate, passing into novaculite, Guilford, Vermont.
—22. Chlorite slate, passing into novaculite, Guilford, Vermont.
23. Chiastolite in argillaceous slate, Lancaster.
V 24. A card of macles, Lancaster.
25. Clay slate, quarry. Harvard.
^i 26. Clay slate, jointed, Lancaster.
V 27. Clay slate, jointed, Lancaster.
V28. Clay slate, with a vein of granite, Harvard.
y 29. Clay slate, Groton.
30. Clay slate, Groton.
--' 31. Gray conglomerate, Natick.

— 32. Conglomerate nodules, chiefly mica slate, Bradford.

— 33. Conglomerate nodules, fine mica slate or quartz rock containing mag.

oxide iron, Middletown, Rhode Island.
■~ " 34. Breccia, fragments of slate reunited, Natick.

— 35. Breccia, fragments of slate reunited, Randolph.
»~ 36. Breccia, fine, fragments of slate reunited, Natick.

— 37. Breccia, somewhat rounded, slaty, Dorchester.

— 38. Breccia, somewhat rounded, slaty. Canton.

— 39. Gray grit, (boulder,) Hull.
-" 40. Gray grit, Newton.

— '41. Gray grit, with veins of quartz, Pawtucket.

—42. Gray grit, with veins of quartz, Stephentown, New York.

— 43. Gray grit, with veins of quartz, Attleborough.

— 44. Gray grit, Rehoboth.
~ 45. Gray grit, Newton.

— 46. Gray grit, Watertown.
*~47. Gray grit, Pawtucket.

- -48. Gray grit, light, Newbury.

—49. Gray grit, glazed, Newport, Rhode Island.

— 50. Gray grit, glazed, Watertown.
--51. Gray grit, Natick.

- 52. Gray grit, epidotic, Newton.

— 53. Gray grit, Taunton.

APPENDIX. xxix

— - 54. Gray grit, Attleborough.

i/ 55. Gray grit, reddish, Newbury.

— 56. Gray grit, reddish, with quartz veins, Pawtucket.

— 57. Gray grit, reddish, divided by joints, Wrentham.
58. Gray grit, reddish, divided by joints, Pawtucket.

— 59. Gray grit, reddish, variegated, Newbury.

— 60. Gray grit, reddish, Milton.

— 61. Gray grit, red, Kent's Island, Newbury.

— 62. Gray grit, reddish, variegated, Hull.
-^ 63. Gray grit, Nassau, New York.

— 64. Gray grit, Nassau, New York.
" 65. Novaculite, Charlestown.

— 66. Argillaceous slate variegated, Charlestown.

— 67. Argillaceous slate, rhomboidal, Rainsford Island.

— 68. Argillaceous slate, rhomboidal. South Boston.

~ 69. Argillaceous slate, laminse curved, Rainsford Island.

~ 70. Argillaceous slate, light gray, Halifax.

— 71. Argillaceous slate, with veins of calcite, Watertown.
v^72. Argillaceous slate, variegated, Quincy.

-' 73. Argillaceous slate, Hull.

— 74. Argillaceous slate, (Novaculite,) Boston Light House.

— 75. Argillaceous slate, (Novaculite,) Hingham.

— 76. Argillaceous slate, (Novaculite,) Spring Street, Roxbury.
-'77. Argillaceous slate, (Novaculite,) Watertown.

— 78. Rock from a vein in granite, lead mine, Easton.
~ 79. Prase, with asbestos, Brighton.

V'SO. Slaty rock, reddish, Roxbury.

81. Slaty rock, with quartz veins, Attleborough.

82. Slaty rock, wedged between masses of sienite, Middleborough.
•/83. Slaty rock, chiefly slaty compact feldspar, Plympton.

'>/84. Conglomerate, gray, (boulder,) Rochester.

V85. Gray grit, Hanover Four Corners.

n/'86. Gray grit, slaty (boulder,) Middleborough.

^^87. Gray grit, with viens of amianthus, Dorchester. ,

88. Petalite, in limestone, Attleborough.

■-/89. Gray grit, Inscription rock, Asonet, Berkley.

'"• 90. Conglomerate, fragments of compact feldspar, cement indurated clay,
Saugus.

91. Breccia, fragments of compact feldspar united, Nantasket Beach.

— 92. Slaty aggregate of quartz and mica, MIddletown, Rhode Island.

— 93. Slaty aggregate of quartz and mica, Middletown, Rhode Island.

94. Slaty aggregate of quartz and mica, with argillaceous matter, Fall River.

— 95. Slaty aggregate of quartz and mica with argillaceous matter, Fall River.
— 96. Slaty quartz, passing into mica slate, Fall River.

"~* 97. Talcose slate, Randolph.

— 98. Talcose aggregate, conglomerated. Canton.

~-99. Talcose aggregate, conglomerated, Cambridge.

XXX APPENDIX.

—^100. Talcosc aggregate, conglomerated, "Walpole.
101. Talcose aggregate, conglomerated, Newbury.

— 102. Amphiboliu aggregate, Middletown, Rhode Island.

103. Varioloid rock, Saiigus.

104. Varioloid rock, Brighton.

105. Varioloid rock, Hingham.

106. Varioloid rock, Nantasket Beach.
—■107. Varioloid rock, Hingham.

■^ 108. Varioloid nodules quartz and epidote, Brighton.

— - 109. Varioloid rock, approaching porphyrj-, Needham.

>/110. Amj'gdaloid, passing into siliceous slate, Newport, Rhode Island.

■~111. Siliceous slate, porphyritic, Newport, Rhode Island.

~ 112. Siliceous slate, porphyritic, Newport, Rhode Island.

— 113. Siliceous slate, with veins of granite, Newport, Rhode Island.
■^ 114. Siliceous slate, Avith veins of granite, Nahant.

""115. Siliceous slate, with veins of granite, Nahant.

~ 116. Siliceous slate, passing into chert, Nahant.

— 117. Jasper, Newport, Rhode Island.

""118. Heliotrope, Newport, Rhode Island.

119. Clouded jasper, (compact feldspar ?) SauTus.

•* 120. Metamorphic slates, Duxbury.

~121. Metamorphic slates, Duxbury.

V" 122. Jasper, (red compact feldspar,) Saugus.

\/'123. Jasper, (red compact feldspar,) Saugus.

. — 124. Zoisite, in amphibolic aggregate, Middletown, Rhode Island.

\ 125. Breccia, fragments porphyry, Nantasket Beach.

\/126. Metamorphic slate passing into trap, Kent's Island, Newbury.

\rl27. Metamorphic slate passing into trap, Kent's Island, Newbury.

v'^128. Quartzose reddish slate, Kent's Island, Newbury.

\ 129. Talcose slate, quartz in grains, Wrentham, south part.

yl30. Slaty porphyry, somewhat mechanical, South Natick.

•/131. Varioloid rock, South Natick.

V 132. Varioloid rock, Hingham.

V 133. Conglomerated clay slate, Slate Quarry, Harvard,
■- 134. Conglomerated clay slate, Slate Quarry, Harvard.

V'135. Conglomerated clay slate, Slate Quarry, Harvard,

V 136. Conglomerated clay slate, Slate Quarry, Harvard.

V 137. Conglomerated mica slate, Bellingham.

n/138. Conglomerated mica slate, Bellingham.

V^139. Conglomerated mica slate, Bellingham.

>/140. Mica slate, associated with last three numbers.

^"141. Junction of the mica slate and conglomerate, Bellingham.

142. Spangled mica slate associated with the conglomerate, Bellingham.

143. Conglomerated mica slate, Wickford, Rhode Island.
vl44. Conglomerated mica slate, Wickford, Rhode Island.

■/" 145. Mica slate associated with conglomerate, Wrentham, south part.

146. Bastard mica slate, brecclated, Wrentham.

APPENDIX. xxxi

\/ 147. Aggregate of quartz and mica, Fall River.

\/148. Aggregate of quartz and mica, Fall River.

'. 149. Metamorpliic rock, head of Nantasket Beach.

'150. Metamorpbic rook, head of Nantasket Beach.

V 151. Metamorpbic rock, Duxbury.

>/152. Gray slate passing into hornstone, Weston, north part.

Vl53. Hornstone, with a slaty structure, Weston, north part.

VI 54. Hornstone, with a slaty structure, Weston, north part.

\/155. Mica slate, (wbetstoue slate,) Belli ngbam, north-east part.

156. Mica slate, (whetstone slate,) Bellingham, north-east part.

■^157. Mica slate, (whetstone slate,) Bellingham, north-east part.

vl58. Mica slate, (whetstone slate,) Belingbam, north-east part.

•/159. Mica slate, whetstone quarry, Smithfield, Rhode Island.

160. Varioloid rock, North Scituate.

v^l61. Varioloid rock. North Scituate.

V 162. Varioloid rock, North Scituate.
V163. Varioloid rock, North Scituate.
"•"' 164. Varioloid rock, North Scituate.

'/''165. Varioloid rock, North Scituate.
\/166. Metamorpbic conglomerate. North Scituate.
167. Metamorpbic conglomerate, North Scituate.

IX. Limestone. — {Me'amorphic and crystalline^)

1. White polished marble, Adams.

2. White polished marble, Adams.
-3. White marble. West Stockbridge.

— 4. White marble. West Stockbridge.

— 5. White marble, Lanesborough.

— 6. White marble. New Ashlbrd.
— 7. White marble, New Ashford.

— 8. White saccharine limestone, (boulder,) Peru.

— 9. Granular white dolomite, Sheffield.
-10. Gray polished marble, Lanesborough.

-^11. Gray polished marble. West Stockbridge.

— 12. Gray clouded marble, (polished,) New Ashford.

— 13. Gray clouded marble, (polished,) New Ashford.

14. Gray clouded marble, (polished,) West Stockbridge.

— 15. Dove colored clouded marble, (polished,) Great Barrington.

— 16. Gray limestone, Sheffield.

— 17. Gray limestone, Lee.

— • 18. Gray limestone nearly compact, Lanesborough.

— 19. Gray limestone nearly compact, West Stockbridge.

•~20. Light gray limestone, Pittsfield.

— 21. Dark gray limestone, nearly compact, Williamstown.

— 22. Dark gray limestone, Steplientown, New York.

— 23. Dark gray limestone, Stephentown, New York.
—24. Dark gray limestone, Canaan, New York.

xxxii APPENDIX.

25. Compact limestone wltli veins of calcite, Chatham, New York.

— 26. Limestone with quartz veins, Chatham, New York.

— 27. Yellowish coarse limestone with a foreign mineral, Stockbridge.

— 28. Micaceous limestone, Stockbridge.

— 29. Micaceous limestone with mica and quartz, Canaan, Connecticut.

— 30. Micaceous limestone with mica and quartz, Lanesborough.
~-31. Micaceous limestone with mica and quartz, South Lee.

— 32. Micaceous limestone with mica and quartz, Whately.
"" 33. Micaceous limestone with mica' and quartz, Colrain.
~" 34. Micaceous limestone with mica and quartz, Conway.
■" 35. Micaceous limestone with mica and quartz, Heath.

~ 36. Micaceous limestone with mica and quartz, Southampton.

— 37. Micaceous limestone, with veins of quartz and calcite, Conway.

— 38. Micaceous limestone, with veins of granite, Colrain.

39. Micaceous limestone, with veins of argentine, Northampton.

'10. Micaceous limestone decomposed at the surface, Guilford, Vermont.

"~ 41. Gray limestone in mica slate, (boulders,) Williamsburgh.

— 42. Gray limestone in mica slate, (boulders,) Willlamsburgh.
— 43. Coarse white limestone with graphite, (boulder,) Blandford.

— • 44. Coarse wliite limestone, Whitingham, Vermont.

— 45. Coarse white limestone, Whitingham, Vermont.
, — ■46. Coarse white limestone, Whitingham, Vermont.

'~~ 47. Coarse white micaceous limestone, Whitingham, Vermont.
—48. Coarse white micaceous limestone with chlorite, (boulder,) Conway,
originally from Whitingham, Vermont.
49. Dolomitic limestone, Somerset, Vermont.

— 50. Dolomitic limestone, Somerset, Vermont.

— 51. Fine granular limestome, Somerset, Vermont.
52. White crystaline fetid limestone, Bolton.

— 53. Petalite, Bolton.

-- 54. Magnesian limestone, Boxborough.
— ■ 55. Magnesian limestone, Boxborough.

— 56. Magnesian limestone, with serpentine, Littleton.

— 57. Magnesian limestone, with serpentine, Littleton.

— 58. Coarse granular whitish limestone, Chelmsford.

59. Coarse granular whitish limestone, Chelmsford.

60. Coarse granular whitish limestone, Acton.
'61. Gray coarse granular limestone, Walpole.

62. Compact light gray limestone, Newport, Rhode Island.
-63. Compact white translucent marble, (polished,) Stoneham.
-64. Granular clouded limestone, Smithfield, Rhode Island.
-'65. White granular limestone, Harris rock, Smithfield, Rhode, Island.

— 66. White granular limestone. Dexter rock, Smithfield, Rhode Island-

— 67. Flesh colored limestone. Dexter ro.;k, Smithfield, Rhode Island.
68. Flexible marble, New Ashford.

-69. Laminated calcite, Bernardston.

— 70. Crystalized calcite, Bernnrdston.

I
^

APPENDIX. xxxlii

— 71. Hydrate of iron, Bernardston.

72. Magnetic oxide of iron, Bernardston.

73. Nephrite, Stoneliam.
'74. Allochroite, Stoneham.

"75. Specks of Serpentine in limestone, Boxborough.
. ~- 76. Angite in calcite, Boxborough.

77. Calcite, wine yellow, Boxborough.
^--78. Actinolite in limestone, Boxborough.
- 79. Radiated actinolite, Boxborough.

80. Compact purple scapolite, Boxborough.

81. Lilac scapolite, Bolton.

~82. Crystals of lilac scapolite, Bolton.

-• 83. Dark gray scapolite, (nuttallite,) Bolton.

•84:. Sahlite, Bolton.

—85. Sahlite with compact scapolite, Acton.

--» 86. Diopside, Whitingham, Vermont.

— 87. Actinolite, Chelmsford.

— 88. Boltonite, Bolton.
—89. Boltonite, Bolton.

-90. White amianthus, Chelmsford.

— 91. White amianthus, Chelmsford.

— 92. Limestone and white talc, Smithfield, Rhode Island.

— 93. Augite, scapolite and cinnamonstone, Carlisle.

— 94. Cinnamonstone and pargasite, Cai-lilse.
■ 95. Cinnamonstone and pargasite, Carlisle.

'""96. Crystallized scapolite, Littleton.
■- 97. Actinolite, Littleton.

— 98. Apatite in scapolite, Littleton.

— 99. Sphene with scapolite and petalite, Bolton.
■"100. Sphene with scapolite and petalite, Littleton.
—101. Sphene with scapolite and augite, Carlisle.

"~102. White crystallized augite in dolomite, Canaan, Connecticut.

~ 103. Calcite and augite, Lee.

—•104. Tremolite in dolomite, Lee.

— 105. Tremolite in dolomite, Canaan, Connecticut.

•^106. Tremolite in dolomite, Sheffield.
"* 107. Bisilicate of lime and trisilicate of alumina, (scapolite rock,) Canaan
Connecticut.

^ 108. Compact bisilicate of lime and scapolite rock, Canaan, Connecticut.
^ 109. Bisilicate of lime, scapolite rock and dolomite, Canaan, Connecticut.
"— 110. Scapolite rock with mica, passing into mica slate, Canaan, Connecticut.
"^ 111. Scapolite with quartz and augite, Canaan, Connecticut.
112. Common marble, North Adams.

\^113. Common marble, Noi^th Adams.

^114. Marble, Fitch's quarry. West Stockbridge.

^15. Marble, Fitch's quarry. West Stockbridge.

v'116. Marble, West Stockbridge.
5

xxxiv APPENDIX.

vni7. Marble, Sheffield.

""/lis. Marble, Lanesborough.

119. Marble, Egremont.

120. Marble, Girard College quarry, Sheffield.
•121. Marble, Boston Corner.

'/122. Marble, Boston Corner.

123. Sparry limestone, Lanesborough.
V124. Sparry limestone, New Ashford.

• 125. Black limestone, Lanesborough.
V<126. Black limestone, (boulder,) Richmond.
v'127. Gray limestone, Hancock.

\/128. Reddish limestone. South WiUiamstown.
V" 129. Gray limestone, Concord.

■/130. Gray limestone, Whately.
'XlSl. Gray limestone, Ashfield.

\/132. Gray limestone, Ashfield.
133. Gray limestone, Norwich.
"^ 134. Gray limestone, (boulder,) Royalston.
"^ 13-5. Compact gray limestone, Copake, New York.
136. Dolomite, South Tyringham.

v«,137. Dolomite marble, Sheffield.

^138. Dolomite, Smith's quarry. New Marlborough.

V 139. Dolomite, Smith's quarry. New Marlborough.
140. Dolomite, Hadsell's quarry, New Marlborough.

s/141. Dolomite, New Marlborough, south part.

^^142. Dolomite, WiUiamstown, south of college.
^ 143. Dolomite, Tyringham, north-west part.
vyl44. Dolomite, clouded marble, Great Barrington.
^^145. Dolomite, Hadsell's c[uarry. New Marlborough.

, 146. Dolomite, East Lanesborough.

147. Dolomite, north-west base of Saddle Mountain, WilliamstowB.

148. Dolomite, Lee, one mile west of village.

149. Dolomite, Lee, one mile west of village.
V'' 150. Dolomite, near church, Dalton.

151. Dolomite, east bed, Middlefield.

152. Dolomite, Cole's Brook, Middlefield.

153. Dolomite, Cole's Brook, Middlefield.
^154. Dolomite, Becket, south-east part.

'. 155. Dolomite, South Becket.

156. Dolomite, (boulder,) Sherburne.
'' 157. Dolomite, (boulder,) East Bradford.

158. Dolomite, near railroad, Natick.

159. Dolomite, Natick Centre.

V 160. Dolomite, railroad cut, Natick.

161. Compact yellow limestone, dolomitic, railroad cut, Natick.

4 162. Compact yellow limestone, dolomitic, railroad cut, Natick.

163. Compact yellow limestone, dolomitic, railroad cut, Natick.

APPENDIX. XXXV

V 164. Compact white dolomitic limestone, Stonebam.
V 165. Variegated marble, east bed, Middlcfield.

\/l60. Verd antique marble, east bed, Middlefield.

V 167. Verd antique marble, east bed, Middlefield.

V 168. Gray slaty limestone, Copake, New York.
"^ 169. Gray slaty limestone, Lanesborougli.

V 170. Gray slaty limestone. West Stockbridge.

y' 171. Gray limestone, Smith's quarry, New Marlborough.
V 172. Micaceous limestone, Cheshire.

V 173. Limestone with yellow mica, east bed, Middlefield.

v^ 174. Junction of marble and mica slate, Fitch's quarry. West Stockbridge.

175. White micaceous limestone, east bed, Middlefield.
yl76. Talcose limestone, Becket.

Vl77. Gray micaceous limestone, east bed, Middlefield.
'/178. Junction of limestone and talco-micaceous slate, Saddle Mountain, Wil-

liamstown.
>/179. Calcareous mica slate, Saddle Mountain, East Bridge, Adams.
VlSO. Carbonate of lime and mica, West Stockbridge.
\/181. Carbonate of lime, mica and quartz. West Stockbridge.
V182. Dolomite and feldspar. South Tyringham.

183. Dolomite, mica, quartz, &c.. South Lee.
'A84. Limestone and augite. New Marlborough.

185. Micaceous limestone, decomposed, Pepperell.
V 186. Dolomite with Avhite augite, Tyringham.
V'187. Dolomite with tremohte, Becket, south-east part.

188. Dolomite with tremolite, Lee.

189. Dolomite with tremolite, Lee.

190. Stalactite from cave, Lanesborough.
■/• 191. Carbonate of iron, Newbury.

\t 192. Tremolite in limestone, Lenox.

/'193. Sphene in talcose limestone, Becket.

v'194:. Sphene in talcose limestone, Adams.

Vl95. Feldspar and quartz ; a vein in limestone. Cole's brook, Middlefield.

196. Galena in limestone, gangue quartz, Alford.

197. Galena and pyrites, Alford.

198. Crystallized quartz in limestone. South Williamstown.

199. Carbonate of iron, Newbury.

200. Clouded flexible marble. Great Barrington.

X. QuAKTZ Rock, iPoisdam Sandstone in part.)
•^■1. White hyaline quartz, from mica slate, Heath.
-•"2. White hyaline quartz, Plainfield.

3. Whitish quartz nearly opaque. Saddle Mountain.

4. Whitish quartz nearly opaque, from a vein in hornblende slate. Gill.

- - 5. Whitish quartz containing argillaceous slate, Guilford, Vermont.
.^6. Fine granular white quartz, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

— 7. Reddish granular quartz, Berkshire county.

xxxvi APPENDIX.

8. Reddisli granular quartz, Cheshire.

V 9. Reddish granular quartz, Pittsfield.
"10. Reddish granular quartz, Pittsfield.

"r 11. Dark gray granular quartz, Windsor.
— 12. Arenaceous disintegrating quartz, Cheshire.
■ — 13. Arenaceous disintegrating quartz, Cheshire.

— 14. Granular striped quartz, Conway.

~15. Hyaline dark smoky quartz, Amherst.
— 16. Smoky quartz in argillaceous slate, Guilford, Vermont.

~~17. Light smoky quartz in argillaceous slate. Sterling.

-18. Reddish compact quartz, Leverett.

— 19. Reddish compact quartz, Prescott.

""'20. Bluish compact c[uai'tz, Amherst.
-«► 21. Greenish quartz, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

— 22. Porous quartz, (buhrstone,) Washington.

— 23. Arenaceous quartz with actinolite, associated with gneiss, Pelham.
~ 24. Gray fine granular quartz, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

— 25. Gray fine granular quartz, Framingham.

~- 26. Gray hyaline quartz Avith feldspar, Pelham.

27. Light gray granular quartz with small scales of mica, Lee.

— 28. Light gray granular quartz, stratified, (buhrstone locality,) Pittsfield.
""•29. Gray granular quartz with mica and contorted folia, Lee.

—30. Gray hyaline quartz with mica, associated with gneiss, New Salem.

31. Brecciated parti-colored quartz with mica, Amherst.
—32. Rhomboidal quartz with mica, Northfield.
-.33. Compact gray cjuartz with mica, Bernardston.
*" 34. Compact gray quartz with mica, Bernardston.

— 35. Compact gray quartz with mica, Bernardston.

— 36. Quartz and talc, Webster.
<~-37. Quartz and talc, Hawley.

— 38. Quartz and talc, Hawley.

39. Quartz with actinolite connected with gneiss, Pelham.

40. Quartz with hornblende, Hawley.

~ 41. Argillaceous slate with quartz veins. South Hadley Canal.

~42. Granular quartz and mica connected with gneiss, Windsor.

~43. Granular quartz and mica connected with gneiss, Webster.

""44. Granular quartz and mica associated with gneiss, Mendon.

""45. Granular quartz and mica, Webster.

— 46. Granular quartz under the buhrstone, Pittsfield.

"*47. Granular quartz, Dalton.

~"48. Quartz mica and feldspar passing into gneiss, Bernardston.

**• 49. Quartz and mica, Framingham.

— 50. Quartz and mica, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

-~51. Quartz and mica passing into mica slate, Zoar Bridge.

— 52. Arenaceous quai'tz and mica, Plainfield.
"~ 53. Quartz and mica, vesicular, Chesterfield.
-' 54. Quartz and mica, Conway.

APPENDIX. . XXX vii

~ -55. Quartz, mica and feldspar, passing into gneiss, Mendon.

56. Quartz with argillaceous slate near the lime bed, Bernardston.

- 57. Brecciated quartz, Leverett.

- 58. Brecciated quartz, Amherst.

59. Brecciated quartz, cement hematite, Dalton.
— ' 60. Brecciated quartz, cement hematite, Dalton.

61. Brecciated quartz, cement iron, Amherst.

62. Brecciated quartz and micaceous slate, Williamsburgh.

03. Quartzose conglomerate, (boulder,) cement mica slate, Windsor.

64. Quartzose conglomerate, Adams.

65. Quartz with disseminated iron pyrites, Windsor.
■ - 66. Ferruginous quartz, (boulder,) Worthingtou.
1_j_67. Quartz passing into yellow jasper, Chesterfield.

68. Quartz, Wendell.
n/69. Quartz vein, Roxbury.
vTO. Agatized quartz. New Rochester.
\/ 71. Agatized quartz, Middleborough.
v72. Quartz, Athol.
v73. Quartz, Granby, east part.

V 74. Granular quartz, Uxbridge.
75. Arenaceous quartz, Dalton.

V 76. Gray quartz, Williamstown.

V 77. Quartz, summit of Monument Mountain.
"/78. Quartz, Mountain east of Williamstown.
>/79. Red quartz, (boulder,) Franklin.

>/80. Rhomboidal quartz. Alum Hill, Sheffield.
V 81. Quartz, Bald Mountain, North Adams.
>(/83. Quartz, Natick.
"^ 84. Firestone, East Douglass.
>/ 85. Quartz and hornblende, Warwick.
v 86. Quartz and hornblende, rhomboidal, Leverett.

87. Firestone, north part of Tyringham.
\/88. Rhomboidal quartz, Umpachena Falls, New Marlborough.
n/89. Firestone, Washington.
V^90. Slaty quartz. Alum Hill, Sheffield.
V91. Quartz with veins of iron ore, mouth of Miller's River, Montague.

V 92. Quartz and mica, Palmer.

\/'93. Contorted quartz and mica, Zoar.

^•94. Quartz, top of Beartown Mountain.

N/^5. Quartz and mica, Palmer.

'V96. Quartz and mica, Millville, Mendon.

>/ 97. Arenaceous quartz and mica, Williamstown.

\/98. Quartz and mica, South Mountain, Northfield.

V 99. Quartz and mica. Railroad cut, Monson.
>A00. Quartz and mica, Washington, west part.

v401. Quartz, mica, and feldspar, top of Beartown Mountain.
•^102. Quartz and mica overlying metamorphic slate, Bellingham, north-east
part.

xxxYiii APPENDIX.

\/103. Quartz, mica, and feldspar, Beartown Mountain.
•yiOi. Conglomeritic quartz and mica. West Washington.
V^105. Conglomeritic quartz and mica, West Washington.
V^06 Quartzose breccia, cement hematite, (boulder,) WashingtQn.
9^07. Quartzose breccia, cement hematite, (boulder,) Washington.

VlOS. Quartzose breccia with tourmaline, east foot of Monument Mountain.
V^109. Quartzose breccia with tourmaline, Warwick.
VllO. Quartz with argentiferous galena. South Uxbridge.

Vlll. Quartz with malachite, Williamstown.

V112. Quartz with chlorite, (boulder,) South Middleborough.

■/lis. Decomposing quartz rock. South Williamstown.

^114. Quartz and mica, Millville, Mendon.

/1 15. Jasper, rolled pebbles, North Adams.

\/116. Compact quartz, mouth of Miller's River, Montague.

y 117. Firestone, Pelham, west part.

^118. Firestone with actinolite, Pelham, west part.

XI. Mica Slate, (Metamorphic and Hppozoic.)
—\. Common mica slate, Colram.
2. Mica slate, Peru.

— 3. Mica slate, Blandford.

- 4. ]\Iica slate, Smithfield, Rhode Island.
■"' 5. Mica slate, Shelburne.

6. Mica slate, (Tunnel rock,) Florida.
~ 7. Mica slate, Framingham.

— 8. Mica slate, Cheshire.

'- 9. Fibrous mica slate, Northfield.

—10. Fibrous mica slate, Northfield.

11. Fibrous mica slate, West Stockbridge.

--12. Mica slate, very even and shining, Bolton, Connecticut.

"~ 13. Mica slate, layers tortuous, quartz tuberculous, Stockbridge.

— 14. Feldsj^athic mica slate, Pittsiield.

-15. Feldspathic mica slate, Colrain.

""16. Feldspathic mica slate, Westfield.

—17. Feldspathic mica slate, Leverett.

— ■ 18. Feldspathic mica slate, Montague.
• 19. Feldspathic mica slate, Granville.

— 20. Feldspathic mica slate, Granville.
21. Feldspathic mica slate, Florida.

— 22. Feldspathic mica slate, Ware.

-23. Feldspathic mica slate, Mt. Wachusett, Princeton.

— 24. Feldspathic mica slate, Enfield.

— 25. Amphibolic garnetLferous mica slate, Norwich.
26. Mica slate with jjhosphate of lime, Conway.

— 27. Mica slate with phosphate of lime, Colrain.
-'■ 28. Garnetiferous mica slate, Chesterfield.

. 29. Staurotidiferous mica slate, Chesterfield.

APPENDIX. xxxix

— -30. Spangled mica slate, Goshen.

■- 31. Spangled mica slate, Plalnfield.

-- 32. Spangled mica slate, (jointed,) Plainfield.

— 33. Spangled mica slate, Norwich.

— 34. Argillo-micaceous slate, Goshen.

— 35. Argillo-micaceous slate, jointed, Greenfield.

— 36. Argillo-micaceous slate, rhomboidal, Greenfield.
" 37. Argillo-micaceous slate, Charlemont.

— 38. Argillo-micaceous slate, Hawley.
39. Argillo-micaceous slate, Heath.

—40. Argillo-micaceous slate, Lanesborough.

41. Glazed argillo-mica slate with quartz, Glen, at Leyden.

—42. Contorted argillo-micaceous slate, Guilford, Vermont.

— 43. Contorted argillo-micaceous slate, Hancock.

~-44. Argillo-micaceous slate with waved surface, Bradford.
* 45. Contorted argillo-micaceous slate with layers of quartz, Guilford, Ver-
mont.
~ 46. Contorted argillo-micaceous slate, Whately.

— 47. Contorted argillo-micaceous slate, Guilford, Vermont.
—•48. Contorted argillo-micaceous slate, Bernardston.

—49. Contorted argillo-micaceous slate with layers of quartz, Williamstown.

50. Argillo-micaceous slate, Saddle Mountain.

— 51. Arenaceous mica slate, Norwich.

— 52. Arenaceous mica slate passing into gneiss, Bolton.

— 53. Arenaceous mica slate, argentine locality, Westhampton.
-'54. Arenaceous mica slate, Norwich.

~-55. Vesicular arenaceous mica slate, Chesterfield.
~^56. Vesicular arenaceous mica slate, Chester.

— 57. Vesicular arenaceous mica slate, Norwich.

~~58. Arenaceous mica slate, Woonsocket Falls, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

— 59. Arenaceous mica slate, Chester.

— 60. Arenaceous feldsjiathic mica slate, Enfield.

— 61. Arenacous mica slate, Chester.
•62. Whetstone slate, Enfield.

— 63. Whetstone slate, Enfield.

64. Whetstone slate, Norwich.

65. Arenaceous mica slate, Sherburne.

■- 66. Arenaceous mica slate, used for monuments, Halifax, Vermont.

-'67. Arenaceous mica slate, Greenfield.

68. Arenaceous mica slate, jointed, Deerfield.

— 69. Arenaceous mica slate, jointed, Deerfield.

— 70. Argillo-arenaceous slate, reddish, at junction with Connecticut Rivw

sandstone, Glen at Leyden.

— 71. Argillo-arenaceous slate, bent, Leyden glen.

— • 72. Argillo-arenaceous slate, bent, Leyden glen.
--73. Plumbaginous mica slate, Hawley.

— 74. Mica slate, common, Southampton.

xl APPENDIX.

75. Mica slate, Northfield, west of Connecticut River.
— 76. Mica slate, Conway.

— 77. Conglomerated mica slate passing into sienite, Whately.

— 78. Indurated mica slate, Whately.

— 79. Augite rock, associated with mica slate, Williamsburg.
80. Augite rock associated with mica slate, Williamsburg.

— 81. Phosphate of lime in mica slate, Norwich.
^82. Fluor spar, Westmoreland, New Hampshire.

— 83. Milk quartz, Warwick.

— 84 Fetid hyaline quartz, Goshen.

85. Fetid quartz, crystallized, Williamsburg.

— 86. Eose red quartz, Blaudford-

— 87. Rose red quartz, Blandford.

— 88. Rose red quartz, Chelmsford.

— 89. Yellow hyaline quartz, Colrain.
90. Blood red quartz, Colrain.

— 91. Quartzose breccia agate, Conway.

— 92. Quartzose breccia agate, Conway.
^ 93. Quartzose breccia agate, Conway.
"91. Quartzose breccia agate, Conway.
—• 95. Quartzose breccia agate, Conway.

96. Quartzose breccia agate, Conway.

97. Quartzose breccia agate, Conway.

— 98. Quartzose breccia agate, Conway.
— » 99. Quartzose breccia agate, Amherst.

— 100. Tabular quartz, Conway.

»— lOl. Tabular quartz, pseudomorphous, Conway.
—102. Yellow quartz, Amherst.
■ — 103. Fibrolite in mica slate, Lancaster.
104. Kyanite and Apatite, Chesterfield.

— 105. Kyanite and Apatite, Chesterfield.
— 106. Kyanite and Apatite, Chesterfield.

107. Kyanite, Chester.
— 108. Staurotide in mica slate, Chesterfield.
--109. Andalusite, Westford.

— 110. Andalusite, Westford.

— 111. Fibrous talc with andalusite, Westford.

— 112. Black tourmaline, Blandfoi'd.

'"" 113. Garnets in mica slate, Chesterfield.

"114. Garnets in mica slate, Chesterfield.

"115. Epidote in amphibolic mica slate, Goshen.

"-116. Epidote in amphibolic mica slate, Williamsburg.
— 117. Zoisite with specular iron and spathic iron, Goshen.
— - 118. Zoisite, Chesterfield.
— 119. Idocrasc, epidote, calcite, &c., Worcester.

—120. Anthophyllite in mica slate, Chesterfield.
— 121. Anthophyllite, Blandford.

APPENDIX. xli

— 122. Anthophyllite, Blandford.

~- 123. Cummingtonite, quartz and garnets, Warwick.

. — 124. Cummingtonite, Cummington.

-^125. Black mica, Westfield.

—126. Black mica, Norwich.

—127. Fibrous talc, Blandford.

— 128. Red oxide of iron from manganese vein, Conway.

129. Pyrolusite, Conway.
""■130. Pyrolusite with siliceous sinter, Amherst.
— 131. Ore of Manganese, Hinsdale.

V132. Micaceous iron, Montague.
-133. Mispickel, Worcester.

134. Mispickel, Worcester.

135. Massive mispickel, Worcester.
—136. Spathic iron, Worcester.

— '137. Spathic iron. Sterling.

— 138. Spathic iron with copper pyrites. Sterling.

139. Galena and blende. Sterling.
— 140. Reddish blende, (zinc,) Sterling.
"• 141. Rutile, Conway.

142. Firestone, Stafford, Connecticut.
yi43. Mica slate passing into granite, Russell.
•^144. Mica slate with white quartz. Heath.
v445. Mica slate, Enfield.
vl46. Black mica slate. Railroad cut, Monson.
v' 147. Mica slate. Railroad cut. Auburn.
-•148. Mica slate, Railroad cut, Clappville, Leicester.
•■/149. Mica slate. Railroad cut, Sodom, Wilbraham.
\/Tl50. Mica slate, Monroe.

\/151. Mica slate. Railroad cut, Sodom, Wilbraham.
>/ 152. Mica slate, Warwick.
"k/'153. Mica slate, Russell.
\/154. Mica slate, Russell.
^155. Rhomboidal mica slate, Palmer.
y'156. Mica slate, Westminster.
V 157. Mica slate, Erving.

158. Mica slate, Sodom Mountain, Northfield.
"/ 159. Mica slate, Sodom Mountain, Southwick.

i/160. Mica slate interstratified with limestone, West Stockbridge, east part.
7161. Mica slate, Lenox Mount, Lenox.
Vl62. Feldspathic mica slate, Granville.
■\/163. Feldspathic mica slate. West Washington.
\/l64. Mica slate, Norwich.

\/165. Mica slate above limestone, Shakerville, Tyringham.
>/l66. Mica slate, Erving.
■/167. Mica slate, Warwick.
\/168. Firestone, Warwick.
6

xlii APPENDIX.

V^169. Mica slate, Enfield.
Vl70. Firestone, Warwick.

171. Firestone, Warwick.
\/ 172. Mica slate, Lenox Mountain, Lenox.

v/l73. Mica slate passing into quartz rock. South Mountain, Northfield.
Vl74. Whetstone slate, Wendell.
1^175. Mica slate, Saddle Mountain, east ridge.
^^176. Mica slate, calcareous with iron pyrites, Adams.
Vl77. Talco-micaceous slate, Boston Corner.
Y17S. Mica slate, Saddle Mountain, AVilliamstown.
\/l79. Mica slate, Wllliamstown.
yi80. Argillo- micaceous slate, Egremont.
VT.81. Aluminous slate, Conway.

182. Native alum, Conway.

V 183. Mica slate, Russell.

/184. Mica slate, top of Wachusett.

V 185. Mica slate. East Rutland.

186. Talco-micaceous slate, Millville, Mendon.
Vl87. Mica slate, West Leominster.
n/188. Argillo-micaceous slate, Wllliamstown, west of college.

189. Mica slate and limestone over the marble, Lanesboi'ough.

190. Mica slate over limestone. North Ashford.

191. Mica slate over marble. North Ashford.

\r 192. Mica slate. Mount Everett, Mount Washington.

>i' 193. Mica slate, above east slope of Mount Everett.
V 194. Mica slate, Sheffield, west of Village.

v/195. Mica slate with decomposing iron pyrites, Saddle Mountain, Williamstown.

/ 196. INIica slate, above limestone, Hudson Brook, North Adams.

197. Talco-micaceous slate with hornblende and iron pyrites, Monson.
n/ 198. Talco-micaceous slate with jiyrites, Monson.
^^199. Mica slate, Railroad cut, Monson.
v^200. Mica slate, Franklin.

V 201. Mica slate, Franklin.

•y202. Mica slate, Spicket Falls, Methuen.

v203. Augitic mica slate. Heath.
v^204:. Augitic mica slate, Sodom Mountain, Southwick.

^ 205. Mica hornblende and feldspar, apparently of igneous origin, in mica
slate, Warwick.

205. Porous quartz with oxide of iron, Richmond.

206. Mica slate with garnets, Northfield, South Mountain.
-/ 207. Mica slate with garnets, Northfield, South Mountain.
7 208. Mica slate with staurotide and garnets, Aubui-n.

V 209. Mica slate with garnets. Railroad, Middlefield.

V 210. Garnetiferous mica slate. West Rowe.

•J 211. Mica slate with staurotide and garnets. South Mount, Northfield.

212. Iron pyrites. Saddle Mount, Adams.

213. Mag. ox. iron, Warwick.

APPENDIX. xliii

\/214. Mag. ox. iron, (boulder,) Orange.

215. Micaceous ox. iron, Montague.
■v 216. Kyanite, Palmer.

218. Kyanite, Palmer.

219. Zoisite in quartz, Heath.

220. Zoisite and hornblende. Heath.

V 221. Epidote and garnet, Warwick.

V 222. Epidote and quartz, Warwick.
■</223. Epidote and quartz, Warwick.

224. Garnet and mag. ox. iron, Warwick.
*\/225. Garnet and mag. ox. iron, (boulder,) Orange.
n/ 226. Garnet and quartz, Warwick.
>/227. Black tourmaline in quai'tz, Northfield.

228. Fibrolite in mica slate, Phillipston.

229. Masonite, (Jackson,) Auburn.

230. Masonite, (Jackson,) Auburn.

231. Masonite, (Jackson,) Warwick, Rhode Island.

XII. Talcose Slate, (chiefly metamorphic.)
..- 1. Talcose slate, Graylock.
-- 2. Talcose slate, Florida.
' 3. Talcose slate. West Stockbridge.
'-" 4. Talcose slate, Graylock.
■— 5. Scaly greenish talc, Westfield.
— 6. Green talc near steatite, MIddlefield.

7. Foliated light green talc, Rowe.
—8. Foliated light green talc, MIddlefield.

9. Foliated light green talc, Windsor.

— 10. Green steatite, Zoar.

— 11. Steatite with rhomb spar, Zoar.

*-12. Steatite with rhomb spar, Windsor, north-west part.

— 13. Steatite with bitter spar, Windsor, north-east part.

— 14. Steatite with brown spar, Smithfield, Rhode Island.

— 15. Steatite, MIddlefield.

- — 16. Steatite, for pqie, Grafton, Vermont.

17. Very fine steatite, Blandford.
"^-IS. Steatite, Somers, Connecticut.

— 19. Steatite, Groton.

— 20. Chlorite, with feldspar, Cummington.

—=•21. Fine grained chlorite with feldspar, Goshen.

22. Slaty chlorite, Smithfield, Rhode Island.

23. Chlorite with steatite, MIddlefield.
■~24. Chlorite slate, Peru.

25. Chlorite slate with rutile and feldspar, Windsor.

26. Talco-chloritic slate. Little Compton, Rhode Island.
~~27. Talco-chloritic slate, Smithfield, Rhode Island.

"— 28. Talco-chloritic slate, epidotic, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

xliv APPENDIX.

— 29. Talco-cliloritic passing into hornblende slate, Little Compton, Rhode

Island.

— 30. Talcose slate, talc and quartz. Little Compton, Rhode Island.

— 31. Talcose slate, Hawley.

— 32. Talcose slate, Hawley.

— 33. Greenish talcose slate, Middlefield.
34. Greenish talcose slate, Plainfield.

— 35. Greenish talcose slate, Florida.
--■ 36. Greenish talcose slate, Lenox.

— 37. Talcose slate with mica, Hawley.

~38. Talcose slate, iron mine, Somerset, Vermont.

•^39. Talcose slate, east side of serpentine, Chester.

—40. Talcose slate, Barre.

-"41. Talcose slate, Rowe.

""42. Talcose slate, Rowe.

~43. Talc and limestone, Whitingham, Vermont.

— 44. Talc quartz and carb.-iron, Hawley.
45. Quartz with hydrate of iron, Hawley.

^46. Talc quartz and hornblende, Hawley.

— -47. Talc quartz and hornblende, Charlemont.

— 48. Talc quartz and hornblende, Hawley.

49. Talc quartz and hornblende, Hawley.

50. Talc quartz and hornblende, Hawley.

— 51' Talc quartz and feldspar, Smithfield, Rhode Island.
—52. Talc quartz and feldspar, porphyritic, Hawley.

— 53. Talcose slate with octahedral iron, Hawley.
>^54. Talcose slate with octahedral iron, Blandford.
— • 55. Micaceous ox. iron, Hawley.

■ — 56. Mag. ox. iron, native magnet, Somerset, Vermont.

— 57. Native magnet, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

V 58. Native magnet, porphyritic with crystals of feldspar, Cumberland, Rhode
Island.

59. Porous quartz with hydrate of iron, gangue of gold, Somerset, Vermont.

60. Porous quartz in talcose slate with hydrate of iron, for comparison,

Virginia.

61. Pyrolusite, Plainfield.

— 62. Rhodonite, Cummington.

bitter spar, Middlefield.

— 64. White bitter spar and green talc, Middlefield.

65. Salmon colored talc, Middlefield.

66. Miascite, Zoar.

— 7. Miascite, Zoar.
68. Asbestus, Zoar.

"69. Asbestus, Pelham.

— 70. Asbestus, Blandford.
71. Asbestus, Shutesbury.

— 72. Tremolite, Middlefield.

APPENDIX. xlv

— 73. Fibrous hornblende in quartz, Plainfield.
74. Fasciculite in talcose slate, Plainfield.

75. Fasciculite in talcose slate, Plainfield.

—76. Actinolite in talc, Blandford.

77. Actinolite in talc, Windsor.

^^78. Actinolite from steatite quany, Blandford.

"-79. Radiated actinolite, Blandford.

V 80. Steatite, Chester, west part.

V 81. Steatite, Chester, north part.

V 82. Steatite, Eowe.

*/83. Steatite, West Petersham.

V 84. Steatite, Andover, east part.
85. Steatite, Andover, east jiart.

•/86. Steatite, (boulder,) Warren.

^87. Steatite, Cheshire.

88. Steatite, Fitchburg.

^89. Talcose slate with hornblende and iron pyrites, Monson.

v/QO. Talcose slate, Graylock, North Adams.

'/Ol. Talcose slate, West Stockbridge.

1-92. Talcose slate, top of Tom Ball, Alford.

V 93. Taconic talcose slate, Alford.

\/ 94. Taconic talcose slate with mag. oxide iron, Richmond.

V 95. Talcose slate, Graylock, east ridge.
^f 96, Talcose slate, Hancock.

V 97. Talcose slate, East Hancock.

y 98. Talcose slate, Taconic Mountain, Boston Corner.

>/ 99. Talcose slate, Kent's quarry. New Ashford.

vlOO. Talcose slate with mag. oxide iron, New Ashford.

V 101. Talcose slate, Bashapish Falls, Mount Washington.
1^102. Talcose slate, top of Mount Everett.

'^lOS. Talcose slate, top of Mount Everett.

V104. Taconic talcose slate, West AVilliamstown.

>^105. Taconic talcose slate, West Williamstown.

V'106. Talcose slate, porphyritic. Mount Everett.

V 107. Talcose slate, in the hollow, Mount Washington.

>/l08. Talcose slate, Hoosac Mountain, North Adams.

■ 109. Taconic talcose slate, Williamstown.

110. Chlorite slate with pyrites, Hawley.

V'lll. Chlorite slate, West Stockbridge, west part.

^Wl. Chlorite slate, Hancock.

^113. Talcose slate and epidote, Hancock.

^114. Talcose slate and chlorite, (boulder,) Medfield.

•i 115. Talcose slate with hornblende, Monson.

n/116. Chlorite and quartz, Hancock.

^■117. Chlorite, Williamstown.

v'118. Chlorite slate. West Stockbridge.

V 119. Mag. oxide iron, Chester.

V.120. Hornblende in talcose slate, Chester.

xlvi APPENDIX.

XIII. Serpentine. (MetamorpJiic.)
1. Compact noble serpentine, polished, Newbury.
-2. Compact serpentine with massive garnet, polished, Newbury.
3. Serpentine, with green amianthus, Newbury.
~~ 4. Compact serpentine, Newbury.

5. Compact serpentine, Chester.
■- 6. Polished serpentine, Middlefield.
'• 7. Slaty serpentine, Chester.

8. Serpentine with grains of chromic iron, Windsor, north-east part.

9. Serpentine, Windsor, north-west part.
10. Serpentine, Blandfoi-d.

■ — 11. Serpentine, (boulder,) Blandford.
— 12. Black compact serpentine, Newport, Rhode Island.
■ 13. Variegated serpentine, Newport, Rhode Island.

- 14. Dark green compact serpentine, (boulder,) Leverett.

15. Dark gray compact serpentine, Chelmsford.

16. Dark green serpentine with amianthus and Deweylite, Russell.

17. Glazed serpentine, Zoar.

18. Glazed serpentine, Zoar.

19. Serpentine steatite and brown spar, Zoar.

20. Serpentine steatite and brown spar, Zoar.

21. Black serpentine and talc. New Salem.

22. Black serpentine and talc, (polished,) Pelham.

23. Dark green serpentine, (polished,) Blandford.

- 24. Black serpentine, talc, actinolite, Westfield.

"25. Light green compact serpentine, (polished,) Russell.

- 26. Black serjientine talc, schiller and calcite spar, (polished,) Granville.

27. Serpentine atad calcite, (polished,) Westfield.

28. Serpentine and calcite, Westfield.

29. Serpentine and calcite, Westfield, (polished.)
-^ 30. Serpentine and calcite, Westfield.

31. Compact feldspar, lime quarry, Newbury.
•~32. Compact scapolite ? Westfield.

— 33. Mammillary chalcedony, Blandford.

34. Yellow jasper, Middlefield.

35. Chalcedony, Middlefield.
-' 36. Drusy quartz, Middlefield.

- 37. Satin spar, Newbury.
38. Tremolite, Newbury.

— 39. Mussite, Blandford.

40. Massive garnet, Westfield.

— 41. Actinolite, Westfield.

- 42. Asbestiform actinolite, Westfield.
■ 43. Massive chromic iron, Blandford.

44. Chromic iron in serpentine, Blandford.
V^ 45. Serpentine, Lynnfield.

46 Serpentine, (polished,) Lynnfield.

APPENDIX. xlvii

■^47. Carbonate of magnesia on serpentine, Lynnfield.

48. Diallage in serpentine, Sodom Mountain, South wick.

49. Serpentine, Cheshire.

\/50. Serpentine, (boulder,) Eussell.

vol. Chromic iron, Chester.

y 52. Serpentine, Chester.

\/53. Dark colored serpentine, Chester.

v/Si. Serpentine with schiller spar, Chester.

XIV. Hornblende Slate. (Metamorphic and Hypozoic.)

— 1. Lamellar black hornblende, Granville.

' 2. Lamellar black hornblende, Belchertown.

~ 3. Lamellar hornblende with garnets, Norwich.

~-4. Lamellar hornblende, Belchertown.

5. Hornblende slate, (boulder,) South Hadley Canal.

— 6. Fibrous hornblende, Enfield.

7. Granular hornblende, Middlefield.

— 8. Fibrous hornblende, Leverett.
— '9. Fibrous hornblende, Florida.

10. Compact hornblende, Lincoln.

.11. Compact hornblende, Smithfield, Rhode Island.

"12. Compact hornblende, Marlborough.

13. Hornblende slate, Shelburne.

44. Fibrous hornblende, Merrimack River.

15. Fibrous hornblende, Whately.

16. Hornblende and feldspar, Sudbury.

—17. Hornblende slate with feldspar, Bernardston.
-18. Rhomboidal hornblende slate, Whately.

19. Hornblende slate. Ware.

20. Compact hornblende slate, Smithfield, Rhode Island.
• 21. Hornblende quartz and feldspar, Gill.

„. 22. Quartz and feldspar, vein in Trap, Gill.

■ 23. Hornblende and feldspar, Whately.

24. Hornblende and feldspar, Whately.

25. Hornblende and feldspar, Whately.

26. Coarse feldspathic hornblende slate. Ware.
"27. Coarse feldspathic hornblende slate, Ware.

28. Hornblende slate, mouth of Miller's River.

29. Hornblende slate with layers of feldspar, Dana.

30. Hornblende, feldspar, mica. Plumbago mine, Sturbridge.

31. Porphyritic hornblende slate, Heath.

82. Porphyritic hornblende slate, (boulder, originally from New Fane, Ver-
mont,) South Hadley Falls.
33. Porphyritic boulder, Amherst, (New Fane, Vermont.)

■ 84. Hornblende slate with compact feldspar, Whately.
•85. Hornblende and feldspar, Easton.

36. Hornblende and feldspar, Canton.

xlviii APPENDIX.

37. Hornblende and feldspar, Plymouth.

38. Hornblende and feldspar, Wliately.

39. Hornblende and quartz with a vein, Becket.

40. Hornblende slate with vein of Graphic Granite, Williamsburg.

41. Hornblende slate, Shelburne Falls.

42. Hornblende slate with quartz vein, Warwick.

43. Hornblende slate, Hawley.

44. Hornblende slate and feldspar, the hornblende vesicular, Conway.

45. Hornblende, feldspar, and mica, Amherst.

— 46. Hornblende with augite, Becket.

47. Hornblende, Stow.

48. Hornblende, feldspar, and mica, Dracut.
-,49. Hornblendic granite, Leverett.

--50. Hoi'nblendic granite, Leverett.
-51. Hornblende and epidote, Granville.

— -52. Hornblende, in contact with serpentine, Blandford.

— 53. Rhomboidal hornblende slate, Whately.

— 54. Feldspathic hornblende slate, Whately.

— 55. Hornblende and chlorite, Whately.

— 56. Actinolite slate, (actinolite, quartz and feldspar,) Shutesbury.
\ -57. Actinolite slate, Belchertown.

~ 58. Hornblende slate with layer of epidote, Pelham.
'^ '- j9. Hornblende slate with cryst. hornblende, Pelham.
n/60. Massive hornblende, Sturbridge.
\f 61. Massive hornblende, West Northfield.
'"■"62. Massive hornblende and feldspar, Tolland.
63. Massive hornblende and feldspar, Tolland.
n/'64. Massive hornblende and feldspar, Tolland.
65. Massive hornblende and feldspar, Tolland.
V66. Massive hornblende and feldspar, Tolland.

V 67. Massive hornblende, (boulder,) Dcdham.
>/68. Hornblende rock, Methuen.

\/Q9. Feldspathic hornblende slate, Brimfield.
^70. Feldsjiathic hornblende slate, Brimfield.
V71. Porphyritic hornblende slate, Monson.
^ 72. Hornblende slate, Methuen.

V 73. Hornblende slate, East Orange.
\/'74. Hornblende slate, Wendell.

75. Hornblende slate. Mount Grace, Warwick.

V. 76. Hornblende slate with feldspar, Wilbraham.

■/ 77. Feldspathic hornblende slate, Granville.

\f78. Feldspathic hornblende slate, Warwick.

^'' 79. Feldspathic hornblende slate, Granby, south-east part.

•/ 80. Feldspathic hornblende slate, Dana.

•■. 81. Feldspathic hornblende slate with mica. New Bedford.

V 82. Feldspathic hornblende slate, epidotic, Ludlow.
^1^83. Hornblende slate with feldspar and mica. Palmer.

APPENDIX. xlix

^84. Feldspathic hornblende slate, South Orange.

\/85. Feldspathic hornblende slate, South Mount, Northfield.

•/ 86. Feldspathic hornblende slate, Wendell.

^ 87. Striped hornblende slate, Boxford.

v^88. Epidotic hornblende slate, Holliston.

'^89. Chlorite hornblende slate. West Northfield.

VOO. Hornblende and feldspar, Concord.

91. Hornblende talc and ej^idote passing into sienite, Beverly.

V'92. Sienitic rock with slickenside, Natick.

V^ 93. Hornblende with epidote and calcite, Lynnfield.

V 94. Hornblende and chlorite. North Wrentham.

\'95. Hornblende quartz feldspar, structure mechanical, Chesterfield.
96. Chloritic pyritiferous hornblende slate, East Orange.

V 07. Zeolite on hornblende, Sodom, Wilbrahara.

XV. Gneiss. ( Melamorphic and Hypozolc.)
~ 1. Granitic gneiss, Pelham.

2. Granitic gneiss, Templeton.

3. Granitic gneiss, Bi'ookfield.

4. Granitic gneiss, New Braintree.

5. Granitic gneiss, Pelham.

6. Granitic gneiss, Paxton.

■ 7. Granitic gneiss. Petersham.

8. Granitic gneiss, granvilar, Monson.

9. Granitic gneiss, Athol.
-10. Granitic gneiss, Princeton.
- 11. Granitic gneiss, Blandford.

12. Sienitic gneiss, (with hornblende,) Mendon.

13. Granitic gneiss, texture somewhat mechanical, Bolton.
""14. Granitic gneiss, Worcester.

~ 15. Granitic gneiss, Worcester.

""16. Granitic gneiss, (flesh-colored,) Sudbury.

^17. Granitic gneiss, talcose. North Brookfield.

18. Schistose granitic gneiss, Rochester.

19. Schistose granitic gneiss, Oxford.
— 20. Granitic gneiss, Sudbury.

— ^21. Granitic gneiss, Billerica.
— • 22. Schistose gneiss, Dudley.

23. Schistose gneiss, Purgatory, Sutton.

— 24. Schistose gneiss, granular, Wilbraham.

*"■ 25. Schistose gneiss, mouth of Miller's River.
'*-' 26. Schistose gneiss, Buckland.
" ■ 27. Schistose gneiss, Shelburne Falls.
— 28. Schistose gneiss, Amherst.
*"■ 29. Schistose gneiss with much mica, New Bedford.

— 80. Gneiss passing into mica slate, Worcester.
-31. Gneiss passing into mica slate, Paxton.'

7

1 APPENDIX.

" 32. Gneiss passing into mica slate, Hai'dwick.
— - 33. Gneiss feldspar in tnberculons masses, Worcester.
•"-34. Junction of gneiss and mica slate, Worcester.

35. Schistose gneiss, Worcester.

36. Gneiss passing into mica slate, (boulder,) Colrain.
-^37. Gneiss passing into mica slate, Windsor.

— 38. Gneiss passing into mica slate, Little Compton, Rhode Island.
-^39. Gneiss passing into mica slate, Monson.

— 40. Gneiss, East Oxford.
41. Gneiss, Florida.

-~42. Schistose gneiss passing into mica slate, with pyrope, Weston.
43. Schistose gneiss with pyrope, Shrewsbury.

"" 44. Gneiss, west base of Wachusett, Princeton.
— -45. Gneiss, Grafton.

"46. Gneiss, Charlton.

•—47. Porphyritic gneiss. Harvard.
— 48. Talcose gneiss, Framingham.

— 49. Talcose gneiss, Leverett.

.50. Steatite from gneiss, Worcester.

51. Steatite from gneiss, Worcester.

52. Steatite from gneiss, New Sal'em.

63. Steatite passing into serpentine, New Salem.

54. Chloritic steatite, Conway, (originally Whitingham, Vermont.)

55. Schistose gneiss with veins of chlorite, Bolton.
—•56. Laminar gneiss, Windsoi*.

57. Laminar gneiss, West Webster.

— 58. Laminar gneiss, Amherst.

— 59. Laminar gneiss, Grafton.

60. Laminar gneiss, Pelham.

61. Laminar gneiss, Pelham.

■"62. Laminar gneiss, Norfolk, Connecticut.

63. Gneiss, hornblende slate iuterlaminated, Enfield.

— -64. Gneiss iuterlaminated with hornblende slate, Warwick.

— 65. Gneiss, Savoy.

— 66. Gneiss, Windsor.

67. Gneiss, Dalton.

68. Gneiss, Becket.

—-69. Gneiss with vein of granite, Pelham.

— 70. Gneiss, Douglas.
71. Gneiss, Douglas.

- — 72. Poqjhyritic gneiss, Ware.

— 73. Porphyritic gneiss, Pelham.

■"74. Gneiss, (feldspar flesh-colored,) Amherst.
75. Porphyritic gneiss with ejiidote, Pelham.
— 76. Coarse porphyritic gneiss, New Braintree.

— 77. Coarse gneiss, porphyritic, Ware.

— 78. Coarse porphyritic gneiss, Ware.

APPENDIX. li

— 79. Gneiss, Methuen.

— 80. Gneiss, Paxton.

81. Porphyritic gneiss, Montague.
• — 82. Schistose gneiss, Tolland.

83. Amphibolic gneiss with hornblende, Montague.
— 84. Amphibolic gneiss with hornblende, Leverett.

85. Amphibolic gneiss with hornblende, Enfield.

86. Amphibolic gneiss with hornblende, Pelham.

— - 87. Epidotic gneiss, Amherst.

— 88. Epidotic gneiss, Pelham.

— 89. Epidotic gneiss, Amherst.
— 90. Epidotic gneiss, Grafton.

91. Epidotic gneiss, Amherst.
^-92. Augitic gneiss, Lee.

— 93. Augitic gneiss, Lee.

— 94. Augitic gneiss, Lee.

— 95. Augitic gneiss, Lee.

— 96. Antliophyllitic gneiss, Enfield.

— 97. Anthophyllitic gneiss, Enfield.

— 98. Arenaceous gneiss, Southbridge.

— 99. Arenaceous gneiss, Smithfield, Rhode Island.

— 100. Arenaceous gneiss, Smithfield, Rhode Island.

— 101. Talcose gneiss, Smithfield, Rhode Island.

— 102. Gneiss with a serpentine granite vein, Enfield.

103. Common plumbago, Sturbridge.

— 104. Apparently fibrous plumbago, Sturbridge.

104. Partly crystaline jilumbago, Sturbridge.

— 104. Fuller's earth, (V) Plumbago mine, Sturbridge.

105. Bog iron ore. Plumbago mine, Sturbridge.
\/ 106. Bog iron ore in gneiss. North Brookfield.

107. Garnet and molybdenite in gneiss, North Brookfield.

108. Alum and sulphate of iron on gneiss, Leominster.
>/ 109. Alum and sulphate of iron on gneiss, Barre.
-"'IIO. Pyrope garnet in gneiss. New Braintree.

111. Pyrope with adularia, Brimfield.
— 112. Pyrope, Norwich, Connecticut.

113. Feldspar in gneiss, Boxborough.
■^114. Green adularia with mica, (polished,) Sturbridge.
—115. Adularia, Brimfield.

116. Adularia, Brimfield,

117. Black tourmaline, Pelham.

118. Black tourmaline, Pelham.
—119. Sphene in augitic gneiss, Lee.
— 120. Augite and scapolite, Lee.

121. Iron pyrites, Hubbardston.

122. Iron pyrites, Hubbardston.

123. Blue quartz and pyrites, Hubbardston.

. lii APPENDIX.

— 124. Mag. ox. iron in gneiss, Grafton.

^125. Crystallized and drury (juartz, Pelham.

126. Crystallized and drury quartz, Pelham.

— ^127. Crystallized and drury quartz, Pelham.

128. Radiated quartz, Pelham.

129. Amethystine quartz, Pelham.

- • 130. Bluish mammillary chalcedony, Pelham.

131. Breccia agate, (polished,) Rochester.

132. Gray copper, Brimfield.

— 133. Actinolite in feldspar, Chelmsford.
/ 134. Granitic gneiss, Hubbardston.

\rl'do. Granitic gneiss, architectural. New Bedford.

y<136. Granitic gneiss with garnets, Fairhavcn.

'^Vdl. Gneiss, quarry, Monson.

V138. Gneiss, Railroad, Middlefield.

vl39. Gneiss with epidote, Leverett.

140. Gneiss, West Medway.

141. Gneiss with tourmaline, Wendell. ^
■ 142. Granitic gneiss, Tolland.

•143. Slaty gneiss, Middle Granville.

>/ 144. Contorted gneiss, Sandisfield.

v'145. Gneiss, Cheshire.

V 146. Granitic gneiss, i-ed feldspar, Palmer.

147. Granitic gneiss, Brimfield.
'#148. Porphyritic gneiss, Brimfield.
v/I49. Porphyritic gneiss with gneiss, Brimfield.
>/T.50. Porphyritic gneiss, Monson.
VT.51. Porphyritic gneiss, Rutland.

152. Porphyritic slaty gneiss, Sandisfield.
VI 53. Gneiss, Purgatory, Great- Barrington.
v/154. Gneiss with hornblende, Beai'town Mountain.
'/155. Gneiss with hornblende, quarry. Palmer.

156. Granitic gneiss, Brimfield.
s/ 157. Slaty gneiss, Sherburne.
^158. Gneiss, next to quartz rock, Washington.
/^159. Granitic gneiss. Saddle Mountain, Northfield.

V 160. Gneiss with pyrope and mica, Erving.

V 161. Gneiss with pyrope and mica, Sandisfield.

V 162. Gneiss with pyrope and talc, Montague.
vl63. Gneiss with pyrope and mica, North Adams.

V 164. Gneiss with pyrope, Clarksburg.
V'165. Rhomboidal gneiss, quarry, Palmer.

>/l66. Slaty gneiss, summit level of Railroad, Washington.
V' 167. Slaty gneiss, Fairhaven.
y 168. Augitic gneiss, Washington, north-west part.
\/169. Slaty gneiss, Blackstone.
.170. Granitic gneiss, Dana.

APPENDIX. liii

171. Slaty gneiss, Dana.

v/l72. Slaty gneiss, Asbby.

"VITS. Slaty gneiss, Railroad, Auburn.

^/ITl. Slaty gneiss with mica slate. Auburn.

V175. Slaty gneiss with mica slate, Auburn.

'^170. Slaty gneiss Avith mica slate. Auburn.

^177. Gneiss with hornblende slate, Dartmouth.

178. Gneiss and hornblende slate, Dana.

Vl79. Slaty gneiss, Hadseli's quarry. New Marlborough.

VlSO. Slaty gneiss, Hadseli's quarry. New Marlborough.

Vl81. Slaty gneiss. Middle Granville.

182. Slaty gneiss, Royalston.

V183. Gneiss, rhomboidal, Wales.

VI 84. Slaty gneiss, Sturbridge.

Vl85. Slaty gneiss, Shaker Village, Tyringham.

^/186. Slaty gneiss with tourmaline, Athol.

'!iLl87. Slaty gneiss, Royalston.

V 188. Slaty gneiss, Railroad, Natick.

^189. Slaty gneiss, Railroad, Washington.

'1. 190. Slaty gneiss, Sodom, Wilbraham.

"*191. Slaty gneiss, Beverly.

%,^192. Granitic gneiss, original of the buhrstone, Washington.

n/193. Granitic gneiss vv'ith garnets, Southbridge.

\/194. Quartzose gneiss, AVendell.

vl95. Gneiss firestone, Wendell.

V196. Quartzose gneiss, Bellingham.

"^97. Augitic gneiss, Bellingham.

198. Augitic gneiss, Dracut.

199. Augitic gneiss. Railroad cut, Natick.

200. Epidotic gneiss, (boulder,) Carver.

201. Porphyritic gneiss, (boulder,) Carver.

y 202. Gneiss with pyrope and adularia, Morse's graphite quarry, Stockbridge.

203. Gneiss, Barre.

204. Gneiss, Brimfield.
105. Gneiss, Brimfield.

V' 206. Gneiss with garnets, Granville.

~^_207. Foliated graphite and feldspar, Sturbridge.

'i/208. Hornblende and scapollte, Tyringham.

^ 209. Hornblende v/ith sphene, Tyringham.

V 210. Hornblende with quartz, Tyringham.

V 211. Hornblende with feldspar, Tyringham.

^ 212. Hornblende and feldspar, Railroad cut at summit level, W^ashington.
\/ 213. Hornblende and feldspar. Railroad cut at summit level, Washington.
v» 214. Anthophyllite and garnet, Phillipston.
V' 215. Anthophyllite in gneiss, Barre.

^- 21G. Augite and talc, Cheshire.

V 217. Augite and epidote, Athol.

liv APPENDIX.

*^ 218. lolitc in gneiss, Brimfield.

V 219. Adularia, Brimfield.

V 220. Adularia, Brimfield.

V 221. Rutile, West Barre.

V 222. Epidote and fluorspar, Barre.

^ 223. Tourmaline in gneiss, Shutesbury.

V 22i. Tourmaline and epidote, Enfield.

^ 225. Feldspar in gneiss. Three Rivers, Palmer.
^/ 226. Feldspar in gneiss. Three Rivers, Palmer.
^•^^27. Prehnite in gneiss, Three Rivers, Palmer.

228. Zeolite and feldspar. Three Rivers, Palmer.
>f 229. Red caloite on gneiss. Three Rivers, Palmer.
>i 230. Red calcite and feldsjjar. Three Rivers, Palmer.
\/ 231. Red calcite on tortuous gneiss. Three Rivers, Palmer.
/ 232. AUanite on gneiss, South Royalston.
>^233. Allanite on gneiss, Athol.

23'4. Mica and chlorite in gneiss, Blackstone.
V235. Corntorted hornblendic gneiss, Hardwick.

V 236. Mammillary chalcedony, Tyringham.
V' 237. Manmiillary chalcedony, Tyringham.

238. Molybdenite, Pelham.
«/'239. Bucholzite, Athol.

240. Amethyst in gneiss, Franklin.

241. Green hornstone, a boulder from which Shay's soldiers manufactured

their flints, Pelham.

242. Pyrope, Graphite bed, Sturbridge.

243. Pyrope, Sturbridge.

244. Graphite in gneiss, Washington.

245. Greenish feldspar with copper ore, Railroad, Russell.

U N S T Pv A T I F I E D Pv 0 C K S .

XVI. Greenstone.
1. Common greenstone, (hornblende and feldspar,) Sunderland.

— 2. Common greenstone, Deerfield.
3. Greenstone, Mount Holyoke.

— 4. Greenstone, Turner's Falls.
"~ 5. Greenstone, Mount Tom.

6. Greenstone in gneiss, Pelham.

— 7. Epidotic greenstone, Chelsea.

— 8. Greenstone approaching to sienite, Newburyport.
- 9. Greenstone, Lexington.

-- 10. Greenstone, HoUiston.
" 11. Greenstone, Concord.

APPENDIX. It

- 12. Epidotic greenstone, Waltliam.

13. Common greenstone, Nabant.

14. Greenstone from vein in clay slate, Cliarlestown.

15. Greenstone passing into sienite, Charlestown.

"16. Greenstone passing into sienite, (boulder,) West Springfield.

17. Greenstone passing into sienite, HoUiston.

- 18. Greenstone passing into sienite, Dover.

19. Greenstone passing into sienite, Stoiighton.

"20. Greenstone passing Into sienite, Easton.

21. Greenstone, the feldspar in bronze-colored folia. West Springfield.

22. Greenstone with bronze-colored feldspar, J\Iount Holyoke.

23. Greenstone, Ilingham.

24. Greenstone, Newton.

"25. Greenstone passing into sienite. Blue Hills.

'26. Greenstone, Quiney.

-27. Greenstone from a vein in gneiss, Rutland.

28. Greenstone, Nahant.

"29. Greenstone from a vein in gneiss, Northfield.
-30. Columnar prism, tetragonal prism. Mount Holyoke.

31. Columnar prism, pentagonal prism. Mount Holyoke.
-32. Columnar prism, trigonal jirism. Mount Holyoke.
•33. Curved exfoliated mass from a greenstone column, i\Iount Holyoke.

• 34. Comjiact greenstone, the ingredients distinct, Nahant.

• 3^. Compact greenstone, Blue Hills.

-36. Compact greenstone, (boulder,) Framingham.

37. Greenstone from a vein in granite, Foxborougb.

38. Chiefly greenish compact feldspar, Salisbury.
"39. Chiefly greenish compact feldspar, Rowley.

40. Compact feldspar, Dedham.

-41. Comj^act feldspar, Dedham.

42. Compact feldspar, Dedham.

43. Compact feldspar, Dedham.

■44. Indurated clay. Titan's Pier, South Hadley.
-45. Greenstone with red calclte, Deerfield.
-46. Hornblende augite and feldspar, Nahant.
' 47. Hornblende augite and feldspar, Nahant.
■48. Hornblende augite and feldspar, Nahant.

49. Hornblende augite and feldspar, Nahant.

50. Porphyrltic greenstone. Cape Ann.
•51. Porphyrltic greenstone, Easton.

52. Porphyrltic greenstone, Salem.

53. Porphyrltic greenstone, imbedded crystals of Karinthin, Ipswich.

54. Reddish porphyrltic greenstone. Turner's Falls.
-55. Porphyrltic greenstone, base reddish, Deerfield.

*56. Greenstone porphyrltic and epidotic, with Iron pyrites, Topsfield.
"57. Porphyrltic greenstone, Turner's Falls.

• 58. Porphyrltic greenstone, Deerfield.

Ivi APPENDIX.

—59. Slaty mieat'eous greenstone, Reading.

—60. Araygdaloidal greenstone, nodules caleite, Deerfield.

— 61. Amygdaloidal greenstone, nodules siliceous, South Hadley Falls.

— 62. Amygdaloidal greenstone, nodules caleite, Deerfield.

— 63. Amygdaloidal greenstone, nodules caleite, Turner's Fcxlls.

-•6i. Amygdaloidal greenstone, nodules siliceous. Titan's Pier.

-^5. Amygdaloidal greenstone, nodules foliated chlorite, Turner's Falls.

-66. Amygdaloidal greenstone, nodules earthy chlorite, West Springfield.

^Q7. Amygdaloidal greenstone, nodules caleite, Rowley.

..-.-68. Concretions from greenstone, Deerfield.

--69. Concretions from greenstone. Mount Holyoke.

—70. Trap tufa, (tufaceous greenstone,) South Hadley Canal.

— 71. Trap tufa, micaceous, Deerfield.

— 72. Trap tufa, Titan's Pier.

■"73. Trap tufa, cement caleite, Deerfield.

— 74. Trap tufa, Northampton.
—75. Trap tufa. Mount Tom.

—76. Trap tufa, base reddish, Deerfield.

~77. Junction of Amygdaloid and sandstone, Turner's Falls.

-78. Trap tufa. West Springfield.

— 79. Prehnite in greenstone, Greenfield.
— 80. Chalcedony in greenstone, Deerfield.

— 81. Chalcedony in greenstone, Deerfield.

— 82. Chalcedony in greenstone, Greenfield.

— 83. Agate of chalcedony, cornelian and quartz, Deerfield.
•'^ 84- Amethyst in greenstone, Deerfield.
— « 85. Amethyst in greenstone, Deerfield.
•— ■ 86. Black augite in greenstone, Deerfield.

* 87. Prehnite augite and caleite, Deerfield.

^ 88. Pseudo morpheus quartz and prehnite, Deerfield.

" 89. Caleite prehnite, &c., Deerfield.

— 90. Chlorophocite in greenstone, Turner's Falls.
•* 91. Chlorophocite in greenstone, Turner's Falls.
~ 92. Lincolnite and chabasic, Deerfield.

' 93. Lincolnite in greenstone, Deerfield.
~" 94. Lincolnite and chabasic, Deerfield.
"95. Lincolnite, Deerfield.
■~ 96. Lincolnite, Deerfield.
" 97. Lincolnite (?) on greenstone, Deerfield.
~^8. Smoky quartz from greenstone, West Springfield.
■^ 99. Greenstone from gneiss, Monson.
V 100. Greenstone from gneiss, Montague.

101. Greenstone from veins in sienite, HoUiston.

102. Tufaceous greenstone from sienite, Dedham.
^ 103. Greenstone from gneiss, Hubbardston.

>.' 104. Greenstone from gneiss, Westminster.
</ 105. Greenstone from gneiss, Belchertown.

APPENDIX. Ivii

106. Porphyry, vein No. 2, figure 147, in slenite, Cohasset.

V'lOT. Greenstone in sienite. Railroad cut, Needham.

108. Greenstone from gneiss, Phillipston. ,

V109. Greenstone chiefly feldspar, Phillipston.

110. Greenstone, (boulder,) Groton.

111. Epidote and greenstone, Beverly.
■v/112. Chloritic greenstone. Railroad, Natick.

"^IIS. Greenstone, vein No. 3, figure 147, containing an unknown bronze-
colored mineral, Cohasset.

vT.14. Rock from a vein in conglomerate, Mr. Dudley's farm, Roxbury.

VIW. Compact trap, Dudley's farm, Dedham.

IIG. Quartz and brown rock, Dudley's farm, Dedham.

\117. Greenstone, weathered, Pelham.

v^ll8. Slaty greenstone, Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire.

\/119. Vesicular trap, reddish, Sunderland.

120. Vesicular trap, black, Mount Mettawampe.

V 121. Vesicular trap, cavities cylindrical. Mount Mettawampe.

>/122. Vesicular trap with zeolite, Deerfield.

>yi23. Porphyritic greenstone, Nantasket Beach.

V 124. Porphyritic trap, Beverly shore.

\£l2o. Porphyritic trap, Saugus.

>^126. Porphyritic trap, dyke, Beverly bridge, Salem.

vl27. Porphyritic greenstone, (boulder,) West Bridgewater.

"V 128. Porphyritic greenstone, Plymouth.

129. Porphyritic greenstone, (boulder,) Pembroke.

V 130. Porphyritic greenstone, Manomet Hill, Plymouth.

131. Porphyritic greenstone, vein in sienite, (No. 1, figure 147,) Cohasset.

^ 132. Porphyritic greenstone, vein in sienite, (No. 1, figure 147,) Cohasset.

V133. Trap veins in sienite, Holliston.

134. Zeolite in trap, (boulder,) Newbury.

^35. Amygdaloidal trap, Mount Holyoke.

^136. Quartz in trap, Mount Holyoke.

>/l37. Galena and copper pyrites from chloritic trap, Canton.

■^^138. Greenstone column. Mount Tom.

139. Vegetable remains in trap, (boulder,) figure 96, Amherst.

140. Greenstone, Railroad, West Spi-ingfield, west pairt.

141. Porphyritic greenstone, West Springfield.

142. Amygdaloidal greenstone, West Springfield.

143. Amygdaloidal greenstone, West Springfield.

144. Trap tufa, West Springfield.

145. Trap tufa, West Springfield.

146. Prehnite on greenstone. West Springfield.

147. Prehnite on greenstone. West Springfield.

148. Calcite on greenstone. West Springfield.

149. Calcite on greenstone, West Springfield.

150. Calcite on greenstone, West Springfield.

8

Iviii APPENDIX.

XVII. rOKPHYIJY.

— 1. ComiDact feldspar, Newbury.
— 2. Compact feldspar, Newbury.
^ 3. Compact feldspar with talc, Newbury.

— 4. Compact feldspar with dendrite, Medford.

— 5. Compact feldspar witb quartz, Natick.

■^ 0. Compact foliated feldspar, vein in sienite, Whatcly.
~ 7. Compact brecciated feldspar, Dorchester.
8. Compact brecciated feldspar, Blue Hills.
— 9. Compact feldspar, rein in black serpentine, Newbury.
••^.0. Conjpact feldspar, vein in black serpentine, Naliant.
~~11. Compact feldspar, Hingliam.
**] -'. Compact feldspar, Lynn.
"\o. Compact feldspar, foliated, Natick.
■~14. Compact feldspar, lime quarry, Stonebam.
—•15. Variegated compact feldspar, Medford.
-«.16. Compact feldspar passing into siliceous slat:, Maiden. ,

•"•17. Compact feldspar, siliceous, auriferous, Blue Hills.
*"^18. Red compact feldspar, passing into porphyry, Blue Hills.
19. Compact feldspar, passing into porphyr}', Hingham.

— 20. Compact feldspar passing into porphyry, ^Milton.
"" 21. Compact feldspar passing into porphyry, Rowley.
"" 22. Compact feldspar passing into porphyry, Ipswich.

23. Compact feldspar passing into porphyry, mctamorpliic, Kent's Island,
Newbury.

— 24. Variegated compact feldspar, Dedham.

—25. Porj^hyry approaching sienite, (polished,) ]\Ialdon.

— 2G. Porphyry with traces of a slaty structure, Nantasket Beach.

27. Porphyry, base purple, (polished, boulder.) Orleans.

28. Porphyry, base black, Nantasket Beach.

•*■ 29. Porphyry, near to amygdaloid, Westborough.
~ 30. Between greenstone and porphyry, Ipswich.
• — 31. Between porphyry and compact feldspar, Milton.
-^32. Porphyry, Blue Hills.

— 33. Porphyry, dark gray, (polished,) Blue Hills.

34. Porphyry, dark gray, (polished,) north of Boston.
^ 35. Porphyry, containing quartz nodules, (polished,) Milton.
3G. Light gray porphyry with quartz nodules, Milton.

— 37. Porphyry, reddish, Nantasket Beach.
-- 38. Porphyry, (?) Newton.

— 39. Porphyry, (?) with quartz and feldspar, ililtoa.
"^ 40. Porphyry, red and green. Maiden.

--41. Red porphyry with quartz and feldspar, (boulder,) Newport, Rbode
Island.

— 42. Red porphyry. Maiden.

— 43. Red porphyry, Lynn.

— 44. Porphyry, with red base, Nantasket Beach.

APPENDIX. lix

45. Porphyry, with red base, (polished.) Blue Hills.
--46. Porphyry, base red, (polished,) north of Boston.
— 47. Porphyry, base red, (polished,) Nantaskct Beach.

— 48. Greenish porphyry, (polished,) Maiden.

— 49. Green porphyry, (polished,) ]\iilton.
—60. Porphyry, Needham.

51. Porphyry, passing into sienite, JMalden.

— 52. Porphyry, reddish brov/n, ciystals of feldspar and quartz, (polished,)

Blue Hills.

53. Green porphyry, passing into sienite, (smoothed,) Maiden.

54. Green porphyry, crystals, feldspar and quartz, (smoothed,) Blue Hills.
—■-55. Vai-iegated porphyry, feldspar and quartz crysteils, (smoothed,) Blue

Hills.
■ — 56. Porphyry, base reddish, imbedded crystals, quartz, Quincy.

57. Porphyry, base reddish, imbedded crystals, quartz, Milton.

58. Brecciated jiorphyry, reddish, (polished,) Half-way rocks, Atlantic

Oceiui.

59. Breed. ited porphyry, (smoothed,) Lynn.

60. Porphyry, (smoothed,) Maiden.
— <51. Porjihyry, (polished,) Maiden.

— 62. Porphyry, (polished,) Nantasket Beach.
'^F'-i63. Greenish porphj'ry. Maiden.

^nM)4. Porphj-ry with relics of a slaty structure, Nantasket Beach.

do. Dendrite on porphyry. Railroad, Lynn.
V()Q. Dendrite on jasper, Saugus.
\/G7. Dendrite on compact feldspar, Holliston.

V/'OS. Vein of compact feldspar in serpentine, Devil's den, Ne^vbury.
\/()9. Red compact feldspar, Newbury.
v'"70. Gray compact feldspar, (Ir*) Dedham.
v^71. Greenish gray compact feldspar, Newbury.
j/j'2. Compact feldspar and greenstone, Natick.
V73. Porphj'ry, West Newbury.
V74. Brecciated porphyry, Lynn.

V75. Red porphyiy with vein of greenish feldspar, Saugus.
\^6. Porphyry, Manomet Hill, Plymouth.
V77. Brecciated porphyry, West Dedham.
V78. Epidotic porphyry, West Dedham.
\J79. Porphyry with veins of compact feldspar, (boulder,) Natick.

SO. Porphyiy with veins of compact feldspar, West Dedham.
/•81. Porphyry, East Sherburne.
yCS2. Porphyry, Lynn.
^^3. Por^ihyry, Lynn.
\^4. Porphyry, Manomet Hill, Plymouth.
I^SS. Porphyry, Manomet Hill Plymouth.
^86. Porphyry, (boulder,) Medfield.
^87. Brown porphyry, Marblehead Neck.

88. Gray porphyry, (boulder,) North Scituate.

Ix

APPENDIX.

I 89. Gray porphyry, (bouldor,) North Scituate.

90. Porphyry with red crystals, (boulder,) North Scituate.
•^ 91. Purple porphyry, North Scituate.
V 92. Purple porjjhyry, North Scituate.
\. 93. Purple porphyry. North Scituate.

94. Purple porphyry, North Scituate.

95. Purple porphyry. North Scituate.
9G. Purple porphyry. North Scituate.
97. Purjile porphyry, North Scituate.

' 98. Purple porphyry, North Scituate.
99. Purple porphyry. North Scituate.

100. Purple porphyry,*North Scituate.

101. Purple porphyry, North Scituate.

102. Purple porphyry. North Scituate.

103. Purple porphyry, North Scituate.

104. Purple porphyry, North Scituate.

105. Purple porphyry. North Scituate.

106. Purple porphyry. North Scituate.

107. Purple porphyry, North Scituate.

108. Purple porphyry. North Scituate.

109. Purple porphyry, North Scituate.
' 110. Purple p rphyry, North Scituate.

111. Purple porphyry, North Scituate.

112. Purple porphyry. North Scituate.

113. Purple porphyry, North Scituate.

114. Purple porphyry. North Scituate.
■^ 115. Brown porphyry. North Scituate.

y^ 116. Brown jiorphyr}^. North Scituate.

- 117. Brown porphyry, North Scituate.

118. Brown porphyry. North Scituate.

V Il9. Red porphyry, North Scituate.
V 120. Red porphyry, North Scituate.

V 121. Red porphyry. North Scituate.
<- 122. Red poi-phyry. North Scituate.

123. Red porphyry, North Scituate.

124. Red porphyry, North Scituate.
v/ 125. Red porphyry. North Scituate.
v/ 126. Red porphyry. North Scituate.

-■ 127. Red porphyry. North Scituate.
■ 128. Red porphyry, North Scituate.
- 129. Red porphyiy, North Scituate.

130. Red porphyry, North Scituate.

131. Red porphyry, North Scituate.

132. Red porphyry. North Scituate.

133. Red porphyry, North Scituate.
v'134. Red porphyry, North Scituate.
v/'135. Green porphyry, North Scituate.

APPENDIX. Ixi

V 136. Green porphyry, North Scituate.
■^ 137. Green porphyry, North Scituate.
''- 138. Green porphyry, North Scituate.
"^ 139. Green porphyry, North Scituate.
V 140. Green porphyry. North Scituate.

141. Porphjry conglomerate. North Scituate.

142. Porphyry conglomerate, North Scituate.

143. Porphyry conglomerate. North Scituate.

144. Porphyry conglomerate. North Scituate.

145. Porphyry conglomerate. North Scituate.

146. Porphyry conglomerate. North Scituate.

147. Veined porphyry. North Scituate.
V' 148. Veined porphyry. North Scituate.

149. Variegated porphyry. North Scituate.

150. Variegated porphyry. North Scituate.

XVm. SlEXITE.

*' 1. Feldspar and hornblende, (smoothed,) Newbury.

— 2. Feldspar and hornblende, near porphyry, Nahant.

3. Feldspar and hornblende, (smoothed,) Stoneham.

4. Brecciated feldspar and hornblende, Foxborough.
~5. Feldspar and hornblende. Concord.

6. Feldspar and hornblende, (smoothed,) Dover.
~^7. Feldspar and hornblende, (smoothed,) Reading.
--8. Feldspar and hornblende, (smoothed,) Nahant.
-" 9. Feldspar and hornblende, Norfolk County.
-'10. Feldspar and hornblende, Rowley.

11. Feldspar and hornblende, Hangman's Island, Boston Harbor.

12. Feldspar and hornblende in distinct crystals, (smoothed,) Dedham.
• -13. Feldspar and hornblende, (smoothed,) Randolph.

14. Feldspar and hornblende, Reading.

~"15. Feldspar and hornblende, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

"18l Feldspar, hornblende and epidote, Dedham.

17.\Sienite, Salisbury.

18. Sienite, Manchester.

— 19. Sienite, (Qiiincy granite,) Quincy. •

^20. Sienite, (smoothed,) Quincy.

21. Sienite, (boulder,) Mansfield.

—22. Sienite, Franklin.

23. Sienite, (smoothed,) Danvers.

24. Sienite, (smoothed,) Squam, Gloucester.

25. Sienite, (smoothed,) Squam, Gloucester.

26. Sienite, (smoothed,) Sandy bay, Gloucester.
—'27. Sienite, (smoothed,) Sandy bay, Gloucester.

28. Sienite, (smoothed,) Squam, Gloucester.

29. Sienite, (smoothed,) North Bridgewater.

30. Quartz and feldspar, (smoothed,) Manchester.

Ixii APPENDIX.

31. Quartz and feldspar, (smoothed,) Foxborough.

32. Quartz and feldspar, (smoothed,) Easton.

33. Quartz and compact feldspar, (smoothed,) West Cambridge.

34. Quartz and compact feldspar, Hingham.

35. Quartz and compact feldr-par, Sherburne.

30. Quartz and blood-red feldspar, (smoothed,) (boulder,) IMarshficld.

37. Sienite, (smoothed,) Scituate.

38. Quartz and feldspar, (smoothed,) Weston.

— 39. Quartz and feldspar, Middleborough.

40. Quartz and feldspar, Weston.

41. Quartz and feldspar, Foxborough.
—42. Quartz and feldspar, Danvers.

— 43. Compact feldspar and quartz, Newbury.

44. Red and greenish feldspar with quartz chloritic, Saugus.

—45. Quartz and compact feldspar, close to the jasper, Saugus.

46. Rock passing into porphyry, Newbury.

47. Rock passing into porphyry, Manchester.

48. Rock passing into porphyry. Maiden.

49. Micaceous sienite, Belchertown.

50. Sienite, (smoothed,) Belchertown.

51. Sienite, (smoothed,) Northampton.

52. Micaceous sienite, "Williamsburg.
-»53. Micaceous sienite, Whately.

— 54. Sienite with much hornblende, Northampton.
55. Sienite with epidotic veins, Whately.

58. Sienite, AVhately.
— -57. Sienite, chiefly feldspar, Whately.

58. Sienite, Gloucester.
— 59. Feldspar, chlorite and A'eins of epidcte, Salisbury.

60. Feldspar, hornblende (?) and mica, (smoothed,) Mcdford.
— 61. Coarse sienite, (boulder,) Charlestown.

G2. Micaceous sienite, Fall River, Troy.
—63. Chiefly feldspar and mica, Bradford.
"" 64. Sienite, chiefly feldspar, Lincoln.

65. Felds2Dar hornblende and mica, Salem.

66. Feldspad' hornblende and talc, Newbury.

67. Feldspar quartz with talc, Franklin.

68. Granite, Stoughton.

— 69. Sienite, (same ledge as 68,) Stoughton.

70. Greenstone, (same ledge as 68,) Stoughton.

71. Porphyritic sienite, (smoothed,) Lexington.

72. Porphyritic sienite with epidote, (smoothed,) Marbleliead.

73. Sienite with bronze-colored feldspar, Gloucester.

74. Porphyritic sienite, West Bridgewatcr.

75. Porphyritic sienite, Abington.

76. Porphyritic sienite, Abington.

— 77. Porphyritic sienite, Plymouth County.

APPENDIX. Ixiii

— 78. Micaceous sicnite, Essex.

— 79. Porphyrillc sienite passing to greenstone, AValtham.

- - 80. Conglomerated sienite, Whately.

81. Conglomerated sienite, Whately.

— 82. Conglomerated sienite, Whately.
"83. Conglomerated sienite, Whately.

-* 84. Junction of two varieties of sienite, West Bridgewater.
—'85. Graphic granite in sienite, Belchertown.
— ^86. Compact feldspar in sienite, Southborough.
— '87. Granite vein in sienite, Northampton.
"" 88. Greenstone vein in sienite, Nahant.

89. Feldspar veins in sienite, Marblehead.

90. Epidote vein in sicnite, Abington.

— '91. Red feldspar vein in sienite, Whately.

92. Augite hornblende and feldspar, Belchertown.

93. Augite and feldspar, Amherst.

— 94. Heavy spar, Hatfield.

— 95. Fluorspar in sienite, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

— 96. Drury quartz, Whately.
97. Drury quartz, Whately.

yjs " 98. Drury quartz, Whately.
^ — 99. Drury quartz with singular cavities, Whately.

—100. Mispickel, Newbury.
'J^^ 101. Galena and blende in heavy spar, Hatfield.

V'102. Coarse sienite, Andover.

vl03. Coarse sienite, Beverly.

\/104. Coarse sienite, (boulder,) Newton.

\/i05. Foliated hornblende, Beverly.

^100. Sienite, East Bradford.

vT07. Sienite, Medford.
108. Foliated greenish sienite, Dcdham.

Vl09. Foliated greenish sienite, Cape Anji.

vllO. Sienite, Manomet Hill, Plymouth.

v'lll. Sienite, with metallic mineral, Sharon.

v^ll2. Sienite, (feldspar greenish,) Foxborougli.

v^llS. Sienite, HIngham.

Vll4. Sienite, (boulder,) Waltham.

V 115. Sienite, Scituate.

i/116. Sienite, Medfield, north-east part.

^117. Sienite, JMedfield, north-east part.

V118. Sienite, Kingston.

•• 119. Sienite, Kingston.

\ 120. Sienite, Kingston.

V121. Sienite, South Wrentham.

V122. Sienite, Cohasset.

^123. Sienite, Manomet Hill, Plymouth.

Vl24. Sienite, (boulder,) East Middleborough.

Ixiv APPENDIX.

V 125. Sieuite, Railroad cut, Natick.
n/126. Sicnite, Manomet Hill, Plymouth.
■^127. Sienite, (boulder,) Rochester.
Vl28. Sienite, Hingham.
''129. Sienite, Medfield.

130. Sienite, Railroad cut, Needham.
vl31. Sienite, Railroad cut, Natick.
^*'132. Sienite, Medfield, north-east part.
'/133. Sienite, Medfield, north east part.
■/134. Sienite, Manomet Hill, Plymouth.
^ 135. Sienite, (boulder,) Hanover, (four corners.)
vfjSG. Sienite, Scituate.
v'137. Sienite, (boulder,) Pembroke.

138. Sienite, (boulder,) Pembroke.

V 139. Sienite, (boulder,) Pembroke.
v^l40. Sienite, Kent's Island, Newbury.
v441. Epidotic sienite. Railroad cut, Natick.
vl42. Sienite, Dedham.

vllS. Sienite, Sharon.

, 144. Sienite with red feldspar, Dedham.

\ 145. Sienite with brown feldspar, Newbury.

\/l46. Sienite with red feldspar, Plymouth.

147. Sienite, Sharon.

yi48. Sienite, (boulder,) Middleborough.

V149. Porphyritic sienite, Beverly.

\150. Sienite, Manomet Hill, Plymouth.

vl51. Sienite, Railroad cut, Natick.

152. Sienite, Railroad cut, Needham.

V 153. Sienite, Railroad cut, Natick.

V 154. Sicnite, Railroad cut, Natick.

- 155. Sienite with mica, Belchertown.

156. Sienite with granite veins, (boulder,) Palmer.
»/'l57. Sienite with granite veins, (boulder,) Palmer.

158. Sienite with granite veins, (boulder,) Palmer.

159. Sienite with granite veins, (boulder,) Palmer.
^''IGO. Sienite with granite veins, (boulder,) Palmer.

V 161. Sienite, Ludlow.
vl62. Feldspar, Charlestown.
/163. Specular iron, Dedham.

V'164. Quartz crystals in sienite, East Granby.

VIGS. Prehnite in sienite, Charlestown.

166. Prehnite In sienite, Charlestown.

V167. Prehnite with calclte, Charlestown.

168. Pendrite on sienite, Dedham, Pr. L. B. Larkin.

169. Sienite with hornblende crystals. North Scituate.

170. Sienite with hornblende crystals, North Scituate.

171. Sienite with hornblende crystals, North Scituate.

APPENDIX. Ixv

172. Sienite with hornblende crystals, North Scituate.

173. Sienite with hornblende crystals, North Scituate.

XIX. Granite.
- 1. Coarse granite, Russell.
ar-2. Coarse granite, Westhampton.

— 3. Coarse granite, Southampton, (adit.)

— 4. Coarse granite, Leverett.
<- 5. Coarse granite, Amherst.

— 6. Coarse granite, Amherst.
7. Coarse granite, Granville.

— 8. Granite, blue quartz, Amherst.
—■9. Granite, Westford.

-•■'10. Granite, Amherst.

11. Granite, mouth of Miller's River.

— 12 Granite, Framingham. •

13. Granite, feldspar flesh-colored, Blandford.

•14. Granite, feldspar red, Granville.

— 15. Granite, feldspar red, Amherst.
"16. Granite, feldspar red. New Salem.

17. Granite, feldspar red. Concord.

18. Granite, quartz yellow, Williamsburg.

~'19. Granite, mica yellow, Chesterfield.

— 20. Granite, mica yellow, Norwich.

21. Easily decomposing granite boulders, Florida.

—22. Granite, purplish quartz, Adams.

23. Granite, purplish quartz, Florida.

"" 24. Coarse granite, mica green, Cummington.

25. Granite, quartz smoky gray, Leverett.

-26. Granite, feldspar bluish, Leverett.

—-27. Granite, feldspar blue, Leverett.

— 28. Granite, feldspar compact, Heath.
■""29. Granite, feldspar compact, Amherst.

30. Granite, (gneiss '?) Ashburnham.

31. Granite, (gneiss ?) Granville.

32. Dark gray granite, Fall River.

•"• 33. Dark gray granite, (gneiss ?) Leominster.

— 34. Dark gray granite, (gneiss?) Smithfield, Rhode Island.
"~ 35. Granite passing into sienite, Bristol, Rhode Island.

— 36. Junction of coarse and fine granite, AVilliamsburg.

37. Granite, (gneiss ?) top of Wachusett Mountain.

38. Quartz and mica, coarse, Westfield.

— 39. Fine grained granite, (boulder,) South Hadley.
—40. Fine grained granite, (boulder,) South Iladley.
■■"41. Fine grained granite, (boulder,) South Hadley.

42. Fine granite, feldspar red, (smoothed,) Falmouth.

43. Fine granite, feldspar red, (smoothed,) Rochester.

9

Ixvi APPENDIX.

44. Fine granite, feldspar red, (smoothed,) "Warcham.

45. Fine "granite, feldspar reddish gray, (smoothed,) Framlngham.
— 46. Fine granite, mica black, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

47. Fine granite, mica black, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

48. Granite with black mica, (smoothed,) Medfield.

— 49. Fine granite, Carver.

•~ 50. Feldspar quartz and mica or tale, Weston.

— 51. Feldspar quartz and mica or talc, east part of the State.

— 52. Fine grained granite, (boulder,) Adams.

— 53. Granite, feldspar purplish, Beclhertown.

»— 54. Granite, evidently decomposed from a vein, Wostfield.

55. Fine grained granite, quarried, Ashburnham.

56. Granite with garnets, Acton.

57. Fine grained granite, Wliatelj.
■" 58. Fine grained granite, Conway.

- 59. Fine grained granite, Holliston.

60. Granite, chiefly quartz and feldspar, Dedham.

61. Granite, chiefly (^lartz and feldspar, Chester.

62. Granite, (smoothed,) Plymouth, Pilgrim rock.

— 63. Granite, Plymouth, Pilgrim rock.

64. Fine grained granite, Acton.

65. Granite, chiefly quartz, Sudbury.

. — 66. Granite passing into porphyry, Halifax.
*-67. Feldspar quartz and talc, (?) Duxbury.

68. Perhaps Sienite, Newbury.
-69. Granite apparently stratified, Worcester.

— 70. Granite passing into mica slate, Norwich.
-— 71. Granite passing into mica slate, Colrain.

72. Granite, mica black, like sienite, (smoothed,) Dover.

73. Fine grained granite, Southampton, (adit.)
~ 74. Granite, quarried, Tyngsborough.

— 75. Fine grained granite, Norwich.

76. Fine grained granite, wrought, Dover.

77. Granite, little mica, (smoothed,) Dover.

— 78. Fine grained granite, (boulder,) Amherst.

79. Quarried granite, (smoothed,) Concord.

80. Granite, feldsar reddish, (smoothed,) Waltham.

81. Granite, fine grained, decomposing, Sharon.

82. Granite, quarried, (Chelmsford granite,) AVestford.

83. Granite, quarried, (smoothed,) Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire

84. Granite, wrought, porphyritic, Pelham, New Hampshire.

85. Granite, wrought, (smoothed.) Fitchburg.

86. Granite, wrought, (smoothed,) Ashby.
—87. Granite, wrought, (smoothed,) Williamsburg.
— 88. Feldspar, quartz and talc, Dedham.

89. Granite resembling sienite, Cumberland, Rhode Island.

90. Granite with talc, (boulder,) Amherst.

APPENDIX. Ixvii

" 91. Pseudomorphous granite, Williamsburg.

92. Porphyritic granite, Chester.
— 93. Porphyritic granite, (boulder,) Shutesbury.
-' 94. Porphyritic granite, very coarse. Harvard.

95. Porphyritic granite, (smoothed,) (boulder,) Turner's Falls.
—96. Granite, feldsjiar compact, Guilford, Vermont.
—97. Granite, feldspar compact, Guilford, Vermont.
*" 98. Compact feldspar and quartz, Guilford, Vermont.
*"" 99. Compact feldspar and quartz, Guilford, Vermont.

100. Grajihic granite, Williamsburg.

101. Graphic granite, Williamsburg.

102. Graphic granite, Leominster.

— 103. Graphic granite, vein in quartz rock, Washington.
—104. Graphic granite, Goshen.
— 105. Graphic granite, reddish, (boulder,) Amherst.
""lOG. Graphic granite, ilesh-red, from red sandstone, Deerfield.
107. Graphic granite, flesh-red, from red sandstone, Deerfield.
— '108. Graphic granite, Warjvick.

109. Graphic granite with garnets, Goshen.
—110. Junction of granite and mica slate, Conway.

111. Vein of granite in mica slate, Conway.

112. Vein of granite in mica slate, Williamsburg.

— 113. Vein of granite in Worcester county, mica slate, Leominster.
114. Granite junction with micaceous limestone, Conwar^-.

—115. Granite with mica slate nodule, (boulder,) Deerfield.

116. Heavy Spar, Leverett.

117. Heavy Spar, Leverett.

—118. Calcite, Lead mine, Southampton.

~~119. Argentine, Westhampton.

— 120. Argentine, junction with granite, AVesthampton.
— 121. Argentine, Lead mine, Southampton.

122. Crystallized quartz. Lead mine, Southampton.

123. Crystallized quartz, Lead mine, Southampton.

124. Crystallized quartz. Lead mine, Southampton.
—125. Crystallized quartz, Lead mine, Southampton.

126. Radiated crystallized quartz, Southampton.

— 127. Purple quartz in granite, Florida. *
-'128. Crystallized smoky quartz, Goshen.

— 129. Massive smoky quartz, Williamsburg.

130. Pseudomorphous quartz, form of calcite, Westhampton.

131. Pseudomorphous quartz, form of apatite, Westhampton.

132. Hornstone, Lead mine, Southampton.

133. Spodumene, Goshen.
_-134. Spodumene, Goshen.

— 135. Spodumene, rose color, Goshen.

136. Spodumene, green and translucent, Goshen.

— 137. Spodumene, white and pearly, Sterling.

138. Straw yellow mica, tourmaline locality, Chesterfield,

Ixviii APPENDIX.

139. Crystallized mica, Goshen.

140. Rose colored mica, Goshen.
—141. Prismatic mica, Russell.

142. Variegated prismatic mica, Russell.

— 143. Black mica, Russell.

— 144. Plumose mica, Williamsburg.

— -145. Tourmaline in granite, Chelmsford.

— 140. Indicolite, Goshen.

— 147. Indicolite, Goshen.

148. Light blue indicolite, Goshen.

149. Green tourmaline, Goshen.

— 150. Yellowish green tourmaline, Goshen.

151. Tourmaline, Chesterfield.

152. Green, red and blue tourmalines, Chesterfield.

— • 153. Green tourmaline in quartz, Chesterfield.

154. Green tourmaline inclosing rabellite. Chesterfield.

- 155. Phenacite in granite, Goshen.

156. Rose red phenacite, Goshen.

157. Phenacite with spodumene, Goshen.

— 158. Phenacite, Goshen.
-- 159. Stilbite, Goshen.

- 160. Fibrous talc, Norwich.
161. Fibrous talc, Blandford.

— 162. Common feldspaB, Williamsburg.

163. Blue feldspar, Leverett.
*~164. Greenish feldspar, Goshen.
—165. Foliated albite, (cleavandite,) Chesterfield.
--166. Foliated albite. New Salem.

167. Coarsely granular albite, Chesterfield.
——168. Finely granular albite, Goshen.
' 169. Galena in quartz, Southampton.
-'170. Galena with Blende, Whately.

- 171. Galena with carb. lead, Southampton.
k — 172. Blende in quartz, Northampton.

■\- 173. Copper pyrites, Southampton.

"-'174. Blende, galena, and copper pyrites, Southampton.
— Inl75. Decomposing blende in quartz, Williamsburg.
^ 176. Granite with long mica prisms, Russell.
V 177. Coarse granite, Northfield.
v' 178. Granite, South Mountain, Northfield.

179. Coarse granite, Irving.
^•*'180. Coarse granite, South Orange.
V'181. Granite with blue feldspar, Clappville, Leicester.
'.; 182. Graphic granite, Granby, south-east part.

183. Granite with yellowish feldspar, Brimfield.
V^184. Granite with blue feldspar, Hoosac Mountain.
v/185. Granite, Clarksburg, north-west part.

APPENDIX. Ixix

yi86. Fine grained granite, lilac, Three Rivers, Palmer.

V187. Graphic granite, Soilom Mountain, Southwick.

V'lSS. Granite with red stripes, (boulder,) Watertown.

^189. Granite, at the Furnace, Kingston.

■;/190. Granite, Duxbury.

191. Granite, Groton, south-east part.

V 192. Red granite, Topsfield.

193. Granite, vein in mica slate, Athol.

^194. Granite, coarse vein, Norwich.

195. Crystals of mica, Beryl locality. South Royalston.

196. Crystals of mica. Beryl locality. South Royalston.

197. Crystals of mica, Beryl locality, South Royalston.

198. Foliated mica. Railroad, Warren.

V 199. Rutile, Norwich.

200. Blende in quartz, Angell's mine, Norwich.

201. Drury quartz, Angell's mine, Norwich.

V' 202. Drury quartz In galena vein, Russell, north-west part.

Y^OS. Drury quartz in galena vein, Russell, north-west part.

^204. Crystallized quartz, Angell's mine, Norwich.

205. Crystallized quartz, Angell's mine, Norwich.

V 206. Crystallized quartz, Angell's mine, Norwich.
^^207. Crystallized quartz, Angell's mine, Norwich,
v^ 208. CrystalHzed quartz, Angell's mine, Norwich.
V209. Crystallized quartz, Angell's mine, Norwich.
\/210. Crystallized quartz, Angell's mine, Norwich.

y^ 211. Crystallized quartz, Angell's mine, Norwich. -

212. Garnet in feldspar. Beryl locality, Barre.

213. Crystal of feldspar. Beryl locality, South Royalston.

214. Beryls in quartz. South Royalston.

215. Beryls in quartz. South Royalston.

216. Beryl, South Royalston.

217. Beryl, South Royalston.

218. Beryl in the rock. South Royalston.

219. Beryl in the rock, South Royalston.

220. Beryl, cut and polished. South Royalston.

221. Beryl, specimen color of the crysolite, cut and polished, South Royalston.
, 222. Crlchtonlte, beryl, and cryst. mica. South Royalston.

223. Beryl in feldspar. West Barre.

224. Yellowish beryl. West Barre.

225. Rutile in granite. West Barre.

226. Rutile in granite. West Barre.

227. Variegated granite with red and gray feldspar, North Scltuate.

228. Variegated granite, North Scltuate.

229. Variegated granite. North Scltuate.

230. Variegated granite. North Scltuate.

231. Variegated granite, North Scltuate.

232. Vein of red granite In sienite, Northampton.

Ixx APPENDIX.

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS

In the State Cabinet of Massachusetts under- the direction of the Secretary
of the Stale Board of Agriculture. Arranged according to tJie nomen-
clature and classification adopted hy the Smithsonian Institution.
January 1, 1859.

ORDER I. RAPTORES.

Family 2. — Falconid.e.
Genus Falco. Linn.

1. Falco columharms^lAnn. Pigeon Hawk. Male. Donated and prepai'ed

by Jonathan S. Leacli.

2. Falco cohiinbarius, Liinn. Pigeon Hawk. Young female. Donated and

prepared by Jonathan S. Leaeli.

Genus Aslur. Lac.

3. Aslur alricapillus, Bonap. Gos Hawk. Female. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

4. Astur atricapillus, Bonap. Gos Hawk. Young male. Donated and

prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

Genus Accipiler. Briss.
6. Accipiter fuscus, Bon. Sharp-shinned Hawk. Male. Donated and
prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

6. Accipiter fuscus, Bon. Sharp-shinned Hawk. Young male. Donated

and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

7. Accipiter fuscus, Bon. Sharp-shinned Hawk. Young. Donated and

prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

8. Accipiter fuscus, Bon. Sharp-shinned Hawk. Young. Donated and

prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

Genus Buteo. Cuv.

9. Buteo horealis, Vieill. Red-tailed HaAvk. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

10. Buteo l)orecdis, Vieill. Red-tailed Hawk. Y'oung male. Donated and

prepared by Edward H. Lincoln.

11. Buteo horeais, Vieill. Red-tailed Hawk. Young male. Donated and

prepared by Edward H. Lincoln.

12. Buteo lincatus, Jardiue. Red-shouldered Hawk. Male. Donated and

prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

APPENDIX. Ixxi

13. Buteo Uneatus, Jardine. Ked-sliouldered Hawk. Female. Donated

and prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

14. Buteo Uneatus, Jardine. Red-shouldered Hawk. Young female. Do-

nated by Theron C. Gray. Prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Genus Arcliihuteo. Brehm.

15. Arcliihuteo lagopus, Gray. Eough-legged Hawk. Female. Donated by

Captain E. Howland. . Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

16. ArcMhuteo sancti-johannis. Gray. Black Hawk. IVIale. Donated by

Captain E. Howland. Prepared by John "W. P. Jenks.
Genus Circtis. Lacep.

17. Circus Jiuilsotiius, Vieill. Marsh Hawk. Male. Donated and prepared

by John W. P. Jenks.

18. Circus hudsonius, Vieill. Marsh Hawk. Young male. Donated and

prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

19. Circus huJsonius, Vieill. Marsh Hawk. Female. Donated and pre-

pared by Charles D. Lincoln.

Genus Haliaetus. Sav.

20. Haliaetus leucocephalus, Savigny. Bald Eagle. Female. Donated by

Charles G. Davis. Prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Genus Pandion. Sav.
\^ 21. Pandion carol inensis, Bon. Fish Hawk. Female. Donated by George ■
D. Ruggles. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

22. Pandion carolinensii, Bon. Fish Hawk. Young female. Donated and!

prejiared by Jonathan S. Leach.

Family 3. — Strigid^.
Genus Bubo. Cuv.

23. Bubo virginianus, Bon. Great Horned Owl. Male. Donated by

J. A. E. Loud. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.
/ ' 24. Bubo virfjinianus, Bon. Great Horned Owl. Male. Donated by Row-
land Robinson. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.
25. Bubo virginianus, Bon. Great Horned Owl. Male. Donated by J.
Wilbur. Prepared by Francis E. Everett.
jy^ 2G. Bubo virginianus, Bon. Great Horned Owl. Female. Donated and
' prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Scops. Sav.

27. Scops asio, Bonap. Mottled Owl. Male. Donated and prepared by

John W. P. Jenks.

28. Scops asio, Bonap. Mottled Owl. Male. Donated and prepared by

Francis E. Everett.

Genus Syrnium. Sav.

29. Syrnium nebulosum, Gray. Barred Owl. Female. Donated by Augus-

tus Bunce. Prepared by Francis E. Everett.
\ 30. Syrnium nebidosum, Gray. Barred Owl. Female. Donated and pre-
pared by John W. P. Jenks.

Ixxii

APPENDIX.

\

Genus Nyclale. Brehm.

31. Ni/ctale acadlca, Bon. Sa'tv-vvhet Owl. Female.

pared by Charles D. Lincoln.

Genus Nijctea. Steph.

32. Nyctea nlvea, Gray. Snowy Owl. Male.

Jr. Prepared by Francis E. Everett.

33. Nyctea nlrea, Gray. Snowy Owl. Female

John W. P. Jenks.

Donated and pre-

Donated by John Brooks,
Donated and prepared by

ORDER II. SCANSORES.

Family G. — CucuLiDiE.
Genus Coccyr/us. Vieill.
31. Coccyr/us erythrophihalmus, Bon. Black-billed Cuckoo. Male. Donated
and jirepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

35. Coccyyus erytJtrophthabnus, Bon. Black-billed Cuckoo. Male. Donated

and prepared by C. M. Fitch.

36. Coccygus americanus, Bonap. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Male. Donated

and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Family 7. — Picid^.
Genus Picus. Linn.
37. Picus villosns, Linn. Hairy Woodpecker,
pared by Francis E. Everett.
A 38. Picus inllosus, Linn. Hairy Woodpecker.
pared by Jonathan S. Leach.

39. Picus pubescens, Linn. Downy Woodpecker.

prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

40. Picus pubescens, Linn. Downy Woodpecker.

prepared by Edward H. Lincoln.
^ 4L Picus pubescens, Linn. Downy AVoodpecker. Female,
prepared by Edward H. Lincoln.

Genus Colaptes. Sw.
r" _ 42. Colaptes anratus, Sw. Golden-winged Woodpecker. Male,
and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

43. Colaptes nuraius, Sw. Golden-winged Woodpecker. Male.

and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

44. Colaptes auratus, Sw. Golden-winged Woodpecker. Female.

and prepared by Edward IL Lincoln.

ORDER III. INSESSORES.
Family 11 — Cysselid^..

Genus Cltaetura. Steph.

45. Chaetura pclasgia, Steph. Chimney Swallow. Male. Donated and

prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

46. Chaetura pelasgia, Steph. Chimney Swallow. Female. Donated and

prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

Male. Donated and pre-
Female. Donated and pre-
Male. Donated and
Male. Donated and
Donated and

Donated

Donated

Donated

APPENDIX.

Ixxiii

Family 12. — Caprimulgid^.
Genus Antrostomus. Gould.

47. Antrostomus vociferus, Bonap. Whip-poor-AVill. Female. Donated

and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Chordeiles. Sw.

48. CJiordeiles popetue, Baird. Night Hawk. Male.

Alden. Prepared by Jdhn W. P. Jenks.

49. CJiordeiles popetue, Baird. Night Hawk. Female.

Covell. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Donated by A. H.
Donated by C. A.

Family 13. — ALCEDixiDiE.
Genus Ceryle. Boie.

50. Ceryle alcyon, Bo'ie. Belted King-fisher. Male. Donated and prepared

by Francis E. Everett.

51. Ceryle alcyon, Boie. Belted King-fisher. Female. Donated and pre-

pared by Jonathan S. Leach.

52. Ceryle alcyon, Boie. Belted King-fisher. Young. Donated by John

W. P. Jenks. Prepared by C. A. Covell.

Family 15. — Colopterid^.
Genus Tyrannus. Cuv.

53. Tyrannus caroUnensis, Baird. King Bird. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Myiarchus. Cab.

54. Myiarchus crinitus, Cab. Great Crested Flycatcher. Male. Donated

and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Contopus. Cab.

55. Contopus horealis, Baird. Olive-sided Flycatcher. Male. Donated

and prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

56. Contopus virens, Cab. Wood Pewee. Male. Donated and prepared

by Francis E. Everett.

Family 16. — Turdid^.
Genus Turdus. Linn.

57. Turdus pallasi, Cab. Hermit Thrush. Male. Donated and prepared

by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Sialia. Sw.

58. Sialia sialis, Baird. Blue Bird. Male. Donated by A. H. Alden.

Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

59. Sialia sialis, Baird. Blue Bird. Female. Donated and prepared by

Charles D. Lincoln.

Genus Regulus. Cuv.

60. Reffulus satrapa, Licht. Golden-crested Wren. Male. Donated and

prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

61. Regulus salrapa, L\i:ht. Golden-crested Wren. Female. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett
10

Ixxiv APPENDIX.

62. Regidun satrapa, Licht. Golden-crested Wren. Female. Donated and

prepared by Jonathan S. J^each. ,

Family 17. — Sylvicolid^.

Genus Mniolilta. Yieill.

63. Mniotilta varia, Vieill. Black and White Creeper. Male. Donated

and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

64. Mniotilta varia, Vieill. Black and White Creeper. Female. Donated

and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Parula. Bon.

65. Parula americana, Bonap. Blue Yellow-backed Warbler. Male. Do-

nated and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

66. Parula amei-icana, Bonap. Blue Yellow-backed Warbler. Female.

Donated and prejiared by Charles D. Lincoln.
Genus HebninthopJiafja. Cab.

67. IlelmintTiophaga rvficapilia, Baird. Nashville Warbler. Male. Donated

and prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.
Q8. Ilelminthophaga 7-iiJicapilla,'Ba.\vd. Nashville Warbler. Male. Donated
and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Seiurus. Sw.

69. Saiurui aurocapiUu-, Sw. Golden-crowned Thrush. Male. Donated

and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

70. Seiurus noveboracensis, Niitt. Water Thrush. Male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Dcndroica. Gray.

71. Dendroica ivVojs, Baird. Black-throated Green Warbler. Male. Do-"

nate'd and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

72. Dendroica virens, Baird. Black-throated Green Warbler. Female.

Donated and prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

73. Dendroica canadensis, Baird. Black-throated Blue Warbler. Male.

Donated and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

74. Dendroica coronaia, Gray. Y''ellow Bump. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by Francis E. Everett.

75. Dendroica coronaia, Gray. Yellow Rump. Fall male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

76. Dindroica coronaia. Gray. Y'ellow Rump. Female. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

77. Dendroica pinus,'RaAY(S.. Pine Creeping AYarbler. Male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

78. Dendroica pinus,^i{iYi\. Pine Creeping Warbler. Male. Donated and

prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

79. Dendroica pinus, Baird. Pine Creeping AVarbler. Y'^oung male. Do-

nated and prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

80. Dendroica 2}ennsy Ivan ica, Jiaird. Chestnut-sided Warbler. Male. Do-

nated and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

81. Dendroica pennsylvanica, Baird. Chestnut-sided Warbler. Young.

Donated and prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

APPENDIX. Ixxv

82. Dendroica striata, Baird. Black Poll Warbler. Female. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

83. Dendroica a^sliva, Baird. Yellow Warbler. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by Jonathan S. Leach.
81. Dendroica palmarum, Baird. Yellow Red Poll. Male. Donated and
prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

85. Dendroica jxdmarum, BRird. Yellow Red Poll. Young. Donated and

prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

86. Dendroica discolor, Baird. Prairie Warbler. Male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus M/jodoictes. Aud.

87. Myiodoictes canadensis, Aud. Canada Flycatcher. Male. Donated

and prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

Genus Pijranfja. Vieill.

88. Pyranga rubra, Vieill. Scarlet Tanager. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

89. Pyranfja ridira, Vieill. Scarlet Tanager. Variety male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

90. Pyranga rubra, Vieill. Scarlet Tanager. Variety male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

91. Pyranga rubra, Vieill. Scarlet Tanager. Female. Donated and pre-

pared by Francis E. Everett.

Family 18. — Hirundinid.e.
* Genus Hirundo, Linn.

92. Hirundo liorrcoruni, Barton. Barn Swallow. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by Francis E. Everett.
\^ 93. Hirundo lunifront. Say. Cliff Swallow. Male. Donated by A. H.
Alden. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.
91. Hirundo lunifrons, Say. Cliff Swallow. Female. Donated by A. H.
Alden. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.
Ge?ius Progne. Boie.

95. Progne purjyurea, Hole. Purple Martin. Male. Donated and prepared

by Jonathan S. Leach.

96. Progne purpurea, Boie. Purple Martin. Male. Donated and jirepared

by Francis E. Everett.

Family 19. — Bombycillid.e.

Genus Ampelis. Linn.
Yi 97. Ampelis cedrorum, Baird. Cedar Bird. Male. Donated and prepared
by Francis E, Everett.

Family 20. — Laniid^.

Genus Collyrio. Moehr.

98. Collyrio borealis, Baird. Great Northern Shrike. Male. Donated

and prepai'ed by Francis E. Everett.

99. Collyrio borealis, Baird. Great Northern Shrike. Male. Donated and

prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

Ixxvi

APPENDIX.

100.

101.
102.

103.
104.
105.

106.

107.
108.

109.
110.

Colli/rio borenlis, Baird. Great Northern Shrike. Male. Donated and

prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Vireo. Vieill.
Viren olivaceuft, Vieill. Rod-eyed Flycatcher. Male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Vireo soUlarius, Vieill. Blue-headed Flycatcher. Male. Donated

and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Family 21. — Liotrichid.e.

Genus Mimus. Boie.
Mi7nus caroUnensis, Gray. Cat Bird. Male. Donated and prepared
by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Ilarporhyncus. Cab.
HarporJijjncJius 7-ufus, Cab. Brown Thrush. Male. Donated and pre-
pared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Cistolhorus. Cab.
Clstothorus stellaris, Cab. Short-billed Marsh AVren. Male. Donated
and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Tror/lodytes. Vieill.
Troglodytes ledon, Vieill. House Wren. Male. Donated and pre-
pared by Francis E. Everett.

Family 22. — Certiiiacf..

Genus Certhia. Linn.
Certhia americana, Bonap. American Creeper.

prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.
CertJiia americana, Bonap. American Creeper.

prepared by Fi'ancis E. Everett.

Genus Silta. Linn.
Sitta caroUnensis, Gm. White-bellied Nuthatch.

prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.
Sitta canadensis, Linn. Red- bellied Nuthatch.

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Male. Donated an8

Male. Donated and

Malt

Donated and

Male. Donated and

X 111-

Family 2-3. — Parid.e.
Genus Parus. Linn.
Parui atricapillus, Linn. Black-cap Titmouse. Male,
prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Donated and

112

113.

Family 25. — ALAUDiDiE.
Genus Eremopldla. Boie.
Eremophila cornuta, Boie. Sky Lark. Male. Donated and prepared
by Charles D. Lincoln.

Family 26. — Frixgillid.e.
Genus Carpodacus Kaup.
Carpodacus purpureus, Gray. Purple Finch. Male. Donated and pre-
pared by John W. P. Jenks.

APPENDIX.

Ixxvii

Female. Donated and

115.

116.

117.

118.

119.

K

120.

K

121.

Boie.

Male. Donated and prepared

Winter male. Donated and

Male. Donated and prepared

Scop.

Male. Donated

Female. Do-

114. Carpodacus purpureus. Gray. Purple Finch
prepai-ed by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Chrysomilris.
ChrjjsomUris trisds, Bon. Yellow Bird.

by Edward H. Lincoln.
Chrijsomitris tristis, Bon. Yellow Bird

prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Clirytfomitris piiius, Bon. Pine Finch,
by Chai'les D. Lincoln.

Genus Curvirostra.
Curvirostra leucoptera, Wils. White- winged Crossbill

and pre2)ared by Edward H. Lincoln.
Curvirostra leucoptera, Wils. White-winged Crossbill
nated and prepared by Edward H. Lincoln.

Genus jEgiothus. Cab.

JEgiothus linaria, Cab. Lesser Redpoll. Male. Donated and prepared
by Charles D. Lincoln.

^Er/iotkus linaria, Cab. Lesser Redpoll. Female. Donated and pre-
pared by Edward II. Lincoln.

Genus Plectrophanes. Mey.
aT 122. Plectrophanes nivalis, Meyer. Snow Bunting,
prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

123. Plectrophanes nivalis, Meyer. Snow Bunting.

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Passerculus. Bon.

124. Passerculus savanna, Bon. Savannah Sparrow.

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

125. Passerculus savanna, Bon. Savannah Sparrow.

prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

Genus Pooecetes. Baird.

126. Pooecetes gramineus, Baird. Grass Finch. Male

pared by Jonathan S. Leach.

Genus Coturniculus. Bon.

127. Coturniculus passerimts, Bon. Yellow-winged Sparrow. Male. Do-

nated and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Zonoirichia. Sw.

128. Zonotrichia alhicolUs, Bon. White-throated Sparrow. Male. Donated

and jirepared by Edward H. Lincoln.

129. Zonotrichia alhicolUs, Bon. White-throated Sparrow. Fall male. Do-

nated and prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Genus Junco. Wagler.

130. Junco hyemalis, Sclat. Snow Bird. Male. Donated and prepared by

John W. P. Jenks.

131. Junco hijemalis, Sclat. Snow Bird. Male. Donated and prepared by

Jonathan S. Leach.

Male. Donated and

Male. Donated and

Male. Donated and

Male. Donated and

Donated and pre-

Ixxviii

APPENDIX.

132.

133.
134.
135,
136.
137.

188.
139.

\ 140.
141.

142.

^-

Jiinco monikola, Baird. Tree Sparrow

by John AV. P. Jenks.

Genus Melospiza. Bd.
Melospiza melodla, Baird. Song Sparrow. Male.

pared by John W. P. Jenk.s.
Melospiza melodla, Baird. Song Sparrow. Male.

glared by Edward H. Lincoln.
Melofjnza melodia, Baird. Song Sparrow. Female.

pared by Francis E. Everett.
Melospiza palustris, Baird. Swamp Sparrow.

prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Melospiza palustris, Baird. SwamjD Sparrow

prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Passer ella. Sw.
Passerella iliaca, Sw. Fox-colored Sparrow.

prepared by John W. P. Jenks.
Passerella iliaca, Sw. Fox-colored Sparrow.

prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

Genus Guiraca. Sw.
Guiraca ludoviclana, Sw. Rose-breasted Grosbeak.

and prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Guiraca ludoviciana, Sw. Rose-breasted Grosbeak

nated and prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Genus Pipilo. Vieill.
Pipilo erytliroplulialmus, Vieill. Ground Robin. Male

W. Carruth. Prejiared by John W. P. Jenks.

Male. Donated and prepared

Donated and pre-

Donated and pre-

Donated and pre-

Male. Donated and

Male. Donated and

Male. Donated and
Male. Donated and

Male. Donated
Female. Do-
Donated by W.

Family 27. — Ictekid.e.

Genus Dolyclionyx. Sw.

143. DoUchnnyx oryzivorus, Sw. Boblink. Male.

by Jonathan S. Leach.

144. Dolichonyx oryzioorus, Sw. Boblink. Male.

by John W. P. Jenks.

145. DolicJionyx oryzivorus, Sw. Boblink. Female.

by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Molothus. Sw.

Donated and prepared

Donated and prepared

Donated and prepared

146. Mololhus pecoris, Sw.

Francis E. Everett.

147. Molothus pecoris, Sw. Cow Bird.

by Francis E. Everett.

148. Molothus pecoris, Sw. Cow Bird. Fe

Edward H. Lincoln.

Genus Agclaius. Vieill.

149. Agelaius phoiniceus, Vieill. Swamp Blackbird.

nated and prepared by Charles D. Lincoln.

150. Agelaius 2)h(eniceus, Vieill. Swamp Black Bird

nated and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Cow Bird. Male. Donated and prepared by

Female. Donated and prepared

ale. Donated and prepared by

Young male. Do-
Younir male. Do-

APPENDIX. Ixxix

151. Agelaiux phceniceus, Vieill. Swamp Black Bird. Female. Donated

by W. W. Carruth. Prepared by John W. P. Jenlcs.

152. Agelahis phocnicens, Vieill. Swamp Black Bird. Female. Donated

and prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

Genus Slurnella. Vieill.

153. Slurnella magna, Sw. Meadow Lai'k. Male. Donated and prcjiared

by John W. P. Jenks.

154. Slurnella magna, S>vf. Meadow Lark. Female. Donated and prepared

by Charles D. Lincoln.

Genus Icterus. Daud.

155. Icterus balllniore, Daudin. Baltimore Oriole. Male. Donated by W.

W. Carruth. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

156. Icterus ballbnore, Duudin. Baltimore Oriole. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

157. Icterus ballimorc, Daudin. Baltimore Oriole. Female. Donated by

W. W. Carruth. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

158. Icterus balllniore, Daudin. Baltimore Oriole. Younjj male. Donated

and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

159. Icterus baltimore, Daudin. Baltimore Oriole. Young female. Donated

and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

160. Icterus baltimore, Daudin. Baltimore Oriole. Young female. Donated

and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Scolecophagus. Sw.

161. Scolecophagus ferrugineus, Sw. Rusty Blackbird. Male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Family 28. — Corvid.e.
Genus Corvus. Linn.

162. Corvus americanus, And. Common Crow. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

163. Corvus americanus, Aud. Common Crow. Male. Donated by John

Dean, Jr. Prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Genus Cyanura. Sw.

164. Cyanura cristata, Sw. Blue Jay. Male. Donated and prepared by

Jonathan S. Leach.

165. Cyanura cristata, Sw. Blue Jay. Female. Donated and jirepared by

Edward H. Lincoln.

ORDER IV.

Family 20. — Columbid.e.
Genus Ectopistes. Sw.

166. Ectopistes migratoria, Sw. Wild Pigeon. Male. Donated and jjre-

pared by Edward H. Lincoln.

167. Ectopistes migratoria, Sw. Wild Pigeon. Female. Donated and pre-

pared by Edward II. Lincoln.
16S. Ectopistes migratoria, Sw. Wild Pigeon. Young. Donated and pre-
pared by Edward H. Lincoln.

Ixxx APPENDIX.

Genus Zenaidura. Bon.

169. Zenaidura carolinensis, Bon. Common Dove. Young. Donated by

A. G. Pickens. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Family 32. — Tetraonid.e.
Genus Cupidonia. Reich.

170. Cupidonia cupido, Baird. Prairie Hen. Male. Donated and prepared

by John W. P. Jenks.

171. Cupidonia cupido, Baird. Prairie Hen. Female. Donated and pre-

pared by John AV. P. Jenks.

Genus Bonasa. Steph.

172. Bonasa umhellus, Steph. Kiiffed Grouse. Male. Donated by C. M.

Fitch. Prepared by Francis PI Everett.

173. Bonasa umhellus, Steph. Ruffed Grouse. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

174. Bonasa umhellus, Steph. Ruffed Grouse. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by Jonathan S. Leach.

ORDER V. GRALLATORES.

Family 36. — Ardeid^.
Genus Ardea. Linn.

175. Ardea lierodias, Linn. Great Blue Heron. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John AV. P. Jenks.

176. Ardea hei-odias, Linn. Great Blue Heron. Young. Donated by Capt.

Edward W. Gardnei*. Prepared by Francis E. Everett.
penus Bolaurus. Steph.

177. Botaurw; lentiginosus, Steph. Bittern. Female. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Butorides. Blyth.

178. Butorides virescens, Bon. Green Heron. Male. Donated by A. C.

Vaughan. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Family 40. Ciiaradrid^.
Genus CJiaradrius. Linn.

179. Charadrius virginicus, Borck. Golden Plover. Female. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Squatarola. Cuv.

180. Squatarola helvetica, Cuv. Black-bellied Plover. Young. Donated

and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Family 41.— H^matopodid^.
Genus Slrepsilas. 111.

181. Strepsilas interpres, Illig. Turnstone. Male. Donated by O. W. Almy.

Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

APPENDIX. Ixxxi

Family 44. Scolopicid.e.

Genus Philohela. Gray.

182. Philohela minor, Gray. American Woodcock. Male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Gallinago. Leach.

183. Gallinago wilsonii, Bon. English Snipe. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by Francis E. Everett.

184. Gallinago tvilsonii, Bon. English Snipe. Female. Donated and pre-

pared by Jonathan S. Lea';h.

Genus Macrorhamphus. Leach.

185. Macrorliamjihus griseus, Leach. Red-breasted Snipe. Male. Donated

by Francis E. Everett. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.
Genus Tringa. Linn.

186. Tringa maculala, Yieill. Jack Snipe. Male. Donated by Francis E.

Everett. Prepai-ed by John W. P. Jenks.

187. Tringa aljyina, Cassin. Red-backed Sandpiper. Male. Donated by

Francis E. Everett. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

188. Tringa wilsonii, Nuttall. Least Sandpiper. Male. Donated by Francis

E. Everett. Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.
Genus Calidris. Cuv.

189. Calidris arenaria, Illiger. Sanderling. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Sgmphemia. Raf.

190. Sgmphejnia semipa-maia, li&utlauh. Willet. Male. Donated by Fran-

cis E. Everett. Prepai-ed by John W. P. Jenks.
Genus Gambelta. Kaup.

191. Gambet'a melanoleuca. Bon. Tell-tale Stone Snipe. Male. Donated
« and prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

192. Gambetla flavipes, Bon. Yellow Legs. Male. Donated and prepared

by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Rhyacophilus. Kp.

193. Rhyacophilus soUtarius, Bon. Solitary Sandpiper. Male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

194. Rhyacophilus soUtarius, Bon. Solitary Sandpiper. Male. Donated and

prepared by Jonathan S. Leach.

Gerius Numenius. Linn.

195. Numenius longirosiris, Wilson. Long-billed Curlew. Male. Donated

and prepared by Francis E. Everett,

Family 45. Rallid^e.
Genus Porgana. Vieill.

196. Porgana Carolina, Vieill. Common Rail. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by Francis E. Everett.

197. Porgana Carolina, Vieill. Common Rail. Male. Donated and .pre-

pared by Jonathan S. Leach.

198. Porgana Carolina, Vieill. Common Rail. Female. Donated by John

W. P. Jenks. Prepared by C. A. Covell.

Ixxxii APPENDIX.

Genus Fulica. Linn.
199. Fulica americana^ Cumelin. Coot. Male. Donated by A. C. Vauglian.

Prepared by John W. P. Jenks.
"200. Fulica americana, Cumelin. Coot. Female. Donated by A. C. Vaughan .

Prejjared by John M . P. Jenks.

201. Fulica omericana, Cumelin. Coot. Young. Donated by J. 11. Jenks.

Prepared by Francis E. Everett.

ORDER VI. NATATORES.

Family 46. Anatid.e.
Genus Bernicla. Steph.

202. Bernicla canadensis, Boic. Canada Goose. INlale. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

203. Bernicla canadensis, Boie. Canada Goose. Female. Donated and

prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

204. Bernicla brenta, Steph. Brant. Male. Donated and prepared -by

Francis E. Everett.

Genus Anas. Linn.

205. Anaf ohjcura, Cum. Black Duck. Male. Donated and prepared by

Charles D. Lincoln.

206. Alias obscura, Cum. Black Duck. Female. Donated and prepared by

Francis E. Everett.

Genus Dajila. Leach.

207. Dajila acuta, Jenyns. Pin-tail. Male. Donated and prepared by John

W. P. Jenks.

Genus Querquedula. Steph.

208. Querquedula discois, Stejih. Blue-winged Teal. Male. Donated by

J. H. Jenks. Prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Genus Aix. Bole.

209. Aix sjwnsa, Bole. Summer Duck. Male. Donated and jirepared by

John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Fulix. Sund.

210. FuUx marila, Baird. Scaup Duck. Male. Donated and prepai-ed by

Francis E. Everett.

Genus Aulliya. Boie.

211. Aijlhja americana, Bon. Red-Head. Male. Donated and prepared by

John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Bucephala. Bd.

212. Bucephala americana, Baird. Golden Eye. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

213. BucejjJiala albeola, Baird. Butter Ball. ]\Iale. Donated and prepared

by John W. P. Jenks.

214. Bucephala \albeola, Baird. Butter Ball. Female. Donated and pre-

pared by Jonathan S. Leach.

APPENDIX. Ixxxiii

Genus Harelda. Leach.

215. Harelda glacialis, hca-ch. South Southerly. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John AV. P. Jenks.

216. Harelda glacialls, Leach. South Southerly. Female. Donated and

i:)reparcd by Jonathan S. Leach.

Genus Melanetla. Boie.

217. Melaneita velvciina, Baird. Velvet Duck. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by Francis E. Everett.

218. Melanetta vehetina, Baird. Velvet Duck. Young male. Donated and

jirepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Pelionetta. Kaup.

219. Pelionetta 2'>erspicUlata, Kaup. Surf Duck. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by Francis E. Everett.

220. Pelionetta perspicillata, Kaup. Surf Duck. Young. Donated and pre-

pared by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Oidemia. Flem.

221. Oidemia americana, Swain. Scoter. Young. Donated and prepared

by Jonathan S. Leach.

Genus Somateria. Leach.

222. Somateria mo'.i^sima, Leach. Eider Duck. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

223. Somateria molissima, Liesich. Eider Duck. Female. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.
221. Somateria spectahilis, Leach. King Eider. Young male. Donated and
prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

225. Somateria spectahilis, Leach. King Eider. Young female. Donated

and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Mergus. Linn.

226. Mergus serrator, Linn. Bed-breasted Merganser. Male. Donated and

prepared by Francis E. Everett.

227. Mergus , Linn. Rose-breasted Merganser. Donated by Charles

W. Lovett. Prepared by Francis E. Everett.
Genus Lopliodytes. Reich.

228. Lopliodytes cuccidatm^, Reich. Hooded Merganser. Female. Donated

and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Sula. Briss.

229. Bassana sula, Briss. Common Gannett. Male. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

Family 54. — Lauid.e.

Genus Larus. Linn.
2o0. Larus argentatus, Briinn. Herring GuU. Male. Donated and prepared
by Francis E. Everett.

Genus Chroieocepliala. Eyton.
231. ChroicocejjJiala pJiiladelphia, Lawrence. Bonaparte's Gull. Male. Do-
nated and prejjared by Francis E. Everett.

Ixxxiv APPENDIX.

232. Chroicocephala Philadelphia, Lawi-ence. Bonaparte's Gull. Young. Do-

nated and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.
Genus Rissa. Leach.

233. Rissa trirlactyJa, Bonap. Kittiwake Gull. Donated and prepared by

John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Sterna. Linn.

234. 5ier« a p'cna/fl, Gambol. Least Tern. Donated and prepared by Charles

D. Lincoln.

235. Sterna Wilsonii, Bon. Wilson's Tern. Donated by C. A. Covell. Pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

236. Sterna Wilsonii, Bon. Wilson's Tern. Donated by C. A. Covell. Pi-e-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

Family 55. — Colymbidje.
Genus Colynibus. Linn.

237. Colynibus torquatus, Briinn. Loon. Young. Donated and prepared

by Francis E. Everett.

238. Colynibus septrionalis, Linn. Red-throated Loon. Young. Donated

and prepared by Francis E. Everett.

239. Colynibus septrionalis, Linn. Red-throated Loon. Young. Donated

and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Podiceps. Lath.

240. Podiceps cornutus, Lath. Horned Grebe. Young. Donated and pre-

pared by John W. P. Jenks.

Genus Podylimbus. Less.

241. Podylimbus p)odiceps, Lawr. Pied-bellied Grebe. Male. Donated and

prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

242. Podylimbus podiceps, Lawr. Pied-bcllied Grebe. Young. Donated

and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

Family 56. — Alcid^e.
Genus Uria. Mochring.

243. Uria grylle, Lath. Guillemot. Winter male. Donated and prepared

by John W. P. Jenks.

244. Uiia lomviayBTunn. Foolish Guillemot. Male. Donated and prepared

by John W. P. Jenks.

Miscellaneous.

245. Java Game Cock. Donated and prepared by John W. P. Jenks.

APPENDIX.

Ixxxv

CATALOGUE OF SHELLS
Deposited in the State Oahinet, hy Samuel Tufts, Jr.

CLASS CONCHIFERA.

Family Tubicolaria.

Genus Thracia.

Genus Teredo — (ship worm.)

50.

T. Conradl.

26.

T. navalis.

23.

T. Couthouyi, (Stimpson's Shells

Family Pholadaria.

of New England.)

Genus Pliolas.

22.

T. truncata.

27.

P. costata.

Family Mactracea.

11.

P. crispata.

Genus Mactra.

Family Solenacea.

51.

M. solidissima, (great sea clam —

Genus Solen — (Razor shell.)

hen clam.)

28.

S. ensis.

53.

M. ovalis.

Genus Solecurlus.

54.

M. lateralis.

30.

S. caribbffius.

Genus Mesodesma.

Genus Machcera.

57.

M. arctata.

33.

M. nitida.

58.

M. Jauresii.

3i.

M. costata.

Genus Montacula.

Genus Solemya.

59.

M. bidentata.

35.

S. velum.

Genus Kellia.

36.

S. borealis.

60.

K. rubra.

Genus Glycymeris.

Family Lithopiiagide.

39.

G. siliqua, (bank clam.)

Genus Saxicava.

Family Myaria.

01.

S. distorta.

Genus Mya.

25.

S. rugosa. Stimpson.

40.

M. areiiaria, (common clam.)

Genus Petricola.

42.

M. truncata.

63.

P. pholadiformis.

Genus Corbula.

Family Nymphacea.

43.

C. contracta.

Genus Sanguinolaria.

Genus Pandora.

66.

S. fusca.

44.

P. trilincata.

67.

S. sordlda.

Family Osteodesmacea.

Genus Tellina.

Genus Lyonsia.

67.

T. tenta.

40.

0. hyalina.

68.

T. tenera.

Genus Analina.

Genus Lucina.

47.

A. papyracea.

69.

L. radula.

Ge7ius CocModesma.

71

L. flexuosa.

49

C. Leana.

Ixxxvi

APPENDIX.

Famly Coxchacea.
Genus Ci/clas.
72. C. partumeia.

74. C. elegans.

Germs Pisidium.

75. P. dubium.

Genus Astarte — (Sea-clicstniit.)

76. A. eastanea.
78. A. sulcata.

80. A. lactea.

81. A. quadrans.

Genus Ctjprina — (Qualiog of the
North Shore.)

82. C. Islandica.

Genus Cytlierea.

84. C. convexa.

Genus Venus — (Quahogof Cape Cod.)

85. V. mercenaria.

86. V. notata.

88. V. gemma.

Family Cardiacea.
Genus Cardium— (Heart shells.)

89. C. Islandlcum.

90. C. pinnulatimi.

91. C. Mortoni.

92. C. Groenlaudicum.

Genus Cardita.
94. C. borealls.
Family Arcacea — (Ark shells.)
Genus Area.

95. A. pexata.

96. A. transversa.

Genus Nucida.

97. N. thracijeformis.

98. N. limatula.

99. N. myalls.

100. N. sapotilla.

101. N. minuta.

102. N. Jaeksonii.

103. N. proxima.
105. N. tenuis.

Family Naiades. — (Fresh water
clams.)
Genus Unio.
107. U. complanatus.

109. U. nasutus.

110. U. radlatus.

111. U. cariosus.

112. U. ochraceus.

Genus Alasmodon.

113. A. arcuata.

115. A. undulata.

116. A. marginata.

Genus Anodon.

117. A. fluviatilis.

118. A. implicata.

120. A. undulata.

Family Mytilacea.
Genus Mytllus.

121. M. edulis.

Genus Modiola.
123. M. modiolus, (horse muscle.)
12.5. M. plicatula, (marsh muscle.)

127. M. pectinula.

128. M. nexa.

129. M. discrepans.

130. M. discors.

131. M. glandula.

Family Pectenides.
Genus Pecten — (Scallop shells.)

132. P. Magellanicus.

133. P. Islandicus.

134. P. coucentricus.

Family OsTREACEA-(Oyster tribe.)
Genus Ostrea.

137. O. borealis.

Genus Anomia — (Scale shells.)

138. A. ephippium.

Family Brachiopoda.
Genus Terehratula.

141. T. caput serpentis, (snake's head)

142. T. psittacea.

CLASS GASTEROPODA.

Family Phyllidiana. { 149. C. ruber.

Genus Chiton — (Coat of mail shells.) 150. C. albus.

146. C. apiculatus. ' 151. C. Emersonianus.

148. C. fulminatus. '

APPENDIX.

Ixxxvii

Genus Lollia — (Jockey caps.)

153. L. testudinalis.

154. L. alveus.

Family Cirrobranciiiata.
Genus Dentnlium — (Sea-horns.)

155. D. dentale.

Family Calyptracea.
Genus Cemoria.

156. C. Noachina.

Genus Crepidula.

158. C. fornieata.

159. C. plana.

160. C. convexa.

Family Bulleana.
Genus Bulla.
1G2. B. insculpta.
163. B. liiemalis.

163. B. Gouklii.

164. B. debilis.

165. B. triticea.

166. B. canaliculata.

167. B. obstrlcta.

168. B. oryza.

169. B. Hneolata.

Family Colimacea — (Land snails.)
Genus Helix.

170. H. albolabris.

171. H. thyroidus.

172. H. hortensis.

173. H. tridentata.
17-1. II. nionodon.
175. H. liirsuta.
17G. H. pulchella.

177. H. alternata.

178. H. striatella.

179. H. lineata.

180. H. cellarla.

181. H. indentata.

182. H. arborea.

184. H. labyrinthica.

185. H. cherslna.

Genus Pupa.

P. ?

P. ?

Genus Bull mux.

193. B. lubricus.

Genus Succtnea.

194. S. oralis.

195. S. obliqua.

196. S. avara.

Genus Auricula.

197. A. bidentata.
199. A. denticulata.

Family Limneana — (Water snails.)
Genus Planorhis.

201. P. trivolvis. —

202. P. lentus. —

203. P. bicarinatus. —

204. P. eampanulatus. —

205. P. armigerus. —

206. P. hirsutus. rr (X^W^ 'J^tUii .
209. P. parvus. —

Genus Phi/sa.
211. P. lieterostropha.

213. P. ancIUarla.

214. P. elongata.

Genus Limnea.

215. L. columella.

217. L. macrostoma.

218. L. modlcelkis.

219. L. decidlosa.
221. L. elodes.

Genus Ancylus.
224. A. fuscus.

224. A. rivularis.

Family Peristomata.
Genus Valvata.

225. V. ti-Icarinata.

226. V. pupoldea.

Genus Paludina.

227. P. declsa.

Genus Amnicola.
229. A. porata.

Family Neritacea.
Genus Nat tea.
231. N. heros, (cockle.)

233. N. trlserlata.

234. N. imniaculata.

235. N. canaliculata.

236. N. duplicata.

237. N. pusilla.

238. N. clausa.

239. N. flava.

Genus Janthlna.

240. J. fragills.

Ixxxviii

APPENDIX.

Family Macrostomata.
Genus Velutina.
2il. V. laivigata.
242. V. zonata.

Genus Sigaretus.
2i4. S. haliotoldeus.

Family Scalariana.
Genus Vermetus — (Worm shell.)
216. Y. lumbricalis.

Genus Scalaria.
249. S. Groenlandica.

Family Turbinacea.
Genus Margarita — (Silver shells.)

252. M. cinerea.

253. M. obscura.

254. M. undulata.

255. M. arctlca.

256. M. argentata.

Genus Lillorina.

257. L. rudis.

259. L. tenebrosa.

260. L. palliata.

Genus Lacuna.

261. L. vincta.
263. Var. fusca.
263. L. neritoidea.

Genus C'mgula.

265. C. minuta.

266. C. aculeus.

Genus Tuiritella.

267. T. erosa.

35. T. acicula, (Stimpson.)
Genus Pyramis.
269. P. striatula.

Genus Odostomia.
272. O. exigua.

Family Canalifera.
Genus Cerhlnum.
275. C. Emersoiiii.

278. C. Sayii.

279. C. Greenii.

Genus Pleurotoma.
P. cerinum, (Stimpson, 49.)
280. P. decussata.

Genus CanceUaria.

283. C. Couthouyi.

Genus Fusus — (Spindle shells.)

284. F. Islandicus.

285. F. ventricosus.

287. F. decemcostatus.

288. F. scalai'iformis.

289. F. Bamffius.

290. F. rufus.

291. F. harpularius.

292. F. turricula.

293. F. muricatus.

Genus Pijrula.

294. P. canaliculata.
298. P. carica.

Genus Ranella.

297. R. caudata.

Family Alata.
Genus Rostellaria.

298. R. occidentalis.

Family Purpurifera.
Genus Trichotropls.

300. T. borealis.

Genus Purpura.

301. P. lapillus.

Gen. Buccinum — (Winkle shells.)

303. B. plicosum.

304. B. Donovani.

305. B. undatum.

307. B. ciliatum.

308. B. obsoletum, (black dimity.)

309. B. trivittatum.

310. B. vibex.

311. B. rosaceum.

312. B. lunatum.

Family Columellaria.
Genus Colmnhella.

313. C. avara.

APPENDIX.

Ixx

CATALOGUE OF INSECTS

In the State Cabinet of 3Iassackmetts, collected and presented by Mr.
F. G. Sanborn.

COLEOPTERA,

INSECTS BENEFICIAL OR NOT INJURIOUS TO VEGETATION.

Cicindelidce. — Tiger beetles.

1. Ciciadela vulgaris. Common 48.
» Tiger beetle.

2. Cieindela purpurea.

3. Cieindela patruelaV 49.

4. Cieindela rugifrons. 50.

5. Cieindela rugifrons, var.

6. Cieindela sexguttata. 51.

7. Cieindela punctulata.

8. Cieindela hirticoUis. 52.

Carabidce. — Ground beetles. 53.

9. Casnonia Pennsylvanica. 54.

10. Galerita Amerieana. 55.

11. Braehiuus fumans. 56.

12. Cymindis pilosus. 57.

13. Agonum cupripenne. 58.

14. Harpalus erraticus.

15. Harpalus bicolor. 59.
10. Harpalus pleuriticus. 60.

17. Adelosia niuta. 61.

18. Feronia adoxa. 61.

19. Cbloenius emarginatus.

20. Chloenius tomentosus. 63.

21. Chloenius seneeus. 64.

22. Treehus cinctus. 65.

23. Pangus caliginosus. 71.

24. Calosoma punctata.

25. Carabus limbatus. 72.

26. Carabus sylvosus. 74.

27. Carabus vinetus.

28. Scaphinotus elevatus. 75.

29. Spliaaroderus bilobus. 76.
37. And eight other species. 78.

12

Djjticidce. — Diving beetles.
Eleven species unnamed, (water

beetles.)
Gyrin idee — Wh irligig beetles.
Gyrinus emarginatus.
Gyrinus Americanus.

SUphadoe. — Carrion becdes.
Necrophagus Americana, (Ameri-
can burying beetle.)
Necrophagus pygmasus.
Necrophagus tomentosus.
Necrophagus orbicollis.
Necrodes Surinamensis.
Silpha Americana.
Silpha ineciualis.
Silpha caudata.

Engidce. — Narroio beetles.
Dermestes lardarlus.
Dermestes lardarius, larva.
Engis fasciata.
Ips quadrisignata.
Slaphylirddce. — Rove beetles.
Staphylinus chrysurus.
Staphylinus cinctus.
Staphylinus villosus.
And six other species.

Bijrrhidce. — Pill beetles.
Byrrhus Americanus.
And two other species.

Histeridce — Mimic beetles.
Hister conformis.
Hister planus.
And two other species.

xc

APPENDIX.

LucanidcB. — Stag beetles.

79. Lucanus capreolus.

80. And another species.
GeotrupidcB. — Burrowing beetles.

81. Geotrupes splendens.

82. Geotrupes microphagus.
Scarabeidce. — Bcdl rolling beetles.

83. Coprobius Itevis.

84. Coprobius — .

85. Copris anaglypticus.

86. Onthopbagus Hecate.
Aphodiidce. — Footless beetles.

87. Aphodius aterrima.

88. Aphodius tcniiinalis.
90. And two other species.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETATION IN A GREATER OR LESS DEGREE.

RitlilidiE. — Shining Beetles.

91. Areoda lanigera, (woolly Are-

oda.) Male.

92. Areoda lanigera, (woolly Are-

oda.) Female.

93. Pelidnota punctata, (dotted Pe-

lidnota.) Male.

94. Pelidnota punctata, (dotted Pe-

lidnota.) Female.
Melolonthidre. — Dor beetle

95. Phyllophaga quercina. — " Dor

bug," and larva.

96. Melolontha variolosa.

97. Phyllophaga fraterna.

98. Phyllophaga pilosieoUis.

99. Phyllophaga hirtieula.

100. Omaloplia sericea.

101. Omaloplia vespertina.

102. Omaloplia nigricornis V

103. Anomala coelebs.

104. Anomala arboricola.

105. Dichelonycha elongata.

106. Macrodactyla subspinosa.
Cetoniidce. — Flower beetles.

107. Osmoderma scaber. Male.

108. Osmoderma scaber. Female.

109. Cetonia Inda.

110. Cetonia fulgida.

111. Trichius lunulatus ?
Buprcstidce. — Burn-cow beetles.

112. Buprestis Virginica.

113. Buprestis divaricata.

114. Buprestis longipes.

115. Buprestis fasciata.

116. Buprestis striata.

117. Buprestis dentipes.

118. Buprestis fulvoguttata.

119. Buprestis femorata.

122. And thi'ee other species.
Elateridcc. — Spring beetles.

123. Elater oculatus.

124. Elater myops.

125. Elater ajjressifrons.

126. Elater cinereus. *

127. Elater communis, larva and

pupa. (Wire-worm.)

128. Elater obesus.

142. And fourteen other species.
Lampyridce. — Glow-icorm beetles.

143. Lampyris versicolor. — (Large

fire-fly.)

144. Lampyris versicolor. Female.

(Fire-fly.)

145. Lampyris scintillans, (common

fire-fly.)

146. Lampyris scintillans. Female.

Common fire-fly.

147. Lampyris corusca.

148. Lampyris laticornis.

149. Lampyris nigricans.

152. And three other species.

153. Lycus reticulatus.

154. Lycus terminalis.

155. Lycus sanguinipennis.
Telephorid(e. — Net carrying beetles.

156. Telephorus rotundicollis.

157. Telephorus bilineatus.

158. Telephorus laticornis.

173. And fifteen other species.

Cleridoi. — Beehive beetles.

174. Clerus apiarius.

175. Thanasimus dubius.

176. Necrobia ruficoUis.

177. Necrobia violacea.

APPENDIX.

xci

178. Necrobia rufipes.

179. And another species.
Pyrochroida'. — F lame beetles.

180. Pyrocliroa flabellata.
Mordellidce. — Small flower heeUes.

181. Mordella pruinosa.
Cantlatridce. — Blistering beetles.

182. Cantharis cinerea.

183. Cantharis atrata.

184. Meloe angiistieoUis, (narrow

necked oil beetle.)
Helopidce.

185. Helops vittatus.
Tenebrionida'. — Darkling beetles.

18G. Tenebrio molitor, (meal worm.)

187. Upis Pennsylvanicus.

188. Upis reticulatus.

189. Upis rufipes.

190. And another species.
Bruchida'. — Devouring weevils.

191. Bruchus pisi, (pea weevil.)
Attelabidxe. — Leaf-7-olling Weevils.

192. Attelabus bipnstulatus.

193. Attelabus pubescens.

194. Attelabus analis.

195. Apion Sayil.

198. And three other species.
Cure ulionidce. — Snout beetles.

199. Balaninus nucum.-Nut weevil.

200. Rhynchajnus strobi, (pine weevil.

201. Ehynchajnus nenupliar, (curcu-

lio, or plum weevil.)

202. Sitophilus oryzaj, (rice weevil.)

203. Sitophilus granaria, (corn wee-

vil.)

209. And six other species.
Scohjtid(e. — Cijlindrical bark beetles.

210. Hylurgus terebrans.

211. Scolj'tus pyri.

212. Tomicus pyri.

213. And another species.
Prionida'. — Saw -horned beetles.

214. Prionus laticollis. Male.

215. Prionus laticollis; Female.

216. Prionus unicoloi".

217. Parandra brunnea.

218. Parandra lineola ?

Cerambi/cida\ — Borers.

219. Lamia titillator.

220. Lamia scutellatus.
j 221. Lamia pusillus.

222. Saperda vittata, (apple tree bo-

rer.) Male.

223. Saperda vittata, (apple tree bo-

rer.)' Female.

224. Saperda vittata, (apple tree bo-

rer.) Female expanded.

225. Saperda vestita.

226. Saperda tridentata.

227. Tetraopes tetrophthalmia. Male.

228. Tetraopes aratoi*.

229. Tetraopes arator, var.

230. Stenocorus putator, (oak pru-

ner.)

231. Stenocorus — ,var., (oak pruner.

232. Callidium bajulus.

234. Callidium bajulus, var.

235. Callidium violaceum, (pine bo-

rer.)

236. Callidium violaceum, expan-

ded.

237. Callidium foveicoUe.

239. And two other species.

240. Clytus speciosus.

241. Clytus pictus.

242. Clytus colonus.

243. Clytus undulatus.

2.57. And fourteen other sjiecies.
Lepturidce. — Narroiv-tailed beetles.

258. Desmoctrus palliatus.

259. Rhagium lineatum.

260. Rhagium lineatum, var.

261. Purpuricenus humeralis.

262. Leptura vittata.

263. Leptura atrata.

264. Leptura annulata.

265. Leptura cordifera.

266. Leptura rubrica.

270. And four other species.
Ctioceridce. — Oblong leaf beetles.

271. Donacia metallica.

274. And three other species.

275. Crioceris trilineata, (potato

slug.)

XCll

APPENDIX.

Cassidadce. — HehnH beetles.
270. Cassida Argus, and larva.

277. Cassida elavata.

278. Cassida aurichalcea.

279. Cassida vicina.

Galerucidce. — Cap-beeiles.

280. Galeruca vittata. Male. (Cucum-

ber bug.)

281. Galeruca vittata. Female.

282. Haltica cucumeris, (cucumber

flea-beetle.)

283. Haltica chalybea.

290. Arid seven other species.
Chr;/somelidce. — Golden beetles.

291. Chrysomela trimaculata. Male.

292. Chfysomela trimaculata. Female.

293. Chi-ysomela trimaculata, exp'd'd.

294. Chrysomela scalaris.

302. And eight other species.

303. Eumolpus auratus. Male.

304. Eumolpus auratus. Female.

Coccinellidce.- — Lady-birds.

305. Coccinella borealis.

306. Coccinella mali.

308. Coccinella unicolor.

309. Coccinella 10 maculata.

310. Coccinella 9 notata.

311. Coccinella bimaculata.

INSECTS BENEFICIAL TO VEGETATION.

312. Coccinella geminata.

313. Coccinella 5 signata.

314. Coccinella binoculata.

315. Coccinella binoculata, malforma-
tion.

330. And fifteen other species.

II. orthoptp:ra.

Blattidcc. — Cockroaches.

1. Blatta orientalis, (domestic cock-

roach.) Female.

2. Blatta nivea, (wood cockroach.)

Male.

3. Blatta — , (cockroach.) Male.

4. Blatta — , (cockroach.) Fern.

5. Blatta ^ — , (cockroach.) Male.

6. Blatta — , (cockroach.) Fem.

7. Blatta nivea, (wood cocki-oach.)

Female.

8. Blatta — , (cockroach.) Young.

Ma ntklm. — Man tes.

9. Spectrum femoratum, (walking

stick.) Male.

10. Spectrum femoratum, (walking-

stick.) Female.
Achetidce. — Cricket.

11. OEcanthus nivea, (white climbing

cricket.) Female.

12. (Ecanthus nivea, (white climbing

cricket.) Young.

13. (Ecanthus nivea, (white climbing

cricket.) Expanded.

14. fficanthus nivea, (white climbing

cricket.) Male.

15. Acheta abbreviata, (short-winged

cricket.) Female.

16. Acheta abbreviata, (short-winged

cricket.) Male.
Gryllida'. — Grasslioppers.

17. Phalangopsis maculata, (spotted

wingless grasshopper.)

18. Fhaneroptera angustifolia, (nar-

row-winged grasshopper.)
Male.

19. Fhaneroptera angustifolia, (nar-

row-winged grasshopper.) Fe-
male.

20. Fhaneroptera angustifolia, (nar-

row-winged grasshopper.) Ex-
panded.

21. Conocephalus ensigsr, (sharp-

nosed grasshopper.) Male.

22. Orchelimum gracile, (graceful

meadow grasshopper.) Young.

23. Orchelimum vulgare, (common

meadow grasshopper.) Male.

APPENDIX.

XClll

2i. Orclielimum vulgare, (common
meadow grasshopper.) Fem.
Locustidcti. — Locusts.

25. Acrydlum femoratum, (red-leg-

ged locust.) Male.

26. Acrydium femoratum, (red-leg-

ged locust.) Female.

27. Acrydium flavovlttatum, (yel-

low-striped locust.) Female.

Locusta Carolina, (Carolina lo-
cust.) Female.

Locusta Carolina ? (Carolina lo-
cust.) Variety.
30. Locusta Carolina, (Carolina lo-
cust.)

28

29

31. Locusta coralliua, (coral-winged

locust.) Male.

32. Locusta sulpliurea, (yellow-wing-

ed locust.) Female.

33. Locusta jequalis, (barren ground

locust.) Male.
3L Locusta vii'idifaseiata, (green-
striped locust. Female.

35. Chloealtis curtijiennis, (short-

winged locust.)

36. Undescribed by Harris.

37. Locusta — , ( — locust.)

38. Locusta — , ( — locust.)

39. Tetrix ornata, (ornamented

grouse locust.)

40. Tetrix — , (grouse locust.)

Var.
Var.

III. HOMOPTERA,

INSECTS IN,TUKIOXJ

Cicadidce. — Harvest-flies.

Cicada canicularis, (dog-day har-
vest fly, or " Locust.") Male.

Cicada canicularis, (dog-day har-
vest fly, or " Locust") Fem.

Cicada canicularis, (dog-day har-
vest fly, or " Locust.") Young.

Cicada, — , undescribed species.

Cicada — , undescribed species.

Young.
Memhracidcv . — Tree hoppers.

Entilia emarginata.

Smilia auriculata.

Smilia vittata.

Smilia guttata.

And three other species.

Cyrtosia fuliginosa.

Telamona querci.

TO VEGETATION.

16. Telamona turriculata.

17. Telamona cratiBgi.

18. Telamona ornata.

19. Telamona fagi.

20. Ceresa bubalus.

21. Thelia bimaculata.

22. Thelia latipes.

23. Thelia binotata.

24. Gargara pectoralis.

25. Gargara querci.

45. And twenty other species.

Aphidce. — Plant lice.

46. Aphis mali.

48. And two other species.

Coccidce. — Scale insects.

49. Coccus ai'borum linearis, (apple

tree scale insect.)

50. And another species.

IV. HETEROPTEPtA. '

INSECTS NOT IN.JURIOUS TO VEGETATION.

Notonectido'.. — Boatmen.
Notonecta glauca.
Notonecta Americana.
Notonecta maculata.
Notonecta interrupta.
And two other species.
Corixa alternata.

8. And another species.
Hi/drometrida'. — Water measures.

9. Hydrometra stagnorum.

10. Hydrometra stagnorum. Female.

11. Gerris remigis.

12. Gerris humilis.

XCIV

APPENDIX.

Reduv'ddce. — Slender-necked huc/s.
13. Reduvius raptatorius.

14. Reduvius personatus.
16. And two other species.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETATION, ETC.

Coreida;. — Squash hugs.
17. Coreus tristis, (squash bug.)

20. And three other species.

Cimicidce. — " Bed hugs."

21. Cimex lectularius, (common bed

bug.)

25. And four other species.

Scutelleridce.
50. Twenty-five species unnamed.

V. APHANIPTERA,

PuUcidce. — Fleas.
1. Pulex irritans, (common flea.)

2. Pulex vespertilionis ■?-(bat flea.)

VI. DIPTERA.

CuUcidce. — Gn a(s.

1. Culex pipiens, (common mos-

quito.)

2. Culex pipiens, (com. moscpiito.)

Tipulida'. — " Long legs."

3. Trichocera hiemalis, (winter

turnip gnat.)

4. Ptychoptera clavipes.

5. Pedicia goniphora.

6. Simulium calceatum.

7. Tipula alternata.

33. and sixteen other species.

Tahanida'. — Breeze flies.

34. Tabanus atratus ? Male.

" 35. Tabanus atratus ? Female.
Bonihgliidce. — Bee flies.

36. Bombylius ajqualis.

37. Bombylius fulvus.

Anlhracida'.

39. Two species.

Asilidce. — Gad flies.

40. Asilus thoracicus.

41. Asilus tergissus.

46. And five other species.
CEstridce. — Horseflies, Bots, S;c.

47. Oestrus bovis.

52. And five other species.

BENEFICIAL TO VEGETATION.

Syrpliida^. — Sijrpliians.

53. Syrphus ribesii.

54. Syrphus balteatus.

55. Syrphus Philadelphicus.

63. And eight other species.
Muscidae — House flies, Sfc.

64. Musca dome^tica.

65. Musca harpyia.

66. Musca vomitoria.

67. Musca hirticollis.

110. And forty-three other species.

Conopidce. — Cone-eyed flies.
114. Four species.

VII. IIYMENOPTERA.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETATION.

Tenthredinidw. — Saw-flies. i Evaniidce.

1. Cimbex ulmi, and larva. 16. Pelecinus polycerator.

12. And eleven other species.
Cynipidce. — Gall-flies.
15. Three species.

19. And three other species.

APPENDIX.

xcv

BEXEFICIAL TO VEGETATION,

Ichneumonidace. — Ichneumon Jlies.

20. Pimpla lunator.

21. Ophion mundus.

22. Ophion flavicornis.

24. And two other species.

25. Ichneumon brevicinctus.

50. And twenty-five other species.

DlplolepiJce.
53. Three species.

Chalcididce.
■57. Four species.

Proctotrupidce.
00. Three species.

Fonnicidce. — Ajits.
01. Formica pennsylvanica.
04. And three other species.

Alutillidte. — Stinging Ants.
65. Mutllla ferrusata.

WITH VERY FEW EXCEPTIONS.

67. And two other species.
Pompiliidce.

71. Four species.

Sphegida'. — Sand Wasps.

72. Sphex Pennsylvanica.

73. Sphex csBrulea.

74. Sphex ichneumonea.

77. And three other species.

Vespida'. — Wasps.

78. Vespa fraterna.

79. Vespa fuscata.

80. Vespa maculata.

140. And about sixty other species.

Apidce. — Bees.

141. Bombus Americanorum.

142. Bombus impatiens.

144. And two other species.

145. A2)is meUifica, (honey bee.)

VIII. NEUEOPTERA

INSECTS BENEFICI.

LihelluUdce. — Dragon flies.

1. Libellula pulchella.

2. Libellula Lydia.

3. Libellula pruinosa.

4. Libellula exusta.

12. And eight other species.

13. Aeshna heros.

14. Aeshna clepsydra.

15. Aeshna obsoleta.

24. And nine other species.

25. Gomphus furcillata.

34. And nine other species.

35. Agrion materna.

36. Agrion opaca.

37. Agrion basalis.

38. Agrion fugitiva.

39. Agrion hastata.
58. And nineteen other species.

AL TO VEGETATION.

Epliemeridce. — Day flies or Mag flies.

59. Ephemera bispinosa.

60. Ephemera fuscicostata.

62. And two other species.
Hemerohiida'. — Lace-ioinged flies.

63. Hcmerobius irroratus.
Panorpidcc. — Scorpion flies.
Panorpa communis vel fasciata.

Sialidie.
Corydalis cornutus. Male.
Corydalis cornutus. Female.
Chauliodes pectinicornis. Male.
Chauliodes pectinicornis. Fern.
Chauliodes denticornis.
70. Sialis maurus.

Perlidre — Aphis lions.
Chrysopa perla.-Harris. (Com-
mon lace-wing.)

64.

65.
66.
67.
68.
69.

71.

IX. T R I C II 0 P T E R A ,

Pryganeidce. — Caddis flies.
Phryganea semifasciata.
Phryganea interrupta.
Phryganea radiata.

4. Phryganea sericea.

5. Phryganea stygipes.

6. Phryganea hieroglyphica.
18. And twelve other species.

XCVl

APPENDIX.

X. LEPIDOPTERA

INSECTS INJURIOUS

Rltopalocera —
PapUionidcc.

1. Papillo Turnus, (yellow swallow

tail.)

2. Papilio Asterias, (butterfly of the

parsley worm.) Male!

3. Papilio Asterias, female and

pupa.

4. Papilio Troilus. Male.

5. Papilio Troilus. Female.

6. Colias Philodice, (common yel-

low.) Male.

7. Colias Philodice. Female.

8. Colias Philodice. Underside.

9. Pontia oleracea, (white cabbage

butterfly.)

HeUconildcp.

10. Danaus Plexippus. Male.

11. Danaus Plexippus. Female.

JSfi/mphalidce.

12. Argynnis Idalla. Male.

13. Argynnis Idalia. Female.
li. Argynnis Aphrodite.

15. Argynnis Bellona.

16. And another variety or species.

17. Melltaja Phteton.

18. Melitfea Myrina.

19. Melitasa Pharos. Male.

20. Melltaia Pharos. Female.

21. Satyrus Alope. Male.

22. Satyrus Alope. Female.

23. Satprus Alope. Underside.

24. Satyrus Andromache. Male.

25. Satyrus Andromache. Female.

26. Satyrls Eurythrls.

27. And another species.

28. Vanessa Antlopa, larva and pupa.

29. Vanessa Atalanta.

30. Vanessa Atalanta. Underside.

31. Vanessa Milberti, and pupa.

32. Vanessa Milberti. Underside.

TO VEGETATION.

-Butterjlies.
33. Vanessa

Under-

Male.
Female.

Interrogationis, and

pupa.
Vanessa interrogationis.

side.
Vanessa Progne. Male.
Vanessa Progne. Female.
Vanessa comma.
Pyramcis Iluntera.
Pyrameis Huntera.
Pyramcis Cardul.

41. Pyrameis Cardui. Underside.

42. Limenltis Ursula, and pupa.

43. Limenltis Ursula. Underside.

44. Limenltis Arthemls.
Limenltis dyssippus.

Lycaen'uhe.
Lycaena phlaeas.
And another species.
Polyommatus Argiolus.
Polyomraatus Epixanthe.
Polyommatus Epixanthe.
51. Polyommatus Alexis ?

53. And two other species.

54. Argus pseudarglolus. Male.

55. Argus pseudarglolus. Female.

56. Argus pseudarglolus. Underside.

57. Argus Comyntas. Male.

58. Argus Comyntas. Female.

59. Thecla Favonlus.

60. Thecla hyperlcl. Female.

61. Thecla sacer. Male.
Thecla Augustus. Male.
Thecla Augustus. Female.

HesperiidcL'. — Skipj^ers.
Plesperia vel Eudamus Tityrus.

65. Hesperia Bathyllus.

66. Hesperia Juvenalls.

pupa.
Hesperia Juvenalls. Female.
And eighteen other species or

varieties.

Male.
Fem.

62.
63.

64.

67.

85.

Male and

APPENDIX.

XCVll

2. HETEROCERA

6.

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

18.

19.

20.

21.
22.
23.
24.

26.

27.

28.
29.

30.

31.

32.
33.

Sphingidce. — HaioJc molhs.
Smerinthus exctecata.
Sraerinthus Astylus.
Deilephila Chamaanerii.
Choerocampa pampinatrix and

pupa.
Chffirocampa chcerilus.
Sphinx quinquemaculata and pu-
pa, (potatoe and tomato worm.)
Sphinx cinerea. Male.
Sphinx cinerea. Female.
Sphinx Kalmi«.
Sphinx gordius.
Sphinx Hyljeus.

Ceratomiaquadricornis and larva,
And another species.
Thyreus Abbottii and larva.
Thyreus Nessus.
Sesia Pelasgus. Male.
Sesia Pelasgus. Female.

yEgeriida'.
^geria exitiosa, (peach tree bo-
rer,) and pupa.
And another species.
Anihrocet-idce.
Glaucopis pholus.

Hepialidce.
Cossus Robinise.

Dryocampa imperialis. Female.
Dryocampa senatoria.
Dryocampa pellucida.

Bombycida'.
Attacus Cecropia. Male and

pupa.
Attacus Cecropia. Female.
Attacus Polyphemus. Male and

pupa.
Attacus Polyphemus. Female.
Attacus Luna, (green swallow

tall.) Male and pupa.
Attacus Luna, (green swallow

tail.) Female.
Attacus Prometheus. Male and

pupa.
Attacus Prometheus. Female.
Saturnia Maia. Male and pupa.
13

43.
35.

36.

37.
38.

39.

40.

41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.

47.
48.
49.
52.
53.
55.

56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
6L

62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.

70.

. — MOTHS.

Saturnia lo. Male and pupa.
Saturnia lo. Female.
Bombyx Mori, pupa and cocoon,

(silkworm.)
Gastropacha Americana, and
pupa.
. Clisiocampa Americana. Male
and pupa, (apple tree cater-
pillar,)
. Clisiocampa Americana. Female
and eggs.
Clisiocampa sylvatica. Male and

pupa.
Clisiocampa sylvatica. Female.
Clisiocampa pyxidifera.
Pygfera ministi-a.
Pyga3ra albifrons.
and another species.
Clostera Americana. Male and

pupa.
Clostera Americana. Female.
Limacodes cippus, and larva.
Limacodes pithecium, and pupa.
Notodonta, three species.
Dicranura borealis.
and another species. Male and
female.

Arciiidce.
Arctia virgo.
Arctia Arge.
Arctia phalerata.
Arctia virginica, (woolly bear.)
Arctia virginica. Female.
Arctia Acrea, (salt marsh cater-
pillar.) Male.
Arctia Acrea. Female.
Arctia Isabella.
Arctia Americana.
Arctia textor.
Callimorpha militaris.
Lophocampha tessellaris.
Lophocampa, Caryaa and larva.
Orgyia leucostigma. Male and

larva.
Orgyia leucostigma. Female and
pupa.

xcvin

APPENDIX.

71.

Orgyia antiqua. Male and larva.

140.

Euplexia lucipara, (small angle

72.

Orgyia antiqua. Female and

shades.)

pupa.

141.

Apamea nictitans. Male.

73.

And another species.

142.

Apamea nictitans. Female.

74.

Euchsetes Egle. Male.

143.

Graphiphora plecta.

75.

Euchsetes Egle. Female

144.

And another species.

79.

And four other species.

145.

Cloantha perspicillai'is.

Lithosiidce.

146.

Amphipyra pyramidea.

80.

Gnophria vittata.

147.

Another species.

82.

And two other species.
NoctuidcE.

200.

And about fifty-three other
species.

83.

Plusia Gamma. Male.

Geometridcs.

84.

Plusia Gamma. Female

201.

Anisopteryx vernata, (canker-

85.

Plusia chrysitis ?

worm.) Male.

87.

And two other species.

202.

Anisopteryx vernata. Female.

88.

CucuUia umbratica.

203.

Anisopteryx pometaria, (orchard

90.

And two other species.

canker.) Male.

91.

Mamestra persicarise.

204.

Anisopteryx pometana. Female.

92.

Mamestra albicolon.

205.

Ilyberna Tiliaria, (lime tree win-

93.

Mamestra nigricans.

ter moth.)

95.

And two other species.

206.

Campaea Margaritaria.

96.

Polia herbida.

207.

Biston Betularias, (peppered

97.

And another species.

moth.) Male.

98.

Catocala nupta, (red underwing.)

208.

Biston Betularias. Female.

99.

Catocala Epione, (black

under-

209.

Eucosraia undulata.

wing.)

210.

Ephyra omicronaria.

100.

Catocala Amasia.

210.

Eupithecia simpliciata.

109.

And nine other species.

211.

Geometra serrata.

110.

Brepha notha.

212.

Macaria notata.

111.

Scoliopteryx libatrlx.

213.

Drepana unguicula.

112.

Hadena amica.

214.

Aspilates citaria.

113.

And another species.

215.

Epioue vespertaria.

114.

Agrotis devastator, (cut

worm.)

216.

Bradypetes amataria.

115.

Agrotis subgothica, (gothic dart.)

217.

Melanippe pustulata.

116.

Agrotis nigricans.

218.

Venilia trinocularis.

117.

Agrotis nebulosa.

219.

Platypter}-x, one species.

118.

Agrotis suflTusa.

220.

Hypena crassalis.

119.

Agrotis scgetum.

225.

And five other species.

128.

And nine other species.

226.

Margaritia verticalis.

129.

Chareas nigra.

227.

Margaritia sticticalis.

134.

And five other species.

228.

Margaritia lanceatis.

135.

Cerapteryx graminis.

229.

Margaritia centrostrigalis.

136.

Phlogophora meticulosa,

(Angle

237.

And eight other species.

shades.)

239.

Galleria, two species.

137.

Phlogophora meticulosa,

var.

240.

Harpalyce, one species.

138.

Xylophasia lithoxylea.

249.

Cidaria, nine species.

139.

llama testacea, (lesser

floured

299.

And fifty other species-

rustic,) and pupa.

APPENDIX.

XCIX

Pi/ralidce.

300. Aglossa dilucidalis.

301. Aglossa pinguinallg.

302. Pyralis farinalis.

325. And twenty-three other epecies,

TortricidcB,

326. Carpocapsa pomonella, (codliug

moth.)

327. Loxotaenia rosaceanae.

328. Lo.xotajnia nebulans.

329. Loxotaenia grossulariatse.

330. Loxotisnia roborana.

350. And twentj-siii other epeeLss,

Tineidce.

357. Crambus nivalis.

358. Crambus humulj.

359. Tinea tapetzella, (clothes moth.)

360. Ilithea carnea.

361. Chilo forficGllus.

362. Yponomeuta pusiella.

363. Eudoria Portlandica.

364. Crambus hamellus.

379. And fifteen other epecies.
381. Alucita, two species.
385. Pterophorus, four species.
435. And about fifty undescrlbed
species.

Arantides.-^ Spiders.
25. Twenty-five species.

Thysanura. — SpringkdL% ^c.

1. Lepisma saccharina and larva.

2. Podura phjiabea ?

Myriapoda.^^ Centipedes,
i. Julus terrestris.

5. And four more species,

6, Scolopendra morsitans, South

America, (in alcohol,) from
WJUiam H. Flojd,

APPENDIX.

CATALOGUE OF ANIMALS

In the State Cabinet of Massachusetts, under the direction of the Secre-
tary of the Massachusetts Hoard of Agriculture. Arranged according
to the nomenclature and classification adopted hy the Smithsonian
Institution, by J. W. P. Jenks, Zoologist to the Board of Agriculture .
Jan. 1, 1859.

ORDER CHEIROPTERA.

Family Vespektilionid^e.

GenuA VespertiUo.

1. Ve^pertilio pruinostts, Say. Iloary Bat. Specimen donated by E. W.

Gardner. Preparation donated by J. W. P. Jenks.

2. VespertiUo noveJ)orarensis, Linn. Common Bat. Variety. Prepared

and donated by Francis E. Everett.

3. VespertiUo novelwracensis, Linn. Common Bat. Prepared and donated

by J. W. P. Jenks.

ORDER RAPACIA.

Family Talpid^e.

Genus Scalops. Cuv.

4. Scalops aquaticus, Cuv. Common Mole. Donated by Frederick Keitb.

Preparation donated by J. W. P. Jenks.
Genus CoiuJylura. 111.

5. CondjiJura crista/a, 111. Star-Nosed Mole. Prepared and donated by

J. W. P. Jenks.

Family Mustelid.k.
Genus l^utorius. Cuv.

6. Putorius cicognanii. Small Brown Weasel. Summer dress. Prepared

and donated by J. W.'P. Jenks.

7. Putorius cicognanii. Small Brown Weasel. Change. Prepared and

donated by John W. P. Jenks.

8. Putorius cicognanii. Small Brown Weasel. "Winter dress. Prepared

and donated by J. W. P. Jenks.

9. Putorius richardsonii. Little Ermine. Prepared and donated by J. W.

P. Jenks.
10. Putorius novehoracensis. Ermine. Change. Donated by Sumner Col-
burn. Preparation donated by Charles L. Flint.

/

APPENDIX. ci

11. Red and White Weasel. Donated by J. G. Sargent.

12. Putorius bison. Mink. Donated by .

Family Ursid^.

Genus Procyon. Storr.

13. Procyon lotor, Storr. liaccoon. Male. Prepared and donated by

J. W. P. Jenks.

ORDER RODENT lA.

Family SciuriDjE.
Genus Sciurus. Linn.

14. Sciurus cm-oHnensis, Cm. Gray Squirrel. Prepared and donated by

J. W. P. Jenks.

15. Sciurus hudsonius, Pallas. Red Squirrel. Chickaree. Prepared and

donated by J. W. P. Jenks.

Genus Pleromys.

16. Pteromys volucella, Cuv. (?) Flying Squirrel. Prepared and donated

by J. W. P. Jenks.

17. Pteromys volucella, Cuv. (?) Flying Squirrel. Prepared and donated

by C. D. Lincoln.

Genus Tamias. Illlger.

18. Tamias striatus. Chipmunk. Prepared and donated by J. W. P. Jenks.

Genus Arctowys. Schreber.

19. Arctomys monax, Gmelin. Woodchuck. Prepared and donated by

J. W. P. Jenks.

Family Murid^.

Genus Jaculus.

20. Jaculus liudsonius. Jumping Mouse. Prepared and donated by J. W.

P. Jenks.

Genus Fiber. Cuv.

21. Fiber zihethicus, Cuv. Musk Rat. IMale. Prepared and donated by

J. W. P. Jenks.

Family Leporid.e.
Genus Lepus.

22. Lepus americanus, Erxl. Hare. Winter dress. Donated by J. A.

Leonard, Jr. Prepared by J. W. P. Jenks.

cu

APPENDIX.

CATALOGUE OF FISHES

Of Massachusetts^ mostly fresh water, presented hy the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, to the Agricultural Department of the State of Massachusetts.

1.

Perca flavescens. Cuv. and Val.

Framingbam,

. 1

2.

Perca flavescens.

Brimfield, .

. 2

3.

Pomotis vulgaris. Cuv. and Val.

Brimfield, .

4.

Poniotis vulgaris. Cuv. and Val.

Framingbam,

5.

Pomotis appendix. DeKay.

Framingbam,

6.

Pomotis vulgaris. Cuv. and Val.

Hingham. .

7.

Pomotis obesus. Grd.

Holliston, .

8.

Pomotis obesus. Grd.

Framingbam,

9.

Pomotis obesus. Grd.

Hingham, .

10.

Osmerus viridescens. Lesu.

Boston Harbor,

11.

Gunellus mucronatus. DeKay.

Boston Harbor,

12.

Ammodytes amerieanus. DeKay.

Boston Harbor,

13.

Syngnathus peckianus. Storer.

Boston Harbor,

14.

Anguilla bostoniensis. Lesu.

Framingbam,

15.

Pimelodus atrarius. DeKay.

Brimfield, .

16.

Gasterosteus noveboracensis. Cuv. and Val.

Cape Cod, .

17.

Gasteroteus dekayi. Agass.

Hingham, .

. 3

18.

Atherinopsis menidia. Grd.

Hingham, .

. 2

19.

Boleosoma fusiforme. Grd.

Framingbam,

. 2

20.

Esox reticulatus. Lesu.

Brimfield, .

. 1

21.

Esox ornatus. Grd.

Framingbam,

. 1

22.

Esox reticulatus. Lesu.

Framingbam,

. 1

23.

Catostomus bostoniensis. Lesu.

Nichols' Brook,

. 3

24.

Moxostoma gibbosum. Kafin.

Hingham, .

. 3

25.

Luxilus amerieanus. Grd.

Framingbam,

. 1

26.

Luxilus amerieanus.

Milford Mill, .

. 1

27.

Leucosomus pulchellus. Grd.

Framingbam,

. 3

28.

Moxostoma gibbosum. Lesu.

Framingbam,

. 1

29.

Luxilus amerieanus. Grd.

Brimfield, .

. 1

30.

Luxilus amerieanus.

Hingham, .

. 1

31.

Anguilla bostoniensis. Lesu.

Hingham, .

. I

32.

Leucosomus pulchellus. Grd.

Thames River wj

iters, 1

33.

Leucosomus pulchellus.

Lancaster, Mass.,

. 1

34.

Leucosomus pulchellus.

Framingbam,

• 2

35.

Hydrargyra flavula. Storer.

Hingham, .

. 3

22 Species.

Specimens, .

. 61

APPENDIX.

cm

INVENTORY

Of Slock, Crops, Tools, Sfc, at the State Farm at Westborough, Dec. 1,

8 Oxen, .

. $745 00

17 Cows, $40, .

680 00

1 Hereford Cow, .

200 00

1 Jersey Cow,

. 150 00

1 Devon Cow,

100 00

1 Hereford Heifer,

175 00

1 Hereford Bull, .

. 300 00

1 Hereford Calf, .

50 00

1 Jersey Bull Calf,

50 00

1 Jersey Heifer,

50 00

1 Devon Heifer,

50 00

1 Devon Calf,

30 00

1 Grade Jersey Calf,

25 00

1 Grade Devon Calf,

25 00

5 Horses,

680 00

12 Fat Hogs, .

. 240 00

45 Shotes,

360 00

16 Sucking Pigs,

32 00

5 Breeding Sows, ,

75 00

1 Suffolli Boar,

25 00

80 tons English Hay,

1,200 00

8 tons Rowen,

120 00

25 tons of Meadow Hay,

175 00

2 tons Millet,

30 00

5 tons Straw,

35 to

30 tons Corn Stover,

210 00

1000 bushels shelled Indiai

iCor

n.

. 1,000 00

1561 bushels Ruta-Bagas,

260 00

1800 bushels Carrots,

450 00

50 bushels Seed Potatoes,

38 00

100 bushels small Potatoes,

40 00

25 bushels Oats, .

12 00

25 bushels Buckwheat,

19 00

185 bushels Beets, .

46 00

124 bushels Parsnips,

41 00

4 Hay Cutters,

40 00

1 Feed Trough,

4 00

12 Hay Forks,

4 00

48 Hay Rakes,

8 00

24 Manure Forks, .

80 00

80 Shovels, .

48 00

26 Spades,

20 00

40 Picks, .

40 00

2 Manure Hooks, .

1 00

15 Iron Bars, .

15 00

3 Stone Hammers,

5 00

1 Ox Wagon,

35 00

1 Two-Horse ^V■agon, .

20 00

1 One-Horse Wagon,

30 00

3 Ox Carts, .

60 CO

4 Horse Carts,

160 00

4 Stone Drags,

7 00

10 Ploughs, .

100 00

4 Harrows, .

24 00

1 Cultivator, .

3 00

2 Horse Hoes,

12 00

2 Hand Cultivators,

2 CO

2 Horse Harrows, .

4 00

2 Job Wagons,

90 00

5 Ox Yokes, .
10 Draft Chains, .

1 Derrick Chain, .

6 Stake Chains,

2 Ox Sleds, .
1 Horse Sled, .
] Two-Horse, Double
1 Pleasure Sleigh, .
1 lot of Old Harness,
1 New Harness,
1 Horse-cart Harness
6 Trace Chains,

Stable Furniture,
Furniture in Scale Room

1 Iron Roller,

1 Fanning Mill and Corn Sheller

1 Stone Elevator, .

8 bushels Seed Corn,

5 bushels Seed Beans,

1 bushel Seed Pease,

2 bushels Millet Seed,
1 Seed Sower,.
1 set Steel-yards, .

1 Platform Scale, .
20 Strawbery Boxes,
48 Hand Hoes,
10 Hand Drills,

2 Hand Hammers,
12 Wheelbarrows, .

1 Beetle, with Wedges,

2 Grindstone,
4 Water Cans,

6 Bog Hoes, .
4 Axes, .
6 Wood Saws,
4 Ice Hooks, .

1 pair Ice Tongs, .

2 Cross-cut Saws, .
Carpenters' Tools,

4 Scythes and Snaths,
20 Baskets, .
12 Milk Cans, .
1 lot first quality of Lumber,
1000 feet Pine Lumber,
4 Water Buckets, .
1 Surveyor's Chain, .
1 Ox Shovel, .
1 Spirit Level,
1 Swill Cart, .

1 Refrigerator,

2 Derricks,
Household Furniture

1 Garden Rule,
24 Corn Cutters,
1 Root Cutter,

1 Saddle,

8 Iron-toothed Rakes,

3 Wheel Hoes,

1857.

$8 00
12 00

7 00

4 00

8 00

5 00
12 00

15 00
35 00
18 00

9 00

4 00
10 00

5 00
20 00
12 00

165 00
10 00
12 60
2 50
4 00
300

2 00
700

1 00

16 00

6 00

3 00
20 00

2 00
10 00

2 00

2 00

3 00

6 00

1 00

2 00
600

20 00
2 00

7 00
6 00

25 00
16 00

1 00
200
6 00

2 00
40 00
10 00
75 00

156 00
1 00

4 00
10 GO

5 00

3 00
3 00

$9,344 00

CIV

APPENDIX.

INVENTORY

Of Personal Properly on the State Farm, Wesilwroiigh, Dec. 1, 1858.

6 Oxen,

17 Cows,

2 Hereford Cows, .

1 Herefonl Bull, .

1 Hereford two yearling Heifer,

1 Hereford Bull Calf, .

1 Jersey Cow, (diseased in udder,

1 Jersey Heifer,

1 Devon Cow,

1 Devon Heifer two years old,

1 Devon Heifer one year old,

1 Devon Heifer Calf,

1 Durham Cow,

1 Durham Bull Calf,

1 Durham Heifer Calf,

1 Grade Devon Heifer,

1 Grade Jersey Heifer,

1 Grade Ayrshire Calf,

1 Ayrshire Bull, .

5 Horses,

2 Fat Hogs, . . . $30 00
4 Breeding Sows, . . 60 00

1 Boar, . . . . 25 00
52 Shotes, . . .300 00

14 Sucking Pigs, . . 25 00-
81 tons English Hay,

4 tons I'owen,
36 tons Meadow Hay,

2 tons Millet,

6 tons Straw Hay, .

15 tons Corn Stover,
536 bushels Shelled Indian Corn,
590 bushels Ruta-Bagas,

1520 bushels Turnips,
1076 bushels Currots, .
117 bushels Seed Potatoes
50 bushels Oats,

2 bushels Buckwheat,
30 bushels Wheat, .

8 bushels Barley, .

3 bushels Rye,
670 bushels Beets, .
400 bushels Parsnips, by estimation

4 Hay Cutters,
1 Feed Trough,

10 Hay Forks, .
80 Hay Rakes,
26 Manure Forks, .
100 Shovels,
22 Spades,

Amount carried up,

$530 00

850 00

300 00

200 (10

100 00

75 00

40 00

100 00

100 00

50 00

30 00

20 00

200 00

100 00

50 00

25 CO

25 00

20 00

75 CO

500 00

- 440 00

1,215 00

60 00

250 00

24 00

48 00

120 00

533 00

118 00

304 00

269 00

58 50

27 50

1 50

45 00

8 00

3 00

167 50

100 00

40 00

4 00

4 00

5 00

32 50

50 00

18 00

$7,338 50

Amount brought up,

$7,338 50

61 Picks,

61 00

2 Manure Hooks, .

1 00

15 Iron Bars, ....

15 00

3 Stone Hammers,

5 00

1 Ox Wagon, ....

35 00

1 Two-Horse Wagon,

20 00

1 One. Horse Wagon,

15 00

1 Lumber Wagon, .

50 00

1 Job Wagon,

60 00

3 Ox Carts, ....

60 00

4 Horse Carts,

140 00

3 Stone Drags,

6 00

10 Ploughs, ....

00 00

4 Harrows, ....

20 00

1 Cultivator, ....

3 00

2 Horse Hoes,

12 00

2 Hand Cultivators,

2 00

2 Horse Harrows, .

4 00

5 Ox Yokes, ....

12 00

9 Draft Chains,

12 00

2 Derrick Chains, .

10 00

6 Stake Chains, .

4 00

1 Ox Sled, ....

4 00

1 Horse Sled, ....

5 00

1 Two-Horse Double-runner Sled,

10 00

1 Pleasure Sleigh, .

10 00

1 lot of old Harnesses, .

40 00

1 Harness, ....

10 00

4 Horse-Cart Harnesses,

32 00

4 Trace Chains,

3 00

Stable Furniture,

10 00

Furniture in Scale Room, .

5 00

1 Iron Roller,

20 00

Fanning Mill and Corn Sheller,

12 00

1 Stone Elevator, .

105 00

2 bushels Seed Corn,

4 00

1 bushel Seed Beans, .

2 00

1 Seed Sower,

3 00

1 Platform Scale, .

7 00

20 Strawberry Boxes,

1 00

60 Hand Hoes,

20 00

10 Hand Drills,

6 00

2 Hand Hammers,

3 00

20 Wheelbarrows, .

40 00

1 Beetle, with Wedges, .

2 00

2 Grindstones,

10 00

4 Water Cans,

2 00

6 Bog Hoes, ....

5 00

8 Axes,

5 00

Amount carried forward,

1,411 50

APPENDIX.

CT

Amount brought forivard

)

$8,411 50

6 Wood Saws,

5 00

6 Ice Hooks, .

2 00

1 pair Ice Tongs, .

2 00

2 Cross-cut Saws, .

6 00

Carpenters' Tools,

18 00

6 Scythes and Snaths,

3 00

20 Baskets, .

6 00

18 Milk Cans,.

10 00

500 feet Tine Lumber,

7 00

4 Buckets, .

1 00

3 Milk Pails, .

60

1 Surveyor's Chain,

2 00

1 Ox Shovel, .

6 00

I Spirit Level,

2 00

1 Swill Cart, .

40 00

1 Refrigerator,

10 00

2 Derricks,

75 00

Household Furniture,

100 00

1 Garden Uule,

75

15 Corn Cutters,

2 00

Amount carried up^

$8,709 85

Amount brought up,
1 Root Cutter,
1 Saddle,
8 Iron-Toothed Rakes, .

3 Wheel lloes,
1 Wheel Stone Drag, .
6 Stone Boat Plank,

Plank for six Sled Runners,

Furniture in Blacksmith's Shop

Gate Hangings, .
20 Weeding Trowels,
1 Corn Fork, .

Carboy Sulphuric Acid,
1 Pruning Saw and Chisel,
8 Corn Bags, .

4 Sack Bags, .
15 Acres of Winter Rye on the

Ground,

709 85
10 00

4 00
3 00
3 00
8 00

5 00

6 00
30 CO

5 00
1 20
1 50

6 51
1 00
1 00

50

75 00

«8,870 56
Cash on hand December 1, 1858, 373 48

Total, §9,244 04

u

CVl

APPENDIX.

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APPENDIX.

evil

State Board of Agriculture in account ivith the Common-

AVEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

Cash on hand December 1, 1857,

Inventory of personal estate December 1, 1857,

Cash paid, for boys' labor,

mens' labor, superintending boys, ....

Reform School, for swill,

improvement laying wall, setting trees, .

stock,

Cash on hand belonging to State appropriation,

appropriated by State,

received of Reform School,

Sundries received of Reform School,

Cash paid, produce of farm furnished Reform School,

improvements,

labor, men, oxen and boys, on improvements,

seeds,

stationery,

farm account,

service as treasurer,

farm produce,

repairs,

grain and milling, .......

lactometer,

farm implements,

mens' labor,

contingent expenses,

Davis & BuUard, expenses of Board of Agriculture,

pasturing, ........

board of men,

farm produce, labor, and teaming, ....

fertilizers,

inventory of personal estate Dec. 1, 1858,
Cash on hand December 1, 1858,

Dr.
$357 15

9,364 00

4,000 00

1,574 15

49 34

681 12

1,155 02

2,843 66

$20,024 44

Cr.

$1,582 20
417 80
850 00
650 00
887 25
112 76

1,623 49
681 12

185 18

8 45

473 48

100 00

a57 69

185 66

15 00

87 10

1,794 35

167 72

61 74

106 36

675 71

355 30

8,885 36
260 73

D,024 44

I have examined the foregoing account, including the cash account of the Treasurer, and find
the same to be correctly cast, and properly vouched.

JOHN BROOKS.
Boston, January 19, 1859.

CYIU

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CXlll

CXIV

APPENDIX.

MISCELLANEOUS.

SOCIETIES.

Amount awarded for
agricultural Imple-
ments.

■a S

^ s

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c a
o "2
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3

to

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£ o
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For mechanical inven-
tions, domestic man-
ufactures, &c.

Number of persona
who received pre-
miums and gratuities.

Massachusetts, .

-

$1,000 00

$650 00

-

5

Essex,

-

80 00

-

$165 00

324

Middlesex, .

-

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10 00

7 00

160

Middlesex South,

$7 50

85 00

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84 22

220

Middlesex North,

10 00

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541 00

228 12

264

Worcester, .

21 00

30 00

-

13 00

129

Worcester West,

12 25

30 00

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47 86

152

Worcester North,

3 00

50 00

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60 75

212

Worcester South,

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50 00

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28 75

85

Hampshire, Franklin ]
and Hampden, . |

30 00

20 00

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80 25

224

Hampshire,

18 75

10 00

17 10

48 97

286

Hampden, .

12 00

25 00

-

171 00

273

Hampden East, .

-

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29 33

107

Franklin, .

4 00

10 00

-

78 00

154

Berkshire, .

7 00

-

21 00

-

311

Housatonic,

7 00

-

13 00

77 00

229

Norfolk,

-

30 00

-

51 50

175

Plymouth, .

-

160 00

-

278 50

494

Bristol,

-

105 00

-

156 00

313

Barnstable,

8 00

14 00

-

99 63

159

Nantucket, .

-

15 00

144 00

13 00

81

Totals,

^140 50

$1,664 00

$1,396 10

$1,707 88

4,357

APPENDIX.

cxv

Names of the Towns and Cities in ivliich resided the persons
v)hen receiving the Premiums and Gratuities awarded, by
the County Societies, and the several amounts as disbursed.

ESSEX,

Amesbury, .

^10 00

Marblehead,

§26 50

Andover, .

25 30

Middleton, .

10 46

Beverly,

59 30

Newbury, .

60 48

Boxford,

28 00

Newburyport,

57 75

Bradford, ,

31 40

North Andover,

137 72

Danvers,

183 75

Rockport, .

2 00

Essex,

26 88

Eowley,

18 80

Georgetown,

5 80

Salem,

222 42

Gloucester, .

5 50

South Danvers, .

107 68

Groveland, .

15 70

Swampscott,

20 50

Hamilton, .

20 98

Topsfield, .

55 90

Ipswich,

41 20

Wenham, .

11 64

Lawrence, .

10 00

"West Newbury, .

44 00

Lynn, .

44 48

Providence, E,. L,

5 00

Lynn field, .

4 00
1 00

New York, .
Total, .

5 00

Manchester,

11,299 14

MIDDLESEX.

Acton,

. $44 00

Cambridge,

. 120 80

Bedford,

4 10

Carlisle,

. 13 00

Billerica,

1 00

Chelmsford,

9 40

Brighton, .

. 23 10

Concord,

. 242 00

CXVl

APPENDIX.
MIDDLESEX— Continued.

Dracut,

115 40

South Reading,

$10 80

Dunstable,

3 00

Stow, ....

23 80

Framiugliam,

34 40

Sudbury,

29 70

Groton,

4 30

Tewksbury, .

4 40

HoUiston,

6 00

Waltham,

2 70

Lexington,

14 60

Watertown, .

7 50

Lincoln,

25 60

Wayland,

34 00

Littleton,

53 00

West Cambridge, .

7 70

Lowell,

9 30

Westford,

10 50

Marlborough

r

4 00

Weston,

. 10 00

Pepperell,

4 40

Wilmington,

21 30

Shirley,

2 00
5 00

Woburn,

Total, .

7 50

Sofnerville,

$708 30

MIDDLESEX SOUTH,

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

Ashland,

. $39 50

Newton,

. $8 50

Framingham,

. 293 61

Sherborn,

. 6 50

HoUiston,

. 20 2'5

Southborough,

. 44 62

Hopkinton, .

. 35 75

Sudbury,

. 15 75

Marlborough,

. 39 50
. 44 49

Wayland,
Total, .

. 25 75

Natick,

•$574 22

Chelmsford, .

$101 25

Lowell,

$355 37

Billerica,

. 16 00

Lawrence, .

. 10 00

Dracut,

. 92 00

North Andover, .

. 40 00

Dunstable, .

. 83 00

North Reading, .

. 110 00

APPENDIX.
MIDDLESEX NORTH— Continued.

CXVll

Tewksbury, .

Tyngsborough,

Westford,

143 00

23 50

8 00

Wilmington,
Woburn,
Total, .

. 126 GO
. 10 00

$917 12

WORCESTER,

Auburn,

. $7 00

Nortliborougb,

$12 00

Barre, .

116 00

North Braintree, .

9 00

Berlin, .

. 2 00

Oakham,

. 3 00

Boylston,

5 00

Oxford,

. 6 00

Boston,

2 00

Petersham, .

15 00

Bolton,

9 76

Princeton, .

80 00

Charlton,

40 00

Shrewsbury, .

62 00

Dana, .

3 00

Southborough,

11 44

Dudley,

3 50

Sutton, ....

111 00

Grafton,

14 00

Uxbridge,

14 00

Harvard,

1 50

Webster,

6 00

Holden,

6 00

Westborough,

43 00

Leicester,

11 00

West Boylston,

14 00

Millbury,

53 00

7 00

Worcester, .

340 50

Milford,

Total, .

$978 50

WORCESTER WEST.

Barre, .

$240 99

Hardwick, .

. $36 75

Bei'nardston,

. 15 00

Hubbardston,

. 1 00

Charlton,

. 19 00

New Braintree, .

. 30 00

Dana, .

. 3 00

North Brookfield, .

. 4 00

Hartford,

. 1 00

Oakham,

. 20 00

CXVIU

APPENDIX.

WORCESTER WEST— Continued.

Petersham, .

. |20 62

Templeton, .

. $12 00

Phlllipston, .

. 13 50

West Brookfield, .

. 1 50

Princeton, .

. 49 50

Worcester, .

. 3 75

Shrewsbury, .

. 1 50

Total, .

$172 11

Sturbridge, .

. 1 00

WORCESTER NORTH,

Ashburnham,

18 50

Princeton,

$174 79

Ashby, ....

6 75

Shirley,

. 26 00

Fitchburg, .

329 31

Sterling,

. 14 83

Leominster, .

47 75

Templeton, .

. 6 00

Lunenburg, .

28 00
7 00

Westminster,
Total, .

. 31 00

Pepperell,

1701 96

Phillipston, .

22 00

WORCESTER SOUTH.

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

Brimfield,

. $32 00

Southbridge,

. $58 75

Brookfield, .

. 2 00

Sturbridge, .

. 108 00

Charlton,

. 54 00

Wales, .

. 3 00

Dudley,

. 16 00

Ware, .

. 3 00

Holden,

. 2 00

Warren,

. 15 00

Holland,

. 4 00
. 4 00

Webster,

•

Total, .

. 1 00

North Brookfield, .

$302 75

Amherst,
Buckland,

$4 00
4 00

Chesterfield, ,
Conway,

$7 00
21 00

APPENDIX. cxix

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN— Continued.

Cummington,

. 19 00

Northampton,

1216 00

Eastbampton,

. 64 25

Shelburne, .

. 5 00

Goshen,

. 8 00

South Hadley,

. 107 00

Granby,

. 18 00

Southampton,

. 45 50

Greenfield, •

. 9 00

Sunderland, .

. 16 50

Hadley,

. 97 50

Westfield, .

. 82 00

Hatfield,

. 63 00

Westhampton,

. 6 00

Hinsdale,

. 1 00

Whately,

. 10 00

Holyoke,

. 1 00

Williamsburg,

. 7 00

Huntington, .

. 5 00
. 1 00

Worthington,
Total, .

. 5 00

Montgomery,

$802 25

HAMPSHIRE.

HAMPDEN.

Amherst,

$152 68

Northampton,

$2 00

Belchertown,

22 25

Pelham,

23 25

Charlemont, .

2 50

Plainfield,

50

Deerfield,

7 00

Shelburne, .

3 00

Granby,

17 25

Sout.h Hadley,

41 00

Greenfield, .

3 00

Springfield, .

25

Hadley,

63 64

Sterling,

2 00

Leicester,

20

Sunderland, .

87 28

Leverett,

31 30

Vernon,

1 00

New Salem, .

1 00

75

Worcester, .

3 00

New York, .

Total, .

$466 85

Agawam,
Brimfield,

$17 25
1 00

Blandford,
Chieopee,

$10 00
118 50

cxs

APPENDIX.
HAMPDEN— Continued.

•

Granville,

. $3 00

West Springfield, .

. $45 00

Holyoke,

. 12 50

Westfield, .

. 65 00

Ludlow,

. 8 00

Wilbraham, .

. 114 00

Longmeadow,

. 57 00

Total, .

$716 07

Springfield, .

. 264 82

HAMPDEN EAST.

Belchertown,

. 112 00

Wales, .

. $10 00

Brimfield,

. 25 50

Ware, .

. 9 00

Holland,

. 5 00

Warren,

. 16 00

Ludlow,

. 7 00
. 118 25

Wilbraham, .
Total, .

. 52 00

Monson,

$450 50

Palmer,

. 195 75

FRANKLIN,

Ashfield,

. $0 50

Leverett,

. $2 00

Bernardston,

. 12

00

Leyden,

. 2 00

Buckland, .

6

00

Montague, .

. 15 00

Charlemont,

2

00

Nortlifield, .

. .25 00

Chicopee, .

5

00

Orange,

. 2 00

Coleraine, .

22

00

Shelburne, .

. 205 00

Conway,

. 30

00

Shutesbury, .

. 5 00

Deerfield,

. 96

00

Sunderland, .

. 40 00

Gill, .

. 16

00

Total, .

!8i587 50

Greenfield, .

. 102

00

APPENDIX.

BERKSHIRE.

CXXl

Adams,

. $75 00

Lenox,

$130 GO

Alford,.

13 50

Monterey, .

2 00

Becket,

. 12 00

New Ashford,

8 00

Boston,.

3 00

Pittsfield, .

344 50

Cheshire,

39 00

Richmond, .

64 00

Dal ton.

20 00

Sheffield, .

29 50

Egremont, .

16 50

Stockbridge,

140 00

Great Barrington,

36 50

Washington, .

1 00

Hancock,

3-50

West Stockbridge,

14 00

Hinsdale, . . . .

13 00

Williamstown,

20 00

Lanesborough,

135 00

36 50

Windsor,

7 50

Lee,

Total, . . . $1,159 00

HOUSA TONIC.

Alford,.

. $22 50

Otis, . . . .

. $2 00

Becket,

. 3 00

Pittsfield, .

. 3 00

Egremont, . .

. 109 00

Richmond, .

. 23 50

Great Barrington,

. 251 00

Sandisfield, .

. 12 00

Lanesborough,

. 5 00

Sheffield,

. 169 50

Lee, ....

. 25 00

Stockbridge, .

. 120 50

Lenox,

. 69 50

Tyringham, .

. 1 00

Monterey,

. 25 50
. 14 00

West Stockbridge,
Total, .

. 23 00

New Marlborough,

$879 00

NORFOLK.

Bellingham, .
Braintree, .

$3 00
10 00

Brookline,
Canton,

$16 00
3 00

16

CXXll

APPENDIX.

NORFOLK— Continued.

Dedham,

$135 00

Needham,

. $56 GO

Dorchester, .

. 48 00

Randolph, .

. 3 00

Dover, .

. 45 00

Roxbury,

. 20 00

Foxborough,

. 5 00

Sharon,

. 8 00

Franklin,

. 5 00

Walpole,

. 26 00

Medfield,

. 58 50

West Roxbury, .

. 101 50

Medway,

. 51 50
. 20 00

"Wrentham, .
Total, .

. 38 00

Milton, .

$652 50

PLYMOUTH.

BRISTOL,

Abington,

$43 75

Marshfield, .

. $7 75

Bridgewater,

314 75

Middleborough, .

. 206 55

Carver,

7 00

North Bridgewater,

. 119 50

Duxbury,

4 25

Pembroke, .

. 26 85

East Bridgewater,

114 75

Plymouth,

. 65 80

Halifax,

104 50

Plympton, .

. 39 15

Hanover,

3 75

Rochester, .

. 9 75

Hanson,

11 50

Scituate,

. 9 55

Hingham,

5 00

Wareham, .

. 11 50

Kingston,

15 00

West Bridgewater,

. 173 00

Lakeville,

9 75

Total, .

$1,303 40

Attleborough,

. $47 00

Fairhaven, .

. $11 00

Berkley,

•

. 26 50

Fall River, .

. 57 00

Dighton,

•

. 2 25

Freetown, .

75

Easton,

•

. 6 75

Mansfield, .

. 24 00

APPENDIX.

BRISTOL— Continued.

CXXlll

New Bedford,

. 150 50

Seekonk,

. $30 50

Norton,

. 73 25

Somerset,

. 8 00

Pawtucket, .

. 3 00

Taunton,

. 350 75

Eaynham,

. 197 25
. 26 25

Westport,
Total, .

. 18 62

Relioboth,

-$933 37

BARNSTABLE,

Barnstable, .

$360 75

Orleans,

. $8 00

Brewster,

. 5 00

Sandwich,

. 48 75

Chatham,

. 12 50

Yarmouth, .

. 37 25

Dennis,

. 3 75
. 9 63

Unknown, .
Total, .

. 3 00

Eastham,

$196 37

Harwich,

. 7 75

NANTUCKET.

Nantucket,

$157 00

INDEX.

Agricultural Societies, uniform action of,
Barnstable Agricultural Society,' report on,
Boys Labor at State Farm,
Bristol Agricultural Society, report on,
Berkshire Agricultural Society, report on.
Corn, statistics of,

" culture of,

'• nutritive qualities of,

" varieties of,
Crops at the State Farm, .
Essex Agricultural Society, report on,
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden Agricultural Society,

«' Agricultural Society, report on,

Hampden East Agricultural Society, report on,
Housatonic Agricultural Society, report on,
Indian Corn, analysis of, .

" " climatic range of, .

«' " culture of,

" " experiments ■with, .

" »' growth of,

" " history of,

" «' nutritive qualities of,

" " statistics of, .

" '< uses of,

" . '< various names of, .
List of subjects for investigation,
Market Days, importance of,
Middlesex County, exhibitions in,
Nantucket Agricultural Society, report on,
Natural History, study of, .
Norfolk Society's exhibition,
Plan of operations.
Potato Disease, report on, .
Publication of pamphlets, .
Public meetings for discussion.
State Farm, management of,
"Worcester County, exhibitions in

45,

eport

. 40-41

. 149

5

. 147

. 140

46, 47, 109

50, 61,81

64, 65, 67

68, 69, 71, 73, 75

9, 13, 17, 19, 24

. 115

on, . 132

. 133

. 137

. 143

66

76, 78, 80

50,56, 61, 81

91, 92

65

1, 52, 64, 62

64, 65, 67

45, 46, 47

. 95, 97

60

31

42, 156, 158

118, 120, 121

151

111

144

29, 31

33, 38

39, 40

42, 44

6, 8, 10, 13, 27

122, 125, 126, 129

31,

ABSTRACT OF RETUHNS

AGEICULTUML SOCIETIES

MASSACHUSETTS,

1858.

EDITED BY

CHARLES L. FLINT,

SECEETARY OP THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

BOSTON:

WILLIAM WHITE, PKINTEE TO THE STATE.
1859.

PREFACE.

The same arrangement has been followed in the
Abstract o^the returns of the societies, as that adopted
in the preceding volumes, that having been found to be,
on the whole, the most logical and convenient. But the
necessity of condensing more and more has been apparent
from the fact that so little that is really new has been
presented, or that what has been presented has appeared
in too indefinite a form to be of any general practical
value.

Suppose, for instance, a farmer in one section of the
Commonwealth offers a statement on some particular
crop, and in giving the preparation of the land the
previous years uses the term, " loads of manure," without
describing what he means by loads. How is a farmer in
another section to know how much was applied"? In
one section, the most common conveyance is the horse
cart, in another an ox cart, and in another a load may
mean a cord ; so that the term used conveys no definite
and correct idea of how the land was manured. And yet
such statements appear to be the rule rather than the
exception, and they deserve no place in a volume designed
for general use. It is earnestly hoped that this loose way
of making such statements will be avoided in future, and

IV PREFACE.

the secretaries of the various societies, through whose
hands they must all pass, can do much towards correcting
this looseness.

I acknowledge with pleasure the kindness of the
Harvest Club, of Springfield, and of Dr. George B.
Loring, in furnishing the correct and beautiful cuts of
animals which adorn this volume. " Double Duke " is
well known in the section where he is owned. He
was bred by J. M. Sherwood, Esq., of New York, calved
June 6, 1855, of a roan color, sired ^

By " 3d Duke of Cambridge," 5,941.

Dam, " Red Rose oth," by "3d Duke of Cambridge," 5,941.

G Dam, "Red Rose 2d," by "Napier," 6,238.

G gr Dam, "Tube Rose," by " South Durimm," 5,281.

G gr gr Dam, " Rose Ann," by " Bellerophon," 3,119.

G gr gr gr Dam, " Rosette," by "Belvidere," 1,706.

G gr gr gr gi- Dam, " Red Rose," by " Waterioo," 2,816.

G gr gr gr gr gr Dam, " Moss Rose," by " Baron," 54.

G gr gr gr gr gr gr Dam, " Angelina," by " Phenomenon," 491.

G gr gr gr gr gr gr gr Dam, " Anna Boleyne," by " Favorite," 252.

G gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr Dam, " Princess," by " Favorite," 252.

G gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr Dam, " Bright Eyes," by " Favorite," 252.

G gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr Dam, " Bright Eyes," (bred by Alex-
ander Hall,) by " Hubbuck," 319.

G gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr Dam, " Bright Eyes," by Snowden
Bull, 612.

G gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gi' gr gi' Dam, " Beauty," (bred by Thos.
Hall,) by Masterman Bull, 422.

G gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr Dam, " Dutchess of Athol,"
by Harrison Bull, 292.

G gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr Dam, " Tripes," (bred by
Mr. Pickering,) by Studley Bull, 622.

G gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gr gi- gr gr gr gi- gr gr Dam was bred by Mr.
Stephenson, of Ketton, in the year 1739.

PREFACE. V

" Essex," the pure bred Ayrshire, owned by Dr. Loring,
is a very superior animal, described in the report of the
committee of the Essex Agricultural Society, on page
244 of this volume. He was out of " Strawberry," an
Ayrshh-e cow, imported by C. A. Stetson, Esq., by a
bull of the importation of Captain Randall, of New
Bedford.

The financial returns of the societies will be found in
the Appendix of my Sixth Annual Report.

C. L. Flint.
Boston, March 25, 1859.

OFFICERS OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES,
1859.

MASSACHUSETTS.

President— GEOUGE W. LYMAN, of Boston.
Secretary— BICHAUD S. FAY, of Boston.

President— DAmBL ADAMS, of Newbury.
feretory— ALLEN W. DODGE, of HamUton,

MIDDLESEX.

President— J OB.'N S. KEYES, of Concord.
Secretary— J OSEFR REYNOLDS, of Concord.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

President— G. C. ESTY, of Framingham.

Secretary— RE^BX ORNE STONE, of Framingham.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

President— 3 OYD^ C. BARTLETT, of Chelmsford.
Secretary—^. J. VARNEY, of LoweU.

WORCESTEB.

President— ^NllAAAM S. LINCOLN, of Worcester.
Secretary— iORl^ A. DANA, of Worcester.

WORCESTER WEST.

Presirfeni— EDWARD DENNY, of Barre.
Secretary— GHKRI^E^ BRIMBLECOM; of Barre.

WORCESTER NORTH.

Preside7it—3K2.EZ FISHER, of Fitehburg.
Secretary— WM. G. WYMAN, of Fitehburg.

WORCESTER SOUTH.

President— O. C. FELTON, of Brookfield.
-Secretary— SAMUEL H. HOBBS, of Sturbridge.

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

President— T. G. HUNTINGTON, of Hadley.
Secretary— II. K. STARKWEATHER, of Northampton.

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETIES. Vll

HAMPSHIRE.

President— WILLIAM P. DICKINSON, of Hadley.
Secretary— JAMES W. BOYDEN, of Amherst.

HAMPDEN.

President— GEORGE BLISS, of Springfield.
Secretary — A. A. ALLEN, of Springfield.

HAMPDEN EAST.

President— J OSEFR RAMSDALE, Jr., of Warren.
Secretary— GEORGE ROBINSON, of Palmer.

FRANKLIN.

President— Z. L. RAYMOND, of Greenfield.
Secretary— J A:MES S. GRENNELL, of Greenfield.

BERKSHIRE.

President— BEN J. F. MILLS, of Williamstown.
Secretary— THOMAS COLT, of Pittsfield.

HOUSATONIC. '

President— B. D. KENDALL, of Stockbridge.
.Secretary— SAMUEL B. SUMNER, of Great Barrington.

NORFOLK.

President— MASB.ALL P. WILDER, of Dorchester.
Secretary— R. O. HILDRETH, of Dedham.

BRISTOL.

President— l^ATUAN DURFEE, of Fall River.
Secretary— LEMUEL T. TALBOT, of Taunton.

PLYMOUTH.

President— CB.AULES G. DAVIS, of Plymouth.
Secretary— WILLIAMS LATHAM, of Bridgewater.

BARNSTABLE.

Presidents. B. PHINNEY, of Barnstable.
Secretary— GEORGE MARSTON, of Barnstable.

NANTUCKET.

President— EDWARD W. GARDNER, of Nantucket.
Secretary— J ORia B. lUNG, of Nantucket.

MARTHA'S VINEYARD.

President— LEAYITT THAXTER, of Edgartown.
^ecretor^— HENRY L. WHITING, of West Tisbury.

EXHIBITIONS OF 1859

Essex, at Dauvers, ...
Middlesex, at Concord, .
Middlesex South, at Framingham,
Middlesex North, at Lowell,
Worcester, at Worcester,
Worcester West, at Barre, .
Worcester North, at Fitcliburg,
Worcester South, at Sturbrldge,
Hamp., Franklin and Hampden,
Hampshire, at Amherst, .
Hampden, at Springfield, .
Hampden East, at Palmer,
Franklin, at Greenfield, ,
Berkshire, at Pittsfield, .
Housatonic, at Great Barrington,
Norfolk, at Dedliam,
Bristol, at Taunton,
Plymouth, at Bridgewater,
Barnstable, at Barnstable,
Nantucket, at Nantucket,
Martha's Vineyard, at West Tisbury,

at 'Northampton

September 28 and 29.
September 28.
September 20 and 21.
September 21.
September 28 and 29.
September 27.
September 29 and 30.
September 28.
September 28 and 29.
October 13 and 14.
September 21 and 22.
October 4 and 5.
September 27 and 28.
October 5, 6 and 7.
September 28 and 29.
September 27 and 28.
September 14 and 15.
October 5 and 6.
October 5 and 6.
October 12 and 13.
October 11 and 12.

AGRICULTURE OF MASSACHUSETTS.

THE DUTIES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF AN
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

From an Address before the Essex County Agricultural Society, Sept. 30, 1858.

BY GEORGE B. LOKING.

It was not simply, gentlemen, to excite a spirit of emu-
lation in the farmers of this county, — it was not to create a
rivalry here which might end in enriching the soil and embit-
tering the people, — it was not to record a chapter of fortunate
accidents, along list of mammoth fruits and monster animals, —
it was not to encourage an ill-regulated and unprofitable strife
for excellence, that our fathers founded this society in which we
take pride, as in a rich inheritance. Do you suppose the wise
and practical patriot and statesman, whose lofty duties in the
service of his country established an intimacy between the
planter of Mount Vernon and the farmer of Wenham, Hon. T.
Pickering, which gave a glowing dawn to our rising republic,
and shed the golden sunset hues of these great lives over Amer-
ican agriculture, had no higher aim than this, when he gave
the first impulse to our foundation ? It was the recorded expe-
rience of more than a quarter of a century which he desired to
accumulate, and we are now living to enjoy the realization of
those hopes with which his mind was filled. His dreams are
our realities. Year after year the work has been going on,
until the farmers of this county have the classics and text-books
of their education in the pages of your Transactions. Here, on
1

2 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

this very soil, those facts have been gathered, wliich are impor-
tant to the daily life of every man wlio dwells upon this same cor-
ner of the earth, and under this same arch of the sky. Could
those men, who, when this society was formed, felt that a clay
farm was a reproach and a stumbling block to agriculture, —
whose chiefest agricultural skill consisted in selecting the
choicest soils, — whose knowledge of manures extended hardly
beyond their own barnyards, — whose surface drainage destroyed
the symmetry of their "meadows and fields," — whose machinery
consisted in the intelligence and untiring industry of the farm
labor of those days, and whose success in agriculture in spite
of all obstacles, should teach us a most encouraging lesson ;
could those men have pondered over the record of under-drain-
ing and deep ploughing, — could they have studied the experi-
ments made with all the fertilizers which sea and land have
furnished from their ample stores, — could they have learned how
labor may be lightened and all farming operations be facilitated
by labor saving machines, — could their thoughts have been
stimulated and instructed by the records of this society, if by
nothing more, would not the dark corners in which they were
groping have been filled with the light of noon-day ?

For I look upon an agricultural society as in the highest
sense an agricultural school, in which all are teachers, and all
are pupils. And in this lies its most important duty. The
best professor of agricultural chemistry, is he who comes em-
browned from the compost heap, which by judicious application
has forced a hundred bushels of corn from each of his well cul-
tivated acres. The best teacher of the art of tilling the soil,
is he who has by long experience become acquainted with the
habits of plants, from their tenderest infancy to the ripened
harvest. The best expounder of agricultiiral truths is he who
has learned by diligence and perseverance, with a liberal and
inquiring mind, what those economies are which give success
to the farmer. The best farmer is he, who while he becomes
intimate with the laws of nature, and learns her mysteries so
far as she will reveal them, has a quick eye for those useful
discoveries and inventions which the ingenuity of man is con-
stantly laying at the feet of agriculture. And herein lies the
great end of agricultural education, get it where you will, from

DUTIES OF AN AGRICULTUKAL SOCIETY. 3

the school, or the club, or from those societies which excite
investigation and experiment by the stimulus of competition.

And it is difficult for agricultural education to go further.
For agriculture has not yet become a fixed science. Men begin
to vaunt themselves upon their success in supplying the human
race with food, wlien a mysterious disease invades one great
staple of their productions, and year after year rolls on without
revealing to the anxious explorer the slightest remedy. One
of the illustrious minds of the age applies the full power of sci-
ence to supplying the deficiencies of every soil, and to furnish-
ing each plant with its own peculiar food, but is finally obliged
to acknowledge that the relation existing between the earth
and the fruits thereof is not to be entirely reached by any
human power.

The science of agriculture is therefore of all sciences the
most uncertain, whenever you would pass beyond the bounds
of actual experience. The details of farming may indeed be
taught. The nse of the implements of husbandry is something
that must be learned. A knowledge of the proper rotation of
crops, and of tlie adaptation of soils to the vegetable kingdom,
comes from teaching and observation. The rules applicable to
tlie proper proportions of animals may be got in the schools.
Building and draining and planting and fertilizing, may all be
instilled into tlie mind, until the student of agriculture may go
forth ready to subdue the hardest soil, and filled with tastes
whicli will make his farm agreeable to the eye, as well as an
addition to the wealth of the community. So far perhaps
agriculture may be made a science. And so far, an agricul-
tural society is capable of furnishing the principles of that
science.

In such a school as this, who are the professors and teach-
ers ? Is not every member who contributes his mite to the
treasury of knowledge ? I have seen a young man in our own
county who by care and diligence and skill and method, has
procured year after year, from soil yielding previously hardly
enough to pay its taxes, a crop of turnips which gave him a
handsome annual income. Is not tliis young man a good
teacher in the science of agriculture ? I have seen one of the
most thriving towns in this section of the State enriched, until
its whole population appears to be elevated above the thought

4 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of want, by a skilful devotion to its onion crop. Have the
farmers of that town no claims to be considered capable pro-
fessors in the school of agriculture ? I have known an old
orchard not far from us, to be brought from a state of almost
hopeless decay and barrenness, to the most abundant bearing,
by patient and continued cultivation. Is not this actual fact,
established here in our own borders, a lesson which every
farmer in this county can learn, and by which he can profit ?
I have admired from my childhood the fruitful fields, and the
agricultural system of an ample farm in one of your towns,
and have learned from it that there is in our own population,
a capacity for farming which is surpassed in no section of our
country. I have thought a better agricultural school than this
farm could not be found. I have before me also, that most
valuable of all citizens, one of what are called the yeomanry
of our country. A farmer, born and educated to his calling,
and filled with determination to discharge his duty well. The
virtues of a New England home gave tone and direction to his
earliest impulses. The sharp and bracing air of his native
hills nerved his arm, and knit his manly frame into that sturdy
symmetry which his destiny demands. Amidst the conflicts
and trials, amidst the joys and sports of the district school, he
laid the foundation of his knowledge, without advancing into
that realm of letters which is beset with the snares of ambi-
tion, and is surrounded by all the temptations which the high
mountains of society are sure to reveal. The great book of
nature lies always open before him, and the relation which
exists between the earth and its cultivator is the first lesson
he learns from its pages. The capacity of his native soil
becomes as familiar to his growing eye as the careworn form
of his industrious father, from whom he learns year by year the
practical business of agriculture. Among the animals of the
farm he walks supreme and applies an \inerring instinct to his
estimate of their quality, and to the work of rendering them
obedient to his will. He learns not only the art of tilling the
earth, but the demands of the community in which he lives ;
and as he advances to that position which he is born to fill, he
finds that the experience of his fathers, and the recorded trials
of his neighbors constitute that science which he is most eager
to learn. As he goes on in life, a busy world responds to his

DUTIES OF AN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 5

inquiries. The agricultural societies, which, in the best farm-
ing countries in the old world and the new, are founded for
the benefit of all men like himself, pour forth their treasures at
his feet. Subjected to his treatment, his ancestral acres unfold
new riches at his hands, and he becomes, as he goes on in
life, the impersonation of successful, economical, progressive
agriculture. Will not this man, as a member of our society,
serve as a teacher of the best truths of agricultural science ?

In estimating as I do, the value of the farmer as a teacher of
agriculture, both in his private capacity and as an active member
of a society, I would not be understood as opposed to agricul-
tural schools and colleges. There is no royal road to learning,
in any of its branches. I have no doubt that a thorough agri-
cultural education would s.ave much misapplied time and labor
and capital. I have no doubt that it would accelerate the pro-
gress of agriculture. I can easily imagine the effect it would
have upon the farming interests of our own county, not only by
the universal influence it would exercise, but by the stimulus
it would give the leading and prominent members of the pro-
fession. It would make the good farmers better, and the poor
ones good. And I can easily understand the advantages which
those practical teachers of agriculture whom I have designated,
might have derived from a thorough knowledge of the general
principles taught in schools, not only by means of the actual
acquirements and the increased wisdom given by culture, but
also by means of that freedom from prejudice and that liberal
spirit of inquiry and progress which lie at the foundation of all
true success, and have enriched and elevated mankind by the
patient toils of invention, and by the brilliant and startling
achievements of discovery, and which education alone can give.

But then, gentlemen, comes the immense power of example.
Why, I can take you to sections of your own county, where
the quiet and unobtrusive efforts of a sagacious, industrious,
prudent farmer have operated like contagion upon all about
him, until he has become one of a community of thriving far-
mers. His well cultivated and fruitful fields, his carefully
pruned orchards laden with fruit, his thrifty and profitable cat-
tle, his well ordered buildings, his walls and fences a protec-
tion to his lands, all lie like an open book before his neighbors,
so that " he who runs may read." His farm is a treatise on

6 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

agriculture which every man can comprehend, and which all
men delight to study. He is every day teaching by example,
and is illustrating, moreover, that view which I have taken
of an agricultural society as one of the best of agricultural
schools.

That this kind of teaching is not in vain, let us look over
this little section of the country which contains the farming
interest represented by this society. Here in Essex county, we
have every kind of industry to tempt us away from agriculture ;
and yet in this county, inclosing four large cities, flourishing
towns, busy villages, with every inducement to neglect the soil,
our people have taken a high stand as intelligent and enterprising
farmers. In the cultivation of root crops and vegetables, we
have not been surpassed, as the premiums awarded at the
last horticultural exhibition in Boston, will testify. The largest
recorded amount of carrots upon an acre were raised in this
very town where I am now speaking. Nowhere has the onion
been cultivated with more skill and profit, than on these fields
directly about us. The application of sea manure of all descrip-
tions to the soil, has been carried to the highest perfection
along our coast. Some of the best experiments in improving
cattle and sheep have been made upon our farms. In horti-
culture and pomology, the names of Cabot, and Manning and
Ives, are quoted as authority. Whoever has heard of the
liberal and energetic President of our Society, knows that at
Lynmere there is a growth of forest trees planted by his hand,
which is almost unequalled as " a thing of beauty," and as a
triumph of skill over a hard and sterile soil. I can show you,
on the shore of Beverly, the best arranged farm buildings that
can be found perhaps in New England, taking them together ;
and you will find there as choice a collection of cows as can
be seen anywhere, and I think decidedly the finest SufFolks
and flock of Dorkings that can be found this side of the royal
farm at Windsor, from whence they came. Not far from us,
overlooking our very sliow ground is a green-house and grapery,
which Mr. Paxton might envy, even among the costly edifices
of his lordly master at Chatsworth. Our experiments in under-
draining have become so extensive, that a manufactory of tiles
has been established in the county. At a trial of mowing
machines during the past summer, on my farm, six different

DUTIES OF AN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. T

inventions were brought upon the ground almost at a day's
warning, and since that time, two others have been sent to me
for introduction to our farmers whb are becoming proverbial
for their enterprise in the use of machinery. We have at
our exhibition to-day, one of only two tedders that have been
imported into this country — a machine, which in the simple
matter of spreading hay, is of inestimable value to every farmer
who would secure this important crop thoroughly, rapidly and
economically.

I will not say that all these agricultural improvements, these
indications of an agricultural ambition among us, have been
brought about by our society ; but I am proud to say there is
not one of them which has not been encouraged by its liberality.
The competition it has excited in mowing machines alone, has
aided in a very great degree, the development of an instrument
of labor from one degree of perfection to another, until our
farmers have the prospect before them of being able to resign
the scythe with all its hard toil, and with the constantly
increasing expense attending its use. And will our horticul-
turists, our breeders of cattle, our reclaimers of waste lands,
our cultivators of field crops, say tliat they have not been
stimulated by our society and enlightened by its publications ?

I consider, therefore, this collection of practical knowledge,
as one of the highest duties our society has to perform. I
would have it continued by every means within our power,
consistent with prudence and economy. I am confident that
by a faithful discharge of this duty, we shall find our whole
farming community advancing in intelligence and prosperity,
and developing those resources which lie hidden in our soil.
And I am encouraged to believe this, when I look abroad and
see what other similar associations have done, and what they
indicate. In England, where agriculture has reached a degree
of perfection unknown elsewhere, the greatest attention is paid
to agricultural societies. The meetings of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society are thronged by an interested crowd of husband-
men, who have felt the effects of this noble institution upon all
their interests. In 1857, the number of visitors to the show
at Salisbury amounted to over thirty-five thousand, all learners
in a school which first roused the English mind to the true
value of artificial manures — to the necessity of under-drainage —

8 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

to the importance of a thorough and careful investigation of
the best method of feeding animals, and to the most successful
modes of cultivation. It is impossible for me to lay before you
all that this society has done to remove the prejudices and
awaken the minds of the English farmers, both by its publi-
cations, and by its exhibitions of machinery which has been
actually used upon the farm, of cattle which have been improved
beyond a doubt in England, of products which high farming
has brought forth upon that very soil. Let me tell you that
one great era in English agriculture dates from the opening of
this society in 1839, when, as has been truly said, " farmers
began to be familiarized with men of science, and men of
science learned not to despise agricultural experience." It
was an era also in our own agriculture, when the establishment
of societies made famers familiar with each other, and opened
their minds to the importance of their occupation.

It belongs to us to cherish by every means in our power, a
fraternity of feeling among our farmers. In this respect, every
form of associated agricultural effort is of the highest impor-
tance. A town that sustains a farmer's club is sure to have its
due proportion of good farmers. "What invaluable allies to a
county society they might be made ! Local fairs cannot be too
highly estimated, both as a means of bringing farmers together,
and also as furnishing an opportunity for purchase, sale and
interchange ; and I trust the day is not far distant when the
judicious recommendation made to you by your President, will
be so far carried out, as to result in the establishment of monthly,
if not weekly fairs, in some convenient location in the county.
Let us in every way create a community of feeling here, a sort
of esprit du corps, a desire to talk with each other, a desire to
trade with each other, a determination to cultivate our own
minds and supply our own markets, and Essex county will soon
become as distinguished for its agriculture, as it now is for
its wealth and enterprise in commerce, manufactures and the
mechanic arts.

Above all things, it is our duty to be in the ordinary term of
rather an uneasy age, sufficiently progressive. When I consider
the alacrity with which every invention and every new branch
of agriculture have been recognized, the liberal rewards which
have been offered for all improvements, the generous consid-

DUTIES OF AN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 9

eration which has been shown careful breeders of our most
valuable farm animals and the attention which has been aroused
by the published essays of the society, I cannot but look with
pride upon an association which seems blessed with perpetual
youth, tempered with the wisdom and judgment of mature
manhood. An agricultural society which has discriminated
between the different uses of the animal kingdom, deserves all
praise. It has a due regard for all the interests which come
under its cognizance. One of its great objects is the encour-
agement of breeding valuable animals for the profit of the
farmer and for the advantage of the community, whether it be
for the dairy, for draught, or for driving. In all this, it is
observant of the most important interests submitted to it, and
is as truly progressive in its recognition of all classes of animals
as it is in the reward it offers the various branches of farming.
It is the legitimate use of animals, and the legitimate growth
of crops with which it is concerned. Our society offers liberal
premiums for bulls — does it follow that we must have a bull-
fight at every annual exhibition ? We all value the horse and
have encouraged the breeding of this important animal with
ample rewards ; will the most intelligent judges among us say
that they require the trials of the track, in order to make up
their decisions ? All these things have their place, but it is not
exactly at a farmers' exhibition. Not that I would have our
society discontinue the liberal encouragement it has always
extended to the development of the American trotting horse,
than which no animal is wiser, more enduring and patient,
more courageous, nor more defiant of all obstacles. Let us, as
a society, encourage still the attention our farmers are giving
those useful animals, and if any man doubts the benefit to be
derived from it, let him witness the extraordinary success one
of our own Essex farmers has met with by the exercise of that
judgment and skill which have enabled him to produce a
Childers, and to fill his stables with a collection of colts une-
qualled as a whole, from which one yearling animal has been
sold at a price greater than was ever before obtained in New
England. Let us do this, and I think we shall bo progressive
enough for the most ardent lover of horse flesh in the country ;
let us continue the encouragement we have always offered the

2

10 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

legitimate improvements of agriculture, and I think wc shall
be progressive enough for the most zealous farmer in the country.

And now, gentlemen, let me say a word with regard to the
opportunities we possess for discharging these duties to which
I have referred. By a long and honorable career, our society has
secured a position, which by elevating its influence multiplies its
chances for effort. I believe you will all agree that it has won
the respect of the farmers of our county, and of the community
generally. It has been deemed worthy of the most liberal
consideration of many of our best citizens. A valuable library
has in this way been collected which furnishes constant oppor-
tunity for reference and information. And a large agricultural
interest has learned to be stimulated by our rewards and
instructed by our advice and counsel.

But above all, our association has been deemed a worthy
recipient of one of the best farms in our county, a legacy
bequeathed to us for the promotion of the science of agriculture.
I think I do not estimate this bequest from Dr. Treadwell too
highly, when I look upon it, not only as a compliment to the
reputation we have won as a society, but as by far the most
valuable means we possess for carrying on the work we have
begun. A farm for experiment and observation — how much
is involved in this design ! Under the care of an intelligent
farmer, and conducted by a competent committee, the accumu-
lation of facts which may be made there, must be full of interest
and instruction. We may learn within our own borders, if we
will, the changes of the seasons, from year to year, the chances of
crops in our latitude, the cultivation best adapted to our soil,
the effects of manures, the expense and benefits of drainage,
the relative value of products, without incurring that expendi-
ture of time and money which renders experimental farming so
hazardous and so generally unprofitable. I trust this golden
opportunity will not be wasted ; and I most earnestly urge upon
you the adoption of a system which shall render the records of
the Treadwell farm an addition to our agricultural literature,
which shall be creditable to ourselves and profitable to those,
who, coming after us, assume our duties and inherit our
opportunities.

THE FARMER AND HIS AIDS. 11

THE FARMER AND HIS AIDS.

From an Address before the Middlesex Agricultural Society, Sept. 29, 1858.

BY RALPH WALDO EMERSON.

Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen: — I suppose there
is no anniversary that meets from all parties, a more entire good
will than this rural festival. Town and country, trader and
manufacturer, clerk and layman, sailor and soldier, men and
women, all have an equal stake in the prosperity of the farmer.
It is well with all when it is well with him. He has no enemy,
and all are loud in his praise. Every wise State has favored
liim, and the best men have held him highest. Cato said, when
it was said that such or such a man was a good husbandman,
it was looked upon as the very highest compliment. Of all
tlie rewards given by the Romans to great public benefactors,
the most valued and the rarest bestowed, was the crown of
grass, given only by the acclamation of the army for the pre-
servation of the whole army, by the valor of one man. Since
the dependence, not of the whole army, but of the whole State,
rests on the tiller of the ground, the arvel crown, the crown of
grass should be more rightfully awarded to the farmer. Let
us then look at the condition of the farmer, or the man with
the hoe, at his strength and weakness, at his aids and servants,
at his greater and lesser means, and his share in the great future
which opens before the people of this country.

The glory of the farmer is that it is his to construct and to
create. Let others borrow and imitate, travel and exchange,
and make fortunes by speed and dexterity in selling something
which they never made, all rests at last upon his primitive
activity. He stands close to nature ; obtains from the earth
bread ; the food which was not, he has caused to be. And this
necessity and duty give the farm its dignity. All men feel this

12 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

to be their natural employment. The first farmer was the first
man, and all nobility rests on the possession and use of land. Men
do not like hard work very well ; but every man has an excep-
tional respect for tillage, and a feeling that this is the original
calling of his race ; that he liimself is only excused from it by
some circumstance which made hiiu delegate it for a time to
other hands. If he has not some skill which recommends him to
the farmer, some product which the farmer will give him corn
for, he must himself return to his due place among the planters
of corn. The profession has its ancient charm of standing
nearest to God, the First Cause. Then the beauty of nature,
the piety, the tranquillity, the innocence of the countryman, his
independence, and all the pleasing arts belonging to him, the care
of bees, of poultry, of sheep, of cows, the dairy, the care of hay,
of fruits, of trees, and the reaction on the workman, in giving
him a strength and plain dignity, like the face and manners of
nature, all men are sensible of. All of us keep the firm in
reserve as an asylum where to hide our poverty and our solitude,
if we do not succeed in society. Who knows how many
remorseful glances are turned this way from the competitions
of the shop and counting-room, from the mortifying cunning of
the Courts and the Senates. After the man has been degraded
so that he has no longer the vigor to attempt active labor on
the soil, yet when he has been poisoned by town life and drugged
by cooks, and every meal is a force-pump to exhaust by stimulus
the poor remainder of his strength, he resolves ; " Well, my
children, whom I have injured, shall go back to the land to be
recruited and cured by that which should have been my nursery
and shall now be their hospital."

The farmer is a person of remarkable conditions. His office
is precise and important, and it is of no use to try to paint him
in rose-color. You must take him just as he stands. Nothing
is arbitrary or sentimental in his condition, and tlierefore one
respects in his office rather the elements than himself. He
bends to the order of the seasons and the weather and the soils,
as the sails of the ship bend to the wind. He makes his gains
little by little, and by hard labor. He is a slow person, being
regulated by time and nature, and not by city watches. He
takes the pace of the seasons, of the plants, and of chemistry.
Nature never hurries, and atom by atom, little by little, accom-

THE FARMER AND HIS AIDS. 13

plishes her work. The lesson one learns in fishing, yachting,
hunting, or in planting, is the manners of nature ; patience
with the delays of wind and sun, delays of the seasons, excess
of water and drought, patience with the slowness of our feet,
and with the littleness of our strength, with the largeness of
sea and land. The farmer, or the man with the hoe, times
himself to nature, and acquires that immense patience which
belongs to her. Slow, narrow man — he has to wait for his food
to grow. His rule is that the earth shall feed liim and find
him, and he must be no large and graceful spender. His
spending must be a farmer's spending and not a merchant's.

But though a farmer may be pinched on one side, he has
advantages on the other. He is permanent ; he clings to his
land as the rocks do. Here in this town, farms remain in
the same families now for seven or eight generations, and the
settlers of 1635 have their names still in town ; and the same
general fact holds good in all the surrounding towns in the
county. This hard work will always be done by one kind of
men ; not by scheming speculators, nor by professors, nor by
readers of Tennyson, but by men of strength and endurance.

The farmer has a great health, and the appetite of health,
and means for his end. He has broad land in which to place
his home. He has wood to burn great fires. He has plenty of
plain food. His milk at least is not watered. He has sleep,
cheaper, and better, and more of it, than citizens. He has
grand trusts confided to him. In the great household of nature,
the farmer stands at the door of the bread-room, and weighs to
each his loaf. It is for him to say whether men shall marry or
not. Early marriages and the number of births arc indisso-
lubly connected with abundance of food, for, as Burke said :
" Man breeds at the mouth." The farmer is the Board of
Quarantine. He has not only the life, but the health of others
in his keeping. He is the capital of health, as his farm is the
capital of wealth. And it is from him and his influence, that
the worth and power, moral and intellectual, of the cities
comes. The city is always recruited from the country. The
men in the cities who are the centres of energy, the driving-
wheels in trade or politics, or arts or letters ; the women of
beauty and genius, are the children or grand-children of farmers,
and are spending tlie energies which their hard, silent life accu-

14 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

miilated in the frosty furrow, in poverty, in darkness, and in
necessity, in the summer's heat and winter's cold. Then he is
a benefactor. He who digs and buikls a well, or makes a stone
fountain ; he who plants a grove of trees by the roadside, who
plants an orchard or builds a durable house, or even puts a stone
seat by the way side, makes the land lovely and desirable, and
makes a fortune which ho cannot carry with him, but which is
useful to his country and mankind long afterward. The man
that works at home moves society throughout the world. If it
be true that not by the fiat of political parties, but by the eternal
laws of political economy, slaves are driven out of Missouri,
out of Texas, out of the Middle States, out of Kentucky,
then the true abolitionist is the farmer of Massachusetts, who,
heedless of laws and constitutions, stands all day in the field
investing his labor in the lajid, and making a product with
which no forced labor can in the long run contend. The rich
man, we say, can speak the truth. It is the boast that was
ever claimed for wealth, that it could speak the truth, could
afford honesty, could afford independence of opinion and action,
and that is the theory of nobility. But understand that it is
only the rich man in the true sense, vrho can do this, — the man
who keeps his outgo within his income.

The boys who watch the spindles in the English factories,
to see that no tln-ead breaks or gets entangled, are called
" minders." And in this great factory of our Copernican globe,
shifting its slides of constellations, tides and times, bringing
now the day of planting, now the day of watering, now the
day of reaping, now the day of curing and storing, the farmer
is the " minder." His machine is of colossal proportions ; the
diameter of the water-wheel, the arms of the lever, the power
of the battery, are out of all mechanic measure ; and it takes
him long to understand its abilities and its working. This
puinp never sucks. These screws are never loose. This machine
is never out of gear. The piston and wheels and tires never
wear out, but are self-repairing. Let me show you then what
are his aids.

Who are the farmer's servants? Not the Irish, no, but
geology, chemistry, the quarry of the air, the water of the
brook, the lightning of the cloud, the castings of the worm,
the plough of the frost, the winds that have blown in the intermi-

TEIE FAHMER AND HIS AIDS. 15

nable succession of years before lie was born ; tbe sun which
has for ao;es soaked the land with light and heat, melted the
earth, decomposed the rocks and covered them with forests,
and accumulated the sphagnum which makes the peat of the
meadow. The students of all nations have in the last years
been dedicating their attention to universal science, and they
have reformed our school-books, and our terminology. The
four quarters of the globe arc no longer Europe, A<ia, Africa,
and America, but Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen.
The four seasons of the year are now Gravitation, Liglit, Heat
and Electricity. Science has been showing how nature works
in regard to the suj)port of marine animals by marine plants.
So nature works on the land — on a plan of all for each, and
each for all. You cannot detach an atom from its holdings, or
strip from it the electricity, gravity and chemic relation, and
leave the atom bare ; it brings with it all its ties. The flame of
fire that comes out of the cubic foot of wood or coal is exactly
the same in amount as the light and heat which was taken
up in sunshine in the formation of leaves and roots, and now
is given out after a hundred thousand years. There lie in the
farm inexhaustible magazines. The eternal rocks have held
their oxygen and lime undiminished and entire as they were.
No particle of oxygen can run away or wear out, but has the
same energy as on the first morning. The good rocks sa^,
" patient waiters are no losers; " we have not lost so much as
a spasm of the power we received.

The earth works for man. It is a machine which yields new
service to every application of intellect. Every plant is a man-
ufactory of soil. In the stem of the plant develo|)ment begins.
The tree can draw on the whole air, on the whole earth, on all
the rolling main. The tree is all suction pipe, imbibing from
the ground by its roots, from the air by its twigs, with all its
might. The atmosphere is an immense distillery, drinking in
oxygen and carbon from .plants, and absorbing the essence of
every solid on the globe. It is the receptacle from which all
things spring, and into which all return. The invisible air
takes form and solid mass. Our senses are sceptics, and only
believe the impressions of the moment. They do not believe
what is demonstrated to them — that these vast mountain chains
are made of gases and rolling wind. They do not believe what

IG MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

is true, that one-half of the weight of the rocks which compose
the crust of the globe, of every solid substance, of the houses,
of the stones of the pavement, of the soils we cultivate, and
much more than half by weight of all living animals and plants,
consists of oxygen. Nature is as subtle as she is strong. Her
processes of decomposition and reconstruction might be followed
out in higher grades of existence, rank into rank, to sentient
beings. They burn with internal fire which wastes while it
works. The great agencies work in man as in all.

There is no porter like gravitation, who will bring down any
weight which you cannot carry, and if he wants aid, he knows
where to find his fellow-laborers. Water works in masses,
and sets his irresistible shoulder to your mills and your shops,
or transports vast boulders of rock a thousand miles. But its
far greater power lies in its capacity to enter the smallest holes
and pores. By its agency the vegetable world exists, carrying
in solution the elements needful to every plant. Water, that
daily miracle — a substance as explosive as gunpowder — the
electric force contained in a drop of water being equal in
amount to that which is discharged from a thunder-cloud. I
quote from the exact Faraday.

While the farmer has these grand fellow-laborers to assist
him, and these majestic tools to work with, it must be owned
that he is not quite competent to their direction. His servants
are sometimes too strong for him. His tools are too sharp.
But this inequality finds its remedy in practice. Experience
gradually teaches him, and he is thoughtful. The farmer hates
innovation ; he hates the hoe till he tries it, preferring to
scratch with a stick ; he will walk till he has tried the railway
car ; but the oldest fogy among us, now that the Atlantic Cable
is laid to London, will not send a man to swim across with his
letter in his mouth. While such great energies are working
for the farmer, he is also taught the great power that is in
small things. It is very little that is required. 'Tis wonderful
the force of a few simple arrangements. Look at the powers
of a chestnut rail. Then see that prairie, hundreds of miles
off, not a stick or a stone upon it, except at rare intervals.
Well, the farmer manages to put up a rail fence, and at once
seeds sprout and crops rise. It was only the browse and fire
that kept them down. Plant a fruit tree by the roadside and

THE FARMER AND HIS AIDS. 17

it will not produce, although it receives many hints from pro-
jected stones and sticks, that fruit is desired to come down, and
though it has heen swallowed crude into the robust bowels of
small boys. But draw a low fence about it to keep out the cow
and pig, and for thirty, forty, perhaps a hundred years, it ripens
peacefully its delicate fruit, every pear, every nectarine, every
cluster of grapes, inviting you to have its picture taken, before
being sent to the Horticultural Fair.

Nature drops a pine cone in Mariposa, and it grows three or
four centuries, producing trees thirty feet in circumference.
How was it done ? They did not grow on a ridge, but in a
basin, where they found a deep and dry soil, and Avhere they
could protect themselves from the sun by growing in groves,
and from the winds by the mountain shelter. The planter who
saw tliem, remembered his orchard at liome, where every year
a destroying wind made his pears and peaclies look as bleak as
suffering virtue. So he went iiome and built a high wall on
the exposed side of his orchard, and his peaches grow to the
size of melons, and his vines ran out of all control.

Nay, the chemist declares that he will have a whole farm in
a box a rod square ; that is to say, he will take the roots into
his laboratory ; the vines and stems and stalks may be sprawl-
ing about the field outside ; he will attend to the roots in his
tub, and gorge them with food that is good for them. If they
have a fancy for dead dog, he would let them have it, sure that
the fruits would never reveal the secrets of tlieir table. Such
men we need to bring out a greater degree of cultivation of our
soil, which is capable of as great and increased productiveness
as that which England has attained. Concord is one of the
oldest towns in the country, — far on now in its third century.
The selectmen have once in five years perambulated its boiuids,
and yet in this year a very large quantity of land has been dis-
covered and added to the agricultural land, and without a
murmur of complaint from any neighbor. By drainage, we
have gone to the subsoil, and we have a Concord under Con-
cord, a Middlesex under Middlesex, and a basement story of
Massachusetts more valuable than all the superstructure. Tiles
are political economists. Tliey are so many Young Americans
announcing a better era, and a day of fat things. Tliere has
been a nightmare brought up in England, under the indiges-

18 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

tion of the late suppers of overgrown landlords and loomlords,
that men bred too fast for the powers of the soil, that men
multiplied in a geometrical ratio, whilst corn only in an arith-
metical. The theory is that the best land is first taken up.
This is not so, as Henry Carey, of Philadelphia, has shown, for
the poorest land is the first cultivated, and the last lands are
the best lands. It needs science to cultivate the best lands in
the best manner. Every day a new plant, a new food is found.
Thus political economy is not mean, but liberal, and on the
pattern of the sun and sky ; it is coincident with love and hope.
It is true that population increases in the ratio of morality, and
the crops will increase in a like ratio.

I congratulate the farmer of Massachusetts on his advantages.
I congratulate him that he is set down in a good place, where
the soil and climate yield a larger Flora than any other. A
greater variety of important plants grow here than in any south-
ern or northern latitude. We are on the northern boundary
of many tropical trees, and on the southern boundary of the
arctic plants. We can raise almost all crops, and if we lack
the orange and palm, we have the apple, and peach, and pear.
In Illinois, it is often said, although it is more the voice of their
scorn than of their piety, that they reckon it a singular leading
of Divine Providence that Massachusetts was settled before the
prairie was known, else it would never have been settled. But
the Massachusetts farmer may console himself that if he has
not as rich a soil, he has the advantage of a market at his own
door, the manufactory in the same town. I congratulate you,
then, on this advantage of your position. Next, I congratulate
you on the new territory which you have discovered, and not
annexed but sub-nexed to Middlesex and to Massachusetts. I
congratulate you at being born at a happy time, when the old
slow Avays of culture must go out with the sharp stick and the
bow and arrow, when the steam-engine is in full use, and new
plants and new culture are daily brought forward. I congrat-
ulate you on the fact that the year that has just witnessed the
successful employment of new machines, of the mower and
reaper, on the plains and prairies, has also witnessed the laying
of the Atlantic Cable. The cable is laid, and the courage of
man is confirmed. All that used to look like vagary and
castle-buildino; is to be solid sense henceforth. Who shall ever

THE FARMER AND HIS AIDS. 19

dare to say impossible again? Henceforth, if a thing is really
desirable, it is in that degree really practicable, and the farm
you have dreamed of — go instantly and begin to make it. I
congratulate you lastly, on the new political economy which
takes off the crape from farms and towns and nations, and lets
in the light on all we do and all we gain, and teaches that
whatever is really good and useful for one man to do, is good
and useful for all.

20 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

THE FARMER AND THE MAN.

From an Address before the Middlesex North Agricultural Society, Sept. 15, 1858.

BY FREDERIC HINCKLEY.

There are three ends which the labor of the farmer, like all
other labor, has no answer. The first of these is to secure the
Means of Living. A grand essential for the accomplishment of
any thing in life is, of course, the continuance and support of
life itself. Viewed in this light, regarding existence as deriving
its value from the purposes it accomplishes, all effort for its
preservation and enlargement becomes justifiable and praise-
worthy. It is the different way of looking at life, in this
respect, which makes much of the contrast between the plodder
or the sensualist on the one hand, and the man of energy,
enterprise and nobleness on the other. One is content but to live,
with such pleasures as his unrefined, uncultivated capabilities
enable him to appreciate ; and to him life becomes a pure
selfishness, or an unmitigated drudgery. The living, or the
struggle for it, exhausts all his energies ; and so he plods on,
like the horse he rides, or the ox he goads to his daily toil,
content to work and eat and sleep as they ; with no ambition
beyond this incessent labor, no aim but his daily fill, his animal
living. While the other, valuing life for the uses to which it
can be put — not only for the enjoyment that can be had from
it, but for the good that may be done with it — finds himself
stimulated by that to greater and more successful endeavors for
the maintenance of life itself, and what is more, inevitably
rises to the cherishing of a higher purpose in his toil.

Among these higher purposes is the second end of all labor,
viz. : Success in one^s avocation. By this I do not mean success
in making money in it, but in exalting the character of the
workmanship, perfecting the products of the labor. There is

THE PARMER AND THE MAN. 21

an ambition, whose nature and action you very well understand,
(for your presence and interest in this exhibition show that you
are actuated by it,) which would make the work, whatever it
may be, the very best of its kind. Whatever it undertakes, it
does thoroughly ; does in the best manner, and carries to the
highest results. You remember the reply of the Boston million-
aire, of the last generation, to the taunt — " I knew you when
you were nothing but a drummer boy." " DidnH I drum
well ? " The doing it well — that is all that is necessary to make
the humblest occupation honorable. To do it well — that is the
true ambition for every worker, in field or factory, in shop or
store, in church, court or congress ; whether he raise corn or
spin cotton, peg shoes or drive bargains, write sermons, offer
pleas, or make speeches. It is this ambition which gives us
eloquent preachers, distinguished lawyers, popular physicians,
eminent merchants, enterprising mechanics. And, gentlemen,
it is this ambition that gives us the successful farmer and the
model farm ; that begets the pleasant and profitable rivalry of
labor and production, which spurs each one on to do his best ;
that annually exhibits, side by side, the results of this competi-
tion, stimulating to greater efforts and to better achievements ;
that multiplies agricultural societies in every county in the state
and that leads the members of these associations to search out,
to commend to each other and adopt every new improvement,
of method or machinery, that can help them to the accomplish-
ment of their desire. Without this ambition we should have
had none of these things. The husbandman would have been
a lonely plodder in the way of his fathers, pursuing, year after
year, the same unenlightened course of labor, till his fields
become exhausted, his orchards die out, his crops diminish, his
energies flag, while nothing increases but his burdens and his
cares.

But there is yet another and higher end of labor; a nobler
purpose which every man's avocation should serve. Not to give
him a living merely, not to inspire him with an ambition to do
his best in his work ; that is not all that a man's calling should
do for him. But I say that, besides all this, his calling must do
more for him — more than to feed and clothe him, or to honor
hira by his success in it. It must quicken his thought, enlarge

22 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

his conceptions, exalt his aims, strengthen his character, make
liim a wiser, a better and a nobler man.

The highest end, therefore, which every avocation has to
serve, is the Manhood of its subject ; a strong, thoughtful, sym-
pathetic, upright and reverend manhood. For it is not age that
makes a man. It is the full expansion and exercise of all the
faculties of his nature. This expansion and exercise is the true
end and aim of life. To serve that end, to secure this result,
all social, educational, religious influences are to minister, each
working in its own domain. Tlie very calling a man pursues
helps on this result. If as farmer, worker, trader, physician,
jurist, statesman, or preacher, he is not, through the very
agencies and activities of his avocation becoming a truer and
nobler man, then has his avocation failed of accomplishing its
highest end. It may have brought abundance. It may have
conferred the honors of success. But, if with these it has
narrowed and belittled the man, withered his social nature,
dwarfed his mental and moral stature, (for if it have not
expanded it must have contracted his spiritual being,) then in
its highest purpose has it proved itself a miscarriage and a
failure.

Now it seems to me, looking off from my point of observation
upon the various departments of labor, that there is none more
favorable to manly growth, a broad, generous development of
nature's powers, than that of the cultivator of the soil. It
seems to me that agriculture in a special and direct sense ought
to minister to a real manhood, such as we have described: that
through the farmer should come, most efficiently, the fullest
outgrowth of the man. It is not that in his calling there are
no hindrances, or retarding influences. For every calling has
these, though in differing degrees. Yet the farmer's, I think,
has less than many others, while its favoring influences are in
some respects greater than those of other forms of toil.

Let me call your attention to some of the elements of man-
hood, which an agricultural life either directly fosters and pro-
motes, or to some extent involves and introduces.

I. First and most palpable of these is physical vigor. The
value of a robust constitution, bodily energy, the power of
endurance, and of effort, which health and strength impart, can
hardly be overestimated. They arc the first essential of man-

THE FARMER AND THE MAN. 2g'

hood. Upon these alone can the structure of a manly life be
successfully reared. On those alone can it stand firm and per-
manent. You may build into the life splendid talents, personal
refinement, social culture, high purposes ; but without the
broad and strongly compacted support of physical vigor, your
creation ere long falls to pieces. Many a young man whose
early years liave been spent in mental application, to the exclu-
sion of all physical culture — perhaps one of those whom foolish
fondness, deeming too feeble for the farm, sends to college —
when about to go out into life, crowned with the highest edu-
cational honors, has found that life suddenly cut off, and him-
self crossing the threshhold of his study, only to step into his
grave. Many a toiler with head and brain in professional and
even in mercantile life, to-day, if promised his first wish, would
reply, give me health and strength, and with the willing spirit
no longer hampered by the feeble flesh, I will accomplish my
best ambition.

It is your happy lot, gentlemen, to follow a calling that more
than any other directly and effectually supplies this first element
of a worthy life — counting life's worth always by what it can
accomplish. There are other kinds of manual toil indeed ;
and all such toil tends in some measure to the development of
the body. But not all alike. Some of these call into exercise
only certain portions of the body ; hence their physical results
are partial. Others, through their method or material, exert a
counteracting, deleterious influence. Hence it is in some of
the mechanical occupations that human life is the shortest.
Thus from official documents of our own State, whose record
runs through a period of nearly thirteen years, it appears that
printers, machinists, painters, and tailors stand at tlie lowest
average of life — the two former dying at thirty-six and thirty-
seven, the two latter at forty-two years of age. The reason for
this is evident, viz. : the indoor confinement and the inhalation
of irritating or poisonous substances from the material of their
work. At the head of the list, of which these occupations form
the foot, stand the farmers, attaining the highest average, sixty-
four years ; going far towards doubling the life of the printer,
living seven years longer than lawyer or minister, ten years
longer than the doctor, and nearly thirteen years longer thaii

24 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

tlie blacksmith, whose avocation is usually referred to as espe-
cially illustrative of the beneficial effects of manual labor.

Such is the influence of the farmer's work on the physical
life. It gives the longest lease of life. Qf course it is equally
productive of physical health and vigor.

That it has reached the limit of its power I do not believe.
That the life of the Massachusetts farmer is capable of being
yet more extended and physically invigorated, seems to me as
clear as that the average length and enjoyment of human life at
large are continually increasing under the more peaceful state
and higher purposes of advancing civilization. Just as far as
he is stimulated by a worthy ambition in his toil — an ambition
that regards the toil only as the means to something higher, and
therefore not a master to which he is to be enslaved, and by
whom he is to be worked to the last point ef endurance, but
an helpful servant of his aims — will he find the physical bene-
fits of that toil multiplied in himself. When he has learned,
with clear judgment and good sense, to hit the golden mean
between idleness and drudgery, then shall he realize not only
a stronger power of endurance, but a greater energy of enter-
prise, from the calling he so wisely serves.

II. A second element of manhood is found in mental activ-
ity, the presence and the energy oi mind. To this result farm-
ing may not lead quite as palpably, with as much directness,
or in as great measure, as to the physical. But it more or less
involves this, and may be made to promote it quite as effectu-
ally. It would hardly be possible, I think, even with him who
has no higher aim than just to get his living from the soil, to suc-
ceed in his purpose without the occasional exercise of reflection,
the necessary use of contrivance and plan. All this involves
thought, the introduction of mind into his labor. Let him rise
to a liigher aim, that of enlarging and perfecting the results of
his toil — improving the quality and increasing the quantity of
his crops ; let his be the ambition for excellence, superiority in
his calling, and inevitably his thought must be as active as his
labor. So much of mental activity, therefore, does his calling
directly develop.

And here I say most distinctly and emphatically, that a
true farmer is not only a working but a thinking man ; he
seeks to comprehend the principles of his occupation. H^rises

THE FARMER AND THE MAN. 25

above the simple practice of it as an art, to the study of it as a
scicDce. I know the sneering contempt sometimes cast upon
scientific agriculture, book-farming, and all that. But I do not
think you are here to-day to sympathize with that sneer. For
you understand that science is, so to speak, but the reason of
things. I hold, and you will agree with me in this, that the
farmer should have a reason for the methods he pursues and
be able distinctly and clearly to justify them thereby, as much
as a mathematician should be able to show the explanation of
the problem he solves. The difference between a practical and
a scientific or thinking farmer is precisely the same as the dif-
ference between a school boy who " does his sum" after a
certain way because the rule says so, and the scholar who not
only knows Iwiv it is to be done, but can tell you luhy it is
so done. The composition and capacity of soils, the constitu-
ents and demands of plants, the habits of bird and insect, the
action of the elements, the qualities and treatment of the vari-
ous kinds of stock, the best implements, methods, arrangements
for planting, cultivating, harvesting, and preserving — these and
numerous other points, which you can at once supply, open
themselves to him who would be a successful farmer. The
moment he undertakes to play a part worthy of his vocation,
do all these subjects present themselves for him to inquire into,
and from which he may gain knowledge, to guide him in his
labor, and multiply and elevate its results. For such inquiry
he must use all proffered helps, let him accept the services of
every guide that is ready to clear the way before him. For
him learned men, skilled in all the sciences have written ;
geologists, chemists, botanists, entomologists. For him men
of means and leisure have experimented, and proclaimed the
result of their experiments. Let him take the information thus
given out, and with careful discrimination and wise judgment,
apply it to his own purposes.

I have said so mucli of thought in your avocation that I can
give but a word of thought beyond it. No man should ever
allow himself to be shut up in his calling. No matter what his
calling may be, it is too narrow for him to be confined in it. A
world of other interests and other men are all about him. He
should keep abreast of that world as it marclics on. Its suc-
cessive steps of progress in material ability and enjoyment, in

4

26 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

education, literature, arts, science, morals, politics, religion, all
these he should mark. All this applies to the farmer just as
much as to any other man. It is as much within his accom-
plishment. Nay, he has advantages for this which others do
not possess. Many a quiet hour for reading and reflection may
be had in his country retirement, which merchant and mechanic,
in the excitement and rushing enterprise of town and city life,
find it difficult to command.

Out of this mental activity comes a twofold result. First, it
lightens the daily toil, makes it less a burden and a drudgery.

Man is so constituted as to require variety, exchange of labor.
It is this which he needs quite as much as absolute repose.
This passing from exercise of body to that of mind, and from
field work, or domestic cares, to quiet thought and mental
culture, not only brings its own direct results in knowledge and
enjoyment, but reacts upon the daily labor, making it less a
routine and a monotony, adding interest and infusing into it
encouragement and hope.

The second effect of mental activity is to ennoble the labor
with which it is connected. There is no dignity in mere toil.
Nor is there any disgrace in it. Toil in itself alone has neither
merit nor demerit. That comes of the spirit that actuates it,
the ends it seeks. In other words, it is in the man, and not the
work. The more manly qualities he carries into it, the more
manly or noble will be his toil. Of these manly qualities,
prominent is the one which we have been speaking, the presence
of mind ; a mind always open to all wisdom, able to appreciate,
apt to employ it, prompt to turn that wisdom to its purposes, and
persevering to press it to its last applications ; a mind that
precedes and penetrates and directs the labor, making it efficient,
comprehensive, beneficent. Such are the workings and results
of mental activity in your calling. And out of it flows social
sympathy through your Agricultural Societies, and in many
other channels to bless yourself and your neighbors.

III. There are three reasons why the tiller of the soil should
be moved to cultivate social sympathy — why his avocation should
develop it in him. First, is the freedom from competition atten-
dant on his occupation. The amount of your returns does not
depend upon that of your neighbor. That his fields yield
abundantly does not a whit lessen the productiveness of your

THE FARMER AND THE MAN. 27

own. Between your success and liis there need be no clashing.
Nay, in many ways you can assist and help each other. Second,
is the fact that the products of your labor minister most directly
to human life. For its continuance that life is dependent on
your labors. Agriculture is the base and support of all industry,
and therefore ought to be on friendly terms with all. In this
feeling all engaged therein should individually participate.
And third, is the beneficent relation which you hold to mankind.
" He is a benefactor to his race who makes two blades of grass
to grow where but one grew before." Whatever improvement
you introduce, or progress you make, tending to increase the
quantity, quality and variety of the fruits of the earth, is a
direct enlargement of the comfort and enjoyment of your fellow
men.

IV. But not only sympathy with humanity, but sympathy
with nature, is to be cherished — that sympathy which shows
itself in the love and appreciation of the 6eaM^i/w/, with which
nature abounds. It has been perhaps a very common impres-
sion that the farmer has to do with uses, and not with beauty ;
and certainly in many cases that could have been, possibly can
now be, found, the whole aspect of his farm, his neglected
barns, his unpainted, unadorned dwelling, his coarse, unculti-
vated family, show too plainly that the farmer has discarded
the beauty and left it entirely out of his plan of life. Yet there
is no condition that has naturally such a complete envelopment
of the beautiful as his. There is no man so continually met
by it as he. No beauty in the farmer's life ! Go through your
exhibition halls and mark not alone the tinted flowers, but the
ripened fruits, that have grown beneath your eye and the
culture of your hand, and bid men match if they can in any
other workmanship the external attractiveness whicli these
present. The " fruit and flower pieces," on which artists of
every grade devote their genius and their skill — of these you
possess the originals. Landseer and Bonheur may paint animal
life in its finished grace and strength ; but your ploughing match,
your cattle show, your trotting course, gives you not the imita-
tion but the reality. They may attract admiring eyes with
their picturesque and pleasing groupings on canvas ; but the
living group, which they but copy, it is yours to see every day.
It seems to me that the farmer, above all other men, should

28 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

have the love of the beautiful developed in him, and that in
all things pertaining to his life he should show that love ; that
neatness and order should preside over his farm, in all its
arrangements, even to his cattle yard and pig pen ; that taste
should construct his dwelling and make it attractive without
and within, adorning its grounds with flowers and its walls wifli
works of art ; that culture, refinement, personal graces, aye,
the lady-like accomplishments of life, should add their attrac-
tion to the homelier merits of wife and daughter. Possibly, if
the farmer's home were thus made more beautiful, its influence
might be greater over the sons to keep them in their father's
calling.

V. In all true Manhood is there a moral element also. It is
this that gives independence and integrity. These are qualities
which find in your sphere of life encouragement and help.
The farmer is his own master. He has no party to serve. He
is one of the sovereigns. He has no favors to ask ; no offices,
tariffs, bounties to beg. These things helping others, may
indirectly help him. But he does not depend upon them. He
need not sue and cringe, and debase himself for one of them.
Nor are his interests at war with the higher elements of his
being, his judgment, or his conscience. His work, the obtain-
ing of a sure living through it, requires not the sacrifice or the
subjection of these elements. Thus it is given to him, if he
will, to maintain his individual freedom and to stand fast in his
conscious integrity.

VI. The crowning element and finish of the true man is
religious faith — a reverent recognition of God, of his pres-
ence and operations. " An undevout astronomer is mad." An
unadoring farmer is a brute, fit only to herd with the cattle of
his stall.

Such are some of the elements of manhood, the high end
which every man's calling should serve ; which your calling
fosters and may more efficiently promote : physical vigor, mental
activity, social sympathy, love of the beautful, moral integrity,
religious faith.

COMMON SENSE IN FARMING. 29

TASTE AND COMMON SENSE IN FARMING.

From an Address before the Middlesex South Agricultural Society, Sept. 22, 1858.

BY EMORY WASHBURN.

Every man seems to carry around with him a kind of moral
thermometer, in the guise which he chooses to wear, by which
other men instinctively settle the rank and place in the scale
of humanity to whicli he should be assigned. In one man we
detect at once the snug and careful husbandman. No matter
if his garb is coarse, it is sviitablc and orderly, and in his per-
son always clean and wholesome ; he bears himself as if he had
something in himself worth taking care of. In another, we see
la man out at the elbows, slovenly in his habits, lounging in his
gait, and repulsive in his address. It is not a diiference in
wealth, or education, or family, that makes the contrast, but
something deeper and more essential.

Grant, if you please, that a man may be a good citizen and a
kind neighbor and yet live with everything in a muss around
him. But who ever went by such a man's door, without setting
him down, if he did not know him, as a coarse and vulgar man,
or a lazy and shiftless one ?

On the other hand, no matter how humble may be its roof,
or plain and unadorned its exterior, if one sees neatness and
order around a farmer's dwelling, with a clean green yard in
front, and it may be, a tree of his own planting in one corner,
and a rose or a lilac in another, he goes to it in the assurance
of meeting a civil welcome, and if he needs a kindness, that it
will be cheerfully bestowed. And when was a civil man
ever disappointed in asking a favor at tlie door of such a farm
house ?

If a man wants to see his own influence, and to know some-
thing of the power which every man unconsciously exercises,

30 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

(let him try the experiment in his own farm. Let him expend
a little taste in the matter of his fences, in planting now and
then a shade tree, in clearing up old baulks of their brush, and
giving up to his wife and daughters a corner of his garden,
instead of planting it with cabbages and potatoes, and he will
ere long see his own taste reflected in more than one of the
farms in his neighborhood. Let me tlien insist, in the first
place, that every farmer should cultivate habits of neatness and
order in the management of his house, his garden, and his
farm. It will not only make liim a better citizen and a better
neighbor, but a better and a happier man. And above all, it
will make him a better husband and father. It cliimes in with
the natural taste for refinement and neatness of his wife and
daughters. It tends to keep his sons at home by making the
business of husbandry more attractive, and sheds over his home
and his whole establishment the spirit of harmony and content
which he would look for in vain outside of the magic circle
within which lie lives. Even in .an economical point of view,
this sul)ject has an importance that one is too apt to overlook.

It is common with luany to regard every thing ornamental in
farming as something beyond their sphere — to be indulged in
only by fancy farmers — whereas nothing is a greater mistake.
In judging of the value of a farm, men look at its fitting up
quite as much as upon the mere crops it can produce.

Let no man say that this may all be very well for those who
can afford it, but that he has so much to do he cannot find the
time or means for indulging in matters of taste and refinement.
Not time ! Can't afford ! If he would only stop a moment,
and reflect upon it, he would see that he could not afford not
to do it. Suppose he should devote a spare half hour of a
foggy morning, or a lowery afternoon, now and then, to break-
ing up for his fire the old wheels and broken carts and sleds
that lie scattered about his premises, or in splitting up for use
the knots and pieces of old logs in his door yard, or in raking
up the dirt and chips which accumulate there, into piles for
burning, or compost to lay around his trees, — suppose in this
way, a sweet green turf should take the place of the rubbish,
the burdocks, and the poison hemlock that gives such a sickly
look and smell to the roadsides and door yards of so many
farmers, and he should then offer his farm for sale in the mar-

COMMON SENSE IN FARMING. 31

ket, does any one doubt that he would get price enough addi-
tional to repay him for this expense an hundred fold ?

Let him do more. Let him, in the early spring, or along
during the autumn, now and then dig up and bring from his
wood lot a graceful young elm, or ash, or maple, and plant it
in front of his house, or by the road-side against his own lands,
and after a few years, when nature shall have done the rest,
and its branches shall have sprouted and spread, and it shall
have put on its summer livery of green, and the birds come
and sing and build their nests in its top, let him sit down in its
shade and carefully count up its cost, and then ask himself if
he would allow it to be cut down for the paltry sum he may
have expended in the labor of rearing it ? But I pass from
being a neat and tasteful farmer, to the importance of being a
common sense one.

In no department of the business of the country is this qual-
ity of sound common sense more needed than in that of
husbandry. It is by no means opposed to what is called
" book-farming," nor hostile to the theories and experiments of
the fancy farmer. It furnishes the only sure test by which to
try and see how many of these are worth pursuing.

Suppose we test it by the article of neat stock — one of the
great and leading staples of husbandry in New England. The
notions of men upon this subject have been, and still are,
singularly unsettled. There have been treatises enough made
upon Short Horns and Long Horns, about Durhams and Devons
— Ayrshires and Alderneys — how one excels in flesh, another
for draught, another for milk, another for all these combined —
of the red color of the one, the light color of another, and the
pied and parti-colored spots of the third, to confound the judg-
ment of any ordinary man, and to have put old Jacob himself
had he been obliged to listen to them, to doubting whether
his ring-streaked and speckled flock were worth the trick they
cost him.

Now no man can have all these races, and breeds, and varie-
ties upon any one of our moderate sized farms. Amidst such
conflicting testimony no one knows which to choose, and so the
farmer either keeps on in his old way, or mixes a little of one
new kind this year, and a little of another the next, till his
stock is made up at last of good, bad, and indifferent, just where

32 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

he began. He trusted to breed and to blood, and laid aside his
common sense, and nature fell back, as she always will do in
matters of agriculture, to the point from which she started,
where science and art fail to come to her aid.

The origin of the varieties. in the races and breeds of domes-
tic animals lies beyond the limits of our research. But it
doubtless depends very much upon the accidental circumstances
of soil, climate, and food, or on all these combined. And what
is more remarkable, these accidental peculiarities and charac-
teristics, however caused, are transmitted and perpetuated by
descent from one generation to another. We see it in man as
well as in animals of a lower grade. It was upon this hint that
Bakewcll, some one hundred and fifty years ago, conceived the
notion of improving the English breeds of sheep and cattle.
And it was by carrying out tliis idea into practical agriculture,
that Colling and his coadjutors, at a later period, achieved a
revolution in stock culture whicli has added untold millions to
the wealth of England and the world. Now, that our own far-
mers might practise upon this hint, is too plain for argument.

But whoever hopes to bring up the character of our farm
stock to the standard of that of England, by depending upon
importation alone, mistakes, most obviously, the, first element
of success. Our climate is different, the food upon which they
feed is different, and one might as well expect to change the
thin, nervous, wiry Yankee race into the shape and phlegm of
John Bull — who feeds on Smithfield beef and London porter —
by now and then importing a family of Cockneys or burly York-
shire-men, and feeding them upon poor coifee and half-baked hot
rolls for breakfast, as to have a thorough-bred race of American
animals, by any other means than improving such as have been
acclimated here. So far, however, from this being a cause for
discouragement, it furnishes a strong incentive to effort and
exertion on the part of our stock-growers. The same physical
laws of improvement in races, apply on this as on the other
side of the Atlantic.

We have already a seemingly infinite variety of shades and
mixtures of races and breeds of animals which have become
hardy and acclimated. And who can doubt that by the same
care in selecting from these for propagation, the same caution
in respect to crosses, and the same regard for the health and

COMMON SENSE IN FARMING. 83

comfort of our animals in the matter of food and shelter which
the stock growers of England employ, we should have breeds
and races as valuable to us as theirs are to them?

The principle which I have been advocating, may be applied
in a great variety of ways. It calls for habits of observation
and discrimination on the part of the farmer, and rewards him
while it furnishes sources of rational entertainment and amuse-
ment. Let him study the qualities of the soils of which his
farm is composed, and ascertain, by reading, and inquiry, and
cheap experiment, for what kinds of crops, or trees, or grasses
they are best suited. He need not go to college nor to Ger-
many to do this, nor study the hard names which profound
chemists give to very homely, every-day things.

It is not a little singular, that in a matter involving so much
science as that of agriculture, there should have been such an
aversion to " book-learning " in the popular mind. We find it in
nothing else. No man hesitates to ask the doctor what he may
give his children for food, or what he may himself apply by the
way of a restorative, when he feels poorly. But the idea of
resorting to science to know what food he shall give to his
springing crop, or what he shall do to restore the wasted ener-
gies of his once productive field, has been a standing subject
for jeers and ridicule by what are called " practical " farmers.

It is, indeed, a modern discovery, that different plants require
different kinds of food for their growth, and that these are to
be sought in the soil in which they are planted, and the air by
which they are surrounded. And that if the proper elements
of the growth and perfection of a vegetable are not contained
in the soil in which it is planted, it is worse than idle to attempt
to force it to grow there.

And it is even a more modern triumph of science to be able,
as the organic chemist will, to take a spadeful of earth from a
man's field, and pick out and separate, and make palpable to
the senses, the several ingredients of earth and alkalies, and
salts and gases, of which it is composed, and to tell with as
much certainty whether nature could, out of the compound
before him, elaborate the clover leaf, or the flax fibre, or the
wheat kernel, as you could tell whether you could spin a thread
of cotton or wool from a handful of soft, white, fibrous sub-
5

34 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

stancG which you may have taken from a bale which had no
name inscribed upon it.

I am not proposing that every farmer should hire a chemist,
or set up a laboratory upon his estate, in order to know what
liis soil will produce. He has got a cheaper and less fallible
test in the seed that he sows. If the little capillary mouths
and stomachs of the springing plants find food, and if it is
there they will find it, they will grow. And if it is not there,
they Yvill starve and die. And no farmer needs a chemist to
tell him this. The Priest in the story understood this, thoi\gh
he never read a page of Liebig's chemistry. When going his
annual round to bless the fields of his parishioners with his
prayers, he came to one whose crop seemed starved and poverty-
struck, and he exclaimed at once, " this field don't want
praying — it needs manuring." He knew that Providence does
not waste its miracles upon the starveling crop of a shiftless
farmer. And this brings me to my nest topic, and that is the
economics of farming.

It seems to me that the popular notions upon this subject
must undergo a good deal of modification, if we ever expect to
be a contented or independent community, or hope to save
New England from being gradually depopulated of that class
of practical farmers which has supplied so much of its best
muscle and sinew. There is such a go ahead spirit at work
among us, such an eagerness to better our condition in a
moment, such a restlessness while we see any body better off
than ourselves, that we rarely stop to examine whether we are
really well off or not.

One of the hardest lessons which a young man has to learn
is, not to despise the day of small things. One man goes out
of a village to the city, and, by a fortunate run of good luck in
trade, heaps up his thousands in a few years, and becomes the
envy of all his country cousins and neighbors. Another takes
his course to the West, and by a fortunate pitch upon some
quarter section near a future county seat or embryo city, turns
up, after a short time, a rich land-owner. And straightway,
the whole village is ready to start for Boston or New York, or
the Great West, in confident expectation that every body and
any body can grow rich if they only could be in the right spot.
They forget, or will not heed, the fate or experience of a score

COMMON SENSE IN FARMING. 35

of others who went to the same city, or spread themselves over
the same West, from the same village, and have failed or have
never been heard from. Ever since Noah saw the first bow in
the cloud, men have been ready to start in a race for the pot of
money which the legend has buried at its foot. And this
universal passion of the race, seems to be especially intensified
in every one that has a drop of Yankee blood in his veins.

But if any one would but stop and look around him, and
see who are the independent men of our country, and how tliey
became so, they would find that it was. not by sudden and great
gai-ns, but by slow accumulations, by husbanding small means,
by squaring one's expenses to his income, and laying the founda-
tion for personal comfort and independence, little by little, as
the oak grows into the monarch of the forest.

The truth is, the farmers of New England are far more inde-
pendent than they are willing to confess even to themselves.
They measure their condition by a false standard, and cheat
themselves into being unhappy when there is no need of it. If
you do not want a house as large as Solomon's Temple to live
in, what is the use of contrasts with the one you have got, or
what is just as unreasonable, why suffer your hearts to burn as
you look upon the Elizabethan Castle that the carpenter has
built for your neighbor.

Farming has always seemed to me to be like theories in
political economy. You may take your slate and pencil, and sit
down and cipher yourself into a good income, or no income at
all — you can demonstrate beyond contradiction, that the country
is going directly to ruin, by too high or too low a tariff, just
according to the data you assume at the start. And yet in the
face of these calculations, the country goes on prospering, and
the farmer finds himself better off at the end of the year than
at the beginning, thougli ruined, beyond retrieve, by figures
which, as it is said, " do not lie."

The best way for a farmer, as it seems to me, to get what a
sailor would call his " reckoning," would be to sit down some
snowy day in the winter, after his crops are gathered, and his
grain sold or ready for the market, his hired man paid off, his
store account balanced, his taxes and his doctor's bill settled,
and after setting aside enough to keep his children at school,
pay the printer for his newspaper, which no good farmer can do

36 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

witliout, and purchase hoops and dresses for his wife and
daughters, see how much he has got left to indorse upon his
outstanding mortgage, or lend to a neighbor, or lay out to add a
few acres to his farm. If he has enough for all these, and a
little to spare, every year, he is richer than Rothschild, and is
independent as tlie Czar of all the Russians.

But why should we test every thing by this vulgar standard
of dollars and cents ? Is there nothing in life for a farmer
worth having but what he puts into his barn, or files away in his
desk ? Is tliere nothing in social position, in mental culture, in
domestic comfort, in the education of his children, in the
personal freedom and independence of spirit which none but the
master of his own acres ever can feel ? In all these I assert
without fear of contradiction, and I wish I could make my voice
heard in every farmer's house in our State, — that in no part of
God's heritage does any class stand in a more favored condition
than the farmers of Massachusetts.

I have no wisli to flatter any one in what I say ; and if we
analyze the grounds on which I place this claim, far more is due
to a wise form of government and a kind Providence, than the
exertions of tlie individual man. Indeed, too many of them are
unconscious of what their true condition is : and I would say a
word upon this subject, not by the way of boasting, but to excite,
if possible, feelings of satisfaction and contentment, and to keep
our sons and daughters at home, to occupy the places of their
fathers and mothers. We have, it may be, a hardy soil and a
fickle climate ; we may be obliged to work hard, and content
ourselves with small crops ; but the soil is our own, and there
is health in our pure air, though it sometimes sweeps by us in
the tempest. We have a market for our products at our doors,
and we have laws that protect us in the enjoyment of those
fruits of honest labor.

If it were not so costly an experiment, I would gladly see
every New England farmer who feels restless and discontented
when he hears of the wheat crops and corn fields of the prairie
States, shut up his comfortable farm-house, take his wife and
children and go to that promised land, and stay there long
enough to contrast the two. 1 have not read the character for
wisdom and shrewdness of the yeomanry of New England aright,
or he would conclude, that, in the single life he has to live in

COMMON SENSE IN FARMING. S7

this world, he acts an unwise part who runs away from comforts,
conveniences, institutions, safe highways, handy markets, schools,
churches, and neighbors having a common history and a common
tie of language, habits and associations, which it has cost a
hundred years and untold sums of money to gather here, for
the chance of finding a soil that can be easier ploughed, yield
more bushels to the acre, or is worth more to speculate upon
than these farms which the fathers of New England tilled in
comfort and content, before the railroad and the canal had
opened the forests and prairies of the West.

38 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

PROFITS OF FARMING.

From an Address before the Worcester South Agricultural Society, Sept. 29, 1858.

BY JOHN C. BARTLETT.

When we look about us, we find all our farming towns present-
ing a common aspect which is far from being agreeable. A
constant exodus of our young men is in progress ; sometimes
the wave of emigration spreading itself over the western prairies,
and again surging towards the gold mines of California and
Australia; and when success in these points has failed, pouring
itself through every avenue of business in the cities, but still
ever flowing away from the old homesteads upon the green hills
of New England, until we are lost in amazement at the vast
number of young and earnest men who are thus fleeing from
the quiet pursuits of agriculture as from a pestilence. And if
we ask of them why they thus forsake the homes of their
youth, we are told that farming offers little or no inducement
in point of pecuniary profit.

But not only do the young prefer any other occupation to
that of farmhig, but everywhere is the market glutted with
farms, many of them the largest and best in their respective
towns, the owners of which desire to change their business or to
try their fortune elsewhere, because, in spite of figures which
show great profits accruing on all crops raised upon the farm,
they have found themselves gradually going behind hand in their
pecuniary affairs. The main question to which I propose to ask
your attention, is, whether there is really any foundation in fact,
for the growing impression among the farmers, that their busi-
ness is not as lucrative as other branches of industry carried on
In the same town ?

If a young man of good business capacity, enters upon
farming at the age of twenty-one, having a farm valued at two

PROFITS OF FARMING. 89

thousand dollars, paid for, but without wood or timber at his
command to meet emergencies, the chances are greatly in favor
of the supposition, that at the end of twenty years, he will have
but little money invested in paying stocks ; the increasing
expeiiscs of his family, and tlie essential improvements upon his
farm, keeping him cramped in means to such an extent that his
family must constantly resort to teaching or some variety of
needle-work, in order to maintain a respectable appearance and
position in the world.

On the other hand, if the same young man, instead of entering
upon the business of farming, should stock a store with goods
to the same amount of two thousand dollars, although he may
get credit for the first investment, he would be found at the end
of twenty years, with sufficient means to maintain his family in
a respectable manner, and to educate his children in a more
thorough manner than the farmer. The store-keeper doing a
fair business in a farming town, and renewing his stock as his
occasion requires, would, without doubt, be able to lay up a few
hundred dollars each year, estimating his profits at what I am
told is a fair rate, ten per cent, upon his investment. Let us
now consider for a few moments the profits of the farmer, upon
some of his most reliable crops, and the figures will show us
that the comparative advantage is greatly in his favor.

The necessary outlay upon an acre of land planted with corn,
estimating interest upon the value of the land, manured at the
average market price and expenses of labor, and allowing the
fodder to pay for the labor of harvesting, (which is placing far
too low an estimate upon the value of the stover,) 1 suppose
may be safely stated at thirty-five dollars. No farmer in an
ordinary season, would be satisfied with less than forty-five
bushels from his acre. Supposing its value per bushel to be
eighty-seven and one-half cents, the result will be thirty-nine
dollars, thirty-seven and one-half cents, giving a profit on the
acre, of four dollars thirty-seven and one-half cents, or some-
• thing over twelve per cent, on his investment. Carrying this
acre onward to grass, and estimating the additional expense,
including harvesting the grass crop for three years, at thirty-five
dollars, and deducting nothing for the intermediate crop of
grain, we may safely assume the yield of grass for three years,
to be one ton per year, which, at an average value of fifteen

40 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

dollars per ton, gives iis an annual return of fifteen dollars,
while the annual expense or one-third of the outlay, will be
eleven dollars and sixty-seven cents, a profit of three dollars
thirty-three cents, equal to twenty-eight per cent, and a fraction
upon the annual expenditure.

It would be useless to multiply calculations to show the
profits of farming to be large in comparison to those of other
branches of business in farming towns, and I have no doubt that
these estimates which strike us so pleasantly in all our agricul-
tural works and newspapers are in the main correct. Wliy is
it, then, that we do not realize these results in the tangible form
of cash ? The truth is, that in every such problem there is a
loss which is not always readily perceived, and the amount of
which cannot be accurately determined. I mean the deterio-
ration in the productiveness of every acre of land we cultivate,
to such an extent, that we find it necessary to plough under
our sod, the profit of this year, in order to enable our farms to
yield a profit the next year. But I shall be told tliat the gain
finally comes back in a cash form, through the sale of milk or
of live stock. Let us then examine this point, and determine
as far as possible, the cost of a quart of milk to the farmer. I
know of no estimates of the expense of keeping a cow which
appear to me to be more accurate than those kept at the State
farm at Wcstborough ; and I derive my data for this calculation
from an experiment, the particulars of which may be fovuid
upon the two hundred and nineteenth page of the last Report of
the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture. Assuming the
average expense per day of keeping a milch cow from the first
day of November to the first day of May, (during which period
the cattle are usually housed,)to be as low as in the experiment
referred to, viz. : twenty-five cents per day, we have a result of
forty-six dollars and sixteen cents, for the winter keeping. The
summer keeping, estimated at the low rate of six cents per day,
from May first, to November first, gives us eleven dollars and
four cents, to be added to the winter keeping, making the whole
cost for a year to be fifty-seven dollars and twenty cents.

If we suppose the cows throughout the State, to give an
average yield of six quarts of milk per day for nine months,
which I think is a large allowance, and the average price paid
to tlie farmer to be two and one-half cents per quart, we find

PROFITS OF FARMING. 41

the income for milk to be forty dollars and ninety-five cents,
leaving a balance of sixteen dollars and twenty-five cents
against the farmer, to be made up by about two and one-half
cords of unmixed manure which a cow will furnish in a year.
Upon the same data, butter at twenty cents per pound will not
return so large an amount of money as milk at two and one-half
cents per quart, and I suppose the value of the skimmed milk
■will not very much exceed the increased value of the labor
entailed upon the females of the farmer's household by the cares
of the dairy. How many farmers can tell with any thing like
reliable accuracy the expense of raising a calf during the first
year of its life ? Having for many years been accustomed to
rear my own cattle, I have gradually settled down upon a
system which experience has proved to result in the best growth
and condition, and I know that a good yearling can rarely be
afforded by the farmer, if he would secure a remunerating
profit, at a less sum than twenty-three dollars. Yet taking the
State through and including that nondescript variety which
furnishes the barns of the vast majority of farmers under the
title of native breeds, the average price of a yearling animal
will fall very far below its cost. If we turn our attention to
what are usually called permanent improvements, and mark the
tasteful dwellings, the expensive walls and the fields cleared of
rocks, it will too often be found that these have been only moths
to eat up the surplus money which hard toil and rigid economy
may have enabled the farmer to collect, and in the large majority
of cases add no remunerating value to the farm in the market,
but rarely fail to make tlioir mark upon the books of the
assessors, and thus make themselves pretty keenly felt in the
increasing tax bills.

But if these avenues for draining off the profits which are so
conspicuous upon paper really exist ; if, indeed, the farmer toils
thus in the dark, is there no process by which the profit may be
realized in the tangible form of a banker's account, and invest-
ments in paying stocks ? It is not to be supposed that under
any circumstances, the farmers of New England can realize the
princely fortunes which sometimes fall to the lot of the merchant
in the city; nor, on the other hand, if he possesses ordinary
industry and business talent, is he liable to fall into beggary as
suddenly as the same merchant may do ; but I believe that no

42 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

man in the community lias siich facilities for attaining to that
just medium which affords the truest source of man's happiness,
" neither poverty nor riches," as the American farmer ; for the
evils to which I have alluded, and which are felt, if not under-
stood by the great majority of farmers, are not inherent in
agriculture, but have their origin in the loose manner in which
the business of farming is generally conducted.

In order that any business may be successful, there must be
a definite plan, the end of which must become a source of
pecuniary income. Too many men enter upon the cultivation
of the soil without any more clearly defined purpose than that
tlicy must raise a certain amount of corn, or roots, or grass,
because all farmers have done so before them ; and in this
undefined purpose lies a great source of the limited profit which
the farmer receives. The first question which should engage
his attention should be this : " To what branch of farming is
my soil, as a whole, best adapted ? " When this point is settled
in his mind, he should not be turned aside from his purpose,
but should make every step in his operations bear upon that one
result, persevering in this course diligently to the end. If he
proposes to raise milk for the market, he must not be contented
with good cows merely, but must furnish himself with those
breeds only which have been proved to be the best and most
reliable milkers, and his whole system of cultivation must have
reference to furnishing those cattle with an abundance of such
food as will produce the most generous yield of milk. It is to
this oneness of purpose, that the increased profits of the English
farmer, compared with our own, is to be attributed. Another
important lesson which it is necessary for most of us to learn,
is a more thorough division of labor. It is a great hindrance to
the success of the farmer, that he must perform so many pro-
cesses differing much in character, which, to be practised
advantageously, must be thoroughly understood and performed
in the best manner. But it is a far greater hindrance, that he
mixes all these operations together, building a few rods of wall,
and partially completing a drain, patching an old board or brush
fence in his pasture, and commencing many other labors, some
of which always fall short of completion.

The high cost and scarcity of labor compared with the same
in Europe, will, of course, prevent the subdivision to the same

PROFITS OF FARMING. 43

extent as there, where the man who mows the grass, or manages
the plough, or digs the ditch, often understands no other branch
of farm labor. But most of our New England farmers may
learn that if they cannot afford to employ paid labor for each
distinct branch of tlieir art, they may accomplish much toward
the same end, by finishing one operation which is to be perma-
nent in its character before another is commenced ; and since
the outgoes for labor constitute one of the largest drains' upon
the farmer's income, it is essential to successful farming that
none shall be wasted upon undertakings which are not pretty
certain to pay a profit upon the investment. In order, liowever,
to insure an economical employment of labor, two things are
essentially necessary.

First, that the farmer perform as much of the labor himself
as a proper regard to health and physical ability enable him to
do, and that he should have a watchful personal supervision over
all the operations carried on by the hired laborers, taking care
that in all cases the result shall be that which he has planned
rather than something uncertain in its character, resulting from
the imperfect plans of the laborer himself.

I suppose that no class of farmers sink so much money
annually, as those who, having accumulated wealth in other
pursuits, enter upon agriculture as a source of amusement to
which they give a slight personal attention for a few weeks in
the year, leaving important improvements to be carried out by
others who have no personal interest in their success. This
would be of little consequence if farmers of smaller means did
not too often from such examples commence changes in their
own system, dazzled by a few large crops, without at the same
time seeing their cost. The second point which I consider
essential to the economical employment of labor is, that every
farmer should so far keep an account of expenses, that he may
be able to determine with tolerable accuracy the out-go and
profit upon every crop raised upon his farm. I know that to
many minds, this appears to be a gigantic undertaking. But a
very few minutes, each evening after the labors of the day were
finished, would suffice to enter all the important minutes in the
farmer's book, to enable him to form an estimate which should
be a very near approximation to correct results.

44 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Indeed, I think that no stronger argument could be offered
in favor of agriculture as a profitable business, than the fact
that, notwithstanding the loose and indefinite manner in which
it has been conducted, it has still sustained itself in full vigor,
while if the same system had been adopted by the merchant,
the mechanic, or the manufacturer, inevitable ruin must have
ensued.

In concluding my remarks, let me urge upon the young
persons who hear me, to remain upon the farm. You may not
find the cultivation of the soil to open a vast mine of wealth,
but you will find that method, industry and tolerable economy
will give you a competence of this world's goods ; that a con-
tented and happy spirit will do much to check the growth of
those moral weeds which become rank in the minds of those
who " make haste to be rich." Thousands, who, but a few
years since floated gently on the wave of commercial prosperity,
now mourn bitterly over ruined fortunes, and often over ruined
reputations, and when too late to go back, regret that they were
drawn away from the farm by the dazzling brilliance of golden
dreams.

Remember that while sudden destruction has come upon
those who have engaged in the more artificial branches of
business, the farmer has remained almost untouched and can
still cultivate his land undisturbed by fears of want for the
morrow. Put far away from you that miserable doctrine that
there is any thing degrading, any thing to prevent you from
rising in the world, connected with manual labor. If you
would exert a commanding influence over others, cultivate your
intellect, and seek to secure, by improving your spare minutes,
a degree of knowledge which will raise you to the level of
honorable labor.

If you would seek refinement of manners, first seek purity
and refinement of thought ; and never forget that with minds
and hearts properly cultivated, the farmer in his ditch, or the
farmer's wife in her dairy, may possess more entirely the char-
acteristics of the true lady or the true gentleman, than any
amount of wealth can give without them.

One more question remains to be briefly noticed. Is the
young man who is about entering npon the business of farming,
more likely to find profit in the new States of the West than in

PROFITS OF FARMING. 45

New England ? The chief inducements offered by the western
lands, lie in the cheapness of the soil, and tlie light degree of
labor required for its cultivation ; and these are important
considerations, by no means to be overlooked in connection with
agriculture.

But as an offset to these, and entirely counterbalancing them,
is to be considered the deprivation of the comforts of life to
which every New England man has been accustomed from
infancy ; a deprivation, which submitted to in Massacliusetts,
would insure them a fortune at farming in a very few years.
But after all that can be said of the easy condition of tlie
western farmer as regards labor, it only amounts to a change of
its character, a substitution of more ploughing for less hoeing ;
and the amount of crops per acre is not greatly increased,
except for a few years, as may be clearly seen by reference to
the United States census report for 1850, from which it appears
that the crops of Massacliusetts are quite as large per acre as in
Illinois, Indiana, and Iowa. Besides these considerations, it
must be remembered that the farmer of New England deals
more directly with the consumer, and tlms commands a fair
price for his produce in the market, while the western farmer
reaches the consumer only through middle men, who swallow
all the profit, giving to the producer only starvation prices. I
say, then, to the young farmer, wliile any unimproved land is to
be found in Massachusetts, remain here ; for where the largest
amount of capital in proportion to the population is invested in
active business, the best markets will be opened, and the largest
profit can be realized'; and no State in the Union exceeds our
own in this particular, and within her boundaries you may
by industry, good calculation, and tolerable economy, gather
around you more of life's most valuable gifts, more for which
to respect yourself and secure the respect of others, than in any
other part of the world.

46 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

NEW ENGLAND FARMING.

From an Address before the Hampshire, Frankliu and Ilampden Agricultural Society, Oct. 14, 1858

BY GEORGE B. LORING.

Farming is by far the most important occupation in New
England. In 1850 the whole number of farmers in the six
States was one hundred and sixty-seven thousand six hundred
and fifty-one. The number of acres improved was eleven
millions one hundred and fifty thousand five hundred and fifty-
four. The value of the farms Avas three hundred and eighty-
two millions three hundred and forty-eight thousand five
hundred and forty-three dollars. In Massachusetts alone, the
number of farms was thirty-four thousand and fifty-nine. The
number of acres improved was two millions one hundred and
thirty-tliree thousand four hundred and thirty-six. The capital
invested in agriculture was one hundred and nine millions
seventy-six thousand three hundred and forty-nine dollars. In
order to give you a comparative view of agriculture and manu-
factures, I would state that in the same year, in New England,
the capital invested in manufactures was one hundred and fifty-
eight millions one hundred and eighteen thousand one hundred
and nine dollars, much less than half the value of the farms ;
and in Massachusetts it was eighty-three millions three hundred
and fifty-seven thousand six hundred and forty-two dollars,
about two-thirds of the value of the farms in our own State.

You will see by these figures, that while other occupations
have built their monuments almost to the skies, while cities
have started into life at the " stamp of their feet," while all
that is gorgeous, and grand, and imposing, has been wrapt
around them to make their greatness known to man, there is
an unobtrusive branch of industry, which outweighs them all,
both in material wealth and in those silent influences which are

NEW ENGLAND FARMING. 47

felt everywhere, and wliicli control mankind with calm and
noiseless power.

This is the real and comparative value of New England farm-
ing. It may not have arrived at any great degree of perfection.
It may be deficient in method and in the application of what
are called scientific principles ; it may have deteriorated for
the last few years, as we are told by those who profess to know,
but this is its true position upon which its prospects depend.
A distinguished gentleman has informed us that from 1840 to
1850 the process of agriculture was " altogether a retrograde
movement, and the lessening crop per acre, year by year, was
so serious as to threaten tlie existence of the interest." And
he goes on with figures to prove it. Now all this may be true.

It is possible that the loss of land per year by exhausting
culture in Massachusetts alone, amounted to one million five
hundred and eighty-one thousand five hundred and seventy-two
dollars, and that " the waste is equal to two and nine-tenths of
one per cent, on the value of the farms." But this does not
go to disprove the deep and vital interest our people feel in
agriculture, nor to diminish its importance and influence. It
may be true, as has been said elsewhere, that " New England
does not produce the bread she eats, nor the raw materials of
the fabric she wears ;" and that a multitude of her agricultural
towns are undergoing more or less rapidly, a process of depopu-
lation. But the inference drawn from these statements, that
New England agriculture is dying of a slow and consuming
disease, is by no means true ; neither is it true that farming
here is on the decline, because the reality does not agree with
the vague and rosy ideal which fills the mind of sentimentalists
and dreamers.

The joys, and pleasures, and attractions of farming life are not
measured by the amount of pinks and pansies which grow under
the windows, nor by the amount of physical beauty inclosed
within the domestic walls. The sorrows, and hardships, and
depressing influences of agriculture do not arise from the neces-
sity for constant labor which attends it. I will never allow that
the farming population of New England is becoming " anin^al-
ized " by devotion to its calling. Neither will I believe that
the deep and innate sense of the true nature of this calling —
that sentiment, unexpressed, perhaps inexpressible — that char-

48 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

acter making the farmer distinct, peculiar, individual — that
instinct quickened hj the business of the farm, by broad fields
and the overarching sky, is lost here among our New England
yeomanry. I cannot believe that " the farmer's life is no bet-
ter than a street sweeper, if it rise no higher than the farmer's
work ; " for the farmer's work has a superiority in all its rela-
tions, a connection with the condition of mankind, a high
estate in the scale of society, which no drudgery can depress.
And I do not believe that the farmer is compelled to " appre-
hend that his farm has higher uses for him than those of feeding
his person and his purse," in order to fulfil all his duties, and
to keep himself up to the standard appointed to him in his
social and civil relations. AVhoever expects the business of
farming in its details, in buying and selling, in planting, plough-
ing, reaping, digging, to be different from actual business in
other branches, needs only a short life on a farm in order to
discover his error. And whoever expects to drive the agricul-
tural population of New England from the high position belong-
ing to them by reflecting upon their daily toil, cannot compre-
hend the true genius of their occupation, nor the spirit of calm
content and substantial virtue which belongs to a farming
community. No degradation of labor has yet befallen us.
And any analogy drawn between the rural population of New
England, either in reference to their present condition or to
their future possibilities, with the half-starved and squalid
classes abroad, whom want, for generations has degraded, has
yet to learn the first lesson in the study of New England
character.

But when I hear it said, moreover, that in. the farming homes
of New England there is but one room in which the family live,
spend their evenings, " and cook everything for themselves and*
their hogs ; " when I hear it said that the sons of our farmers
flee from their homes because they are " unloved and unlovable
things ; " when I hear it said that our rural mothers are " mere
bent and clumsy drudges ; " when I hear it said that our farmers
" are not men among men and women," that " socially, they
bec(j|ae dead for years before they die," I am impatient to
unfold the true picture of New England farming life for the
instruction and admiration of those who know by daily experi-
ence its comforts and pleasures, and of those who carry in their

NEW ENGLAND FARMING. 49

memories the cheerful associations of their childhood's home.
For I know that in the rural population of New England there
is always in every household a chosen spot adorned with appro-
priate taste. A few books upon the table, the mother's handi-
work done in her girlhood, when she was a farmer's daughter,
and before she had assumed the cares of a farmer's wife,
hanging on the wall, the cherished pictures of those who have
gone forth into active life, the substantial furniture which has
known more than one generation, the musical instrument to
whose keys the chords of the village psalmody are all familiar
— these and more, make up the interior of our rural homes.
Go with me, you who believe in the sketch of farming life
which I have quoted, to the village church, and having learned
there the appearance of the assembled worshippers, return with
them to the domestic circles and know of what the families of
our farmers are composed. You will find there, as in no other
country, ample information upon the current topics of the day ;
an intelligent understanding of those doctrines which divide
men into sects and parties ; decorum, neatness, and almost uni-
versally a profusion of whatever is necessary for physical
comfort and existence. In these homes a hardy race of sons
tells of careful and hardy mothers. Witness the welcome
extended to neighbors and friends, and judge whether the
farmer there is unsocial. I can take you to a farmer's home
on the very confines of New England civilization, where
you may learn the best methods of practical agriculture,
the choicest crops for the latitude, the last expedient of
political aspirants, the latest pulpit controversy, and if your
appetite is palled by a surfeit of city luxuries, you may restore
its tone at the simple and well-filled board. I have been sur-
prised to see how the New England farmer carries with him
even to the very verge of the wilderness, that intelligence, and
thrift, and skill, which in other countries cluster about cities
and villages, and which mark him above all farmers on earth, as
a free, enlightened, responsible citizen.

If New England agriculture is on the decline, as we are told,
it is not because our farming population is ignorant, and unso-
cial, and " angular," and ungainly, and wanting in physical
strength and energy. It is just the reverse. Our farming
interests have been neglected because the intelligence, and
7

50 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

activity, and ambition, and force, and the good looks, moreover,
of our people, have led them into enterprises of every descrip-
tion, which promise liberal and easy rewards. Our people are
what is usually termed " smart ; " the boys and girls are full
of energy, and the parents behold with fond pride their children
launching out into the busy world, peopling counting-rooms,
pulpits, school-houses, factories, with quick-witted and busy
occupants. I remember in early life, when I had just begun
to look about me for occupation, when I had finished, as it is
called, the education which my good father gave me, I started
from my native village with my books and the horse and car-
riage with which I had been provided, to offer my services as
a physician, to the sick and suffering in a town not far from
Boston. It was a beautiful summer afternoon, and as I went
on pondering upon my prospects, I overtook a boy barefooted,
his bundle on his back, and his shoes in his hand, trudging on
also in search of fortune. We were more than twenty miles
from the great city, and I asked him to share my carriage with
me on the journey. He said he had walked from the Penobscot
River, was the oldest son of a farmer who had ten children,
had heard that Franklin was a printer, and had left the old
farm to enter upon that path to greatness, which he found had
been traveled so successfully by that great patriot and philoso-
pher. As we passed through the villages on the road, he
informed me of their population and their industrial interests.
He had read but few books, and these he knew almost by heart.
His courage was great, and the only tear he had shed on all that
long and weary journey, was that which he dropped as he
turned upon the last " commanding hill " to look at his home
with all its fond associations. I took him to Boston and intro-
duced him to a printing office. He went his way and I went
mine ; and I have often thought that I might be at this day
admiring the high position of this very boy, whose name I have
long since forgotten. Do you suppose this boy left his home
because it was distasteful to him, or the farm because he dis-
liked it ? Not so. But you may learn from this example why
farming has periods of decline in New England. It is because
the young men born on our farms are compelled to seek a
living elsewhere, both by the limited pecuniary means of their
fathers, and by their own ambition.

NEW ENGLAND FARMING. 51

You must remember that few New England farmers are rich.
The capital invested in their occupation is spread over a very
large surface. They own their farms, and unlike the farming
population of other countries, where serfs and peasants are
rooted in the soil, and are transmitted as a part of landed pos-
sessions, they have the world open before them from which
to choose, with the capacity and prospects of freemen. The
greatest crop raised hitherto on tliese farms is a host of
active, thriving, busy men, engaged in the professions, toiling
in business, building up our cities and extending our commerce.
And it is because the active capital of our community has been
poured into other channels, that agriculture has been left to
furnish that important product, which, while it sustains her
associates, exhausts herself. Perhaps our fields have been
exhausted, perhaps the average of our crops has decreased,
perhaps our agriculture is on the decline ; but, when we con-
sider what our farms have done for us, what a robust and busy
host they have sent abroad, to create home markets for the
consumption of our products, we shall learn how by the law of
compensation, agriculture will one day, if it has not done so
already, reap the harvest she has prepared by her first sowing
of bone and muscle, intelligence and activity, in the busy walks
of life.

Yes, gentlemen, the intelligence, activity, and force of our
people has led them away from agriculture, until of necessity
the wave is beginning to return. New England farming is just
coming out of a transition state. It was once almost the only
occupation of our people, and so continued, until capital and
industry were averted from it to manufactures and commerce,
by whose operations we have been enriched and prepared for a
new farming career, now, I think, just commencing. The
fact that we do not produce enough to support our own popu-
lation, simply proves that we have been able to employ our-
selves more profitably than in competing with the cheap and
easy agriculture of the newer States. And it is only when
our population is forced back upon ourselves, and capital
has reached its limits in other branches of trade, that our pres-
ent system of common farming will cease, and high farming
begin.

52 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

This era has already commenced. The markets which lie at
our very doors, and furnish as safe and ready a sale for our
products as can be found on earth, have developed all around
our large cities, a system of agriculture, which is not easily sur-
passed in economy and appropriateness. The last quarter of a
century has proved that a judicious investment in systematic
and careful husbandry, with all the light which the science of
agriculture can bestow, has received a reasonable and often
higlily liberal reward. Farming under such circumstances has
proved itself to be profitable, and is, in consequence, becoming
more and more attractive. An increasing variety in the
demands of our markets, is constantly appealing to the ingenuity
of our population. And that energy which in the early
history of our country found its only opportunity in tilling the
earth, producing a simple and prudent system of agriculture
among us, has after long wandering in other spheres returned
once more to the land.

Our fathers were good farmers. I can go with you to an
early settled section of New England and admire the monu
ments of industry and skill which they left behind them. They
had a remarkable genius for the selection of land. It was the
source of their entire subsistence. In the clearing, the savage
startled them at their ploughs. When the battles of freedom
were to be fought, it was the furrows in their fields which sent
forth their crop of armed men ; it was farms which were
deserted, not factories and mills. The chief trade of the times
consisted in the interchange of farm products, or in their
exchange for a scanty supply of imported articles of luxury and
necessity. I say they were good farmers, for they farmed in
accordance with the requirements of the times. They built
heavy stone walls, they cleared large fields, they understood all
the emergencies which might arise, they knew where to plant
the dollar, in order that it might " return to them after many
days." The houses and barns which they left behind them,
and which literally grew up out of the soil, indicate thrift,
prudence, and great skill in overcoming the many obstacles
which lay all around them. Let no man suppose that this race
of men is extinct. There is a space lying between the elabo-
rate cultivation of our thickly peopled districts^ and the still
smoking forests of our new settlements, in which agriculture is

NEW ENGLAND FARMING. 53

enjoying the profoundest repose. But beyond this space, in
the outer circle of civilization, the primitive and successful
career of our farming ancestors is at this day acted over again,
with this difference, that now there are thousands of outlets for
the surplus population — then there were none. Our New
England corn fields are steadily encroaching upon the forests,
and as they grow there in the shadow of those primeval woods,
they yield a reward for the hard labor and small capital invested
which is sure to result in competency and independence.
On this territory there is a farming population, constantly
increasing the number of acres brought under cultivation, and
preparing the way for all the refinements of life, who compose
one of the most active agents in developing our agriculture,
and whose new fields supply the places of those that are neg-
lected, useless and exhausted. It is this love of the virgin soil
among us, which accounts for the increased acres of cultivation
and the diminished products. And it is the occupation of this
soil which constitutes a prominent feature in the great agricul-
tural work going on around us. It has its merits. True, it is
not the farming of a Hudson or a Mechi ; but it is the conver-
sion of hard and unceasing labor into a position of comfort and
happiness ; it is the work which bone and muscle can do towards
the extension of education and refinement. It is a part of New
England farming that is almost entirely overlooked, but which
is that original and primitive agriculture begun by our fathers
on the " spot where first they trod," brought by them to the
perfection of rude productiveness, and carried in the vanguard
of our advancing civilizations, " the ark of the covenant " for
an enterprising and progressive people.

It is not therefore the high farming in the neighborhood of
cities, nor the simple and rude agriculture of the frontier which
requires attention, but that middle ground whicli the skill of
the former has not reached, and from which the vigor of the
latter has passed away. The question is, how to make the
farming of all this great region profitable ; how to restore it to
its former prosperous condition ; how to convert it into what it
is designed to be, a flourishing agricultural district ? It is idle
to tell us that its prosperity has declined on account of bad
cultivation. It is not meeting the matter at all to tell us that
it is dying for the want of manure. Why is it not well culti-

54 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

vated ? Why, are not earth, and sea, and sky, ransacked for
manures by a busy crowd of farmers ? Tell me not that the
patient is dying " for want of breath." But tell me why he
cannot breathe, and then we can apply the remedy. Let the
farmers of New England but understand the method by which
their farms can be made profitable, and the very air would be
redolent with the odors of accumulating fertilizers. This is
the sum and substance of the whole matter. Every farmer
knows that he has only to ask, and he will receive from the
bounteous earth herself an abundant supply of those materials
which strengthen and enrich his soil. Let him but learn that
it will pay to ask. and the whole difficulty will vanish at once.
Let those who have relied upon the bounties of nature, which
never fail, and who have learned to rely upon an indolent
appeal to the soil for their animal subsistence, remember
that in any other occupation than farming, starvation would
crown such sleepy efforts, and they may then understand what
would be the rewards of activity, industry and intelligent
perseverance.

No man ever knew a busy farmer to grow poor. I never
saw a skilful farmer who did not grow rich. And the secret of
this skill is in understanding the capacity of the farm. Do you
own five acres or five hundred — learn first what those acres are
capable of doing for you, and you have opened the " golden
gate " beyond which lie all the regions of wealth. The earth
is a most willing servant, and be the crop a wagon load of escu-
lents for the neighboring market, or the food of a thousand
head of cattle, he that calls for this crop with a true under-
standing of how he is to call for it, and where he is to find it,
is sure to receive his reward. Learn then, first of all, the
capacity of your farm, and have faith to believe that it will
never disappoint your reasonable expectations. Let this knowl-
edge be diffused throughout New England, and the success of
her farming is established at once. Learn this, and the science
of agriculture becomes at once your ally, pointing to the whole
inexhaustible supply of fertilizers lying at your feet. Com-
prehend this, and you will find the farm which occupies a
township, as easily managed as that ten acre lot whic'h your
industrious neighbor has filled with the choicest products ; for
no farm was ever too large. The broader the area, the larger

NEW ENGLAND FARMING. 55

the opportunity — always considering that he who depastures a
wide expanse of land remote from his home, is as truly engaged
in agriculture, as he who condenses all his operations within
the limits of his homestead.

This adaptation of New England farming to every variety and
size of farm-steading, constitutes its most important character-
istic. There is nothing either in our tenure of property, or in
the demands of our markets, or in our modes of cultivation,
which prevents the small landholder from receiving his due
proportion of the advantages of agriculture. It is impossible
here for large estates to draw away the sustenance from small
ones. You will hardly find this happy condition of equality
anywliere else. Go to the West, and the prosperity of farming
consists in holding large possessions which will furnish liberal
contributions to the great staples of that region. Tliousands
of bushels of wheat, and herds of fat cattle, corn fields extend-
ing as far as the eye can reach, and pastures bounded only by
the horizon, constitute the foundation of a western farmer's
prosperity. Go to the South, and it is the owners of whole
savannahs, who absorb all the agricultural resources of that
section of the country, and produce by a necessary and inevi-
table monopoly, those commodities which enter into the com-
merce of the world. In these sections of our own country the
small farmer has hardly a resting place for the sole of his foot.
And if you will go with me to England, you will find that one
of the most difficult problems now occupying the minds of the
statesmen and philanthropists of that country, is the best
method of advancing the prosperity of the moderate cultivators
of the soil. After the most diligent and anxious investigations
there, it has become a conviction in the minds of those who are
interested in the matter, that only by combined capital in joint
stock farming companies, can the great mass of small farmers
ever hope to compete with the holders of large estates. As
they now stand, there seems to be no other mode of relief for
those hard working but unfortunate cultivators, whose position
and capital are such as to prevent their competing with the
concentration of power and wealth all around them. They are
but tenants at the mercy of landlords, who have nothing to
offer for the misery but their sympathies, and the stern decree
which drives them from their estates, and of whom it has been

56 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

said that " they would be sorry to see the country parcelled out
into a few large corn factories, and grieve to see the stout,
honest tenants of many generations driven over the water.
But they look at the fields dirty with weeds and ill-cultivated ;
at the farm-houses and buildings multiplied into hovels and
ruins ; at the arrears, numerous, if not large ; and contrast
these things unfavorably with the large clean fields, well-ordered
premises, punctual payments, and thriving aspect of the five
hundred acre districts. And reluctantly but firmly the agent's
advice is followed, and another and another farm — another
English household — is swallowed up by its neighbor."

How encouraging is the contrast to all this, presented by the
farms of New England. It may be that our agriculture is
neglected ; it may be that our rural homes are deserted ; it may
be that our people have not yet learned the true value of their
landed possessions ; it may be that the activity, and vigor, and
ambition of the young blood flowing in our veins, demands
with feverish importunity a more exciting sphere of action than
the farm aifords ; but the opportunity which an untramelled
ownership of the soil, an unlimited possession of the rights and
privileges of citizenship, a system of agriculture and trade in
which a strong and industrious and skilful arm is all the capital
required — the opportunity which these give, is worth more
than all the attainments of science and all the accumulation of
wealth, in developing the universal prosperity of a free and
enlightened and industrious agricultural community. God
deliver us from that distress which would drive our small farm-
ers to seek relief and support in the complicated obligations of
joint stock companies. I would preserve the sanctity of the
household as one of the foundations of society. I would pro-
tect the smallest landed possession as the fountain of prudence,
economy, contentment, virtue, and as the cherished spot on
earth, within which the highest domestic happiness may find a
home. The true genius of New England farming lies in this
agricultural equality. Neither wealth nor ambition can furnish
that power which will secure peculiar advantages to one farm
over another. The mechanic who devotes himself to the imple-
ments of husbandry, labors here for the rich and the poor alike.
We have no system of cultivation which is not open to all.
There is the earth at our feet, and the broad expanse of sky

NEW ENGLAND FARMING. 67

above us, whose blessings areoifered with the bounty of nature,
to the highest and the lowest, who " by patient continuance in
well doing " deserve their reward.

We have a right to be proud of New England farming so
long as this principle of freehold and this opportunity for small
farmers lie at its foundation. It is this which made our fathers
illustrious for their prudence, their energy and their success.
It is this which has enabled our people to retain their tenure of
the soil, while they have furnished the bone of their bone, the
flesh of their, flesh, for the advancement of society in all its
various enterprises. It is this which has preserved our farms
in their integrity, through a long season of necessary neglect,
and now offers them to a community already prepared to return
to the safe and peaceful pursuits of agriculture. And it is this
which will forever continue our farming community in that
substantial and commanding position maintained by those who
founded our institutions with pious care, and preserved them
through all trial with that heroism and devotion which are
characteristic of the rural population.

But, gentlemen, this is not all. New England farming is no
trifling matter. That hardness of the soil which has deterred
so many from entering upon its cultivation, demands and
develops the most reliable worldly virtues. It is only by
economy, judgment, foresight, and diligence, that our farmers
can hope to succeed. The earth here has no spontaneous produc-
tions ready at any hour to fall into the lap of an indolent and
effeminate people. No hour, no day, no season, provides an
opportunity for idleness. Our people must be intelligent,
frugal, industrious, in order to preserve their very existence.
When you look abroad over the community you will find that
all our institutions of education and religion, our churches and
common schools, are but the response to an imperative demand
for intelligent Christian effort to preserve and elevate our social
organization, and to enable us to discharge our duties as heirs
of the faith and the farms of our fathers. We have sought for
well-educated labor and have found it ; and I can assure those
who have not yet learned the true position of our farming, that
no profession, no business on earth can boast of more industri-
ous thought than is at this day devoted to the work of advanc-
ing the science of agriculture in New England, and of giving

58 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

a right direction to the practical labor of the farm. Whatever
success we meet with is not the result of chance, it is not an
accidental reward. It is that triumph which can only attend
man's footsteps as the fruits of patient, intelligent and indus-
trious toil.

Let us thank God, then, for our tenure of land, for our hard
and rugged soil, for the capabilities of our agriculture, and for
that necessity which rests upon us as the cultivators of New
England, to exercise those virtues whch can alone preserve the
great civil inheritance which has fallen to us as the sons of the
farmers who landed at Plymouth and fought at Bunker Hill.

AMERICAN INDUSTRY. 59

AGRICULTURE AND ITS RELATIONS TO
AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

From an Address to the Hampshire Agricultural Society, Oct. 14, 1858.

BY NATHANIEL P. BANKS.

There are few States that can keep pace with the American
people in the rapid increase of product and population. Their
numerical increase is unexampled, and their industrial product
is even more surprising than their increase in numbers. Every
field of human enterprise and labor has been explored and
exhausted, and when the last possible success, by known expe-
dients, has been attained, inventive genius has enlarged the
field of action, furnished new subjects and new objects, and
added to the general result by substituting the limitless labor
of machinery for that of persons. It is to this activity of mind
and body, the unceasing transformation of material, and the
necessary exchange of product and increased remuneration,
that we are to look as the sources of national wealth and the
prosperity of our people.

As we increase our capacity for labor, we extend the fields
of enterprise ; — stretch away from ocean to ocean, felling
forests, building cities, erecting states, forming constitutions,
constructing railways, tunneling mountains, excavating seas,
creating new literatures and striking out new systems of educa-
tion. As we glide along in this strange career, we attach
foreign states to us by reciprocal treaties, and connect conti-
nents by submarine telegraphs. Our ambition is to possess the
territory that immediately joins us, and to be right in the
neighborhood of those that own the rest of the world, ready to
buy or to sell at the slightest intimation that a reasonable chance
for trade exists. We religiously comply with the scriptural
injunction to replenish the earth, and not only increase our own
numbers, but are not greatly alarmed by threatened depopu-

60 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

lation of other States. An eastern stage driver a short time
since astonished an English earl who sought to confer an honor
upon the Yankee whip, by making his journey with him on the
box — " Hop on, squire," said the driver, " Hop on ! " So we
say to the nations, " Hop on : " — and we hardly debate the
question wliether they come to assist or to govern. A people
whose existence a century since was unknown to three-fourths
of the world, will, at the close of the present half century,
number a hundred million inhabitants.

In this brief history there is nothing so marvellous as the
extent, variety and increase of our industrial products. A
commerce whose entire import and export trade with Great
Britain, at the close of the revolutionary war, was less than
twenty-two million dollars, now has a trade exceeding five
hundred million, and has created, and finds employment for a
tonnage equal to that of the British empire. The commerce of
American lakes and rivers exceeds six hundred and fifty million
dollars annually.

The augmentation of national wealth by manufacturing and
mechanical industry is not less surprising. As in commerce
there is no sea that is not vexed by the toils of our mariners,
and no trade that is not stimulated by the enterprise of our
merchants, so there is no avenue of employment or product in
mechanic arts that is not subjected to the successful competition
of our manufacturers. And we not only accomplish our pur-
poses, but by new combinations of mechanical powers absolve
the human frame from no small part of its former toil. The
inventive genius of our countrymen seems to comprehend at a
glance the purpose and method of successful and unsuccessful
labor, and to provide new and royal means of accomplishing
what has been done, or to do that which never before has
been accomplished. From the pointing of a needle to the
bending of a ship's knees, there would hardly seem to be a
single demand for individual toil or the sluggish processes of
nature, that some inventive mind did not propose to circumvent
by the aid of machinery. Every departmenf, of human indus-
try is alike its debtor. Commerce, manufactures and agricul-
ture, through such instrumentality, have attained their present
power, and cherish reasonable aspirations for new and enlarged
spheres of action.

AMERICAN INDUSTRY. 61

It is but a few years since its merits, for it makes no claims,
were acknowledged at the world's industrial exhibition in
London. At the first glance, the Crystal Palace presented
nothing old, nothing that had been accomplished, in whatever
perfection, that was not European. A second glance forced
from unwilling juries and ungracious spectators the admission
that there was nothing new that was not American. From ocean
steamers to the pleasure yachts, there was nothing in navigation
that equalled the American architecture. The wealth of John
Bull wasjbeyond his reach or power when under the key of
an American locksmith, and never secure to him when under
his own ; and English authors, who, during the exhibition
lamented that important agricultural machinery, in common
use by the Roman farmers, had never been successfully con-
structed by modern artisans. Among the multifarious and new
ideas embodied in the agricultural machinery of the American
department, I had the pleasure of witnessing the successful
operation of an American reaper ; as precise, perfect and expe-
ditious as any reaper described in Roman song or history. A
similar success attended the exhibition of Paris in 1855, and
American mechanics received the first and second premiums
for reaping machines, the first award for sewing machines, the
first for pianos, the first for skill in dentistry, the first for
threshing machines, and honorable awards for other mechanical
triumphs. Truly one might say that the goddess of invention
was neither deaf to the prayers nor an uninterested observer of
the patient vigils of the sons of this land of high destiny. In
view of such results we might almost receive as true — as it is —
the declaration of Macaulay, that genius is as much subject to
the laws of supply and demand as cottftii or flour, molasses
or gin.

I trust I may be pardoned for this brief reference to the
progress of the arts of our own day. It is to commemorate such
advances in human knowledge, and especially when adapted to
the promotion of success in agriculture, that this association of
the devotees of American industry, was organized. It is for
this that the citizens of this ancient county, among the most
fertile and prosperous of the Commonwealth, have abandoned
their peaceful vocations and pleasures, for a day of festivity
united with improvement. It is by such gatherings that we

62 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

measure the steps that others have been making and ascertain
our own position. Here we learn by personal communication
the experience of others, and impart to them a knowledge of
our own success or failure. Apart from scenes like those to-day
presented to us we are not able to comprehend, much less to
explain, the rapid advances in civilization that have given us a
new name and fame abroad. In the isolation of home or in the
limited association which village or town life affords, we hear
with incredulous ears of reports of new achievements and novel
experiments, but here the strength of a multitude, tjje power
of association and union in which there is inspiration for all,
forces upon us a knowledge both of means and results. Intel-
ligent, enterprising and stalwart men, such as we have met on
every side, could have accomplished no less.

The annual product of American industry, in periods of
ordinary prosperity, is not less than four thousand million
dollars. A thousand millions are paid in wages alone. A sum
equal to the aggregate national debt of Great Britain is earned
every year by those that constitute the industrial classes in the
United States. Such an industrial product, regularly repeated
every year, and increasing in the ratio of fifty per centum in
every decennial period, is a fact never before recorded in
the industrial history of nations. It suggests to us how deep
an interest the American people have in the perpetuation of
that peace with other nations which they now enjoy. It is a
fact that, beyond the theories of mere speculators in political
philosophy, stamps our government — self-regulated and cheaply
administered, leaving its people with leisure and ability every
year with their own heads and hands to create a national pro-
duct equal to the accujpaulated debts of expensive governments
and protracted wars of a century — as the wisest and happiest
yet devised by man.

Of this industrial product, agriculture contributes by far the
largest part. It is susceptible of demonstration that if any
material sum be deducted from the gross amount stated as the
aggregate industrial product of the American people, upon the
ground of exorbitant estimates, it would leave to the agricul-
tural interest an incontestible claim to the honor of contributing
more than one-half the balance remaining whatever should be
the sum. The census returjis of 1850 exhibit a detailed agricul-

AMERICAN INDUSTRY. 63

tural product of that year, which at the current prices was
valued at one thousand three hundred and twenty-six millions
of dollars, an increase upon the product of 1840 of at least five
hundred millions, or nearly forty per centum. The same ratio
for the eight years since 1850 would give us an agricultural
product for the present year of nearly sixteen hundred millions
of dollars. And this sum was the estimate Mr. De Bow of the
census bureau placed upon the product of last year. But we
cannot estimate the aggregate products of this year upon the
ratio as to quantity or prices, of advances from 1840 to 1850.
The increase is in far greater ratio. The occupation of the
great agricultural states of Europe, in pursuits of death rather
than life, and the panic produced among us by anticipated
visions of short supplies and the startling reality of starvation
prices, and especially by the frightful uncertainty attending
pursuits of trade, have forced the attention of all — of consumers
as well as producers — to the necessity of a more general field
culture. To what extent has the aggregate product of agricul-
tural industry been increased from such causes ? How much
of the seventeen millions of acres of improved but uncultivated
lands of 1850 have been turned with the plough and enricheA
with seed for the first time, in the present year? In other
words, how many acres have been added in 1858 to the
improved as well as cultivated lands of 1850, whose upturned
soil now for the first time drinks in the dews of heaven, reflects
the sun's rays, and glistens with the golden autumnal grain ?
Who can say ?

This is what agricultural industry contributes to the wealth
of the country. A yearly contribution, a contribution in dollars
and dimes merely, and not embracing an estimate of its physi-
cal strength, its capacity for endurance, or the love of labor and
the moral power with which agricultural industry invests com-
munities wherever it prevails. In this view we confine our
consideration strictly to those who make field culture the busi-
ness of life. Beyond this, how wide the influence which it
exerts upon other pursuits. Whence do we derive the vigorous
intellect of professional life that adorns society with its varied
accomplishments, and protects individuals in the enjoyment of
life, health, and their moral and personal rights ? Whence
comes that vigorous and exhaustless intellect that revels in

64 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

new channels of thought, and by new conceptions of power, or
new combinations of old conceptions, creates the marvels —
miracles almost — that fill the world of invention from day to
day ? Who supplies the successive races of men that, occupy-
ing for a brief hour an obscure spot upon the merchants'
exchange in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Paris and
London, give to the world of finance and politics its law ?
Does professional society reproduce itself? Can inventive
spirits call up their own successors ? Have the mercantile
centres of the world ever reproduced their own financial giants ?
Never ! The farm supplies all. It is the salt of the earth, and if
this earth's salt lose its savor, wherewith shall the earth be salted.
The proportionate number engaged in the various employments
of human life, justify the repeated calls of all professions upon
the agricultural world for recruits. The rotation of crops is
not more incessant, nor prolific, than its supplies of men. Of
a population of five millions and four hundred thousand male
persons over fifteen years of age employed in the various indus-
trial pursuits in the United States, in 1850, two million and
four hundred thousand, or forty-five per cent., were engaged in
agriculture. Of thirty-five million of people in France, twenty
million, or fifty-seven per cent., were in 1851, employed in
agricultural pursuits. In England the proportion is not less.

Is it possible to state a higher claim to public consideration,
for any one element of public life, than that it creates the bulk
of national wealth, affords honorable and happy employment
for one-half of the industrial classes, replenishes the intellect
and genius of professional life, perpetuates the vigor and enter-
prise of the commercial world, provides physical sustenance for
all classes, gives stability to the restless movements of other
interests, and by its sober morality, chastens and subdues the
fiery elements of a corrupting civilization ?

And yet I do not greatly err, I suppose, in stating that one
object, and that one a chief object, of the association that exhibits
to-day so brilliant a share of the agricultural wealth and strength
of the State, is to recall the public mind both to the necessity and
profit of a more general attention to its demands. Everywhere
we have heard the appeal sounded from the press, the pulpit,
the halls of legislation and the public assembly. Something
more than the apparition of gaunt hunger, that flits occasionally

AMERICAN INDUSTRY 65

by our disturbed vision, has impressed upon the public mind a
fear that some of the great original interests of society are too
much neglected.

The feverish return to field labor, suggested by the closely
proximate want of the last year or two, by the appearance in
our great cities of the Middle States of hunger assemblies and
bread rioters, by the reference, at our tables, to the probability
of sufficient supplies for ourselves, and the suppressed sigh for
the thousands whose tables would bear little or none of that
which supports life, does not satisfy us. The inquiry is repeated,
Wliere are the young American men ? What drives them from
the homestead or the farm to the hazardous pursuits of specu-
lation : — pursuits in which success is as a hundred to one ;
which shorten the period of individual existence, dwarf the
physical proportions of our race, and shock us with the heart-
lessness of their conventionalities ?

There are several suggestions upon this point that claim
consideration. The most notable characteristic of the American
people is their intellectual activity. It is inherited from their
fathers. It is exhibited in every pursuit of life. It develops
itself in literature, in commerce, in politics, in mechanics, in
territorial expansion ; and those circles in which intellectual life
is most vivacious and vigorous, present the strongest claim to
public favor. Have agriculturists opened a sufficient field for
the exercise of this power ? If they have not, it is a failure in
the method rather than in the nature of their pursuit.

In other classes of business a process is adhered to only so
long as it is superior to all others, and constant experiment
subjects to constant tests its comparative efficiency and perfec-
tion. Is not tradition, on the other hand, adhered to as against
experiment, in no inconsiderate part of the agricultural world ?
In other pursuits, the aid of machinery has been constantly
invoked. Agriculture has, until the present generation, offered
but slight, if any encouragement, to the proffered aid of
mechanical powers. The chief ideas represented in the com-
plex structure of modern agricultural machinery, have been
known as existent powers for centuries, and many of them as
instruments used in the days of Roman ground culture. The
American reaper, that has lately startled the people of France,
as a few years since it did England, with the perfection of its
9

66 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

work and movement, accomplishes no more than was effected
by a machine in common use among the ancient Gauls, and
described by Roman authors. The winnowing machine of
modern times is based upon an idea borrowed from the machine
invented by the Chinese for cleaning rice. Mr. Dickson, a
standard author upon the husbandry of the ancients, says they
used all the different ploughs now used in England. Harrows
and cultivators are of equal antiquity with the plough. Both
drill husbandry, which is now recognized as of great value in the
economy of seed and manures, and the sowing machine, which
is no more than a necessary corrollary of drill husbandry, were
in common use among the farmers of China, Japan and Arabia.
Guano has been known as a fertilizer for two hundred years.
A late historian of the papal states declared that agricultural
science has not been carried so high by the farmers in Scotland
as by the Romans more than two thousand years ago. Even
our cautious maxims about experiments are inculcated by
ancient writers as strongly as by our own. It is not supposed
that in this time no improvements have been made. We have
not however improved upon the characteristics of Roman cul-
ture, which were system, accuracy and great vigilance against
waste ; but in results we have substituted a constant increase,
for the diminished product of which their writers complain.
And we are entirely relieved from that superstitious thraldom
of mind that made agricultural projects dependent upon lunar
and siderial influence, or required before sowing seed, that
the hopper should be lined with the skin of a hyena.. It
is not the fact that we are better employed and better paid, to
which we invite attention, but that the machinery exhibited to
us now as startling novelties, is in idea at least identical with
that used in Cliina, and Gaul, and Rome, thousands of years
ago. Could mechanical aids — so important as we must admit
these to be — have been so long excluded from manufactures or
commerce had they been equally serviceable as in agriculture ?
Is it not clear that some discouragement has weighed against
their admission in this branch of industry ; something like an
unreasonable adherence to the tradition of the past '? Do we
not see even now with what reluctance many intelligent farmers
admit the possibility of improvement upon the old methods of
husbandry ?

AMERICAN INDUSTRY. 67

The exclusive reliance of the farmer upon manual labor,
excludes from his employ that class of men, especially young
men, which finds intellectual occupation as necessary as bodily
exercise ; and this includes no small portion of the American
family. However much we may chant the praise of labor, it is
nevertheless true that continued and severe physical toil is
incompatible with mental culture or exertion. Can we be sur-
prised that young men should be attracted to those pursuits in
which boidily fatigue is accompanied by intellectual excite-
ment, rather than to that where mental action is extinguished
by physical exhaustion ? The substitution of mechanical labor
in the heavy business of farming, will not only attract the
attention of those who now fly from it, but it changes the char-
acter of the pursuit itself from that of drudgery to the dignity
of a science. There is satisfactory employment for the most
active mind in the analysis of soils, the study of the principles
which regulate the phenomena of the atmosphere, through the
operation of the barometer, the thermometer, the hygrometer
and rain gauge ; in tracing the laws of vegetable and animal
life, and in the innumerable pursuits which make farming,
when elevated to the dignity of an intellectual as well as labo-
rious pursuit, the most solacing and satisfactory of all human
employments.

Nor need we limit the aid of mechanical powers to that point
we have attained. Other improvements will follow. A friend
in whose ability I have confidence, stated that he had in con-
templation a machine capable, with the aid of a single man, of
sowing, harrowing and rolling ten acres of wheat in a single
day. The steam plough at no distant day will usurp the
place of the draft power, connected with the plough since
the l)eginning of rural history. The substitution of liquid
fertilizers for the present cumbersome and weighty manures,
will perfect the economy commenced with the introduction of
drill husbandry, and portable farm railways make even the
heavy work of farming a pastime and pleasure. It is objected,
I am aware, that these implements are beyond the means of
small farmers. But the answer is that it is never necessary for
a man of limited means to purchase an implement of doubtful
utility. There are always other means of testing the value of
new assistants ; and in regard to the heavier and more expensive

68 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

machines, it will not be difficult by association, or hiring from
those able to purchase, to realize all their benefits at a cheap
rate.

Great aid can be rendered in this regard by the government.
And I trust the day is not distant, when its clandestine aid to
agricultural interests, through the inappropriate channel of the
patent office, may be exchanged for an intelligent agricultural
bureau, such as was suggested by Washington ; when a national
experimental farm, to test the virtue of seeds, and the merits of
agricultural instruments, and to diffuse knowledge in the great
science of land culture, may be established by the general
government, at Mount Vernon or some other suitable spot.

They are rather social than pecuniary influences which attract
our young men to the West. The average value of occupied
land per acre in New England is not much greater than in the
North- Western States, and far less than the average value in
the Middle States. If we remember the proximity to markets,
railways and navigation, it does not exceed the average value
in the North-West. There must be, therefore, other reasons
than those connected with cheap lands.

An important effect of this general change in the character
of agricultural labor would be to bring its votaries more imme-
diately in connection with public affairs and the government, to
their mutual advantage. In the present condition of public
affairs, I know nothing more truly to be desired, than that every
citizen of whatever calling, should give them sufficient personal
attention to be able to comprehend the exigencies of the country.
This demands some degree of personal leisure, and some per-
sonal sacrifices. But it is indispensable. The great obstacle
in the way of establishing popular government elsewhere, is the
impossibility of securing popular attention. And if our own
institutions fail, it will be from public indifference. I hail
therefore every change which tends to strengthen opportunities
for reflection and intelligent action as a public blessing ; and
more especially if it affect that great class of our people, — a
majority of those actively engaged in industrial pursuits, — who,
separated by their position from a thousand corrupting influences
that circumvent others, recipients of pure air, healthful exer-
cises, and satisfied desires, are the safe depositories of a nation's

AMERICAN INDUSTRY. 69

highest trust, its lands : — I mean the farmers of the United
States. To their ranks may we not now turn, as in other times,
for such a man as the genius of Tennyson summons forth, as
a right guide for the people of England : —

" A man of heart, head hand,

One of the shnple gi-eat ones, gone
Forever and ever by —
A still strong hand in a blatant land,

Whatever they call him, what care I,
Aristocrat, democrat, autocrat, — one
That can rule and dare not lie."

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

THE LAWS OF VEGETATION.

From an Address before the Hampden East Agricultural Society, Oct. 6, 1858.

BY OLIVER MARCY.

All material existence is divided into organic and inorganic,
and the organic is again divided into vegetable and animal, so
that one of the earliest attempts of the human mind at scientific
classification gives us three kingdoms in nature, — the mineral,
the vegetable, and the animal.

Tlie mineral is affected by blind forces only, such as gravity,
cohesion and affinity, and these affect every part alike. In the
mass there is no differentiation of parts to contribute to the
good of the united whole, but all parts are perfectly similar in
structure and office, and the least particle repeated makes the
whole mass.

In the vegetable, there is superadded a vital force which con-
trols and modifies the blind forces of the mineral, and builds
for itself an existence distinct from every other existence,
whose parts differ from each other in structure and office, but
mutually contribute to the sustentation of the whole. The
spongioles, the root, the stem, the leaf are each distinct organs,
and each performing different parts of the work, co-operate to
build the organic vegetable from the inorganic mineral.

The animal is endowed with vital force also, and has added
sensation and instinct ; but though air and water in their
unorganized state contribute to his welfare, yet he cannot live
upon these alone ; the mineral must be organized by the action
of the organs of the vegetable before it can serve as food for
the animal ; so that the logical order of existence is, first, the
mineral, then the vegetable, and last, and depending upon both
the others, is the animal. Here then appears the important
fact as a natural and logical necessity, as a part of the plan of
God, that all food for 7nan and beast depends primarifi/ and
essentially upon vegetable growth. And the corrollary is, that

LAWS OF VEGETATION. 71

the attention of the man who would improve agriculture, must
in the first place, be directed to the cultivation of the plant.

It is a fact, that the luxuriance of the tropics, the original
heavy woodlands stretching across our plains, flanking the hill-
sides and shading the dells, the expanse of meadows covered
with waving grass, the prairies expanding ocean-like, in one
continuous vegetating turf, (though as we repeat them, they
seem abundant,) afford only a precarious supply to savage
beasts and savage men. Civilization cannot take a step without
the cultivation of the plant, and the production in it of those
changes which cultivation effects.

Low in the scale of civilized life as was the aboriginal Ameri-
can, he cultivated patches of maize, and beans and peas. Lazy,
careless and improvident of the future as savages are, in most
climes, they are compelled by the necessities of mere existence
to cultivate the soil to supply those wants which the spontane-
ous productions will not supply. This necessity for cultivating
the plant also exists in respect to those animals that accompany
man, and upon whose existence his happiness very much
depends. God has provided the plant for food wherever the
animal could exist. The elephant and the rhinoceros luxuriate
in the abundance of the tropics, and the reindeer paws his
moss from beneath the snows ; the herbivorous fish is provided
with vegetable forage in the depths of the ocean, and insects
feed upon vegetables in the boiling geysers ; but if we w^ould
have the horse and the ox serviceable to us in the winter, when
the green leaf is dead, and the fruit is fallen and covered with
snow, we must cultivate and store away for them an abundance
of their vegetable aliment. Would you change the lean,
sinewy, bony, savage wild boar of the forest into that sleepy
grunter — that roll of all delicious juices, and all tender meats
and steaks — the Berkshire pig, you must stuff his stomach with
cultivated vegetables ; would you transform the spirited bucks
of the mountains into the innocent doughfaces that nip the ver-
dure of jour hills in summer, and claim the protection of your
sheds in winter, — would you clothe yourself with their beautiful
fleece and regale yourself upon smoking mutton chops, you
must cultivate for him the vegetable ; would you eat the golden
pippen instead of the acid and indigestible crab ; would you
press to your lips the blushing peach and suck its delicious

72 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

pulp instead of tlie original poisonous fruit of ancient Media,
full of prussic acid ; would you fill your cellars with potatoes
and turnips, beets and cabbages, without which a farmer's
dinner is impossible, you must cultivate the vegetable. Would
you regale your eye with a hundred varieties of dahlias, roses,
pinks and verbenas ; would you have your cottage ensconced in
trees, your lawns green and bordered by hedges, and your farm
a picturesque landscape, you must cultivate the vegetable.
Aye, what comfort does not come from the vegetable ? The
clothing we wear, the houses we live in, the winter fire we
enjoy, the newspapers we read, the tobacco we smoke, the
opium we revel in, the tea and coffee we infuse, the liquors we
ferment, all come from the vegetable, and if there be any other
good, if we cultivate the vegetable, we may sell and buy.

To know how to do this requires a most intimate knowledge
of the anatomy of plants. For the farmer has not only to con-
tend with the diseases of plants, as the physician does with the
diseases of man, but he has to administer proper food ; not only
has he to produce a healthy, natural growth, but as in the
cabbage, turnip, carrot and potato, to produce by his treatment
a change in the character and habits.

The whole structure of the plant is very curious, complicated
and interesting. In the root each one of the thousands of little
radicles is terminated by a bundle (spongiole) of little hollow
hairs, which operate like a sponge on the fluid that passes over
them. This is the way the plant takes its food ; it has no
organs of locomotion by which to go and seek, no claws to
catch, no teeth to tear in pieces and masticate ; but the earth
all around the stem is filled with spongioles, and when the
showers fall upon the surface they dissolve the nutrient solids,
and percolating downward are sucked into the organs of the
plant. Many think that these little spongioles have an instinc-
tive choice in the selection of food, taking up those solutions
and those only which the plant needs. As a general statement
it is true, that the same species of plants in different situations
will contain — as found by analysis — the same ingredients in the
same proportion ; it is true, also, that when grown upon the
same soil, the ashes of turnips will contain one twenty-fifth
soda, while oats will have none. It is also true that when the
root is cut off and the fresh cut surface inserted in any solution,

LAWS OF VEGETATION. 73

as blue vitriol, the solution is taken up into the stem ; but we
know not that any solutions injurious to the plant do enter into
its circulation, unless like corrosive sublimate they first destroy
the spongioles.

The labor of the cultivator is to be almost wholly expended
on the root. The root and its relations should be his chief
study. He can affect the plant but little in any other way.
The winds of heaven laden with moisture, and which affect the
leaf, blow as they have blown, and for field crops the cultivator
has little control over them. Equally beyond his control are
the gentle showers and the drenching rain. But the condition
of the root is more completely in his hands ; lie can place proper
ingredients for food around it in the soil ; he can regulate the
quantity of water by irrigating, ditching, subsoiling and hoeing.
If the soil is too stiff to fit his plant, he can loosen it ; if too
light, he can supply clay till it suits him.

Water holding saline substances in solution, constitutes
seventy, eighty and ninety per cent, of the green plant and
may be dried out of it. It circulates through every part of it
— in the stem, the root and the leaf. This circulating fluid
answers the same purpose in the plant that the blood does in
the animal, or the rivers and canals do in the body politic, to
transport food from member to member. The root, the stem,
the leaf are essentially composed of cells, round or square, or
hexagonal in the softer parts, but in the firmer parts elongated
into hollow fibrous tubes, closed at each end and beveled to
each other. It is in these that all assimilation takes place, that
the food is changed into the substance of the plant, that water
and carbon are changed into gum, and sugar, and starch, and
resin, and volatile oils, and organic acids ; for Nature has away,
unknown to the chemist, of making all these substances, how-
ever different, from the same ingredients, water and charcoal.
The plant grows by the multiplication and enlargement of these
cells. At first they are a transparent vesicle or sac filled with
fluid. In some, this fluid can be seen to circulate around the
walls, up one side, down the other, bearing little particles of
organized matter. The sap does not circulate in tubes as the
blood does in animals, but it goes from cell to cell, passing
through their membranaceous walls as liquids of different densi-
ties will circulate through a piece of bladder. As the sap

10

74 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

passes on to the leaf, and especially in the leaf, the pure water
finds means of escape and the remaining solution is concen-
trated and the dissolved earthy matter is deposited.

These cells multiply with great rapidity. In the mushroom,
millions are formed in a single night, multitudes coming into
existence in a second of time. In trees, a thick layer is formed
each year between the wood and the bark, at first soft and filled
with water, at length harder and containing earthy matter.
The woody fibres always grow downwards, from the bud and
the leaf among the other cells, and crowding them outward
causes the stem to expand in diameter. Thus jow have seen
the branch or stem when bound by tendrils of the grape or by
the bitter-sweet, (^selastnis secandetis) expand above and grow
over the ligature while it remained small below. In grafting,
too, the woody fibres from the scion shoot down among the cells
of the stock, and it grows on. But the bud or scion maintains
its orighial character as distinct and perfect as if it had a root
of its own, for in the multiplication of cells, each cell produces
its like. The product of a bark cell is a bark cell, the product
of woody fibre is woody fibre ; the cells that secrete matter
peculiar to the sweet apple never secrete matter peculiar to the
sour. It is to the cell that we look for the integrity of species,
and in it the unknown changes take place that produce varieties.
The cell is the laboratory in which the whole character of the
plant is wrought out. It is the seat of that invisible, immaterial
something we call life. It is the primary element in all
organic bodies. We can observe its phenomena, talk of the
changes produced in its contents, but of the power that brings
it into existence and superintends its wonderful operations we
see, we know nothing.

How beautiful is the foliage of plants, the verdure of
nature ; the woody hills with their light green oaks and chest-
nut, and darker pines and hemlocks ; the agitated aspen, the
meads changing shade with the season, the crops of corn and
oats, and rye, varying the landscape like a work of tapestry, the
sombre screen thrown over our cottages in the summer noon ;
all these are grateful to our feelings. But while the leaf comes
into the larger plan of human happiness, it is absolutely essen-
tial in the smaller sphere of the existence of the vegetable
individual. One great function of the leaf is evaporation and

LAWS OF VEGETATION. 75

consequent condensation of the crude sap, a distillation by
which pure water is removed and the contents dissolved in it
concentrated. Its thin, expanded form, exposing a great sur-
face to the action of the dry air and the rays of the sun favors
this. A single sunflower has been known to throw off from its
leaves two pounds of water in twelve hours. The supply,
of course, comes from the spongioles. When the sun shines
the most intensely and the atmosphere is dryest, evaporation is
the most rapid, and if the supply from the root meet the demand
from the leaf, all the operations of life in the plant are most
intensely active. But if the supply from the root is not equal
to the evaporation from the leaf, then the cells, no longer dis-
tended by fluid, collapse, the leaf wilts, and if it remain long
in that condition, dies. To keep up the balance between the
waste and supply, a curious regulator is introduced, in effect,
though not in structure, like that placed upon the steam-engine
to keep the machinery driven at a uniform rate. This arrange-
ment consists of longitudinal openings (^stomata) through the
cuticle into the intercellular passages of the leaf. These open-
ings are bounded on either side by an elongated cell made fast
at each end ; as the cell fills and expands and the distance
between the two ends cannot be increased, it curves outward
and opens the orifice and the water exudes rapidly, but when
the cells are collapsed the curvature become less, the orifice is
closed and evaporation ceases except through the cell walls.
Very little evaporation takes place during the night, and you
have noticed that the corn leaves which rolled up during the
day expanded during the night by the continued activity of the
root. In transplanting, when the radicals are broken off so
that the proper supply of moisture is not taken up, the plant
droops, and you cover the leaves to protect them from the
evaporating force of the sun and air till new spongioles are
grown and the root is in a condition to do its duty.

Another function of the leaf is to effect a chemical change in
the sap as it passes through it. The green color of the leaf is
due to a peculiar substance in its cells called chlorophyl, which
in connection with sunlight, produces a decomposition and
recomposition in the contents of the sap. I must be explicit
here, for the knowledge is interesting and important. Every body
knows that common charcoal exists in and can be obtained from

76 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

plants ; that it is insoluble in water and even in the strongest
acids or alkalies. How then came it in the plant which we have
seen has no power of taking up substances in the solid state ?
Place your charcoal on the fire, and it mostly disappears. Is it
annihilated ? No. Man can destroy nothing. It has united
with oxygen the vital part of the atmosphere, and formed an
invisible gas, which in its behavior is wholly unlike either
charcoal or atmosphere. It is not solid. Heat it and it will
not burn ; thrust a candle into it and the candle goes out ;
breathe it and it kills you. Chemists have called it carbonic
acid. It is composed, by weight, of six parts charcoal and
sixteen parts oxygen. From four to six parts in each ten
thousand of the atmosphere is carbonic acid. The falling
rain absorbs it, the spongioles take it up, it is transported
to the leaf, and there comes in contact with the chlorophyl.
When the sun shines upon it, the sixteen p*^rts of oxygen are
liberated, given back to the atmosphere, and the charcoal is
combined with the water, making woody fibres. Immerse a
growing plant in the water and place it in the sunshine, and you
will see little bubbles rising from the leaves. Invert a tumbler
over it — you may catch the bubbles as they rise. When the
tumbler is full, place a candle in it and it burns with great
brilliancy, breathe it and it is a tonic. It is not carbonic acid,
it is pure oxygen.

The leaf also absorbs much carbonic acid directly from the
air and some plants derive most of their carbon in that way.
Place a growing plant under a receiver full of carbonic acid and
common air ; by and by it will be found that the carbonic acid
has gone, and oxygen has taken its place.

Every fire that burns, every animal that breathes, sends out
carbonic acid to feed the plant, and every plant is at work
decomposing the gas and returning the pure oxygen to the air
for the consumption of the animal. Deity has made these
kingdoms complements of each other — parts of the united whole.

There is an element of food for the plant which deserves
passing notice here. It is small in quantity but seems as essen-
tial to the plant as nails to the house. Its name is nitrogen.
It exists only in the new cells, never in the old. It exists also
in the gluten of wheat and in peas and beans. There is a little
about each eye of the potato and in the germ of every seed.

LAWS OF VEGETATION. 77

New cells cannot be formed without it, and where it is present
in considerable quantities, vegetable growth is stimulated to
great rapidity. It is supplied to the soil by your barnyard
manures, and in small quantities washed from the atmosphere
by rain. All those fertilizers which have attained celebrity for
producing rapid growths contain it in large proportions. But
nitrogen and its compounds are not alone sufficient for the plant
to live on any more than sugar will suffice for the only food of
man. The other elements of vegetable tissues must be within
the reach of the root and the leaf, or all the guano in the world
cannot make the plant grow.

Let us look over a little and see what the plant is made of,
how the elements are introduced, and what we can do to supply
them. The most important is water. It is important not
only because it is the agent by which the solid substances,
potash, soda and silica are introduced into the plant, but because
it is itself food for the plant, combining with carbon and form-
ing most of its solid organic tissues. It consists of eight parts
of oxygen to one of hydrogen, and in all the organic com-
pounds of tlie vegetable, oxygen and hydrogen exist in the same
proportion, and we therefore say they combine as water, or that
water is not resolved into its elements in combination. Woody
fibre when dry, contains, by weight, equal parts of carbon and
water, seventy-two parts of the one and seventy-two parts of
the other. Cane sugar contains seventy-two parts of carbon
and ninety parts of water. Starch has the same composition.

The earthy ingredients are deposited in the cells and are
necessary to the strength and growth of the stem and the per-
fection of the seed, fitting them for the food of animals and
man. In every ton of red clover hay which you cut from the
field, there are forty pounds of potash, eleven pounds of soda,
fifty-six pounds of lime, eighty pounds of silica, nine pounds of
oil of vitriol, thirteen pounds of phosphoric acid, and seven
pounds of chlorine. In every ton of clover hay you cart from
the field you cart away one hundred and fifty pounds of these
mineral substances. And tliis is done year after year, not only
in your hay, but in your corn, your oats, and your rye. Whence
come these elements to supply the perpetual demand made
upon them by the annual cropping ? Do they exist in the soil
in such quantities that they never become exhausted ? I will

78 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

let the present condition of your soil, compared with what it
once was, answer. I will let tliose old, forsaken, desolate, pine
barrens of Virginia, once fertile, and the seat of productive
baronial estates, answer. I will let you answer, as year by year
you shovel and tug, and cart to your fields those very ingredi-
ents of the soil which your fathers carted off and dumped into
the rivers.

Through the providence of God, water comes to you as to
your fathers, in the showers of heaven, in the early and the
latter rain. There is as much carbonic acid and nitrogen in
the air now as then, but the decomposing organic matter, the
remains of falling leaves and decaying herbs collected through
untold ages, are gone. The soluble salts have been carted
away and have not been returned. There is silica enough, but
it is not in a soluble condition. There is potash enough but it
is held fast in the feldspar of the granite and sand, and gravel,
which are but slowly decomposed. Leach your ashes and take
out the potash, and then apply them to these sandy soils, a
large proportion of which is silica, and you will, perhaps, double
the crop of corn, because the silica in the ashes is in a soluble
state, ready to be taken up by the roots, and that in the soil is
not. But unleached ashes are better, for they contain potash
which is not only itself an element of vegetable food, but will
unite with the silica in the soil, and render it soluble. Ashes
are valuable fertilizers, but we advise you never to burn a plant
for the sake of the ashes it produces, never to burn it to get it
out of the way, if you can compost it and cause it to decom-
pose. In burning a plant, the carbon is given off into the air
and adds but a moiety to the whole whence it must be washed
by the rain or absorbed by the leaves ; but in the decomposition
of the plant in the soil, all the elements of food are evolved
around the root, and when there is a good supply, the plant
takes it up in quantities limited only by the activity of its
organs. One element in abundance is better than no fertiliz-
ing. The abundance of the one may stimulate the plant to
uncommon energy in absorbing others not so abundant. But
the plant grows best when all the elements of food are abun-
dant. No animal will fatten while he must run to seek his food.
We put the ox in the stall and the pig in the sty and help them
to all they want.

LAWS OF VEGETATION. 79

On the same principle, and witli the same care, we should
treat the cabbage, the turnip and the beet. Burn your potato
tops and pumpkin vines ? No ; raise crops on purpose to turn
under the soil, without the smell of fire having passed over
them. Your clover has spread its leaves to the wind, and
taken in carbon and nitrogen ; it' has thrust it roots down into
the subsoil and taken up the soluble salts which the other
plants had not reached ; it has organized these mineral elements,
and when you turn it under the turf and plant your corn, the
corn has abundance of nutriment ready prepared for its use.
Wherever you can get a crop of clover you may get a crop of
corn. If you have nothing but a sand bank, put on guano or
something to make your seed catch and stimulate the plant,
and every thing that is in the soil,, and in the air, and in the
rain, will be brought into the crop. Turn it iu, and you have
logt nothing but gained much. Now a crop of grain will grow
without guano. But cart off the green crops and you have lost
the few essential materials which the plant extracted under
stimulus. Even that powerful stimulant, guano, cannot pro-
duce a crop after a few repetitions.

It is a " penny wise and pound foolish" policy that cannot
afford to turn in the green crop when it is grown, and will end
like all such policies, in- bankruptcy — bankruptcy of the soil,
and bankruptcy of the purse. I know of no so obvious and
valuable means of fertilizing worn out or naturally barren lands,
which the people in this vicinity so much neglect, as the turn-
ing in of green crops. Nature always proceeds in this way,
why should not we ? Throw up the barren subsoil to the sur-
face, the spores of lichens floating in the air lodge upon it, the
plant springs up and lives upon air and water, it throws out its
spores in a circle around its position and dies, bequeathing the
organized matter to the barren soil. In this centre the seeds
of grasses which demand organic matter in the soil, spring up
and grow, and around, the new spores also spring up to enlarge
the circle of fertility, and this continues till the barren clay
and sand is covered with a handsome green turf. The old,
worn out tobacco lands of Virginia are being completely reno-
vated by green crops. Thousands of acres that were once
fertile estates have been for years covered with old land pines.
They were desolate, barren, of little value. It was found that

80 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

guano would produce clover, and the clover turned in would
produce wheat and corn, and now abundant crops wave where
once the breeze sighed in the stinted pines. We know many
good farmers in the state of New York, who rely wholly upon
plaster and clover for their corn crops. You may save your
green crops if you have peat. But where is the farmer who
uses peat when he has it ? I see only here and there a man
who esteems it properly ; we almost always hear it said " it is
cold stuff." Such persons are in the same error with the man
who drinks ardent spirits and thinks excitement as good as
strength. Look at Northampton meadows in early spring and
your crops are ahead of theirs. Crops there depend more upon
the soil, and not so much upon manure. Go again in August
and the meadow crops are , ahead of yours. These crops are
like two children ; the one has brains and nerves in excess and
not much stomach, blood, or muscle ; he learns quick, liates
work, and don't care about play ; but if he lives, he has matured
at twenty-five or thirty, knows all he will know, has accom-
plished his reputation ; he fails any longer to come up to
expectation ; he is as great a man as he ever will be. The other
has a less active brain, though perhaps as much of it ; he has
more blood and muscle ; he eats, works, plays, sleeps and
grows. After expectation has been disappointed in the first, he
begins to astonish folks ; he arrives at his full ripeness only
after the other man is dead, but his harvest of learningy
strength, and manly wisdom is more abundant. Your crops,
with only stimulating fertilizers, like the first boy, have no
organic basis on which the activity can be continued for a great
length of time ; but the crop in the meadow throws its thick
roots deep into the soil, where there is abundance of the real
aliment of the plant, and when the sun comes to the solstice,
his energy upon the leaf is answered by the vigorous energy of
the root, and the crop grows fastest when your stimulated plant
has exhausted all its resources. Potatoes have been stimulated
to death. The potato rot, whether it be an insect or a fungus,
or some internal organic disposition to decay, is, we believe,
due to artificial, stimulating fertilizers. The best potatoes we
have seen this year, the cleanest, fairest, the most free from
rot, the most perfect every way, were raised on sandy soil, upon
which nothing but peat has been placed for several years.

POSITION OF THE FARMER. 81

THE SOCIAL AND CIVIL POSITION
OF THE FAHMEE.

From an Address before the Franklin Agricultural Society, Oct. 6, 1858.

BY GEORGE B. LORING.

It seems hardly necessary that I should remind you that the
first step man takes is in the art of tilling the soil. His phys-
ical wants make a farmer of him, with a necessity as irrevocable
as the decrees of the primal curse. His progress from this
condition to the construction of buildings for his comfort, of
tools for his convenience, and of articles of luxury and use by
which he becomes the mechanic and the manufacturer, and his
advancement to that state in which he exchanges his products
and establishes the commerce of the world with all its civilizing
influences, must be familiar to all your thoughts. But if you
go still further you will see how agriculture gives tone and
quality to a nation and to its institutions. Aside from that
necessity which compels man to appeal to the earth for subsist-
ence, there is that attachment to the soil which, once established ,
can never be broken up. It is the strength of this attachment
which rouses so many substantial virtues into active operation,
for the protection of our possessions. Prudence, economy,
judgment, sagacity, that honesty which is the best policy, are
all exercised by him who has by hard toil secured the possession
of land, or who is called upon to preserve and cultivate his
ancestral acres. Careful forethought becomes his daily habit.
He feels the high importance of a moral and intelligent
community to his safety and happiness. The responsibilities
of his situation mature and dignify his thoughts, and call upon
him to sustain those institutions of education and religion,
without which society would fall into a hideous and dangerous

anarchy. As a farmer he has daily cause to recognize the
11

82 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

power of an overruling Providence, and his tendency is towards
a religious sense of gratitude ; he is obliged to study the
operations of nature, and his perceptions become acute ; he
knows the protection which he receives from his country, and
he becomes loyal ; he is by the very accident of his birth
attached to the spot of his nativity, and he becomes one of that
permanent population which receives the proud title of yeomanry.
Now it is not alone that this man occupies the position from
which society begins, but he also preserves that ground upon
which society rests. He is constantly building up what other
occupations are tearing down. The toil and depression of
associated life in cities, the weary confinement of the mechanic
arts and manufactures, the destruction of the seas, are all
making draughts upon human life which agriculture is called
upon to supply. In the heated and restless existence of
workshops and mills, passions are engendered which are always
at war upon those safe and reliable characteristics found in the
rural population. Against all that enervates, undermines and
demoralizes society, agriculture offers the protection of undying
vigor, rugged intelligence, and stern and sagacious virtues. A
community of successful farmers understand the value of
education — they must have school-houses. They know the
high worth of morality and religion — they build churches.
The hum of the busy town reaches their ears, and they hear
that all around the great palaces of manufacturing wealthy
poverty and ignorance and crime cluster in horrid groups, and
agriculture stretches forth her hand to feed the hungry and
clothe the naked, pouring forth her harvests to enrich a country,
and to enable it to protect its poor, and educate its ignorant^
Do you wonder then that England sets so high a value upon
her agricultural interests ? She knows too well whence comes
those qualities which make her a great people. Society there,
as well as in our own country, recognizes its true foundation,
and however high it may rise, however brilliant may be the
elegance and refinement of life, however elevated it may become
in thought, however pure it may be in life, amidst the dreams
of poets, and the designs of the ambitious, it always receives
new vigor and new life from contact with its great mother.

Do not understand me to say that the characteristics which
agriculture develops are all high and noble and useful. Like

POSITION OF THE FARMER. 83

all other occupations it is liable to perversion. The conservative
virtues which belong to it, and which establish tjie confidence
mankind feel in it, may be converted into the hardest and most
immovable defects. Still it retains its social position, furnishing
mankind food, supplying muscles for labor in the various arts,
creating and employing the mechanic and the manufacturer,
and cultivating man to a height of physical and moral
excellence which supplies the raw material out of which the
leaders of our race are created. Do you doubt this ? Go with
me to the pulpit and learn how large a proportion of the talent
there displayed had its origin in the farming population. Enter
the bar, and you will find the sons of farmers there exercising
the intellectual and physical strength imparted to them in their
youth on the farms of their fathers. Look around the forum,
and the greatest statesmen there long to return once more
to the acres where their growing powers were moulded, — to
the rural life whence they inherited the natural powers which
lie at the foundation of their success. Learn from these men
the first lesson which they teach — that agriculture literally
gives birth to society, and recuperates it with unceasing bounty.
And learn moreover, as has been justly said, that " it would
be no difficult task, it would require no special pleading, no
ingenious tricks of argument, to prove that all human knowledge,
science, art, culture and skill, with some of the richest means
of happiness, have come directly to man through the tillage of
the earth."

Agriculture lies not only at the foundation of the most
substantial social virtues, but also at the foundation of the most
substantial social prosperity. In our own country it is the
prevailing occupation of a free, industrious and thriving people,
impatient to grow rich. Three-fifths of the population of the
United States rely upon it for their subsistence, and derive from
it all the means they enjoy of obtaining moral and intellectual
culture. Two millions four hundred thousand of our able-
bodied citizens labor on the soil ; and they hold in their hands
three-fifths of the whole wealth of our country, pouring annually
more than a thousand millions of dollars into the store-houses
of the nation. And how steadily and surely this great
occupation goes on ! To the miUions devoted to it, financial
crises are unknown. While the ardor of ambition and the flush

84 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of hope, and the impulse of self-confidence, and the love of
chance, and the excitement of trade, gather a restless and
uneasy crowd into the market place and the exchange, where
fortune smiles upon the few, as the great mass pass from the
glowing morning of their early aspirations and promises, down
to the gloomy night of disappointment and ruin, the constant
and even prosperity of agriculture blesses all its faithful follow-
ers according to their deserts. It is no game of hazard. Its
rewards are not large — but its independence is great. There
is an even-handed justice in its dispensations, which scatters its
favors with an equal hand, and relieves mankind of poverty on
the one hand, and of the burdens of excessive wealth on the
other. The world has learned to envy the rich and the
powerful, through an indiscriminate admiration of every kind
of success. But if you would learn where the most independent
happiness and prosperity are to be found, go with me to that
farming pioneer who makes himself a home where necessity
compels him to clear his own farm, feed and clothe and educate
his own family, until he becomes one of a community of farmers
like himself, safely removed from the toils and temptations of
what is called a prosperous world. He may be deprived of some
of the elegances and refinements of life, but he loses none
of his manhood, none of his robust self-reliance, none of his
strong and rugged individuality ; and if you desire to estimate
his influence upon his day and generation, you may remember
that from such a father and from such a farm sprang the great
statesman of New England, whose wisdom is the glory of the
American people, whose love of the soil is the pride of American
agriculture, and whose high career stands as a monument to
the name of Webster, and to the farm at Franklin, as enduring
as that Constitution and that Union to which he devoted his
mighty powers.

In assigning this high social position to agriculture, I by no
means desire to disparage commerce, manufactures, and the
mechanic arts. I only wish to give them their proper places.
I recognize their vast benefits to the interests of agriculture.
I am not unmindful of the stimulus they have given our calling
by improving our implements of husbandry, and by creating
markets at home, and opening those abroad for tlie consumption
of our products. I estimate the full value of this compensation

POSITION OF THE PARMER. 85

which our manufacturing and commercial towns render to the
rural population, in return for the drafts they make upon
its moral, physical and intellectual strength. I am dealing
only with their relative positions. And when I consider how
powerless all other interests would become before the wasting
effects of a famine, how instantly a broken and bankrupt
trading community turns to agriculture for the means of relief,
and sees a ray of hope gleaming upon the country from
bounteous harvests, I am more than ever confirmed in my
respect for the parent of all social and civil enterprise. Storms
may sweep our seas, fire may consume our mills, bankruptcy
may walk our streets, but so long as the floods and drought,
are stayed from our farms, so long as seed time and harvest
continue on the earth, society will rest upon a foundation
which no convulsions can destroy.

It is indeed true that mankind in all ages have given this
position to agriculture. The oldest nations of the earth, whose
annals run back to the Mosaic account of the creation, have
not only supported a teeming population from the soil, but
they have preserved an isolated political integrity which nothing
can shake. It was Syria in the days of Abraham, and Egypt
in the days of the Ptolemies, that as agricultural countries
increased in wealth and population. It is agriculture which
has alone fed the Chinese nation for centuries, and has enabled
that peculiar people to preserve unmolested its manners and
customs against the constant and eager attempts of outside
barbarians. No wonder then that mankind has an instinctive
attachment to this occupation. The poet, from the days ot
Hesiod down to our own time, has sung his sweetest and most
joyous song, inspired by the daily associations which attend the
path of the farmer. Speak but of the voices of nature which
surround him, — of the dewy stillness of the morning, of the
first soft whispering of spring, of the echoing call of his cattle
among the hills, of the busy hum of harvest, of the mysterious
midnight wind, of the wild raging and still repose of winter,
of the beauties of field and forest, and all man's nature responds
with quick, instinctive impulse. The words that are uttered
tell of all that is most dear to him, of all that he has one day
enjoyed, or of all that he hopes to possess before he is called
from his place on earth. In this respect agriculture has no

86 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

parallel. The music of the mill has not yet been sung in strains
that have an irresistible charm. The sad and sorrowful lines
of the " Song of the Shirt," and of the " corn-law rhymer" are
about all that belong to the poetry of in-door toil. The
deafening noise of machinery, and the heat of the crowded shop,
however much they have done for the prosperity of mankind,
have never risen above the level of a useful and important
trial. No man turns to them for relief from higher and harder
cares. He whose exhausted brain seeks comfort and repose
from the toils of busy life, whose energies have been wasted in
the incessant strife of the forum or the pulpit, the bar or the
market-place, does not return to the work bench or the last for
the exhilaration he so much needs. Oh, no ! His thoughts
run back to green fields, to the silence of the country, to the
sights and sounds of agriculture. He finds there his sure
relief. Is he fortunate in business ? As he finds himself on
the down hill of life and thinks of its close, he buys a farm and
hopes to die there. Is he unfortunate in business ? He rakes
together the remnants of his broken fortune, and settles down
upon a farm. Has he been tossed all his life on the stormy
sea ? He looks about him to find the repose of country life.
Let his occupation be what it may, he hopes to own one day
land enough to establish his claim to the earth, and in the
peaceful retreat of which he can prepare himself for heaven.
It is nature, liberal, bounteous, benign, inexhaustible, responsive,
divine, which has appointed agriculture as her handmaid, and
has given her power to impart vigor to man for his active social
duties, and to receive him into her calm embrace when the
curtain falls and the great drama of his existence is brought
to a close.

From the consideration of the social position of agriculture,
I now pass to its relation to the state. In obedience to the divine
law which called us into being the generations of men come and
go, man lives his appointed time, all latitudes, all races, all states,
all occupations become one under the universal law of birth,
maturity and decay. Not so, however, with nations. Empires
rise and fall, dynasty follows dynasty, monarchies and republics
succeed each other in rapid revolution, the exceeding glory of
to-day becomes clouded to-morrow, where once the arts of peace
prevailed, the horrors of anarchy and misrule may now yawn

POSITION OF THE FARMER. 87

like a bottomless cliasm, the warm and vigorous health we now
behold may ere long be quenched by " the pestilence which
walketh in darkness, and by the destruction which wasteth at
noon day." In all this strange and exciting history it appears
that not to race alone, but chiefly to the occupation of its
people, are the real greatness and perpetuity of a nation to be
ascribed. Tyre and Athens, and Palmyra were great, but they
were as evanescent in their national existence, as the meteor
that shoots across the evening sky. Venice grew up into the
majestic proportions of a republic, gorgeous, commanding,
powerful on sea and on land, the queen of the Adriatic, con.
trolling almost the commerce of the world ; but her people
have returned to their original huts upon the lagunes, and her
pride crumbles and moulders along her once royal canals.
Holland struck an early blow for freedom, but the accidents of
trade proved to be a poor foundation for a republic, and her
freedom sunk with her ships. Within their narrow and
crowded limits these nations compressed all that was brilliant,
all that was refined, and elegant, and fearless ; they wore for a
time the most glittering jewels in the crown of their nation-
ality ; the monuments which they erected stood upon the
foundations of wealth, and education, and energy, and dazzling
success. Commerce and manufactures poured into their laps
unbounded treasures. And in establishing their institutions
they seemed to vie with the defiant mountains, which point to
the eternal heavens, unmindful of decay or change. But the
enervating effects of those luxuries which the excessive accumu-
lations of wealth always bring, the debasing influences of trade,
the physical disability which comes upon a crowded population,
the shifting and uncertain chances of commerce, the absence
of a permanent and immovable national bond, were the fatal
inheritance which reduced these nations to decay, or destroyed
that freedom for which they had devoted all their energies.
They either accepted a tyrant or were despoiled by an invader,
because their estimate of their privileges was based upon their
power to trade, and because their palaces and storehouses were
easily plundered and destroyed. The elements of character,
the tenacity of purpose, which belong to a rural population,
had no seat in the market places of these gorgeous and epheme-
ral civil organizations.

88 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Turn now with me to another picture. Egypt has resigned
her wonders of art and architecture, to conquering hosts and
to destroying time, but not her fertile valleys, nor her groaning
sakias ; not her farmers nor her crops of corn, as abundant
now as when the sons of Jacob found there relief for famine.
India has borne for centuries the exhaustion of ruthless plunder,
but her nationality is as strong and her wealth as great to-day,
all along her luxuriant hillsides and valleys, cultivated with
pious care, as when Clive first entered her palaces and displayed
to the simple and astonished Hindoo, the religion and morality
of Christian England. Hordes of Mongols and Manchus have
overrun China, in vain, for her people have learned by agricul-
ture, her boundless resources, and have taken root upon her
soil. And in more modern times, England and France have
been torn by revolutions, exhausted by wars, but never shaken
in their identity, because in each, in different forms, the pos-
session of the land lias formed the distinctive feature of its
political existence.

And we shall find this to be true in all permanent forms of
government. It is the ownership of the soil which establishes
the individuality of every nation. And as has been truly said
by one of our most acute and learned statesmen : " Whatever be
the political name of a government, it is monarchical in spirit
and fact, if the land be held chiefly or in great part by the
sovereign, as in Egypt, Russia, or India ; it is aristocratic, if
it be held in large estates, by individuals, as in Great Britain
or Hungary ; it is democratic if it be extensively distributed
among the people for cultivation, as in France or the United
States."

It is agriculture, therefore, which lies at the foundation of
all civil organization. It not only designates the form of gov-
ernment under which men live, but it supplies those social
qualities to which I have referred as the solid support of all
human institutions, and presents them as her choicest tribute
to the state. It is her wealth which constitutes the material
prosperity of a nation. A thousand millions of dollars are
drawn annually from the soil of the United States — and even
here in Massachusetts, the produce of our thirty-four thousand
farms is worth more than all the results of the millions of
busy spindles which call into existence those thriving cities

POSITION OF THE BARMER. 89

peopling the banks of our rivers from the Connecticut to the
Merrimack.

To look no farther for illustration, it is land which has made
these United States a permanent, prosperous, and thriving
people. Our tenure of land gives a distinctive character to
our government ; our fortunate geographical location and our
agricultural resources give it a firm and unshaken foundation.
It is not- our lineage alone which makes us great ; for here in
the early settlement of our country the Puritan, the Cavalier,
the Huguenot, combined to plant along our shores from Maine
to Florida, those principles of freedom which are inherent in
all breasts, and whicli found new opportunity for growth in the
amplitude of a virgin soil. In our own day, under the equal-
izing influences of our government the Teuton and Celt alike
rise to the elevation of free citizenship. For all possess the
land. It would seem to be a part of our national destiny, to
bring every kindred, and nation, and tongue under heaven into
the full understanding and enjoyment of a free government.
It is the abundance of land here which has infused into the
national mind a desire to possess, and which scattered our
people in our early days from the shores of the Atlantic to the
slopes of the Alleghanies, and inspired them to dislodge all
previous occupants, with relentless determination. And as the
natural consequence of such an origin, we have proceeded to
occupy and improve a belt of land across this continent, whose
extent and resources cannot be considered without wonder and
admiration.

Had our people swarmed along the Atlantic coast, and
become the carriers of the products of others, and the manu-
facturers of 'their raw material, our colonial existence might
have continued to this day. It was the untamed and untamable
spirit cultivated by the occupation of new soil, and by the
promises held out by an untrodden wilderness, which gave us a
national existence, and national characteristics. The gradual
progress of our emigration along the valleys of the Mohawk
and the Susquehanna, along the great chain of lakes and
through the delicious lands watered by the Ohio and its tribu-
taries, opened to us a country which constantly furnished new
and vigorous materials for the foundation of our republic. We
indeed possess " a goodly land and large." And as from time

12

90 MASSACHUSETT8 AGRICULTURE.

to time ill our history, our people have gone forth to occupy it,
the power and vitality of a great agricultural nation above all
others that dwell on the face of the earth, have been exemplified.

I cannot sufficiently admire the relation which exists between
our own frontier States, and those original members of our
confederation, from which they derived their birth. Those
broad and fertile lands receive the restless and uneasy surplus
which accumulates in a crowded community ; and clothing it
with all the obligations and all the attachments of property,
return it to our common nation, in all the dignity of a sovereign
State. Nothing has served to bind us together in one grand and
imposing confederation, so much as the spirit which animates
our new States. The jealousies of conflicting interests are
unknown to them. The demands of commerce and manufac-
tures for the fostering care of government and the strife for
ascendency in the receipt of favors, cannot reach them. It is
agriculture which develops their resources, gives them a com-
mon bond with the sisterhood of States, and which step by step
raises them above the deprivations of frontier life, into the
accomplishments and comforts of an older social organization.
They are constantly imparting their new vigor to the States from
which they sprung. To them the manufacturer looks for his
surest market. They stand with open hands to receive what
commerce brings to our doors. They impart that power to our
nation, which has roused a spirit of invention before unknown
and unheard of, and has whitened every sea with our sails,
until our flag tells every where the story of our freedom. The
floating palaces which navigate our rivers have come into
existence at tlieir bidding, and on to the very verge of a savage
country they have borne our arts and attainments, and the
unclouded glories of our national success.

The world has seen nothing like this before or elsewhere.
Rome colonized in early days. England colonizes in our own
time. But neither Rome nor England ever discovered the
power which agriculture possesses to enlarge a nation, when
submitted to the equality of free citizenship. The Romans
possessed an expansibilty and an energy equal to our own.
England knows no obstacles- in the way of her advancing
jurisdiction. But to us alone it remained to enjoy the happy
opportunity contained in the possession of a continuous territory,

POSITION OF THE FARMER. 91

broad enough for daily peaceful victories over an unsubdued
wilderness. The Roman emperors, the statesmen and generals
of that great empire, were proud to develop the agriculture of
their country by devoted application. They learned to love the
soil on which rested their power and glory. But the American
citizen, engaged in a higher and nobler work, carries with him
into new lands the rights of a freeman, and by his devotion to
agriculture, insures a constant supply of new strength to the
heart of a great nation. As we contemplate the work of this
modern hero, we should learn to admire and wonder at the
power of his profession. We should never forget that the
wealth which is added to our nation by the energies of the West,
comes from those vast regions where man's chiefest occupation
is tilling the soil. The rich luxuriant lands of Ohio, the fertile
prairies which send forth their stores of grain, the undeveloped
resources of the north-west, the profusion of southern savannas,
offering us the great staples of our trade, all rely upon the
application of agriculture for the discharge of their important
duties, and for the support they are eager to render the civil
fabric erected by our fathers on this continent.

To us, as a free people, agriculture should be peculiarly dear.
It is this alone, which, under the management of a general
ownership of the soil, can destroy those social distinctions that
conflict with all true republican institutions. That poverty
which produces a dependence of one class upon another, and
which is the inevitable result of population accumulated by
manufactures and commerce, can find no remedy so sure as the
occupancy of the soil. A large supply of fertile lands, open
for possession by all, will most effectually counteract the ten-
dency to poverty, found in over peopled countries, and will
prevent the possibility of that preponderance of commercial and
manufacturing interests, which will always threaten the exist-
ence of a nation. In such landed possessions, moreover, serf-
dom must be unknown. And upon such a basis alone can that
diffusion of knowledge, that freedom of religion, that indis-
criminate security of political rights, be found which constitute
all that an American citizen holds dear, and which are inscribed
in our written constitution.

92 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

NATIONAL INDUSTRY, THE TRUE SOURCE OF
NATIONAL GREATNESS.

From an Address before the Norfolk Agricultural Society, Sept. 29, 1858.

BY JOHN S. ELDRIDGE.

Man's moral and intellectual greatness consists rather in what
he is capable of becoming, than what he really is. Hence he
is under that " law of progress," which so vividly marks his
career through all ages and nations, and which God seems to
have stamped upon his being. Physical laws of climate may
control some of his peculiarities, may create some idyosyncra-
cies, and direct some of his tendencies, but without the active
force of another law, which is that of labor, man would remain
in his normal condition. Progress, then, is the compensatory
reward of labor ; and just in proportion to the directness,
intensity and intelligence of that labor, will all progress become
intrinsically valuable to society, and priceless to the individual.
Therefore we deduce the ii'uth that labor is the great primary
law of man's nature, underlying and paramount to the law of
progress. Hence labor is no curse, but one of the divinest
blessings, and every effort to get rid of honest industry is a
violation of our integrity to the law of God, and we become his
unfaithful representatives on the earth.

" There is," says Carlyle, " a perennial nobleness and even
sacredness in work. Were he never so benighted, forgetful of
his high calling, there is always hope in a man that actually and
earnestly works ; in idleness alone is there perpetual despair."
By work, I do not mean mere manual labor only, but every
effort of the mind as well as of the body. I embrace all men
in that great brotherliood of laborers ; he who plies the shuttle
at Lowell, woi'ks the steel at Sheffield, stands swart and grim
amidst the fiery forges at Pittsburg, or whose scythe sings in
the falling grass. These are not one jot the better laborers than

NATIONAL INDUSTRY. 93

a Kane, penetrating those Arctic realms, on his errand of mercy,
and planting his country's flag on the topmost hill that overlooks
that great unknown northern sea ; than Wellington at Waterloo,
or Napoleon at Austerlitz, or Washington in mid-winter crossing
the Delaware, or our own Fisher, transferring nature to his
canvass, or a Thorwaldsen, or a Greenough, carving the solid
marble into imperial life, or Milton, with a throbbing brain,
defending English liberty, or Humboldt crossing seas and
mountains to unfold the laws of nature, or Herschel with optic
glass in hand, at high midnight, sweeping those southern skies
amid revolving constellations. These one and all belong to the
fraternity of industry.

Man was created to labor. Without it, constituted as Adam
was, he would have grown weary of the perfections of Paradise,
and in idleness alone there would have been despair. All growth
of character, all noble energy, all true manhood, are the result
of work. In what are called the higher classes, men born to
wealth and rank, you can rarely find a large, well-proportioned
character, nicely balanced in the equities of health, strength,
moral force and intellectual capacity.

Where, in all England, in this nineteenth century, has there
been seen so strong and self-reliant a nature, so robust in those
elements which go to make up one grand central character in
his country's history, as George Stephenson, the mechanic and
railway engineer ? There can be no clearer illustration of the
truth of the doctrine, that in all labor there is a " perennial
nobleness," and that the true nobility of a country is the
untitled nobility of labor. The decaying castes, ranks, and
orders in European society, have relied for their perpetuity
upon fresh accessions of blood and vigor, from the great mid-
dling interests of the nations ; and they know but too well,
that, without this, an idle and dissolute race, or body, cannot
long hold the sovereign sway of empire against the clear heads
and stout arms of millions of laborers.

You all remember when the Duke of Grafton reproached
Lord Thurlow with his plebeian origin, that the noble Lord
vindicated his claim to his position, by the strenuous industry
which had placed him there, and hurled back the taunt that
the peerage " solicited him, not he the peerage."

94 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Labor becomes, then, all ranks and conditions of men. There
can be no respectability without it. Let us, then, in whatsoever
pursuit we may be engaged, strive to dignify it by honest, manly
and straight-forward industry. The aims of the laborer should
be high and noble, and his daily duties should be set round
with the Christian virtues ; his work should not be for selfish
and mercenary purposes only, to gratify a foolish pride, to
stimulate envy, or pander to a false ambition, but it should be
performed in that spirit which will exalt, rather than debase his
character, which will elevate the hopes and aspirations of
mankind.

Labor should be hopeful. No matter what obstacles stand in
his way, no matter how many difficulties it has to contend with,
by patience, which Buffon says is genius, they may be overcome ;
and in one such triumph, how much strength is gained, how
much renewed moral courage impels the hand and the brain,
after such a victory. Said Dessaix at the battle of Marengo,
when the French columns were wavering and breaking, " Sire,
I think this is a battle lost." " Sir," said Napoleon, "I think
this is a battle won ! " and in an hour after, the eagles of France
flew to victory.

Despair often whispers to the overworn and wearied sons of
toil, " your life is a battle lost," but hope comes with her
celestial garments, in the darkest hours of trial, of danger, and
temptation, and breathes in heavenly accents, the immortal
words, " your life is a battle won."

All labor should be intelligent. It has grown to be a maxim,
that always near the hearing ear will be found the speaking
voice. We may with justice assert, that allied to the working
hand should be found the trained and educated brain. The
means of education should be open and accessible to all ; and
if individual means or interest fail, the state should provide for
the establishment of schools and institutions suitable for the
instruction of every individual in the elements of knowledge.
No child should be suffered to grow to manhood in a free,
Christian commonwealth, without a sound and healthful culture,
fitted by his training for any one of the departments of indus-
try known to a high order of civilization. These institutions,
having all the rigorous forms of discipline with perhaps less
elaborate study of the sciences than the Academy of France, or

NATIONA.L INDUSTRY. 95

our own National Academy, at West Point, would give us such
a nation of laborers as the world never saw before.

The idea that labor need not be intelligent, that it works
better by being debased to the condition of brute force, is a
relic of barbarism, and forms no part of that code of modern
philosophy which seeks to elevate labor and dignify and
Christianize the laborer.

All great improvements in modern science, in the arts of
commerce, manufactures, or agriculture, have been achieved by
having an intelligent mind to impel the willing hand. One
hundred and fifty years ago there were but three coaches in
Paris. Now railways thread their courses over mountains and
along valleys, and forty-three thousand people ask as a kind of
popular right for free passes to attend the festivities consequent
upon the visit of the Queen of England to the Emperor of
France, at Cherbourg, and nineteen millions of passengers ride
over the railways of France in a single year.

Intelligence aids the power or faculty of invention. England
to-day maintains her maritime, commercial and manufacturing
ascendency by virtue of her intelligence. The Celtic labor of
Ireland she employs to dig her canals, construct her railways,
and after this work is done, she ejects this surplus power and
population to Australia, or America, and keeps straightway on
her path of duty. She introduces none of her arts of industry
into Ireland. She confines her to agriculture as far as possible.
It was intelligence which was the creator of the wonderful
labor-saving machinery now in operation, the spinning jenny,
steam-engine, and power loom, together with all the untold
inventions of the age.

All labor should be well-directed. It should be given to the
production of those common and daily wants of life so requisite
to the happiness of man, — to the cultivation of the soil, to the
manufacture of needful articles for domestic use, so cheap that
comfort can be diffused tlirough all classes of society, for the
general good rather than superfluous luxuries for the few.
That was a homely wish of the Fourth Henry of France, that
he hoped to see the day when every peasant in the kingdom
could have a fowl in his pot on Sunday.

From individual labor we now turn to view the wider and
more varied theatre of the race, as exhibited in National Indus-

96 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

try. The early history of the origin and progress of nations
discloses to us most important truths touching the condition
and employment of the human race. The first advance beyond
the normal condition consists in the domestication of animals,
or maintaining large flocks and herds, wandering by day over
vast plains, pitching their rude tents nightly beneath Egyptian
skies, or encamping round about the hills of Palestine. This
seems to have been the employment of the nomadic tribes of
the oriental world. From this state of society the race in-
stinctively tends to the agricultural, because it lies in what may
be called the spontaneous course of events.

The first example in the history of the world of a well-
ordered national industry is that of England. This small
island, set apart from the^great continents, standing alone in the
open sea, performs the most conspicuous part in the magnificent
drama of tlie world. With a territory containing only about
50,000 square miles, or little more than 37,000,000 imperial
acres, with a home population of less than seventeen millions,
it holds the first rank in wealth, in maritime strength, in moral
force, and that intellectuality which rules the nations of the
earth. Her present superiority is the result of a well-directed
industry in agriculture, in commerce and manufactures.

In the United States all labor is respectable ; in idleness there
is disgrace. The early settlers of this country inured them-
selves to the hardships and privations attendent upon the
colonization of a new and uncultivated domain. Tliey came
hither to enjoy those inestimable blessings of civil, and religious
liberty, which were not to be obtained in the parent country.

And when they settled in New England, they secured an
interest in the soil, which was ultimately to ripen into that
permanent ownership, without which the present form of gov-
ernment would never have been established. The colonies
held the lands by virtue of charters granted by the crown, and
notwithstanding great efforts were made by individuals to obtain
patents of large tracts of territory, thereby creating landed
proprietaries of immense power, yet the simple mode of sub-
dividing estates prevailed in the northern colonies, and remains
the same ; and in all the free States of the Union has proved to
be the great safeguard of the rights of the laborer.

The area of the United States, at the peace of 1783, was
820,000 square miles ; by various treaties and purchases the

NATIONAL INDUSTRY. 97

area is 2,963,6136 square miles, and is now ton times as large as
Great Britain and France combined. In 1856 the products of
the United States were immense. By tlie official returns at the
Patent Office we learn that the crop of Indian corn for that year
was .1360,000,000; the wheat was valued at 8247,500,000 ; the
hay $160,000,000 ; the cotton crop Si*136,000,000. To these add
the animal and vegetable products, and we have five times as
mucli more in money vahie to add to the siuns enumerated.
The United States has five times as many acres in cultivation as
England, and if the same skill wera used, we could support five
times the population which we now do, without resorting to any
more wild lands.

Agriculture is the important branch of our national industry,
and hence wo maintain its importance in its relations to the
great ideas of freedom, of republican government, to universal
education, and to the princii»lcs of science. Institutions for
the study of agricultural sciences should be established in every
State in our Union. The public mind must be awakened on
this subject. Europe has schools and colleges for the education
of young men, who are to devote themselves to the practical
duties of farming. Why overlook the subject in America?

Agriculture, when practised as an art, is an honorable pursuit.
When pursued as a science, it is an ennobling profession. The
Earl of Carlisle, in addressing an agricultural gathering of
Yorkshiremen, said, with evident emotions of exulting patriot-
ism: " I saw on the plains of Troy the clod-crusher of Crosskill,
the drills and the horse-hoes of Garrett, and the ploughs of
Howard and Ransome."

From the shops of America issues every implement of an
improved husbandry. The skill and genius of the mechanics
of New England may be seen on the sands of Egypt and along
the grain-growing shores of the Baltic ; on the tilled fields of
England ; down the great delta of tlie Mississippi, and the table-
lands of Mexico. Wherever commerce unfurls her wings of
peace, there we send the products of our toil.

As men of intelligence, the active merchant or overwrought
statesman, retire from the duties of life, how often they return
to the favorite pursuits of their youth. Washington laid down
the cares of State for the quiet shades of Mount Vernon.
Jetferson lies at Monticello ! Jackson sleeps at the Hermitage.

13

98 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Clay reposes at Ashland. Calhoun always delighted in the
beauties of his own mountain home, and around his grave
flower the gentle magnolias planted by his own hand. "We who
have hearts can never forget when our own great statesman
went down by that sea which he loved so well, and there amidst
his own fields, fragrant with the breath of departing summer,
with his patient herds grazing around him — as the great barons
die — on the soil endeared by sweetest inemories of life, health,
ambition, " cares of state," of a future eternal in the heavens,
— so he died, and the ocean chants the requiem, through
changing seasons, over the grave of the statesman and farmer
of Marsh field.

Said Washington, in his message to Congress in 1796 : " It
will not be doubted that, with reference either to individual or
national welfare, agriculture is of primary importance. Insti-
tutions for promoting it grow up, supported by the public purse,
and to what object can it be dedicated with greater propriety ?"

Among other resolutions, John Adams oifered the following,
in the Congress of 177G : " Resolved, That it be recommended
to the Assemblies, Conventions, and Councils of Safety, that they
take the earliest measures for erecting in each and every colony
a Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture."

The practical mind of Franklin early foresaw the benefits of
teaching agricultural science in a collegiate course. Writing
to a friend, in 1749, he says : " I am pleased with your mention-
ing agriculture as one of the sciences to be taught, because I
am of opinion it may be made as much a science as any of those
that are not purely mathematical ; and none of them deserves
so much to be taught as this, at least none more so, since it is
truly the foundation of wealth and welfare of tlie country."

Said Mr. Jefferson, speaking of this subject: "The class
principally is that of agriculture. It is tlie first in utility, and
ought to be the first in respect. It is a science of the very first
order. In every college and university, a professorship of
agriculture and a class of its students might be honored as its
first." In the mind of this illustrious man, it held the first
rank as a part of our industry and as a noble pursuit.

With physical boundaries embracing a realm of majestic
proportions ; peopled by a race of Saxon origin, unquestionable
in its valor, unexampled in its powers of endurance, following

NATIONAL INDUSTRY. 99

every art and grasping every science by that inductive genius
which characterizes the mother from wliose loins we sprang ;
with a government founded on the ideas of social equality,
personal freedom, and absolute independence ; with ample pros-
perity at home, and commanding respect abroad, — the United
States of America, comprehending any and all parallels of
latitude on this continent, compacted east and west by the great
oceans, with or without the islands thereof; with the religion of
tlie Protestant Reformation pointing its spires to the skies ; with
peaceful, happy homes scattered over the land, with their untold
millions of the children of labor ; with no divided banner of
nationality over us, — we shall become, in the history of the
world, the proudest illustration of that truth which we have
sought to maintain — " That National Industry is the true source
of National Greatness."

100 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

F A 11 M S .

ESSEX.

Report of the Committee on Farms.

For a number of years past, comparatively few entries for the
premiums on farms, have been made. The Trustees of the
society liave, from time to time, endeavored to encourage com-
petition by varying the premiums both in amount and the terms
on wliicli they were offered. So far these endeavors have failed
to effect their object. The fact still remains fixed, that there
is a great barrenness of entries in tliis department. The sul»ject
still merits the careful consideration of the Trustees, therefore,
whether the end which they have in view by offering these
premiums may not be attained in some way, different from the
modes hitherto adopted.

Samuel Raymond, of North Andovcr, is sole competitor. His
farm was purchased in 1850. It was then in an exhausted and
dilapidated condition. He has improved it in all respects. The
walls have been in a good measure rebuilt, fruit trees large in
number and variety have been put out, a portion of the meadow
is in an advanced state of reclamation, and an immense quan-
tity of small, loose stones have been removed from the high
lands. Taste has also been exhibited in transplanting forest
trees around the house and in other arrangements which have
undoubtedly wrought a material change in the appearance of
the place.

The farm contains about fifty-five acres, all of which except
the wood land is now in grass or under cultivation, so that it
lacks one important constituent necessary to a complete farm —
that is, a good pasture. Being destitute of a pasture, Mr. Ray-
mond has no dairy. We were told that his two or three cows
furnished sufficient milk and butter for his own family only.
They were fed in the barn until after haying and then tethered
in the mowing fields. Consequent upon the absence of a dairy

FARMS. 101

was a vacancy in the pig pen. Mr. Raymond is industrious in
the manufacture of manures by composting, thereby making
the most of the means which a limited stock and an unoccupied
pig pen can supply. The committee were well satisfied that he
had improved his farm very much and that in most particulars
his management was judicious. In one respect he furnishes an
example worthy of all imitation and so rarely to be met with
among farmers tiiat it cannot be too highly commended. Mr.
Raymond has kept accurate farm accounts, ever since the place
came into his hands, showing the processes and results of all
his operations in a pecuniary point of view, and ready for
reference at all times. This alone entitles him to much con-
sideration. But the committee, taking into view the entire
deficiency of pasturage, the absence of a dairy and the want of
swine did not think this a farm so complete in all its appoint-
ments as to entitle it to a premium. They supposed that a farm,
however worthy in other respects it might be, if entirely defi-
cient in these important ])articulars, did not so nearly a})proxi-
mate to perfection, as in fixing n{)on the conditions of the offer
the Trustees intended a premium farm should do. The conclu-
sion arrived at by them is to recommend a gratuity of <|30 to
Mr. Raymond for the improvements which he has made, and
especially for the valuable example which he furnishes in
keeping correct accounts of the receipts and expenses of his
farm.

Two of the members of the committee visited the farm of
Leverett Bradley, in Methuen. In 1818 this farm received the
highest premium then offered by tlie society. The same year
Mr. Bradley also received the highest premium for improving
wet meadows. That tract of meadow, which was the most
extensive of its character that had then been improved, remains
as it was without having been disturbed by plough or spade or
even top-dressed. Its product now averages a ton and a half
to the acre, proving conclusively not only how well the meadow
was drained in the first instance, but the enduring value of such
land when properly reclaimed. Patches of grass land in some
specially favored localities and small in extent may be found
throughout the county, which constantly yield fair crops of hay
without expenditure upon them. We think, however, that
nowhere else can there be found a tract of thirty acres which

102 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

has had nothing expended upon it for ten years and more, that
produces on the average a ton and a lialf of good hay to the
acre and bids fair to do it for years to come.

But what especially attracted the attention of the committee
on Mr. Bradley's farm was another tract of twelve acres, the
larger part of it meadow, which one year ago was covered with
a thick growth of wood. This was cut off last winter and
produced about three hundred and fifty cords. Immense
ditches were then opened through and around the meadow part
of the lot, for the twofold purpose of draining the land and
furnishing material for compost. In the spring a large gang of
men were put upon it with axes, spades and bog hoes, and the
whole surface turned up to a sufficient depth for cultivation.
At the time it was seen by members of the committee, the entire
twelve acres had not only been dug over and fitted for the seed,
but every stump and root which was large enough to obstruct
its easy cultivation, had been taken out from the meadow
portion of it, and were nowhere to be seen. They had been
converted to ashes and those ashes had been spread over and
were hastening the decomposition of a peaty soil, deep enough
to supply self-fertilizing material for a half dozen generations,
in its gradual decay. An instance of improvement so extensive,
so thorough, completed in so short a time and in such a manner
— for it was all done by hand labor, is without its parallel in the
county.

There is a single topic on which the committee desire to make
a suggestion. We are often reminded in the speech and in the
journal agricultural, tliat our great mistake is in cultivating too
much land ; that it will be for our profit to till less and manure
better. To do only so much as we can do well, is a good maxim
and beyond all cavil. We should never keep more stock than
we can feed well, iiave no larger breadth in hoed crops than we
can feed well, and never attempt to cultivate any more land
than we can manure well. In the judgment of some of the
committee at least, quality is thought to be of as much impor-
tance as quantity, in farming calculations. We cannot afford
to cultivate poor land. If it is necessary to be cautious about
cultivating too much, it is quite as necessary that a sound, cal-
culating, business-like judgment should be exercised in choosing
those portions of the farm for the application of labor and

FARMS. 103

manure which will make the largest return for the expenditure
made upon them. Now it is a fact not requiring proof, that to
a great extent, the very opposite practice prevails. Lean,
hungry, barren or worn-out soils, which have no strength in
themselves, arc planted year after year. Consequently they
must be annually supplied with all the elements of fertility
which they possess. The reasons why they are selected for
cultivation are various. One probably is this, that they would
produce nothing if let alone; another, that the predecessors of
the present occupants always treated them in this way. Often
perhaps the cause may be that they are more conveniently
accessible than other and stronger parcels of the farm. What-
ever it may be, it is certain, that if a careful account Avas kept,
in nine cases out of ten their meagre products would not pay
for themselves. Cultivators of such soils do not count the
cost. Were they called upon to take a starving ox and fatten
him for the butcher, their first step would be to ascertain if the
expense of feeding would not exceed the value of the animal
when fattened. And yet without giving the matter a single
thought they take a very lean piece of land, manure it, labor
upon it, harvest its scanty product which is not worth the cost
of production, and never have a suspicion that it is not an
exhibition of economy in farm management. But in many
instances the poorest lands of a farm are adjacent to the
buildings, and the question will be asked, what can be done with
them. We answer, sow them with birch seed, cover them with
white pines. If they must l)e cultivated, sow them with buck-
wheat and keep bees, or throw them down to permanent pasture
and feed them with sbeep or let them run to waste. The last
is better than to throw away money upon them. If manure
and labor were applied by us only to those portions of our farms
which produce tolerably well without either, they would yield
double, quadruple, in some instances tenfold, more than many
of the fields do upon which they are now wasted. It will at all
times make the difference between getting about half what the
manure and labor is actually worth or a double profit on both.
Those portions of a farm in themselves fertile always yield an
income. Those which are in themselves unproductive, work
upon them and manure them as you may, never do. The loss
sustained by their cultivation is a charge upon the rest of the

104 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

farm. The good acres have to carry on the poor ones. Now if
men will expend their manure and hibor upon those portions of
their farms which because they had strength enough to produce
tolerably well of themselves, have received no artificial aid, or
have been neglected from other causes, they will do a wise
thing. Many old fields cultivated for generations, will be
abandoned. Many persons who cultivate at a loss now, or are
just able to make both ends meet, l)ecausc they are fortunate in
tlie possession of sufficient good laud to make up the deficiencies
of the bad, will find to their astonishment, that they have got
money in their pockets at the year's end. If it costs as much
to feed a horse as he will earn, he is worthless ; an ox is
worthless, if it will cost as much to fatten him as the butcher
will give for his carcass ; a debt is worthless when the expense
of collection will exceed the amount of it ; and so is a piece of
land worthless for the purposes of cultivation when a crop
cannot be obtained from it except at an expense equivalent or
more than equivalent to its value.

Mr. Raymond's statement, appended to this report, exhibit-
ing what he has done and his mode of keeping accounts, is
recommended to the careful reading of every farmer, who has
not a good system of his own.

For the committee,

T. E. Payson.

Statement of Samuel Raymond.

The farm I offer for premium is situated in North Andover.
It lies in nearly a square body ; contains about fifty-five acres;
was purchased by me on the 11th of November, 1850, and was
at that time divided as follows, say : two and one-fourth acres
in tillage, seventeen and three-fourths upland mowing, thirteen
in pasture, seven in peat or bog meadow, and fifteen in wood.
Tiie soil on the three first named is, what I suppose is called a
clay loam, of good uniform quality and depth, resting upon a
pan of very hard clay-gravel. From the time of my pui'chase
to the present, I have kept daily accounts of the cost of all crops,
improvements, &c., connected with the farm, with such altera-
tions and additions from time to time, as seemed to me ncces-

FARMS. 105

sary. A portion of these accounts are condensed and make a
part of this statement.

When I came in possession of the farm, it wns much run
down ; the buildings required large outlays ; the interior walls
were low and crooked ; the grass on the mowing lands was thin
and light ; all the upland abounded in fast rocks ; the pasture
had grown up to bushes and birches, with a few sapling oaks
and maples ; the fruit trees, of which there -was about four
hundred apple, ten or twelve pear, and five or six peach, were,
most of them, in good condition.

As nearly all the division walls required rebuilding, I deter-
mined to place them in such manner as would be more conven-
ient for working the land by improved implements and otherwise,,
and at the same time improve its appearance. To accomplish
this I laid out a farm road from my barn, (which stands in the
centre of the front of my upland on the easterly side,) twenty
feet wide and fifty rods long, in a straight line, and parallel;
with my northern boundary wall, to a point twenty-one rods-
distant from my rear or westerly wall, then turning at a right
angle and running south in a straight line twenty-eight rods to
the meadow, then dividing the upland into two about equal.
parts, and leaving on one side of the road, eight acres of the-
mowing, a field of one acre, seven and one-half acres of the-
pasture, and an orchard of one and three-fourths acres. Trenches
were then dug on each side of the road, and filled with smalL
stone ; the old cross walls, excepting that between the orchard
and pasture, were then hauled and set up anew, leaving gate-
ways at suitable distances. Such parts of the old walls as were
not wanted for this purpose, and a pile of stubble stones twenty-
two feet long, over twelve wide, and nearly four feet dccj), have'
been cai'ted off. One of the walls removed from this field had
been built double, with small stones, which had fallen and cov-
ered the ground, in some places to the depth of eight feet. Its
length was three hundred and seventy-nine feet. The fast rocks
have been dug out, blasted and laid in a cellar wall, under the
barn, eighty-three by twenty-eight feet. The wood and bushes
have been cut on the part formerly in pasture, the land ploughed,.
six and one-half acres of the same have been cultivated and
thoroughly cleared of stones, and five and one-half acres seeded
down to grass, on which I set in the fall of 1856, two hundred

14

106 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Baldwin apple trees. On this field liave been laid sixty rods of
stone iinderdrain.

On the other side of the road referred to, were two fields of
mowing and tillage ; the one contained about two and one-half,
the other eight acres, and about five and one-half acres of the
pasture ; the wall dividing the two latter lay along on the top
of a sharp ridge for about forty-eight rods. For many reasons
whicli it is unnecessary for me to detail,! moved this wall about
sixty feet, to the foot of the ridge, and there relaid it. The
intermediate land has Ijeen cleared of all loose stone and another
large pile of the same ; I have ploughed and seeded it down to
grass. The partly built wall dividing' the lots of two and one-
half and eight acres, has been removed and laid around my
barnyard, in a wall five feet high and four feet wide at the base.
These improvements left the field with about eleven and one-
half acres, on whicli I set in 1851 and 1852, two hundred and
eighty-four apple, two hundred and twenty-five pear, two hun-
dred and eighty-five peach, thirty-four cherry and five plum, in
all eight hundred and thirty-three trees, all budded or grafted
with the best varieties. None of these trees have ever stood in
grass ; the land under them to the width of nine or ten feet
being constantly under cultivation. They have made rapid
growth since they were set. Some of these apple trees measure
at this time sixteen and eighteen inches in circumference ; over
two hundred of the latter have borne the past season from one-
half bushel downwards, the peaches about twenty bushels, the
pears a few, and the cherries about one-half bushel. No cattle
have grazed this land since the trees were set. Of the four and
one-half acre pasture adjoining the above, I have this year
ploughed and planted two and one-half acres. As the cultiva-
tion proceeds, the stones, &c., are collected into every fifth
furrow, to be carted off after the crop is harvested.

Besides the improvements stated above, I have laid a bank
wall in front of my house thirty rods in length, with a buck-
thorn hedge along the line of this for eighty yards. These walls
with several small pieces in various parts of the farm, make a
total of two hundred and twenty rods built, and one hundred
and ninety rods removed ; many repairs have been made on the
buildings ; nearly all the old apple trees have been grafted ; all
the upland has been ploughed, planted and cleared of stones,

FARMS. 107

excepting three acres, in doing which I have carted off over
three thousand loads exclusive of those used in walls and their
trenches ; two brick cemented cisterns have been built to
increase my supply of manure ; fruit and ornamental trees and
shrubs liave been planted round the house ; and I have also set
four hundred currant bushes, and a few grape vines, rasp-
berries, &c.

About three acres of tlie peat meadow have been broken up at
a large expense ; I have cut the ditclies wider and deeper, and
have cut the outlet down two feet, through solid rocks, for one
hundred and twenty feet.

The end and object of all this labor, has been the production
of fruit and grass, ultimately to bring the whole forty acres
into these crops, and to secure the same with the least possible
expense.

The total cost of all improvements exclusive of my
own labor and interest, was on the 1st of April
last, $3,847 59

Add the amount I paid for the farm, . . . 3,100 00

Making the cost on the 1st April, 1858, . . . |6,947 59

As regards the crops, expenses, &c.,I refer you to the follow-
ing accounts, which have never been kept with a view to their
future publicity, and all I claim for them is, that they are cor-
rect so far as they go. Such omissions as I am able to detect
will be pointed out, and such explanations made as seems to be
required. In none of these accounts is there any charge for my
own labor or services. This, so far as the crops are concerned,
would add but little to the cost ; neither is there any interest
charged on the value of the land. The ivhole labor on the farm
is charged under the several heads at cost ; the board of laborers
at thirty-three and one-third cents per day ; the labor of a pair
of oxen at ninety-six cents per day ; that of a horse at the same ;
seeds and all incidental expenses of cultivation under the head
of cash; manure at one dollar per load of about thirty-two cubic
feet ; guano, &c., at cost and charges. The crops, so far as
practicable, are measured ; the charges to family are for chop-
ping wood, cultivating a kitchen garden, &c. ; the manure

108

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

charged to the crop to which it is applied ; no part of it is car-
ried to a sviccceding one ; the iinsuccossfiil as well as successful
crops are here exhibited.

COST OF CROPS AND OTHER EXPENDITURES,

From N,)v. 11, 1850, to Jan. 1, 1852 — 13 months and 20 daijs.

Cost of all tlie crojis in, .

Farm expenses, ....

Total chargeable to crops of 1851,

Permanent improvements on fiirm, .
Manure for 1852, . . . .
Family,

Labor.

Board.

Cash.

$102 86

7 65

$73 60

6 85

$31 06
252 86

.•§110 51

GO 54

8 27

10 13

$80 45

50 25
7 16
7 86

$83 42
549 90

$207 52
266 86

$174 38

669 69
15 43
17 99

CROPS FOR THE YEAR 1851.

45 barrels ap])les, .

Cider apples, ....

5 tons upland hay, at $12,
7 tons meadow hay, at $5,

140 bushels potatoes, at 60 cents,
143 bushels carrots, at 25 cents,
140 bushels turnips, at 20 cents,
31-^ bushels corn, at $1, .
Beans, peas, &c.,

Total value of all crops, .

)7 50

95 00
84 00
35 75
28 00
31 50
14 50

(6 25

FARMS. 109

In the preceding account I find no charge for the labor of
oxen or horses ; neither is there any for manure. The hay m
this, as in the other accounts, is estimated, with a stock of one
horse, one pair of oxen, one cow and four two year old heifers.
I find purcliased and charged in the above account, 5 tons
1,614 pounds hay, at $64.00, to carry them through the winter
of 1851-2 ; and for the same stock I purchased in tlie follow-
ing winter of 1852-3, 7 tons 1,842 pounds for $95.30. It ap-
pears by the above account, that the crops did not cover the
cost of cultivation and expenses, exclusive of manure and
team labor, by the sum of $98.13.

There are two reasons which induce me to ask that the
accounts for the year 1857, may here be inserted ; tlie one is,
that the crops of that year were more satisfactory than those of
this ; the other is, that the account of that year is fully made
up, whicli cannot be the case with tliat of the present, as they
run from April to April, and all the crops are not yet harvested.

All the omissions I find in the following accounts are the
charges of seed on the potato and corn crops ; the small
accounts for manure charged to second crops, were experiments
with guano, &c.

By tliis account it appears that the crops exceeded the cost
of cultivation and expenses by the sum $815.72.

In relation to tlie hay crop of this and the year next preced-
ing, it will be observed that in 1857 there were in pasture but
four and a half acres. On this I put a pair of oxen and three
cows. When the grass became short, they wxre soiled with
clover from the mowing land, which decreased the crop to some
extent, how much, I am unable to form an opinion. The pres-
ent year two and a half acres of this pasture Avas ploughed and
planted, consequently the balance, two acres, is unimproved,
and three cows and a horse have been soiled the whole season,
from the mowing land.

110

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

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112 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The stock on the farm this year and the last, consisted of two
horses, a pair of oxen, tlirce cows and a heifer. They con-
sumed no meadow hay tlic past winter, but were entirely sup-
ported on the upland hay and clover. It is my intention to
work the farm in the future with horses, to dispose of my oxen
this fall, and in their stead place three cows, and add two or
three heifers to my present stock.

The fiirm stands at the present time as follows, viz. : —

16| acres in upland, mowing and orchards.

4 " meadow mowing.

Q^ " wheat, seeded down with grass and clover.

9| " tillage.

o " unimproved pasture (1 acre ploughed).

15 " "wood.

55 acres.

NouTU Andoveu, October, 1858.

MIDDLESEX.

ESSAY ON FARM MANAGEMENT.

BY JOSKl'H REYNOLDS.

Instead of writing an essay in the usual form, and giving
directions for the management of a farm, I propose to tell in a
plain, straight-forward style, how my neighbor, James Wiseman,
has managed his farm.

His stoi'y is not without instruction, and will probably be
read with quite as much interest as the same lessons conveyed
in a more formal and didactic style.

James was the eldest son of Jonathan Wiseman, He had
two brothers and one sister. Jonatlian was a diligent, hard-
working man, of good moral habits. He owned a farm of about
one hundred acres, in one of tlic towns of tliis county, and
carried it on in the usual style in whicli Hirms were cultivated
in this State, fifty years ago.

FARMS. 113

He brought up his boys in habits of industry and honesty.
Indeed, as soon as they were large enough he kept them con-
stantly at work on the farm. Some of his neighbors were dis-
posed to think he made them worii too hard ; but as they were
strong and active and always in good health and spirits, there
was no proof that they were overworked.

They attended the district school two months in the winter
and learned to read, write and cipher. James was thought to
have quite a turn for mathematics, and by the time he was
eighteen, he had mastered Pike's Arithmetic, and could meas-
ure a load of wood, and a stick of timber, and could survey a
piece of land, provided it were inclosed in tolerably straight
lines. He was his father's chief assistant, until he was nine-
teen years old. His next brother being then able to take his
place, his father, by way of assisting him to an outfit when he
should be old enough to commence life for himself gave him
permission to hire himself out to 'Squire Jones, who lived
about three miles distant.

'Squire Jones needed a trusty young man to work on his
farm, and agreed to give James twelve dollars a month and his
board. He worked diligently through the year, and at the
close of it, found himself in possession of a hundred dollars, a
new suit of clothes, a gun and training equipments. The sec-
ond year, 'Squire Jones gave him fourteen dollars a month,
and made him his foreman, for he employed three men through
the summer, and two through the winter. At the end of the
second year, 'Squire Jones gave him his note for one hundred
and twenty-four dollars, which he preferred to the cash. James
continued in his service four years longer, at the same wages.
He was now twenty-five years old, and had about seven hun-
dred dollars in good notes. He now thought he should like to
see a little more of the world ; so in the month of April, he
started for Boston, and from thence proceeded in search of
employment to the good old town of Dorchester. There he let
himself to a farmer, who was principally engaged in raising
vegetables and fruit for the Boston market. Here he obtained
sixteen dollars a month, for eight months. At the end of this
time, having received his hundred and twenty-eight dollars, he
returned home. He was now master of eight hundred and
fifty dollars, and he thought it was about time to become settled

15

114 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

in life, and to this he was the more inclined, as he found within
himself a growing attachment to Miss Betsy Fletcher, the
daughter of a widow who lived in the vicinity of 'Squire Jones.

About this time, there was for sale a small farm of about
thirty acres, with a tolerably good house, and a small barn upon
it, some two miles from the centre of his native town. This he
purchased for twelve hundred dollars, paying down five hun-
dred, and mortgaging the farm for the balance. The remain-
ing three hundred and fifty, he expended in the purchase of a
yoke of oxen, horse, two cows, a cart, plough, harness and
tools, and went to work upon his farm in the month of March.

The farm was most of it good land, but had been rather
severely worked. The fences were out of repair, and he set
himself at work to put them in a safe condition, for he had
observed, that among farmers, good fences are not only neces-
sary for the security of the crops, but also for the preservation
of good neighborhood. In the process of preparing his fences,
he cut down a good many straggling trees, and collected stumps
and roots, and brush sufficient for his year's supply of wood.
He next scraped together what manure was to be found on the
place. Finding the hearth of an old coal pit on the field of a
neighbor, who was willing to give it to any one who would
remove it, he carted some dozen loads of it to his barnyard
and mixed it with the manure he had collected together.

He then prepared a patch for a garden, and planted some
peas, and beans, and sweet corn, and a bed of beets, carrots,
parsnips, and onions, and a few hills of cucumbers, and squashes,
and melons.

He had learned while living at Dorchester, how to cultivate
a garden, and that it was the most profitable part of the farm.
He then ploughed four acres of his best land in a thorough
manner. He ploughed it so deep, that one of his neighbors
who observed the operation, told him he would spoil his soil,
and get no crop. But he had picked up the idea, that when a
soil had been pretty well exhausted on the surface, it would be
well to bring up a stratum from below, that had not been
exposed to the atmosphere, and in which elements had accumu-
lated that might afibrd nutriment to his crops. Then he carted
on his manure, and as he had but a small supply, he distributed
it in the hills, and planted one acre of potatoes, two acres and a

FARMS. 115

half of corn, and sowed half an acre of wheat. He then
ploughed up a strip of soil by the roadside, where the wash of
the road had been accumulating for a long time, and carted it
into his barnyard and pig-sty, and purchased a couple of shotes.

While carrying on these operations, he managed to work a
number of days with his team, for such of his neighbors as
required his assistance. Sometimes he worked for cash, and
sometimes exchanged work.

Thus he went on till hay time. He cut his own hay in good
season, hiring a boy a few days to assist him, and tben worked
a month for 'Squire Jones, assisting him to secure his hay and
grain. The last time he hoed his own corn, he sowed a plenty
of turnip seed. After he had secured his crop of spring wheat,
he dug a ditch across the lower end of his field, about ten rods
long, and carted the mud and soil which he threw out, into his
barnyard and pig-sty. That which he put into the yard he
spread over the surface and ploughed it in with the soil, wliich
he had placed there in the spring from the roadside. This
process he repeated about once a week through the fall.

His sister was his housekeeper through the summer and
autumn, and she took good care of his small dairy. He har-
vested his crops in good season, and found that he had three
hundred bushels of potatoes, seventy-five bushels of corn, and
seven bushels of wheat, and three cart-loads of turnips, and a
good store of garden vegetables.

Of this crop, he sold two hundred bushels of potatoes for
fifty dollars, fifty bushels of corn for thirty-seven dollars, and
a hundred and twenty pounds of butter for thirty dollars. He
also had a plenty of apples for his own use, and some forty
bushels of poor apples, which instead of making into cider, he
fed to his pigs. During the year, he had worked out with his
team to the amount of somewhat more than a hundred dollars.
He was able at the expiration of a year from the time he had
purchased his place, to pay his taxes, the interest due, and a
hundred dollars on the principal ; and he had made several
valuable improvements on the place.

On Thanksgiving Day, he was married to Betsy Fletcher, to
whom, as we have before said, he had been long attached.
She was an intelligent, industrious girl, of about his own age,
and had accumulated, chiefly by her own earnings, about three

116 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

hundred dollars, which enabled them to furnish their house
very comfortably. Now we may consider James as fairly
settled in tlie world. He determined in the first place to pay
for his little farm, and at the same time to improve it as much
as possible. His wife entered into all his plans, and assisted
him with a hearty good will. She was willing to deny herself
many present gratifications for the sake of permanent inde-
pendence. He made his house as comfortable as he could, by
such repairs as he could make himself, and decided to lay out
but little upon it until he could fairly call it his own. About
four acres of his pasture lot, which lay a quarter of a mile from
his house, had so much young wood upon it, that he thought it
best to let it grow up to wood. The remainder, about six
acres, he concluded to clear up, and bring into a more produc
tive state. During the winter, after he was married, he cleared
the wood and stumps and brush from about two acres, and thus,
with the addition of a few old apple trees, he collected wood
enough for another year. In the spring, he procured a hun-
dred young apple trees and set them out on a part of the field
which he had cultivated the previous year. He had learned at
Dorchester, that fruit was a profitable crop. He made a good
selection of thrifty trees, and took much pains with their culti-
vation, and in a few years his orchard was considered the best
in the whole neighborhood. In the spring, he laid out his work
for the year, with much care and forethought. By the help of
his pigs and his stock, and the compost material which he had
provided the previous year, he had quite a pile of manure.
This he overhauled and mixed well together. He laid down
two acres of the field of the former year to oats and grass, and
ploughed up two acres more. As soon as he had completed
his planting, he set about collecting material for compost ;
indeed, he kept this object steadily in view the whole year.
He scrubbed up his headlands, digging out the bushes, and
throwing the soil into heaps, to be carted home whenever he
had leisure. Twenty acres of his land lay in one piece, inclin-
ing a little to the west ; a portion of it was cold, springy land.
During the year he cut two more ditches, for the double pur-
pose of obtaining material for bis yard and sty, and of improv-
ing the quality of the grass. This year also, he worked out
with his team to the amount of more than a hundred dollars.

FARMS. 117

He had a fine litter of pigs in the spring, four of which he sold
for three dollars apiece. This year he raised two calves, antici-
pating that he should soon be able to keep a larger stock of
cows. His wife procured from her mother three hens, and
raised three fine broods of chickens. At the end of the year
he was able to pay his interest and a hundred dollars more of
the principal, and purchase a horse, wagon and harness, and
buffalo robe, and several tools which he needed.

But we will not follow neighbor Wiseman year by year, in
his progress. At the end of five years, he had paid tlie seven
hundred dollars which he owed for his farm. The mortgage
was cancelled and the farm was his own. He had a fine yoke of
oxen and a good horse, five cows tliat were considerably better
than the average of his neighbors', four pigs, a couple of cosset
sheep, quite a flock of hens and geese, and last, though by no
means least in his estimation, a fine boy and girl. His farm, in
the mean time, liad been steadily growing more productive.
It produced nearly double the hay it did when he moved on to
it. His apple trees were beginning to yield fair and beautiful
apples. He had a large garden stocked with plenty of currants,
peach trees, plums and cherries, and the year before he had set
out a St. Michael, and a pound pear, both which were thriving,
and promised in due time to furnish them with a supply of
their luscious fruits.

Who was happier and more independent than James ? He
had his troubles like other men, it is true. He had to work
hard, and early and late, and eat the bread of carefulness.
The borers and caterpillars would prey upon his apple trees.
The mice would find their way into his corn-bin. The early
cucumbers and corn would sometimes be nipped by the fi'ost
and have to be planted over again ; and every few years, the
corn and potatoes woidd be injured by the early frost. Showers
would come in hay time, and sometimes a long rain just when
his rye was ready to reap, and a cow would occasionally have
the garget in her bag ; but, notwithstanding all these troubles
and trials, he was happy and cheerful, and enjoyed the fruits of
his labor.

Neighbor Wiseman's farm had now so much increased in
productiveness, that he found it necessary to have more barn
room. The old barn was not very good, hardly worth repairing,

118 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

and it did not stand in the right place. He had seen two or
three barns, and had heard of several others, which had cellars
under them, and had thought the matter over a good deal, and
had made up his mind that whenever he built a barn, he would
have a cellar under it. He had not the means of paying for
his barn in cash, but he determined to set about it and do what
he could towards accomplishing it with his own hands. So in
the early part of the winter, he purchased a lot of standing
trees, and hired his brother to work with him. They cut down
the trees, and hauled the board logs to the mill, to be sawn
into boards and plank, and cut the smaller timber into suitable
dimensions for a barn sixty feet by forty, and hauled it liome
and hewed it. This, with the care of the cattle and hogs, kept
him busy through the Avintcr. In the early spring, they dug
the cellar and laid the walls, and hauled the boards from the
mill, and by the commencement of hay time, the new barn was
ready for the hay. The barn was not clapboarded nor painted,
nor furnished with ventilators, or blinds, or the many appliances
which fancy barns of the present time so often exhibit. In
short, it was not built in the style in which he has since built a
hundred foot barn. But it was as good as he could afford, and
indeed he had to hire three hundred dollars of 'Squire Jones, to
enable him to pay the carpenters, and for the shingles and nails.
But it was a great improvement on the old barn, which, the next
winter, was pulled down and converted into a shed and hog sty.
The next year he shingled his house, and in the course of two
years he had paid his borrowed money, and was again free from
debt. He had for sometime had his eye upon a lot of land
containing about twenty acres, half pasture land and half
covered with a growth of young hard wood, which lay at a
convenient distance from his house. The following winter he
purchased this lot for three hundred dollars, and agreed to pay
one hundred dollars a year until it was paid for. The first year
he cut off thirty cords of wood, and ran a fence across the lot,
so that he might use the pasturage, and sowed three acres of
rye. His wood when cut, was worth three dollars a cord, and
he raised forty-five bushels of rye, worth a dollar a bushel. By
the sale of the wood and the rye, he was able to pay the first
instalment and the interest, and had rye enough left for the use
of his family. He had been in the habit, from the commence-

FARMS. 119

ment of his farming, of raising all his own grain. Sometimes
he raised wheat and sometimes rye.

He was now able to keep eight cows, and he had raised tliem
all himself, except the first two. He took good care of his
calves, and fed them well, from the time they were taken from
the cows, and kept them always in a thriving condition. He
never allowed them to get lousy, or become stunted, but
supplied them well the fii-st winter with rowen hay, and turnips
and other roots. His cows too, were well cared for, and he
found that by keeping them warm in the winter, and feeding
them with a mess of turnips daily, through the cold weather,
they gave more and better milk, and came out strong and
healthy in the spring, and did not have to lose two or three
months in the summer, to recruit what they had lost in the
winter.

He became quite proud of his stock of cows, for he had the
reputation of having the best cows in town, and of making the
most butter for the number of cows. This resulted, as he was
well aware, from having raised none but promising calves, and
his having taken good care of them. His wife always took
great pains with her butter, and the man who carried it to
market, always returned her one or two cents a pound above
the price of common butter. Neighbor Wiseman learned by
experience the value of the turnip crop, and always laid out
for a good supply of flat turnips for the fall and early part of
winter, and of ruta-bagas, for the remainder of the winter.
Although most of his neighbors believed that turnips were of
little value, yet somehow, by their use, his cows did better and
made more butter than theirs, and when he had occasion to
fatten one, she made good beef, in less time, and at less cost,
tlian they could make it.

In about three years from the time he purchased the twenty-
acre lot, he purchased a piece of meadow with a strip of wood-
land adjoining. He now had his barn quite full of hay and
grain when he gathered in his harvest, and began to think it
necessary to enlarge it. So he made his arrangements, and
prepared to add forty feet to his barn the next season ; and as
he now had four stout oxen, he soon had the timber on the
ground, and the board logs at the mill, and before the end of
the next season, he had a fine barn, one hundred feet long and

120 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

forty feet wide. This time he put in a few extra windows, and
set his barn doors on rollers, and built a tight board fence
around his cow yard, to break of the wind from his cattle when
they were in the yard. He took great care of all his stock,
young and old. As he had raised them all himself, he knew
their several characters and habits, and they were well ac-
quainted with him, and knew his voice and step. They had all
been accustomed from their earliest days, to look to him as their
best friend and protector, and to conform to his will, so that he
never had any difficulty in managing them. He thought the
best time to handle steers and break them in, was wlien they
were calves, and this he had always done, and no oxen in the
neighborhood were so well broken, and so sure on a hard pull,
as neighbor Wiseman's. He never required more of them than
he knew they could do, and they soon learned that they could
do whatever he required. They trusted his judgment, and
never refused to obey his orders. He believed that when more
is required of the patient ox than he is able to do, he will soon
learn to refuse to do what he can, and thus he is spoiled for
service. His cattle were never breachy, for ho kept good fences.
His cultivated fields were now inclosed with substantial
stone walls. His land contained a good supply of stones, and
he had dug them out of his fields, where they were worse than
useless, and laid them into walls, where they did good service.
This he had done, a little at a time, as he found opportunity,
and thus not only made his fields more secure, but much easier
of tillage. He added new improvements and conveniences as
he found himself able. He had now two boys and two girls,
all bright and healthy. He kept those who were old enough at
school, while the district school kept. His oldest boy was now
big enough to be useful in many ways, and he kept him era-
ployed with him, when he was not at school, and taught him to
manage the team, and ride and drive the horse, and tend the
cows, and do all kinds of work, for which his strength was
competent. Neighbor Wiseman was now considered one of the
most thrifty, well-doing men in town. His neighbors finding
him successful in all his plans, often consulted him with regard
to their crops, and farming arrangements, and seldom had
cause to regret that they had followed his advice. He was pub-
lic spirited, as well as economical, and was always in favor of

FARMS. 121

every measure that he believed would promote the public good.
For many years past, he has taken an agricultural paper, and
always read it with much interest, and has derived from it
many valuable hints in the management of his farm. He is a
member of the County Agricultural Society, and has several
times taken premiums for his cows and his butter, the only
objects he has offered for premiums. He says he takes a pre-
mium for his butter with more satisfaction than for any thing
else, because in this case, his wife shares the credit with him.

Neighbor Wiseman has continued to thrive to the present
day. He is now fifty-six years old. It is about thirty years
since he purchased his farm of thirty acres. He has at present,
a hundred and twenty acres, some thirty of which are wood-
land. The rest is pasture, meadow and tillage.

His house is in good repair. He has painted it three times,
and a few years ago fitted it with blinds and put it in thorough
repair. His barn we have already described. This he has
lately clapboarded and painted, and fitted a ventilator to the
top, rather to be in fashion, than because he considers it of any
real value. His barn cellar, he has learned by experience, is
the place that requires more labor and attention than any other
on his farm, and he says no other labor pays so well. His
meadow furnishes material for composting in the cellar, and he
keeps a year's stock always thrown out, that it may be pulver-
ized by the frost, and get well dried the next summer, before
carting it to the yard and cellar. He says one load of well
dried muck is worth two of heavy wet muck, for it will absorb
twice as much liquid from the stable, and besides is much
easier to handle. He has constructed a reservoir at a short
distance from the rear of his house, into which the soap-suds
and the sink drain are conducted. This he keeps well sup-
plied with dried muck, and covers it with plank. He cleans it
out twice a year, and strews over it a quantity of plaster, and
says he finds it an excellent manure for his garden, and es-
pecially for his fruit trees, of which he has now quite a variety.
He has never purchased any imported or artificial fertilizers,
except occasionally a little plaster, which he first procured as a
means of preserving his vines from the ravages of the bugs.
He finds this useful in the cultivation of potatoes, as it pre-
serves them from the worms. When he puts a small handful

16

122 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of plaster in the hill, he says the potatoes come out smoother
and handsomer, and will bring enough more in the market to
pay for tlie plaster several times over.

His belief is that every farmer should rely mainly upon his
own resources for manures, and that except in extraordinary
cases, he should not attempt to cultivate any more land than
he can provide manure for from his own farm.

Neighbor Wiseman endeavors to keep up with the times, and
he avails himself of every new implement, or new method of
cultivation, which upon careful examination commends itself
to his judgment.

He has tried raising milk for the market, instead of making
butter. This he did principally from regard to his wife, hoping
to relieve her somewhat of the labor of the dairy.

While selling his milk, he cut a large portion of his hay for
his milch cows, and moistened it, and added a portion of cob
and corn meal to the feed, night and morning. But he found
it on the whole less profitable than making butter. The relief
to his wife was less than he anticipated. The daily labor of
cleaning the cans was new to her, and quite as hard as the
straining and skimming of the milk, and the working and pack-
ing of the butter. As for the chvirning, she had rarely done
that, since they had more tlian two cows. He found he could
not keep as many pigs as formerly, and the manure from the
pig-sty was diminished.

Occasionally his milk was not all wanted, and the butter ap-
paratus not being in order, the extra milk was of little value,
except for the hogs. After trying it three years, he returned
to the butter making. He now keeps twelve cows, and sends
the butter to market weekly.

He concludes that this is the most profitable disposal he can
make of his milk, and as his wife thinks a good deal of her
skill as a butter maker, she says she likes it the best. She has
a neat, airy milk cellar, with a clean brick floor, and shelves as
white almost as the milk itself. It is a pleasure to see the long
rows of tin pans upon them, filled with milk, or to see the pans
on a bright day after churning, glittering in the sunshine.

Neighbor Wiseman has crossed his cows with the Ayrshire
and the Devon stock, and he thinks it has resulted in a marked
improvement of their milking properties, though some of his

FARMS. 123

neighbors think the improvement is owing to his always select-
ing and raising only the best specimens of his own stock, and
to the very great care he takes of them when young, and to his
always keeping them in high condition, and indeed I partly
agree with them, for I believe a well fed cow will not only give
more, but better milk, than a lean, half-fed one. But whatever
it may be owing to, he has several cows that make ten or twelve
pounds of rich butter in a week, during the best of the feed.

He usually raises six calves every year, and of course he is
able to dispose of three or four cows every season. He never
sells his best cows, but those he does sell bring the highest
price in the market.

Neighbor Wiseman has raised two or three colts in the course
of his life, but he thinks it not best for one man to attempt to
do too many things.

He is fond of a good horse, but he thinks the raising of
horses requires a great deal of time and attention, and that
those will succeed best who give tlieir attention mainly to this
branch of husbandry.

He understands rearing cattle better, and he says it is better
for him to purchase a horse once in five or six years, than to
attempt to raise one.

I have frequently asked myself the question, what is the
secret of neighbor Wiseman's success ? He is a plain, common
sense man, no ways remarkable for his physical or mental
endowments, and he does not labor harder than many other
farmers of my acquaintance. I have come to the conclusion,
that his secret, if he has any, is, that he plans all his work with
great forethought and care ; that he never commences his work
until he is ready, and then always works to the purpose.

He has a faculty of always hitting the nail on the head, and
thus making every stroke tell, so that he wastes no strength,
nor loses any time in useless labor.

Whatever he does, he does with reference to the future, as
the present, and thus all his improvements are permanent and
substantial.

When he raises a calf, his object is not only to get a good
cow, but to improve his breed of cows.

When he cultivates a piece of land, he aims not only to get

124 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICUI.TURE.

a good crop this year, but also to leave the land in a better
state than he found it.

Thus when he makes a step in advance, it is so much actu-
ally gained. He has not got to go over the same ground
again.

This is the way neighbor Wiseman manages his farm.

If I had a hundred pages, instead of fifteen, I would talk
about managing a farm in a different way.

But I think something may be learned from the experience
and example of neighbor Wiseman.

HAMPDEN.

From the Report of the Directors on Farms.

The directors, in laying before the farmers of this county
the results of their experience and observation, not only for the
past year, but for the past three years, feel it a pleasure to be
able to notice the growing interest manifested by many of the.
farmers as seen in numerous well-directed efforts for a higher
state of cultivation ; improvement of old and worn-out lands,
and reclaiming those that have hitherto been entirely wortliless,
causing them to produce fine and luxuriant crops. It being
our duty in part to visit and examine those farms entered for
premium, a duty which has required not a little time, each
farm having to be visited twice each year, yet it has been
attended to with much pleasure and satisfaction. For we notice
a desire to excel in the cultivation of the soil in numerous
instances, where but a few years since no such interest was
manifested. Among the farms of which it becomes our duty
to speak more particularly in the printed report for this year,
are those entered by Pliineas Stedman of Chicopee, and H. M.
Sessions of South Wilbraham, who entered theirs in compe-
tition for the Society's premium of fifty dollars offered in 1856
for the best conducted and most improved farm during the
ensuing three years, taking into view the entire management
and cultivation for that period, including lands, buildings, fences,
orchards, crops, stock, <fec., with statements in detail relating to
the management of said farms. The formation of soils upon

FARMS. 125

the two farms are so entirely different from each other, requir-
ing different modes of treatment to obtain the most satisfactory
results, that your committee have been enabled to witness how
much may be done in reclaiming a low, worthless bog, not
worth a hundred mills, to be worth more than as many dollars
per acre ; and again how the rugged hill sides, and unsightly
valleys, being disincumbered of their rocks and stones, accom-
plishing a twofold pvirpose and use, that of getting them out
of the way, and also using them for under-drains to conduct off
the surplus water, may be made to yield more than two spires
of grass where only one grew before, and of a much finer qual-
ity. These farms were both visited twice in the year 1856 in
the month of June, and again in September, once each in 1857,
and again twice this year. Mr. Sessions' improvements, which
are very conspicuous and lasting, have been accomplished by
the removal from the surface of a mass of rocks and stones,
and putting some to a useful purpose in the shape of under-
drains, a large number of which he has built, and others, into
substantial and durable fence. And now the most casual
observer cannot help noticing the great improvement in the
grass-, in quality as well as quantity. The only drawback to
this mode of proceeding of which we could speak, is the fre-
quency with which the drains seem usually to occur. The sub-
soil is so hard and impervious that the water cannot percolate
through but a short distance. But the energy and persevering
efforts of the enterprising proprietor, seem to have overcome
even this, and he feels that he is amply paid for it. Other im-
provements are noticeable on this farm ; the house has under-
gone thorough and valuable repairs, and Mr. Sessions being an
advocate of the Devon breed of cattle, has purchased and placed
upon his farm some of the finest specimens of pure Devon to
be found in the country. The rearing of an improved class of
horses also, has not escaped his attention. The most noticeable
improvements upon Mr. Stedman's farm, have been accom-
plished upon some six or eight acres of low bog, most of which
was entirely worthless so far as cultivation was concerned. By
bogging, filling and draining, this piece of ground has been
brought into a condition which bids fair to become the most
valuable mowing land upon the farm. Such an entire change
and reclamation have been produced upon this spot of ground,

126 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

that none but those who saw it in its original state could hardly
believe in the wonderful change that has been wrought upon it.
And the successful operations carried on here, it is to be hoped,
will be thought worthy of imitation by others in the same
locality as well as those more remote.

One great secret of successful farming is not lost sight of
here, as will be seen in large quantities of well-housed com-
posted manure, which gives in return, not only heavy crops of
grahi and grass, but most enormous crops of roots, the raising
of which is of no small importance to every farmer that keeps
a stock of cattle. When twenty tons of mangold wurtzel can
be grown upon an acre of land with no more labor than it
requires to raise an acre of corn, it would seem that there
could no longer be a question about the utility as well as profit
of such a crop. And more than this has been produced by Mr.
Stedman upon one acre of his land, or at this rate, this season.
Unlike liis competitor, (Mr. Sessions,) Mr. Stedman has given
his attention to the breeding of i)ure Shorthorns, and has
some very noticeable specimens. Every thing connected with
this farm seems to have the proper attention of its proprietor,
and a rich reward is reaped for such attention. In deciding
upon the merits of these two farms, the directors found it very
difficult to decide which, alone, was entitled to the premium ;
either Avell deserving it, and if the funds and rules of the
society would have admitted of it, the directors would with
pleasure have awarded the fifty dollars to each, knowing that
it would not be unworthily bestowed. But under the cir-
cumstances they were unanimous in dividing the fifty dollar
premium equally between the two, and Mr. Stedman has
generously given his half back for the use of the society.

H. E. MosELEY, for the Directors.

Statement of Pliineas Stedman.

In presenting this my third annual report, I have nothing of
marked interest or importance to communicate. While I can
see some improvements both special and general, I am only
more conscious of the need of others on every hand. I can
present no statements of large or unusual crops, my object

FARMS. 127

having been rather to improve the general productiveness and
fertility of my farm by judicious management in the cultivation
and expenditure of the crops. By comparing the present with
former statements, it will be seen that some advance has been
made in the gross amount of crops, and I have no doubt that
the same or a greater ratio of increase is easily attainable for
the next three years. The bog and waste land (seven acres)
to which allusion was made in my first statement, has been so
far reclaimed that not a bog remains, and most of it has been
brought under cultivation, producing good crops annually.
This has been accomplished by removing the surface water by
means of open drains, cutting and removing bogs, then plough-
ing and planting with buckwheat or potatoes. Buckwheat has
been used solely as a first crop until the past season. In the
spring of 1858 about one acre was planted with potatoes. A
heavy fall of rain immediately after planting, and before the
drains had been suitably cleared, occasioned many vacancies ;
yet this acre produced ninety-six bushels of the finest look-
ing Jenny Lind potatoes I have ever seen, and entirely free
from disease. Other portions of this mucky ground have been
planted with potatoes the past season, and are also free from
disease, while upon higher ground and good loam adjoining,
many show signs of decay. About one acre which has had less
bogs upon it, but was formerly quite as wet and nearly as
worthless, has been made to produce good grass by covering the
surftice with earth, (cutting some of the highest bogs,) applying
twenty loads of compost manure, and sowing grass seed. This
was accomplished during tlie last winter and spring. It has
been mown twice tliis season, producing as we judge, two and
one-half tons of good hay. When I stock in this way, I sow
oats with the grass seed, which being cut for hay, increases
very much the yield of the first crop. One acre which has
been under cultivation the past three years has this autumn
been prepared for grass by the application of two hundred ox
loads of earth, followed with fifteen of manure. The seed was
sown the fifth of October and is looking finely. The cost of
carting and spreading the earth has been about eight cents per
load, or sixteen dollars per acre. Most of the earth used in
both the above instances needed to be removed to furnish an
outlet for the water. The muck taken from the ditches in the

128 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

meadow has been composted with manure and applied to other
lands, and is, I am confident, worth more than the expense of
digging and carting. The expense of reclaiming this meadow,
is, therefore, confined to the cutting and burning, or otherwise
removing the bogs, and the application of earth. This last,
while I am not certain that it is absolutely essential, is I think
expedient, because of the super-abundance of vegetable matter
in the composition of the meadow. Adjoining the above acre
I sowed grass seed upon one-half acre of land, on the eleventh
of September, without the application of earth or manure, and
very little grass is to be seen. I think manure without earth
would not have secured its growth. Neither am I certain that
the application of earth without manure would have done so.
But had the two been applied as in the other case, I have no
doubt the result would have been equally favorable. Having
more earth I wish removed, I intend during the present month,
(November) to apply it to this and adjoining land and restock.
As the distance or " average haul " is an important item in
removing earth, I will state that in all the above cases it does
not vary much from thirty rods. My crops have been uniform-
ly good, yet none remarkably so. Eleven acres have been
mown, producing by estimation about twenty tons of hay.
One and one-half acres was clover, mown twice, then sowed to
rye August 24th, and is now a fine pasture for calves, which
have grazed upon it since the fifteenth of October. A small
field of spring wheat, one and one-fourth acres, is perhaps
among the best. This was sowed the tenth of April, two and
one-half bushels per acre. The wheat has not all been threshed,
but judging from what has been threshed, which I think a fair
average, the yield is thirty-two bushels per acre. Of oats I had
five acres, some of which were very heavy, others only ordinary,
the average yield I think fifty bushels. Corn seven and three-
fourths acres including two acres much injured by the wire
worm, produced six hundred and ninety bushels of ears. This
is of the kind called Demond corn, and two bushels of ears
produce thirty-eight quarts of corn. Potatoes have been grown
in broken patches, and the ground not all measured. The
yield has been about four hundred and fifty bushels. Of mangold
wurzels, I have forty-four rods, from whicli we have just
harvested six tons two hundred and ten pounds of well trimmed

FARMS. 129

roots. Ill the same field I have carrots upon one side and
Swedish turnips upon the other, with a few rows of cabbages
mtcrspersed. Two rows of the mangold wurzcls wciglied when
trimmed, two thousand two hundred and ten pounds. The
same of Swedish turnips weighed one thousand four hundred
and twenty pounds. Upon two rows of cabbages were two
hundred and ninety merchantable heads. The rows were
alike in each, being two feet six inches apart. The same
ground in carrots gave one thousand two hundred pounds, the
rows being eighteen inches apart. The cost of cultivation was
nearly the same, (except carrots) which were more. Value of
crop : —

2,220 pounds Mangold wurzels at $8 per ton, is _ . $8 84

1,420 " Swedes at $8 per ton, is . . " . 5 68

1,200 '- Carrots at $12 per ton, is . . . 7 20

290 heads of Cabbage at 3 cents per head, . . 8 70

*
Of carrots we have fifty-three rods, the produce of which was

two hundred and fifty-six bushels of forty-five pounds each.

One and one-eighth acres of Swedish turnips not all harvested,

will probably yield six hundred and ninety bushels. About

five acres of common turnips of different varieties complete the

list of root crops. Most of them were sowed broadcast, and

are yielding fair crops. Three acres after a crop of rye had

been harvested, and two upon sward previously pastured.

About one and one-half acres were sown in drills two feet four

inches apart, and manure applied in the drill to the amount of

thirteen loads, or three and one-fourth cords per acre. These

were sown August 7th, too late to attain a full growth. They

have been hoed once and thinned, and yield four hundred and

sixty bushels per acre. My corn was planted with Woodward's

Planter, and required but one day's labor of a man, boy and

horse. Hay and grain were cut by Kirby's Combined Machine,

which is manufactured by B. B. Belcher at Chicopee Falls, and

is, I think, one of the best.

In the following table we give a condensed statement of the

principal crops grown upon the farm for the three years : —

17

130

MASSACPIUSETTS AGRICULTUKE.

1856.

1857.

1858.

Hay,

23 tons.

18 tons.

20 tons.

Corn, .

80 bushels.

350 bushels.

409 bushels.

Oats, .

320 "

40 "

250 "

Wheat,

-

12 "

40 "

Rye, . .

35 bushels,

35 "

40 "

Buckwheat,

-

52 "

-

Mangolds, .

-

2,115 pounds,

12,215 pounds.

Swedes,

415 bushels.

980 bushels.

G90 bushels.

Carrots,

GOO "

399 "

256 "

Soft Turnips,

-

600 "

1,500 "

Potatoes, .

110 bushels.

225 "

450 «

Cabbages, .

-

300 heads,

600 heads.

Stock. — My farm stock consists of three horses, six cows,
two bulls, one ox, two heifers two years old, three yearling
steers, three bull calves, four swine. The amount realized for
stock sold during the year, is seven hundred and sixty-eight
dollars ; the amount expended is eighty dollars. The value of
stock now on hand I think does not vary much from that of
last year. The bull and ox have been worked together. During
the winter they were worked only occasionally. In April they
were weighed. The bull is five years old and weighed one
thousand seven hundred and thirty two pounds ; tlie ox is nine
years old, and weighed one thousand five hundred and fifteen
pounds. They were put to work, the yoke varying in length,
about in proportion to their weight. They have been worked
most of the time, either upon the farm or for others ; they
have been well, and fed alike, sometimes in the barn and some-
times in the pasture. Their weight — of the bull, at this time,
is one thousand seven hundred and five pounds, and the ox,
fifteen hundred pounds. I can say, therefore, that in this case
at least, I have perceived no injurious effect from working the
two together, and I believe the real difficulty more frequently
is in being unequally matched, either in strength or disposition.
My cows have been soiled mostly, being kept in the barn, ex-
cept about two hours in the morning, when they were allowed

FARMS. 131

to graze. From July 20th, to September 26th, six cows and
one yearling were fed from one hundred and five rods of corn
sowed for that purpose. The corn was sowed in drills twenty
inches apart, at the rate of three bushels per acre. This, with
one quart of meal, (rye and corn,) per day, with grazing two
hours in the morning, was their entire living. I have never
before fed so entirely upon green fodder, and think I have
never had stock do better. They have held their condition
better than ever before, which I attribute to regularity of food,
and freedom from the annoyance of flies. It may be thought
out of season to speak o^ files, but in my estimation, it is a
matter of no small consideration, and any who have not
observed it, will be surprised to notice the avidity with which
animals thus accustomed, will seek a retreat from these annoy-
ances. The subject of soiling is, I am happy to know, being
brought into more general practice by agriculturists in this
vicinity, and I have no doubt this, with the more thorough and
extensive cultivation of root crops, will rank high among 'the
improvements in agriculture of the present age. I have sown
seven-cightlis of an acre of rye, which I design for soiling in
the early part of next season, then use the land for a crop of
Swedish turnips. The barn is forty-six by sixty-five feet, with
eigliteen feet posts, and a basement seven feet in height. The
basement eighteen by thirty-two feet, is connected with the
room above, and is used for storing hay ; sixteen by twenty-
three for roots, and the remainder for stabling and manure.
A part of the stabling is upon a level with the main floor, and
directly over tlie manure cellar. Tlie swine are kept upon the
manure, and make themselves generally useful by composting
it with muck and such refuse as is afforded them. Tlie manure
is all kept under cover till hauled to the field, either for direct
application, or further composting. My cows and such other
stock as are kept near the barn, have been stabled at night, for
the last thirteen years. The chief object of this is the saving
of manure, which I have ever made a prominent point. Well
do I remember the first accumulation of manure under my
barn in the summer of 1855, (the droppings of two cows,) and
remarking to a neighbor on the number of loads of manure
thus produced, when he coolly replied that I might call it so
many loads of stuff. The barn has been re-covered and painted,

132 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the past year, and the buildings are in good condition. The
income from the dairy I have not kept as accurately during
the last year as formerly. Can say, however, that it has
been satisfactory. My bills for labor, including board the past
year, have been four hundred and seven dollars. This does
not include my own labor, or that of my son, now fifteen
years of age.

CnicoPEE, November 1, 1858.

NORFOLK.

From the Report of the Supervising Covimittee.

It were absurd, of course, to suppose that all may surround
themselves with the comforts, conveniences and enjoyments
wealth can procure. Few have a larger share of means than
dally necessities require ; and many can only with difficulty
avoid or escape the embarrassments of debt. Still, the .impor-
tance of making the place, where life is to be spent and its chief
happiness found, neat and tasteful in exterior appearance and
comfortable and convenient in interior appointments, cannot be
doubted. Far more important is it than the enlargement of
one's acres, the increase of his title-deeds or bonds and stocks.
Especially is the possession of an attractive and delightful home,
offering abundant means of mental improvement and social
recreation and enjoyment, to be counted among the best safe-
guafl:"ds of youthful virtue and sources of youthful happiness.
The associations which cluster around such a home will be
strong inducements, also, to the farmer's sons to continue and
be content with the occupation of their father.

Let the farmer then consider it a duty to provide for his home
all the comforts, conveniences and enjoyments he can honestly
afford. Let him recognize his obligation to promote the social
welfare and strengthen the social ties of his neighborhood. Let
him cultivate the earth, not merely to fill his barns and granaries
by exhausting its fruitfulness, but to preserve and increase it;
not merely to make it yield him food, raiment and shelter, but
to adorn it with shade, and fruits, and flowers. Let it furnish
him, as it may, with a habitation which shall become more and

FARMS. 183

more attractive to himself and his family as they advance in
life, and the thought sliall become more and more grateful to
him and to tlicm, that they will sleep together, at last, upon its
quiet breast.

Of one thing observed in this town, (West Roxbury,) we
cannot forbear to speak, though it be only to record the fact,
for an example to others. We allude to the lively interest and
zeal manifested in the welfare of this society. One of the
gentlemen, to whose attentions the committee were particularly
indebted, assured us of his purpose to add, this year, — as he
had done in former years, — a large number to the society's
catalogue of members, — an assurance which he made good by
the presentation of thirty names of new members, together
with the fees for their membership. Another of these gentle-
men had also warmly interested himself in a similar under-
taking, which he nobly completed, by adding eighteen names to
the catalogue of members, and passing to the treasury the fees
for their membership. Now, allowing all the abatement which
needs be made, fur the peculiarly favorable locality where these
efforts were put forth, we would urge it upon the consideration
of every member of the society, how much may be accomplished
by equally zealous endeavors elsewhere.

An instance of agricultural practice, hitherto unusual in this
vicinity, was observed in Franklin, which, it is thought, may lead
to profitable results. We refer to the spreading of fine gravel,
three or four inches deep, as a top-dressing, on uplands, by which
astonishing effects were produced on crops of grass and corn.
The land on which this experiment was shown to the committee,
had a subsoil of clay, and the benefit of such a top-dressing was
supposed to consist, mainly, if not entirely, in warming the soil
and thus quickening the growth of plants. It was affirmed,
however, by others, that this was only a subsidiary effect of the
practice ; that the land was not particularly moist or cold, and
that equally remarkable effects were to be seen on other and
drier lands. But of the philosophy and particular benefit of
this practice, we shall be able to speak more clearly hereafter.

Charles C. Sewall, Chairman.

134 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Statement of Mr. Motleij.

The Bussey farm, occupied and managed by the subscriber,
contains three hundred acres of land, various in cliaracter.

Tlie largest crop is hay. This season we cut about one hun-
dred and eighty tons. Had under the plough, as follows : —

Eleven acres winter rye — yielding three hundred and ten
bushels. My plan in raising rye, is to take a piece of grass
land which requires ploughing up, and in August, after taking
off the hay and ploughing, seed down witli rye, one bushel and
a half to the acre, harrow and roll, without any manure. In
this way, I get from twenty-five to tliirty bushels per acre, and
a good crop of straw ; and my land is in good condition to
receive manure for a corn crop, the following year, — the old
stubble making the land when ploughed, remain light.

Five acres corn, which owing to the cold and wet early in
the season, proved a failure, yielding only forty bushels per
acre. The variety planted is the Bristol or smutty white.
Heretofore, I have raised from eighty to one hundred and seven
bushels per acre. Four acres in ruta-bagas, sugar beets and
carrots, yielding 1,016 bushels ruta-bagas, 771 bushels carrots,
278 bushels sugar beets, making a total of 2,065 bushels.

I have been very unfortunate in the potato crop, for the last
five years, invariably losing from a half to the whole crop.

This year I planted only one acre to Davis seedling, and the
result was a total failure, saving only about twenty bushels,
which sold early.

My neat stock is of the Jersey breed, either full blood or
grade. I raise all my full blood calves, and all the grade heifer
calves. We make, on an average, about fifty pounds of butter
per week.

In raising calves, after having tried the different plans sug-
gested, I prefer to take them from the cow on the third day and
then give them new milk, warm from the cows, morning and
evening, in such quantities as is necessary to keep them grow-
ing well, until they are ten to twelve weeks old, and then put
them to pasture. The first winter, feed them well on good hay
and a peck of ruta-bagas per day. Put them to the bull at
fifteen months old. My stock consists of one bull, twenty-four
cows, heifers and calves.

FARMS. 135

I have a small flock of sheep, of the Oxford Down breed,
consisting of one ram and sixty ewes and lambs. I consider
that I can keep a flock of two hundred and fifty sheep, on a
farm like this, to advantage ; and I would here urge upon the
farmers of our county to use all their influence, at our next
session of the legislature, to have the present dog law carried
into force, or to procure another, more stringent, to be passed ;
for they must all be aware that the number of useless curs far
exceeds the number of sheep in this county.

My breed of swine is a cross between the Suffolk sow and
Essex boar, which I consider the best, for all purposes, I have
ever raised.

I winter, in addition to the above, on an average, about
twenty horses, which are fed on hay and carrots.

My manure is mostly kept in barn-cellars, is thrown over
frequently and loam is mixed with it. Large heaps are closely
packed up during the autumn and winter, on the fields where
it is to be used in the following spring, and kept covered with
earth, to prevent the escape of gasses and to protect it from
the rain.

The grass fields are renewed every seven or eight years, and
then kept under the plough three years. First year, winter rye,
without manure ; second year, corn, with ten cords manure as
it comes from the cellars, per acre; third year, roots, with
about six cords manure, then seeded down, generally in the
spring, with one bushel Timothy and two bushels redtop
per acre, well harrowed and rolled with a heavy stone roller —
picking off the stones clean, and making it as smooth as possi-
ble for the mowing machine.

My milch cows are fed on rowen, as long as I have it, with
one peck of carrots per day ; then good hay and same quantity
of roots. If my roots give out, 1 then give six quarts shorts
per day — rarely any meal. I milk them, if possible, up to
about thirty days of their calving.

1 grind up all my corn on the cob, with one of the " Little
Giant " corn crushers. A man and a pair of horses will grind,
easily, fifteen bushels per hour ; and this can be done in stormy
weather, when it is impossible to work out of doors.

Woodland Hill, December 10, 1858.

136 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Letter of Mr. E. W. Robinson to the Supervising' Comrniltee.

Gentlemen, — I have had considerable experience in reclaim-
ing low lands, where rush and wild grasses were the principal
growth, and my usual practice has been as follows : If the slope
of the land was only moderate, I ploughed it by back furrows,
into beds varying in width from two to five rods, so as to make
a good ditch where the dead furrows came together. I then
rolled down the furrows, spread the manure, and harrowed the
ground thoroughly. After this preparation, I sowed about
half a bushel of Timothy seed with an equal quantity of redtop,
and covered it by using a bush or brush harrow. I then
picked off the stones and rolled the ground again. When this
was done in September, I could reasonably expect a good crop
of grass the next summer.

Wliere the slope of the land is such as to allow the water to
pass off freely, I have usually dug a trench two or more feet
deep, laid a drain eight or twelve inches wide, and covered it,
partly with small stones, and partly with loam above tliem. I
prefer this sort of ditch wherever it will answer the purpose.
The cost of one will depend very much on the nature of the
soil through which it is to run. In some cases it may be made
by using a common plough, attached to the hind part of a cart,
so as to let one wheel run in the ditch.

My land has a clay, gravel or hard-pan subsoil. Water
remains on its surface quite late in the spring. I have been
accustomed to plough greensward in August or the latter part
of July, with a Michigan double plough, which I consider the
best plough for such use. I then spread manure and sow
turnip seed, or harrow the ground, and suffer it to lie until the
next spring, when it is ploughed crosswise, and prepared for
planting. In breaking up land I plough nine inches in depth.
For ploughing crosswise, I use the Connecticut River Valley
plough — formerly sold by Prouty & Mears, or the sod plough,
(letter B,) sold by Nourse, Mason & Co. I prefer for all
kinds of ploughing in my land, a large sized plough. It stirs
the ground much more thoroughly, and to a greater depth.

In preparing ground for any early crop, I like the practice of
ploughing in coarse, green manure, in the fall. Land prepared
in this way will become dry much earlier in the spring, and

FARMS. 137

besides the advantage of having the work of ploughing and
manuring done in the fall, the work of planting may be attended
to many days sooner than otherwise.

Rotation of Crops. — It has been my custom to plough the
land in the latter part of summer, or after harvesting a crop of
hay, and to plant potatoes the next spring. Then in the fall, I
plough in green stable manure, and in the following spring
plant peas, cabbages, parsnips, carrots, or some other root crops.
If, when these crops are removed, I wish to lay down the land
to grass, I sow in the fall winter rye and grass seed, at the
rate of four or five pecks of rye with a half bushel each, of
Timothy and rcdtop seed. I then pick off the stones, and roll
the ground with a heavy roller. If any sods or bushes remain
about the fences, they are carefully removed.

I commonly use clear manure, at the rate of eight cords per
acre, at each time of planting, but none at the time of sowing
grain or grass seed. When grass seed is to be sown in the
spring, I sow with it barley. Wheat and oats do not fill well
in this locality.

I have not been in the habit of using much manure for top-
dressing, preferring to invert the sod and seed anew, after
manuring, if the field is to be kept in grass.

My usual practice has been to plough greeensward nine or
ten inches deep ; old ground, for planting or sowing, six or
eight inches.

For some years past, I have raised early potatoes, by putting
the tubers into beds of manure about the first of April, and
transplanting them with care about the first of May, putting
into the hill some well-rotted manure. The ground is prepared
however, the preceding fall, by ploughing in coarse manure.
The potatoes are hoed about one week after being transplanted,
and again within ten days afterwards. The crop averages about
two hundred bushels of good merchantable potatoes. They
will be early ready for the market, be more likely to escape the
rot, and to sell for a good price. White Chenango potatoes are
the best variety for the Boston market.

Early peas, for the market, are generally a good crop to raise.
Select good seed ; this is very important. Plough as soon as
the ground can be furrowed in the spring, putting in manure
which has been thoroughly forked over and commenced heat-
is

138 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

ing. Use the manure freely, and plant about a bushel of peas
to the acre. After hoeing the peas a second time, plant in the
rows either marrow squashes or sweet corn. When the peas
have been picked, pull up the vines and hoe and cultivate the
corn, if that was planted as soon as possible, and you will have
it in season for the market before any frost can injure it.

Parsnips yield another good crop, when made to grow well.
Their seeds do not readily vegetate. I have usually prepared
the ground for them, and also the seed, in the following way :
I plough the ground to the depth of ten or more inches, putting
in at the same time at least ten cords of manure to the acre. I
soak the seeds for twenty-four hours in milk-warm water, skim-
ming off all that rise upon the surface, and roll the rest in
pulverized plaster. If the seeds are good, they will then be
sure to vegetate. Deep, heavy loam, near low land, is to be
preferred for parsnips. Proceeding in this way, I have grown
upon half an acre of ground, one hundred and twenty barrels
of good merchantable parsnips, most of which were sold for
$1.50 per barrel, and some, in the spring, for $2.25. They
were harvested by running a large plough closely to the rows
and pulling the roots up by their tops. I consider the above,
however, an extraordinary yield, and the cost per barrel I am
unable to state exactly. Parsnips afford good food for stock or
swine. J have fed store pigs with raw parsnips in the winter
season, giving no other food, and found that the pigs throve
well.

Land which produces good corn, I consider best for grass.
Good crops of grass may, indeed, be produced on low grounds,
too wet for corn ; but the quality of such grass cannot be so
good as that grown on dryer land.

I think the best time for cutting grass is when it is in full
blossom, should the weather then be suitable. With proper
care two tons per acre may be harvested. I use only the scythe
in mowing, and rake the hay with a horse-rake, saving thereby
full one-half the labor.

It has been my custom to employ native workmen. I think
they are the most skilful ; they understand more readily and
execute more rapidly. I usually employ five men for eight
months in the year, and have endeavored to obtain men of
rugged constitution and of good moral character. I treat them

FARMS. 139

like men, and in almost every instance, if I wanted one to per-
form any labor at any hour of the day or the night, I had only to
make the request. Or, if I wished at any time to accomplish
an extra amount of labor, for a day's work, I have seldom
failed to do it.

Tlie average wages I have paid for five years past, has been
$15.50 per month, and all whom I have hired have been ready
to commence work at sunrise and to continue it till sundown,
or later, if necessary.

Dorchester, November 10, 1858.

PLYMOUTH.

From the Supervisor's Report.

We would see every freeholder making improvements on the
homestead. A few days' work annually in removing stones and
brush, in transplanting trees and fences, will add much to the
beauty and pleasantness of home. The children catch the
inspiration, and each one is eager to do something to forward
the enterprise. Their taste is improved, their energy quick-
ened, and they become more social, more active for study and
for labor, more attached to home.

It becomes us to inquire, whether as an agricultural commu-
nity we are not falling behind the rest of the world by our
neglect of improvement when we ought to be in the advance.
Do we not think too much of the bushels of grain which we can
raise the present year, and not aim enough at the general
improvement of the farm ? Such improvement as shall render
home attractive and pleasant to our young men, and save them
from the inclination to leave the paternal roof for those pursuits
which insure failure and disappointment to so many.

Our farms are capable of both productive and ornamental
improvement. Would it not then be advisable for the agricul-
tural society to give more encouragement to farm improvement,
by offering a higher premium for the best conducted farm, — for
converting swamp lands into English meadow, — and old worn-
out hills and fields into forests ? The entries made for such
improvements for the last two or three years have been very few.

140 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

One entry was made in 1856, for premium on the best conducted
farm, but within two years from the time the gentleman sold
his place and went into other business. No entry has since
been made for this premium.

One tree association only was entered for the society's
premium offered the present year. We are sorry to find no
more competition for this premium. Many individuals iu the
county have manifested a laudable ambition for improving the
appearance of their neighborhoods, and have transplanted
numerpus ornamental trees about their buildings and by the
highways, which in a few years will add much to the comfort
and beauty of their homes. It is hoped that others will follow
the example, and either as individuals, or by uniting together
under a constitution as an associated body, extend these labors
and improvements till all our public streets and highways shall
be bordered with fruit and shade trees.

P. P. HowLAND, Supervisor.

RECLAIMED MEADOWS.

ESSEX.

Statement of William Osborn.

The meadow I offer for a premium is the same which was
offered in 1855, with the addition of about one acre since
reclaimed. For the expense of reclaiming, I refer you to the
report of 1855. Of the expense of labor, and the crops since
that date I am not able to make a satisfactory report, as it is so
connected with the land on which you saw the rye ; I can only
say that the crops were abundant, and the most profitable
investment that I have ever made in farming. The crops of this
season were nine one-horse wagon loads of hay of the first and
second crops ; ninety bushels of carrots from thirty-five rods.
Of the potatoes I cannot give you the amount as they were dug
while I was from home, and I neglected to have the account

RECLAIMED MEADOWS. 141

kept of them ; aside from the rot there was a fair yield. I do
not hesitate to say that on the most part of that in grass there
were over two tons to the acre, and if I ever saw three tons to
the acre it was there. It was with the greatest difficulty that
we could make it on the land.

My method of raising carrots is to spread the manure on the
land early in the season and plough ; let it lay until the weeds
start, then plough again, and sow the carrots with cabbage seed
to mark the rows. As soon as they are up, go through with the
scuffle hoc, and weed shortly after. It is but little trouble to
keep the weeds under till the carrots cover the ground, provided
you bestow the labor at the right time. I consider them one of
tlie best paying crops that I raise.

I find seventy-five and one-half days' labor charged to the
orchard, as I designate the whole land embracing the swamp
land of about three acres, and about the same of the higher
land on which you saw the rye. The land on which I had rye
is about one-half sown with wheat, grass seed and turnip, and
the remainder in clover of fine growth. I consider the improved
condition of the land equivalent to the cost of manure, of which
in my estimation I have made no account^

Lynx, October, 1858.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

Statement of William F. Barnard.

Gentlemen, — The piece of meadow land which I offer for
premium, contains about 2\ acres. I commenced operations
upon it in 1845. The land is nearly level, being but a few
inches the lowest in the centre. The water stood a part of the
year on the surface, and in the old ditches, which had been cut
some time previous to my purchasing the farm in 1835. The
grass that grew upon the land was of the poorest quality, and
nearly worthless. The yield was also small, not more than a
ton a year from the whole lot. The land I considered worth
but little in that condition. But hearing of experiments made
by others in " reclaiming bog meadows," I decided to commence
upon mine at once, believing that if I did it no good, I should

142 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

be safe in one respect, I could do it no harm. Being convinced
of the necessity of draining the land before it could be con-
verted into good English mowing, and having ascertained that
the fall was sufficient for all practical purposes, being about
eighteen inches to the twenty rods, I commenced cutting ditches.
The only outlet for the water is through adjoining land below
mine, belonging to my neighbor. Having obtained his consent,
I cut a ditcli through his land to the main stream, about fifteen
rods, to connect with the ditches through my land. The first ditch
I cut around the outside, about two feet wide, and from two to
three feet deep, according to the depth of the mud. The object
was to take the water from the high land and springs on the
outside. The other ditches were dug through the lot, parallel
to each other, about three rods asvuider, and from three to six
feet wide, and from four to six feet deep, unless troubled with
water. My object in digging that width and depth, was to
obtain as much of the material for covering the land as I could,
from the ditches, which consisted of mud three or four feet
deep, and a sub-soil of sandy loam. I commenced on half an
acre in August, 1845, by cutting and throwing out from the
ditches, until I had, ])y estimation, 150 loads. As I used about
100 loads to the acre, I had some to spare on other parts where
the mud was not so deep. I commenced spreading on one-half
acre in September following, covering up all vegetable matter,
carting on at the rate of 20 loads of compost manure to the
acre. The proportion of seed sown on an acre, was Timothy
one peck, redtop three pecks, four pounds clover seed, in the
spring following. In June following, another half acre was
prepared in the same manner.

I consider June seeding on such land the best, as being less
liable to winter-kill. I continued my improvements in June,
1847, on another half acre, in the same manner, and with the
same results, and completed the remainder in 1848. About
one-quarter of an acre was prepared by carting on gravel and
loam from a distance, but it was more expensive than the other
method. It could be done in winter for about the same price,
when the ground is frozen and the price of labor less. As
some of the ditches I have dug will not be wanted, I am filling
them up by depositing the small stones in them, as I gather
them from the fields, thus serving a twofold purpose, for the

RECLAIMED MEADOWS. 143

water to drain off, and the convenience of passing with the
team from one lot to the other. I estimate the expense, per
acre, in preparing the land in this manner, at $25.

The annual yield of hay, per acre, has not been less than
two tons. I give it a light top-dressing every year ; and whether
the season is wet or dry, hot or cold, I have about the same
yield. I consider it the most profitable land for grass I have
on the farm.

Marlborough, September 1, 1858.

NORFOLK.

Statement of Henry L. Stone.
Three years ago I commenced improving a meadow of six
acres, mostly a peaty bog, covered a large portion of the year
with water, and producing a few brakes, cranberries and coarse
grass. About half an acre of it had been dug over for peat
two spits deep. I first dug a drain sufliciently deep, from the
centre, to take off the water, two and a half feet below the
lower portion of it. Then put in cross drains, from one and a
half to two feet below the surface and leading into the first or
main drain, and fifty feet apart. I used the six inch horseshoe
tile double, for the main drain, thus C, and single three inch
for the cross drains, laying the single tile on a board when the
ground was soft, thus n , -which have, so far, answered the
purpose. I then proceeded to pare the turf or top sod, which
I used to fill up the peat- pits to the extent of one-fourth of aa
acre, the balance I have burnt on the ground, with good results
to succeeding crops. I have thus reclaimed about four acres,
at an expense of 1513, or about $123 per acre. A portion of
this outlay for the main drain being for the benefit of the
whole, should bo charged to the remaining two acres ; so that
I think the whole may be reclaimed for a sum not exceeding
$100 per acre. I have planted on that part reclaimed, potatoes,
corn, turnips, carrots, mangold wurzel, parsnips, squashes, and
pumpkins. These crops have, in no case, paid any thing more
than the cost of cultivation the first season. The second and
third seasons they have proved profitable, yielding, with but

r

144 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

little maniu'e and ordinary cultivation, and twice hoeing, as
follows : —

Indian corn, at the rate of 78 bushels per acre.
Mangold wurzel, 17|- tons, or 580- bushels per acre.
Carrots did not come up well, 220 " " "
Potatoes, . . . . 160 " " "
Ruta-bagas, . . .230 " " "
Flat turnips, . . .315 "' " "
Pumpkins, . . .12 tons " "

Parsnips, .... 60 bushels " "

The above were all of good quality, except the parsnips,
which were each a mass of fibrous roots of little value. The
land is now in fine productive condition, and I consider it, for
ease of cultivation and productive quality, worth at least three
times as much per acre, as any other land in my neighborhood.
I have omitted to mention, that I did not surround the meadow
with a marginal drain until the second year, therefore did not
get full control of the water, and thereby lost the product of
the first year by an inundation, caused by the autumnal rains.
I feel confident that it is useless to attempt to cultivate such
lands until they are thoroughly drained, and this can only be
accomplislied by surrounding the land with marginal drains, of
equal depth with the main drain, thereby cutting off the springs
and diverting the water thus from the surrounding high lands.
If this is done, I feel confident that the crops, whether of corn,
or roots, will, after the first year, or after the land shall have
been ploughed and been exposed one winter to the action of
frost, pay good interest on the investment, to say nothing of
the happy consciousness of being a public benefactor ; for if
he is such who " makes two blades of grass grow where but
one grew before," what should be said of him who covers the
meadows with grass where none grew before ?

Grantville, November 10, 1858.

PASTURE LANDS. 145

IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE LANDS.

NOEFOLK.

Report of the Committee.

The Committeo on Improving Pasture Lands, in submitting
their report, with the accompanying exact and intelligent letter
of Mr, Gray, are happy to say, that they have had an opportu-
nity at last to bring the subject of improving pastures to the
notice of the members of the society. " Whether," to use the
language of Mr. Gray, " the renovating of this pasture will
prove a profitable operation, remains to be proved." Yet he
can safely say, it will pasture four cows now, where it would
two before. This fact is worth something, and should Mr.
Gray's example be followed generally, a similar result would
certainly be productive of much good to the community. To
what extent these improvements can be made on large farms
where capital is not plenty, and unimproved acres are far too
numerous, the committee will not decide, neither has there
been a sufficient experience to settle, whether the wood lot, or
the pasture, is better for the owner in the long run ; but,
certainly, on small farms, and where there is pecuniary ability,
many an unsightly spot, overgrown with brushwood and briars,
would be well changed into food for cattle. Two results strike
the committee as following the improvements under considera-
tion. One is the fact that a larger number of cattle can be fed
on the same land ; and the other, that the quality of the food
will be improved. In our ordinary pastures five or six months
of feeding is all that can be profitably obtained, and that, too,
with additional feeding from the barn, especially if the milk is
sold in the market. Suppose that our pastures should be made
as rich as our mowing lands, should we not be able to extend
the pasturage season, save the fall feed in our mowing fields,
the feeding of the latter being considered by many good farmers
a poor plan ; and would not the milk be richer and sweeter
than it often is, as the cows would have only the good grasses
to eat ? The committee trust that Mr. Gray's example will
call the attention of farmers to their pastures, and that this

19

146 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

society will have the experiments before it with an approach to
the real value of the improvement. The committee do not
propose to discuss this matter at greater length, preferring to
wait until more facts shall come before them.

Benj. G. Kimball, Chairman.

Statement of Smith Gray.
The two pastures visited by you contain about sixteen acres ;
they were both in one, when they came into my possession,
twenty-two years ago. At that time the fences were poor, and the
pasture pretty well covered with bushes and mOss, and I may add,
remained in the same condition till 1850. In the spring of
that year I ploughed up about two acres of the best part, and
had it planted with corn and potatoes, and the same course was
pursued with it the following year. It was laid down to grass in
the spring of 1852. In the same spring I had about nine acres
more ploughed up, but being a mile and a half from liome, it
was determined to adopt some other method than hauling the
manure that distance. Buckwheat was accordingly sown on
the nine acres, and two green crops were turned under that
season. The next spring spread on a few bushels each, of
ashes, plaster and lime, and sowed it down to grass ; a great
portion of the pasture, after ploughing, was covered with large
quantities of loose stones ; in order to get rid of these, and at
the same time turn them to some account, a trench was dug
and they were carted off and made into a wall around the lot,
by " doubling up " about two and one-half feet thick and two
feet high, setting the old posts in the wall and two rails above ;
the same kind of fence was also made across the pasture, to
divide what had been already ploughed from that which had
not ; this portion, that is the remaining five acres, being decidedly
the poorest soil and roughest part of the whole, it was con-
cluded at that time to let it lay as it was. However, in the
fall of 1854, I employed a man, with one yoke of oxen, to
assist my hired man and horse to plough up the five acres ;
and though it was very poorly ploughed, on account of the
quantity of loose stones and bushes, yet I had to pay for the
man and oxens' part of the labor twenty-six dollars.

PASTURE LANDS. 147

The three succeeding seasons some of the best patches in this
lot were planted with corn, beans and potatoes, (mostly the
latter,) the rest of the piece was ploughed once, and harrowed
two or three times at odd jobs, each season ; tlie stones being
picked and carted off for making wall, after each harrowing. It
was estimated that the crops of potatoes &c., taken off, about
paid for labor and seed on the patches which were planted. In
the lowest part of the pasture was an old pond, a receptacle for
the washings from the land, doubtless from time immemorial.
During the drought of the summer of 1855, all the mud was
taken out of this pond and lay in heaps through two winters
and one summer to pulverize, turning it over once in the mean
time, by liauling it on to the upper end of the pasture where I
wished to use it. In the spring of 1857, one-half of this mud
was mixed with Turk's Island salt and twenty casks of lime
(slacking the lime with a saturated solution of the salt) and the
other lialf was mixed with about ten tons of residuum from a
soap boiler's establishment in Boston. Early in the fall the two
heaps were turned over, the better to mix the ingredients
together, and the five acres were ploughed and harrowed once
more, and another large crop of stones picked off by boys during
school vacation, and to their delight it was finally decided that
that it was ready to sow down with grass and graui. Before
sowing, super-phosphate of lime was spread on to half an acre
at the rate of four hundred pounds to the acre. The remainder
was divided into three equal parts, on one of which was sown
clear Turk's Island salt, at the rate of fifteen bushels to the acre ;
on another the compost heap of salt, lime and mud, and on the
other the mud and soap boiler's residuum. After harrowing in?
it was all sown with grass seed, and about four acres with winter
rye also. The rye came up well and pretty uniformly. It was
the stoutest where it received the super-phosphate of lime. The
grass seed appears to have taken well, except on the driest
knolls and one low place which was covered with water late in
the spring. On the four acres I have forty bushels of rye, and
estimate two tons and a half of rye straw.

Whether, on the whole, the renovating of this pasture will
prove a profitable operation, remains to be seen. All we can
say now is, that in 1850 it was a very poor pasture, mostly
covered with bushes and moss and very poor fences, with all the

148 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

attendant annoyances ; and now in 1858, it is a pretty good
pasture, with substantial fences, and I think I may safely say
that it will pasture four cows decidedly better now, than it
would two before.

Walpole, Sept. 27, 1858.

UNDBRDRAINING LAND.

ESSEX.

Rej)ort of the Committee.

Notwithstanding the very great benefit to be derived from a
judicious system of underdraining our wet, and necessarily cold
lands, and the very liberal encouragement the society has offered
for several years past, for experiments in this substantial opera-
tion, very little has yet been accomplished in the county of Essex,
in this branch of industry. We have the satisfaction, however,
to report, that this subject is receiving increasing attention ; that
a very considerable number of our substantial farmers ar&
taking the incipient steps in this direction, and we confidently
predict, tliat the next five years will witness results from this
method of improving our hill tops, as well as our valleys, which
at the present time we should hardly anticipate.

Two applications have been made for the premiums offered
by the society for experiments in underdrahiing, the present
year. The claimants are James Stevens, of North Andover,
and E. G. Kelley, of Newburyport. Both pieces of land have
been examined by two members of the committee. The piece
of land offered by Mr. Stevens, containing about two acres, was
formerly — as will be seen by his statement herewith submitted —
unproductive and nearly valueless. The land is nearly level,
the inclination being so slight that the water must necessarily
escape ata very slow rate, even through a perfect water-course.
We should not therefore, imder such circumstances, expect to
find the result of the experiment so marked, as we should look
for on a greater declivity. Still, the committee feel that in
awarding premiums offered by the society, for experiments of

UNDERDRAINING. 149

this nature, they should be fully satisfied that the object aimed
at had been fairly reached, and in no way can this be so fully
demonstrated as by an exhibition of the crops actually produced
upon the land for which a premium is claimed. That Mr.
Stevens has greatly improved the land by the series of drains
he has laid through the same, is evident from the fact that this
is the first year he has been able to work it at all. We however
consider the experiment incomplete. The crop of barley raised
upon the ground the present year was unsatisfactory, and the
grass, on land so richly manured, did not look so promising as
we could wish to see it. We are far, however, from pronounc-
ing the enterprise to be a failure. Our greatest fear is, that
drains lying so nearly level, will easily become obstructed, and
thus disappoint expectations. We shall be happy to learn that
our fears are groundless. We only regret that Mr. Stevens
had not postponed his application till another year. Should
his anticipations be then realized, he would present a strong
claim for a premium. With the views as above expressed, your
committee do not feel justified in awarding a premium to Mr.
Stevens for his experiment in uudordraining. Mr. Stevens'
mode of putting down his drains, (as very fully shown in his
statement,) is we think judicious, and probably the best method
he could adopt for land thus situated.

TJie land offered by Dr. Kelley, containing about five acres,
lies on the westerly side of High Street, in Newburyporfc. Wo
might say much of the beautiful evergreens and shrubbery with
which tliese grounds are ornamented, but as we are not a com-
mittee on landscape gardening, we will return to the ditch.

The land which the doctor has underdrained, is admirably
situated for the operation. Tlie largest portion of it lies upon
a sharp declivity, and the inclination is so great on any part of
the land, that the water passes through the drains with consid-
erable velocity.

The work we think is well done, and with the almost cer-
tainty that drains thus situated will not become obstructed, we
may add, permanently done. For the method adopted and
materials used in this operation by the doctor, as well as for
several valuable suggestions in regard to the utility of the enter-
prise, we refer our readers to his full and somewhat elaborate
statement which accompanies this report. The committee

150 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

passed over the entire grounds through which the drains had
been laid, and found the surface uniformly dry and friable, and
in a good condition for the cultivation of almost any crops we
usually raise. The crops remaining upon the ground, (the
largest portion having been previously harvested,) looked well.

We noticed a very fine lot of carrots and a patch of corn
which was very good. This corn grew near the base of the
hill, on a comparatively flat piece of land, where corn was
never seen before. Our attention, however, was more particu-
larly directed to a very fine pear orchard, occupying, as we
should judge, some one and a quarter acres of this underdrained
land, and here we think the doctor will witness the most grati-
fying results, and reap the greatest benefit. If our memory is
correct, there are now standing on this lot about four hundred
pear trees, comprising most of the choice varieties ; and we can
truly say, we never saw finer trees, or a more healthy and vig-
orous growth. Certain we are that such trees could never have
been produced upon this land in its original condition, for
nothing can be more fatal to the growth of the pear tree, than
stagnant water about its roots. We confidently predict that in
five years from the present time, this pear orchard alone will
pay the doctor a good interest upon his entire outlay for under-
draining.

Your committee feel so well satisfied with the results already
attained by the underground operations of Dr. Kelley, tliey most
cheerfully award to him the highest premium offered by the
society (twenty dollars).

Some of the most valuable farms in the county of Essex are
situated on the summits and declivities of the hills in West
Newbury, Andover, Haverhill, Georgetown and Topsfield.
These farms are generally wet, backward lands, and cannot be
worked in early spring, subjecting the owner to the necessity of
cultivating mainly the various grasses. Now as man cannot
live on grass alone, we would suggest to the proprietors of
such farms, to try the experiment of underdraining one acre at
least, that they may have the satisfaction of regaling themselves
as early as the fourth of July, with peas, potatoes and other
vegetables raised in their own garden.

W. N. Cleaveland, Jesse Smith,

Committtee on Underdraining-.

UNDERDRAINING. 151

Statement of E. G. Kelley.

I offer for premium about five acres of land underdrained
during the last five years, a portion each. year. The drains
commenco on a declivity, and are made for some distance with
brush wood, then with stone, till the land approaches nearer to
a level, when tile were used exclusively. About one-half acre
each, was drained with brush and stones, and both have worked
well ; but we do not advise the use of either when suitable tile
can be conveniently obtained, particularly if the expense of
labor, difficulty of adjusting materials, and confidence in their
future successful operation are duly considered.

The drainage of the lot has not only proved entirely satis-
factory, but each successive year the first drained land has
given marked evidence of the utility of underd raining as an
annual improver of the soil, in addition to its immediate
benefits, which the committee will readily understand by a
moment's reflection upon the comparative effects of freezing
and thawing clay subsoils underdrained and undrained. In the
former, the expansion by freezing leaves both soil and subsoil
in a lighter and more pliable condition after thawing ; while
the latter, become more tenacious, like mortar, more or less so
to the depth frozen. The frost, however, we have observed is
not so deep in the drained as in the undrained.

In view of this yearly increasing benefit to underdrained
land, by these natural processes, we have many doubts of the
expediency of subsoil ploughing clayey land, after draining, so
often recommended, a matter to which we have given some
attention. One acre of the above has been trenched two and
a half feet deep — the drains running one foot deeper — three-
fourths of which acre was the only part of the five which had
not a clay subsoil.

It is gratifying to be able to cultivate this drained land almost
as soon as the frost is out, rather than to wait as formerly, till
a dry spell would, by degrees, evaporate the surface water,
leaving a hard crust on a cold under-soil, previously to which it
was difficult getting about on the field. The improvement in
this respect is very evident compared with a lot drained by open
ditches, for want of sufficient outlet ; but the contrast is still
greater by the side of an acre more elevated and hitherto the

152 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

dryest, and supposed not to need draining at all, but now so
wet comparatively, as to require to be underdrained forthwith.

We have made in the lot entered, 8,910 feet of underdrains,
on an average more than three feet deep and twenty-five feet
apart, at an estimated expense of nearly seventy-five cents per
rod. The brush used was the trimmings of an old orchard on
the premises, which were crowded into the open ditches and
forced down to a foot in depth and covered with boards, salt
hay, or sods, before filling in. The stone drain consisted of
small stones collected by trenching and cultivation elsewhere,
and thrown in generally to the height of eighteen inches and
covered uniformly with very coarse gravel, abundance of which
was at hand. On the joints of the tile, pine shavings were
freely used, and old shingles over many of these ; but if
tile are made to fit well to each other, we are satisfied that
nothing whatever should be placed over the joints or next to
the tile but the clay itself, taken from the bottom of the ditch.
The imperfect tile, as yet in the market, greatly disappoint
those engaged in underdraining. We obtained the most per-
fect we have ever seen, from Albany, N. Y., made vritli double
sole — a sole on opposite sides — admitting of four different
positions in laying, one of which would generally fit the tile
previously laid.

Of the improved productions noted from year to year, our
statements might seem incredible to those who have not seen
the crops, we therefore forbear.

The indirect fertilizing results of thorough drainage are appar-
ently of more service to crops than common manuring on wet
undraiaed land ; but when fertilizers are applied in addition to
those absorbed from the atmosphere, rains, &c., by the well
drained and porous soil, the effect is truly gratifying.

Newburyport, September 27, 1858.

Statement of James Stevens.

Five years ago I commenced cutting a drain on a cold, wet

and flat piece of land, which had for many years been planted

occasionally, and then sown down to grass. Sometimes we

would get a few fair crops, and then a kind of sour, round grass

UNDERDRAINING. 153

would come in and tlie crop would be very small and of a very-
poor quality.

The first ditch was cut three feet wide at the top, and two
feet wide at the bottom. It is two and one-half feet deep and
thirty rods long. In order to carry the water from this ditch, I
cut a drain forty-five rods long. This drain had to be cut through
a small elevation of land, and then came to the low land. The
drain continued through the low land to an outlet. The drains
are stoned, by placing stones on the sides of the ditch and then
covering them with as suitable stones as we could find from the
loads drawn there. On the covers we threw small stones, and
after having strewed meadow hay over these stones, to prevent
the dirt from going through the crevices, we threw in as much
of the original soil as we could.

The next year another drain was cut, and stoned as above.
These ditches have taken the water from the land, so that I have
been able to cultivate the land to much better advantage than
before, and consequently have obtained large crops of hay of the
very best quality.

I now come to land which for many years past has been so
covered with water as to render it almost impossible to cultivate
it. The crop consisted of wild grass and brakes, which of course
were of small value.

Three years ago I ploughed the land in August, in a very dry
season, but the two following seasons it was not dry enough to
plant any kind of seed. Last year I commenced cutting ditches
through it, and fortunately there is fall enough to enable the
drains to carry off the water. These ditches are dug two and a
half feet deep, through the soil and subsoil, and about eight
inches into a hard pan or clayey substance, through which the
water could not penetrate, and consequently has stood upon the
surface of the ground, hitherto baffling all my attempts at
cultivation.

Ditches one, two, three, and four, empty into the receiving
ditch which has an outlet at both ends. This year I have been
able to work it, and have laid it down to grass. The crop of bar-
ley which I cut from the land this season, was not large, as it was
sown late, but the clover and grass looked remarkably well.
The stones were all picked off, and the land rolled very smooth,

20

154 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

and I feci confident that from this field of about two acres
which, for many years back, has been of little or no advantage
to me, I shall obtain crops of hay equal both in quantity and
quality to those taken from the best piece of land of similar size
on my farm.

In reference to the expense, I will say the ditches are stoned
and covered in the same manner as those before mentioned, with
the exception of the receiving ditch, which I shall cover at some
future time. The ditching was done by my men who work on
the farm, whenever they could get time, therefore I am unable
to give the exact cost. My opinion is that the expense is about
one dollar per rod, the way I managed.

North Andover, September 28, 1858.

NOEFOLK.

From the Report of the Committee.

In the " Agricultural Journal," published in Edinburgh and
in London in 1857, a journal considered of high authority, — we
find an elaborate review of Mr. Stephens' book, " The Yester
Deep Land Culture, being a detailed account of the method of
successful cultivation practised for years by the Marquis of
Twecdsdale, at Yester." From this source the committee take
leave to extract one or two paragraphs, as germane to the subject
in hand.

" Mr. Stephens informs us that since improvements were
begun at Yester, in 1832, he has had many opportunities of
witnessing all the different operations put in practice ; and early
impressed with their importance as the foundation of a mode of
farming so very different from what is in ordinary use, as to
merit the appellation of a new system. He viewed them from
the first with a high degree of interest. A more distinct and
lucid statement — one which conveys more readily to the mind
of the reader a clear conception of the whole case, we have
seldom happened to peruse, while the scientific bearings of the
subject are treated in a manner which leaves little to be desired."
The Yester mode of cultivation, as far as it has the character of
an original process, may be expressed in a few words. It is a

UNDERDRAINING. 155

method of breaking up and pulverizing the subsoil to a consid-
erable depth, and then raising it upwards, so as to mix it, in
any required quantity, with the surface soil ; and this it effects
by means of a subsoil trench plough of a peculiar construction.
But its chief merit is not seen by regarding it simply by itself;
it admirably adapts itself to the other great ameliorating pro-
cesses to which the soil is subjected, and renders them more
complete. Assuming thorough draining as an essential prere-
quisite, it appears to be the only method hitherto devised, which
on the one hand gives full effect to that operation, and derives
from it all the advantages of which it is susceptible ; while on
the other it deepens and improves the plant-growing soil, and
brings it into a condition which best fits it for benefiting from
manures and atmospheric influences. It may be regarded,
therefore, not only as an important discovery in itself, but also
just such a one as was needed to give full effect to many of the
most important improvements lately introduced into agriculture.
This will appear more fully as we follow Mr. Stephens into some
of the details with which his work furnishes us. It would
exceed the limits of this report to do this, and the committee
content themselves by recommending to those desirous of a more
thorough knowledge of this subject, to possess themselves of
Mr. Stephens' book.

With regard to the expense of this mode of culture, the
same authority, after describing minutely the nature of the
Tester lands, which seems to present as formidable difficulties
to be overcome before reduced to regular cultivation as could
be found in the most rugged of our New England farms,
proceeds : " As the basis of all improvement in such a case,
without which every other operation would have been imprac-
ticable or nugatory, the lands were first subjected to a system
of thorough drainage. The drains were dug thirty inches
below the bottom of the open furrows of the round ridges, which
was equal to thirty-three inches below the level surface of the
ground, and placed eigliteen and thirty feet apart. The main
drains were dug four feet deep, bottomed with horseshoe tiles
and soles, having gravel occasionally placed above them ; but it
was found that the surface earth turned into the drain answered
all necessary purposes. The drains placed widest apart, viz. :
thirty feet, were found to drain the land sufficiently, especially

156 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

when followed by deep ploughing, by which the escape of the
water is greatly facilitated. The expense of thorough draining,
thus described, was £5 95. 6d. sterling, or $27.50 per acre.
The description of the subsoil trench ploughing follows, the
expense of which is thus stated : —

Four men and four pairs of horses ploughing an

acre a day, .£2 8 0

Labor turning out and carting ofif stones, . .050
To which add the above expense of draining, . 5 9 6

Making, £8 2 Q

or 140.50.

From the higher prices of labor with us, it is fairly to be
inferred that the same quantity of work could not be accom-
plished here without a considerable addition to these items of
expense. It is, of course, for every intelligent farmer to make
his own estimates of outlay, and also of the results to be expected
therefrom.

It is hardly necessary, as your committee believe, to inculcate
caution upon our practical farmers ; they possess that valuable
quality to a healthy extent, — and perhaps in some, if not many
instances, it retards substantial improvement. If, however, they
are somewhat slow in adopting novelties, they are nevertheless
sure of availing of well-tried experiments, the good results of
which are no longer problematical.

Thomas Motley, Chairman.

From an Essay by L. Wether ell.
The arts of drainage and irrigation, are, undoubtedly, nearly •
as ancient as the art of agriculture ; for there are few localitiea
where one or the other, if not both, are essential to the husband-
man and the gardener. The race of Spanish Arabs have the
honor of introducing the art of irrigation into Europe, and thus
rendering districts fertile and productive that before were barren.
While the South of Europe previously suffered for want of water
to moisten its parched surface, in the North the soil suffered
with an excess of moisture ; hence irrigation for the South and
drainage for the North.

UNDERDRAINING. 15T

In reclaiming the earth to man's use, the first objects of his
labor are the destruction of noxious and mischievous animals,
the levelling of forests, the construction of habitations and the
draining of morasses. This is the mission of the pioneer. The
generations that follow have other and more important improve-
ments to make, as the soil is annually impoverished by cropping.

In commencing the important operation of deep and thorough
draining, the first thing to be attended to is, to provide deep and
clear channels, into which the covered drains are to discharge
their water. Unless such can be made it will be of little use to
underdrain. The whole outlay of draining hinges on having
good discharging channels. If the bottom of the main ditch,
channel, or drains, brook or river, be scarcely below the bottom
of the covered drains, they will be rendered almost ineffective.
The main drain, or the one into which the lesser ones discharge,
should be five, and if possible six feet deep, provided the former
are four feet deep. Too much precaution can hardly be used
in keeping these main drains free from all obstructions. Let
these once become gorged and the whole will suffer damage.

But the advocate for deep and thorough drainage is constantly
confronted by intelligent farmers — " What is drainage, and
how or why is it so important, as you claim it is, to permanent
improvements ? " It is right that such questions should be put,
and the advocates for drainage should be able to answer them
and all similar inquiries, or else tarry awhile longer at Jericho.

The first reason or necessity for drainage is predicated of the
supposition or fact, that the soil and subsoil are charged with an
excess of water, rendering it impossible to produce maximum
crops until it be removed. The first evil is mechanical. If the
soil be clayey and tenacious the circulation of the air through
it is prevented and it remains cold and sour, and is less
productive. This complaint is made by the tillers of such land
every cold and wet spring, because they cannot plant or sow ;
and if they do not withhold the hand by reason of the wet, in
consequence of the stagnant water in the soil, it produces but a
poor crop.

The words, ivet and cold, are significant, thus applied.
Evaporation is productive of cold, says the chemist, a fact the
farmer knew before chemistry came to his aid. Evaporation,
then, it will be admitted, lowers the temperature at the earth's

158 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

surface. It requires as much heat to evaporate a cubic inch of
water, it is said, as would raise the temperature of live and a
half inches from the freezing to the boiling point. To evapo-
rate the fall of an inch of water from an acre of land demands
an amount of solar heat sufficient to raise the temperature of
the dry soil of an acre to the depth of ten inches, no less than
ninety-nine degrees. Then when the fact is considered that forty
or more inches of water fall annually upon every acre of soil,
the importance of underdrainage, as a means of keeping up
the temperature of the soil, cannot but be observed and
acknowledged. Owing to radiation and other agencies, the
difference between the temperature of drained and undrained
land is not so great as theory would make it. Much of the
heat is rendered latent — i. e., not perceptible by a thermometer.
The vapor yielded by a cubic inch of water, evaporated under
the ordinary atmospheric pressure of fifteen pounds to the
square inch, contains sufficient latent heat to raise the tem-
perature of nine hundred and ninety cubic inches of water one
degree. A wet soil, then, that has no way of freeing itself of
an excess of water, but by evaporation, will be cold for the
reasons given, and the crop will be both later and inferior to
what it would be, provided the soil was freed from this excess
of moisture by drainage. Hence, also, the liability to injury
from frosts, both late and early, over such undrained regions.

Soils impregnated with stagnant waters are bad conductors
of heat from the sun downwards, and good conductors of cold.
Thus is tlie heat absorbed by day, and radiated into space by
night. Not so with well drained soils, for such retain it for the
promotion of the growth of plants. Acids are developed by
cold, wet soils, and other compounds, injurious to the healthful
condition of growing crops. The mixing of the latest fall of
rain with the stagnant water in the soil, causes a mutual
decomposition, injurious to vegetable life, checking the growth
and diminishing tlie amount of the crop. These are some
of the evils incident upon an excess of water in the soil, which
may be removed or cured by underdraining, provided there is
sufficient fall.

By drainage tlie aeration of the soil is greatly promoted.
The stagnant water being removed, the pores of the soil are
open for the reception of atmospheric air, dew or rain-water.

UNDERDRAINING. 159

The union of the elements where combination makes the atmos-
phere, coming thus in contact with the combined elements that
make the soil, produces a change favorable to the growth of
plants. This accounts for the increased productiveness of re-
cently drained soil. Latent elements are thus fitted to become
the food of the growing crop.

Rain-water is a natural fertilizer, provided it can circulate
through and not stagnate in the soil. The introduction of
water, says Liebig, is an introduction of alkalies. If so, then it
is the cheapest liquid manure the farmer can seize upon. It
not only fertilizes, but warms, and cleanses the soil from nox-
ious and deleterious elements, carrying them into the drains,
by which the power of soils to absorb aqueous vapor, whether
in the form of dew or mist, is greatly increased and made much
more productive.

Says Sir Humphrey Davy : " The power of soils to absorb
water from air, is much connected with fertility. When this
power is great, the plant is supplied with moisture in dry
seasons ; and the effect of evaporation in the day is counter-
acted by the absorption of aqueous vapor from the atmosphere,
by the interior parts of the soil during the day, and by both the
interior and exterior during the night." Soils most finely
comminuted, if underdrained and deeply tilled, are most favor-
able to this action.

Thus it is shown what drainage is, what it does, and there-
fore, why it should be introduced especially into tenacious soils.
It removes stagnant water, and renders the soil porous. It
removes the sources of evil and is the occasion of good by
opening the interstitial canals of the soil for the reception of air
and healthful moisture.

If you would drain tenacious clay soils effectively, reference
must be had to the season, as well as to the depth and nearness
of the parallel drains, and the main or discharging drain. The
best time is in the summer, when the weather is dry. The
drains, after they are opened, should remain a few days before
the pipes are laid, and the ditch refilled. Such soils are usu-
ally of greater intrinsic value than sandy soils, and require
more skilful treatment to make them produce well, especially
in the art of draining.

160 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Concerning the depth of drains and their distance from each
other, there are various views and opinions entertained by
experienced drainers. These may be accounted for in part by
the difference in soils. It is no more strange that this should
be so, than that husbandmen should differ in reference to the
depth of ploughing. Farmers are not generally informed as to
the depth which the roots of cereals and other crops penetrate.
It is said the smaller grains send down roots to the depth
of three or more feet ; and mangold wurzel four or five feet.
All good arable lands should then be drained to the depth
of three feet. To do this, the drains must be sunk four feet
deep from the surface. The interstitial canals existing in the
soil have been compared to tubes, the downward pressure being
increased by the greater length of these. If the drains are
shallow, the tubes short, the pressure will be less, thus drain-
ing more slowly. The truth of this doctrine is demonstrated
by practical observation ; for deep drains run sooner and faster
after a rain than shallow ones. Hence the reason why deep
clay soils require deep draining in order to render it effectual
and beneficial. The theory of inexperienced reasoners on this
subject is in opposition to facts. The theoretic objection to the
deep drainage of clay soils is as good, theoretically, against
shallow as deep drainage, which is, that the water will not
percolate to the drain.

Before drains can become effective, either in deep or shallow
draining, the pores and interstices of the soil must be emptied
of the stagnant waters that have filled them. This requires
some time. Where there are slopes or ridges on the surface to
be drained, the drains should be run across these at an angle
of forty-five degrees.

Drains that were sunk to the depth of four feet, after ten
years, have been found six or seven inches nearer the surface
than when the pipes were laid. Hence no thorough drainer
should be content short of four feet in depth, unless there are
physical objections to this in the soil or fall.

Many fail in constructing their drains too far apart. Mr.
Parks, already referred to, did so. In very tenacious clay soils
drains that are four feet deep should be from eighteen to twen-
ty-five feet apart ; if three and a half feet deep, from eighteen
to twenty-one apart. On soils more porous, twenty-five to

UNDERDRAINING. 161

thirty feet will do ; if the depth be four feet, and on very
porous soils, from forty to fifty feet will answer. This whole
matter, however, must be determined on by careful inspection.
Elkington's rules are said to be the best on this subject.

The use of tiles in thorough draining is becoming common
in this country, as in England and France. Of all the various
forms of tile for this use, the pipe-tile, so called, because in
form resembling a pipe-stem, is considered the best by English
drainers, because cheaper, less liable to get broken, and less
likely to foul and stop.

The most serious objection made to this permanent improve-
ment in farming, is its cost. To quote a vulgar, but significant
phrase, " It ivill not pay, ^^ say the farmers. If this be true, —
if experience and observation, after having given thorough
draining a fair trial, shall confirm this prediction, then none
but fancy farmers will adopt it ; for all matters in farming that
fail to stand this test must ultimately fail. All improvements
which are in advance of old customs and traditions are assailed
in this way by prejudice ; consequently improvements of every
kind make slow progress. And it would be strange, indeed,
if the theory that nearly all arable lands in Massachusetts need
underdraining, did not meet sturdy objectors, clad in economy,
as with a coat of mail, earnestly and in good faith, contending
that such a radical improvement will never pay. With such,
the advocates of thorough draining should not spend much
time in arguing the question, but rather in collecting facts,
such as experience has evolved and observation confirmed.

Such are in the possession of every practical drainer, whether
in England, Scotland, France, or the United States. Observa-
tion and experience have taught the writer that the whole cost
of draining swamp land has been more than paid by the first
crop of potatoes taken off after draining.

One of the best and most successful experiments made
in thorough draining of arable land in this country, is that
executed by Mr. John Johnston, of Fayette, Seneca county.
Western New York. He has nearly or quite completed the
underdraining of his entire farm. In doing this, he has
constructed about fifty miles of drain, and laid down more
than 210,000 tiles.

21

162 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

In draining, Mr. Johnston says : " The first important point
is to secure a sufficient outlet. To secure this, I dug almost a
canal through a part of a neighbor's farm. The main drains
should be from four to six inches deeper than the drains emp-
tying into them ; not with abrupt shoulders, but levelled up so
that the four or six inches rise may take place gradually in the
length of two tiles, with the natural drains, to have a little
curve near the end to discharge a little down stream in the
main drain. The drains on my farm are from two feet six
inches to three feet deep."

" My drains are from twenty-seven to forty-five feet apart,
generally thirty-three feet. Nothing but thorough draining
will pay, and I am convinced that money cannot be better
expended in any way, than in draining the county of Seneca,"
a beautiful agricultural county lying between Cayuga lake on
the east, and Seneca lake on the west.

" A few years since when the midge destroyed most of the
wheat of six of my neighbors whose farms join mine, no one
of them harvested over seven bushels per acre, while some
did not get that, yet my wheat fields produced between twenty-
eight and twenty-nine bushels per acre. The main cause of
this difference was in the fact that my land was drained, and
theirs was not. Since that my neighbors have all drained
more or less, some of them having done so very extensively.
True, it will not do every thing. Manure must be applied to
keep up the fertility of the soil."

He recommends that every farmer of his county should make
the experiment of thoroughly draining a little, if it be but an
acre, and wait for the result, and "I am convinced," says Mr.
Johnston, " he will require no urging to drain more."

" I began to drain under unfavorable circumstances. First,
want of funds, next the tiles cost double what they do now,
and last, but not least, public opinion was against me. I was
taunted by the inquiry, ' Are you going to put crockery all
over your farm ? ' Some told me that ' my farm was rather too
dry if any thing ; others hinted that ' they had known some
men drain and otherwise improve their lands so that they lost
them.' Even a Judge Cheever and a Professor Emmons, in a
public discussion on agriculture, thought it might be practicable
to expend from $20 to 124 an acre on draining in the humid

UNDERDRAININa. 163

climate of Great Britain, but thought it questionable whether
it would be prudent for Mr. Johnston to expend so much in
this dry climate.

" I do not pretend to have reported their exact words, but
substantially so. As soon as I saw these remarks in the papers,
I answered them through the Albany Cultivator. Notwith-
standing all this, I still felt confident that my draining would
end well, as the excess of two years' crops after draining would
pay the cost, and I persevered, and the more I drained the
more I was convinced I was right, and I have not been disap-
pointed at the results, for my fondest anticipations have been
achieved."

Other and similar results in our own country and in Scot-
land, England, Ireland and France, might be given, but this
one triumphant experiment, quoted from Mr. Johnston's report
on the subject, is deemed sufficient to confirm the argument
for deep and thorough draining.

If any farmers in Norfolk county, or elsewhere in the Com-
monwealth, wlio have lands that need draining according to the
doctrines of this essay, let them, as Mr. Johnston said to his
once doubting, taunting, jeering neighbors, try an acre, and
wait for the results. Those who are willing to do so, will con*
firm the truthfulness of the views of such as advocate the
importance and absolute necessity of prosecuting the work of
deep and thorough underdraining, somewhat after the plan
herein set forth and maintained. But do not rest satisfied
when this first step of permanent improvement is taken, for it
you do, you will be ultimately disappointed in results. In
addition to draining, you must introduce deep and thorough
tillage, and besides, make a liberal use of fertilizers.

The earth thus treated will be found a liberal rewarder,
returning the husbandmen, some thirty, some sixty, and to
others even a hundred fold. They who drain and till deeply
and thoroughly, and sow liberally, shall reap bountifully, and
thus have the satisfaction of seeing the work of their hands
prosper.

164 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

ORCHARDS.

MIDDLESEX.

From the Report of the Committee on Fruits.

Peaches, we have learned from experience, are unprofitable
except when planted on high land, where a crop may be pro-
duced on an average, as often as two years in three. This is
not a paying business, or one that affords a high degree of sat-
isfaction, to prune and cultivate peach trees from year to year,
and only get an occasional crop. Our own experience in the
business is this : we have three peach orchards, from two of
which, though they are somewhat elevated above the hollows,
we have gathered but one crop during the last three years.
Our other orchard, which is on the highest spot, or nearly so,
upon our farm, during the last three years has produced three
crops of fruit. Quite a difference, especially in a pecuniary
point of view. For a peach orchard, we prefer a gravelly,
rather hard, and naturally, dryish soil ; sandy soil is entirely
unfit in this climate.

Peach limbs split from each other so easily, when allowed
three or four leading branches of nearly equal size, that we pre-
fer to let them have an upright leader in the centre of the tree,
with side branches stretching off at angle a little above the
horizontal line, for the reason that such branches grow in as
strong as a pin, and are not liable to split from the main stem ;
give them an annual shortening in, and keep them moderately
thrifty by dressing and cultivation, but avoid a forced or ram-
pant growth of peach trees in cold Yankeedom. We have
found that those varieties with glandless leaves are not so
healthy, do not thrive and bear so well as those with glands.
Early and late Crawford are among the most popular market
varieties. Many others are good, and persons can govern them-
selves in selecting trees according to numbers wanted, of early,
late and mediums. We have two varieties which we consider
most profitable to us : Butler's Late, and Osgood's Late Yellow.
The former originated in Pelham, N. H., on the farm of Asa
Butler, and the latter in Dracut, by William F. Osgood ; both

ORCHARDS. 165

late, as the names indicate, very prolific, and bring a high
price in market. We are sorry to be obliged to say our stock of
trees of both varieties, for this year is exhausted.

For the committee,

Asa Clement.

worcester north.

From the Report of the Committee on Orchards.

We visited and carefully examined the several orchards
entered, on the first and second days of October last, commenc-
ing at Mr. John Minott's, in Westminster, His apple orchard
contains one hundred and forty trees, which will appear by his
statement, as will also his method of setting and cultivating his
trees. The soil is a warm, sandy loam, nearly level, protected
on the west and north by woods. There are many good trees
in this orchard, and many have been injured ; diseased spots on
body and limbs may have been produced by the ox or the plough ;
if so, however, we think Mr. Minott was not with the team.
We judge him to be a good farmer, his cultivation is clear and
thorough, no weeds or grass around his trees, or wall which
protects his orchard ; the whole ground is cultivated in this
orchard neatly. We have no doubt but Mr. Minott has the
best apple orchard that can be found in his vicinity. His farm
is located in the west part of Westminster ; for further particu-
lars would refer to his written statement. His pear orchard is
situated near his dwelling-house, sloping gently to the south ;
soil a good warm, and strong loam, rich and in good cultiva-
tion as a vegetable garden ; contains sixty-eight pear trees, gen-
erally looking well and making a good growth ; we think they
have been well cultivated and the soil and location well select-
ed. We have no premium at our disposal for a pear orchard,
but the committee were unanimous in the opinion that Mr.
Minott richly merited something at our hands, for his success
in cultivating the pear, and we recommend a gratuity of $i to
him for his pear orchard ; we would also refer to his written
statement relating to pear orchards. Justice demands that we
state that the committee were most kindly and hospitably
received and entertained by Mr. Minott and family ; we were

166 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

pleased with his farm and the general indications of neatness
and good husbandry ; but on entering his house we found it was
not all outside show.

We next visited Dr. C. C. Field's orchard, in Leominster.
His trees have been planted nine and ten years, all the same
age from the budding, are in a good bearing condition, remark-
ably uniform in size and appearance. There are one hundred
and eighty trees, mostly Baldwins. They were carfully selected
and planted by a gentleman who understands the business.
The soil is a strong slaty loam, sloping gently to the south-
west ; the trees are all healthy and very perfect ; it is a beauti-
ful orchard. The statement of Dr. Field will give his mode of
cultivation and general management of his trees, and contains
some very good suggestions, which see.

Joseph Peirce's orchard is in the village of Fitchburg, on
Prospect Street ; contains thirty-three trees, on a pretty steep,
side hill, sloping to the east or south-east. His trees are not as
uniform in size and appearance as Dr. Field's ; has some very
good trees — the soil is a clayey loam on a clay subsoil ; has
been troubled with the borer considerably, and thinks his trees
have been injured by potash water, used before he bought the
orchard. His trees are now growing well, the land is in good
cultivation, and he intends keeping it so.

Addison Hubbard's is near the village of Fitchburg, on
Mechanic Street ; is located on a steep side hill, with nearly the
same inclination to the east and south-east as Mr. Pierce's —
soil gravelly loam, resting on clay and mica slate ; his orchard
contains 118 trees. His statement shows the manner he obtained
his trees ; they are set only one and a half rods apart, which is
quite too near. Mr. Hubbard has at present a very good orch-
ard, producing well ; they have been planted from twelve to
fifteen years. What has been done in this orchard has mostly
been done by Mr. Hubbard's own hands, and it is not a little ;
he deserves much credit for what he has accomplished. He
obtained the second premium on his orchard in 1855 ; he could
now only compete for the first. We found those we thought
better.

We have next to notice the orchard of our president. Dr. Jabez
Fisher. Here we spent several hours, with much pleasure and
some profit. His statement is full and particular, and for most

ORCHARDS. 167

particulars we would refer to that. His trees have been set
four years, and were from two to four years from the budding
when set ; some of their heads had got turned a little in the
nursery. This defect he is overcoming, and in a year or two,
all other things being equal, their heads will be equal or nearly
so. The trees are making a very strong growth, all look
healthy and in good condition, with the small exception already
mentioned, and this pertains to a small part only of his 137
trees. The committee were satisfied that this orchard will be
better, and more perfect in a year or two tlian it is now ; it will
then be best.

After making a careful examination of these several orchards,
the committee were in no doubt which were the best two ; the
next question, which was the best one, was not as readily
decided ; after due deliberation, however, the committee were
unanimous in their opinion that the orchard of Dr. C. C. Field,
of Leominster, is now the most perfect, and awarded him the
first premium of $10 ; and the second premium of $5 to Dr.
Jabez Fisher, of Fitchburg, for his orchard noio almost perfect.

Before preparing this report, the chairman of the committee
has carefully examined all the reports of former committees on
orchards, and competitors' statements of their management of
their respective orchards, and various incidental remarks on the
same subject, which have fallen from committees on fruits, and
committees on farms, and from dlher sources which have been
published in the several volumes of the Agriculture of Massa-
chusetts ; from these much that is valuable may be gathered.
Most individuals who have planted an orchard have made some
mistakes, either in their mode of planting, the selection of a
location, or subsequent management. These mistakes they
have stated to warn others that they may avoid the same. To
those about to plant an orchard, I would say, consider well the
subject before you begin ; you are about to erect a monument
for several generations to come ; if you, and those who come
after you do your duty, it will stand firm for more than a cen-
tury. Should a work of this magnitude be commenced without
due preparation ? The mere bringing together of all or many
important facts which have been well established by past expe-
rience of the most scientific cultivators of fruit, would not be
as satisfactory and convincing as for each individual to collect

168 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

for himself from the various sources heretofore alluded to, and
others which may be within liis reach, where he will find the
facts and convincing proof of these facts which could not be
collected and spread before you in this report. I cannot close
without particular reference to the excellent report of your own
committee of last year, which contains much that is worthy of
careful consideration ; also to the report of Mr. Ives, of Salem,
and the address of Marshall P. Wilder, all of which may be
found in the Agriculture of Massachusetts. Examine them care-
fully and you will be richly rewarded; one word more, learn
to handle an apple without bruising it, which is my first com-
mandment.

Respectfully, for the committee,

Jonas A. Marshall, Chairman.

Statement of C. C. Field.
The orchard which I offer for premium consists of one hun-
dred and eighty trees. Most of them were transplanted in the
spring of 1848, and the remainder in 1849 ; the latter were of
the same age from the budding as the former, and they are now
quite as large. Before setting the trees, the holes were dug
four feet in diameter, and from fifteen to eighteen inches deep.
The sods and surface soil, together with a small quantity of
swamp muck in dry places, where the trees would be likely to
be affected by drouth, were returned to the bottom of the holes ;
the finest and best part of the soil in the vicinity of the holes
was carefully placed around and above the roots, using the
hands when necessary ; and then the subsoil was spread on the
surface. The trees were set a little lower than they stood in
the nursery. One row of nine trees had a horse-cartload of
" horn piths " to every three trees, placed in the bottom of the
holes, but they are no better now than many others. The whole
ground, where about one-fourth part of the orchard was planted,
has been under constant cultivation with corn, potatoes or
fodder corn, and here the trees have made the best growth.
About one-half of the orchard has been cultivated all the time
except three years ; one year wheat or rye was raised, and two
years grass. The remaining one-fourth has been in grass all the
time ; but a large circle around the trees has been dug up here

ORCHARDS. 169

each spring, and a dressing of compost applied every fall. On
the cultivated part, no special application of manure has been
made to the trees besides that spread upon the whole surface
for the corn or potatoes.

The trunks of these trees have been washed with potash water,
strong soap suds or ashes and water, twice a year ; neverthe-
less, the borer has left the marks of his depredations, particu-
larly on those where the grass or grain was allowed to grow
around them for one or two years. Where the whole ground
has been kept under constant cultivation, the borer has seldom
found a lodgment. To insure the best growth of the trees and
for the prevention of the ravages of the borer, I am satisfied
that the whole surface of a young orchard should be kept culti-
vated and manured for some hoed crop. And even in an
orchard of old trees the increased quantity and improved qual-
ity of the fruit will amply repay the farmer for keeping the
whole soil under good tillage.

The trees in this orchard, when originally set out, were all
Baldwins except one Williams' Red, three Danvers Sweet, two
Hubbardstons, and four Roxbury Russets. To have some
variety of fruit, and also to test the quality of some other kinds,
more or less approved, I have changed the tops of about thirty
of them by ingrafting one or more with each of the follow-
ing varieties, viz. : Williams' Early Red, Peck's Pleasant,
Gravenstein, Early Sweet Bough, Seaver Sweet, Washington
Sweet, Rhode Island Greening, Early Harvest, Leland Spice,
Shirley, Canada Reinette, Red Astrachan, Minister, Holmes,
Holden, Ladies' Sweet, Mother, Jewett's Red, Hunt's Russet,
American Golden Russet, and Northern Spy. The process of
grafting I commenced four years ago, and occupied three years,
changing one-third of each tree in a year, beginning at the top.
The growth of the trees has been somewhat retarded by graft-
ing, the Rhode Island Greening, Williams' Red, and Early
Harvest, being the least affected in that way.

Statement of Jabez Fisher.
The apple orchard which I enter for premium is made up of
137 trees, of the following varieties, viz. : thirty-one Baldwin,
twenty-one Hubbardston Nonsuch, eleven Minister, ten Dan-
vers Winter Sweet, nine Coggswell, eight Porter, seven Large

22

170 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Yellow Bough, six Williams' Favorite, six Roxbuiy Russet,
six Fameuse, six Red Astrachan, five Seaver Sweet, four Hunt
Russet, four Ledge Sweeting, and three Colchester.

With the exception of a few trees, the orchard was planted
in the spring of 1854. The trees are set in the quincunx form,
at a distance of thirty feet from each other. Peach trees were
set among the apples, but eventually it is expected that the
whole ground will be occupied and covered by the apple trees
alone. The soil is a strong loam, sufficiently retentive of moist-
ure, and capable of producing upwards of ninety bushels of corn
to the acre, if weighed previous to drying.

At the time of setting the orchard the land was in sward.
Preparations were made by digging holes five feet in diameter,
and twenty-two inches deep. These were filled with sods and
loam, and the trees carefully planted. They varied in size
somewhat, having cost from twenty-five to fifty cents each, a
rather large price I am aware, but I have not seen occasion
since to regret the purchase of such fine specimens.

I applied different manures and special fertilizers by mixing
them with the loam used in filling up around the trees at the
time of planting, but I have not been able yet to discover that
any one of them possessed advantages over the others, or in
fact that any benefit has accrued from the use of either of
them.

In 1851 the only cultivation attempted was once pulling
weeds. In 1855 the whole ground was ploughed and planted,
and has been kept under cultivation ever since. I have
manured but moderately, and with the exception of a portion of
the ground which has this season carried a fine corn crop, I
have cultivated roots. I find, however, from the rapidly in-
creasing shade, more especially from the peach trees, that I
shall have to give up cropping altogether very soon, but cannot
bring myself to believe that I can afford to relinquish culti-
vation.

The average annual growth of the whole orchard since the
first season, has been about eighteen inches. The Baldwin is
the finest grower, while the Roxbury Russet and Coggswell are
nearly as good. Specimens of each of these will measure thir-
teen inches in circumference at a foot from the ground, and
two or three of them fourteen and a half inches. The most

ORCHARDS. 171

productive is a Porter, which bore the past season upwards of
three pecks of good fruit.

In 1856 the trunks of the trees were washed with a mixture
containing a pailful of water, a pound of potash, and a shovel-
ful of fresh cow-dung. Since that time I have discarded the use
of dissolved potash altogether, as it gives to the bark an unhealthy
red and blistered look ; especially on the south side. In the
spring of the present year I used equal parts of soft soap and
fresh cow-dung, sufficiently diluted with water to be easily
applicable with a whitewash brush. Witli this compound I feel
well satisfied, as it remains on during a considerable time, and
leaves the bark of that deep, olive green color, indicative of
vigorous health.

The borer has thus far done but little injury. My course is
to examine each tree at least twice in a year with jackknife and
wire. As soon as the first of September, all of the eggs depos-
ited by the insect through the summer have hatched, and the
larvae may be readily found by their borings. From the super-
ficial character of their operations at this time they are very
easily destroyed, and a careful examination in spring will dis-
close any that may have been previously overlooked. With
regard to the best lime for pruning, we may find authority for
performing the operation at almost every season of the year ;
but as to the result of my own reading and observation, my
plan is this : Keeping in view these two great principles, that
winter pruning promotes growth, and summer pruning or
pinching, increases fruitfulness, I prune at any time when it is
most convenient, being careful, in the words of an old author-
ity, to prune only "when my tools are sharp," If I at any
time expose any considerable surface of wood, I am careful to
cover it with the shellac solution, which prevents decay, and
the wound is soon covered with bark.

Statement of John Minott.
The apple orchard which I offer fur premium consists of one
hundred and forty trees, of some twenty-seven different varie-
ties, wliich were transplanted in the spring of 1852-3. The
holes were dug about five feet in diameter and about two feet
deep, and filled with top loam. The land was pasture, ploughed

1T2 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

ill the spring of 1851, and planted with corn, with one shovel-
ful of compost manure to the hill. In 1852 planted with corn,
and eight hills potatoes around each tree, with stable manure
under the potatoes ; corn manured same as last year. In 1853
and 1854, planted and manured same as in 1852 ; in 1855
sowed with wheat and clover ; in 1856 cut a crop of clover the
last of June, and ploughed in a crop of clover in September.
During the last two years I have kept the grass and weeds clear
from the trees. I think the clover had a good effect on the
trees, but the year it was in wheat my trees made the least
growth of any, after the first year of transplanting. In 1857
I planted with corn, manured with guano and phosphate of
lime, and eight hills of potatoes under each tree, manured
with stable manure. In 1858 planted same as last year, except
the corn was manured with one shovelful of compost manure
to the hill. I have washed my trees with lye made from wood
ashes, hardly strong enough to bear an egg, with some soap
stirred in. I think this as good a wash as I can apply to my
trees. I have had considerable trouble with the apple borer ; I
find that my only remedy is to follow him with the knife ; I
examine every tree two or three times each season. I do not
think washing the trees will destroy the borers after they have
got under the bark. I have tried banking up my trees two
winters to prevent the mice eating the bark, but I have come
to the conclusion that it is a bad practice ; I think I have lost
seven or eight good trees in consequence of the dirt freezing
and thawing, so as to kill the bark entirely round the trees
some four or five inches wide, while I have lost but one tree in
six years by the mice.

The pear orchard which your committee examined when at
my place, consists of sixty-eight trees ; sixty standard trees
and eight on quince stocks, of some twenty different varieties,
viz. : ten Flemish Beauty, eight Bartlett, four Buffums, four
Dunmores, three Andrews, three Seckel, three Lawrence, two
Napoleon, two Winter Nelis, two Bleecker, two St. Gishlin, two
Louise bonne de Jersey, two St. Michael, two Glout Morceau,
one Belle Lucrative, one Madeleine, two Rosticzer, and several
other varieties that I do not recollect. I got forty of my trees
of Messrs. Bond & Damon, of North Brookfield, and trans-

PLOUGHING. 173

planted them in tlie spring of 1855 ; the remainder came from
Rochester, New York, and were set in the spring of 1856 and
1857. I think those that came from Brookfield have made a
more vigorous growth than those that came from Rocliester.
In my little experience in cultivating the pear, I find that some
varieties make a much more vigorous growth than others ; for
instance, the Flemish Beauty, the Buffum, the Dunmore, the
Napoleon, and some two or three other varieties have made a
very good growth, while the Bartlett, the Winter Nelis, and
some others have made very little growth.

I keep the ground cultivated by making it a kind of a vege-
table garden, where I raise my sweet corn, early potatoes, peas,
beans, ruta-bagas, squashes, &c. ; I manure with stable manure
spread and ploughed in. I have washed my trees with a weak
lye and soft soap twice a year ; I think this as good a wash as
I can apply to them.

My experience with the dwarf pear is very limited, and I
have little faith in them ; those that I have set have made very
little growth. I manured as high as I thought it would do,
and cultivated in the best manner, but still there is no growth.
Perhaps some of the honorable committee can give me some
information in relation to cultivating the dwarf ; if so, it will
be gratefully received.

PLOUGHING.

WORCESTER.

From the Report of the Committee.

Ploughing, or some other mode of turning up the soil, is, in
all cases, necessary to render it suitable for the reception of seed,
and the nourishment and growth of plants.

In performing the operation, care should be taken that the
furrows are all equally deep, and the furrow slice of the same
width in all its parts, and if a little lapped upon the preceding
furrow slice, it will be found on harrowing, that a much better

174 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

seed bed will be formed, and a space left under the slice for air
to circulate, and cause a more rapid fermentation and decay of
the soil, than when turned flat or shut in. It is also important
that particular attention be paid to the state and nature of the
ground to be ploughed ; by so doing, the preparation of the
land may be rendered more perfect, and some of its natural
defects removed, or greatly modified. Some soils, if ploughed in
the autumnal months, are rendered more capable of imbibing,
and retaining a larger proportion of atmospherical influences
and moisture, for the succeeding crop, than if turned up in the
spring or summer months, when ploughing causes a greater
waste of fertility by evaporation of moisture, and the volatile
qualities of the soil.

Ploughing and preparing lands that are dry and light, and
that possess too little tenacity, in autumn, and introducing the
seed in spring, without additional preparation, except harrowing,
will often preserve them in a moist, adhesive condition, and in
better state for the crop than if worked in any other way. Such
lands may be ploughed when considerably impregnated with
moisture ; they however exhale moisture rapidly, and should
not be worked too frequently in hot, dry weather. Stiff, heavy
soils, that are retentive of moisture, whether cloggy or loamy,
should never be ploughed in the spring when wet ; if turned in
that season in a wet condition, the parts of which they are
composed are liable to cake into hard lumps, requiring much
labor to reduce them to a fine state, suitable for a seed bed.
These lands may, if quite wet, be usefully ploughed in autumn ;
the frost of the succeeding winter will break down and pul-
verize the lumps, rendering them fine for the spring crop.

There are various opinions in regard to the comparative
advantages of deep and shallow ploughing. Doubtless the
depth should vary in some degree according to the nature of
the soil and the crop to be grown. The seed furrow should
have less depth than the preceding ploughings. The character
of the subsoils should also be taken into accoimt. Some land
will be damaged, some benefited by ploughing deep. Probably,
in Worcester county, ploughing six or seven inches deep, except
for tap-rooted plants, is more generally practised than any other
depth ; tap-rooted plants require deeper ploughing than cereal
plants. By deep ploughing, weeds, instead of being thrown

PLOUGHINa. 17

upon the surface to wilt under the influence of the sun, are
turned under beyond his influence, where the seeds remain for
some subsequent ploughing to bring up to a favorable position
for vegetating.

More immediate advantages may also be derived from the
vegetable manures, if kept near the surface ; if sunk too deep
they become more or less unproductive, until brought up and
ploughed under the influence of heat and air to produce
fermentation. Fossil manures have a tendency downwards,
and sink into the soil fast enough without the aid of deep
ploughing.

John Brooks, Chairman.

WORCESTER NORTH.

From the Report of the Co7iimittee on Single Teams.

Before announcing the premiums, it is due to the society to
lay down one cardinal principle wliich has governed your com-
mittee in awarding them, namely : the dispensing altogether
with tlie whipping process ; upon this point your committee are
a unit, and we crave your indulgence while we dwell a little
more at length upon this head.

The objects of the ploughing match are not, like those of the
Grecian Olympic games, the mere naked test of agility or
strength.

We have heretofore acted towards dumb animals too much
upon the old puritanical doctrine of " total depravity," upon
" the spare the rod spoil the child" dogma, which, leaving the
question of its truth or justice upon bipeds, is totally inappro-
priate and ill-chosen, in the opinion of your committee, upon
quadrupeds. The infliction of blows upon the poor brute
begets a correspondent desire to reciprocate by the free use of
his extremities, or grass-croppers, the application of which, to
sensitive humanity, is not at all pleasant or agreeable ; more-
over, if he learns, while we are venting our spite upon him,
what we really want him to do, he knows enough to thwart our
desire, often preferring to let us exhaust ourselves in pounding
his ribs while he still stands (in military parlance) " as you
are." How often, for instance, have we seen that useful

176 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

animal, the horse, after having been beaten, kicked and thrashed
for whole hours without mercy, to obtain his locomotion with a
load, and to no purpose, start off almost instantly by a few
gentle pats of the hand, or endearing tones of the voice. What
a beast should know is, that man is emphatically his master, by
the thousand different teachings which are always in a man's
power, that man is his peer in every thing;, and not in the single
attribute of cruelty.

We stand then upon this position, that the ploughman who
governs his team without whipping or lashing, not only governs
that team best, but produces more work from them and in
greater perfection. The time and strength lost in applying the
whip, its shrinking, exhausting effect upon his toiling cattle is
worse than useless, it is damning in its influence upon them
and upon him ; while gentle treatment schools the animals to
desire to follow, more implicitly, the wishes of their master,
and they soon learn to know, and govern themselves, by the
tones of his voice. Your committee, therefore, in conclusion,
submit, that the more the ploughman develops God's law of
kindness, the surer he is of success, the more he will ultimately
perform, and in far greater perfection.

A. Crocker, Chairman.

From the Report of the Committee on Double Teams.

The chief design of a ploughing match is, to encourage and
expose to view, the best acquired skill in holding +Iie plough
and managing the team ; for it requires no small amount of
practical experience and tact, to become a good ploughman,
hence the art is worthy of the ambition and persevering effort
of every tiller of the soil.

A few things may be specified as necessary to constitute a
good ploughman. The first requisite is a good and properly
constructed plough. If the land be smooth and level, probably
there is no plough that performs better service than the Michigan
Sub-soil. If, liowever, the surface is uneven,a well constructed
side-hill plough, is undoubtedly preferable to any other. The
farmer should have, if able, ploughs of different kinds, so that
he may adapt the implement to the condition of the land that
he proposes to cultivate.

PLOUGHING. 177

Next in importance is a stout and thoroughly trained team.
Many farmers pay but little attention to the securing and pre-
serving of a suitable team for the general purposes of agricul-
ture. Doubtless, throughout most of New England, oxen are
preferable, for most of the purposes of farming, to horses or
mules. Especially is this true in reference to ploughing ; their
gait is less rapid, and the plough is drawn with more evenness
and force, and hence the furrow may be turned with greater
ease and uniformity. It is highly important that the cattle
should be well matched in size, weight, motion, and tempera-
ment ; with these requisites, and proper training, united with
kind treatment, your cattle may be educated to perform their
tasks with ease, skill, and profit. It is also necessary tliat the
driver should control himself if he would succeed in controlling
his oxen. I have always noticed that all well-bred oxen show
a proper resentment to the use of loud, boisterous and profane
language, when addressed to them, and are quite as likely to go
wrong as right, under such circumstances ; lience, let passion
be restrained, and kind words used, and the effect will be salu-
tary on both man and beast.

Many farmers in selecting their ploughs, aim to get those that
turn the widest furrow, in order to complete their work with
greater despatch. Some of these ploughs turn a furrow from
fourteen to eighteen inches in width. Now experience and
observation in England and Scotland, have proved that a furrow
more than twelve inches in width is not so favorable for perfect
and thorough pulverization as those within that width ; hence
the furrow slice should be no wider than what is necessary for
the complete turning of the sod.

Much has been well and properly said of late years, in regard
to ploughing deep. There can be but little doubt in the mind
of any candid and reflecting man, that the neglect of deep
ploughing has been the great mistake of all past generations of
farmers in this country. When we remember that many of our
grain and vegetable roots penetrate to the depth of from one to
three feet, what folly is it to skim over the surface to the depth
of five or six inches, as was formerly the universal practice. It
is well that our farmers are beginning to awake to this impor-
tant matter, and as the result, we may expect surer and larger
crops. We would say never plough less than eight inches deep,

23

178 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

and all that you can increase beyond that depth will materially
aid in the growth and maturity of your crop.

J. S. Brown, Chairman.

MANURES.

ESSEX.

Report of the Committee.

There is no subject of greater practical importance to the
agriculturists of New England than that of manures. Indeed
it is impossible to cultivate our soil successfully without under-
standing their importance, and learning the more economical
modes of preparing and applying them for the use of vegetation.
This is a subject of vast extent, requiring, for a full discussion,
great minuteness of detail, and for precise accuracy the frequent
use of chemical terms which cannot be fully understood by the
farmer unfamiliar with scientific knowledge, and I only propose,
in the brief space proper for this report, to submit some general
views upon the subject, avoiding the use of chemical terms,
aware that by such a course I shall be open to the charge of
want of exactness and precision.

In order properly to understand the value and effects of
manures it is necessary to know how plants receive their food —
what there is in the original soil which alFords nutriment, and
what part each constituent of the same performs in the great
phenomena of vegetable life.

The plant receives its entire nutriment through the pores in
its leaves and in the fibres of its roots, which are so minute as
not to be discernible by the naked eye. Consequently, every
thing that feeds it must be in either a liquid or aeriform state.
In no other condition can nutriment enter into the composition
of a plant. Through the leaves, it is supplied by the air aided
by the light and heat, with gases necessary for its support, and
from snows, rains, dews and evaporation, it is supplied with
moisture and nutritive substances in minute solution. So much
is received through this medium that some kinds of plants are
supplied almost entirely through their leaves. But important

MANURES. 179

as are the leaves in sustaining the plant, it is of little importance
in this connection, to inquire into the mode in which they
receive and impart nutriment, as the amount cannot be affected
by artificial means. The other medium through which the
plant receives its support, is the root fibres ; and this is of by
far the greatest practical importance, as this support may be
increased almost indefinitely by supplying to the soil substances
necessary for vegetation, in which it is deficient.

Soils are composed of clay, sand, lime, mineral substances,
and the mould of decayed or decaying vegetation. The clay
and sand, excepting in locations where lime abounds, compose
by far the largest portion in weight ; the mineral substances
are in minute quantities, and the mould, although diffused
throughout the whole soil and apparently a considerable portion
of it, consists of only from 3.100 to 5.100 in weight of the
whole, in average soils. All these substances perform an
important part in the support and nourishment of the plant,
and for its successful growth all are requisite in proper combi-
nations. Yet the mould and mineral substances comprising
together not more than 5.100 to 6.100 of the soil, are substan-
tially all that afford direct nourishment to the plant. The clay
and sand, although by chemical action forming an ingredient of
some plants, are principally and almost entirely useful for the
purpose of giving mechanical support to the plant, and retain-
ing and imparting nutriment for its use. They constitute the
foundation to hold the plant, and the repository of its food, and
as such they are of the greatest consequence. The fertility and
permanent excellence of a soil depend very much upon the
proportions and combinations in which these earths are found.
Every farmer understands the difference between clay or heavy
soils, and sandy or light soils ; and that the best soils are those
which are composed of both in such proportions as not to be
too stiff and hard with an excess of clay on the one hand, or
too dry and porous with an excess of sand on the other hand.
In proper combinations the clay in the soil acts to retain the
moisture and the. nutriment, and prevent too great an extension
of the roots ; and the sand acts to loosen, render more friable
the soil, and to admit into it the heat and the air in proper
quantities.

If the clay is in excess, its injurious effects are : — ■

180 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

1. It retains more moisture than is needful for the plant.

2. It attracts and holds the nutriment, and does not impart
it sufficiently for the proper nourishment of vegetation.

3. It renders the soil hard, and difficult to cultivate.

4. It resists the proper extension of the roots.

5. It prevents the proper effects of the air and the heat.

6. In dry weather, it cracks and admits the air directly upon
the roots, which is always injurious.

If the sand is in excess, its injurious effects are : —

1. It has but little adhesion to the nutritive matter, which
is quickly washed out, or is supplied too freely to the plant,
consequently the soil is quickly exhausted.

2. It does not sufficiently retain the moisture for the plants.

3. It does not attract fertilizing particles from the atmos-
phere.

4. Being a good conductor of caloric, it transmits to the
roots immediately the influences of sudden changes in the
temperature of the atmosphere.

These facts show the great importance of ameliorating clay
land with sand, and sandy land with clay. In many parts of
England this has been done with most successful results, and
there is no reason why our farmers may not by this method
greatly benefit their poorer lands, as in most instances beds of
clay may be found in the vicinity of sandy lands, and sand in
the vicinity of clay lands. Probably nothing that can be done
to such lands will be more permanently beneficial.

Besides the clay and sand, the composites of soil are mineral
substances and vegetable mould, in the quantities before stated.
These afford the nutriment to the plant. The term vegetable
mould or humus, has been used by some writers with a more
extensive signification than that in which I propose to employ
it in this report.

It has been used to define the entire organic and inorganic,
or mineral substances of a plant, in a certain state of decom-
position and solution. It is a dark, and when moist, an unc.
tuous mould, produced not only by the corruption and decay of
the falling leaves, the plants themselves, and the roots remaining
in the ground, but also by the putrefaction and decomposition of
animal matter, although the latter contains the ingredients of
the former in different proportions and is especially rich in

MANURES. 181

ammonia. By mould, as I shall use the term, I include only
the organic matter distinct from the mineral substances in
cohesion with it, and this includes by far . the largest portion
in amount and weight of the decomposed matter. This mould
of itself, is of great benefit in improving the texture of the
soil, in rendering heavy land looser and warmer, and light soil
more tenacious. And if it had no other effect it would be of
very great value to the land. But when turned by the spade
or plough, and exposed to the air, moisture and heat, and acted
upon by the mineral substances in combination with it, it
becomes gradually still further decomposed, and furnishes
continual nourishment both in a liquid and gaseous form to the
roots of the plant. It also acts upon the mineral substances in
the soil, rendering them soluble, so that they can be received
by the plant. The amount of this mould, necessary for the
support of vegetation in soils of proper compositions, is com-
paratively very small, as such lands may be cropped for a series
of years without their becoming exhausted. The comparative
value of the mould as food for the plant, has been much
considered by scientific men of the present century, and without
entering into the discussion it may be sufficient for my purpose
to state that all regard it as of very great importance to
vegetation. From its intrinsic value as containing many of the
elements of the plant, and its slow decomposition, and as a
means of improving the texture of the soil it is second in
importance to no other material in the soil. In addition to its
effects when decomposed to the extent above stated, there is no
doubt that in the process of such decomposition it eliminates
much that affords nutriment to the plant, particularly of
ammonia to which I shall hereafter refer.

The mineral substances in tlie soil are also necessary, both in
affording aliment to vegetation, when dissolved, and as stimu-
lants to the soil. They are both indispensable for the proper
growth of the plant.

But in considering the practical value of these nutriments to
vegetation, we must always take into consideration the situation
of the soil with which they are incorporated, and the exposure
to air, heat and moisture to which they are subjected. Land
rich in fertilizing matter, yet excessively moist, is unproductive,
and grows nothing but sedge and other coarser grasses. The

182 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

land becomes sour, and will be nearly valueless, unless drained
and exposed to the proper action of air and heat ; and if
exposed to excessive, heat or dryness, the fertilizing substances
will not properly act upon each other, as a certain amount of
moisture is always necessary for the preparation of the food for
the plant. The frequent stirring of the soil, in good situations,
is also necessary to quicken the action of the fertilizers it
contains. This is so important in its effects, that some of the
early writers regarded it as the sole means of increasing the
fertility of the soil.

Keeping these general statements in mind, we can more
readily appreciate the importance of increasing the fertility of,
or replenishing the soil with nutritive matter. And in con-
sidering this subject I shall first refer to those manures which
are more commonly used, and better known to our agriculturists,
having a view to the permanent improvement of the land rather
than to the greatest immediate effect of fertilizers.

In other countries, and in some portions of our own, devoted
principally to gardening, the crop cultivated annually is looked
to for a remuneration. But with us, the land is cultivated
principally with a view to improve it for the subsequent crops
of grass, and our farmers look more to the length of time it can
be kept in grass without cultivation, than to the crop which is
the immediate result of it.

All the ordinary or barnyard manures, contain matter which
is convertible into mould, and mineral substances. Those
which liave a larger portion of the latter are more forcing or
stimulant in their operation, and some in tlieir putrefaction and
decay afford more nitrogen in the combination known as am-
monia, than others. This is very important to the growth of a
plant. It is particularly stimulating to vegetation. Compara-
tively speaking, the solid excrements of all herbiverous animals
are rich in mould-forming substances. The urine is richer
in mineral substances and nitrogen, and consequently, more
stimulating. Together, they furnish the most complete manure
for plants, as they combine all the substances both organic and
inorganic, which are necessary for the perfection of a plant and
its seed. The excrements of domestic animals are relatively
lasting in their effects in the order below stated, cow manure

MANURES.

183

being most lasting and least stimulating, and sheep manure
being most stimulating and soonest expended.

1st, excrements of horned cattle.

2d, " of swine.

3d, " of horses.

4th, " of sheep.

Tlie value of the excrements of the above named animals,
particularly swine, is affected very much by the quality of their
food.

The following figures, taken from the latest edition of Stock-
hardt's Chemical Field Lectures, show the constituents of these
different excrements. The figures are based xipon the weight
of the excrements and not upon the amount, as we usually con-
sider them. Tliis is important to be remembered in this and
subsequent tables, as there is a great difference between the
weight of a cord of cow manure and a cord of horse manure.
The figures of course are only approximate, although based
upon actual experiments.

One tliousand pounds of fresh excrements contain : —

CONSTITUENTS.

Of Cows fed
during winter.

Of Horses fed
during winter.

Of Sheep fed
upon hay.

Of Hogs fed on
strong fodder.

Solid dry substances in

general,

160

240

420

200

Nitrogen therein,

3

5

n

6

Mineral substances therein,

24

30

60

30

Consisting of —

Potash and Soda, .

1

3

3

5

Lime and Magnesia,

4

3

15

3

Phosphoric Acid, .

2i

^

6

^

Sulphuric Acid,

\

\

^

\

Common Salt,

i^

-

1

h

Sihca, ....

16

20

32

16

Approximate value in
money, ....

54

90

135

96

184

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The following figures from the same author show the constit-
uents of the urine of different animals and their comparative
value.

One thousand pounds of fresh urine contain : —

CONSTITUEKTS.

Of Cows.

Of Horses.

Of Sheep.

Of Hogs.

Solid dry substances (ex-
tract,) ....

80

110

135

25

Nitrogen therein,

8

12

14

3

Mineral substances therein,

20

30

36

10

Consisting of —

Potash and Soda, .

14

15

20

2

Lime and Magnesia,

H

8

6

h

Phosphoric Acid, .

-

-

1
■J

n

Sulphuric Acid,

H

H

H

-

Common Salt,

1

2

n

5

Silica, ....

iV

i

-

-

Approximate value in
money, ....

120

170

200

45

The following calculation by Stockhardt, shows approxi-
mately the value of the excrements which these animals furnish
in a year : —

One cow furnishes yearly — pounds. vaiue.

In excrements, . . . 20,000 X4 10 0
In urine, .... 8,000 410

Total, . . . 28,000 8 11 0
One horse furnishes yearly —

In excrements, . . . 12,000 4 10 0

In urine, .... 3,000 250

Total,

15,000

6 15 0

MANURES. 185

One sheep furnishes yearly —
In excrements,
In urine,

Pounds.

760

380

^0

0

0

0
0

1

Value.

9
6

15

16

4

1

0
9

Total, .

One hog furnishes yearly —
In excrements.
In urine.

. 1,140

. 1,800
. 1,200

9

101
6

Total, .

. 3,000

4-1-

From these calculations it will be seen that the urine is of
great value and that it is important for every farmer to use
freely litter, muck or other substances for its absorption.

Very important questions arise as to the time when barnyard
manure sliould be put into the ground, and the manner in
which it should be kept until so used.

Practical agriculturists, by various experiments upon a large
scale, have demonstrated that barnyard manure turned under
the soil in a fresh and unfermented state is of greater value
than when left to rot and ferment in the dung-heap, even when
that is properly protected ; and the practical results in this
accord with sound theory, as in the process of fermentation
and decay, gases escape which are of value to vegetation. If
not immediately turned under the soil, manure should be kept
where it will properly ferment, without being exposed to heavy
rains, and if so kept, the amount of gases which escape is not
great, and the mineral substances are not affected, and manure
rotted in such a position, although much reduced in quantity,
is more immediate in its effects, and nearly as valuable in its
properties, as when carted upon the land in a fresh state.
Experiments show that the amount of actual loss in manure
thus cared for is very slight. But if the manure is exposed to
heavy rains its depreciation is very great, as a large portion of
its mineral substances is washed from the heap and lost. In
accordance with these views I would suggest whether there is
any appreciable loss from spreading barnyard manure upon the
surface of the ground intended to be enriched, and allowing it
to remain for a length of time without being covered with the
soil. Being thinly spread there will be but little fermentation,

24

186 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

and the mineral substances winch will be separated from it by
the rains will be washed into the land where they are needed.
And this may aid in settling the question of the economy of top-
dressing grass land with barnyard manure. I think that by so
doing but little of the value of the na,anure is lost, particularly
if properly rotten when applied, and the land receives sub-
stantially its full effects witliout the expense of turning the soil.
If thus applied it is better that it should be done early in the
spring so that it will get partially incorporated with the soil and
protected by the growing vegetation, before it is subjected to
the scorching droughts of the summer.

One of our most intelligent and successful farmers, Samuel
A. Merrill, of Salem, informs me that for the three past seasons
he has, early in April, spread upon two or three acres of grass
land, fresh barnyard manure, free from litter, at the rate of
about four cords to the acre, and that the results have been most
satisfactory.

In addition to these manures, human excrements, both solid
and liquid, are rich and stimulating in their character, so much
so that they should only be used composted with other manures
needing stimulants, or with common soil. Used in this manner
they are of great value to the farmer.

Animal matter is also a very important manure from the
mould-forming substances it contains, from its mineral ingredi-
ents, and the amount of ammonia it creates in the process of
putrefaction- It is one of the most active stimulants, and
should always be used in compost, otherwise the ammonia will
quickly escape, and its effects will be of little value. The
harder portions of the animal such as the horns, hoofs, hair, &c.,
are not so readily decomposed.

Straw, hay, leaves and decayed vegetation are of great
importance in improving the soil, as they decompose but slowly,
and furnish a large proportion of mould. They are of most
importance in combination with other quicker manures, as they
absorb the liquids and the gases, and their decomposition is
accelerated by the stimulants with which they come in contact.

The above described are the ordinary manures used by our
farmers ; yet there is another source of fertility, which, although
resorted to by some, is not sufficiently appreciated by any. I
refer to the rich deposits of our intervales, which we call muck.

MANURES. 187

This term lias in other places a more general signification, but
with vis it is limited to define this deposit.

There is no portion of the country which contains so large
an amount of this fertilizer as this section. There is hardly a
farm in Essex county which is not rich in this material, and yet
until within the last few years it has been but little used. Muck
varies essentially in its constituents and in its value. The best
is the deep, dark colored deposit, free from large roots, found
in low lands, which, when dug up and exposed to the air and
the action of the frost, becomes crumbled and fine, having very
much the appearance of ashes. A large percentage of this is
vegetable mould, which has remained substantially in the same
state for centuries. It also contains a considerable amount of
mineral substances, but from the great quantity of moisture to
which it has been continually subjected, the mould has not
decomposed. From the same cause, tannin and acetic acid have
been formed in it, which renders the muck sour and unfit in
its original state for the support of vegetation. But when
exposed to the air and frost, and its sourness corrected by
mixture with stimulating substances, it becomes one of the most
valuable fertilizers.

Peat muck is also an excellent fertilizer, but, from the slow
decomposition of the roots which compose it, it is of less value
than that before described.

Pond muck is the deposit in the bottom of ponds, composed
mostly of substances washed from the adjacent lands, and
contains less vegetable mould than either of the other kinds.

Muck may be composted with any other manure. All kinds
of barnyard manure, particularly horse manure, corrects its
sourness, adds to it the necessary salts, and renders it suitable
to be applied to the soil. It is particularly valuable in the barn-
yard, as it is a powerful absorbent of the liquids, which more
than any other portion of the manure, operate beneficially upon
the muck. Wood-ashes, leached or unleached, dead animals,
horns, hoofs, hide-cuttings, &c., are also of great value to com-
post with it. Lime is also valuable in compost with muck and
either of the above manures, as it is a good neutralizer of acids,
but is not sufficient alone with muck. From the large quantity
of mould which muck contains, its effects are very lasting ;
indeed more so than those of most any other fertilizer, both in

188 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

affording nourishment to plants, and in improving the texture
of the soil.

Any farmer who has a good bed of muck on his farm, can
make annually, at little expense, at least as much and as valuable
manure from this source, as from all the stock he keeps, and I
know of some farms in this county which have been brought to
a high state of cultivation, on which more than one-half of the
manure that has been applied, has consisted of this fertilizer
properly composted. I have seen the finest crop of corn grown
on light land the first year of its ploughing, with no other
manure than muck exposed one winter, mixed with a small
quantity of leached ashes.

Sea manures, comprising rock-weed, kelp and muscle bed, are
valuable as manures, from the fertilizing substances they contain
and from the salt they furnish. The muscle bed contains much
animal matter which is valuable, particularly in compost.
These manures are much used upon the farms bordering upon
the sea-coast, and their great value can be seen in the fertility
of the lands on which they have been used.

Salt is also important to use in moderate quantities, upon
most lands and in compost. It furnishes some food to vegeta-
tion, and is a neutralizer of acids. Its effects when applied on
some lands in the county, have been very marked. But great
care should be used that it be not applied in too great quantities.

Wood ashes, leached or unleached, are also of great value as
a manure. Ashes comprise all the incombustible ingredients of
plants, and are not only lasting in their effects, but from the
mineral substances of which they are composed, are strongly
forcing. It is doubtful whether there is any more economical
fertilizer that can be used than ashes, at the prices for which they
are usually sold to the soap boilers. There is not that difference
in the value of unleached and leached ashes which many
suppose. By leaching a considerable portion of the potash is
extracted, bvit this is compensated for in part, by the lime and
other substances mixed with the ashes in the leaching, and the
leached ashes combine more readily with the salts in the atmos-
phere. But it should be remembered that ashes do not com-
prise all that is necessary for the growth of a plant, and that
from their stimulating properties they serve to accelerate the
decomposition of the mould with which they come in contact,

MANURES. . 189

and if used upon the same land for successive years without
other manures, will tend to render the soil unproductive.

Coal ashes are not valueless as is supposed by many. They
contain some mineral substances, and will more than repay the
expense of putting them upon the land.

Lime, of which there is comparatively a small amount in most
of our soils, affords a direct nutriment to vegetation. Applied
in large quantities it improves the texture of all lands except
those which are excessively sandy. It acts upon the fertilizing
matter in the soil both upon the mould and the mineral
substances, decomposing and rendering them soluble for the use
of the plants. It is injurious in combination with animal
manures or common dung, as it has a tendency to produce
insoluble compounds. It should never be composted with either
except when necessary to prevent the noxious exhalations from
animal putrefactions. It is a most powerful neutralizer of
injurious acids, and is consequently most beneficial in combina-
tion with muck, or when spread upon sour lands. Upon lands
containing a sufficient amount of lime, which is indicated by a
luxuriant growth of clover, peas or beans, an additional appli-
cation will be useless or positively injurious ; whilst upon lands
in which it is deficient, wliich is indicated by the coarse grasses
they produce, the application of lime is most beneficial.

Bone manure has been used with most successful results
within the last few years, and its effects upon the land are last-
ing. But great care should be exercised in purchasing it, as
much that is offered in the market as ground bone, is a spuri-
ous and almost worthless article.

In addition to the fertilizers to which I have referred, there
is another which has been used somewhat extensively for the
last few years. I mean guano. It consists of the excrements
of sea birds which have lived upon fish. The most valuable is
that which is brought from the rainless regions of Peru. Its
almost entire value consists of the nitrogen or ammonia it con-
tains. The amount of mould-forming substances and mineral
particles of this manure is so small as to be hardly of any appre-
ciable value. The chief office of ammonia is to accelerate the
development of vegetation, and it furnishes but little of the
constituent elements of plants. Therefore guano is strictly a
concentrated, forcing and stimulating manure. Its action is

190 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

immediate and its operation quickly over. It is mostly expended
the first season. But it has not acted alone. It has stimulated
the plants to search for and take up the fertilizing substances in
the soil, so that each year of its application the land has become
poorer. Its effect, when applied alone, except for the present
crop, is positively pernicious, and the result of its continued
use, alone, must be the exhaustion of the soil.

Artificial manures, also, have been recently used to a consid-
erable extent ; but if any one expects to see good results from
the use of the best of them alone, he will be grievously disap-
pointed. None of them contain all the food which is necessary
for the growth of vegetation, and it requires a scientific knowl-
edge which few farmers possess, to understand where and how
to apply them to any considerable advantage. This may be said
of the bct^t of artificial manures. But there are many that are
largely advertised and recommended, which are not much, if
any belter than common wood scrapings; and even if a farmer
thinks he has sufficient scientific knowledge to properly use
artificial manures, he must add to his fund of information a
knowledge of chemical analysis, or purchase his special manures
of dealers upon whose knowledge and integrity he can implicitly
rely.

"William D. Northend, Chairman.

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

Statement of Horace I. Hodges.
In April, 1857, I selected seven half acre lots, on the Hamp-
shire, Franklin and Hampden Agricultural Society's grounds, at
Northampton, and staked them off on the north-easterly side of
said grounds ; each lot was of precisely the same quality of soil,
and in the same condition, — all down to grass, — Timothy,
red and white clover. That year, six lots I gave a top-dressing,
each with a different fertilizer, leaving one lot without any.
Each lot has been mowed at the same time, and managed alike,
and the hay upon each weighed separately, for 1857 and 1858,
and the tables at the close of this communication present a full
and accurate statement of the experiments upon these lots.

MANURES.

191

These experiments have been made with reference to knowing
the true and exact effect of the several fertilizers on this ground
by top-dressing, as it is not desirable to plough or cultivate,
except in grass ; (the lot containing fifteen acres being kept fer-
tile use of the society, and for the purpose of holding the
annual shows,) and the result shows quite plainly that several
of the fertilizers cannot be used upon these lands, as a top-
dressing, to any profit. The soil is clay loam, rather cold,
retaining moisture unusually late in the spring. The tables
show that ashes is the only profitable fertilizer to be used as a
top-dressing here. For the two years the increase of hay is
much the greatest, and the only lot on which the increase of
hay paid for the fertilizer the first year, and the increase of hay
did not pay for fertilizer on any other lot for the two years.
The lot where guano was used, gave greatest increase of hay for
first year, but ashes did for second.

It is not to be supposed that the same result would follow
from all soils. These experiments show the effect upon this
soil and location, and may be useful in making comparisons and
forming a judgment for each one's own lands.

Statement for 1857.

1

s

s

•2

u

v.*
o

in

'Z a,

u

a

"sa
go

>

CM a it

15" «

3

g 2 5;

lbs.
None.

Loss or Gain
1st Year from
Fertilizer.

1,

None.

None.

None.

lbs.
1,335

lbs.
400

$4 00

U 40

$5 40

None.

2,

Poudrette,

2 bbls.

$4 00

1,418

400

4 25

1 40

5 65

f3

$3 75*

3,

Plaster, .

500 lbs.

3 00

1,427

400

4 28

1 40

5 68

92

2 72*

4,

Super-phosp'te
of Lime,

150 lbs.

4 00

1,535

400

4 60

1 40

6 00

200

3 60»

5,

Horse and Cow

Manure,

4 loads.

8 00

1,855

400

5 56

1 40

6 90

520

6 44*

5,

Ashes,

10 bu.

2 00

2,030

1,000

6 09

3 50

9 59

1,295

2 19t

7,

Guano, .

158 lbs.

5 24

2,135

1,000

6 40

3 50

9 90

1,400

74*

t Gain.

192 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Statement for 1858.

Increase of Hay

Profit from Fer-

Nos.

Kind of FertUi-

Quantity of Hay

from Fertilizer

tilizer 2d Year,

Loss or gain for

•

zer in 1857.

2d Year.

2d Year,

Hay at 30 cts.

the two Years.

Pounds.

Pounds.

1,

None.

1,200

None.

None.

None.

Poudrette, .

1,280

80

S^O 24

Loss, $3 51

3,

Plaster,

1,473

273

82

Loss, 1 90

4,

Super-phos.

of Lime,

1,535

335

1 00

Loss, 2 60

5,

Horse and

Cow Manure,

1,365

165

50

Loss, 5 95

6,

Ashes,

1,665

465

1 40

Gain, 3 39

7,

Guano,

1,230

30

09

Loss, 65

PLYMOUTH.

Statement of Charles G. Davis.

Having entered for premium for the greatest quantity of
compost manure, and also for the greatest quantity judiciously
composted from meadow mud and any alkaline substances, I
will proceed to give you an account of my labors.

The mildness of the last winter afforded great facilities for
digging peat, which I have upon my farm, and also on land
about a mile from my house. Since the summer of 1857, I
have thrown out about two hundred cords of fresh peat, and
have composted most of it upon the spot, by pouring in gas
water, or the ammoniacal liquor from the gas works, which I
obtain in barrels, as it is drawn off from the works, and which
otherwise runs to waste. I have also added gas lime, or lime
which has been used for the purification of gas.

I was induced to make this experiment by the assurances
received from Dr. Charles T. Jackson, in a letter in answer to
my inquiries, a copy of which I am happy to subjoin. Since
which, I have noticed an article in favor of the lime in the
Patent Office Agricultural Report for 1856, p. 222, and in
Browne's American Muck Book, p. 102. For the claims of
gas house liquor as a fertilizer, I beg leave also to refer you to

MANURES. 193

the American Muck Book, p, 336. I have also seen a private
letter from Professor Mapes, recommending it highly for com-
posts with peat.

The liquor is too powerful to apply alone to land as a top-
dressing, but should be diluted with three or four times its
bulk of water. When applied to peat, it should be well mixed.
It eats up the raw peat very rapidly, and I have found my heaps
sufficiently fine by digging them over once about six months
after applying it undiluted to the sour, green peat. An appli-
cation of a few cords of it upon Timothy, on dry land, after
mowing, had a most astonishing effect in forcing a second
crop, after a shower. Tliis was doubtless owing to the quantity
of ammonia in it. It has been suggested that, like guano,
its effects from this cause alone may be short-lived. But the
beneficial effects of the peat,, even as a mulcher alone, upon
our dry meadows, I think are much undervalued.

During the past season I have made, in this manner, from
fresh peat and muck alone, about sixty cords of compost mea-
sured after it was made. One of the most remarkable, as well
as discouraging, features of peat composts to the laborer is the
great loss in bulk during its manufacture. Dr. Dana, in his
valuable " Muck Manual," states that " peat, dried at 240° F.,
loses 73 to 97 per cent, of water. When allowed to drain and
dry as it will, it still contains about two-thirds of its weight of
water. It shrinks from two-thirds to three-quarters of its bulk.
A cord wet becomes one-quarter to one-third of a cord when
dry. To compare its value with cow manure, equal bulks
must be taken ; and hence to dry peat a bulk of water must be
supposed to be added in proportion above stated ; or, still better,
because easily done, the pile of dry peat is to be estimated by
the pit left after digging." He goes on to state, that the fresh
peat thus measured differs little from the same bulk of fresh
cow dung, so far as salts, water and geine are concerned,
differing only from the cow dung in the lacking clement of
ammonia. This element, I suppose, is supplied to a great
extent, by the gas house water ; and then, if Dr. Dana's state-
ment be true, a cord of the peat compost would be worth three
or four cords of fresh cow manure, and more than four cords of
the cow manure as it is found mixed with the bedding in the
heap. But I claim no wisdom in these matters.

25

194 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

During the last season I liavc also made a great quantity of
compost in my barn cellar. The cellar is entered by two
drains, conveying offal, as well as all the sink water, from two
families. To absorb this, I use a great quantity of peat, with
chips, fine coal ashes and sods. My stock consisted of four
cows and three horses during the winter, and an additional
cow and. a calf during the summer, always housed at night,
with five hogs throughout the year to tend the manure. I
have carted in some loam, but mostly half decomposed salt
and fresh peat, sea and rock-weed. These are frequently
spread with the manure, and dug over on rainy days. Six or
eight horse-cart loads of the gas lime, and three-quarters of a
ton of plaster, used in part in the stalls, were scattered from
time to time. In this manner before June, I carted out five
hundred and nine loads, of about thirty cubic feet, and have
now, in addition, two compost heaps taken from the cellar
since June, containing about fifty cords, making in all, one
hundred and sixty cords of barn compost.

Having occasion to ditch some salt meadow, I have also
collected a large quantity of salt peat and sod, some of which
was used, when thoroughly dry and as light as a sponge, as
bedding for horses, first chopping it into small sponges.

I have now in heaps from seventy-five to eighty cords of this
salt peat, some of wliich was cut two years since, and the
balance last fall. It decays slowly. I have not tried a solu-
tion of salt dissolved in water and mixed with quick lime, as
recommended by some, for the speedy manufacture of compost
from vegetable matters, because the salt peat is so open, and
the sods so large and free, that I feared they would not hold
the mixture to advantage unless used in great quantities. Some
of these heaps are mixed with the gas lime and coal ashes, but
they decompose slowly. A portion containing about ten cords
of salt meadow deposit and old sods, is decomposed,

Mr. Howard has recently stated that he was satisfied that salt
peat did not make a good manure, but he has given no particu-
lars nor statistics. It is to be hoped that some one will give us
more reliable information upon the subject ; namely, the value
of salt peat, and the best and speediest method of composting
it. Such information would ])e of great benefit to farmers upon
the seaboard. We find allusion to it in agricultural works, but

INDIAN CORN. 195

there does not appear to be any definite knowledge concerning
it, either in the books or the experience of our agricultural
friends. Mr. Colman, in one of his letters from England,
speaks of it as better than fresh peat when rotted, but gives us
no authority, any further than his own honored name.

The following is the letter from Dr. Charles T. Jackson,
alluded to above : —

Charles G. Davis, Esq. : — Dear Sir, — In reply to your note
of 29th instant, I would say that I have no doubt you will find
the gas lime will work well with peat, which will take up both
ammonia and lime, and make a good compost. I do not like
the coal tar so well, and it will be .best to get clear of as much
of that as you can.

I cannot know what proportions the gas lime is to be used,
as I do not know the strengtli of it and of the ammonia liquor,
but you may safely add a barrel of it to a wagon load of peat.

A good liming generally stops the growth of sorrel, but
should be followed with a thick sowing of clover and redtop,
to get "nine points of the law" in the field, i. e., possession,
so as to keep out the sour old enemy. As to the chemical salt
in gas lime, it is hyposulphite mixed with sulphate and hydrate
of lime. There is also sulphate of ammonia, carbonate of
ammonia, &c., <fec.

Yours truly, Charles T. Jackson.

INDIAN COHN.

PLYMOUTH.

Essay by Morrill Allen.
Indian corn is indigenous to this country. It had been
raised to some extent by the natives, before the discovery of
the country by Europeans. Our ancestors, entirely ignorant
of the plant, and its habits of growth, took tlieir first lessons
in its culture from the savages ; those lessons were necessarily

196 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

imperfect, and in many respects faulty. The philosophy of a
civilized race would have much sooner discovered the fallacy
of them, and introduced an improved culture, had not the
plant been remarkable for vigor in growth, and in virgin soil
attaining maturity with very little cultivation. The method
recommended by the natives was to make an incision in the soil,
drop several kernels, and cover with the excavated soil. After
the appearance of the plants, they scraped from time to time
the surface soil around them, till little hillocks were formed of
considerable height. Some imitation of this method has con-
tinued to the present time ; we occasionally see what are very
appropriately termed Indian hills, and which should have no
place in more than a few cultivated fields. Making hills places
many of the roots of corn too deep to receive those kindly
influences of sun, and air, necessary to perfection in growth.
Modern practice has clearly proved that if the soil be frequently
and sufficiently stirred the roots of corn will find their proper
place in it, and the plants will be far better supported against
the influences of strong winds than when hills are formed.

The importance of the corn crop, to tlie prosperity of farm-
ers, the certainty with which they may calculate on success in
a judicious cultivation of the plant, combine to urge them
diligently to study the habits of the plant, and to adopt the
method of cultivation the most likely to give them distinguished
success.

The first requisite to success is the judicious selection of soil.
In New England we have a large portion of soil, in which the
corn plant will prosper only in particular and peculiar seasons ;
tenacious and clayey soils will not yield good crops, excepting
in very warm seasons, and when moderate rains are so frequent
as to keep the surface soft and the pores open. Silicious soils,
such as the farmers call warm, are the most certain to produce
fair and well ripened crops of corn.

The various loams will do well for this crop if well saturated
with manure. This article is not furnished with sufficient
liberality to our corn fields generally. The corn plant is a
gross feeder, and requires an abundance of food in the last
stages of its growth. Hence the utility of applying a large
quantity of long manure to the field in the spring before
planting ; this dissolves in the soil, and comes into the most

INDIAN CORN. 197

vigorous operation, at the period when the plant requires the
most nourishment. The preparation of the soil for a corn crop
should be regulated in reference to preceding crops ; where
the small grains have been raised, stubble land should be
ploughed several times before planting ; previous to the last
ploughing, a good dressing of barn manure, not less than eight
cords to the acre, should be evenly spread, and turned under
with a shoal furrow; if fine compost manure is used, tlien the
cultivator, or harrow, will place it deep enough in the soil. No
manvire need ever be placed directly under the corn, excepting
when farmers are induced to plant fields where the soil is not
well adapted to the growth of corn. In very warm, and rather
dry seasons, corn will grow well, and yield abundantly, on cold
peaty, or clayey soils, if a shovelful of good compost manure
be placed in each hill.

But the seasons are so variable it is not prudent often to try
experiments of this kind. When fields are to be planted with
corn which have been in sward for a succession of years, and
liberally top-dressed with good manure, it is well to plough in
the fall, six or seven inches deep, according the character of
the subsoil ; in the spring cross-plough once or twice, without
disturbing the sod ; pulverize thoroughly with cultivator, and
harrow, and then plant without the application of any manure.
Sometimes, with this preparation, we can obtain better crops
than we can when the manure is applied in the year of planting.
In a soil made rich in previous years, the corn will take a
natural and regular growth ; in the fermentation of recently
applied manure it will be forced forward too fast, in the early
part of the season, and not find sufficient food at the critical
period when the ears are formed. To raise corn, successfully
our land must be made rich, either at the time of planting, or
in previous years. The time has passed, in this region, when
the strength of our soils can reasonably be depeiffled on to
produce remunerating crops of corn. We must avail ourselves
of art, and, with the judicious employment of this, we can
produce far more corn on the acre, than is ever raised in any of
the virgin soils of the Western States.

The last operation, in the preparation of a field for planting,
is furrowing. This is rather a difficult part of the business, if
we are anxious that the eye should be gratified in viewing

198 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

regularity. But if we have refereuce chiefly to the growth of
the corn, it will only be necessary to attend to width and the
depth of the furrow, and the rows will be nearly enough on a
straight line. The furrows should be three feet apart both
ways, when the corn is to be planted in hills ; and when planted
in drills three feet will be space enough for convenient cul-
tivation.

Many farmers have supposed, and acted on the supposition,
that if a field has a scanty dressing of manure, and is in some-
what of an exhausted state, by planting in wide rows we obtain,
more corn and leave the land in better condition. The experi-
ence of the writer has led him to the conclusion that both these
suppositions are errors. When corn is planted four, five, or six
feet apart, the hot summer suns have an exhausting influence
on the soil. The middle of the rows differ very little from
fallow ground, which, it is generally believed, injures the soil.
In poor land, no doubt, a less number of plants should be cul-
tivated than in rich land ; let it be done by leaving a less number
of plants in the hill, or placing the kernels farther apart in the
drills. Where no space is left in a field, destitute of a plant,
more than three feet wide, the soil of the whole field will be
likely to be evenly tilled, which is of considerable importance,
and, as the plants grow, they will form a screen for the ground
from the direct and scorching influences of the sun. In general
practice, probably it is best to plant three feet apart each way,
and leave three, four, or five plants in a hill, according to the
strength of the soil, and the preparation of it for the crop.
Much greater crops may be obtained by planting in drills, but
the labor is more, and often as laborers are changed in this
country, it is not a light task to indoctrinate them in the proper
culture in drills. Whatever manner of planting be adopted, if
an extraordinary crop be desired, we should plant a double
quantity of seed and, in the early part of summer pull up the
least thrifty plants, leaving only such number as we think the
soil will carry to perfection.

It is with plants as with animals, some having apparently the
same means of nourishment and growth will be dwarfish and
mar the appearance of the field or flock ; by the removal of the
least thrifty and promising ones, we not only improve the
appearance of the field and flock, but leave a greater amount of
room for the most vigorous.

INDIAN CORN. 199

The purest seed we can possibly obtain will produce some
unthrifty plants, yet we can effect much to lessen the importance
of using a double quantity of seed, and afterwards thinning.
The most effectual mctliod of securing pure seed is to pass
through the field when the corn begins to ripen, and mark the
most forward and perfectly formed ears, in such manner that
we can distinguish them at harvest, and reserve for seed. This
is a better method than that which has long been in practice
with many good farmers, of selecting their seed corn, while
husking the crop, from the most fruitful stalks and the largest
ears. In this selection we are liable to take many ears which
were late in ripening, and produce an effect on the future crop,
which it is desirable to avoid. This selection of seed corn,
however, though not the best that can be practised, is far
preferable to a selection from the crib, which is yet the practice
of some farmers.

When there appears not much danger of depredations by
birds, or insects, seed corn may be planted in its natural state ;
various preparations are recommended, some to hasten the
growth of the corn, but most of them to prevent its destruc-
tion by birds and insects. For the latter purpose, some of the
steps recommended may be useful ; great caution, however,
against the infusion of too much poisonous matter, and against
suffering the corn to dry too much before planted. Corn
planted, or shelled from the ear, is the most certain to vegetate
evenly, and resort to any other preparation should be submitted
to only in extraordinary cases.

Whether corn be planted by hand, or with a machine, we
should endeavor to have it covered at tlie least an inch and a
half deep, to secure sufficient moisture, and give it early firm
hold in the soil. When the corn plants are about two inches
high, the first dressing should be given. Some modern writers
advise not to use the plough at all, in the culture of corn,
stating that the cultivator, and harrow, will stir the ground
de6p enough. The writer thinks the plough is the most useful
instrument, in the first dressing ; let it run as near the first row
as it can, without disturbing the plants ; returning, pass it near
the second row, forming a ridge between the rows through the
field. This ridge should not be disturbed in the first hoeing ;

200 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

at tlie second dressing let the cultivator run on the top of the
ridge, which will partially level it ; and again, at the third
hoeing, when the surface will be smooth enough for a scythe to
pass over it. Some have recommended sowing grass at the
third hoeing, to avoid the exhausting influences of a white crop
on the land, and in this view it would be unquestionably useful •
but in experience, it is found difficult to sow grass seed evenly
among corn, and difficult to cut the corn so near the ground
that there will be no interruption from the butts in mowing the
next year. Three dressings are regarded as sufficient for corn.
In many fields it is left with only two, and the last of these
performed in a hurried manner. The pressure of other busi-
ness often drives farmers too early from the cornfields, to the
great injury of the crops. The oftener the surface soil is stirred,
the more healthy and vigorous will the corn plants be. If
concentrated manure is used to increase the crop, it will prove
most efficacious in application just before the last dressing of
the corn. The most active operation of it will then take place,
when the corn plants require the greatest amount of food. The
cost of this kind of manure, the labor of applying it, and its
transient influence on the soil, are subjects which farmers
should deliberately consider, and well understand, before they
subject tliemselves to much outlay in the purchase and use of
guano, phosphates, or poudrette. The leading qualities of all
these articles can be approached in composting manure on the
farm, and what the farmer has himself manufactured he can
employ witli more certainty of success than any foreign
materials, the composition of which is concealed from his view.

After the dressings, corn should remain undisturbed till har-
vest, if we wish to secure the greatest amount of well-ripened
corn.

In certain seasons, however, tliere will be great loss on the
fodder to let all remain till perfcc'tly dry ; the gain in the
weight of the corn may not be a compensation for the injury
to the fodder by rains and winds. Tlie ancient practice of
cutting off the top stalks about the middle of September, and
feeding them out immediately to the cattle, or curing them for
winter use, under certain circumstances, may properly be con-
tinued. We should be careful not to begin the work too early.

INDIAN CORN. 201

If it is done while the corn is quite soft, the hardening of it
will be delayed, and the corn will always be lighter than that
which is naturally and well ripened. The same caution is
demanded when corn is cut at the ground in September, and
stooked ; if any of the ears are soft when this is done, they
will ripen only in a shrivelled manner. This work is recom-
mended to be done in prospect of an early autumnal frost ; but
while the corn is yet very soft, stooking is nearly as injurious
as frost.

The most value in fodder is obtained in stooking ; the most
value in corn, to let all remain in the field till the corn is dry
enough to put in the crib. It is a common error, when stalks
arc cut, to do it too early, and we often hurry the business of
harvesting, at the risk of having the corn mould in crib. There
are many circumstances which tend to make farmers negligent
in the employment of art in tlie corn field. Without any
special preparation, every field will yield some corn. Careless,
planting and culture will not be followed with so entire failure,.
as in the management of some other grains. But no grain;
crop can be increased to so great extent, in careful and judi--
cious management, as Indian corn. Experimenters have shown^
the practicability of doubling and even trebling the usual
amount obtained. Tliis result is reached not exclusively by-
high manuring and judicious cultivation ; but much depends
on the number of plants, and the situation of them in the field..
The late excellent farmer. Judge Buel, made numerous experi-
ments to prove the most suitable number of plants to the acre,.,
and formed a table showing the different products of difierent
numbers of plants on the acre.

This table it would be well for farmers often to consult, as a.
guide in the manner of planting. It is therefore subjoined.

1. An acre in hills, 4 feet apart each way, making 2,722 hills,,
will produce 42 bushels and 16 quarts.

2. The same, 3 by 3 feet, making 4,840 hills, will produce
75 bushels and 20 quarts.

3. The same, 2 by 2} feet, making 5,808 hills, will produce
93 bushels and 28 quarts.

4. The same, at 3 feet, plants 6 inches apart in the drills,
making 29,040 stalks, will produce 113 bushels and 14 quarts.

26

202 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

6. The same, in drills, 2 rows in a drill, 6 inches apart, and
the plants 9 inches, and 3 feet 9 inches from centre of drill,
thus: '. making 30,970 stalks, will produce 120

bushels and 31 quarts.

6. The same in drills, 3 rows in a drill, as above, 3 feet from
centre of drill, thus : • • • • •

making 43,5G0 stalks, will

produce 170 bushels and 6 quarts.

AVOECESTER NORTH.

Statement of Solon Carter.

The lot on which the corn, offered for the society's premium
for the best crop and the best variety, was raised, contains
271-j^Q^ rods. It is a clayey loam, very springy, called cold land.
The crop of 1856-7 "was grass, without manure. It was
ploughed once in July, 1857, after the grass was removed, and
twice in May, 1858 ; was harrowed three times, furrowed lightly
both ways, manured with eighteen loads stable manure from
the barn-cellar, spread before the spring plonghing, and twelve
loads compost put in the hill, and covered with the hand-hoc ;
was planted June 1, with Randall & Jones' single corn planter,
■using seven quarts seed, which goes in my name.

The cultivation was as follows, viz. : As soon as the corn
could be seen in the row it was ploughed, one furrow per row
'One way, with a small plough, these furrows crossed per row
■one way, with a small plough, these furrows crossed with a
small harrow ; when large enough to hoc, the horse-hoe was
run through both ways, followed by the hand-hoe ; before the
second hoeing, which was early in July, it was thinned to four
stalks per hill through the field, and worked with the horse-hoe
as at the first hoeing, followed again by the hand-hoe ; after
haying, the horse-hoe went through again both ways, making
four times during the season that the field has been worked
between the rows, both ways, with the horse-hoe, harrow or
plough. Last and least I went through the field and pulled
what few weeds had escaped, leaving a clean field.

It was harvested October 28, and November 1, in the usual
way, by cutting at the ground. The stover I did not weigh,
but consider it a fair equivalent for the cost of harvesting.

116

00

48

00

62

7

20

INDIAN COEN. 203

Cost of ploughing, harrowing, <fec., .

manure, ......

seed and planting, ....

cultivation, ......

Total, exclusive of harvesting, .... $71 82

Product, as ascertained by the committee, November 10 :
Thirty-eight pounds shelled corn per square rod, or 10,309
pounds the lot, equal to 184 bushels, or 108 bushels per acre,
allowing fifty-six pounds per bushel.

It will be seen that I make no reserve in my estimate for the
value of the manure for after crops, for really I do not know
how to estimate it ; and besides, if we reserve for manure, I do
not see why we should not also make an allowance for the
improvement of the land by ploughing and cultivating. Indi-
viduals estimate these matters so differently, I thinlv it better
to leave the whole subject in the hands of tlie committee,
believing they will deal justly with the competitors.

[Note. — Mr. Carter repeated, on tliis field, his expei-imont of 1856, by har-
vesting three lots, of one hundred hills each, in three different ways. The
date of harvesting, husking, and shelling being the same in each of the three
lots.

After husking, the ears were spread about six inches deep, and so remained
until shelled. The result was as follows : —
Lot No. 1. — Cut up whole and stooked.

Weight of ears, 189 lbs. ; of corn, 139 lbs. ; of cobs, 24 lbs.
Shrinkage, 26 lbs., or 14 per cent.
Lot No. 2.— Top stalks cut.

Weight of ears, 200 lbs. ; of corn, 155 lbs. ; of cobs, 26 lbs.
Shrinkage, 19 lbs., or 9^ per cent.
Lot No. 3. — Left standing whole.

Weight of ears, 196 lbs. ; of corn, 141 lbs. ; of cobs, 23 lbs.
Shrinkage, 32 lbs., or 16 per cent.
As in 1856, so now, the corn which had the top stalks cut weighed most at
harvesting, and shrunk least before shelling.

The lots for the above trial were selected by Col. Phillips, when examining
the field for the committee, of which he was chairman.]

204 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

WHEAT.

WORCESTER NORTH.

Statement of Solon Carter.
The lot on which my wheat was raised contains two acres
and seventy-two and two-thirds rods. The soil is a clayey loam
upon a subsoil of clay-pan, with occasional tight stones. The
crop of 1856 was grass, without manure; that of 1857 corn,
with about twenty-five loads * per acre of manure from my
barn cellar. It was ploughed twice about the last of March,
first by splitting the hills, two furrows per row ; then ploughed
fine, six to eight inches deep, harrowed once after splitting the
hills ; no manure was used. It was sowed broad cast, April 3,
with two bushels per acre of coffee wheat, and was reaped July
28, bound and set in bunches of from twelve to sixteen sheaves
each, and covered with cloth caps ; in this situation it remained
ten or twelve days, when it was put in the barn.

Cost of ploughing, &c., per acre, . . . . $3 50
seed and sowing, ..... 4 00

harvesting, ...... 6 50

Total, per acre, . . . 8^14 00
Product, 2,240 lbs., or 37^ bushels; of 60 pounds per bushel.

RYE.

BARNSTABLE.

Statement of Zenas D. Basset.
The land on which this crop was raised measured one and a
quarter acres. The soil is light, having recently been cleared
of pitch pines. The land had been in grass for two previous
years. In 1857 about half the lot was planted with potatoes
in May, and after harvesting, the whole lot had about fifteen

* A load is so indefinite tliat it is not possible to judge how the land was
manured, and hence all such statements are of little value.

BARLEY.

205

tons of manure spread on it, and was ploughed and sowed with
one and a quarter bushels rye, with grass seed, on the 22d
September, 1857. The rye was harvested and produced thirty
and one-half bushels by weight, and two and one-fourth tons
straw.

Yalue of the crop : —

31f measured bushels, at $1, |31 75

21 tons straw, at 17.50, 16 87

Expenses
Ploughing,
Seed Rye,
Harrowing,

Reaping,
Threshing,
Manure, .

Profit, (charging all manure to this crop,)
September 16, 1858.

118 62

$3 75

1 25

75

3 00

3 00

15 00

mG 75

121 87

BARLEY.

BARNSTABLE.

Statement of Thoinas Harris.
My crop of barley was on a mixed loam, containing one acre.
It was planted with corn in 1857, and manured with barnyard
manure and sea-weed, ploughed under to the depth of six
inclies. On the 19th April, 1858, I ploughed about same
depth and sowed 200 lbs. Peruvian guano on the furrow, har-
rowed it in, and sowed two bushels of two-rowed barley, which
was thoroughly cross-liarrowed in. Harvested about the 25th
July. The crop weighed 1,500 lbs., or thirty-two bushels, and
twenty-eight pounds, at forty-six pounds the bushel. The cost
was as follows : —

206

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Ploughing, .....

$3 00

200 lbs. guano, ....

6 00

2 bushels seed, ....

2 00

Harrowhig, &c., ....

3 00

Harvesting,

6 25

120 25

Value of barley and straw,

38 60

OATS

WORCESTER NORTH.

Statement of John Brooks^ Jr.

The acre on which my oats grew is a light soil with a clay
subsoil. The crop of 1856 was corn, with fifteen loads of 32
bushels compost manure and 100 lbs. guano, tliat of 1857,
potatoes, with fifteen loads of cow manure. It was ploughed
once May 10th, about eight inches deep, manured with fifteen
loads of horse manure, and 150 lbs. guano spread and harrowed
in ; sowed broad cast. May 10th, with three bushels Hungarian
oats, and reaped Aug. 15th. They lodged very much, and I
was obliged to harvest them before they were ripe.

Cost of ploughing and harrowing, . . . . $3 00
manure and guano, . . . . . 19 50
seed and sowing, ..... 1 62

Total, exclusive of harvesting, . . $21 12

The threshing cost every tenth bushel.

Product, as ascertained by the committee, November 1st, ten
pounds, fifteen ounces per square rod, or 1,750 pounds the acre,
or 54]-^ bushels of 32 pounds, but actually measuring 70
bushels the acre.

BROOMCORN.

207

BARNSTABLE.

Statement of Frederick Parker.

The acre of land on which my oats were raised is a heavy
loam, partly clay. It had a heavy coat of manure in 1857,
and was planted to corn. About the first of April last I
ploughed without manuring, as I do not approve manuring
spring grain where the land has been previously highly man-
ured. On the 9th of April I sowed two and one-half bushels
of oats, and harrowed three times, one before and twice after
sowing. They were harvested about the first of August, but
just previous, a heavy rain beat them down, and so broke the
straw, that it was impossible to harvest them clean ; some had
to be mowed. I judged at the time that I lost ten bushels by
the storm. The land was just one acre, and worth about 850
per acre.

Value of crop : —
49 bushels oats, at 60 cents, ..... $29 40
1.1- tons straw, at $7, 10 50

$39 90

Expenses : —

Ploughing, sowing and harrowing,

U 00

2^ bushels seed oats.

1 25

Harvesting,

2 00

Threshing, .....

3 00

Profit,

29 G5

$39 90

BROOM CORN

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

Statement of James Porter.

The ground on which the broomcorn was raised, which I
offer for a premium, lies near the Connecticut River, in South
Meadow. It has for thirty years or more, been under the culti-
vation of the plough, with either wheat, Indian, or broomcorn

208

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

crop on it. Broomcorn was raised on this piece of ground, in
1855 and '56. In the fall of 1850, the stalks were ploughed
under, and sowed with wheat. The wheat crop was light.
The spring of 1858, I ploughed under long manure to the value
of 121, including labor of application, with a heavy growth of
clover. It was planted the fifteenth day of May, with Billings'
Planter, the hills being three feet by tAvo feet and two inches
apart. The ground was rolled before harrowing and after
planting. It was hoed four times, and harvested the first of
October. Owing to the frost, the seed was not fully ripe.

The ground measured two acres and five rods.

The yield was of brush, 2,215 lbs. Seed, 100 bushels.

Yalue of crop : —

1185 05

2,215 lbs. of brush, at 7 cents.

§)155 05

100 bushels of broom seed, at 30 cents,

80 00

Expenses : —

Ploughing,

$3 50

Manure and applying, . . . .

21 00

Rolling and harrowing.

2 00

Planting and seed, ....

1 00

Hoeing,

16 00

Harvesting and scraping, .

19 00

Interest on land, ....

20 00

In favor of the crop,
Hatfield, November, 1858.

182 50
$102 55

CRANBERRIES.

BRISTOL.

Statement of Joseph M. Neiocomh.

The meadow on which my crop of cranberries was raised
was formerly covered with scattered patches of unfruitful
vines, but for some years I have been accustomed to flow it
yearly and have spread upon it two coats of sand each in the

BEANS. 209

proportion of one load to the rod, three years intervening
between the two coats.

This treatment has rendered it productive. Last year the
vines flourished well, but they bore only five bushels of cran-
berries. This year the season was unfavorable and about
one-third of the crop was destroyed by the worms. The berries
were gathered about the 20th of September. Below is a state-
ment of their value and the expense.

Value of crop : —
9 barrels cranberries at $11.68,
600 lbs. of grass, ....

Expenses : —
Raking and picking after,
Picking over for market,
9 barrels at 14 cents,
Interest on land and taxes,

Net profit, $97 09

$105 12

3 00

S108 12

$5 40

1 00

1 26

3 37

11 03

BEANS

Statement of Elbridge G, Dean, of Taunton.

The quantity of land was one quarter of an acre, which, last
year, was part in grass and part to corn. The manure used
this year was one cord of barnyard manure, spread and
ploughed in. Planted in drills two feet apart about the 30th
of May. Four beans in a hill, the hills being about one foot
apart in the furrows. Weeded the last of June. Harvested
and threshed in the usual manner about the 14th of September.
The amount of product was ^^^ bushels. The beans were large
white marrowfat, which sold for $2.50 per bushel, . $22 54

Expenses : —
Ploughing, drawing manure and spreading, $1 00
Harrowing and furrowing, ... 50

26

210 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

1 cord compost manure, . . . . $4 00

Seed and planting, . . . . . 1 25

Hoeing, ...... 75

Harvesting and threshing, . . . 1 50

$9 00

Statement of George R. Leonard, of Norton.

The land was high and sandy, having a level surface. Last
year the land was planted to potatoes, and the condition of the
land had been much improved by previous cultivation. The
iisanure used the present year v,^as 1 barrel of poudrette.
Ploughed, furrowed, planted June 10th, with small white bush
bean. Furrowed about 18 inches apart. Four beans were
dropped in a place, in the furrows, about 8 inches apart, and
about a table-spoonful of poudrette applied to each hill. Hoed
the first time, June SOtli, second time, July 14th. They were
pulled and laid on rails to dry the last of September, threshed
the last of October, and weighed on the 27th of November.
Weight 458 lbs. or 7|| bushels of 60 lbs. each.

Value at $2 per bushel, ... $15 00
Fodder, 2 00

$17 00

ROOT CROPS.

MASSACHUSETTS.
ESSAY ON THE MANGOLD WURZEL.

BY JOHN TYNAN, OF IRELAND.

Mangold Wurzel, or, as it is often called, " Mangel Wurzel,"
whicli signifies " root of scarcity," has been, like all our cul-
tivated green crops, obtained by culture from the original wild
species.

Botanically considered, the Mangold Wurzel, (^Beta Vulg-aris
Campestris~), or, as it is sometimes called, "field beet," is a
species belonging to the genus Beta, which is contained in the

ROOT CROPS. 211

class Pentandria, and order Digynia of the Liiinean system of
classification, and in the order Chenopodea of the natural
system.

It was introduced into Great Britain from the Continent of
Europe at no very remote period ; but the precise time is not
easily ascertained, as a considerable diversity of opinion exists
amongst authors on this point ; probably it was the year 1773,
as would appear from the following extract, taken from The
Penny Cyclopcedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge : — " The common field-beet for cattle, which has
been long known in Germany, was introduced into England at
the latter end of the last century," to which it may be proper
to add, " and its introduction is generally attributed to the late
Dr. Letsom, a physician of great reputation, and one of the
Society of Friends." At its first introduction it was grown only
by a few enterprising gentlemen, but it gradually extended, and
subsequently found its way into this country, where it was, (like
the potato at its first introduction,) for a long time looked on
as a curiosity, rather than cultivated as a useful auxiliary to
cattle feeding. At length the success which attended its culti-
vation by a few individuals who ventured to give it a trial,
induced others to follow their example, and it thus gradually,
but steadily progressed, till, at the present day, it holds such a
place in the green cropping of this country, as no longer to
deserve the title of root of scarcity ; but, at the same time, is
not yet cultivated to such an extent as its merits seem to
entitle it.

Climate and Soil. — It is capable of accommodating itself to
a great range of climate, flourishing in Europe, between the
parallels of 46° and 56° north latitude, (if the situation be not
too bleak or exposed,) fair crops having been raised in the
latter latitude in Scotland : but the climate which is considered
to be best suited to it is that of the south of England, where
frosts do not set in early, and which has a high summer
temperature. In this country, where the summers are not so
warm as in England, though enjoying a mild and genial climate,
with a more moist and humid atmosphere, large crops have been
obtained. " Local climate," says Professor Johnson, " modifies
very much the relative quantities of the same crops obtained in
different localities. Thus, in the southern part of Wigtonshire,

212 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

30 tons of Swedes, 20 tons of Mangold, and 20 tons of White
Carrots per acre, are equivalent crops, while in Berkshire, it is
as easy to grow 30 tons of Mangold as 20 tons of Swedes per
acre." — Elements of Agricultural Chemistry^ p. 841.

It likewise adapts itself to a great variety of soils, having
been grown in this country on nearly all descriptions of land,
yielding remunerative crops even on light soils, provided they
be not too light and gravelly, and on clays that are not of too
stiff a texture ; it will, however, yield fair crops on clays too
stiff for turnips ; but it attains its greatest perfection, and yields
its maximum produce only, on a deep friable loam, in good
condition, and which contains a considerable quantity of vege-
table or organic matter, with a sound, dry subsoil, and in a
situation not too exposed. It also yields very heavy crops on
reclaimed bog-land, rendered sound and dry by judicious
improvement.

" It is suited," says Mr. Bond, " to our dry climate. It will
grow as well on the stiff soils as upon the light ; it is peculiarly
a heavy land root ; its early maturity suits the retentive soil, as
it can be harvested before the wet season sets in, and its keeping
property renders it invaluable, especially on such lands, because
of the lateness of the growth of the grass for food in spring. —
Farmer'' s Magazine.

Varieties as Adapted to the Different Soils. — Like all our
cultivated crops, many varieties of tlie Mangold Wurzel have
been obtained by hybridization and other processes in connection
with vegetable pliysiology, and which, if not produced by art,
Avill often be effected by nature. Though there are many
varieties produced in tliis way, yet there are only a few com-
paratively speaking, extensively cultivated, the principal being
the Long Red, Long Yellow, and Long Orange, and the Orange,
Yellow, and Red Globes. Where the land is deep and heavy,
or of a peaty character, the long varieties are best suited, but
when of a lighter texture, the Globes are to be preferred.

Having now described the properties of the Long and Globe
varieties when considered in relation to soils, the question
would naturally suggest itself to the reader — What are the
comparative merits of the respective varieties of each sort, as,
for instance, the Red, Yellow, and Orange Globes ? This is a
question very often asked, but it is one to which no very

ROOT CROPS. 213

accurate answer can be given, as there are instances where the
produce of the Red exceeded that of the others, and so of the
Yellow and Orange, even on the same land. These variations
must be attributed to many circumstances, such as changes
taking place in the soil, climate, manures, <fec., which in most
instances, cannot be defined. The Orange variety, however,
appears to yield the best crops, and adapts itself to the greatest
range of soils.* The same observations may be made with
respect to the long varieties, amongst which the Red holds the
same position as the Orange amongst the Globe varieties. The
Silesian, or Sugar beet, is another variety, but as its produce is
generally much inferior to any of the other sorts, it is scarcely
ever cultivated as a direct food for cattle. On the Continent of
Europe, it is in some places — as for instance, France — grown
largely for the manufacture of sugar.

With these preliminary observations, nothing now remains
but to enter upon its cultivation, and the first subject which
presents itself for consideration is the

Preparation of the Soil. — Being a green crop, its place in
most rotations is after a corn crop. Assuming then, that the
land is in stubble, in autumn, and either thorough-drained or
naturally dry, it is to be treated in precisely the same manner
as if preparing for any other green crop. The land, whether
autumn cleaning is carried out or not (if it be, so much the
better,) is to receive a deep ploughing in autumn or early
winter. As this crop, of all others, requires deep culture, if
the field intended for it has not been recently subsoiled, and the
soil and subsoil suited for this .operation, it should be performed
now, the subsoil plough following in the track of the common
plough, and in this way the land is thrown over with a good
rough furrow, leaving a large surface to the ameliorating
influence of the winter weather. It is a common practice with
many farmers to plough in the farmyard manures intended for
the crop, at this season ; and if the land be well suited for
autumn manuring, it will not only materially forward the spring

* On this (the Albei't Model farm,) where the soil is a rich loam, containing
a large amount of organic matter (over 14 per cent.,) and which is well suited
to the growth of Mangolds, carefully conducted experiments for several years
past, have shown that the Orange Globe invariably yields the largest and best
crops.

214 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

work, but also the constituents of the manure will be in a very-
available state at the time the young crop requires them, besides
being intimately incorporated with the soil by the subsequent
operations performed on it. The land having been ploughed
up in a rough state in autumn, or early winter, as before
mentioned, may be allowed to remain so till the following spring,
when it should receive a harrowing to destroy any seedling
weeds that may be springing up. When the sowing season
approaches, the land should be cross-ploughed, harrowed, and
rolled, and afterwards repeatedly grubbed, harrowed, and rolled
till it be reduced to a fine state of tilth. After each harrowing,
all weeds should be carefully collected and removed, and the
proper cleaning of the ground, previous to the sowing of all
kinds of green crops, cannot be too strongly inculcated. The
number of ploughings, grubbings, &c., necessary to be given in
order to obtain the required degree of pulverization, depends
on the nature of the soil and its previous treatment ; where the
soil is naturally loose and friable, a single ploughing with one
or two operations of the two-horse grubber, will suffice ; but
where it is of a more tenacious character, the labor will propor-
tionately increase. When the desired degree of pulverization
has been effected, it is to be finally rolled and drilled.

In those districts where the climate is very dry, and the soil
also dry and light, and liable to become destitute of a sufficiency
of moisture for the growth of the young crop during the
summer months, green crops are usually grown on the " flat; "
but in this, or any other country possessing a humid atmosphere,
and consequently little danger of the above results, the raise-
drill system is to be recommended, and is almost universally
adopted.

The land being prepared as above described, drills should be
opened, twenty-seven to thirty inches apart, with the double
mould board plough, or, if it be not at hand, the common
plough must be used. If the manure had not been applied, in
autumn, it should at least have been carted out during the
winter months to some convenient place closely adjoining the
field intended for the crop, in order to facilitate the application
of it now. When the drills are opened the manure should be
immediately deposited in quantity proportionate to the require-
ments of the land, all lumps well broken and divided, and

ROOT CROPS. 215

evenly spread in the bottom of the drills, and at once covered
in, and the seed sown. No more drills should be opened at a
time than can be manured, covered in, and sown on the same
day ; for, by an adherence to this principle, a great portion of
the fertilizing ingredients of the manure is preserved from loss
by exposure to the atmosphere, and the seed being sown in the
fresh earth, germination is materially assisted, circumstances on
which the secret of successful cultivation in a great measure
depends.

Manure. — Of all tlie manures employed in the production of
any crop, farmyard manure may be considered the staple, but
particularly so for the Mangold, of which large crops are raised
by its aid alone ; good crops have been also grown, where the
soil is naturally rich, by the application of guano, vitriolized
bones, and other artificial or special manures, or, where a
sufficiency of farmyard manure is not to be had, the deficiency
may be made up by the use of extraneous manures, and in such
proportion as circumstances may require.*

The farmyard manure, whether alone or in conjunction,
should be very well decomposed, and well mixed by turning,
before its application in spring. The quantity applied should
be commensurate with the requirements of the soil ; but to land
of average fertility, 25 tons per statute acre, when applied alone,
would be sufficient. If extraneous manures be used alone,
5 cwt. of guano, or 7 cwt. of vitriolized bones, would be a fair
application ; it is not advisable, however, to raise Mangolds with
these manures alone, where farmyard manure can conveniently
be obtained, unless the soil be very rich. A dressing of common
salt, is highly beneficial to this crop ; whether it produces its
effects by acting directly on the crop, or indirectly by rendering
available some constituents of the manure or soil, or whether they
may be attributed to both, is not well known, but it has been
ascertained, by chemical analysis, that the ash of both tops and
bulbs contains a large amount of common salt. The quantity
of common salt contained in the Mangold is so large as to be
quite perceptible to the taste in the growing plant, especially

* On light chalky soils, a mixture of guano, nitrate of soda, and common
salt, at the rate of 2 cwt. each per acre, has been found very efficacious in the
growth of Mangold Wurzel. — NeshiCs Agricultural Chemislry^ p. 100.

216

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the leaf ; the amount of sugar contained in the bulb counteracts
the taste of the salt in it. Though a moderate application of
common salt is found to increase the produce, yet too large an
application is not attended with similar beneficial results, as
appears from experiments made on this farm* during the present
year, for the purpose of ascertaining the efficacy of common
salt on the Mangold crop, in both large and moderate quantities.
The following table is quite sufficient to illustrate this. All the
circumstances connected with the cultivation were precisely
similar, except in the case of the salt applied. f

-

Quantity of Manure per

..... .......

Variety of Mangold

Statute Acre.

Produce per Statute Acre

Wurzel.

Farm-Yard.
Manure

Common Salt.

of Bulbs.

Orange Globe,

Tons.
18

Cwt.

Tons.

30

Cwt.

10

Orange Globe,

18

7

32

6

Orange Globe,

18

14

31

17

The best mode of applying the salt is to scatter it over the
manure when spread in the bottom of the drill, and by this
means there is no danger of its coming into contact with the
seed, the vitality of which it would otherwise destroy. When
any other of the extraneous manures are used with the farm-
yard dung, they may be applied in the same manner, or spread
along at the back of the first bout of the plough when the drill
is being formed, and is covered in by the second bout, which
completes the drills. By this latter mode it will be nearer to
the young plant when the seed has vegetated, and therefore

* I may be permitted to remark, that the various experiments conducted on
the Albert Farm are very correct and perfectly reliable, as great care and
attention are exercised in carrying them out ; besides being generally conducted
on a pretty large scale, and the entire produce weighed, there is no danger of
those errors which so frequently occur from the present system so generally
adopted for ascertaining the acreable produce.

\ Mr. Austen, of Chitworth, near Guilford, who farms on the green sand,
has informed me, that with common salt alone on his land, he has succeeded
jn growing an excellent crop of Mangold Wurzel, by applying it after the plant
was up, in successive doses of 2 cwt. per acre up to 6 or 8 cwt. Every fresh
application appeared to give the crop a new start. — Johnston's Experimental
Agriculture, p. 63.

ROOT CROPS.

217

will be sooner available. There are various modes of applying
them, but in all cases care must be taken that they do not come
into contact with the seed, as, like the salt, they have all a
tendency to destroy its vitality.

In the summer of 185G, Mr. Caird, M. P., had an interesting
series of experiments carefully carried out on his farm in Kent,
with the view of ascertaining " the kind of manure which, at
the least cost, will produce the greatest effect " on the mangold
wurzel crop.

The following table gives the quantities and cost of the differ-
ent manures, the produce of each plot, &c. : —

Total Cost of

Ifo.of

Kind and Quantity of Manure,

Cost per Cubic Yard

Manure,

Produce,

Lots.

per Acre.

or Cwt.

per Acre.

per Acre.

£

S. D.

Tons. Cwts.

■1

20 cubic yards o Dung,
4 cwt. Guano,

3s. 6d. per yard.
12s. Od. per cwt.

!•

18 0

23 16

-::

20 cubic yards of Dung,

3s. 6d. per yard.

!•

4 cwt. Guano,

12s. Od. per cwt.

5 6

30 12

5 cwt. Salt,

Is. 6d. "

20 cubic yards of Dung,
1 cwt. Guano,

3s. 6d. per yard.
12s. Od. "

3.

1 cwt. Super-phosphate,

7s. Od. "

>4

18 6

25 10

1 cwt. Nitro-phosphate,

6s. 6d. "

2 cwt. Salt,

Is. 6d. "

4

40 cubic yards of Dung,

3s. 6d. per yard.

7

0 0

21 3

r

2 cwt. Guano,

12s. Od. per cwt.

""

5.

2 cwt. Super-phosphate,

7s. Od. "

-2

14 0

20 6

2 cwt. Nitro-phosphate,

6s. 6d. "

2 cwt. Salt,

Is. 6d. "

6

7^ cwt. Guano,

12s. Od. »

4

10 0

17 17

7

12 cwt. Super-phosphate,

7s. Od. "

4

4 0

14 19

8

12 cwt. Nitro-phosphate,

6s. 6d. "

3

18 0

15 6

r

li cwt. Guano,

12s. Od. "

-1

9

1^ cwt. Super-phosphate,

7s. Od. «

16 0

19 11

1 J- cwt. Nitro-phosphate,

6s. 6d. "

11 cwt. Salt,

Is. 6d. "

10

5 cwt. Guano,

12s. Od. "

3

0 0

12 15

11

8 cwt. Super-phosphate,

7s. Od. "

2

16 0

11 18

12

8 cwt. Nitro-phosphate,

6s. 6d. "

2

12 0

12 11

Each plot occupied the tenth part of an acre — each containing three rows
of roots — the middle one of which was weighed in testing the results. " It
will be seen that in every instance where salt forms an ingredient of the
manure the produce is increased."

Time and Mode of Sowing-. — The season for sowing the
mangold wurzel, in this climate, (Ireland) is from the middle of

27

218 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

April to the middle of May ; but the last week in April is con-
sidered the best time. If sown too early, the liability of the
plants to start to seed during growth, the greatest evil attending
their cultivation, is increased ; if too late, the crop remains in
a backward state during the growing season, and never attains
its full perfection, especially if dry weather set in immediately
after sowing.

Mr. Miles, M. P., in a paper on the " cultivation of mangold
wurzel," in vol. ii. of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society of Eng-land, says : " The earlier in April your mangold
wurzel is sown the better ; the deeper the tilth the greater
probability of a heavy crop." And a recent writer in the same
journal (Mr. Paget, of Ruddington Grange, near Nottingham,)
states: " The best seed-time in this locality is, in my opinion,
from April 7th to April 10th. It is useless, in general to sow
it earlier, because the temperature is, I think, too low for the
germination of the seed. My experiments do not lead me to
believe that this comparatively early sowing produces many
more ' runners,' and our summers are too short to admit of
unnecessary delay in sowing." (Vol. siii. p. 405.)

AVhen, however, through any cause the seed cannot be got in
at the proper time, by steeping it in sand or earth moistened
with water, or in dilute liquid manure for three or four days,
germination will be so far promoted that it will be equivalent to
having it, at least, the same time sown. Indeed, many persons
recommend the steeping of the seed in all cases, but it is not
always safe to do so, for should dry weather occur after sowing,
the germination thus artificially produced receives a check
which often proves fatal or injurious.

The drills being opened, the manure spread and covered by
splitting the drills with the double mould-board plough, the
drills thus formed should have their tops slightly levelled by a
very light roller, and the seed sown either in a continuous line
along the crown of the drills, or deposited in tufts or bunches
at the distance apart which the plants are intended to be left at
the time of thinning. Owing to the peculiar construction of
the pericarp, in which the true seeds are contained, no sowing
machine has hitherto been generally employed. If, however,
an efficient machine be available, it is, by all means, to be
recommended ; but in the absence of such, the hand and common

ROOT CROPS. 219

hand-hoe, or dibble, are efficient, though rather slow substitutes.
Under these circumstances, the method most commonly prac-
tised, and which is most to be recommended, is with the hand-
hoe to open holes at the required distance apart, and from an
inch and a half to two inches in depth ; another person follows
and drops three or four capsules (or, as they are commonly
called, seeds) in each hole, followed by a third, who, with a
spade, shovel, rake, or any other convenient implement, draws
a sufficiency of mould over the seeds to cover them to a depth
proportionate to the texture of the soil, the average being about
an inch and a half; but if the soil be of a light nature, and the
weather dry, two inches would not be too deep. By this mode
of sowing, three careful boys, women, or girls, would sow at
least an acre in a day. xVbout six pounds of seed per statute
acre is the quantity usually sown, which, if not saved on the
farm, should be procured from a respectable and trustworthy
seed merchant, in order to insure what is genuine, as great
losses are often sustained by farmers from purchasir.g cheap
but bad seed.*

In forming holes for the seed, the dibble is sometimes em-
ployed, which makes from four to six holes at a time by a single
pressure of the foot, and is much more expeditious than the
hoe ; but it has been objected to for two reasons ; the first and
more important is, that the holes are too small, and the seeds
when put in fall together, and consequently grow up intertwined
with eacli other, which is very injurious to their early growth,
and troublesome at the time of thinning ; the other is, that the
soil immediately about the seed is consolidated, instead of
having that loose texture which is so essential for promoting
the growth of the minute and tender roots. These objections
may, in a great part be obviated when the teeth of the dibble
are made pretty large and the soil light and friable. In sowing
the seed, it is well to bear in mind what has been previously
said when treating of the varieties as suited to the various
classes of soils. In addition to this, it may not be out of place

* I have found that sowing too deeply is more to be guarded against than the
oi^posite ; an inch is quite sufficient depth for the seed sown early in the month
of May. Steeping the seed for 24 hours in water insures a rapid germination,
and does not prevent sowing by a drill, if, before sowing, the seed is shaken
up slightly in a bag containing a little dry sand. — R. S. F.

220

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

to insert here a table of the produce yielded by the different
varieties grown this year on this farm, though, at the same
time, similar results are not to be expected in all climates or
classes of soils. The description of soil has been alluded to in
a note at a preceding part of this essay ; the manuring and all
things else connected with the cultivation were, in each case,
the same, and the following are the results : —

Variety of Mangold Wurzel.

Produce per Statute Acre.

Orange Globe,
Deep Orange Globe,
Long Red,
Long Yellow, .
Red Globe, .
Sugar Beet,

18
15
14
14
12

It is surprising to observe the extraordinary produce of the
sugar beet, being superior to most of the varieties of mangold,
while in ordinary cases it averages about three-fourths the
produce of the mangold, or about eighteen tons per acre.

After Culture. — Like the turnip, the after culture of the
mangold wurzel may be said to consist in timely and careful
thinning, attentive weeding, and keeping the soil in a loose and
friable state by means of the drill-grubber, drill-harrow, and
hand-hoe. But, to be more particular, the young seedling
plants will appear above ground in about ten days after sowing,
— sooner or later, as circumstances are favorable or otherwise ;
and when sufficiently advanced, the drill-grubber, or, where the
land is tolerably loose, the drill-harrow, should be run between
the drills to destroy whatever weeds may be growing, and at
the same time to assist in tilling the soil. When the plants
show a pretty strong leaf, and before there is any danger of
injury from allowing them to grow up too strongly, thinning
and weeding should commence. If the seed had been sown in
a continuous line by macliine or otherwise, this operation may
be performed by the hand-hoe, taking care to allow the strongest

ROOT CROPS. 221

and healthiest plant to remain. The distance apart at which
the plants are to be left is determined by the size they are
expected to attain. Where the soil is rich and every thing
favorable to their growth, the greatest space is allowed. When
the seed was sown in tufts or bunches, the hand must necessarily
be used in thinning, and the distance determined at the time
of sowing ; from twelve to sixteen inches are usually allowed.
In thinning, the plants must not be completely singled out at
the first operation ; it is better to allow two of the healthiest
and strongest to remain together, and at the final thinning,
which takes place in about a month afterwards, the more
promising plant should be left. This plan is most necessary to
be adopted to prevent the losses which otherwise are likely to
happen, by many of the plants starting to seed, and which is
materially checked by having the one which presents symptoms
of seeding* pulled, and the other left to grow.

As the thinning proceeds, any blanks that may occur
should be filled up by transplanting ; this is the only case in
which the transplanting of mangolds is to be recommended ;
and even then, unless the weather be favoralile and the opera-
tion very carefully performed, the result will not be very suc-
cessful. Moist weather is the most suitable for this purpose,
and the best way to proceed is to open a hole with the spade,
where the blank occurs, large enough to receive the whole tuft
of plants with as much clay as can be raised about them.
When deposited in the hole, the clump must be carefully
firmed, and all the plants then drawn out, except the one
intended to be left. This method of transplanting cannot be
practised with the thinnings of the crop, as the entire bunch
must be used ; therefore, at the time of sowing it is necessary
to sow a small plot in some convenient place for the special
purpose of transplanting, and by observing the above conditions
a fair return may be expected.

When weeds are again beginning to appear, after the first
thinning and weeding, the crop should be hand-hoed, and again
grubbed and drill-harrowed. In hoeing, great care must be

* The principal symptoms indicative of a plant likely to run to seed are : —
The heart of the tuft of leaves apjaears high and forward, thus evincing a
tendency to produce a seed stalk ; there is also an absence of that healthy
gucculency observable in a better-disposed plant.

222 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

taken that none of the plants be disturbed or in the least
degree injured, as the slightest wound inflicted on them in the
young state increases during growth, producing a kind of
canker in the part, which not only presents a very unsightly
appearance, but also greatly injures the value of the bulb, no
other of our green crops being so susceptible to injury. In
drill-grubbing and harrowing there exists no danger of injury,
provided the implements be properly adjusted and cai-efully
employed ; but in all the operations great care must be
exercised.

Another hand-hoeing and drill-grubbing should be given
some time before the crop is so far advanced as to render it
unsafe to work amongst it.

In conducting the after culture of the crop, it is well to keep
in mind that the number of operations need not be restricted
to those above mentioned, for when the soil is a strong one
more will be required to keep it in a loose state, to admit of
the passage of the minute spongloles and delicate fibres in
search of food ; but on average soils those enumerated are
sufficient.

Regarding the propriety of divesting the plants of a portion
of their leaves, so much practised in many places, and which
yields such a large supply of valuable feeding at a time when
other green food is scarce, different opinions are entertained ;
but there is no disputing the fact that if they be removed too
early, while in a succulent and active state, the produce of the
growing crop will be diminished, which will appear to be an
evident and unavoidable result, when we reflect on the
important functions performed by the leaves of plants. On the
other hand, if the leaves be not removed till they are observed
to droop or flag, showing by their appearance that they are no
longer actively employed in performing their special and valu-
able functions, then they may be removed with safety. The
first removal of the leaves may commence towards the middle
of September, when those exhibiting the above appearances
should be collected, and a fresh supply for a second gathering
will be ready towards the middle of October. By this means a
large quantity of excellent cattle-feeding may be .obtained,
which would otherwise be cither lost or come in at a period
when it would not be of half its value, other feeding being

ROOT CROPS.

223

then plenty. The value of mangold leaves as a food for milch
cows stands high amongst green fodder, as tested by a series of
carefully-conducted experiments made at this (the Albert)
institution, of which the following table shows the results :

No.

Date of
Experiment.

Kind of Feeding.

Butter produced by 40
quarts of Milk.

1

1857.

4th May.

Italian Rye Grass alone,

lbs.

3

ozs.

5

2

5tli Sept.

Italian Rye Grass and Pasture, .

3

13

3

28th Sept.

Mangold Leaves and Pasture,

3

14

4

6th Oct.

Mangold Leaves alone.

4

-

The mangold leaves are very much relished by milch cattle,
and from six to eight stones * per day in alternate feeds, with
hay or straw, is a good allowance for an ordinary sized beast.

"The leaves of the plant," remarks Professor Wilson, "also
appear to possess a far higher value, both as a feeding and as a
manuring substance, than we are accustomed to assign to
them. Boussingault (Annales de Chimie) gives us an organic
analysis of the roots and the leaves, of the plants ; a compar-
ison between their respective compositions will be very much
in favor of the leaves for the purposes just mentioned. The
substances were dried necessarily previous to their analysis.

Their proportions of water were about the same, and their
elementary composition was as follows : —

Boot.

Root.

Carbon,
Hydrogen,

Oxygen,

Nitrogen,

Ash,

42.75
5.77

43.58
1.66
6.24

42.93
5.94

43.23
1.66
6.24

38.1
5.1

30.8
4.5

21.5

* A stone is 14 lbs. weight.

224 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Thus showing that, in a chemical point of view, the leaves were
three times as valuable as the same weight of roots would be."
— Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, Vol.
xiii. p. 160.

Storing. — About the beginning of November * the crop will
have arrived at maturity, and then no time should be lost in
getting it into the farmyard, as should frost occur the bulbs
are liable to be injured severely. The opportunity of dry
weather should, if possible, be seized upon for this purpose,
even should it occur in the end of October, for it is only in dry
weather this can be done without injury to the land, whilst the
crop will thus be taken up in the best state for securing its safe
keeping, even to a late period of the following season. Having
selected a convenient place for storing the bulbs, the operations
of pulling, topping, carting, &c., should commence and pro-
ceed with all possible dispatch. The bulbs growing in every
four drills should be placed together in the hollow space
between the two middle ones, and by this means the carts can
pass between two rows, and be filled from both at the same
time ; the leaves may be thrown in heaps also, in such a man-
ner as not to interfere with the carting. In topping, i. e.,
taking off the leaves, a sharp knife or sickle may be used, but
the utmost caution must be taken that the tops be not severed
so close to the bulb as to wound it, as should it happen to be
cut, the juice or sap exudes through the wound, and not only
is a great part of its nutritive properties thus lost, but it is also
very liable to decay. To avoid this danger, many persons have
the tops twisted off with the hand, which performs the work
very expeditiously. No more should be pulled and topped in
the field than can be carted in and stored the same day, for
should frost occur over night the denuded bulbs will suffer
severely, while if standing and protected by their broad leaves,
its effects will be greatly lessened. If any unavoidably happen
to be left out, they may be kept safe by making into heaps and
covering them with the leaves. Should any, however, be frozen,

* The harvesting of the beet in Massachusetts should commence a month
earlier, say in the first and second weeks of October, and stored before the
other root crops. This happens to be, fortunately, the most convenient order
for harvesting with respect to future use, as the beet root is not wanted until
after the turnip, carrot, and other root crops are exhausted. — R. s. f.

ROOT CROPS. 225

by unavoidable "exposure, they should be kept separate, and
consumed as soon as possible, as they will not keep for any
length of time.

In selecting a place for storing, if a wall with a northern
aspect and dry situation be at hand, nothing better can be
desired than to store them up against it neatly, making the
heap about six feet wide at the base, and sloping up against
the wall to the height of six or seven feet. When this method
of storing is not convenient, the bulbs may be built into roof-
shaped heaps, about six feet in width at the base, and five feet
in height, in a dry place. Another very good way to store
them, is to build two dry stone walls, parallel to each other,
sufficiently distant to allow a cart to pass between them, about
four feet high, and of any required length. Hurdles may be
substituted for stone walls, and inclosures made by brush-
wood, &G., when found more convenient. Into these inclosedi
spaces the bulbs are put and piled up, terminating in a ridge.
The latter method of storing is a good means of economizing:
space ; and if it be adopted, the dry stone walls, (if hurdles,.
&c., be not used in their stead,) require to be plastered or-
dashed with mortar, to prevent frost from entering the crevices..
Whatever mode of storing is adopted, the same great object is-
to be kept in view, viz. : — the safety of the crop by preserving it
from frost and wet, by carefully thatching as quickly as the-
heap is made, and making provision for the removal of all wet--
ness caused by rain or otherwise. Being carefully stored^
thatched and kept dry, the mangolds may be preserved in a'
sound state till midsummer, if required, and even longer, with;
their feeding properties little impaired, especially if the heap<
be turned over in spring, and any young shoots rubbed off.,
besides .removing any decayed roots.

Produce. — The produce varies with the climate, soil, seasoB,
manuring, care bestowed on cultivation, &c. Where all these
are favorable, over forty tons per acre have been obtained ; but
twenty to twenty-five tons may be considered as the average-,,
and twenty-five to thirty tons may be reckoned a good crop.

The mangold wurzel is less variable in its produce than the
turnip, not being so liable to casualties during its growth ; the
principal ones to which the former are liable, are the occur-
rence of occasional blanks, owing to the failure of the seed hi

29

226 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

germinating, vitality having been destroyed, perhaps before solv-
ing, or afterwards by some accident ; but these will, indeed, be
few, if care be talien in procuring genuine seed, sowing it in
favorable weather, and not at two great a depth ; if these blanks
are filled np by transplanting, little loss will be sustained.
Starting to seed is the greatest evil attending its cultivation,
which, however, may be greatly checked by taking the precau-
tion described in thinning. Any plant that may afterwards
start should have the seed stalk within broken, or cut off, and
this operation repeated, if necessary. By this means, those
plants which would otherwise be worthless, may be made to
produce tolerable bullis.

Most economical mode of Consumption. — On all farms where
the mangold wurzel is grown, there is a sufficiency of Swedes
and other turnips raised for food for the cattle during the early
part of winter, mangolds not being suited for early use, as they
contain a peculiar acrid principle, when freshly taken out of
the ground, which exercises an injurious effect on cattle, pro-
ducing a very laxative state of the bowels, but which, in the
course of a couple of months, either entirely disappears, or
undergoes such a change as renders their use harmless ; and
cattle arc tluis found to thrive better on them when kept over
till towards spring.

The best way, therefore, is to consume the Aberdeen and
other soft turnips first, then the Swedes, which should at least
hold out till January or February, when the mangold will be
ready for use. .The change from the turnips to mangold should
be gradual, whether the animals be fattening, milking, or store
catttle, in order to prevent the latter producing those laxative
effects above alluded to. Hay or straw should be given to the
cattle, between each 'feed of mangolds. The bulbs -may be
sliced or pulped, but they are frequently given whole.

Value as a Feeding' Stuff. — Every animal on the farm has a
great relish for mangold wurzel, and thrives remarkably well
on it. They are excellent food for milch cows, producing a
large flow of milk and not communicating any disagreeable
flavor to it or the butter made from it. Steamed for pigs, they
form, with the addition of a small portion of meal, valuable
feeding. Horses also relish them, and small farmers, who can-
not afford oats to their horses, may keep them in excellent

ROOT CROPS. 227

condition daring the winter and spring months fed on boiled
mangolds mixed with a little bran or bruised oats, in addition
to hay or oat straw. About six stones of mangolds, with inter-
mediate feeds of hay or straw, is a fair day's allowance for an
ordinary sized cow.

It appears to me desirable to give the following extracts from
the opinions recorded on the value of mangold as food for fat-
tening cattle, milch cows, and other animals, by gentlemen
distinguished by tlieir practical and scientific attainments : —

" The mangold is known to be good for all animals giving
milk. But it also appears, from a remarkable experiment of
Lord Spencer, that this root is good for fattening also. The
two beasts put up by him made even more progress when fed
alternately upon mangold than upon turnips, and he considers
the result to be decisive." — Mr. Pusey (^Journal of the Royal
AgricuUural Society of England, Vol. iii. p. 201.)

" All stock like it, even horses thrive upon it ; it is cheap
food, and may be given to cattle in autumn if chaff is but
admixed witli it to counteract its laxative effect." — Mr. Bond
( Fa rmer'' s Mag a z in e . )

" This root is a very valuable food for cattle, is much relished
by them, fattens well, and gives a rich milk." — Professor
Johnston (^Highland Society'' s Journal, p. 607.)

" Its use is principally as food for milch cattle, for which it is
superior to all other kinds of green crop, yet its culture has not
extended by any means in proportion to its value." — Professor
Murphy (^Agricultural Instructor, p. 52.)

" Field-beet is the best of the root class of vegetables for a
cow giving milk." — Martin Doyle.

" My experience of the value of this root has been so long
and so uniform that I have no hesitation in calling upon my
l)rother farmers, who are similarly situated as to their climate
and soil, to participate in its advantages." — Mr. Paget (Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, Vol. xvii.
p. 408.

" Experiments have been made to test the value of mangold
wurzel compared with Swede turnips in the fattening of cattle.
The experiments which have come under my knowledge — ^the
estimate of the increase of weight of the animals experimented

228 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

upon having been made from external measurement, and not in
scales — do not appear to me to be decisive, but only indicative
of considerable superiority in the fattening properties of man-
gold wurzel over the Swedes." — Mr. Colman (^European
Agriculkfre, p. 260.)

In the interesting experiments in fattening cattle on different
descriptions of food, which were carried out on Colonel
M'Douall's farm in Wigtonshire, and the results of which are
recorded by him in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, (Vol. xiii. Part 1,) the valuable feeding
properties of Mangold are clearly established, but in that climate
and soil, as stated in a preceding part of this essay, a consider-
ably larger acreable produce of Swedes can be obtained. The
following note was appended by the late Mr. Pusey to Colonel
M'Douall's observations on the relative merits of mangolds and
Swedes. " There is no doubt that in this part of England,
(Berkshire, for instance,) it is as easy to grow thirty tons of
mangold as it is to grow twenty tons of Swedes to the acre.
Assuming Colonel M'Douall's results to be such as would
ordinarily take place, the superior profits of mangolds over
Swedes is very great, for the money returns will stand as
follows : —

Mangold, . . . . £13 2 6 per acre.
Swedes, . . . . 6 5 0"

The money return from the mangold therefore appears to be
more than double that from the Swede. There is also the
great advantage of the land being clear for the timely sowing
of barley, by feeding stock on mangold, which, of course, has
been stored, instead of keeping the sheep on Swedes run to
seed in April, while the seed time for barley is passing or gone.
This experiment strongly confirms those of the late Lord
Spencer, which appeared some years since in this Journal. The
laxative tendency of mangold is easily, as in this case counter-
acted by the accompaniment of bean meal."

Dr. Voelcker has recently drawn attention to the singular
circumstance that although the mangold is " justly esteemed on
account of its fattening properties when given to beasts, yet it
appears to be about the worst description of roots that can be

ROOT CROPS.

229

given to slieep." And again lie says, '' On further inquiry I
have learned that this observation is confirmed by many practical
feeders. Mangolds, therefore, ought not to be given to sheep."*
The following table shows the quantity of milk yielded by
cows fed at the Albert Farm on mangolds, as compared with
that given by the same cows when fed on Swedish turnips.
The turnips and mangolds were prepared in the same manner
(washed and sliced,) and in both instances the cattle were out
for water and exercise an hour daily ; and their treatment in
every other respect was precisely similar : —

Cows
milked.

Food consumed by each cow daily.

Milk
yielded.

Total.

Increase.

Daily
Increase.

1858.

Feb. 15,

23

6^ St. Swedish Turnips, Oat
Straw, ad libilum, .

gals.
28^

gals.

gals.

Is.

« 16,

23

23

Gl St. Swedish Turnips, Oat
Straw, ad libilum, .

Q^ st. Mangolds, Oat Straw,
ad libilum,

29

57^

« 26,

31

" 27,

23

6^ St. Mangolds, Oat Straw,
ad libilum.

32

63

H

24-

'^T

The change of food from Swedes to mangold took place on
the 17th, and with the view of preventing the secretion of milk,
either as regards quantity or quality, being influenced by the
former mode of feeding, the second experiment was not made
until the 26th. As fully three-fourths of the cows were heavy
in calf, and the quantity of milk yielded by them naturally on
the decrease, the period which elapsed between the trials on the
15th and 16th and those on the 26th and 27th would, to some
extent, lessen the result in favor of the mangolds.

The annexed table gives the results of an experiment recently
made at the Albert Farm, by churning some of the whole milkf
yielded by the cows when fed on mangolds and oat straw : —

* " On the Chemistry of Food." p. 30.

f The Lactometer indicated 11 per cent, of cream.

230

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Milk

Butter

Cream

Cream to

Milk to 1 qt.

Butter from

Milk to 1 lb.

churnccj.

made.

yielded.

1 lb. Butter.

Cream.

1 qt. Cream.

Butter.

quarts.

lbs. ozs.

quarts.

quarts.

quarts.

ozs.

quarts.

40

4 li

H

hh

9t\

15

10
(nearly.)

Compositon of Mangold Wurzel. — Dr. Yoelcker, in his very
valuable and recently published work, " The Chemistry of
Food," (p. 28,) says: "Mangolds have been analyzed by Pro-
fessors Way, Johnston, Wolff, and myself; but as it will be of
no practical utility to mention these various analyses in detail,
I shall leave them unnoticed, and state at once the average com-
position of good mangold wurzel, which has been calculated
from thirteen published analyses of this root : —

Caculated Dry.

Water, ....
Flesh-forming Constituents,
Woody Fibre, .
Sugar, ....
Pectin, Gum, &c..
Inorganic matters, (ash,) .

" Mangolds, it will be observed, contain on an average as
much water and dry matters as carrots, and on the whole, are
almost as nutritious as carrots, if they are given to fattening

beasts after a few months' keeping The superior

fattening value of stored mangolds, when compared with the
fresh root, may be due to the absence of this acrid principle in
old roots, but doubtless it must be attributed also to the larger
amount of sugar which stored mangolds contain. An examina-
tion of fresh and old mangolds, has shown me that, on keeping,
the pectin in the fresh roots is gradually formed into sugar.

ROOT CROPS.

231

wliicli appears to be more conducive to the rapid fattening of
beasts than pectin. For these reasons mangold wurzel ought
not to be supplied to animals before the latter end of December
or the beginning of January."

According to the analyses of Professor Way, and Mr. Ogston,
of long red and yellow globe, mangolds gave the following
results (in 100 parts) : —

Long Red.

Yellow Globe.

Bulb.

Leaf.

Bulb.

Leaf.

Potash,

29.08

27.53

23.54

8.34

Soda,

19.05

5.83

19.08

12.21

Lime,

2.17

9.06

1.78

8.72

Magnesia,

2.79

3.10

1.75

9.84

Peroxide of Iron,

0.56

0.48

0.74

1.46

Silicia,

4.11

1.35

2.22

2.35

Sulphuric Acid,

3.31

6.26

3.68

6.54

Phosphoric Acid,

3.11

4.39

4.49

5.89

Carbonic Acid,

21.G1

6.11

18.14

6.92

Chloride of Sodium, (common Salt,) .

14.18

29.85

24.54

37.66

Total,

99.94

99.96

99.96

99.95

Percentage of Ash, ....

1.60

1.91

1.02

1.40

It may be observed by an inspection of the foregoing table, that
the tops or leaves are richer in phosphoric acid, lime, and mag-
nesia, than the bulbs, but contain less of the alkaline carbonates,
i. e., carbonates of potash, soda, &c. It will also be seen that
both tops and bulbs contain a large percentage of common salt,
which accounts for the beneficial results arising from its appli-
cation to the crop.

Professor Johnston says : " the dry matter of the mangold
wurzel and the carrot resembles in composition that of the
turnip. Some varieties of these roots contain still more sugar.
They likewise surpass the turnip in their percentage of dry
nutritive matter. This in the three roots, is nearly as follows : —

Turnip.

Mangold.

Carrot.

Dry nutritive matter,

. 8 to 12

15

14 to 20

Water, ....

. 92 to 88

85

86 to 80

100

100

100

232 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Hence the generally more nutritive quality of the two latter
roots, weight for weight. — Elements of Agricultural Chemistry ,
p. 326.

ESSEX.

Statement of Robert A. Smith.
Sugar Beets. — I herewith submit a statement of a crop of
sugar beets raised on one-half acre of land. The land on which
they were raised is a clay loam, and has been in cultivation five
years, and manured at the rate of about five cords per acre,
yearly. Last year it was planted with corn, and yielded about
fifty bushels per acre. After the corn was taken off, a part of
the piece was manured with coarse horse manure at the rate of
eight cords per acre, the remaining part with manure from the
barn cellar in which hogs had been kept ; it was composed of
about equal parts of horse and cow manure and sand, and
applied at the rate of seven cords per acre, the whole spread on
and ploughed in. In December, fine gravel was put on at the
rate of two hundred loads per acre. On the 21st of May it was
harrowed and the rows marked off two feet apart ; the seed was
put in by hand nine inches apart, which I think is much better
than sowing with a machine, as it saves thinning out, and
enables me to do most of the weeding with the hoe. The crop
was taken off last week, and yielded four hundred and sixty
bushels, and weighed 22,585 pounds. The part of the bed that
was manured from the barn cellar yielded about one-third more
than the part where the horse manure was applied.
Newburyport, November 13, 1858.

Statement of Aaron Loiu.
Ruta-Bagas. — I enter for the society's premium one-half
acre of ruta-baga turnips. The land on which these were
raised is a sandy loam, and has been cultivated two years. In
1856 it was planted with corn, and was manured with one
shovelful of barn manure to each hill, and produced a fair crop.
In 1857 it was planted with squashes and corn, and was manured
with two shovelfuls of manure to each hill of the squashes and
one to each hill of the corn, and produced a very good crop.
In the latter part of last May I hauled on three cords of barn

ROOT CROPS. 233

manure, and spread and ploughed it in. On the 1st of June I
harrowed and furrowed it. The turnips were sown on the 7th
of June, in rows three feet apart, first having a small portion of
guano scattered in the rows and covered an inch deep ; as they
did not come up well, I resowed them on the 30th day of June.
From the second sowing the seed came up on most of the piece
very well, although in some of the rows they were not quite
thick enough. They were hoed twice, and the last time they
were thinned out, standing from eight to ten Inches apart in
the rows.

The crop was taken off this week, and yielded 335 bushels of
very smooth and handsome turnips. The following is the cost
of raising the crop, which is a fraction over 8 cents a bushel: —

To 3 cords manure at $i per cord, half expended,

Ploughing, harrowing and furrowing, .

To 165 lbs. guano, ......

Planting, ........

To 1| lbs. seed, .......

To hoeing twice, ......

To gathering, .......

$6

00

3

00

4

95

3

00

1

15

5

00

5

00

$28 10

Essex, NoTcmber 11, 1858.

Statement of Samuel A. Merrill,
Cabbages. — The method adopted by me in preparing the soil,
and managing a piece of cabbages containing one acre, with the
number and weight of heads raised on the same, is as follows : —
I took a piece of mowing, (which cut about one and a quarter
tons of hay per acre,) and ploughed it in November of last fall.
I then spread about three cords of green manure from barn
cellar for top-dressing; gave it a faithful harrowing, furrowed
three feet apart and dressed with compost manure — about four
cords put in hills about three feet and a half apart. I planted
it about the 10th of April, thinned about the first of May, at the
time of the first hoeing ; cultivated and hoed three times during
the season ; it took about four days' work at each hoeing at $1
per day for season hands ; cost of cultivating, |1 ; the manure
used was worth about $6 per cord ; the cost of fitting the ground

30

284 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

and planting it was about ^12 ; cost of marketing, as near as I
can judge, about f 20 per thousand.

I raised on this piece 3,500 cabbages suitable for the market,
averaging from 35 to 40 pounds as they grew, (with leaves and
stump, and free from dirt ;) when trimmed for the table they
averaged from 25 to 30 pounds per head. I commenced market-
ing them the first of September, averaging from ^8 to $10 per
hundred ; I sold some as high as f 12 per hundred. It took
about four ounces of the white drumhead seed.

Salem, October 20, 1858-

WORCESTER NORTH.

Statement of John Brooks^ Jr.
Potatoes. — The lot on which my experiment potatoes grew,
I supposed to have contained one acre, but it was found by
measurement to contain only 139 rods. The soil is light and
gravelly. The crop of 1856-7 was grass without manure. It
was ploughed May 25th, with a double plough, about eight
inches deep, harrowed and furrowed. The cost of ploughing
and other preparations was six dollars. I manured with fifteen
loads of horse manure, spread before ploughing, and 300 pounds
guano mixed with one load of muck, one handful in each hill ;
value of manure, -115, guano, $9, total f24. It was planted
June 8th, 9th and 10th, in hills two and a half by three and a
half feet apart. Seed twelve bushels St. Helena potatoes,
worth $600 ; the cost of planting being $4.50. They were
hoed twice at a cost of $8, and harvested October 2d and*
4th, yielding 71^ pounds per square rod. The potatoes raised
are very nice ones, and do not rot in the least. I have sold
four barrels for $1 per bushel, and have an order for from
two to ten barrels more.

Statement of Abel Marshall.

Potatoes. — The acre upon which my crop of potatoes for
experiment was raised, is a variable soil ; part of it a light
yellow loam, with a loose subsoil, and part of it a heavy, dark
loam, with a clayey bottom. It has been in grass, without
manure, for twenty years previous to the present. It was

ROOT CROPS. 235

ploughed April 19th, with a double Michigan plough, about
ten inches deep ; harrowed once lengthways of the furrows,
and furrowed one way. The rows three feet four inches apart
and the hills two feet apart ; the cost of ploughing and other
preparations, was |6. It was manured with 14 loads of
green stable manure, spread before harrowing, and six loads
loam from under an old leanto, put in the hill ; value of man-
ure upon the land, $11 ; it was planted April 21th and 29th,
in ten lots, the first nine of which contained five rows each,
nine rods in length.

No. 1, two whole potatoes size of a hen's egg, per hill.

No. 2, one whole potato, good size to cook, per hill.

No. 3, two halves of large potatoes, per hill.

No. 4, two small potatoes, per hill, to be thinned.

No. 5, one whole potato, per hill, to be thinned.

No. 6, two halves, per hill, to be thinned.

No. 7, three pieces, one eye each, per hill.

No. 8, two pieces root end, per hill.

No. 9, two pieces seed end, per hill.

All the above were improved peach blows.

No. 10 embraced the remainder of the field, and was planted,
partly with early white and partly with small peach blow
potatoes, the yield of which was not very satisfactory.

Seed, ten bushels, worth i^7 ; cost of planting, $2.50 ;
harrowed between rows twice ; hoed once ; ploughed with a
double mould-board plough once ; cost of cultivation $2.50 •
harvested November first to tenth.

No. 1, produced 8|- bushels, medium size.

No. 2, produced 9] bushels, large size.

No. 3, produced 11 bushels, extra large size.

No. 4, produced 10| bushels, rather small size.

No. 5, produced 8| bushels, medium size.

No. 6, produced 8^ bushels, medium size.

No. 7, produced 5^ bushels, small size.

No. 8, produced 8| bushels, extra large size.

No. 9, produced 8^ bushels, large size.

236 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Statement of Geo7'g-e W. Lyman.

I have the pleasure to report to you about tlie working of the
Tedding Macliine imported by the trustees of the Massachusetts
Society for Promoting Agriculture.

The machine has been used with great advantage, and has
given satisfaction to the. haymakers. No part of it has broken,
or yielded to the hard work done by it. It has been applied to
the swaths laid by the mowing machine when they were dry
enough to be turned and in the direction of the mower. If
grass is cut by the scythe it works best by being driven across
the swaths.

The machine has two motions, communicated by gears in the
hubs of the wheels — one forward, which lifts the grass and
throws it above, over, and behind the machine ; tl^e other
motion is a reverse one, lifting the grass and throwing it
behind. Both motions lift, open and spread the grass, more
perfectly than can be done by a man and fork, and the machine
does its work as fast as a horse carries it forward. It is licavy,
does much work very quickly, and requires one good horse to
draw it.. I have been away from my farm much of the time of
haymaking, but I may safely say that the men who have used
it commend it highly as a labor-saving machine, doing its work
without any delay.

Tlie machine weighs 1,090 pounds. Wheels, axle and frame-
work, are iron.

"Waltham, September 1, 1858.

ESSEX.

Fro7n the Report of the Committee.
Next in importance to the power that guides, are the imple-
ments to be used in the labor of the farm. So many have been
the improvements in labor-saving machines, that he that works
without the use of these improvements, works to great disad-
vantage. In no branch of the labor of the farm, is this more
apparent than in cutting and curing the grass of the fields. It

FARM IMPLEMENTS. 237

is safe to estimate, that one-half of the labor may be saved, in
the cutting, spreading, and raking of hay, by the use of machinery
best fitted for this purpose, moved by horse-power.

To encourage the introduction of such machines, the trus-
tees have for several years offered liberal premiums, from the
fund created for this purpose by the discriminating generosity
of the president of the society. And when it was fully ex-
pended, so strongly were they impressed with the importance
of these offers, that to a certain extent they kept the door
open for further experiments. Fully impressed with the trust
committed to our charge, we have spared no pains in calling
attention to the subject ; and on several occasions, the present
season, have witnessed highly interesting experiments ; the
premiums having been offered for experiments only — statements
in writing of which to be furnished to the committee. Of these,
we have been favored only with three, all of which are ap-
pended to this report, and will be examined with an interest
proportioned to their minuteness of detail.

J. W. Proctor, Chairman.

Statement of Samuel A. Merrill.

Allen's Mower. — I present for the premium offered by your
society, AUen''s Mower iviih latest improvements., the same that
I have used the past season on my own and my neighbors' lands.
I have used it with a span of horses that I have owned for
several years, weighing about 1,000 pounds each.

During the past hay season I have cut about 300 acres ; all
but 75 acres of which were cut with this machine, the remain-
der with the old Allen machine. I have used the same horses
throughout the season, and they remained in as good condition
as when they commenced. I have averaged when at work
from ten to twelve acres per day, and this without over-working
the team. The average yield of the grass was about a ton and
a half to the acre.

Although my average time to the acre has been about fifty
minutes, yet I have several times cut an acre yielding a ton, in
thirty minutes.

I had to grind the knives once a day, occupying about half
an hour, and sharpen them with a whet-stone occasionally, as
they needed it.

238 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The trouble of keeping it in repair was very slight indeed.
No repairs were made upon it during the whole season but by
myself, and only in a single instance when one of the knives
was broken. I supplied a new knife at a cost of seventeen
cents. No other repairs were made or were necessary, owing
to the perfection and simplicity of the machine.

I cut with it about forty acres of second' crop and found that
it worked it as well as in first crop.

I do not mean to say that I have done all of this work
myself personally. About one-half of it was done by a young
man in my employ ; and although he commenced this season
without any previous practice, he was, after a week's experience,
enabled to work the machine as well as I could. The difficulty
with a new beginner is more in the management of the team
than of the machine.

I have given a fair trial to all the mowing machines that I
have seen except the Danforth Improved ; though I have never
used this one I have worked with mine by the side of it and
had a good opportunity to observe its operations, and am
clearly of opinion that the Allen machine is much superior to
it in every practical point.

I have found that one of the greatest advantages of the Allen
machine is in the fact that the knives are all well guarded so as
to almost wholly protect them from injury by stones. Another
great advantage is that the knives can be easily raised by means
of a lever and wheel (without stopping the team) so as to pass
safely over rocks and stumps eighteen inches high. This feature
of the machine renders it quite advantageous in rough, stony
or stumpy fields.

I have used, besides the Allen machine, the Heath, Russell,
Manny, and the Ketchum machines, and have found none but
the Allen to worii satisfactorily.

Salem, November 11, 1858.

Statement of James Gary.
Manny's Mower. — The machine which I offer and have
operated for the premium the present season, is Manny's
Improved, with which I have cut upwards of eighty acres of
grass. The average time of cutting per acre is fifty minutes.

FAKM IMPLEMENTS. 239

With regard to accidents 1 have been very fortunate, having
broken but one section of the knives in the season. I have been
very much surprised at its little liability to get out of repair or
so dull as to need grinding, having cut sixty acres with once
grinding the knives.

The great improvement in this machine over the old one,
consists in its castor wheel, which takes all weight off the horses'
necks, when it is broke up to move from place to place. It is
also so constructed that if it is considered necessary in cutting
lodged grass, the back can be removed in a few minutes, and
leave the bare knife-bar like most of the other machines in use.
In that case we must dispense with the use of the reel, which I
consider almost indispensable in going with the wind of a windy
day ; otherwise the driver must carry a long stick to poke the
grass back as it is cut.

Another improvement is in the quicker motion of the knives,
enabling it to start in the grass without fail, as certainly as
some other macliines did fail to start in grass, as your chairman
saw at the first trial of mowing machines at the Pickman farm
in South Salem, and I regret very much that the committee
were not then present to view that operation, and see the ease
with which one of my horses on the two-horse mower cut a
quarter of an acre of grass, and also whether it was as the
spectators said, the best cut piece of grass on the field.

SWAMPSCOTT, Nov. 10, 1858.

Statement of George B. Loring.

Danforth's Mower. — I take the earliest opportunity which
an unusual pressure of duties would allow, to make a statement
to the committee on agricultural implements, of the Essex
Agricultural Society. I enter two machines for premium, viz. :
Danforth's Mowing Machine, constructed by J. W. Thompson
of Greenfield, Mass., and a tedder, purchased in England by
R. S. Fay, for the Massachusetts Society for Promotion of
Agriculture.

Of the mowing machine, I would say that it comes very near
the fulfilment of my ideas of what such an instrument should
be. I conceive that agricultural machinery should be simple,
light, easily managed, and strong. These qualities should be

240 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

possessed particularly by a mowing machine, the use of which
comes at a season when the accumulation of business on a farm
requires great rapidity of execution, and when it is impossible
to be very fastidious in our selection of labor. Such a machine
should be capable of doing its work on smooth land and rough,
with or without an expert driver or machinist, with good
horses and bad ones, in light grass and heavy, and without the
exercise of great skill on the part of the driver, or the outlay
of great strength or speed by the team. In this Avay alone
can it be made really an economical and profitable appendage to
a farm. Our lands are not lawns, and we cannot afford to
make them so. It is impossible for us to hire skilful men, at
a price within the limits of a farmer's means. Every farmer
cannot expect to be able to devote himself throughout the
haying season to a mowing machine. Neither can he afford to
purchase a pair of horses well broken to this work alone.

I do not mean to say that the Danforth machine is perfect.
But I can say that I have seen it work on my farm under cir-
cumstances which would have foiled any other machine 1 have
ever seen used. My driver had never used a machine of the
kind until I set him at work with this one. My horses are
young and inexperienced. My grass was heavy, matted at tlie
bottom and much of it lodged. My land is very rough. And
yet the machine which I enter for premium performed its work
perfectly well amidst all these obstacles. In draft it is very
light and easy — never having worried my horses at all. It
never clogs unless the knives are plunged into sods and roots,
and even then, but seldom. It requires no clearing board, and
cuts equally well in fallen and standing grass. It leaves the
field smooth and without any "mane" between the swaths.
It is easily managed, is conveniently sharpened, and can be
driven against obstacles almost with impunity. I have used it
in cutting my second crop, and found it as serviceable as in
the first.

A one-horse machine of the same invention has been used
by me, and may be considered almost invaluable on a small
farm.

The tedder I have used very extensively in spreading my
hay. It is an English machine, strong, and rather heavy in its
construction — but beautifully adapted to the work for which it

NEAT STOCK.

241

is designed. I have used i-t mostly with two horses. And I
find that with this team and a driver, it will spread an acre of
mown grass, much more thoroughly than the most expert man
could do it, in less than ten minutes.

I trust so valuable a machine will soon be brought within
the reach of all our farmers.
Salem, November 5, 1858.

Ayrshire Bull, " Albert," imported by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture.

NEAT STOCK.

Description and Pedigree of Ayrshire Cattle, purchased in
Scotland and Imported by the Massachusetts Society for
Promotitiff Agriculture, 1858.

Bull, No. 1, " Albert," brownish red and white, two years old,
purchased of John Steele, near Ochiltree, bred by James Hendrie
of Drumdrock, sire, Jock, bred by Mr. Bowie, of Riccarton,
winner of the first prize at Killock cattle show, 1855. Grand-
sire, Geordie, bred by Mr. Hendrie, winner of the second prize
as a two-year-old, at Galston, 1849, and the second as a three-
year-old, 1850. Dam, Kirstie, by Geordie (before mentioned),
grandam, Nancy, (never shown,) by Hilburnie, the winner of
the first prize as a two-year-old, at Galston, 1845 ; also, the first
at Grongar, 1846.

31

242 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Albert won the second prize as a yearling, at the show of the
Agricultural Association, 1857 ; also, the first prize at Ochil-
tree same year, and the second prize at the same place as a two-
year-old, 1858. Mr. Howard says: "With the exception of
Mr. Parker's bull, which took the prize over him at Ayr, he is
the best of the breed, of his age, that I saw in Scotland."

No. 2. " Troon," brownish red, with a few small white spots,
two years old, purchased of Andrew Alton, Esq., of Craigend,
near Troon, bred by Mr. Kirkwood, of Highland Muir. Sire,
bred by John Parker, of Nether Broomlands. Irvine, dam,
considered one of the best in Mr. Kirkwood's herd.

No. 3. " Tarn Sampson," brownish red and white, white pre-
dominating, one year old, purchased of John Mickle, bred by
Andrew Alton, who says : " He was got by a bull that was
from a cow which gained the first prize at the county (Ayr)
show ; his dam, a cow bred by myself, whose grandam gained
several prizes. I consider him as well bred as any bull in the
county."

No. 4. " Irvine," color red. Calved May, 1858, purchased
of and bred by Mr. John Parker, of Nether Broomlands. Sire,
bred by Mr. Parker, winner of several prizes and of the noted
family possessed by him for nearly thirty years. Dam, bred by
Mr Parker, winner of the first prize at the county show ; she
is also dam of the cow which took the first prize in 1858. Mr.
Parker says : " The dam of the bull calf gained the medal at
the Ayr county show when two years old, and when in milk
gained many prizes at Ayr and other shows. The dam of his
sire has also gained many first prizes."

Heifer, No. 1. " Miss Alton," light red, flecked with white,
three years old, purchased of and bred by Andrew Alton.
Sire, dam and grandam bred by Mr. Alton, bulled by Troon,
July 16th.

No. 2. " Mavis," brownish red and white, spotted, two years
old, purchased of Mr. Alton, bred by John Dunlop, near
Stewarton, whose breed is reputed to be of very fine quality,
bulled by Troon, July 9th.

No. 3. " Lilly," brownish red and white, white predominating,
one year old, purchased of and bred by John Parker, sire and
dam bred by him. The latter is also dam of the celebrated

NEAT STOCK. 243

bull, " Cardigan," who has taken twenty-four first prizes. Lilly
is a twin, and a late calf last year.

No. 4. " Panzy," brownish red, with a few patches of white,
one year old, purchased of and bred by John Parker. Sire,
bred by Mr. Parker, and got by Cardigan's sire. Dam, bred
by Mr. Parker, and " winner of many prizes."

No. 5. " Daisy," brownish red and white, one year old,
purcliased of and bred by David Wilson, of Irvine. She is
seven-eighths of the blood of Mr. Parker's herd.

No. 6. " Harriet," light red and white, two years old, pur-
chased of John Mickle, of Brownhill, near Tarbolton ; bred by
Mr. Campbell, of woodside, Monckton, and said to be out of
the best cow of his herd. In calf by a son of Cardigan.

No. 7. " Ruth," light brown, one year old, purchased of
James Mickle, of Claxton, near Tarbolton, bred by Mr. Campbell,
of Dalgig. Sire, Cardigan. Dam, a fine cow owned by Mr.
Campbell.

No. 8. " Miss Markland," light red, two years old, purchased
of and bred by James Reid of Torcross, near Tarbolton. Sire,
bred by Mr. Reid, grandsire, won the first prize at the Ayrshire
show, as the best aged bull. Dam, bred by Mr. Reid, a superior
cow, grandam also bred by him, and a winner of several first
prizes ; bulled by Mr. Reid's Sir Colin, July 7th.

No. 9. " Miss Smith," red, two years old, purchased of and
bred by George Richmond, near Dalrymple. Sire, Geordie,
who was by Kilmaurs, whose dam won several prizes. Dam,
sister to Young Crammy, winner of several prizes.

No. 10. " Rosa," light red and white, two years old, pur-
chased of and bred by Hugh Lambie, near Tarbolton. Sire,
Alexander. Dam, Jean, both bred by him from Ayrshire stock
kept by him for twenty years.

No. 11. " Miss Anderson," brownish red and white, white
predominating, two years old, purchased of James Anderson,
of Kirkhill, near Ayr, bred by Alexander Bruce, of Shawe, out
of one of his best cows, and reputed first rate stock on both
sides.

244 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

ESSEX.

From the Report of the Committee on Bulls of Foreign Breed.

Of the Ayrshire breed we are sorry to say that the exhibi-
tion, as regards numbers, was very meagre indeed, there being
but one bull of the above species on the ground, but justice
compels us to state that the one exhibited was a " host in him-
self." This bull was offered for premium by George B. Loring
of Salem, and the committee are imanimous in saying that he
is one of the finest animals of the class it has ever been their
good fortune to look upon ; and after a careful examination of
all his points, they are fully satisfied in awarding to Dr. Loring
the first premium. *

James Stevens, Chairman.

From the Report of the Committee on l\Iilch Cows of Native or

Mixed Breed.

The committee add the following statements and details.
William Mack's statement : —

" I present for premium my red cow ' Daisy,' seven years old
last spring. She is a native mixed with Hereford. She
dropped her last calf March 29th, and will calve again about
the middle of next April. From the time she dropped her
calf till the middle of May, she had two quarts of shorts per
day, with English hay, first crop. From the middle of May to
the 20th of August, she had nothing but fair pasturing. From
August 20tli to the present time, she had corn fodder, in
addition to her pasturing. Below is a table showing the quan-
tity of milk she has given from April 20th to the present time.
The milk has been measured by beer measure, and weighed by
avoirdupois weight. The milk has been weighed twice each
month, and has averaged two pounds and eleven ounces per
beer quart.

" By the lactometer, the largest quantity of cream indicated
has been Jq^^-, and the smallest has been -^-q.

" The average of her milk per day from April 20th (when the
calf was taken away) to September 25th, as will appear by the

* See Frontispiece.

NEAT STOCK.

245

table, has been IS-^^Jg quarts. The calf was sold to the butcher
for 16."

Then follows an exact daily table of the milk from April 20th
to September 26th. Result as follows : —

161 quarts, 432 lbs. 8 oz.

485

u

1,310 "

15 "

451

ii

1,211 "

9 "

388|-

ii

1,046 "

8 "

355

a

953 "

111"

2741

a

737 "

5 "

From April 20 to May 1, .
May 1 to June 1, .
June 1 to July 1,
July 1 to August 1, .
August 1 to September 1, .
September 1 September 26, .

Total, . . 2,115 q'ts., 5,692 lbs. 8|oz

From June 1 to June 11, 157 quarts, 421 lbs. 12 oz.
Sept. 1 to Sept. 11, lllA " 299 " 8 "

The following is the statement of Albert Dodge of Beverly,
to whom was awarded the second premium : —

" I enter for premium one black cow, ten years old, a cross
between the Alderney and Durham. She dropped her calf on
the 15th of August, 1857 ; the calf was taken away the 1st of
September. The amount of milk given in

Quarts.

Quarts.

September,

525 April,

375

October, .

512 May, .

340

November,

500 June,

360

December,

475 July,.

280

January, 1858, .

465 August,

235

February, .

420

March,

400

4,887

" Through the winter she had cut hay with about four quarts
of shorts per day ; in summer nothing but grass, in common
pasture."

The statement of Isaac Dempsey of Danvers Centre, to whom
was awarded the third premium, is as follows : —

" The cow I offer for premium is eight years old. I have
owned her for five years ; her breed is native. She had her
last calf last April and is to calve again next May. Her

246

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

keeping has been pasture feed with two quarts of meal per
day. Her milk was weighed morning and evening for the
first ten days in June and September, with the following
result:"—

Pounds. 1

Pounds.

Morning.

Evening.

Morning.

Evening.

June 1,
2,
3,

161

18|
17

22f
23f
2H

Sept. 1,
2,
3,

Hi

• 17|

18.
18|

4,

17

26f

4,

131

I3i

5,
6,

7,

18|
16i

231
It'

5,
6,

7,

16i
16f
17

12^

19

8,

IH

22

8,

14

16i

9,

10,

15f
20

251
26

9,
10,

15i
13

l4
18

1751.

24H

144f

168

175^

144|

Total In ten days,

416f

Total for 10 days,

312|

Besides those to whom premiums were awarded there were
some other cows offered, and among them was a cow belonging
to Israel P. Boardman of Danvers, that possessed good qual-
ities and points ; another belonging to Adam Nesmith, also
of Danvers, of Jersey grade, which showed indications of being
a good milker, but was in poor condition, so much so, as
might induce any one to withhold a premium. The committee
would especially mention a remarkable cow, when her age is
considered, belonging to James Stevens of Andover, offered for
exhibition only. We give in his own words the following
statement.

" I offer for exhibition my cow ' Matron.' She is fifteen
years old, and was raised by myself from a native cow, and
sired by a Durham bull from the Silsbee farm in Bradford.
She has always been a great milker, but as I have never kept
an account of her produce until this season, I have never before
offered her for exhibition.

" On the 3d of January, 1858, she dropped her calf, and on
the following 6th, having in the meantime disposed of the calf,

NEAT STOCK. 24T

I commenced keeping a true and accurate account of her milk,
and the amount of sales, and ended on the 6th of September,
making just eight months.

" She began by giving sixteen quarts a day, and three days in
succession in January she gave seventeen quarts each day, but
sixteen quarts a day was her average through the month.
She gave sixteen quarts a day until the 20th of February, and
then fifteen for the remainder of the month. In March, she
gave fifteen quarts a day nearly all the month.

From January 6th to February 6th, she gave . 400 quarts.
February 1st to Marcli 1st, she gave . . 432 "
March 1st to April 1st, she gave . . 434 "

Total for the three months, .... 1,266 "

" This was sold at the barn for four cents per quart, making
the amount 150.64. During the three above mentioned months,
her feed was as much good Ejiglish hay as she could eat, and
twelve quarts of fine feed, (or six quarts of cob meal and four
quarts of fine feed) each day. Her drink was twelve pails of
warm water each day. She drank five pails of water in the
morning, two at noon, and five at night. The fine feed
(or meal) was mixed with her drink. This statement may
seem large, but I can substantiate it by many witnesses.

" On the first of April the price of milk was reduced from four
cents per quart to twenty-five cents for nine quarts.

From April 1st to May 1st, she gave .
May 1st to June 1st, she gave .
June 1st to July 1st, she gave .
July 1st to August 1st, she gave .
August 1st to September 1st, she gave
September 1st to September 6th, she gave

Total for five months and six days, .
From January 6th to April 1st, she gave

Sum total for eight months, .... 2,823

. 860

quarts

. 310

. 300

. 297

. 248

42

. 1,557

. 1,266

248 MASSACHUSETTS AGEICULTURB.

" After she left the barn, and went to pasture, she had good
feed of grass with no gram. Smce August' she has been fed
night and morning with fodder corn. From April 1st to May
20th, (when she went to pasture,) her drink was cold water
(with the amount of grain mentioned above,) which I think
accounts for the decrease in her milk in April. She will calve
on the first of January next. The amount received for her milk
for eight months is $95.16."

In closing this report the committee feel called upon to urge
all persons who may offer animals for exhibition or premium
(more particularly the latter) to render an accurate and
detailed statement, and not to have cows, bulls and swine
included in one and the same statement, (which occurred in
more instances than one,) for it must be obvious, were they
all so mixed up the committee on each class would not receive
it, nor could they know that such a statement was in the hands
of another committee.

In the confusion attendant upon such occasions, mistakes
may easily occur — and from the above cause persons exhibiting
valuable animals may be disappointed in their statements not
reaching the appropriate committee.

The committee instead of gratuitously offering any advice,
or opinions of their own, in relation to dairy stock, would
earnestly recommend to the perusal of all farmers, a very valu-
able work recently issued from the press by Charles L. Flint,
Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture,
entitled " Milch Cows and Dairy Farming." They will find
the work filled with details of the most interesting and valuable
facts and suggestions.

Richard S. Rogers, Chairman.

MIDDLESEX.

From the Report of the Committee on Heifers and Heifer Calves.
It was highly gratifying to the committee to see so many fine
heifer calves in the pens. It is an indication that our farmers
have set about raising their own cows, and we have no doubt
that by care and perseverance, our stock of milch cows will be
greatly improved. To effect this object, we must begin with
the calves. Those only should be reared, which have come

NEAT STOCK. 249

from good milkers. The mother should be a good milker, and
the bull should come from a good milker, and then we shall
have a good chance to have a good milker. Sometimes one
parent imparts its character to the progeny, and sometimes the
other. If both possess the property desired, our probability of
securing it in the offspring is greatly increased ; and the longer
the line of descent through which any characteristic can be
traced, the stronger is the probability that it will be found in
the animal we are rearing. To insure good milking properties,
or any other properties, it is not sufficient that they should have
been possessed by the immediate parent. This may be acci-
dental. They should be established as the permanent properties
of the family or breed to whicli they belong. So long as our
farmers purchase from droves, heifers or young cows, on which
they depend for milkers, they cannot be sure that the progeny
of those even that prove good milkers, will inherit the same
character. But a calf that has sprung from several successive
generations of good milkers, may be relied upon with a good
degree of certainty.

Good milkers possess certain physical marks or characteristics,
which, although not absolutely certain indications, should never
be neglected. These marks are well known to all observing
men, and may be seen in the calf, at least the most prominent
of them, at an early period.

We think no farmer, wishing to obtain a good milker, would
raise a calf with a large head and a short muzzle, large, thick
neck, full, high shoulders, large legs, short, thick tail and coarse
hair. He would rather select one with a small head, long muzzle,
bright eyes, thin, tapering neck, small legs, large hind quarters,
long, slim tail, soft skin and fine hair. Guenon and Haxton
affirm that the form and size of the escutcheon, upon which
they greatly rely in determining the character of the cow, may
be ascertained in the calf; that it is not fully developed, because
the parts on which it is placed are not fully developed at this
period of life ; but that careful examination will reveal its true
character. Now, although there are apparent exceptions to
Guenon's rules, yet we believe that most good milkers possess
the marks which he points out. If these marks can be ascer-
tained in the calf, they will afford a guide of no small value in
determining what heifer calves to raise, and what to send to the

32

250 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

butcher. This whole subject deserves more attention than it
has hitherto received. The next thing to be attended to, is the
treatment which calves and heifers should receive before they
give milk. When taken from the cow, they should be provided
with food suited to their condition and health. They should be
taught to eat a variety of food, and should have a good supply
of pure water. Calves want a large quantity of drink, and it
is desirable that they should get the habit of drinking freely, as
this is essential to free milkers. They should be treated with
the utmost kindness and gentleness, and never teased, or beaten,
or frightened, but should be taught to feed from the hand, and
to have entire confidence in those who take care of them.
Rowen hay, or fine redtop, with a few turnips, or oats, or beans,
is the best food for the first winter. They should be well
protected from the cold and storms, and not permitted to roam
about the fields, shivering in the rain and snow. They should
be kept clean and dry, and not suffered to become lousy, but
should receive the same care from the first that is bestowed upon
cows in milk. In this way only can they be kept in a thriving,
healthy condition, and become well developed in all their parts.
A calf that is suffering from cold, from vermin, from fear, from
want of food, or drink, cannot thrive or be in good health ; its
growth will be checked, and it will never be as valuable after-
wards. A young animal is more tender and more susceptible
of injury than one that is fully grown and has reached its full
strength ; and yet many persons will expose a calf to treatment
that they would not allow to a cow, or an ox, and the result is
what might be reasonably expected. Young animals should be
treated with the utmost care and tenderness, and thus they will
be kept in a growing state, and be early developed, and fitted
for the use for which they are intended.

Statement of N. H. Warren.

Gentlemen, — The Ayrshire cow which I offer for premium,
was bred from Prince Albert and Jenny Dean's full blood
Ayrshire stock, imported by the Massachusetts Agricultural
Society, and presented to the Middlesex Society, of whose agent
I purchased this cow when a calf.

She has always brought calves in the fall or early winter, and
been kept tied up in the barn in the summer and milked until

NEAT STOCK. 251

near calving. She was dried early in September, and dropped
her calf the last of October, 1857, having run dry some weeks
longer than usual. She gave in November, December and
January last, fifteen and one-half quarts of milk per day, when
she gradually decreased to ten quarts in May, which quantity
she has very nearly kept up, as she gives something more than
eight quarts per day at this time.

Her feed in winter is English hay, husks and stalks, and her
share of the weather-caught and poor hay that grows on the
farm, as she ties up with and fares as the rest do. In summer
she stands in the barn and is fed on grass, corn fodder and hay.
In winter and while fed on hay in the summer, she has from
one to three pints of meal per day.

I am aware that the quantity which she gives when new milch,
seems small for an extra cow, but when you consider that when
within two months of calving she gives as much as an ordinary
new milch cow, and that her keeping is not calculated to force
her milking capacities at all, I think it will be conceded that
her average during the year, something over nine quarts per
day, is fully up to the average of extra cows. She has been
turned out a part of the forenoon for the last month. She was
eight years old the 30th of last March, and is to calve on the
2d of January next. I sell her milk, and know nothing of her
qualities as a butter cow.

Concord, Septeniber 29, 1858.

WORCESTER.

Report of the Committee on Dairies.
The Committee on dairies have the honor to report that they
have attended to their duties, and have carefully examined the
statements of Messrs. Samuel Ellsworth and William Robinson,
Jr., of Barre, the only two competitors for the society's pre-
miums. They have also examined, in the society's pens, a
representation of the cows of each gentleman's dairy, and
samples of their butter and cheese in the exhibition hall below.
Mr. Ellsworth's dairy consists of eleven cows, of various ages,
ranging from three to eleven years, all of which are grades of
the Durham breed ; nine of them were raised by himself, and

252 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the others in his immediate neighborhood. One cow was
reserved for the use of his family, and his statement refers to
only ten of their number. During the six months from the
first day of March to the first day of September, Mr. Ellsworth
certifies that he has made four thousand three hundred and
thirty-three pounds of cheese, and ninety-eight pounds of butter
— reckoning three pounds of cheese to one of butter, the whole
product of his dairy in cheese is four thousand six hundred and
twenty-seven pounds, which at nine and one-fourth cents per
pound amounts to 1427.99. Seven of the calves were reserved
by himself to raise, and three were sold to the butchers ; four
were sired by the celebrated Durham bull, " Count," and the
others by a bull of equally good points though of less extended
reputation. The net profits of the swine fed from the offal of
the dairy, he estimates at seventy-five dollars. None of his
cows have had any other feed than hay of the best quality,
and pasture, during the time of this trial, and the average
product of each cow, reckoning Mr. Ellsworth's calves reserved
for raising and three sold to the butcher, at the same average
value as those of the other competitor, during the months from
March first to September first, is seventy-four dollars and eleven
cents per head, amounting in the aggregate to $741.19.

Mr. Robinson's dairy consists of seventeen cows of various
ages, ranging from three to eleven years, all of them grade
Durhams. A portion of the herd was raised by himself, and
the others were purchased in his immediate neighborhood. He
reserved one cow for the use of his family and the family of a
neighbor, and produced from the other sixteen cows from the
first day of March to the first day of September, five thousand
four hundred and fifty-three pounds of cheese, which valued
at nine and one-fourth cents per pound, is equal to $504.40.
Fourteen calves were sold and three reserved, and the average
price obtained for those sold was $23.82, and valuing those
reserved for raising at the same price, we have the aggregate of
$404.94, as the value of the calves. The net profits of the
swine, fed from the waste of his dairy, he estimates at $82.40,
and the milk sold at $6.40, making in the aggregate the sum of
$998.14, or an average product for each cow of $62.38. Mr.
Robinson's cows were fed with good hay, from the first of March
to the time of going to grass, with the addition of one quart of

NEAT STOCK. 253

Indian meal per day to each cow ; since that time, with nothing
but grass.

While your committee have, in the exercise of their official
duties, observed the fair proportions and excellent points of the
animals composing the herds of dairy cows submitted to their
inspection, in the pens to-day, and have perused the carefully
prepared and highly gratifying statements of their owners, a
feeling of regret has mingled with their meditations, that in this
great county, famed as it is through all the country for its
productions of good butter and extraordinarily good cheese,
the dairy interest should be represented here by only two
competitors, and that in a department of agriculture which is
calculated as much, if not more than any other, to call into
exercise the best and highest faculties of the farmer, — his
reason, his judgment, his ambition and his intellect, — and lead
him to the grandest results, both of pleasure and profit, so few
have chosen to give us the result of their experience, or a sight
of those animals whose generous returns for the labor and care
bestowed upon them, in milk, butter and cheese, are filling the
homes of the farmers of Worcester county with so many of the
comforts and luxuries of life.

When it is considered how important an interest the dairies
are to the farmers of this section of the State, in a pecuniary
point of view ; that the milk yielded by the cows of the county
gives an annual product of more than a million dollars, it
certainly becomes us to inquire whether, with a little more
pains-taking in the selection and breeding of animals ; a closer
study of the recorded experiences of skilful breeders, both in
this country and in Europe ; and a practical test of the result
of our own conclusions upon our own farms, we may not make
the business of the dairy a greatly increased source of enjoyment
and profit.

You;:" committee believe that there is no farmer in Worcester
county so rich as to afford to keep a poor cow, and they feel
equally confident that there is none so poor but he may afford
to have one good one ; and by a poor cow we mean the ordinary
old fashioned degenerate stock of the country, which in the
height of the season can only half fill the pail, and -^lose
coarse hair, thick hide and gaunt proportions are constantly
reminding us of that vision of the wicked ruler, narrated in the

254 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Scriptures, and of the interpretation thereof, foretelling, as it
did, future years of leanness and poverty. The sight of seven
kine coming up from the river side, " ill favored and lean
fleshed," might well be deemed, even by an uninspired sooth-
sayer, an augury of future years of misery to their owner, while
the sight of an equal number of our improved breeds would
afford equally satisfactory assurances that years of plenty and
domestic comforts were in store for their fortunate possessor
and his family.

Your committee do not feel called upon in this report to
discuss the peculiar merits for dairy purposes of all the different
breeds of cattle, for the opinions of practical farmers are so
much at variance, and the influences of soil, location, and
feeding are so numerous, that it would be impossible for them
to recommend, with any degree of propriety, any one breed as
best for the dairy under all circumstances ; but they may be
allowed to protest against the continuance of that unthrifty and
suicidal policy which prevails upon too many farms, and which
in the very face of all the knowledge which has been derived
from the experience of such men as Colling and Bakewell in
the past, still persists in the propagation and rearing of inferior
cattle, and which, acting upon the principle that a calf of any
breed is a calf, and will in time become an ox or a cow, rescues
every year from the knife of the butcher a worthless progeny
of young animals, which can never be a credit or a source of
profit to the owners, or add to the aggregate wealth of the
State.

With all the aids to improvement which at the present day
are in his possession, the New England farmer who realizes at
all the nobility and dignity of his vocation, ought to be ashamed
to devote himself only to the milking and rearing of ordinary
stock ; nay, more than this, he ought to be ashamed not to give
some little portion of his time, attention, and means, to its
improvement, by judicious crossings with the improved stock of
the country ; which, thanks to the public spirit and enterprise
of a few men in the community, and to the interest created by
this and kindred institutions, is now accessible to all.

Tire good book tells us, that even in the olden time, men did
not expect to gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles ; but
some of our modern farmers would seem to be less wise than

NEAT STOCK. 256

they, who at the present time expect to rear profitable stock for
the dairy, by breeding their coarse, small-uddered cows, to any
bull they can find, without the slightest regard to the laws of
successful breeding. To us, it is a matter of constant surprise,
that intelligent farmers, who are so careful to select for their
seed corn, only the plumpest and soundest ears, who must even
know the pedigree of a squash, before they will plant from it,
and who will not commit to the earth the seeds for an acre of
onions without some guaranty from the seedsman, such as Sam
Weller required of the vender of veal pie, viz. : that " he was
quite sure he knew the 'voman as made it," will not exercise
at least some degree of similar caution and judgment in the
reproduction of their neat cattle.

Do the farmers of Worcester county need practical illustra-
tions of the correctness of the views which we are attempting
to present to their consideration ? — they have only to contrast
the numerous fine herds which are to be found at the present
time upon the farms, of Barre, New Braintree, Hardwick and
vicinity, with those which predominate in some other parts of
the county. Those herds owe their origin to the efforts of a
few intelligent and public spirited individuals, who have in-
grafted some of the best Durham blood, upon well-selected
specimens of the " Old Red Native Stock," of New England,
until they have by such repeated judicious crossings, obtained,
we might say, a race of milkers, which possess the distinguishing
characteristics of the thorough-bred stock, and which can very
generally be relied upon, as with pure blooded animals, to
transmit their excellent qualities to their descendants.

The efforts made many years since, by a distinguished citizen
of this county, who was an active member of our society, the
late Mr. Williams, of Northborough, should not in this connection
be forgotten, for to him we believe belongs the high honor of
having first introduced into this county, if not into the State,
one of the finest specimens of the Durham breed of that branch
known as the Denton, or Tees water, whose descendants, whether
grades or thorough-breds, even to the third and fourth genera-
tion, show in their superior qualities for the dairy, the excellent
characteristics of their distinguished ancestry. We might go
on and enumerate other instances of a similar nature, for the
purpose of showing the good results of individual efforts in

256 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the improvement of our dairy stock, by the introduction of
specimens of other breeds into the county, such as the Alderneys
or Jerseys, the Ayrshires and the Devons, which although
unlike the Durhams in some of their leading characteristics,
have contributed perhaps in no less degree to the improvement
of our herds of neat cattle. In regard to the peculiar qualities
of all the improved breeds and races of stock, " the intelligent
farmer," who, as Emerson so beautifully and truthfully remarks,
" above all men lives nearest to God," should be thoroughly
conversant. He cannot afford to enter upon rash experiments,
or blindly engage in a coarse of hap-hazard breeding, blending
the blood of animals of the most unlike qualities, under the
delusive idea that any kind of a cross will improve any kind of
stock, when the recorded experience of the most successful
breeders is always accessible to him, and when h: may, if he
will, learn beforehand, from the success of their e .orts, just how
to produce the exact qualities which he most desires, and which
are best adapted to his location, his soil and his wants ; and
when he may, by the sacrifice of a little time, and a very little
money, give the females of his herd access to the highest bred
males of every breed, whose ancestry can be traced almost, if
not quite, to the days of Comet and Hubbach, to Duke and
Sir Dimple.

In concluding this report, the committee believe that they
have a right to suggest to their brother farmers, who as yet
have done nothing to advance in their day and generation the
progress of agriculture in Massachusetts, except to till and
to mow, to plough and to sow, the same acres in the same way,
year after year, to contribute their mite, by a little personal
effort, or a little pecuniary sacrifice, which latter can only be
temporary, to the improvement of the dairy stock of the
county. If you have a likely cow, who yields a large quantity
of milk, of excellent quality, show your gratitude for such a
boon, by breeding her to the best male of a stock possessing
similar qualities, and do not let your love for roast veal induce
you for a moment to imitate the folly of the ancient woman
who killed the goose which laid the diurnal egg of gold.

By such simple means, and through such humble beginnings,
can each farmer in Worcester county do something to promote
the general interests of agriculture, as well as his own, and by

NEAT STOCK. 25T

sucli means can the county of "Worcester become, at no distant
day, as filmed for the superiority of its dairy stock, in all parts
of the country, as are the counties of Durham and Devonshire
in the father-land.

All of which is respectfully submitted.

Thomas Drew, Chairman.

WORCESTER.

From the Report, of the Committee on Grade Bulls.

The most of us are undoubtedly behind the times in the
matter of improving our stock ; perhaps not entirely on account
of its small outlay, but because we are so habituated to our old
way, it is exceedingly difficult to depart from it, so much so,
that we are apt to ridicule new ideas as innovations, when at the
same time our good sense inwardly tells us " we arc wrong."
To these we would say, just examine the condition of those
who have bestirred themselves, who have taken advantage
of new improvements, not only in rearing cattle, but in all
other departments of farming, and see if it is any better than
your own. Should their herds look better, their farms
smoother and more productive, and their work be done quicker
and easier, do not be so unreasonable as to attribute all these
to good luck.

Your committee regret to see so few superior cattle from
this immediate vicinity. A number nearly sufficient to fill
these pens ought to be raised here and exhibited. As milk is
the chief production of our farms, most farmers feel unable to
raise their calves ; they are consequently destroyed when two
or three days old, unless bought up at a nominal price by those
who fatten them for the market, or others whose faith in raising
them on a decoction of hay tea and thin gruel, is much
stronger than we should suppose the constitution of their cattle
would be, after going through such a diet. The consequence
is, as they are raising no cattle, their stock is depreciating, and
more must be bought; the neighboring towns are ransacked,
not often with good success. Good milkers command high
prices, and many farmers are beginning to think the possession
of them is of so much importance they hesitate to part with

33

258 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

them, even at high rates, on account of the uncertainty of
replacing them.

Your committee do now respectfully recommend to farmers
to take greater pains in raising their cattle — raise a better
quality and more of them. If the definition of the term
" grade," is correct, — which is in substance, " incapacity of
transmitting witli certainty," — we should be cautious in using
those animals, especially if we intend raising the calves. True
it is, many of our best cows and oxen are grades; but it would
be very strange indeed if we did not occasionally have a good
animal out of the thousands raised, especially as the dilferent
breeds are more or less mixed all over the country.

There are a few native bulls that can be relied upon. These
might be honored with the title of " full blooded," and they
ought to be kept and used as long as possible. Many excellent
ones have been slaughtered before their stock has been
thoroughly tested, and oftentimes we have found out their good
qualities too late. As full blooded animals are more reliable,
your committee recommend the use of tliem when practicable;
but there being a very few of them, most of us have not these
opportunities. This could be remedied in a measure, by club-
bing together and purchasing one. All have their opinions of
the different breeds ; but a club of farmers would hardly ever
fail of getting the right one.

In short, make use of the best bulls ; give the owners some
encouragement to keep them ; raise the heifer calves from your
best cows ; and in raising stock, do it with so observant an eye,
and so luidcrstandiiigly that in case you are successful with
one lot, you can, with some degree of certainty, raise another.
Through this habit of destroying our best calves, and leaving
to others that which we ought to do ourselves, we have nearly
lost all traces of the celebrated " Denton." His stock is so
mixed up as to nearly lose its identity, and not a bull of his
breed can be found in England.

Marshall Flagg, Chairman.

NEAT STOCK.

259

WORCESTER NORTH.

Statement of J. P. Reed.

The cow Fanny, which I offer for premium, is seven years
old, of Holderness and Ayrshire breed, raised in Princeton, by
myself. Time of calving, February 8, 1858. Of the quality of
the calf the committee can judge. Last dried the last of
December, 1857, just six weeks before calving ; time of next
calving, March, 1859. Keeping, nothing but pasture feed.

Weight and quantity of milk, beer measure, first week in
June:

MORNING.

EVENING.

Pounds.

Quarts.

Pounds.

Quarts.

June 1, .

2, .

3, .

4, .

5, .

6, .

7, .

16.25
17.25
18.00
16.00
17.00
16.50
17.50

6.50
6.90
7.20
6.40
6.80
6.60
7.00

21.00
20.25
19.75
21.50
21.00
20.00
20.50

8.40
8.10
7.90
8.60
8.40
8.00
8.20

118.50

47.40

144.00 57.60
118.50 47.40

Totals,

•

•

262.50

105.00

Average weight per day, 37|^ pounds ; average measure,
15 quarts per day.

Weight and quantity of milk, beer measure, for 'the first week
in September :

260

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

MORNING.

EVESISG.

rounds.

Quarts.

Pounds. Quarts.

September 1, .

15.25

G.IO

18.50

7.40

2, .

15.50

G.20

18.50

7.40

3, .

15.25

GIO

18.25

7.30

4, •

15.00

G.OO

19.00

7.60

5, .

15.25

G.IO

18.25

7.30

G, .

15.75

G.30

17.75

7.10

7, .

15.50

6.20

18.50

7.40

107.50 1 43.00

128 75

51.50

107.50

43.00

Totals,

236.25

91.50

Average weight per day, 33 ^^^^ pounds ; average measure,
13| quarts per day, seven months after calving.

Wiicn on trial we could jiot set all her milk for butter as
we were obliged to use some of it, but it is of superior quality ;
we have made 158 pounds of butter this season, after using
what milk avo wanted, and selling some quarts besides. Said
cow has never had any meal or roots.

From the Report of the Committee on Heifers.

To a great many of the members of this society that part of
their stock which constitutes their dairy, is of more consequence
than all the rest. Upon all such the question is often pressed,
how can the best cows be procured, and their number kept
complete, when vacancies occur from age, disease or accident?
Is it better or more profitable to raise our own cows than to
depend upon buying such chance animals as may come in our
way ? In the opinion of your committee, there can be but one
answer to tliis question, and that is, raise your ovvji dairy
stock. And we are glad to find, from the large number and
good quality of heifers on exhibition to-day that this opinion
is becoming more prevalent among the members of this asso-
ciation. Without hesitation, tiicn, we recommend increased
attention to the rearing of heifer calves. Breed from the. best
cows you possess or can procure ; and, as the good qualities
of the animal probably depend quite as much on the male

NEAT STOCK. 261

progenitor as the female, make, when it is practicable, judicious
crossings witli such blood stock as have been tried and approved
for their good milking qualities ; or else, begin and carry out,
long and patiently, such a process of selection and training
as shall make the dairy excellency of your own cows so fixed
and permanent that you can rely upon their offspring inheriting
their own good properties. At any rate, raise your own heifer
calves, and, in the end, it will be more economical and satis-
factory.

C. C. Field, Chairman.

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

From the Report on Stock.

It is a mooted question among the agriculturists of our State,
what breed of cattle, if any, will suit our farmers, and meet
all tlicir requirements ; and if there is no one universally
admitted to tliat position, how to allot the different breeds to
the different localities, wliere each shall be found best adapted.

A good many Jerseys are introduced into the eastern part
of the State, and for a man who keeps but one or two cows
they do very well. The Jersey cows give by far the richest
milk of any stock ; sometimes as high as three-eighths cream,
and they are often very deep milkers. Mr. Fay, the earnest
and able Secretary of the old Massachusetts Society, has an
Alderney cow which never is dry, and makes all the butter for
his family, through the year.

The Jerseys may be pets, but they can never lead among
the farmers. Their small size, unsymmetrical shape, and a
little lack of hardihood, will forbid their general introduction
into the Valley. One of the largest herds of that breed, is
owned by Mr. Jonathan Bird, of Greenfield.

The Ayrshires, originally a Scotch breed, are now attracting
more attention than formerly, and the Massachusetts Society
for the Promotion of Agriculture, — which, by the way, has done
more for the advancement of that science, in Massachusetts,
and in the United States, than any other institution of the
kind in the country, — has recently made a large and very
valuable importation of this stock.

262 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The Ayrshires are hardy, easily kept, and good milkers —
perhaps as a race, better than any other — whole dairies aver-
aging from 2,000 to 2,400 quarts of milk a year to each cow,
and of a good quality. They will do very well on high keeping,
and on being fed, take on fat readily and easily, which is
evenly distributed with the lean, or well marbled, as butchers
call it ; three-year old steers dress from 700 to 850 pounds.
How they will do for workers, we do not know. They have
never been tried in this country, and where they originated
horses do the entire farm work.

The Herefords make good working cattle, and make very good
beef, easily ; for milk they cannot be recommended. A friend of
ours, owning a Hereford cow, once said that he might as well
fill his pail with the blue sky of heaven, as to set it under a
Hereford cow. As a general thing, too, they are not good
handlers ; and we remember the recommendation of a fancy
farmer to us, when suggesting the thickness and hardness of
the hide " that it was a capital thick hide and would protect,
him in all weathers."

Of all the different races, the Devon cattle are undoubtedly
the best, purely as working oxen. They have a quickness of
action, a degree of docility, and goodness of temper, and
stoutness, and honesty of work, to which many teams of horses
cannot pretend, and will exert their strength to the utmost and
stand many a dead pull, which few horses could be forced to
attempt.

Their activity, too, has made them of great service and value
in their native county of Devonshire : during harvest time, and
in catching weather, they are sometimes trotted along with the
empty wagon, at the rate of six miles an hour, a degree of
speed which no other ox but the Devon has been able to stand.
Their beautiful forms, their bright red color, without a white
hair, their handsome high heads, with the delicate curving
horns, commend them to the eye of every one who has the least
fancy for a fine ox, and a longer acquaintance only develops
their great excellence. The Devon cows, as a general thing,
have never been reckoned first rate as milkers, probably not
equal to the Ayrshires. Probably, however, for the system of
breeding, which we here adopt, of raising for the great uses

NEAT STOCK. 263

of the dairy, the draught and the shambles combined, the
Durhams or " improved short-horns," are the best calculated.

Although for the dairy, the Ayrshires, the Jerseys, and the
Devons, and perhaps the Herefords, too, — all have their friends
and admirers, yet for the grazier and butcher, they cannot
compete with the short-horns, whose early maturity, great apti-
tude to fatten, and large size, place them beyond competition,
while as milkers we believe the short-horns, and the grades,
on the whole, will stand pre-eminent. The steers are generally
docile, easily trained, very powerful, and though not so quick
and springy as the Devons, make excellent working oxen.

This, at any rate, seems to be the opinion of the ftirmers in
this Valley, and it will not be easy to have this noble breed
superseded by Ayrshires, Jerseys, or Devons, so long as Paoli
and Wells Lathrop can show such superb stock as we examined.

WORCESTER.

From the Report of the Committee on Working Oxen.

Are not our working oxen turned to the slaughter at too
early an age ? Steers are usually brought into the work at
three years old, but not to hard labor generally until they are
five years old ; and oftener than otherwise, they are slaughtered
at six years old.

At six years old the ox is fitted for all work, but not for the
same amount of endurance as the ox of seven years old. Most
oxen do not come to maturity till they are seven years old ;
and from seven to nine years old will perform an equal amount
of labor with the five years old ox, with less fatigue ; with the
same fatigue he will do a greater amount of work in a given
time. We can place more confidence in an ox eight years old,
than we can in an ox of four years old only, at which age
many are brought to the test, and often severely injured. If in
our work we farmers come to a " hard pull," the old ox generally
has to take it, because he is better able to stand under it.

The reason generally assigned for the early slaughter of the
ox is, " he has come to his growth." So when there is no
more increase of bone to be made, the poor animal is laid
aside. Now, we think that this is a great mistake, for he is
laid aside just at the time when he is becoming the most profit-

264 M/."5SACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

able ill tho service of his owner. If growth for the slaughter
is all that is looked for, why not let the steers (after selecting a
suitable number for oxen) grow, and not stunt them by labor,
and let the work be done by older cattle, cattle that have been
trained and found faithful in all things pertaining to them.

We did similar service for this society some fifteen to twenty
years since, and on the present occasion we could not but con-
trast the age of the oxen, as well as the manner in which they
performed their task, with the age of the cattle and their per-
formance in former years.

On the present occasion the oxen were generally four and
five years old, and showed more of good training than of
superior strength. In years long gone by, oxen were on trial
on these occasions, from six to nine and more years old, perhaps
not so well matched, but it was seldom that there was a pair
introduced for trial that did not do ample credit to their own
ability and to their OAvner's skill in training them. They could
and did back as well as draw a load. But few oxen can be
found that cannot draw, while hut few are to be found that can
back the same load handsomely.

Thomas W. Ward, Chairman.

From the Report of the Committee on Steers.

Your committee had an opportunity to notice during the
trial, what early training, skill and gentleness can accom-
plish in bringing into service the strength, bone and sinew
of the working steer. A pair of two years old steers, exhibited
by J. M. Forbes, of Boylston, were put to the cart, and made
to do the same work that was required of the three years old.
This they executed handsomely, all but the backing up the
inclination, and in this they succeeded better than several that
were on trial, and did all that could possibly be expected of
steers of that age, though not above the average size or
strength. Another pair of two years old steers, exhibited by
J. P. Reed, of Princeton, were made to draw the load required
in the trial of oxen. Their accomplishment of the task was
duly appreciated by the hearty cheers of the crowd who
witnessed the performance.

Your committee inferred from this exhibition, that if two
years old steers of ordinary size can be made to do the work of

NEAT STOCK. 265

common oxen, and to do it as well, before they are half grown
or matured, preparing steers for the yoke ought to be a special
trade, which should wholly occupy the time of those whose
natural temperament and ability render them peculiarly fitted
for the business. The well trained and fully developed ox is a
powerful animal, and can be made, if rightly governed, to do
great work for the farmer. How few working oxen there are,
that are well matched in strength and tractability. There are
thousands of them owned by the farmers of Massachusetts to-
day, that would not and could not make so good an appearance
on the cattle show grounds, as the two pairs of two years old
steers exhibited this day. This should not be. So much
latent, unemployed strength in the ox, is one of the great
wastes in the economy of farming. Tlie farmer cannot afford
it ; for it costs no more, if it does as much, to keep an ox
whose muscles are well trained and fully developed, each set of
which is ready at any moment to perform its own peculiar
office in the most economical manner, than an ox of the same
size and weight, which by a defect in his early training can be
made to do hardly one-half the amount of work.

Your committee, also, are convinced more than ever that it
will not pay to raise scrub steers. Many farmers are so Ameri-
can, thorough-bred, native-born, that any breed of cattle that
has a foreign name attached to it, is condemned with prejudice,
and without trial, and is not appreciated for what merit it
really does possess. It costs but little more to raise a good, well
proportioned steer than an inferior one ; but there is a great
difference in their value when they become three or four years
old. One of your committee had an opportunity to notice this
difference in the manner of raising steers, and consequently in
their value. Two droves of Vgrmont cattle came into town on
the same day. One came from a section of the State where the
improvement of the stock was rapidly progressing, by the
introduction of foreign and improved breeds a few years ago ;
the other came from a section where but very little attention
had been given to this object. A casual observer could discern
at once the superior excellence of the one over the other. The
cause of this was apparent, and upon inquiry proved real. The
result was as will naturally be supposed. Quick and ready
sales, at advanced prices, were made from the more excellent

34

266 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

drove, wliile the inferior found a dull market. One pair of
three years old steers in the latter were sold for sixty dollars,
while another pair, in the former, of the same age, weighing
8,000 pounds, were disposed of at 8140. Suppoi^ing tliat the
difference per head between the two droves, in consequence of
superior keeping, blood, or botli, was two dollars, there would
have been a gain in that drove of two hundred, of four
hundred dollars over the other.

Believing tliat as the steer is, so the ox will be, your committee
cannot help urging the importance of raising good steers for
early training and work.

Your committee also would suggest for your consideration,
that a premium be offered for work best performed by sieers or
oxen without the touch of lash or goad.

W. F. Wheeler, Chairman.

HOUSATONIC.

From the Report of the Committee on Working' Oxen.

The ox is valuable, first for his labor, second, fur beef. Did
the value of the ox cease with his labor, many of those points
that are now bred for, might be neglected without loss of power.
It is a fact, that the ox that is heavy in his coarse parts, and
light in those that are most valuable when slauglitered, is often
a courageous and an enduring worker ; while the ox of perfect
form possesses equal powers of endurance. He is first sought
after for service, commanding a remunerating price for raising,
and when his work is done, and he is driven a beautiful fat ox
into market, finds a ready sale.

Farmers should not breed oxen for their labor, but for their
flesh, or in other words a model .ox will perform prom])tly all
necessary labor.

Second, farmers should breed such oxen as will yield the
most flesh, and the least bone, or in other words, f-iich oxen as
will carry the most and best beef to the shambles. If the
position taken is correct, the farmer should not, need not play
" Blind Man's Buff," but with an unsealed eye, acquaint
himself with the principles of breeding, learn what family of
aniiuils possess the most good points, what cross cm ba made
that will sustain and develop all the points necestary to cjnsti-

NEAT STOCK. 267

tute a perfect ox. The great law that like produces like,
" though it is not invariable," is an important consideration for
all stock growers. If good qualities are propagated bj the
union of animals possessing good qualities, and if it is desirable
to propagate a race of animals, that do not deteriorate by
breeding, " in and in," the Ayrshire, Devon, Durham and
Hereford, come to us as the self-preserving families.

In relation to the Ayrshire ox, the pen of the historian has
ever been inkless, and it is only through record of the Stock-
bridge and Lenox Farmers' Club, that we learn that they
possess great hardihood of constitution and the elements for
early maturity. The action, docility and tractability of the
Devon ox is second to no other, and from its uniformity of color
it is easily matched ; its beef is of a fine quality, though it does
not attain to the weight of many other breeds, and is inclined
to be (when slaughtered) minus in some of the better points.

The Hereford family is entitled to a test trial by the farmers
of Berkshire. With good points, good actions and good con-
stitutions, they ought not to be excluded from our hillsides, for
the lone reason that their faces are white.

The eye would be slow to weep, could it always range among
the Durham family and view the splendid forms of their oxen.
Like the trees of the forest, the full bloods have their appro-
priate clime and soil. The annual exhibitions of Durham oxen,
steers and cows, prove beyond a doubt, that our New England
clime is congenial to their growth, and that the sweet grasses
and waters of Berkshire will nourish and nurture the massive
frame of the Durham.

D. D. Kendall, Chairman.

WORCESTER.

From the Report of the Committee on Fat Cattle.
All animals, to fat well, must not only be fed well at stated
hours, but must be made comfortable at all times, by giving
them warm quarters when the fattening operation commences ;
and as they increase in fat, colder quarters, even under open
sheds on the snow, in preference to a tight barn, with boards
matched and every crack closed to keep out the air. A very
fat ox is seldom if ever cold, and always requires the pure air

268 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

to breathe. It is so with a very fat hog, and all other animals ;
all need a pure cold air in proportion to their amount of fat.
Such being the fact, fat cattle should have separate apartments
from other animals, where the cold air can be admitted by
degrees, as the fat is taken on. All animals should be made
very fat, as all the profit in fattening is in putting on the last
hundreds, when the animal eats but half as much and fattens
twice as fast.

Chables Brigham, Chairman.

FEEDING STOCK.

ESSEX.

Report of the Cotmniitee on the Comparative Value of Crops as
Food for Cattle.

No experiments or tests illustrating this subject have been
submitted for premium, and the committee regret that it is so,-
having earnestly hoped that upon a subject so important to all
concerned many such experiments would be made and thereby
much light thrown upon the question, and each article of
fodder have its appropriate value in the feeding of stock perma-
nently established as far as possible. Scientific men have
experimented carefully upon this question, though perhaps none
in our own country, and we believe few farmers fail to satisfy
their minds to some extent in regard to it, but such is the
difference in the subjects of the experiments, in the period and
manner of making them, in the object desired to be obtained,
in the condition and character of the food used, (though the
latter may be of the same variety even in all cases,) that a
noticeable difference exists in the results and they are conflicting
and contradictory.

Though upon a subject so broad, and influenced by such a
variety of circumstances, it is difficult to obtain strictly correct
conclusions, yet by numerous experiments, carefully made and
detailed, the comparative value of various articles of fodder
can be sufficiently established to be of much advantage to the
feeder ; and to this end it is desirable that those who are
employed in this branch of farming, record their experiments

FEEDING STOCK.

269

with minuteness and accuracy for the benefit of those who have
not their experience, and thus whatever information is gained
may be permanently secured.

It was the opinion of Boussingault, who made numerous
experiments in the feeding of stock, that the relative value of
the crops employed for fodder was in proportion to the amount
of nitrogen they severally contained — and ho arranged some of
these articles in the following order, producing equal effects in
feeding, when consumed in their usual state of dryness : —

Hay from mixed grass,

Hay, second crop.

Hay from clover in flower,

Pea straw, ....

Lentil straw, ....

Indian corn straw.

Barley straw and wheat straw, .

Oat, straw, ....

Swede turnips,

Sugar beet, ....

Carrots, ....

Beans, ....

Peas, ....

Indian corn, ....

Buckwheat, ....

Oats, ....

Linseed cake, ....

Barley, ....

The subject can hardly, however, be made' practical to us as
farmers, unless we resolve it into its vari
them separately. So different are the objects of the farmer in
feeding stock, that an article desirable and valuable for one
purpose may be almost useless for another, and to ascertain the
relative merits of different food we cannot well do so as regards
all the purposes of feeding collectively. Many experiments
and tests are therefore to be made, and will be valuable if they
make plain to us the method of feeding requisite for the attain-
ment of any of these ends. We hope that during the coming
year, whether this premium continues to be offered by the society
or not, these tests will be made and published. In summer,

100

pounds

75

a

75

a

64

a

114

11

240

a

520

it

550

it

676

u

669

li

382

a

23

li

27

a

70

a

55

u

60

u

22

li

65

u

270 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

■when green food is abundant, we question the superior ad-
vantages of any other course of feeding. But in winter it is
desirable to economize so bulky and valuable an article of fodder
as hay ; it is therefore for the interest of the farmer and quite
as much so for the stock, to use mixed food.

Says Professor Johnston : " The skilful feeder will occasion-
ally change the kind of food ; he will not attempt to maintain his
stock on any kind of food which does not contain a sufficient
supply of every one of the kinds of matter which the body
requires. He will adapt the kind and quantity of food to the
age of the animal and to the purposes for which it is fed."

No kind of winter food is sufficiently complete in itself, to
enable an animal for a length of time to afford the greatest
possible return to the feeder, unless the animal is one, which
having for a long time afforded profit to its owner, only requires
a season of rest to recuperate its exhausted stores, and unless
the feeder has no eye to present return, the whole system of
winter feeding being artificial. Three centuries ago the timely
advice of Tusser to the English farmers was to store up their
beef in November, when oxen, which were fat upon the green
food of summer, began to grow thin and which lived through
the winter partly on the fat stored up in time of plenty, no fresh
beef being seen from Martinmas to Easter. It is since the
commencement of the present century that the difference
between heat-producing and flesh-forming substances, has been
noticed, and cattle have been fed according to established
principles.

The feeding of stock embraces several objects requiring for
all practical purposes two peculiar modes of feeding; although,
when examined minutely, the ingredients employed by the
animal in the constitution of its frame are numerous. But it
is sufficient for our purpose that we adopt two methods with
special reference to the following objects : —

1. The growth of the animal, increase of muscle in working
cattle and' the production of cheese.

2. The increase of fat and the production of butter.

Food having a large proportion of albumen, caseinc, &c., is
especially calculated to bring about a good result, when the
object of the feeder is to produce some of the first mentioned
returns.

NEAT STOCK.

271

Not liaving experiments of our own to illustrate this point,
we quote the table of Boussingault.

Theoretical quantities of different kinds of vegetable produce,
having equal effect in the growth of muscle : —

Hay, . .

,

10

Potatoes,

. 28

Clover hay cut in flower, .

8

Old potatoes, .

. 41

Lucerne,

,

8

Carrots, .

. 35

Second crop, .

.

8

Turnips, .

. 61

Green clover in

flower, .

31

Wiiite cabbage,

. 37

Green Lucerne,

. .

35

Vetches,

. 2

Wheat straw, .

.

52

Peas,

. 3

Eye straw.

,

Gl

Indian corn, .

. 6

Barley straw, .

.

52

Wheat, .

. 5

Oat straw,

.

55

Rye,

. 5

Pea straw.

, .

6

Barley, .

. 6

Vetch straw, .

, .

7

Oats,

■ . 5

Potato leaves, .

.

36

Bran,

. 9

Carrot leaves, .

.

13

Oil cake, .

. 2

In feeding for the increase of fat and production of butter,
it is necessary to employ food rich in vegetable oils ; for these
two objects one method of feeding is mainly available and will
secure the end desired, though some of the vegetable oils bo
more appropriate to the increase of fat than others, and some be
peciiliaily adapted to the production of butter, and though the
observation of Mr. Ilorsfull, whose essay upon the management
of dairy cat'.lo is a most valuable acquisition to agricultural
literature, be true: "It is worthy of remark that experience
states that ricli pastures used for fattening, fully maintain their
fertility through a long series of years; wliilc those used for
dairy (butter) cows require periodical dressings to preserve
their fertility."

If we can economically make the distinction spoken of here
respecting the different qualities of oils, so much the better.
Shall not the experiments of the coming year illustrate this
matter in respect to the winter food of fattening and butter-
making stock ?

That oleaginous plants arc most productive of fat and butter,
when fed to cattle, is abundantly proved by the experience of

272

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

numerous practical and scientific men. This is the general
rule ; an exception, however, has been found in the comparative
results of linseed and bean meal in the produce of butter by
Dr. Thompson, the latter producing more butter than the
former, though containing less oil, and he gives as a probable
reason for this, the constituents of bean meal being in the natural
proportion to restore the waste of the animal system.

Some of the more common articles of cattle food contain of
oil, per centum as follows : —

Hay, .

. 2.68

Linseed cake.

. 11.41

Indian corn.

. 5to9

Malt combs, .

2.96

Barley,

. 2.5

Bean straw, .

2.23

Oats, .

. 5.6

Pea straw, .

. 1.5

Beans,

. 2+

Potatoes,

0.3

Linseed,

. 11.00

Turnips, (starch gum)

. 10.0

Rape seed, .

. 11.63

Carrots,

. 0.4

Cotton seed cake, .

. 16.47

Clover hay, .

3.0

Bran,

. 5.56

Indian corn straw.

. 1.7

We would refer the reader to the following sources of
information upon this subject : —

Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry, chapters xx., xxi.

Thompson's " Food of Animals."

Horsfall's Essay on Dairy Management, published in the
Appendix to Flint's Treatise on Dairy Farming.

Boussingault's Rural Economy.

J. Royal Agricultural Society, England, volume 3, page
81-258.

Morton's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Article Nutrition.

We are anxious that our own farmers should not only
investigate this subject, but record their conclusions and their
experiments.

G. P. Sargent, Chairman.

WORCESTER NORTH.

Statement of John Brooks^ Jr. — Experiments in Feeding Milch

Coivs.

I fed the following cows and heifers last winter and spring,
and now beg leave to call your attention to the following
Tables.

NEAT STOCK.

273

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HORSES.

MIDDLESEX.

From the Report of the Committee on Stallions.

Your committee would strenuously insist that the class of
" Stallions " should be five years old and over. The observance
of this suggestion would relieve the committee of embarrass-,
ments that they have labored under the past, as well as the
present year, and would allow of proper justice being done to
four year old stallions when classed by themselves, which obvi-
ously they cannot receive under the present improper classifica-
tion ; and owners of the four-year-olds that were presented,
will at once perceive the force of the above remarks, and see
that their animals could not, under the existing rules, receive
such notice as they were evidently entitled to under proper
regulations.

A stallion, for a stock horse, should possess quahfications of
the highest order. He should be sound and without a blemish,
and of good constitution, with capacious and prominent chest
and hind parts to match — of fair size, say from 950 to 1,000
pounds weight, and with good limb and muscle ; with a good
open countenance, a fine ear, an intelligent eye, a clean head
nicely set upon a graceful neck, and that well fitted to a good
sized body, well proportioned in all its parts, — all supported by
smooth limbs of sufficient bone and muscle, terminating in good
sound hoofs, with accompanying style and action, and in con-
nection with a decided blood to transmit and impress these
qualifications on the foal. Then we have a stallion to which
we can take a mare of corresponding or even inferior develop-
ments, and with reasonable certainty look for a colt of equal
merit with the sire and dam.

If it is speed that we wish, we must take families of a trot-
ting race to accomplish that object. The tendency to speed
alone, in trotting, to the sacrifice to many indispensable qualifi-
cations to the farmer, should not receive the sanction of a
farming community. A good walker, however, can justly
receive the approbation of every farmer in Middlesex, wlio has
to travel the hard and wearisome journey from the distant towns
to Boston, say from three to five times the week, with his

36

282 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

loads of produce. "We will all go in for tlie fast horse, in this
respect, without a dissent.

The compact Morgan is a good specimen of a stallion to breed
from. He exhibits a body well formed in all its parts, with
limb and muscle developed in a thorough and sufficient man-
ner, with grace and docility, and a sound constitution, and with
an acknowledged pedigree, and will transmit this combination
of excellent parts tlirough successive generations. To this and
to similar classes, the farmer must look for his horse stock on
the farm.

Samuel H. Rhoades.

worcester north.

From the Report of the Committee on Dravg-ht Horses.

We believe the horse, and particularly the draught horse, to
be the most useful animal that moves upon the face of the
earth. We do not usually appreciate blessings and privileges
fully until we are deprived of them. Consider then, for a
moment, our condition if the horse were stricken from exist-
ence. The world almost comes to a stand still, particularly the
agriculturist. What is it that ploughs our land, carries our
manure, covers our seed, cuts our hay and grain, threshes the
latter, moves all our produce to our barns and market ? The
draught horse. Of what use are our canals without him ? It
is true steam may be used"; but without the horse, canals with
.steam, or even the railroad with its engine and car would
become almost a dead letter, for the horse has first to transport
all our produce and freight from diiferent parts of the land
before steam becomes available. The horse is capable of being-
trained and educated to do almost any thing. We believe there
is a great lack on the part of the owners of horses in training
them when young for after service, for then it can be done with
little or no whipping, and there is scarcely any animal so
tractable, or that will appreciate kindness so well as the horse,
or that has so mucli pride in appearing well. The horse has
always been man's most faithful servant, in time of war and
peace, and the draught horse is his indispensable servant. The
fancy horse, like ladies' jewelry, is well enough in its place, but
not very essential.

L. Stockwell, Chairman.

HORSES. 283

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

From the Report of the Committee.

We hope the day is not far distant when every man will be a
good judge of horse flesh, and every person who owns one, the
possessor of a superior animal. No one can afford to keep a
poor animal of any kind ; much less a horse. It costs no more
to care for a really valuable animal, than it does, or ought to,
to maintain an inferior one ; though we are free to say that a
person conscious of possessing a poor beast is more inclined,
generally, even if it be a dog, to bestow kicks than caresses
upon it. The farmer can better afford to keep a good horse
than a good ox. Speed, endurance and docility, are of as much
advantage for farm labor, as for pleasure riding, and the farmer
can only obtain these desirable qualifications by first selecting
good stock, taking good care of it and seeking constantly to
make it better.

Even the simple trials of speed, at our agricultural fairs,
which are as necessary to prove the good qualities of the horse,
as the drawing match is to prove the capabilities of the ox team,
are regarded by many as an innovation. But happily a better
sentiment is prevailing in this respect, and the race track is
coming more and more to its legitimate and appropriate use.
Every means for the improvement and benefit of this noble
animal ought to be hailed with pleasure by all classes, and every
one ought to be willing to contribute his mite to the consum-
mation of so glorious an object.

There is a marked improvement in this class of animals
from year to year, visible in the shows of this society. The
present exhibition brought forward some very fine animals,
particularly among the young stock. This is beginning right.
Breed good stock, rear it well, and the poor, ill-fed, snail-paced,
" rack o'bones " that prevail in many localities, will soon be
consigned to oblivion, to be succeeded by a race of hardy,
nimble- footed, finely formed, and every way superior animals.
It is not necessary to tell the farmers of the Connecticut Valley
their duty in this respect ; they know it, and knowing, will
perform.

J. II. Trumbull, Reporter.

284 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

HAMPDEN.

From the Report of the Committee on Farm Horses.

The question arises, " AVhat qualities should farm horses
possess ? "

1. They should be well matched ; sometimes they are
matched simply in color, no matter what their dispositions may
be. A span of horses well matched should have the same
temperament ; that is, one should not be quick and nervous,
always ready to start at the first signal, and the other slow and
phlegmatic, never ready to move until started by the whip ; and
a span of horses perfectly matched in size and color, but of
different actions, are ill matched. Therefore, to be a good span
of well matched horses, they should have the same spirit and
disposition, as well as color and size.

2. What should be the weight of a span of farm horses ?
On this point there will be a difference of opinion, according
to the different kinds of farm work. One farmer lives near a
good steady market, consequently he sells a large portion of
the produce of his farm, and hazes his manure, which makes a
large amount of carting, consequently he wants a heavy pair of
horses. Another farmer feeds on his farm the greater part that
he raises, hazing little or no manure, thereby saving much
carting. On such a farm a lighter pair of horses will answer.
The span to which we awarded the first premium weighed
about 2,200 pounds, which in the opinion of your committee, is
plenty large enough, and perhaps a span of 1,000 pounds horses
in common ordinary farm work, will be as economical for the
farmer as a heavier span.

3. They should be good walkers, as that is their usual gait.
In ploughing, for instance, there would be the difference of
some days' work in ploughing thirty or forty acres of land, as
to whether they walked at the rate of four or four and a half
miles an hour, or three miles an hour ; and it makes some dif-
ference whether a horse can plough out corn as fast as three
men can hoe, or no faster than two can hoe. Therefore we say
that farm horses should be fast walkers, born such, and not
made such by the use of the whip. And if all the noise and
pains and money that is made and paid for these fast thorough-

SHEEP. 285

bred horses have a tendency to improve and quicken the
walking qualities of horses, farmers may consider themselves
as gaining some capital out of this jockey business. There are
other qualities which we hope other committees will bring out.

William H. Atkins, Chairman.

SHEEP

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

Report of the Committee.

We must confess great disappointment at the exceedhigly
meagre show of sheep, in the enterprising, fertile and thrifty
county of Hampshire, with its sweet pastures and teeming
meadows, and we could but glance back to the days when that
noble man, the pride of his town, liis county, the whole State,
— Hon. 1. C. Bates, with Samuel Henshaw and the Shepherds,
in common with a few leading agriculturists and statesmen,
was one of the most eminent and successful in the introduc-
tion to this country of the Merino, and afterwards of the
Saxony sheep, — a measure which, forwarded as it was by the
far-seeing men of that age, did more to benefit the farmer and
to stimulate the manufacturer, than any other object of the
kind ever attempted here. The fine-woolled or Merino sheep,
were first introduced into this country just before the last war,
when the most sagacious of our statesmen began to realize the
necessity of cultivating manufactures, and growing the mate-
rial necessary to supply them — a policy which Great Britain
had sedulously discouraged in these colonies.

Previous to this, however, there were many sheep in the
country, of no known or distinct breed, called native sheep, but
really imported at various times by various people, from various
flocks, but without care, and almost entirely for their wool,
which, although too coarse for fine fabrics, was consumed
upon the spinning wheel and loom at home. The meat was
very little regarded, and was not in general use.

286 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The Saxony sheep were next introduced under the idea of
greater hardiness, — the first being imported by Samuel Hen-
shaw, in 1823.

Since then, the culture of sheep has undergone a very
decided change in this country. Tlien, fine-woolled sheep were
almost entirely raised. There were to be seen some of what
were called native sheep, — that is, sheep grown so long in this
country, that they possessed none of the distinctive marks of
the breeds from wliich they originally sprung, though all of
them came from Great Britain ; and there were also some
called Irish Smuts, middling large sheep, and possessing some
good points, but lacking the most essential qualities, and
entirely unreliable in the breeding. There were then none of
the thorough-bred Leicester, South Down, Cotswold, or other
large or middle-woolled sheep.

There are several reasons why our farmers have changed
their system of sheep raising, from the small fine-woolled to the
larger middle-woolled sheep.

The fluctuations of the price of wool, from fifty-four cents
down to thirty, the enormously increased importation of
Australian wool, and the superior advantages of the West and
South with their immense sheep walks, together with the
losses attendant on a large flock, have operated one way to
drive out the fine-woolled slieep, while the greatly increased
demand, the ready market, and quick returns for mutton and
lambs, with less trouble, and a smaller flock, have contributed
to the same purpose, in a different way. No doubt, too, the
constant destruction of sheep by dogs, has had much to do
in bringing it about.

The larger breeds will produce more lambs, and by good
keeping, both their quantity of wool is increased and their ten-
dency to breed, and their capacity to bring up their lambs.
Such sheep well kept will yean and suckle an average of a
lamb and a half to a ewe, or fifteen lambs to ten ewes. Large,
early lambs well started, and allowed a pint of meal daily, for
the last two months, will readily find a market here at $5
per head, in May or June. The care and trouble of a flock of
such sheep, bears no proportion to that attendant on a large
flock of fine-woolled sheep. 'The larger breeds are more prolific,
hardier, less liable on account of their size, to be worried by

SHEEP. 287

dogs, less liable to disease, not so apt to ramble, and bringing
quicker returns are more profitable to moderate farmers.

Then for mutton, the Merino ewe, at the age of six or seven,
becomes so broken-mouthed by the teetli breaking and wearing
up, that it is almost impossible to fatten her, even if her slender
and unprofitable frame was worth covering with fat, and she is
killed for the sake of her pelt, and what small amount of tal-
low she will render. The middle wools, however, when six
years old, are capable of being made into superb mutton, from
their great aptitude to take on fat ; and carcasses averaging
110 to 120 pounds at ten cents per pound, and a dollar for the
pelt, making twelve or thirteen dollars, show a handsome profit
on the expense of raising and fattening. These are probably
the considerations which have produced the change in sheep
husbandry in this country. Of the various breeds, probably
the South Down is at present the greatest favorite ; the Cots-
wold is larger with somewhat coarser staple, but shapes up
beautifully and fattens readily. We hope to see about here
some of the latter varieties, which seem to be adapted to our
purposes, as the New Oxfordshire Downs and the Shropshire
Downs, got by crossing the improved South Downs for a succes-
sion of years, with the Cheviot, the Suffolk, and Norfolk. It
is certain that there is no branch of agricultural pursuits
more profitable than the raising of sheep, prudently managed,
and it would be a most pleasant sight to see pens equally well
filled with fine, large sheep, as with cattle.

This concludes our report of a most excellent show of stock.
We desire to express our thanks to the president, and your atten-
tive, efficient and able secretary, for kind attentions shown us.

We have written perhaps more minutely and diffusely than is
usual, or perhaps than would be desired ; but the subject is an
engrossing one. Our agricultural societies are great institu-
tions, and our cattle shows the great holidays of the year, and
to complete this great system, we now need some well arranged
plan of agricultural education for farmers' sons, where they
might perfect themselves in this profession, the most honest and
honorable, the most healthy and happy of all callings, among
the sons of Adam.

For the committee,

James S. Grennell, of Greenfield.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

SWINE.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

From the Report of the Committee on Swine.

The Mackay breed, which the committee are disposed to place
at the head of swine in New England, was originated from
thirty-five to forty years ago by Capt. John Mackay, a Boston
sea-captain, who owned a farm in Weston of this county. In his
voyages he picked up the best specimens of swine he could find
in various parts of the world, and bred them together on his
farm ; from time to time, as he made desirable acquisitions he
would still further raise tlie character of his breed. Some of
the animals thus produced were inclined to keep constantly fat,
from three weeks old up, and to grow to a large size, frequently
at eighteen months old weighing 600 pounds. From these
latter animals the breed was kept up. In the mean time, the
animals Capt. Mackay scattered through the community about
him were negligently cared for, and soon lost the strict charac-
teristics of a breed. Hence there have been many Mackays in
name that were almost any thing else in nature, thereby injuring
the reputation of the breed. In 183-4: the worthy captain sold
his animals to Col. Jaques, who continued the development of
them ; such was the heedlessness of swine raisers that some
twelve or fifteen years afterward the breed was found to be
annihilated, except in the yards of Col. Jaques. Now that it
has once more begun to spread through the country, may we
not believe that the increased interest in agricultural matters
will prevent its again running out ?

In conclusion the committee would urge upon their fellow-
members and fellow-citizens increased attention to the rearing
of swine. They are aware that many persons of education and
otherwise, and indeed, some agricultural writers and even
committees on swine, have within a few years joined the Jews
and Mahometans in decrying and defaming the pig. They say
he is an unclean and unhealthy animal, and that the use of his
flesh leads to scrofula, consumption and various other diseases.
Now your committee contend that while the pig is oftentimes
constantly unclean, he would be otherwise if his owner would

SWINE. 289

let him. He likes to have his wallow and then wash off in clean
water ready for his clean straw ; he may be occasionally diseased,
especially in the liver ; but this is because his master confines
him in filth, frequently shutting out the light and air, and
compelling him in a damp, dark cellar to breathe the exhala-
tions of the manure of all the stock on the farm. Surely no
other animal could pass the ordeal with any thing like the health
of the hog. Then the food — what disgusting stuff often forms
the sole ration of the pig, just because he will eat it. Let him
have light, air, water and corn or boiled vegetables and milk for
the body of his diet, and he becomes a healthy, wholesome
animal, and his flesh in moderate quantities, worthy food for
mankind. As to the connection between scrofula and pork
eating, your committee consider the doctrine a humbug.
They are aware that the name scrofula is derived from the
Greek word scrofa, which means hog, but there the connec-
tion ends. The Hindoos who never eat pork, and the impover-
ished classes in Europe who seldom taste any kind of meat,
are among the greatest sufferers from scrofula. On the other
hand the bacon and hog-and-hominy negroes of the South
and the pig-devouring natives of the South Sea arc wonderfully
exempt from the disease ; so, too, of the Chinese, whose almost
sole meat consists of immense numbers of pigs, as the chairman
of the committee well knows from experience, gastronomic and
otherwise. As to consumption, there is high medical authority
for the use of cod-liver oil, mainly for its supply of carbon, a
purpose that a good pork diet would supply nearly as well.
Except in hot weather, it is pretty thoroughly proved by high
authority, that good corn fed pork in moderation conduces to
health, and to the durability of the system. The diseases attrib-
uted to its use seem almost entirely confined to those who do not
touch it, while the robust health that its accusers seek to obtain
by its disuse, seems generally to be enjoyed by those who mod-
erately but regularly make it an article of diet. "We therefore
think pork worthy of the estimation in which it has ever been
held in New England, and the animals that produce it entitled
to increased consideration.

John A. Goodwin, Chairman.

37

290 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

Statement of Joseph Jennison.

I have been in the habit of fattening my pork on corn and
oat meal, and from my experience I am persuaded that oats can
thus be fed out to swine to as much profit as to the horse,
especially when the present rates are taken into consideration.
But let prices vary as they may, I have always preferred a
mixture of about one-third oats. There is sufficient nourish-
ment in oat and corn meal to promote the growth, as also the
health of the animal. Nor is there so great danger of over-
feeding as with pure corn meal. My method is to commence
with an average of from three to four quarts to each per day,
and increase gradually the quantity as the appetite of the
animal will allow. At an advanced period, eight or ten quarts
will be no more than enough. The last fortnight or more, I
give meal and water, reduced to the consistency of dough, and
as much as they will take. In feeding, the hunger of the
animal should be regarded, as some require and will take more
than others. During the earlier and intermediate stages of
fattening, I use considerable milk ; at a later period I give
unground corn occasionally, usually at noon, when they receive
nothing else. I feed three times each day. I have practiced
scalding the meal when I have no milk for them, and find that
not only does the animal relish it better, but appears to gain
faster than when cold water is used. When I have them pretty
well imder way, I have thought they gained from two to three
pounds daily. During the time of fattening, which occupies
from three to four months, a thrifty pig may be made to weigh
from five to six hundred. Below are the figures of three swine
raised by myself. The then price of corn and oats, as well as
that of pork, is given. The present prices are not fair rates.
No account, as will be seen, is made of their benefit to the
yard.

Three pigs, 300 lbs. each— 900 lbs. at 6i cents, |58 50
Kept them 5 months or IGO days, at 10 quarts per
day, amounting to 50 bushels — ^ oats, 16 ;
corn, 34.

POULTRY. 291

34 bushels corn, 75 cents, $25 50

16 bushels oats, 50 cents, . . . . . 8 00

Expense of feedhig, 10 00

8102 00
3 pigs weighed when dressed, respectively, 513,
607, 723 pounds, amounting to 1,843 pounds,
at 9^ cents, 170 48

Netgain, 168 48

POULTRY.

ESSEX.

From the Report of the Committee.

Communications were received from most of the exhibitors,
the general characteristic of which was a great barrenness of
interesting and profitable details. We present the following as
containing facts which may be of value to tlio community.

Of the Brahma-poutres exhibited by him, Mr. Barnaby writes :
" Tiiese chickens (seven pullets) were hatched the 10th of
April. I have fed them altogether on common Indian corn
and meal, with the exception of cooked, coarse meat once a
week. They commenced laying the first of September, and
have laid 106 eggs up to this date, September 29 " — when four
months and twenty days old. Of a cross between the pure
Bolton Grey and Brahma-poutre, Mr. Warren writes : " They
were hatched the 20th of May, and the pullets commenced lay-
ing the 16th of September " — when four months and fourteen
days old. The Seabright bantams exhibited by Mr. Ives, were
exceedingly beautifnl. Mr. Ives presented the following state-
ment: "The mother of the Golden Seabrights on exhibition
(six in number) during the months of March, April and May
layed 408 eggs, or 34 dozen in 92 days. I have kept at differ-
ent times upwards of twelve different kinds of fowls, and as far
as my experience goes, I pronounce the Seabrights the best
laying fowls I have ever seen. Tlieir eggs are larger in propor-

292 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

tioii to the size of the fowls than tlie eggs of larger breeds.
The expense of keeping them is very small ; I could not esti-
mate the expense of keeping mine, having kept them mostly
upon the swill and crumbs from the house, but I can safely say
that the expense is not over one-half that of larger breeds."

From accurate experiments made a few years since we found
the cost of food consumed by a variety of black bantam was
exactly one-half that consumed by ordinary breeds. Mr. Ives
exhibited eggs of his Seabriglits, which are of about the aver-
age size of the eggs of the Bolton Grey fowl of the first year's
laying.

John I. Ladd, of Groveland, exhibited a hen with 57 chick-
ens, all hatched by her and a portion of them raised by her
during the past season. Mr. Ladd presented the following
statement : " The father of this hen was of the Cocliin China
breed and her mother a Booby hen. The father of the chick-
ens is a Brahma-poutre, the mother a China Booby. The hen
was set March 11 on 19 eggs, and came off April 2 with 17
chickens ; she was with these 22 days. From April 21 to May
15 she laid 24 eggs, and on the IGth of May she was set on
these eggs and came off June 6 with 21 chickens. Her chick-
ens were given to another hen to bring up. She commenced
laying again on tlie 15th of June, and laid 18 eggs up to July
2. She was set again July 3 on these 18 eggs, and came off
July 25 with 15 chickens, which were given to another hen.
She commenced laying again August 5, and laid 15 eggs up to
August 21; she was set August 22 on the 11 eggs, and came
off September 14 with 11 chickens, and they are now with her."
This stateiuent indicates a fowl of a very hardy constitution,
and wonderfully prolific both as a layer and as a setter. Mr.
Ladd terms tlie hen a " Booby" hen ; the hen is a large sized,
deep bodied, short legged hen of tlie eastern breeds which were
so widely disseminated a few years since, and might probably
be as correctly called by either of the half dozen names by whicli
these breeds are known. It appears that this fowl layed every
day throughout the season when not setting or with her chickens,
producing in the course of six months 57 eggs and 64 chickens.

We all remember the great " fowl fever," as it is termed,
which spread through the country a few years since. It came
and went — one of those spasms which sometimes afflict whole

POULTRY. 293

communities, that reach their climax so rapidly and pass away
so speedily that many who are among the afflicted are con-
founded when the reaction comes, having a dim idea of a dis-
agreeable dream. A few cool headed sharpers took advantage
of the fashionable mania which possessed the public, and in a
grand round of villainy fleeced hundreds of their fellow citi-
zens whose enthusiasm had for the time got the better of their
reason ; and what is the most wonderful feature of the whole
delusion, one of these sharpers mistook his scoundrelism for
wit, and put himself on record in a work which for impudent
rascality wiljii^ong wait for a compeer. Very naturally a great
reaction has followed upon this inflated enthusiasm, and thou-
sands can now see in fowls only the reminder of their former
folly. " One extreme follows another," is a true adage, and
what in those days with so many was the height of the desir-
able, has changed about and now become the height of the
ridiculous, — for it is human nature that a man should scorn a
thing which he has used after a foolish manner, rather than the
folly that so used it. To many, therefore, any propositions
relative to the improvement of the poultry yard sound weak or
have the ring of imposition in them, the whole subject being
to their minds matter for pleasantry rather than a subject
worthy the earnest, conscientious attention of an intelligent
worker.

But when the poulterer at the close of the season strikes his
balance, does he consider the difference between a stock of good
laying hens and a stock of poor laying ones a joke ? Would
he not really prefer for breeding purposes a race good to hatch
and rear chickens ; and for his table a fowl with a full breast
of fine, compact flesh, to one with a breast as sharp as the hull
of a clipper ship with legs like her masts ? — or a fat, juicy
chicken to a lean, stringy one? and should a "bag of bones"
be brought to his table, would he not find it rather a difficult
matter to pick a joke out of it ? Now these and kindred
traits of excellence belong to some breeds of fowl more than to
others. Why, then, not select such breeds in preference to the
chance stock that is usually found in the barnyard ? Enormous
sums and great labor are expended to procure the purest blood
of the best races of horses, cows, sheep, swine and of every
species inhabiting the barnyard, while poor chanticleer almost

294 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

wholly excepted, since the late reaction is left alone to do his
own crowing on his own dung-hill. Good traits just as cer-
tainly run in the blood of certain races of fowls as they run in
the blood of certain races of horses, cows, sheep and swine.
Why, then, should there not be as much outlay of labor and
expense, in proportion to their value to the community, to pro-
cure pure races of excellent fowls as pure races of other stock ?
Among the pure blooded breeds, the Black Spanish, Dorking,
Bolton Grey, Guelderland, and a variety of the breeds which
are known by the name " Brahma-poutre," stand highest in
practical value ; yet the poulterer will find it triS of all highly
bred fowls that a finer nervous organization is usually accom-
panied with less hardiness of constitution when young ; which
in pure breeds is often aggravated by too close breeding. Let
the amateur, tlierefore, not be discouraged if in endeavoring to
introduce either of the above varieties into his collection they
should prove very delicate ; let him try the same variety from
some other stock, before he finally rejects them on such grounds.
To state briefly the characteristics of the above breeds, which
have established characters for themselves : of the Black
Spanish we affirm that they are ready for the table at an early
age, when they prove full breasted, small boned and fine fleshed ;
they begin to lay at an early period, are almost " everlasting"
layers, being seldom or never broody, and their eggs of supe-
rior quality, are noble sized, weighing from twenty-five to
thirty ounces to the dozen. Their rich plumage with its green
gloss renders them very attractive. The objections to them are
their wandering propensities and their nervous, fly-away organ-
izations, which takes away one of the greatest attractions of
fowls, docility. The Dorking is the fowl of old England.
They mature very rapidly and have the fullest development of
" white meat" of any fowl brought to the table. The eggs are
very large and of excellent quality, and for all natural uses of
fowls, for the table, for laying and setting, this breed ranks very
high. The dorking is spreading fast over the country, and no
doubt tlie public will gain thereby, provided only the hardier
breeds are propagated. The white dorking is a smaller sized
race than other varieties and of greater delicacy of constitution ;
some of the large speckled varieties will also be found to be so

POULTRY. 295

wanting in hardiness when young as to render them valueless
to the public at large.

The Bolton Grey when pure is a fowl of great beauty and a
most excellent layer. If " bred to a feather," while the neck
is pure white the mottling of black will pass entirely around
the breast — a characteristic very rarely seen even in tiie premium
fowls of our fair. In a lot recently imported from England,
I notice that on one of my fowls the mottling is improved
upon, by a lozenge-shaped white figure developed on each
feather, giving the bird rare beauty. Tlie objections to the
Bolton Grey breed are serious ones. They mature for the table
slowly, and are then poor in quality, of small size, and cold,
bluish hue. Their eggs are very small. The hens have a bad
habit of dying without leaving on record any sufficient cause
therefor ; you go into the coop and find one of your finest fowls
on the nest for two or three days in succession with a comb
rather unusually red ; (now this redness of the comb is a
certificate presented by other fowls in proof that their internal
egg-producing apparatus is in full working order ;) and you tell
John that " really that Bolton Grey hen does beat all in the
poultry line that was ever heard of, seen or read of; indeed
you more than half believe she is but a mass of eggs slightly
covered with feathers ! " John, filled with respectful admiration
approaches the prodigy with stealthy steps, looks closely and —
proclaims her dead ! Probably all who have ever reared the
Bolton Grey fowl have had some such unfortunate experience.
The Asiatic breeds which were so widely disseminated a few
years since have been a nut for amateurs to crack. They have
generally been denounced as, on the whole, a nuisance. Let
them have fair play ; many of them are ungainly, gaunt gor-
mandizers, maturing very late, and then a large-boned sharp-
breasted race ; still there are some exceptions to the general
rule. It will be noticed that three of the statements accom-
panying this report relate to one variety of the Asiatic breeds
commonly known as " Brahraa-poutre " fowl. The fowl termed
" Booby," exhibited by Mr. Ladd, is undoubtedly nearly allied
to that variety, and a better season's work than her's could not
be anticipated from any breed of fowls. For early maturity no
fowls could excel those of Mr. Barnaby, which began to lay
at four months and twenty days from the egg, excepting those

296 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

•

exhibited by Mr. Warren, which were a cross between the
Brahma-poutre and Bolton Grey, and began to lay when four
and a half months old !

With such facts as these, — and from what we know of these
gentlemen we believe them to be facts, — we cannot but except
the variety of the so-called "Brahma-poutres" from the sweep-
ing condemnation so usually applied to the whole race of
Eastern breeds of late introduction. These Brahma-poutres,
one of the most reliable breeders of which is Daniel Buxton, Jr.,
of Danvers, are a handsomer fowl than most of the larger sorts.
From personal experience of this variety we are persuaded that
though in common with all their race they are heartier eaters
than our common fowls, yet as they may be raised on coarser
food, the final cost will be but little additional. They are no
great scratchers, and but little inclined to wander. We would
not be understood to recommend this variety in preference to
the other above mentioned breeds ; indeed, were we to raise a
single variety, we should prefer others to them which had finer
flesh and smaller bones ; but among a number of varieties, this
deserves a place.

One word to those who have pure stock in their possession.
Do not so far yield to the temptation of cross-breeding, as to
lose your original pure stock ; for remember that a cross breed,
however desirable it may prove, cannot be relied upon to
renew itself until bred distinct for many generations ; while
with the original stock, with the particular crosses made,
you have material in your hands to produce the like at your
fancy.

James J. H. Gregory, Chairman.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

Statement of J. H. Temple.
The undersigned submits the following statement: The
" Plymouth Rock " fowls which I offer for premium, are a fair
sample of my flock of thirty — twenty-eight hens and two
roosters. These fowls have a free range over the grounds
adjacent to my farm buildings ; and in the summer pick up the
largest share of their living. For eight months in the year I
feed them, on an average, one quart of corn per day — in the

POUI.TRY. - 297

coldest weather in wmtep% little more, and in the mild weather
of spring, somewhat less — besides an occasional meal of boiled
bran, oats, and the refuse of the table. In winter they have
access to my barn floor, and pick up scattering clover leaves.
If the snow confines them to the hen-house, I give them late cut
rowen liay — some raw vegetable food of this kind being neces-
sary. Tliey have constant access to air-slacked lime, or old
plaster, and sand.

I feed the young chicks on coarse Indian meal, wetted with
the least quantity of water that will serve to make it into pu(^-
ding. A larger quantity of water than is barely sufficient to
wet the meal, is injurious. Fine meal is also hurtful — the
coarser the better. For fattening, I use clear corn ; feeding a^
much as the fowl will eat ; and without any raw vegetable food.
The cost of rearing and keeping my fowls for a year is as fo]|
lows : —

8 bushels corn, at 90 cents, ....
4 " meal, ""....
4 " oats, at 50 cents, ....
Grasshoppers, worms, &c., ....

112 80

This gives 43 cents as the cost per fowl for the year. From
an experiment carefully made, a few years since, I am satisfied
that the expense of keeping a fowl (the " Plymouth Rock "
breed) for a year, where the flock is kept in an inclosure, and
consequently depends wholly on the keeper for food, is from
58 to 60 cents.

The average market value of the chickens at four months old,
has been 87 cents per pair. Average value per pound, when
sold by weight, 14 cents.

The flock has laid eggs during the year, to the number of
2,880, equal to 240 dozen.

Value at 18 cents per dozen, . . . $43 20
Deduct expenses, 12 80

17 20

3 60

2 00

00

Leaves, $30 40

38

298 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

From this it appears that the animal net income per fowl,
from eggs alone, is $1. Value of manure, 600 pounds, at three
cents,

Statement of Mrs. Caroline Winter.

In May, 1857, having one Bantam hen in my possession, I
procured eggs and set her on them. I supposed at the time,
they were the eggs of our common fowl, but a part of the pul-
lets bear a strong resemblance to the Blueden variety ; there-
fore we call them such. I raised from that brood six pullets,
which I exhibit here, and propose to show their product and
expense for one year.

Three of them commenced laying on the 1st of September,
at less than four months old ; the others later. I have kept an
exact account of their eggs for one year from that date, which
is 76 dozens. Four of them had broods, and we have raised
46 chickens. They have had a variety of food, — shelled corn,
Indian meal, dough, mixed with boiled potatoes, buckwheat and
oats, raw potatoes chopped fine, or grated, mixed with Indian
meal. I think the water and starch contained in the raw
potato, has a tendency to increase their eggs. When we have
kept them shut up, I have chopped refuse pieces of meat for
them, and pounded up bones from uncooked meat, which they
devour greedily, but never burnt bones. I feel satisfied, even
with my limited experience, that there is a good profit in
raising chickens. A hen will lay as many eggs, and bring up
a brood, as she will without doing so, as she must have rest.

Our fowls are shut up a part of the year. Their house is
situated on the south side of the barn, where they have the
benefit of sun and air, and also access to the earth under the
buildings. These fowls are of medium size, flesh plump, skin
yellow, and very nice for the table. The chickens brought a
good price in the market. I think for fattening poultry, Indian
corn the best food, but for the production of eggs, a variety of
food is necessary.

POULTRY.

299

PRODUCT OP EGGS AND CHICKENS.

76 dozen eggs, at 20 cents, .
46 chickens, at 30 cents each,

$15 20
13 80

$29 00

EXPENSE OP KEEPING.

Indian meal, four bushels, . . . $4 00

Shelled corn, four bushels, . . . 4 00

Buckwheat and oats, one bushel, . . 1 00

Potatoes, three bushels, . . . . 1 50

Profit, .

10 50

$18 50

Statement of H. O. Stone.

In presenting the following statement of the method, expense
and profit of keeping hens, there is no pretence of extraordi-
nary results, — only a tolerably accurate account of what has
been done under limited circumstances, for a series of years.

January 1st, 1855. Had a stock of fifty-two hens and six
cocks.

Their feed for the year consisted of two barrels potatoes ;
one and a half bushels cob meal ; five bushels ears ; nineteen
bushels corn ; eleven bushels Indian meal ; two bushels of oats ;
cost, $39.9T.

Months.

Eggs laid.

stock kept.

January,

26 dozen,

_

February,

14 dozen.

— —

March, .

36 dozen,

_ —

April, .

34 dozen.

_ -

May, .

34 dozen,

- -

June,

32 dozen,

_ ' -

July, .

14 dozen.

-

Aun;ust, .

13 dozen.

46 hens, 2 cocks.

September,

9 dozen.

41 hens, 2 cocks.

October,

16 dozen.

36 hens, 2 cocks.

November,

13 dozen.

42 hens, 3 cocks.

December,

22 dozen.

— —

300

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

263 dozen eggs, at market price, ....
In addition to eggs 34 fowls brought,

Deduct wortli of thirteen fowls to make stock as large
as January 1, .

Proceeds, .......

Cost of keep for year, .....

Net profit,

Several dozen eggs set not reckoned.

$51 06
15 93

$66 99
5 20

$61 79
39 97

^21 82

In addition to this, eight barrels and nineteen wheelbarrow
loads of hen manure saved ; the value of which can be esti-
mated by those who have used this kind of fertilizer. During
the year, corn and eggs, too, were very costly, the former
ranging from $2.08 to $2.50 per bag ; the latter from 16 to 28
cents per dozen. The hen-yard contains plum trees, and grape
vines trained on the fence, wliich ordinarily would pay the
interest on the cost of coops, &c.

January 1, 1856. Had a stock of 40 hens and 5 cocks. The
feed for the year consisted of seven bushels of shelled corn ;
two and a half barrels cob meal ; seven bushels oats ; one-half
bushel buckwheat ; one and a half bags meal ; four bags corn ;

cost, . $26 86

Eggs set, $2.08 ; turpentine, 50 cents, . . . 2 58

$29 44

Broiiths.

Eggs laid.

stock kept.

January,

9 dozen.

_ _

February,

15^ dozen.

— —

March, .

12 dozen.

-

April, .

19 dozen.

-

May, .

19 dozen.

-

June, • .

23 dozen,

— —

July, .

21 dozen.

-

AufTust, .

8 dozen,

35

September,

12 dozen.

-

October,

3 dozen.

88

November,

5 dozen,

40

December,

20 dozen,

— ~

POULTRY.

301

157|- dozen eggs, at market price, ....
20 fowls,

Whole proceeds, . . . . '.
Cost of keep, .......

Deduct worth of fowls to make stock same as Jan. 1,
Net profit, .......

14

9 26

144 40
29 44

114 96
2 00

112 96

In addition to eggs and fowls, there were seven barrels of
clear hen manure. In 1856, the price of corn ranged from
fl.60 to -11.80 per bag: the price of eggs from 16 to 25 cents
per dozen. The winter was unusually long and cold. A great
quantity of snow fell.

1857. Began with a stock of 36 hens and 4 cocks. Their
feed for the year consisted of one barrel cob meal ; ten and a
half bags of corn ; four bushels oals ; four and a half bags of

meal; cost, $32 02

Eggs set, • . . 2 47

Whole cost of keep.

134 49

Months.

Eggs laid.

stock kept.

January,

12 dozen.

February,

9 dozen,

_ _

March, .

24 dozen.

33 hens, 2 cocks.

■ April, .

17 dozen.

- _

May, .

21 dozen,

- -

June,

18^ dozen.

32 liens, 1 cock.

July, .

17 dozen.

- _

August, .

10 dozen.

29 old hens, 1 cock.

September,

8 dozen.

— _

October,

9 dozen.

27 old hens, 1 cock.

November,

10 dozen.

22 old hens, 1 cock.

December,

22 dozen.

52 fowls, 44 hens, 8 cocks.

302

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE

177 dozen eggs at market price,

In addition to the eggs, 30 fowls brought.

Add the value of. increase of stock, 12 fowls.

Whole proceeds, ....
Cost of keep for the year,

Net profit, ....
By two bushels oats on hand,

135 03

13 57

4 00

152 60
34 49

$18 11
1 00

$19 11

Eight baiTcls of hen manure, and ten barrow loads of do.
(The barrow loads consist of the droppings in the yard and
chicken coops, scraped up, with loam intermixed. The barrels
contained clear hen manure.)

January 1 to September 1, 1858. Commenced with 41 hens
and 11 cocks. Their feed to September 1st, consisted of one
barrel cob meal ; one and a half bushels corn, (raised,) five
bags of corn ; two bags of oats ; eight bushels meal, $20 57
1 52

Eggs set

Whole cost.

$22 09

Months.

Eggs laid.

stock kept.

January,

14 dozen.

_

February,

22 dozen.

— —

March, .

20 dozen,

40 old hens, 4 cocks.

April, .

17 dozen.

-

May,

21 dozen.

- -

June,

26 dozen,

40 hens, 1 old cock.

July, .

10 dozen,

-

August, .

13 dozen,

20 hens, (5 died.)

August 31, — On hand 22 chickens, making 43 on hand
September 1.

POULTRY. 303

120 dozen eggs at market price, .... 125 16
Fowls brought, 10 16

135 32
Cost of keep, 22 09

$13 23
By three fowls increase since January 1, . . 1 00

Net profit, 114 23

Two and a half barrels of hen manure now saved. Price of
corn from $1.60 to $2.16 per bag. Price of eggs, from 14 to
18 cents per dozen, except in January, when they were 22
cents.

These statements demonstrate that there is a profit in keep-
ing hens in addition to the manure they make, although kept
under circumstances not the most favorable. The fowls have
been shut up in a coop 35 x 40 feet nearly the entire year, being
allowed to range outside only about a month in the spring and
two months in the fall.

They have had, besides the grain specified, the scraps from a
small family, occasionally grass, refuse cabbages, broken bones,
and rarely, pork scraps. They have also had access. to heaps of
old plastering and part of a barrel of ground bone ; egg shells
saved and fed to them mainly in the winter, when they often
had warm food and warm water.

They are of mixed breeds, native, Poland and Shanghai com-
bined. The last element diminished as much as possible of late.

The stock has been renewed every year at- an unusual cost,
in consequence of the necessity of cooping the breeding hens
and the devastations of rats, hawks and neighbors' cats upon the
unprotected chickens.

The hens have been set in a small place apart from the laying
hens and have not hatched very successfully.

The hatching and rearing of poultry is much more profitable
where the fowls can have the range of the barnyard and farm
for the year (except in planting season) . There is no difficulty
in making hens lay in winter provided you have a stock of
spring pullets well housed and fed ; — the more animal food the
more eggs, — access to gravel, lime in some form, and water

304 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

slightly warm. Lime water has been frequently recommended
to make hens lay ; but so far as my experience goes they will
not drink it if they can get pure water.

Wasli the roosts and nests in whale oil soap and an infusion
of tobacco, or in spirits of turpentine, to destroy vermin.

Set hens in March and April. After the 10th of May they
will not do so well where you keep many hens cooped up. On
a farm it is not of so much consequence. But the earliest
chickens are the most valuable for market and for winter layers.
The specimens presented for exhibition are those most esteemed
by the subscriber ; two old hens, partly Poland, as indicated by
the tuft, partly native, with some Shanghai. Also a spring
crower of the same breed and a similar pullet with no tuft.

Fraaiixghaji, September 20, 1858.

Statement of F. C. Browne.

I offer for your inspection a coop of my Bolton Grey fowls, of
this year's hatching. I have kept this variety for several years,
and find them excellent layers. The eggs of the pure Bolton
Greys are however rather small for market, and I prefer to have
them crossed to some extent. The Black Spanish Dorking, or
any of the large China fowls make a good cross. Perhaps the
best of all is that with the medium sized short-legged Cochin
Chinas. Also, if you wish to raise chickens, you must cross, or
else keep a few hens of other breeds, for the Greys rarely
incline to set. For myself I like that peculiarity, for I am
satisfied that at the prices of the last few years it pays better to
raise eggs than chickens.

I cannot present a very regular balance sheet with regard to
these fowls, but the following is a tolerably correct estimate
for six months of the past season.

Stock averaged 20 hens and pullets ; about two-thirds Boltons,
more or less pure ; balance of various breeds. They were kept
principally on corn and oats, with an occasional feed of boiled
potatoes, a little meat or fish once a week or so, and old mortar
and oyster shells constantly by them. The supply of animal
food I consider indispensable, if the fowls are restrained of their
liberty to any extent. It will increase the yield of eggs 50 per
cent.

POULTRY. 305

The pullets commenced laying February 1st, the hens soon
following suit. In the six months ensuing, I sold from them
94 dozen of eggs, at an average of 15 cents,:=|14.10. I also
raised 60 chickens, worth on an average, 30 cents each. The
present value of these, (cost of raising deducted,) plus the
value of eggs used in the family, I think a fair offset to the
expense of keeping the fowls ; which would leave the above sum
received for eggs, about 814 as the profit from 20 fowls in' six
months.

I have never been able to reach the large profits of newspaper
accounts ; partly, perhaps, from being obliged to keep my hens
shut up most of the time, on account of the mischief they do
in the garden, and partly from not being able to attend to their
wants so closely as might be desirable. The above, however,
shows I think, a reasonable return for time and cash invested.

Framingham, September 21, 1858.

WORCESTER NORTH.

From the Report of the Committee.
The raising of poultry is unquestionably profitable, the returns
being speedy, sure and large, in proportion to the capital
invested ; and were it not for the somewhat too common
tendency to regard it as " rather small business " — as " well
enough to keep a few hens ; convenient, perhaps ; don't
amount to much either way," &c. <fec., this fact might have
become more apparent. Two things may be observed in this
connection ; first, that no business can properly be considered
small, that pays a good per cent, on the capital ; and secondly,
waiving even this, and granting, that, as often conducted on a
diminutive scale, the receipts are small, the net profit small,
and the business small, still the trouble and outlay are also
small, and if it is really too Liliputian to be reputable, why not
make it better worth attention, by increasing and extending it.
It may be thought hardly worth while to keep a hen a year,
and only get a dollar for her services ; but a thousand hens
yielding a thousand dollars net profit, sounds difierently. We
have no room, in a report, necessarily brief, to go into detail in
this matter, but we have carefully investigated the subject, and
can give what is, after all, the only thing possessing interest,

39

306 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE,

namely " a result." We have taken indiscriminately the state-
ments (found among the reports of different agricultural
societies in past years) of nine individuals in different portions
of the State, and give below the aggregate. Commencing the
year with about eight hundred hens, the expenses of keeping
amounted to $732.28, (reckoning from the preceding autumn,
and including of course the expense of wintering,) and the
receipts, including chickens and eggs sold, consumed, and on
hand, (making allowance from the stock on hand, to make it
fully equal to the number with . which they started,) to over
$1,410.16, showing a profit, clear above expenses of $677. 88. In
seven of these cases, no mention was made of manure or feathers.
In the other two they were not included in the receipts. The
receipts too, were unquestionably smaller than they would be in
our immediate neighborhood ; the prices, so far as quoted,
being considerably less than we are accustomed to. Assuming
that the manure and feathers were not included, (which from
the wording of the statements we feel fully justified in doing,)
and adding to the receipts sufficient to make up the difference
between our prices, and the general average, (much reduced by
the prices in districts not so closely connected with large con-
suming and non-producing centres as we are,) and the profit
would be increased so as to fully equal one dollar per head of
jthe original stock, and net over one hundred per cent, upon
the outlay. What, that the farmer raises or keeps, or pro-
duces, will excel this ?

As to the varieties and breeds, we do not propose to enter the
lists at all, or undertake to show which is the best, or why we
think so. Truly " their name is legion," and each finds able
defenders, hardly any two of whom agree. One wants eggs,
another roast chicken, another fine color, another size, &c. &c.,
and we sincerely pity the man who undertakes to secure a place
in an insane hospital, by trying to maintain and defend an
opinion that any one kind is better than another. If ever the
celebrated " Old Grimes " breed is heard of (except in song)
which it will be recollected laid two eggs a day ordinarily, and
as a special act of piety signalized the Sabbath by laying three,
we will enlist as its defender. Meanwhile experience will soon
satisfy each one which will answer his particular purpose best.

PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 307

We have confined our remarks more particularly to common
barnyard fowls, not from any particular preference, but from
the necessity of drawing the line somewhere, and having contin-
ually before us the dread of making our report too lengthy. A
recent writer in the Country Gentleman says he raised from six
hens and one cock, ninety young turkeys, worth one hundred
and fifty dollars. The expense he does not speak of, but it
could not have been very great, as they took care of themselves
after four weeks ; and did space allow, as good a word might
be spoken for any and all of the poultry kind.

Here, then, gentlemen, is a fair field. If, as many complain,
it be true that corn and wheat can be purchased cheaper than
it can be raised ; if, by the system of railway communication
the great West, with its cheap, rich lands is brought too near
for successful competition, in those great staples, try something
else that will pay, and instead of being obliged to import, let us
export from Worcester North tliousands of dozens of eggs and
tons of poultry.

George B. Towne, Chairman.

PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY.

ESSEX.

Statement of Harriet D. Sawyer.
Cheese. — I enter for premium four new milk cheeses, weigh-
ing fifty-three pounds. Each cheese contains the milk of two
days. The evening milk is strained into a tub and rennet
added immediately. The rennet should be of sufficient strength
'to form the curd in thirty minutes, and should not be broken
up under one hour or more. After being carefully broken, it
is dipped off and left to drain until morning. The same
process is repeated with the morning's milk. After that is
broken the evening's curd is skimmed into it. The whole is
then scalded with whey dipped from it, then thoroughly drain,
chop fine, salt, and press twenty-four hours. Salt with Liver-
pool salt, one table-spoonful to a pail of milk. Tlie cheeses are
then dried in a dark room, turned and rubbed daily. Late in

308 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the fall they are removed to a cool cellar, packed in straw and
occasionally rubbed and repacked. Two of these cheeses are
sage. The night previous to making them I pound the sage
and soak it in milk until morning. I then strain the liquor
into the milk just before I put the rennet in. I use my own
judgment as to quantity, varying it as to the size of the cheese.

West Newbury, September 28, 1858.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

From the Report of the Committee.

Butter. — As butter is an article of daily use in every family,
it is important to ascertain the best mode of manufacture y
which can only be done by comparing the different statements
of the manufacturers.

We think the first requisite should be a good cow ; second, a
good pasture, and third, a good dairy-woman. We wonder that
farmers are not more particular in selecting good cows, as it
costs no more to keep a good cow than a poor one. There is no
department of husbandry which might be more improved than
the dairy. There is a large quantity of poor butter in market,
which might as well be of first quality if proper pains were
taken. Pastures are too much neglected. The butter made of
poor materials cannot be of fine flavor. As to the management
of the cream, it is not so necessary that it be kept sweet, though
that might be preferable, but not always possible with a dairy of
one or two cows. In no case should the hand be applied to the
butter, as that gives it an oily appearance. Some consider the
iise of cold water essential in cleansing the butter from pa,rticles
of sour milk, but we think it might be done without the aid of
water, and the butter would be much sweeter and nicer.

David P. Lawrence, Chairman.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

From the Report of the Committee.

In this age of improvement, when so much is said and written

on the subject, it can hardly be expected that much will be said

which is new to the farmer, or to the good dairy-woman who

acts so important a part in the manufacture of butter. Yet a

PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 309

few suggestions may serve at least to keep the subject before
the mind.

In the first place, the farmer who would manage his dairy
with the intention of making the greatest profit from it, should
be very particular in the selection of his cows, as some cows
may yield a great quantity of milk, and still make less butter
and of poorer quality, than others that yield less milk, but of a
quality much better for butter. The food of cows when making
butter, has very much to do with the quality and quantity of
butter made. Bushes and wild grass make poor butter.
Upland pastures are to be preferred for a dairy. Cows should
have access to plenty of pure water and salt. There should be
a regular time of milking, and cows should be milked from day
to day, by the same person. Milk should be strained into pans
in very small quantities, as that conduces much to the short-
ness of time in gathering the cream, which is very essentilil.
The cellar or dairy room should be kept clean and well ven-
tilated. A dry cellar is to be preferred to one that is damp.
Milk should not be allowed to sour before removing the cream,
as cream taken from sour milk will not make sweet butter.
Cream should be kept in a cool place, and stirred often, as
mould is very liable to collect on it if this is not done, and when
this is the case the butter will not be so good. It is very
necessary that the cream should be of the right temperature
when put in the churn, — say about 58° Fah. in summer and 62°
in winter, — that the butter may be in a suitable state to be well
worked when taken from the churn. It should then be salted
and kept in a cool place from twelve to twenty-four hours ; then
it should be thoroughly^ worked and prepared for the table. It
is a fact well known to all dealers in table butter, that much of
the butter exposed for sale in the market, is injured very much
by containing too great a quantity of salt, and will not sell so
high as butter that is fresher. The objection is often made to
this plan, that butter will not keep unless it is made very salt,
and it is not uncommon to find butter in which the salt is much
more plainly tasted than the butter. Butter which has the
watery particles thoroughly worked out of it, can be preserved
for a long time with very little well pulverized salt, and it is
such butter which commands the highest price.

310 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

In conclusion, a well managed dairy is one of the greatest
sources of profit to the farmer ; and whoever succeeds in
producing a superior article of butter, will have the approbation
of all lovers of this great luxury.

J. C. Howe.

WORCESTER.

From the Report of the Committee.

It is only necessary to remark, that the reputation of Wor-
CQster county, for butter, cannot long be maintained, unless the
farmers' wives and daughters will bestow upon this rich pro-
duct of their dairies more labor and care. Not one of the
twenty-one lots of recently made butter had received sufficient
care and labor to thoroughly separate the buttermilk from the
butter. Neither had that nicety of judgment and discretion
been bestowed upon it in salting, which is necessary to make it
what it should always be, a luxury. The June made butter, in
the opinion of the committee, was all rancid.

It is a mistaken notion that salt will preserve butter, and
that as it is wrought less, it should be salted more. Under
ordinary circumstances, butter will keep sweet longest in its
free and pure state, and the great secret of butter making lies
in separating and keeping from the butter all extraneous mat-
ters. Work the butter with clean and cool hands until the
buttermilk is thoroughly and entirely separated from it. Salt
the butter only to the taste.

The prominent defects, only, of the butter entered for pre-
mium have been noticed and the remedy hinted at. Much
might and should be said of the various methods of preserving
milk, and of making, putting down, and keeping butter. Let
it suffice, however, to say, that the farmer's wife or daughter
who will next year offer for premium a lot of sweet, thoroughly
worked, unsalted butter, or salted only to the taste, will doubt-
less receive the award, and will also deserve and receive the
thanks of every member of the Worcester Agricultural Society.

Merrick Bemis, Chairman.

PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 311

WORCESTER NORTH.

From the Report of the Committee.

It was the butter, which brought forth the applause of the
committee, and which tried their tastes and judgments to the
utmost, looking so rich, clean and golden, and at the same time
tasting and smelling so sweet and rich. No article of the kind
could be produced which could reflect more credit upon tlie
producers, and at the same time so try the judgment, taste and
conscience of a committee, by its similarity of excellence, as
the numerous samples produced at the show of Worcester
North. As all the statements of the various makers did not
come into our hands, we cannot judge of methods pursued,
but must suppose from the facts produced, that they all prac-
ticed the very best now known. It is truly most encouraging
to witness the great improvement in this branch of husbandry,
and we wish all would furnish themselves with one of Mr.
Flint's books on dairy matters, in order that they may learn to
make more profit from their labors, if they cannot produce a
better article.

The samples of cheese were not numerous, there being only
three, and all from one dairy ; and although not esteemed the
very best, they were pronounced good, and the wish was uttered
that much more of like quality might be produced in the north
part of Worcester county.

Ezra Kendall, Chairman.

Statement of S. M. Caswell.
Butter. — The process by which our butter is made, is very
plain and simple. The milk is strained into tin pans, filling
them about half full. When the weather is cool the pans are
set in a milk-room, on racks instead of shelves ; when it is
warm they are set in the cellar on' the ground, where it usually
remains from thirty-six to forty-eight hours, according to the
temperature of the weather, especial care being taken not to
have the cream remain on the milk after it begins to sour.
When the cream is taken off it is put in tin pails, and kept in
the cellar when the weather is warm, being frequently well
stirred, until it is churned, which is usually once in two or

312 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

three days. After it is churned and the buttermilk is worked
out, it is salted with about one ounce of salt to a pound of
butter. It is then set in the cellar where it remains until the
next day, when it is again well worked over and lumped for the
market.

Statement of Franklin Nourse.

Butter.— I offer for premium one box of September butter,
twenty-two pounds.

The process of making is as follows : After the milk is drawn
from the cow, it is strained into tin pans and set in a well ven-
tilated milk-room — nothing else being allowed in it — upon slats
one foot apart, instead of board shelves. After setting about
thirty-six hours — varying according to temperature — the cream
is taken off and put into stone pots, and stirred once a day. I
churn with a rotary churn once a week ; after which, the butter
is taken out, worked and salted with one ounce to the pound,
and lumped the following day. At the last working is added
two ounces of sugar to twelve pounds of butter.

FRUITS AND FLOWERS.

ESSEX.

From the Report of the Committee on Fruits.
Pears. — The pear tree is said to be a longer lived tree than
the apple. Notwithstanding this, most of our newly introduced
fruits show symptoms of decay, while many of the old varieties
which are scattered here and there throughout New England
are still in a bearing and healthy state. If it is admitted that
the natural life of this tree is from fifty to one hundred years,
it becomes of the highest importance to ascertain, if possible,
the causes of this premature decay. The old pear trees alluded
to, as far as we can ascertain, are growing upon the spot where
they came up from seed, or transplanted when young with their
tap root uninjured. Our cultivators at the present time invari-
ably cut off the tap root, in order that lateral roots may multi-
ply and the trees grow faster and more vigorously, as they

FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 813

unquestionably do for a time, but not, we apprehend, for perma-
nency. In nature, there is an equilibrium between the roots
and tops of all trees, and by cutting off the tap root, we inter-
fere with its healthy action by producing a forced growth, and
a sort of plethora, which may tend to produce disease, although
it may hasten its bearing. Another cause for this decay may
be from the practice of Van Mons ; many of our new varieties
originally came from him, the leading feature of whose theory
was to subdue or enfeeble the original coarse luxuriousness of
the tree, gathering his fruit from which he took his seed before
fully ripe, and allowing the fruit to rot ; he cut off the tap root,
and annually shortened the leading and side branches, besides
planting his trees very near together. Duhamel, of France, it
is said, was in the habit of planting seed from the finest table
pears of his day, for many years, without producing one good
variety. Van Mons, on the contrary, by the enfeebling pro-
cess, has produced more than a score of fine varieties. May
this not possibly be another cause for the appearance of many
trees upon which his varieties are grown ? The healthiest pear
trees we have recently seen were upon the farm of General
Newhall, at Lynnfield. These were grown from seed sown
some years since, were remarkably thrifty, and much larger
than any we have ever seen at that age from the seed. A few
of them were in flower ; and these trees had not been pruned
in root or side branches, their side branches protecting the
trunk from the scorching rays of an August sun. We appre-
hend that it will be found, sooner or later, that this cutting ofi"
the tap root and pruning the side limbs of our trees when
young, is a bad practice. An Illinois cultivator has said that
the " effects of pruning the trunks of young trees severely,
results from disturbing the natural relation of the ascending
and descending sap ; he allows the shoots on the trunks to grow
on, and that in two years they covered them to the ground ;
his trees then started with a vigorous growth throughout the
whole top, and are now loaded with fruit, while a neighbor
who continued the practice of trimming the bodies of his trees
lost every one by what he called pear blight."

Trees of the apple and pear are subject to a sort of dry
canker or desiccation of the bark, which is said by Bravey, of
France, as by many of our cultivators, to be caused by the too

40

314 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

powerful rays of a burning sun occurring immediately after a
shower, striking the branches still wet, often producing in
young trees this desiccation of the bark. In proof of this we
find these appearances generally on the south side of the stem,
more especially on the sovith-south-west side, or towards the
two o'clock sun. The means of protecting the trees, adopted
by Downing, was to white-wash the trunk in spring ; we find,
however, a wisp of straw matting or sea-weed to answer the
purpose, covering the trunk quite up to, or upon the lower
limbs. Although the pear tree generally requires a retentive
soil, in order to give good returns, a swampy or wet land, or
where water stands under the surface, (or subsoil,) is an unsuit-
able location for this tree ; in such a place it may be necessary
to take off the tap root, that the upper lateral roots may be
kept near the surface. If the roots of any fruit tree enter and
remain in a swampy or wet soil, such roots will decay and a
corresponding decay — sometimes called canker — will be seen
commencing in the top limbs.

Grapes — Importance op Leaves. There are many varieties
of native grapes which have been from time to time recom-
mended for culture.; among them (as a wine grape) stands the
Catawba, which is rather extensively grown at the West for
this purpose. As this grape is later than the Isabella, it is not
much cultivated in New England, for the only difficulty we find
in the Isabella is in its uncertainty of ripening. The great
desideratum at present, is to obtain a grape of as good quality
which will ripen some three or four weeks earlier. As to the
flavor, as well as the bearing quality of this fruit, nothing could
be wished for better than we have seen it in New Jersey and
Pennsylvania. Numerous seedlings of this and other native
grapes have been produced, varying but little from their
original except in form ; seedlings of the Isabella which we have
seen have been almost invariably rounder, or not so oblong.
The Concord, Millard, Clinton, Diana, Hartford Prolific,
are neither of them much earlier than the Isabella ; the last
named one may be considered from ten to twelve days earlier,
as also the Concord and Diana. The Isabella grape may be
accelerated in ripening, and produce larger berries by a process
of ringing the shoots from the 15th to the 25th of July, upon

FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 315

the last year's wood, but upon the new wood this may be done
from the 25th of July to the 10th of August. Vines treated in
this manner produce fruit nearly twice its usual size, when
girdled nearly or quite an inch in width. The shoot thus
operated upon dies, of course, the following winter. But
where a ring is taken of only one-half an inch, the fruit grows
larger ; but the bark coming together before the winter, a
connection is made, and the shoots are seemingly not injured.
This process was recommended by President Knight of the
London Horticultural Society, in 1823. We have practiced
it for five years, producing bunches of nearly one pound in
weight.

This theory clearly shows the folly of cutting off leaves under
the mistaken notion of admitting light to the fruit, and
denuding the vines almost entirely, as some ignorant persons
do with grapes and melons. In plants the leaves act as lungs
in animals. Mcintosh says, " that the preservation of the
leaves on vines, as indeed of all other trees and plants, is of vast
importance — indeed so much so that the removal of a single leaf
tends to lessen the vigor and energy of the tree." The practice
of cutting off the tops of corn stalks as soon as the grain is
glazed is still followed notwithstanding the loss of weight in the
grain being more than the value of tlie stalks. If vegetable
physiology was more generally understood and believed, that
the leaves performed the same part in plants as the lungs or
stomach in animals, by exposing the crude sap to the atmosphere,
parting with oxygen, and secreting carbon, returning the fluid
back to the whole system of the plant, the reason why the tops
of corn stalks are, and must be useful in ripening the seeds,
would be understood. The wood and fruit of trees and vegeta-
bles are matured by the returning sap after it is elaborated by
the leaves. If it is not so, how is it, that when a variety of
fruit is ingrafted upon a wilding, it will produce fruit like
the tree from which the scion was taken, and never from the
stock on which it is worked ? Mr. Knight maintains that
the sap of trees ascends in the alburnum or sap-wood, where
it makes its first deposit of new wood. This theory led to
many experiments. Mr, Williams applied it to the early
maturation or ripening of grapes ; he found by taking off
one-quarter of an inch of the bark in width, that the sap was

316 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

impeded in its descent, the parts above became larger, the fruits
swelled and ripened earlier. This corresponds with our own
experience.

This process may be applied to other fruits, the effect of
detaining the sap unnaturally in the branches being to force the
plants to produce blossom buds instead of leaf or branch buds.
It was before known that any thing which checked the growth
of a fruit tree hastened the production of fruit ; it was, how-
ever, reserved for Mr. Knight to show the causes, and to submit
the whole process to rules as certain as are known in any other
branch of natural science. The late Mr. Lowell, of Roxbury,
tried this plan on twenty young pear trees, which had been
grafted from ten to twelve years without giving fruit. The
branches thus operated upon bore full fruit, while every other
branch was barren and unprolific. On some trees he girdled
one, and on others two to five branches. He found equal
success on plums. Mr. Knight, from whose theory the experi-
ments liave been derived, thinks it will shorten the longevity
of trees subjected to it. Mr. Lowell, on the contrary, did not
apprehend this. He thought that judicious girdling was nearly
the same with grafting; that produces a similar interruption
of the sap ; a callous is formed between the original stock and
the graft, and yet we see the branches continue productive and
enjoy excellent health.

The Isabella vine suffers more or less every winter. Long
shoots of the previous year, and occasionally the whole vine, is
what is called winter-killed. Many attribute this to extreme
cold. We apprehend that it is invariably produced by the
warm days of that season. In this our variable climate at
night we have the thermometer at zero, followed the next day
by a bright sun with the warmth of spring. Any one may
satisfy himself of this who has two vines trained upon a wall or
building, exposed to the sun in winter. If he will but take
one of these down, and lay it along its whole length upon the
ground, he will ordinarily find the one left up through the
winter filled with dead wood, while that upon the ground is
uninjured. This does not apply to those grown upon an open
trellis, where the air circulates freely. Now if the sap of trees,
particularly the grape, is " always in motion, at all seasons, and
vinder all circumstances, except in the presence of intense cold,"

FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 317

as said by Dr. Lindley, can we wonder at these results ? " If
sap," says the same, (and no better authority can we have,)
" ever settles to the roots in a visible form, that is owing to
temporary causes, the removal of which occasions its instant
re-ascent." That it is the sun in warm days in winter which
affects the new growth, is shown by the fact that the morus
multicaulis and other half-hardy shrubs and trees, winter better
upon the north side of hills rather than tlie south. " If you are
planting fruit trees," says an " old digger," "don't be so fool-
ish as to set tender trees, such as apricots, in warm, sunny
places, on the south side of walls, fences and gardens ; such are,
depend upon it, the very spots to kill them — between the extra
heat of midsummer and that constant freezing and thawing of
the trunks in winter, you had better choose a west, even a
northern exposure, the latter is much the better in the middle
States."

The summer pruning of the Isabella recommended by Down-
ing in his book of Fruits, and which we, in common with him,
practiced for many years (wliich was to cut off every shoot two
or three joints beyond the outer branch of grapes,) we now
believe to be wrong. All the summer pruning which we now
give the vines, is to cut off the laterals that spring out of the
new growth at the base of the leaves near the fruit bud for the
following year to within one joint, leaving one bud to prevent
the fruit bud from pushing. Dr. Lindley came out with a paper
containing the following excellent propositions, which convinced
us of our error : —

"1. If all the leaves which a tree will naturally form are
exposed to favorable influences, and receive the light of a
brilliant sun, all the fruit which such a plant may produce will
ripen perfectly in a summer that is long enough.

"2. If all the leaves of a tree are exposed to such influences,
all its fruit will advance as far towards ripening as the length
of the summer will admit of ; it may be sour and colorless, but
that condition will be perfect of its kind.

" 3. But if all the fruit which a healthy tree will show is
allowed to set, and a large part of the leaves is abstracted, such
fruit, be the summer what it may, will never ripen.

318 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

" 4. Therefore, if a necessity exists for taking off a part of the
leaves of a tree, a part of its fruit should also be destroyed.

"5. But although a tree may be able to ripen all the fruit
which it shows, yet such fruit will never be so large nor so
sweet, under equal circumstances, as if a part of it is removed,
because a tree only forms a certain amount of secretions, and
if those secretions are divided among twenty fruits instead of
ten, each fruit will in the former case have but half the
amount of nutrition which it would have received in the latter
case.

" G. The period of ripening in fruit will be accelerated by an
abundance of foliage, and retarded by a scanty foliage."

" It is a mistake to imagine that the sun must shine on the
bunches of grapes in order to ripen them. Nature intended no
such thing ; on the contrary, it is evident that vines naturally
bear their fruit in such a way as to screen it from the sun, and
man is most unwise when he rashly interferes with this inten-
tion ; what is wanted is the full exposure of the leaves to the
sun ; they will prepare the nutriment of the grape — they will
feed it and nurse it, and eventually rear it up into succulence
and lusciousness."

If in early winter or spring too much wood has been left upon
the vines, and too many shoots have been suffered to grow,
these may be cut out in July close down to the point from
whence they start, taking off the whole branch, fruit and leaves.
When the branches in autumn are beginning to slacken in their
power of lengthening, it is then right to stop the shoots by
pinching off their ends, because according to Lindley, newly
formed leaves late in autumn " have little time to do more than
organize themselves, which must take place at the expense of
matter forming in the other leaves."

Pruning. — We find that the best time to prune the Isabella
grape is immediately upon the fall of the leaves in autumn.

Autumn stopping of the vine shoots is therefore not only
unobjectionable but advantageous ; for the leaves that remain
after that operation will then direct all their energy to the per-
fection of the grapes. We have abandoned the old practice of

FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 319

summer shortening, and from some years' experience are per-
fectly satisfied that we have larger and better ripened fruit.

Thinning the Fruit. — The Isabella vine, when in a vigorous
state, frequently shows double the number of bunches it is able
to ripen in perfection without weakening and lessening the crop
in succeeding years ; two bunches upon a strong shoot, and but
one on a weaker, should remain. The outer bunch or bunches
should be taken off. You will by this method obtain larger
fruit on those left. Bleeding of the vine in spring is often a
source of much anxiety ; we have never as yet noticed any bad
effects resulting from this bleeding of the laterals, either in the
growth of the vine or crop of fruit.

On a visit to Vermont, a few years since, in midsummer, we
examined some twenty sugar maple trees, part of them having
been tapped in March of that year. We could not see a particle
of difference in the length of growth between those from which
sap had been extracted and the others. Since that time we met
with the remark of the celebrated Duhamel, who says : " This
bleeding of the laterals in the grape vine does not seemingly
injure the growth or crop of fruit."

J. M. Ives, Chairman.

From the Report of the Cotnmittee on^Floioers.
So far as the cultivation of flowers is concerned, there has
been in our day, a vast improvement, both in variety and mag-
nificence, over those cultivated a generation ago. All parts of
the world have been explored to add new attractions to the
green-house and flower border, where we have an example of
universal brotherhood assembled from every nation under the
heaven, the like whereof is unknown to humanity. In this
desire for new and ever varying forms, are we not in danger of
becoming altogether too fickle and wavering in our taste ? True
taste lies in a keen perception of nature. A flower should be
esteemed less for its rarity tiian for its intrinsic beauty.

" Beauty is truth, truth beauty, that Is aU
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know."

A beautiful thing is forever a beautiful thing, and in no wise
subject to fashion or caprice. We like occasionally to renew

820 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

acquaintance with the old flowers, (we will not call them old
fashioned flowers,) that our grandmothers used to cultivate ;
most of them were truly beautiful, notwithstanding our long
familiarity with them. The lilacs, hollyhocks, lupins, daffodils,
poppies, four-o'clocks, marigolds, and morning glorys that once
adorned the garden-walks of the old mansions, are capable of
great improvement. We are indebted to the bouquet from
Middleton for some of these suggestions that seem to cluster
round its central branch of hollyhocks. The hollyhock is
susceptible of great variety ; it belongs to a family of plants
altogether too much neglected ; when the plants are not grown
thickly they are of good form, and although the flowers cannot
well be plucked upon stems, they still make a fine show when
placed in shallow dishes of water. A bunch of lilacs revives
the memories of youth, and we never suffer " 'lection week "
to pass without plucking at least one thyrsus, and enjoying its
fragrance. How refreshing are the reflections which we derive
from youth and spring time, when the " maple bursts into a
flush of scarlet flowers," and the columbines and anemones
peep from the springing grass or crest the mossy rocks.

" It is like a beguiling music,
^nd we wonder not that we loved, as now,
To hunt for violets in the April time."

Have we not in flowers that bloom in every clime and toss
their fragrance into every dwelling place of humanity, an evi-
dence of their great Author's love of beauty, and thereby
authority for the embellishments of life. And we should ever
learn to add grace to mere utility, by throwing over all our
inventions the lighter robe of beauty, as expressed in form and
color.

Flowers never seem out of place ; they attend the checkered
path of life, from the cradle to the grave, and at all times
reflect the sympathies of man. They are present at our fes-
tivities, welcome at our solemnities, and inspire hope and com-
fort in the hours of sorrow and distress. We do well to learn

" How with tree and flower,
In converse sweet to pass the hour
As with an early friend."

FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 321

No other simply beautiful thing is endowed with such a breadth
of sentiment ; the plumage of birds is beautiful, and their
songs delightful, but neither of them could find a place in the
heart of the mourner, and at other times they might produce
satiety and weariness. Even the few superstitions that are
attached to flowers are some of them very beautiful :

" I would give you some violets,
But they withered all when my father died."

Again, how flowers are inwrought into all the arts and em-
bellishments of life, from the lofty architectural ornament to
the sprig on a youth's vest. Many persons who havje neither
the taste or inclination to cultivate flowers, surround them-
selves with representations of them, upon their carpets, tapes-
try, clothing and ornaments. The story of flowers and their
effect upon the heart and the well being of man has not been
half told.

The memory of some men is intimately attached to particu-
lar flowers. Some are called after their names, while others
more directly appeal to our sympathies. Who is not reminded
of the lamented Kane when he sees the vernal Saxifrage
cresting the mossy rocks in early spring ; this little flower or a
species scarcely dissimilar, was one of the last flowers to quit
the Arctic voyager's weary track. Or who can gaze upon the
brilliant Escholtzia without thinking of the melancholy fate of
Douglass, the botanist, goaded to death by wild buffaloes in a
strange land ? And while those recent and hardy additions to
the shrubbery and garden, the Wigelia and Dieletra spectabilis
shall be cultivated, the name of Mr. Fortune, who introduced
them from China, shall not be forgotten.

Ever present flowers, to what a noble ancestry do they
belong ! Whose hands have not plucked them, and whose
gaze have they not reflected ? Wise and holy men have
drawn from them inspiration and inculcated moral lessons.
Kings and magnates of the earth have regarded them, and been
honored by their presence. Poets of all time have wreathed
their harps with them and sang to their praise. Unquarried
rocks and beds of fossil coal, deep in the bowels of the earth,

41

322 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

hold in their crystaUine embrace the flora of an antedehivian
world.

" O, there is not lost
One of eartli's cliarms ; upon her bosom yet
After the flight of untold centuries,
The freshness of her far beginning lies
And yet shall lie."

But to become more practical ; in this desire for variety
above alluded to, ^yhich is certainly most praiseworthy and
should be gratified, why do not florists as well as botanists
oftener draw forth from their quiet retreats in the coppice and
meadow, the beautiful and fragrant plants (not a few) from
among our native wildlings, that they, in their simple purity,
might adorn our borders and mingle their sweets with the
pampered and often deformed aliens that usurp the entire
dominion of the flower garden; which exotic plantsa not
great while since, in simpler garb, embellished the wilds of
other lands, where they were originally native ?

What shrub can be found more fragrant than our Elethra, or
more beautiful than our Laurel ? What plant more curious
than the Side-saddle flower ? and the whole world of flowers
may be " challenged to excel the intense red of the Lobelia
cardinalis." American plants are greatly esteemed abroad ;
that section of the English gentlemen's grounds designated the
" American Garden," and which contains our Magnolias, Kal-
mias, Azalias, and smaller plants, is one of the chief attractions
of those often extensive domains.

What a field is opened here, also, for ingenious fancy and
scientific acumen, in the crossing of our wild plants with kindred
species among the exotics of the garden, the unions whereof
would undoubtedly result in the production of hybrids of new
and singular forms, that no eye has yet beheld, thereby reward-
ing the skill and ingenuity of man, with the gift of new crea-
tions. To persons at all intimate with our native flora, numerous
alliances will readily suggest themselves as among the proba-
bilities of success.

We need not go out of our native county for novelties or
•magnificence in this department. Flora has honored Essex
County above many a milder region that lies between us and

FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 323

the Middle States, in the Magnolia, that with snch prodigality
scatters its fragrance throughout the swamps of Essex and
Gloucester. Danvers, too, is noted among botanists, for locali-
ties of the Cowberry* and the little Draba verna.

" The first gilt thing,
That wears the trembling breath of spring."

Neither are we at all behind other sections of the country in
men of zeal and attainment, who possess the keenest perceptions
of nature's charms. The learned and venerable Cutler, the
genial Nichols, and the devoted Oakes, have left the savor of
their names behind them, and now lie where the trefoil dallies
with the breeze and scatters far and wide its perfume. The
living are, in one way and another, telling their own story. To
a son of Essex belongs the honor, in which few have ever
shared, of rearing, from seed to adult and regal splendor, the
"Victoria regia, and of adding a magnificent volume upon that
subject, to the botanical lore of the country. Others have done
much to introduce and propagate new and rare plants, or other-
wise to disseminate a taste for gardening and the study of
botany, and in this connection it may not be amiss to mention
the great success that has attended the field meetings of the
Essex Institute, in diffusing a taste for botanical and kindred
pursuits in a manner worthy of imitation in other counties.

The embellishment of our cemeteries not only with decidu-
ous and evergreen trees, but with shrubs and flowering plants,
is a delightful feature, and one which marks the times in which
we live. The freshness and bloom tliat now surround the
habitations of the departed, rob the grave of much of its gloom,
and bespeak of peace and immortality beyond.

However we may regard them, flowers will never cease to be
admired. Seals are they of Divine stamping ; " the finger of
God is upon them all." Every thing that waves in the breeze,
or pays the tribute of its bloom to the sun, is worthy of our
love, particularly the tall old trees that have for generations
shaded our ancestral homes, and the shrubs that border our
native hills, and the plants that spring around the thresholds of .

* Vaccinium vitis-idoea.

324 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

home ; all who heed the still, small voice of their teachings
shall lay up treasures of memory for the drafts of after years.
They shall honor the father and mother that bore them, and
the land that gave them inheritance. The auriferous sands of
California shall not tempt them away from their farms and
firesides, and the defence of all that New England holds dear.
The commandment with promise shall be theirs, their heads
shall bear the silvery crown — reward of years, and their children
shall call them blessed, for without invidiousness they will
undoubtedly have one " flower in the family," and when their
eyes are dim with age, little children shall place the butter-cup
to their chins to see if they still have a relish for dairy products,
and a pansy slipped into their bosoms shall revive the sweetest
memories of by-gone days. And when they die, as the lessons
of nature and grace shall one day make them willing to, the
near and dear shall place the sod over them, and the violet —
emblem of virtues that still blossom in the dust — shall look
heavenward from their graves to its kindred azure above ; and
the sun — parent of flowers, shall at morning and evening, daily
and forever, gild the place of their sepulture in the land of
their fathers.

George D. Phippen, Chairman.

HOUSATONIC.

From the Report of the Committee on Fruits.
The committee on fruits and horticulture, in presenting
their report, cannot but express their satisfaction at the quality
and variety of the products that fell under their department of
inspection. Such a show has not dcliglited a committee-man's
eye for three years. Apples — fall and winter — pears and
quinces, were nobly represented ; the increased varieties of
grapes indicated a growing attention to the culture of that
delightful fruit, most encouraging and gratifying ; wliilc the
show of peaches, though small in variety, yet splendid and
toothsome individually, put our fears at rest, at least for the
present, that our recent tough winters had nearly effected tlie
destruction of this precious delicacy. Plums alone were wanting
to complete a picture of Berkshire fruit, capable of inspiring
even a hypochondriac with paradisal dreams. We think that

FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 325

something more than lateness of season prevented the exhibition,
of more than three or four varieties of plums.

Without unduly extending their report, your committee
cannot express the many ideas naturally suggested in the dis-
charge of the pleasant duty assigned them. They would merely
volunteer a few remarks — or, omitting the body of the sermon,
give only the application. And firstly, they would say — pro-
tect, personally, and by the enforcement of law, the birds,
which feed so largely upon insects injurious to fruit. And —
says one of our number — " add toads also."

It is worthy of remark, that the fewer ravages of vermin on
shade and fruit trees, the past season, are simultaneous with
the presence of birds more numerously than have been known
for many years.

Item. It is respectfully submitted, that only a single speci-
men of any variety of common fruit is hardly a fair representa-
tion, either for the offerer or the thing offered.

Item. Please don't dub seedlings with some eminent name
to provoke the merriment of a sober committee. Unless certain
of the right title, better say, " name unknown."

Item. Fains taken in the proper arrangement of specimens,
are never lost. A jumble is never so effective as a distinct and
conspicuous display. And for this end it seemed to your com-
mittee, that more show-cases for fruit were needed ; some of
the exhibitors to-day, having been compelled to resort to side-
tables and an immediate removal after inspection.

Item. Your committee hope that the cultivation of the
grape, so auspiciously inaugurated in our county, will be pros-
ecuted, until good wine shall, as it can be, a product of Old
Berkshire.

Item. Your committee found on exhibition to-day, several
seedlings of the apple, which they judged worthy of enlarged
cultivation. The temptation was strong to make some new
names for the Pomological Society.

E. W. B. Canning, Chairman.

NORFOLK.

From the Report of the Committee on Fruit.
The display of fruit is, to many persons, the most attractive
feature of our annual exhibition. The thrifty farmer sees in it,

326 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

at least an article of produce and sale — a source of revenue,
and with the light of the knowledge imparted by physiology,
he regards it as a most useful and necessary addition to his
daily bread, — a partial substitute for the physician, and a relief
to his pork barrel. The amateur horticulturist, with the curious
eye of the connoisseur, inspects the fine specimens of new and
rare, or perhaps older and more valuable varieties, and the
lover of beauty gratifies his artistic feelings by admiring the
fair proportions and rich colors of ruddy-cheeked apples, melt-
ing pears, luscious peaches and clustering grapes. For these,
or other reasons, all persons are more or less interested in
these productions of the garden and the orchard.

As an article of profit, we incline to think that the cultivation
of fruit for the market is not sufficiently attended to in this
vicinity. The love of fine fruit in our community is increasing.
The better qualities are sought for, and the supply is unequal
to the demand. Good fruit has an increasing market value,
and a little extra care in gathering, assorting and packing, is
sure to be well repaid in the additional price obtained.

It is not our purpose to attempt an essay on fruit cultivation,
to give advice as to the best methods of planting and feeding'
fruit trees, or to speak of the many obstacles in the way of
success. There are well written treatises, accessible to every
one, that contain the combined knowledge of many careful,
thoughtful and practical men. There is hardly any serious
difficulty that may not be overcome ; — there is but one subtle
enemy that we are unable to conquer. Whoever shall discover
and make known a simple and efficient check to the destruction
caused by this insignificant looking beetle, but most dangerous
enemy, — the curculio, — will do more than we can express, to
encourage fruit growers and advance the progress of horticul-
ture. At present, this pest has nearly deprived us of our plums,
and threatens to wrest from us our peaches, cherries, and even
apples ; while nectarines and apricots are now unheard of.

A plan for increasing the size and hastening the maturity of
certain kinds of fi'uit, has been somewhat adopted and is worthy
of mention. Messrs. G. & C. Craft, of Brookline, exhibited
Isabella grapes treated in this manner, and grown in the open
air, perfectly ripe, and of remarkable size and beauty. This
fine grape does not ripen perfectly in this vicinity, unless the

MARKET DAYS. 32T

season is unusually favorable, and consequently the plan in
question, enabling us to grow the fruit to unusual size, and to
anticipate by at least two weeks the time of ripening, deserves
attention. The process consists in what is called " ringing the
vine," which is, simply, removing from the bearing shoot below
the fruit, and when the grapes are about half grown, a ring of
bark, half an inch wide. By this means, the sap being inter,
rupted in its descent, stimulates the ripening clusters, and
forces them to increased and luxuriant growth and early matu-
rity. This method might doubtless be applied to all kinds of
fruit, but, involving as it does, at the end of the season, the loss
of the shoot so treated, it will probably be advisable to adopt it
only in the cultivation of the grape, or perhaps the grape and
peach -

Charles A. Hewins, Chairman.

MARKET DAYS.

MASSACHUSETTS.

PRIZE ESSAY ON FAIRS.

BY A. W. DODGE, OF HAMILTON.

In offering its prize for the best essay on the advantages to
be derived from establishing regular fairs or market-days
throughout the State, for the sale and exchange of agricultural
products, it is presumed that the society did not mean to con-
sider the question as settled in favor of such fairs ; but wished
rather to elicit inquiry into their merits as compared with the
prevailing modes of disposing of the products of the farm ; and
if, upon a careful and candid consideration of the question, it
should be found that there were sufficient and weighty reasons
for the establishing of such fairs, that then some practical plan
should be proposed for this purpose.

These fairs or market days, which in fact are nothing more
than a periodical concourse of people at a stated place, for
selling and buying agricultural commodities and for hiring
laborers, have long been in successful operation in Great

328 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Britain. To the farmers there, they are of great importance,
constituting their chief, or perhaps their only opportunities of
effecting profitable sales or purchases of stock. The different
breeds of neat stock, of horses, of sheep and of swine, are
exposed to sale, often in large numbers and of great excellence,
at the local fairs in the quarter where they are raised ; and they
attract to them dealers from a distance, with the certainty that
they can find just the description of animals they are in want
of. This, with the local attendance, usually insures a brisk
business. And so great is the convenience of a market day
considered to be to the neighborhood in which it is held, that
new fairs are constantly springing up, the only limitation to
their number being the amount of business which may be
controlled by them.

Besides live stock, fruit, vegetables and grains, find pur-
chasers at these fairs, and they are offered for sale either in
bulk or by sample, the latter being the more usual way of
disposing of large quantities of any commodity. Most of these
fairs, too, have a well-known and specific character, and are
noted, some for the superior quality of one kind of stock or of
produce, and others for that of another kind. And they often
receive their name from the predominant article exposed to
sale ; as, for example, a fair at which large quantities of cherries
are presented, is called the Cherry Fair, and one of which
sheep is the characteristic feature is called a Sheep Fair.

But in this country, or at least in New England, we have
nothing answering to these fairs or market days. The nearest
approach to them are the cattle markets established in the
immediate vicinity of our largest cities, and mainly for the
supply of the meat for their consumption, as those held weekly
at Brighton and Cambridge, in our own Commonwealth, and
which are the only markets of any extent for the sale of live
stock, within her borders. These, however, differ in some
important particulars from the fairs proposed for consideration.
They are exclusively for the sale and purchase of live stock,
and that stock is mostly brought from a distance, sometimes
even from the far West. They afford a good opportunity for
farmers in the surrounding country to purchase such animals
as they stand in need of, and they are resorted to very generally
by them for this object. But they are not intended to encourage

MARKET DAYS. 329

the sale of stock by these farmers, for the very obvious reason
that but little or no stock is raised by them. They are also
very inconveniently located, being at one extremity of the
State, and therefore can be attended by the larger part of the
farming population only at great expense.

What, then, would be some of the benefits of regular fairs or
market days, established throughout the State, for the sale and
exchange of agricultural products — benefits that might reason-
ably be expected from them ? In the first place, they would
offer to every enterprising farmer in their neighborhood a home
market, or a market near at hand and easy of access. Studded
all over as Massachusetts is — especially on her eastern borders
—with cities and large towns and manufacturing villages, it
might be thought that the farmers are amply supplied with good
markets and at their very doors. To some extent this is indeed
true, but it is equally true that very many farmers — a majority
perhaps — are obliged to travel eight or twelve miles and some-
times more, in order to reach. their nearest market town. The
loss of time in thus travelling to and from market, and the
wear and tear of horse and vehicle, are no inconsiderable items
of expense to the farmer who is placed in this unfavorable
position in regard to markets. Suppose that he follows the
market weekly for two-thirds of the year, there are then thirty-
five days to be deducted from the working days of the year, and
if in the fall he goes to market two or more times in a week,
the number would be increased fully to fifty days, including the
occasional days in winter devoted to this object.

But the establishing of regular market days in towns near to
these farmers, would prevent very materially tliis heavy loss of
time and the expense to which they are now subjected. If there
were twelve such market days in a year, that is, monthly
markets, where they would be sure of finding purchasers, they
would save the difference between twelve and fifty days of time,
which they then would have to spend on the farm in increasing
its productions, besides making a corresponding saving in the
service of horse and wagon. This saving to the farmer may
perhaps be more sensibly measured and appreciated, by con-
sidering what has been so justly stated by Henry C. Gary, in
the Plough, Loom and Anvil, for September, 1851, in respect
of labor.

42

330 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

" The first of all the taxes to be paid by labor is that of
transportation. It takes precedence even of the claims of
government, for the man who has labor to sell or exchange must
take it to the place at which it can be sold. If the market be
so far distant that it will occupy so large a portion of his time
in going to and returning from his work, as to leave him insuffi-
cient to purchase food enough to preserve life, he will perish of
starvation. If it be somewhat less distant, he may obtain a
small amount of food. If brought near, he may be well fed.
Still nearer, he may be well fed and poorly clothed. Brought
to his door, so as to make a market for all his time, he will be
well fed, well clothed, well housed, and he will be able to feed,
clothe, lodge, and educate his children."

What is here said of labor applies with equal force to the
products of labor ; the nearer the market the more perfect is the
power to exchange them and the higher is their price. Trite as
is Franklin's proverb, it is not the less true, that " time is
money." And yet our New England farmers, trained as they
are to habits of thrift and economy in other particulars, and
certainly not wanting in any of the essential qualifications for
trade, seem, too many of them, in this important matter of
marketing their produce, to set scarcely any value at all upon
time. But if their time be worth to them any thing at all, if
it will yield any return when skilfully employed, it surely
ought not to be thus misspent, not to say squandered in a
reckless and shameful manner.

In the second place, market days, by bringing the purchaser
to the producer, or rather by creating a half-way place and
common ground of meeting for business, instead of the pro-
ducer being obliged, as is now most frequently the case, to go
to the purchaser with his commodities, would tend to make
better prices and quicker and more certain sales of them. As
at present managed, the farmer takes or sends to his nearest
market town such things as he has to dispose of, and unless he
has a regular set of customers, he may be put to much trouble
and inconvenience to find a purchaser, and must then often sell
to a disadvantage. If, on the other hand, there is collected a
large number of buyers at a stated time and place, and there
are assembled such products of the farm as all are desirous of
purchasing, it is clear that there will be more or less corapeti-

MARKET DAYS. 331

tion, and that sales will be readily effected at remunerating
prices.

The tendency of trade in this country is to centralization.
The large manufacturers of cotton and woollen goods and of
boots and shoes, instead of selling at their factories, have their
places for making sales in the metropolis. And where the
manufacturer and the salesman are united in the same person,
it makes but little difference whether the factory and the shop
are in one and the same place or at a distance from each other.
But where the manufacturer sells his goods to the merchant,
who buys to sell again, — as in the case with boots and shoes —
then it makes oftentimes all the difference to the manufacturer,
of a living profit by the sale of his goods, or no profit at all,
whether the purchaser comes to the manufacturer, or the
manufacturer goes to the purchaser. The Scripture adage —
." It is naught says the buyer," — will operate in the former case
with unrestricted vigor, while in the latter it will fail of its
o iject to depreciate the price of that which it is known is
wanted by the purchaser.

In the third place, no small advantage would accrue to the
farmer by the establishing of regular market days, from their
tendency to equalize the prices of agricultural products. At
present, prices are left to depend too much upon caprice and
accident, and but little difference is made between different
qualities of the same article. An inferior article often brings
as much as, or more than, a superior one; so that the sale of
agricultural products resembles more a lottery than a fair and
equable traffic. " What luck to-day?" is the usual interroga-
tory put to the farmer on his return from market ; meaning
thereby not whether a sale was effected of his produce, but at
what rates. And as a consequence of this uncertainty in prices,
there is but little inducement to prepare for the market any
commodity — such as butter or cheese — of a superior quality,
when it is well understood that as a matter of dollars and cents,
an inferior one, requiring less time and labor in its production,
will pay much better. The advantage of an open market where
products of a similar kind are exposed to sale side by side, is
that a standard of prices is readily fixed, each takes its place
according to its merit and commands the price to which it is

332 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

fairly entitled. And this advantage inures to the buyer as well
as the seller, and gives character and stimulus to tlie market.

In the fourth place, in connection with this benefit and closely
allied to it, is the healthy emulation which is excited by bring-
ing different specimens of the same products into comparison
with one another. Competition of the right kind at once
springs up — a competition to excel in the quality of the article
produced and not merely in the price obtained for it. The man
who has been contented to produce an ordinary article, because
he has generally obtained a good price for it, or because he has
never seen any thing superior to it, is stimulated by the success
of his neighbor, both as to the quality and price of his products,
to produce a better ; whilst the other, to maintain his advantage
and to avoid the mortification of being surpassed by his com-
petitor, increases liis skill and pains-taking. It is thus that
progress in all the arts is effected, and it is only thus that
progress in the important art of agriculture is to be achieved.

Besides this beneficial result, these fairs would tend to diffuse
information, just as our cattle shows do, by promoting inter-
course between men engaged in a common pursuit, and bring-
ing their minds into contact on subjects connected with it.
Inquiry into the different processes by which results are
obtained in the various branches of husbandry is thus excited,
and the why and the wherefore ©f each are freely discussed.
It cannot be otherwise than that the farmer must return from
these fairs a wiser man, or if he thought that all wisdom would
die with him, that this conceit must be rubbed out of him by
the friction to which he has there been subjected. It often
happens, for want of this intercourse among farmers, this
interchange of opinions and mutual comparison of skill and
intelligence, that individuals exhibit an overweening pride in
respect of certain processes or products, which is not warranted
by facts and is simply ridiculous. One of these self-sufficient
farmers, who had always in his own estimation the best of every
thing, was heard to utter the boast, when speaking of the
prospects for a hay crop, " that he should have had the best in
the county, if his hay-seed had only caught!"

There is no denying that as a class our farmers are set in
their opinions, whether well or ill founded, and this arises as
much fi'om their living comparatively by themselves, as from

MARKET DAYS. 333

that independence of character which springs from their occu-
pation. The commercial intercourse of these fairs would supply
just what is wanting to many of our farmers ; it would liberalize
their views and enlarge the sphere of their observation, and as
a necessary consequence agricultural knowledge would be
advanced. Indeed these fairs would become a school for the
young farmer, and for all farmers who were not too old to learn.
The various breeds of stock could here be learned, their points
noted, their peculiar marks of excellence ascertained, and avast
amount of experience and information in regard to them gained.
Trained in such a school, our farmers would become much
better judges than they now are, of farm stock. And will any
one pretend that it is not vital to the interests of the farmer to
be able to judge of a good cow or of a good pair of working
cattle, so as to be seldom disappointed in making his purchases ?
Should he not here as in other transactions be able to think for
himself, and if need be to give a reason for his opinion ? Will
he not at least have more self-respect and command better the
respect of others, than by a blind and hap-hazard way of doing
his business ?

The farmer needs to be well versed in the knowledge of buy-
ing and selling, and this knowledge can be acquired only by
observation and the exercise of his own faculties. Many farmers
fail here. They raise good crops and they harvest them in good
order ; but when they come to dispose of them they are at fault ;
they are either too early or too late in making sales, and have
usually the worst end of the bargain. Now why is this ?
Mainly for want of practical experience in trade. The narrow
round of their customers gives no opportunity for them to learn,
and they go through life with but little skill in this the financial
department of husbandry. The establishing of market-days, by
collecting large numbers of buyers at one place, and by the
competition excited thereby, would give to the farmer more tact
in trading than it is possible for him now to acquire.

In the last place, these market days or fairs would tend to
concentrate New England farming upon fewer products, by
making near and certain markets for them. As it is now, our
farm products are too varied ; we raise a little of every thing,
and not enough of any one thing to malvC it profitable, from the
expense of disposing of them. Of many articles raised on the

334 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

farm, the little surplus over what is wanted for home consump-
tion is taken to market. As a consequence, sales are uncertain
and the proceeds come in by driblets. And there is at present
little inducement to go largely into any one production. But
create a fixed market near at hand, and our farming would at
once shape itself accordingly. One farmer would take to neat
stock, another to sheep and another to pigs, and they would all
aim to have the best breeds, and the best animals to take to the
market. Quick sales, too, would be had for them, if it was
known, as it would be, when and where they were to be offered
for sale.. At the same market the farmer could buy what he is
now forced to raise or to purchase at great disadvantage. The
farmer who went into stock raising, would not be likely to raise
all other farm products, as he could find them at hand, on
market day, much cheaper. There would thus be a division of
agricultural labor that would be for the common good. Few
farmers in this State think of raising their own wheat, as they
can buy flour much cheaper ; and so it will be of many other
farm products, when these markets are once established.

We have dwelt thus at length on the general advantages of
regular fairs or market days, if established throughout the State ;
let us now consider some of the particular benefits to be derive(J
from them. Every farmer wishes, more or less times in the
year, to purchase live stock, either young animals to keep over
winter, stores to fat, milch cows to recruit his dairy, or working
oxen, or a bull, or a horse, or swine, sheep or poultry. Some
of these are sure to be needed by him, and he must either ride
round among the surrounding farmers, or he must go to Brighton
or Cambridge, to make his purchases. The former course is
attended with much loss of time and vast uncertainty of find-
ing the precise animals wanted. The latter involves much
expense, and the inconvenience of making the desired purchase
at a distance from home, which distance must be travelled by
the animals as well as himself, to reach home.

Now, if there were a cattle fair held monthly or quarter-yearly
in his neighborhood, he might at a trifling expense resort to it
with the certainty or high probability of making his purchases,
and he can return with them the same day to his farm. Or
suppose that he has an ox which he wishes to mate ; he can drive
him to the fair and he may there meet with another farmer

MARKET DAYS. 335

similarly situated, and thus the two are brouglit into a position
to make some sort of a trade, which may be mutually advanta-
geous. Now these men might have ridden about a week or more
exploring- barnyards and fields for an odd ox — and what farmer's
experience does not illustrate the supposed case ? — and perhaps
be unsuccessful at last.

Again, many farmers wish to purchase in the fall young stock
to keep over winter, generally heifers expected to calve in the
spring. Heretofore, when cattle travelled on foot in droves to
the Brighton market, they came so near their doors as to present
a good opportunity for such ftirmers to make their purchases.
But now live stock is mostly transported to the large markets
by the rail cars, and there is hardly any alternative for the
farmer to make his purchases, but at these distant markets.
Were local fairs or market days established, then there would
doubtless be droves of cattle purchased at the large markets
at Cambridge and Brighton, and driven down to such fairs to
supply the demand there. The farmer could then have his
choice of such stock and at a price that while it would leave a
fair profit to the drovers, would be less than he could afford to
pay at a distant market. This would occur only in districts
where there were not young animals enough raised, to supply
the local demand.

It may be, too, that among the benefits to be derived from
establishing regular fairs throughout the State, would be the
encouragement they would thus indirectly give to stock hus-
bandry, a branch of husbandry of late sadly neglected by us.
The farmer is now tempted by the high prices offered, to sell
his best calves at an early age to the butcher. And in fact their
slaughtered carcasses are brought by the cars and by steamboats
from New Hampshire, Vermont and Maine, to supply the Boston
market. Thus the number of neat animals raised to maturity,
has not kept up with the wants of the community, and as a
consequence the price of beef animals, milch cows and working
cattle, has experienced a most unprecedented increase. If the
farmer could find purchasers for two-year-old heifers and steers,
as readily as for calves and at corresponding prices, what should
hinder his making the attempt to rear them ? It will be said
perhaps, that he has not the fodder to keep them over winter in
any numbers, without encroaching on the feed of his other

336 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

stock. Now here is just where he should rouse himself to more
enterprise to meet this want, especially by the cultivation of
root crops. It is remarkable what immense burdens of carrots,
ruta-bagas, mangold wurzels and sugar beets, can be raised on
small plots of well-manured land, and with no more skill and
labor than are required in the cultivation of a corn crop. The
turnip culture is often said to be the foundation of modern
British husbandry. Why ? Because it enables the farmers of
Great Britain to raise and keep a much larger number of animals
— both neat stock and sheep — than they would otherwise possibly
be enabled to do, and by this means to increase the manure
heaps by which to augment the capacity of the soil for future
crops. We have talked a great deal about the benefits of the
root culture ; it forms one of the standing topics of cattle show
addresses, but it has made but slow progress among us. If we
would once set about in good earnest and begin to rear young
stock, we should know by actual experience the inestimable
value of roots for winter feeding, and should help introduce
into more general practice their culture. And the prospect of
a home demand for young stock, such as would spring up from
the establishing of market-days, would certainly tend to this
desired result.

Again, there is a growing demand and at high prices, for good
milch cows, especially for those giving rich milk, well adapted
for the table and for butter. Let a regular market day be
established in their neighborhood, and an additional induce-
ment would be offered to farmers to raise their most promis-
ing heifer calves, by the certainty of finding purchasers of their
cows just as soon as they were ready for sale ; and the compe-
tition of a full attendance of purchasers would most likely
create brisker sales and higher prices than would otherwise be
had for tliem. The great question which is the best breed of
cows for dairy purposes — if indeed there be one — would after a
time be in a fair way to be settled. If the Jersey or the Ayr-
shire breed be the best adapted to our pastures and our climate,
and the most to be depended upon for the dairy, it would
assuredly be found out ; for at a fair where dealers and farm-
ers thus meet together, they would compare their experiences
and make up a judgment accordingly. Or if a new breed of
milch cows — pure natives perchance — should be originated

MARKET DAYS. . 337

among us, that should meet all our requirements, that would
then be the one to receive the most attention to propagate it in
its purity. "Why ? Because quick sales, large prices and a
certain market at our very doors, would operate as a stimulus
to such stock raising, and it would be seen that it would pay,
when we returned from the market with the proceeds.

So too we should raise our pigs, instead of being dependent,
as for years we have been, on New York and Ohio for our
supply, notwithstanding the disease which has proved of late so
fatal to those brought from those States. The loss from this
source to the farmers and drovers of Massachusetts has been
immense. Can any one say, in view of such a loss, that its
recurrence should not be guarded against by increasing the
number of breeding sows, and making a home market for their
litters by the establishing of regular markets for their sale ?
They can readily be taken to market in wagons fitted for the
purpose, or they could be driven in droves, if grown to be shoats,
and the supply, it is safe to predict, would not for a long time,
if ever, exceed the demand. And here too, as in the case with
milch cows, there would be greater inducements, by the estab-
lishing of such markets, to bestow more attention to breeding
than has as yet been practised among us.

Let us come now to farm products other than live stock, —
how would they be affected by the establishing of these fairs ?
Some products, such as hay for example, would hardly be
offered for sale, unless it should be pressed in bundles so as to
be made available for transportation. Wherever grains were
grown in any considerable quantities, they would rarely fail of
finding purchasers at these fairs, for it is well known that the
supply of these has not for a long time been at all adequate to
the wants of the State. And it is equally well known that the
Indian corn and the rye raised in New England, is far superior
in quality to that imported from the Middle and Southern
States — for domestic consumption, indeed, no one having tasted
the former would use the latter, unless from slieer necessity.
Butter, cheese and eggs, articles that are now frequently sold at
the door to travelling agents, or at country stores, and without
any competition to enhance their price, would be brought to
these fairs in sufficient quantities to attract purchasers for the

43

338 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

larger markets, and sales would be made at their full ralue and
for ready cash payment.

In regard to apples, large quantities of which are some years
raised in the State, the advantage of regular market days or
fairs for their sale, would be very great. As they are a bulky
article, their transportation to market is no trifling affair. Sis
or eight barrels are usually taken at a load in a one-horse wagon,
requiring on an average thirty trips to sell a crop of two hun-
dred barrels, besides the time consumed in finding purchasers.
Now if the farmer were sure tliat on a particular day in the fall,
dealers would attend the fair in his neighborhood, and make
large purchases of this fruit for shipping or for re-sale at the
larger markets, he could take with him samples of his different
varieties, and thus dispose of liis entire crop, to be delivered at
the cars or in the city, as might be agreed upon. By this
comparatively small outlay of time and money, his net profit
would be vastly greater than it now is. In the same manner,
onions and other vegetable crops might be disposed of with
advantage, both to the seller and the buyer.

And here we are reminded of an incidental advantage to bo
derived from these fairs, and one by no means to be overlooked
in forming a correct estimate of them. Some crops, such as the
apple, for example, are extremely variable, being one year
abundant in some parts and scarce in others ; and another year,
vice versa. Some crops too, such as the onion, are raised in
large quantities, in some sections of the State, and not at all in
other sections. Now an abundant supply of any commodity
gluts the market, and often reduces prices to a ruinous extent.
Hence, where there is an excess of these crops beyond the
demand for home consumption, it could readily be disposed of
to purchasers from a distance, who would be drawn to the local
fairs by the knowledge of this very contingency.

Besides the opportunity thus afforded for traffic at these fairs,
they would be attended with peculiar convenience to the
farmer in hiring laborers. He is now put to great trouble and
uncertainty in obtaining such as are needed — doubtless owing
in part to the fact that native labor has been of late largely
superseded by foreign. But even this labor cannot always
be commanded at the time it is most wanted by him. He
cannot spend much time in the busy season in riding round for

MARKET DAYS. 339

work-people, and imless tliej happen to offer themselves at liis
door, he must suffer for want of them. Now at the opening of
the spring work, at haying and at harvesting, if the farmer
could be sure of meeting at the fair in his neighborhood, a
large number of men in want of work, of whom he could take
his pick, it would assuredly be no small convenience both to
himself and to the persons hired. From this arrangement, a
scale of prices, which would be highly desirable, would soon be
fixed for the different kinds of laborers, and as a consequence
there would be more uniformity of wages paid by our farmers.
And if it were deemed expedient, a registry might be opened
for the names of the persons thus seeking employment, and of
the place where they last worked.

But it would be difficult to specify in detail, all the benefits
which might be expected to be derived from establishing regu-
lar fairs or market days throughout the State. We have
endeavored to enumerate but a few of them ; sufficient, how-
ever, to give some definite, and it is to be hoped, favorable
views in regard to them. Doubtless here, as in other new
enterprises, many of the advantages would far exceed the most
sanguine expectations, whilst others would in time spring up
that were entirely unlooked for. Take for illustration our
railroads. Many of us can remember with what distrust they
were regarded by a large part of the community, when they
were first proposed for consideration. The stage-coach compa-
nies thougiit that they should be ruined ; and the farmers
reasoned very naturally that the general introduction of the
iron horse, as a means of transportation, would diminish, if not
destroy, the demand for hay and other provender. But how has
it turned out ? The stage companies have become the proprie-
tors of the omnibuses running from the various stopping places
of the rail cars. And for the use of those omnibuses, and for
drays, coaches and private vehicles, and more recently for horse
railroads, the number of horses in the State, and their price
too, has probably doubled or trebled since the first rail was laid
here, and the consumption of hay and oats has increased in a
corresponding ration. Other interesting particulars will readily
suggest themselves, illustrative of the incidental benefits of
railroads, equally unforseen by their projectors and the commu-
nity at large.

340 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Let us now consider some of the objections that would be
likely to be urged against the establishing of these fairs. It
may be said, perhaps, that they propose too great an innovation
on the present modes of disposing of agricultural products, to
meet with much favor from the farming community. We all
know with what reluctance farmers quit long established habits
and practices, and how slow they are to make any change in
them. Nor can it be denied that a most radical change is here
proposed to them, and one which needs to have a fair start
given to it, in order to overcome the standing objections to
every new enterprise. To take again for illustration the case
of railroads. When they were first talked of, the conservative
men on all sides cried out against this change from the long
tried and well approved modes of travel on the public highway.
Those in any way interested in keeping things as they were,
joined in the cry of " let well enough alone."

" But," says J. R. Williams, in an address before the
Michigan State Agricultural Society, in 1850, when speaking
of the old maxim that it is best to " let well enough alone,"
" it depends upon what ' well enough ' means. As a maxim
for a farmer it is pernicious. I hold in my hand two peaches.
They grew upon trees which sprung from different pits of the
same original tree. This large, blushing, richly-tinted, melting,
thin-skinned, and small-stoned peach, is cultivated fruit. The
small, woolly, tough-skinned and large-stoned peach, is the nat-
ural fruit, the ' let well enough alone ' kind. I hold in my
hand two apples, plucked from the same tree, one from a
grafted, and one from a natural branch. One is the cultivated
fruit, the other is the ' let well enough alone ' kind. You per-
ceive the distinction is as marked in the apple as in the peach.
These are a type and fit illustration of progress and perfection
in every branch of agriculture."

Notwithstanding the doubts of some, and the gloomy fore-
bodings of others, tlie railroads were started and they who at
first were most opposed to them, have been as ready as any to
avail themselves of their benefits. So it would most probably
be with these fairs ; once started under favorable circum-
stances, they would give the best proof, by actual experiment,
of their superiority over the present modes of selling and buy-
ing agricultural products. It would doubtless take time to

MARKET DAYS. 841

turn the current of trade into the new channels ; but it would
come, and the wonder would then be that the work had not
been undertaken long ago.

It may be objected to these fairs, too, that they are not
adapted to the habits of our people ; that tliey partake too
much of the character of holidays to be favorably received by
them. But, it may be asked, how can this be determined with-
out making the trial ? In fact, it is in our power to give to
them just such a character as we please. And should they
become the means of inducing our farmers to spend a few
hours occasionally in innocent and rational recreation, it may
well be questioned whether the effect on their minds or morals
would be at all injurious. It is the bow that is always bent
that looses its elasticity, so the mind that is constantly intent
on business and is never unstrung in social intercourse, loses
its quickness of perception and its keenness of judgment ; the
heart that is never warmed into a genial glow of cheerfulness
and pleasure, becomes cold and torpid. We should not be
sorry to see as an effect of these fairs, more of the " good
humor and all social affections and generous sentiments among
the people," which the constitution specially enjoins upon legis-
lators and magistrates in all future periods of this Common-
wealth to countenance and inculcate.

Other objections might be raised to an enterprise so novel
and untried as this would be among us. It is not necessary,
however, to go into the further consideration of them for the
reason that we cannot conceive of any sufficiently serious to
require it. It should be borne in mind that the practical ques-
tion is, not whether there are any evils to which these fairs
might be liable, but whether they would be overbalanced by
the positive benefits resulting from them. And this question
could best, and perhaps only, be settled by an actual experi-
ment of establishing them. And this brings us to the
consideration of the best practical method of commencing and
continuing these fairs throughout the State, so as to create new
markets for the farmer.

And first it would be highly desirable, if not essential, that
the farmers of the Commonwealth should be more fully
informed as to the working of these fairs, and the advantages
to be expected from them, in order to their co-operating with

342 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

earnestness and energy in their establishment. If it be true —
and of this it is too late to doubt — that " where there is a will
there is a way," the first great object in starting this enterprise
is to secure the hearty good will, the intelligent and the
united will, of the farming community in its favor. This, we
are persuaded, is vital to its success. With this view, meetings
might be held in the winter months in the different counties,
the question fully discussed and a vote taken upon it. A series
of such meetings might be held in different parts of the same
counties, until the subject was brought before its whole agricul-
tural population and their minds were known, with some degree
of certainty, upon it. And in addition to this, circulars might
be issued by the State Society, to be distributed through the
county societies, setting forth the advantages of these fairs, and
requesting the opinions of those to whom they were addressed,
as to the practicability of establishing such fairs in their several
neighborhoods, and the times and places at which they could
best be held, also desiring each person to say what part, if any,
he would take in giving them his support by his attendance and
otherwise. When all this had been done, we should be in a
position to judge whether it were advisable to proceed in
establishing the fairs, or not. If the whole popular current
was decidedly against it, or such a degree of apathy and indif-
ference was manifested in respect to it as to make its success
highly doubtful, then we should say that it was best to wait for
" the good time coming," rather than to attempt to force its
advent. But if the public sentiment, as thus ascertained, were
favorable to the undertaking, especially if a certain enthusiasm
were excited in the subject, start it then, by all means, and the
sooner the better. There need be but little formality about it.
Let individuals in the several neighborhoods near the fair,
associate themselves together by agreeing to attend, either to
buy or sell, one taking this and another that article, and all
determining to lend his aid and encouragement to it. One
enthusiastic person in a neighborhood, — an energetic, persistent
man, not easily deterred by trifles, one that sees few or no
obstacles in the way when a good enterprise is started ; or,
seeing them, summons fresh pluck to surmount them, — will
certainly succeed in enlisting the hearty good-will and co-opera-
tion of nearly all with whom he comes in contact. With book

MARKET DAYS. 343

and pencil in hand let him call on his neighbors and talk over
the matter freely with them, and then note down what this one
and that will do to help on the fair, specifying the articles
they would severally agree to carry to it. The power of asso-
ciated action and the force of example, would in this way
operate quietly but eifectually. A few such men — young men,
if they can be enlisted — will act like leaven to leaven the whole
mass.

There -need be no regulations made and published as to the
buying and selling, not even that the sales shall be for cash
payments, which would certainly be the most desirable mode of
trade. The fair would be the farmers' exchange — just as the
merchants have their exchange in the city — where they meet
to transact business, and self-interest and mutual convenience
make the bargains. Neither are there needed any public yards
or buildings for the display of animals or other products of the
farm ; but they would be offered for sale at particular points,
which would soon become well known to the public. On the
23d of June last, Sanford Howard, of the Boston Cultivator,
attended' a cattle fair at Kilmaurs, in Scotland. In a letter
published just afterwards in that paper, he says: "there were
there about four hundred head of cattle, mostly Ayrshire cows
and heifers, the greater part of which changed hands, although
the market was dull. They were collected in the principal
street in the village, the lots of the different owners being kept
separated by men and dogs. The purchasers looked over the
animals, and having decided on the ones they wanted, and
asked the price, made offers, at the same time extending their
hands. If the offers were accepted, the parties shook hands
and that consummated the transaction." The whole is a very
simple affair — as simple as Columbus making the egg stand on
its end — if we would but take hold in earnest and determine
to have it succeed. Only make a beginning by collecting
together on a fixed day and at a fixed place, agricultural pro-
ducts and men in sufficient numbers, and the market is estab-
lished. Tlie success of one such day would be almost sure to
command success on the next, and after a few such days the
market day would become a permanent and popular institu-
tion, and would be noted in the almanac, as the different terms
of the courts are noted.

344 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Another important question, and one requiring much care
and deliberation in deciding it, is, how often and where shall
these fairs be held ? It is clear that this must be left with some
body of men, in whom the public have confidence. The dif-
ferent agricultural societies that receive the bounty of the
Commonwealth, and are required to make an annual return
to it of their transactions, might be requested to take upon
themselves this duty. Composed as these societies very gen-
erally are of farmers, they have the confidence of the farmers,
and they can best fix the times and places of the fairs, with the
proper discretion. By their trustees, or by committees chosen
for the purpose, they might exercise the necessary power with
regard to the whole matter, with but little danger of its being
abused. They should in the first place, map out the county,
and then select such points as would best accommodate the
population, having reference to railroad and other facilities.
The railroad companies could well afford to encourage the fairs,
by charging but half price to those who pass over their roads
to their market. To make this matter more specific, let us
take for example the County of Essex — that being the county
with which the writer is most familiar — and let four towns be
fixed upon as near as may be to its four corners, as the places
where monthly fairs or market days shall be held throughout
the year. Such four places might be Danvers, (at the Plains,)
Ipswich, Newburyport, and North Andover, (at Sutton's Mills.)
Three of these towns have at least two railroads running
directly to or through them ; and one, Ipswich, has the Eastern
Railroad passing through its centre. Having settled upon
these towns and the points in them, at which the market could
best be held, on the first Wednesday in January let a market
be held at Danvers, due notice having been given to that effect.
On the second Wednesday in January let a market come off at
Ipswich ; the third Wednesday at Newburyport, and the fourth
Wednesday at North Andover, and so go through each month
in the year, observing the same order as to the days. In this
way it would soon be known that the first Wednesday of every
month was market day at Danvers ; and so of the other towns,
they would always have the same Wednesday in the month
for their market day. At first these markets might not be
so fully attended, but still they should be observed, rain or

MARKET DAYS. 345

shine, brisk times or dull. As the fairs are started, in respect
of place and day, so they should be continued, for the reason
that a change would be difficult; but more especially that
the habit of attending a particular market at a regularly recur-
ring time, would thus become fixed in the life of the farmer.
And in order to accommodate the whole county by a larger
display of stock, let some central town, such as Topsfield or
Georgetown, having good railroad facilities — be the place for
holding a market day for neat stock and horses in the spring
and fall, the first Friday in May and October being suitable
days for that purpose, and not interfering with the other
markets.

And in order to encourage this whole enterprise in its infancy,
it might be advisable for the agricultural societies or public
spirited individuals to offer premiums for certain farm products,
that cannot so well be presented at the regular cattle shows,
and do not receive any encouragement from them. For
example, the best poultry in all its varieties, dressed for the
market, mutton, pork, veal and other meats, might thus be
noticed. The best lot of honey and eggs, of butter and cheese,
of cranberries, quinces and apples, and of fruits and vegetables
generally, might also receive the fostering aid of the societies.
The advantage of this mode of bestowing premiums is, that it
would be the best lot of a given product, as prepared for market
and exposed to sale, that would receive them, and not the best
specimens, culled and fitted for parade, as is too often the case
at our fairs.

44

INDEX

TO THE ABSTRACT.

Agricultural Societies, duties of, 1, 8, 10

" Education, 3, 5, 25, 33, 94

Agriculture and American industry 3,9,61,83

Apples, culture of, 165, 167, 169

Allen's Mower, statement on 237, 238

Ayrshire Stock, pedigrees of, 241, 243

Barley, statement on, 205

Beans, statement on, 209

Broomcorn, statement on, 207

Breeding, principles of, 249, 250

Butter, statements on, 308, 311

Cabbages, culture of, 233

Carrots, crops of 6, 129

Cattle, cost of keeping, 40, 41

Cheese, statement on, 307

Compost Manures, 187, 189, 192, 194

Cranberries, statement on, . 208

Dairies, reports on, 251, 256, 308

Danforth's Mower, statement on, 239, 240

Drainage, statements on 148, 151, 154, 156, 163

Example, power of, 5, 7, 30

Farmer, position of the, 11, 13, 16, 18, 35, 81

" character of the, 12, 13, 18, 20, 22, 24

Farmers' Clubs, importance of, 8

Farming, taste in, 27,29,140

" profits of, 38, 40, 108, 102

" in New England 35, 44, 46, 48, 51, 56

Farms, reports on, 100, 104, 124, 126, 132, 139

Farm Management, Essay on, 112

" Stock, character of, 31, 32

" Implements, reports on, 236, 238

" Horses, reports on, 282, 284

Fat Cattle, reporst on, 267

Flowers, report on, 319

Fruits, repor&t on, 313,324,325

Grapes, culture of, 314, 317

Horses, exhibition of, 99, 281

848

INDEX.

Hay Tedder, introduction of,
Indian Corn, Essay on,
Labor should be intelligent,
Laws of Vegetation, .
Manures, secret of success,

•' comparative value of,

Mangold Wurzel, culture of,
Manny's Mower, statement on.
Market Days, importance of establish:
Mental activity, element of manhood,
Milch Cows, reports on,
National Industry, source of greatness
Neat Stock, reports on,
Oats, statement on, .
Orchards, reports on, .
Pasture Lands, improvement of, .
Peaches, culture of, .
Pears, culture of, . . .
Physical Vigor, element of manhood
Plan, importance of a.
Ploughing, reports on,
Potatoes, experiments with,
Poultry, reports on, .
Products of the Dairy, report on the.
Pruning, time for,
Reclaiming Low Lands,
Hoot Crops, Essay on,
Ruta-bagas, culture of,
Rye, statement on,
Rotation of crops,
Salt Peat, use of in compost,
Scoundrelism and wit.
Sheep, report on.
Sugar Beets, culture of.
Swine, report on.
Soils, varieties of, . . .
Underdraining, report on, ,
"Wheat, statement on,
Working Oxen, reports on.

182,

244,
164,

184, 185,
210,

244,

165,

148,

236, 240

195, 201, 203

.'94,95

70, 75, 178

126, 178

187, 189, 191

212, 215, 220

238, 239

320, 345

24, 26, 65

246, 248, 250

92

216, 248, 257, 261
206
68, 171, 173
. 145
. 164

172, 173, 312
22
42

173, 175, 176
234, 235

291, 296, 298

307, 311

. 318

136, 140, 143

210, 215, 227

. 232

204

137

. 194

. 293

285, 287

. 232

288, 290

179, 180

51, 154, 156, 163

. 204

263, 264, 266

'1-06H

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