FIFTEENTH REPORT

OF THE

STATE ENTOMOLOGIST

OF

MINNESOTA ©

TO THE GOVERNOR

FOR THE YEARS 1913 AND 1914

NINTH REPORT OF F. L. WASHBURN

|
Nursery Inspection 1913 and 1914 Truck Crop Insects

Insect Conditions in 1913 and 1914 Fly Control
Useful Birds found in Minnesota Warble Flies
Tree Insects Wire Worms
Spraying Preliminary Notes on Odonata
Index to Insect Life Acridiidae of Minnesota
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
ST. ANTHONY PARK, MINN.

DECEMBER 1, 1914

RIP TEE NTH REPORT

OF THE

STATE ENTOMOLOGIST

OF

MINNESOTA

TO THE GOVERNOR

FOR THE YEARS 1913 AND 1914

NINTH REPORT OF F. L. WASHBURN

Insect Conditions in 1913 and 1914 Fly Control

Useful Birds found in Minnesota Warble Flies

Nursery Inspection 1913 and 1914 Truck Crop Insects

Tree Insects Wire Worms

Spraying Preliminary Notes on Odonata
Index to Insect Life Acridiidae of Minnesota

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
ST. ANTHONY PARK, MINN.
DECEMBER 1, 1914

Citizens are urged to plant the Japanese Hydrangea, which blooms all summer, or the
taller, more erect Japanese Snowball, both comparatively free from
insect attack, in place of the badly infested common Snowball.

PRESS OF
HARRISON & SMITH CO.
MINNEAPOLIS

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

STATE EXPERIMENT STATION,
St. ANTHONY PARK, MINN.,
To His Excellency, A. O. Eberhart, St. Paul, Minn.

DECEMBER 1, 1914.

DEAR SIR:—Complying with the law, I take pleasure in sub-
mitting herewith the Fifteenth Report of the work of the State
Entomologist, from December 1, 1912, to December 1, 1914, cover-
ing insect conditions in this state during that period. The financial
statement, however, necessarily covers the fiscal years, August 1,
1912, to August 1, 1914.

The season of 1913 was a normal year as far as insect pests were
concerned. There was no marked injury from grasshoppers and
but few complaints reached us of this pest. This was probably due
to a vigorous growth of grain and weeds as well as to favorable
weather conditions. Given, however, a few dry seasons in succes-
sion, and we will doubtless suffer from these insects as we did in
1910 and 1911. In fact, this pest may have been abundant in 1913,
but on account of vigorous crop growth and abundant weeds, their
work was not noticed. Fortunately, this Department has found a
practical, effective and cheap way of combating grasshoppers in
this altitude. Conditions in 1914 were practically the same as
those in 1913. and no outbreak of grasshoppers was reported.

The same comments apply to the Chinch Bug, only two reports
having reached us in 1913. As in the case of the preceding insect,
we will at times, when conditions favor, be afflicted to a greater or
less extent with this enemy of grain and it will doubtless continue
to be of periodical occurrence. ,

An interesting observation was made by the Entomologist in
June, 1914, in connection with the Chinch Bug; namely, the finding
of these insects in a grain field in Clearwater County, far north of
what has been regarded as their normal range in Minnesota.
Twelve years ago we found a record in Lugger’s notes of the occur-

iv

rence of the Chinch Bug near Lake Vermillion, but were unable to
verify it. The general belief had been that this insect was confined
to the southern and central parts of this state, and this record
from Clearwater County is of interest both to the Entomologist
and to the farmer.

A number of reports have been received, as in years past, upon
the work of the Wheat Stem Maggot, which is evidently of wide
distribution, although it has not, so far, been responsible for any
serious, wide-spread injury. From its causing the so-called “bald-
heads” in wheat, it is always a source of alarm amongst the
farmers.

There have been the usual number of inquiries regarding flies
affecting stock, particularly those troubling horses.

Under the head of household insects, we may mention inquiries
for remedies for bed bugs, carpet beetles, and clothes moth, and
instructions have been forwarded to correspondents in each case.
To this list we may add insects which infest flour, meal and other
cereals, as well as flour mills themselves. Housekeepers in the
Twin Cities complain frequently of “weevils,’ or “worms” or
“bugs” in their flour. We feel that primarily in this case the fault
lies with the millers,—that is, the mills are the original source of
infestation and that it behooves the millers to take special precau-
tions to keep these insects out of their flour and thus avoid boy-
cotts upon their brands by distressed housekeepers. To a certain
extent, however, the latter are responsible for allowing these
insects to get a foothold in the household, and in Insect Life, Vol.
1, No. 11, the Entomologist has written his views upon this con-
dition.

The passing of our shadé trees, particularly the oak, due to both
insect work and fungus disease, is alarming. The Entomologist
has done everything possible within his province in the way of
publications, press articles, personal solicitations, lectures, etc., to
create public sentiment in favor of conservation of our trees. Dead
and dying oak trees left standing are a menace to sound trees and
should be destroyed. See, in this connection, contribution to this
Report upon “Some Important Tree Insects,” by Mr. A. G.
Ruggles, p. 54.

The Cottony Maple Scales has been very destructive in some
localities and there have been the usual number of inquiries regard-
ing Butfalo Tree-hoppers, Larch Saw Fly, Cecropia Moth, Spiny
Elm Caterpillars, Elm Borers, Oak-leaf insects, Slugs on plums,

fe.

pa, SOAR
: eC tte
7 ‘i
‘q
Ss,

Same tree as in Fig. 1, with new leaves,

Fig. 2.

Basswood tree defoliated by fall canker worm,

Fig. 1.

July 3rd, 1914.

Lake Minnetonka, June 19th, 1914.

vi

Apple Aphis, Apple Leaf-hopper, Lilac Borers, Bronze Birch Borer,
Plum Curculio, Elm Aphis, Pine tree insects, Oak Gall insects, ete.

Basswoods in certain localities, notably at points about Lake
Minnetonka, were badly infested in the spring and early summer
of 1913 with Geometrid larvae or Measuring Worms,—in some
cases the trees being almost defoliated. Subsequent developments
proved this caterpillar to be the Fall Canker Worm, Alsophila pom-
etaria.

On November Ist, 1913, the Entomologist was at Lake Minne-
tonka and observed thousands of the wingless female moths of this
species ascending the trees which had suffered during the summer
and under which the mature canker worms had entered the soil dur-
ing June or July to pass the pupal or resting stage. On the above
date, males were observed fluttering about the females and in the
air, possibly in the proportion of about one male to every twenty
females. Mating was in progress at the time. Many eggs had
already been deposited. The lateness of the appearance of this
insect was ail the more remarkable because we had had freezing
weather for several days previous to November Ist. Upon Novem-
ber 4th, the same conditions prevailed as on November Ist, and
one property owner at the Lake, appreciating the warnings of the
Entomologist, took vigorous measures to combat these pests upon
the basswoods. Upon November 15th we found males and females
alive in the midst of a light snow storm and temperature not far
above freezing. Since that date, November 15 to December 1, 1913,
remarkably mild weather prevailed and we predicted a serious
attack upon the basswoods, locally, in the spring of 1914, unless
prompt measures were taken in the spring or proper applications
made to the eggs that winter.

As anticipated, the spring of 1914 found us suffering from
attacks of this same pest, increased a hundredfold over the num-
bers of the preceding year. Elms were attacked as well as bass-
woods, and fruit trees to a limited extent. Many appeals for help
were sent this office, which were responded to as far as possible,
though the Entomologist felt obliged to remind these parties that
if the warning and directions for prevention published in the State
Press several times by this Department in the summer and early
fall, had been followed, their trees would have been preserved from
injury.

Trees defoliated in the spring of 1914, for the most part leaved
out in midsummer, though the foliage was not as heavy as it would

vii

have been normally at that period. Defoliation of this sort for a
number of successive years would probably result in the death of
the, trees.

The Entomologist again during the past summer and in the
early fall of this year urged property owners, whose trees had
suffered this season, to prevent repetition of this misfortune by
applying Tree Tanglefoot to their trees in September or early
October, and many followed this advice. In fact, in the town of
Minnetonka Beach, hundreds of trees were treated, and those prop-
erty owners who took this precaution, now (November 15) have
the satisfaction of seeing hundreds of dead female moths, and
large numbers of males, ensnared in the sticky bands about their
trees. ‘This year females were first observed climbing the trees
(basswoods, primarily, and also elms and even maples and oaks) on
October 15. No males were seen at that time, though they appeared
in small numbers a few days later, about a week after the appear-
ance of the females. On October 22 these females were very abund-
ant and the number of males increasing, the latter being exceed-
ingly numerous on October 26th to the 30th. Mating was in prog-
ress on October 24. Eggs have been laid in large numbers on
treated trees just below the sticky bands. It would be well to
destroy these eggs with a strong caustic solution before next May,
and we would suggest renewal of bands about trees in affected
areas. at that time, if the old bands are not then sticky. Thousands
of eggs, of course, are already upon infested trees which were not
treated with Tanglefoot, but they are so scattered over the trees
that any treatment offered would be of but little avail. The
renewal of the bands next spring, or the use of new bands upon
trees now untreated, is advised for the purpose of checking the
spreading of the caterpillars crawling from tree to tree. Occasion-
ally a few of these moths “hold over” until Spring before issuing
from the ground. As our illustrations show, banding is very effect-
ive, but where the band has been allowed to be covered with leaves,
or twigs, or dust, a bridge has been formed over which the pests
have crossed. Hence the tree owner should keep the barriers free
and sticky, by picking off the leaves and “combing” bands with a
coarse brush when necessary. Some tree owners also have been
careless in applying the mixture, neglecting to smooth off the rough
bark, with the result not only of wasting the Tanglefoot, but also
leaving unguarded cracks and crevices through which a portion of
the moths at least could get above the band.

“FIGI ‘ISIE “990 ‘BYUOjoUUIY aXe]
“PIGI ‘DUZ ‘AON ‘BYUOJOUUIPL OYVT “puvqg yoojo, suv} “‘puBq JOOjo[sUL} 04} Y}VEUeG POOMSSEK Jo y1Nq
UL JYSNVO UWLIOM LAZU [[ BJ JO SYJOW V[VUIOJ pu ZIV “PF ‘DIA UO pa1dyyVS ‘WIOM LOYUB [[VJ JO SYJOU a[ Bua ssopSuryy “ge “DIY

ix

We doubt if a low temperature in the early fall renders Tangle-
foot useless, for on October 26, when it was 30 degrees Fah., we
found bands on our own trees still sticky, even on the north side
of the trunks. On Nov. 16 with the thermometer at 15° the bands
were sufficiently sticky to prevent any insect crossing.

The outlook in regions affected this year, and where proper pre-
cautions as above outlined were not observed, is indeed serious,
unless some now unforeseen relief, such as extensive parasitism of
eggs, or their destruction by predaceous mites or birds, or by bac-
terial or fungus disease in the caterpillars next spring, come to the
rescue. This pest may last for from three to five years.

Property owners whose trees were at all injured in the spring
of 1914, and many whose trees were not touched, will probably, if
they have not taken proper precautions, see their basswoods, and
possibly other trees, stripped of their leaves in the early summer of
1915. As explained above, this might have been largely or entirely
prevented.

The White Grub, the larva of Lachnosterna sp. is a pest of
growing importance in Minnesota. It has always been complained
of periodically in connection with lawns and occasionally straw-
berries, but, in recent years, it has increased to such an extent that
it has called for extensive work, both to determine the differ-
ent species causing the injury and also to devise practical remedial
measures. Serious complaint regarding this insect comes to us in
connection with corn, strawberries, evergreen seedlings, and as
noted above, lawns, golf links and pasture lands. Similar injuries
and even more severe are reported from Wisconsin. See, in this
connection article by Mr. Moore on “Truck Crop Insects,” p. 64.

Nursery and Orchard Inspection. This work has been increased
a hundredfold since the new Inspection Law went into effect. See
p20:

Special Work. So closely connected is the work of the State
Entomologist (as outlined by the law) with that of the Experiment
Station, that no report of this Department is complete without ref-
erence to the Station work in the line of economic entomology.
Hence we include here brief articles from other entomologists in the
Entomological Division of the Experiment Station, of which the
writer is chief.

Mr. Ruggles writes upon “Spraying in Minnesota” and “Some
Important Tree Insects,” p. 52; Mr. Howard upon “Some New
Suggestions in Fly Control” and “Warble Flies,” pp. 57, 61; Mr.

x

Moore has an article upon “Truck Crop Insects” on p. 64; and Mr.
Williamson one on “Wire Worms” on p. 69.

The work indicated by most of these articles has been done

entirely, or in part, with the funds appropriated for the State Ento-
mologist.

A Corn Bill Bug, Sphenophorus venatus, has done considerable
damage to corn in this state and is the subject of original research
work on the part of Mr. O. G. Babcock, formerly in our employ, but
now in the West. This beetle was first reported by Mr. Babcock
in 1912 to be S. parvolus, and Mr. Babcock is also responsible for
the summary in connection with this insect on page 73 of the Four-
teenth Report of the Entomologist. This identification has since
been corrected, and the correct name is given in the first part of
this paragraph. He also reported another species, S. vaea, as injur-
ing corn. He states that the first named species did not appear in
1913 until May 27th. Work with this pest has been carried on in
breeding experiments at the Station and by observations in the
field.

Fly Campaign. In an effort to make our citizens aware of the
dangers connected with the tolerance of the common House Fly,
the Entomologist has given many lectures upon this subject in
different parts of the state; has published several circulars; also in
co-operation with the State Board of Health, has issued several
thousand large, illustrated posters, and made a special feature of a
striking exhibit at the State Fair in September, 1913. This exhibit
is described on page xii.

There seems to be a rapidly growing sentiment in Minnesota
against this disease-carrying insect, due, in part, we believe, to the
efforts of this Department and the State Board of Health, as well as
to a general recognition everywhere of the importance of this
subject. In consequence of this sentiment, possibly, the House
Fly does not appear to have been as abundant during the summers
of 1913-1914 as formerly, although of course we found it in large
numbers in certain localities especially favorable to its increase. It
is to be noted that the doctrine of municipal and individual cleanli-
ness is more potent in this connection than merely the trapping of
the fly. Mr. C. W. Howard of this division has been making the
House Fly the subject of thorough investigation and will report
upon his work later. The effect of the presence of automobiles in
large numbers, supplanting the horse, undoubtedly plays a part in
this lessening of the fly evil in cities.

x

Legislation Affecting the State Entomologist. In the early part
of 1913 the legislature passed a new Nursery and Orchard Inspec-
tion Law in Minnesota (see p. 28), making inspection compulsory
and establishing a flat fee of $5.00 for issuing of certificate (which
money goes into the general revenue of the state).

See p. 39 for discussion of the plan to separate the office of the
State Entomologist from the University.

Shade Tree Insects; Orchard Spraying. See pp. 52 and 54.

Publications:
1913.
February. Circular No. 26. “The Minnesota Fly-Trap and
Suggestions for a Campaign Against the
House Fly.”

May. Circular No. 27. “Twenty Common Insects of
the Vegetable Garden and Remedies.”

April Mol ib iNiow 22 Minnesota Insect Iie

May ce ce 3 ce ce ce

June ce ce 4 ce ce oe

July ce ce ce 5 ve ce

August ss 46 7

These numbers of “Insect Life’ contain articles on “Orchard
Spraying,’ “House Fly,” “Field Mice,’ “Worms on Basswood,”
“Rabbits and Ferrets,” “Grasshoppers,” “Flies on Stock,” “Fall
Methods of Controlling Insects,” “Cottony Maple Scale,” “Wheat
Stem Maggott,” etc.

In addition to the above, press articles were sent from time to
time to our county and city papers for publication.

1914.
April Vol II, No. 7 Minnesota Insect Life
May sé Of g ““ “ ‘c
June oe OG 9 6 ‘ ‘“
July ¢ cog « « «
August - Ome oven « «

We note in this year’s issues, articles on “Spraying,” “Clover
Seed Midge,” “Cabbage and Onion Maggot,” “Cut Worms,” “Rats
on the Farm,” “English Sparrows,” “Buffalo Tree-hoppers,”’ “Cu-
cumber Beetles,” etc. Upon p. 73 will be found a complete index
of Volumes I and IT of this publication.

The following circulars have been published by the State Ento-
mologist’s Department in 1914:

Circular No. 28, Jan. 20, 1914, Fumigation of Greenhouses with

Cyanide, pp. 5, illustrated, by Wm.
Moore.

xii

Circular No. 29, Jan. 29, 1914, Two Raspberry Pests Which May
Be Controlled by Spring Pruning,
pp. 4, illustrated, by Wm. Moore.

Circular No. 30, June, 1914, Some Tree Destroying Insects, pp.
8, illustrated, by A. G. Ruggles.

Circular No. 31, Nov. 15, 1914, Report upon State Nursery and
Orchard Inspection, 1913-1914, pp.
31, one colored plate, by Fa ae
Washburn.

Circular No. 32, Nov. 25, 1914, Useful Birds Found in Minnesota,
pp. 19, three colored plates, by F.
L. Washburn.

Circular No. 33, Nov. 30, 1914, Control of Flies in Rural Districts,
pp. 12, by C. W. Howard.

Bulletin, No. 141, (Technical) Acridiidae of Minnesota, pp. 91 and

July, 1914 Index, by M. P. Somes, Station

Publication.

Insectary and Experimental Garden. Mr. William Moore, As-
sistant Professor of Entomology, was added to our staff in October,
1913, and has charge of insectary methods and experiments. He
appears to be placing this feature of our work upon an excellent
footing. We have been granted by the Director of the Station a
plot of ground consisting of about 2% acres and including some
orchard land for experimentation. Some of this was sown in clover
for work with clover insects, and a part plowed and utilized by
planting thereon a few truck crops for experimental work.

Mr. Moore reports 127 general experiments carried on during
the year, and 75 others of a special nature in charge of the heads
of different sections.

Insect Collections. Considerable additions have been made to
our collections in Hymenoptera, popularly referred to as the group
containing the Bees, Ants, and Wasps. This has been done, pri-
marily, for the proposed work upon this order of Minnesota in-
sects, a project approved by the Director of this Station.

Exhibits. Reference has already been made to the House Fly
Exhibit at the State Fair in 1913. In this exhibit a large and very
accurate model of the House Fly was shown (see plate), 4 feet
long, with filth attached to feet, wings and hairs of the body. There
was also a model of a farm house and outbuildings, with flies going
from the latter, and from a manure pile, into the windows of din-
ing room and sick chamber. Over the fly exhibit was suspended
a red electric light globe which flashed every 40 seconds, that
being the rapidity at which (according to a recent census report)
a child died somewhere in the United States under five years of

State Entomologist’s Exhibit at Minnesota State Fair, Sept. 1913; large model of house fly and models of fly-infested farm buildings

xili

age. A label attached explained this and stated that a goodly pro-
portion of these deaths were due to fly-borne diseases.

In addition to this feature in our booth in 1913, house flies were
shown alive, in maggot and pupal stages, as were also mosquitoes,
and the tables were filled with cases showing mounted insects of
economic importance. This booth in the Agricultural Building was*
crowded with visitors practically all the time.

In the Horticultural Building there was an exhibit of different
spray pumps, nozzles, insecticides, and one power sprayer in action
in charge of Mr. Ruggles and Mr. Peake. Appropriate signs in
different parts of the Fair Grounds directed visitors to these two
booths. The spraying exhibit was repeated in 1914.

Correspondence and Lectures. In the vicinity of 2,000 letters
were written by the Department in 1913, as well as the usual num-
ber of postal card replies, largely in answer to inquiries regarding
insects. In 1914 the number was somewhat greater.

Your Entomologist delivered, during 1913, twenty-six lectures
in different parts of the state. A large proportion of this number
was devoted to the subject of the House Fly and presented before
women’s clubs, schools and civic bodies. These lectures dealt with
the habits of this insect and its control in cities and towns, and
were illustrated by lantern slides. A few lectures were given on
“Mimicry in Insects,” one before the State University, and at
other times at St. Paul schools. ‘Grasshopper Control” was the
subject of another lecture. Papers were also read in Cleveland,
Ohio, before the American Association of Economic Entomologists
and the American Association of Horticultural Inspectors. At the
same place, a report was made of the work of Entomologist’s
Employment Bureau, carried on by the American Association, of
which Bureau the writer was director during 1912-1913. This
Bureau is managed by the American Association and is planned
to secure positions for entomologists and to provide institutions
seeking entomologists with desirable men, at the mere cost of
operating.

In December, 1913, the Entomologist spoke at Atlanta, Ga.,
before the two National Associations above mentioned. Occasional
lectures were given during the winter, and in June, 1914, we partic-
ipated in “University Week,” lecturing in six Minnesota towns.

Articles and Illustrations in This Report. Special attention is
called to articles in this report, written by men whose work has
been entirely or in part supported by funds in the State Entomolo-

Xiv

gist’s Department, distinct from University funds, and attention
has been elsewhere called to the fact that the Station work and
State Entomologist’s work are so closely allied that a report upon
the one must necessarily to a certain extent include a report upon
the other.

The excellent contribution from Professor A. D. Whedon of
Mankato State Normal, however, upon Odonata or Dragon Flies
of Minnesota, is upon a different basis. It has been the plan of this
Department, a plan inaugurated by the late Professor Lugger, to
present to the citizens of Minnesota a popular treatise upon each of
the leading orders of insects found in the State, emphasizing the
economic forms. Note in this connection the comprehensive reports
of Professor Lugger upon “The Beetles of Minnesota,” “Butterflies
of Minnesota,” “The Hemiptera of Minnesota,” Grasshoppers and
Crickets,” and later the very brief report by the writer upon the
“Diptera or Two-winged Flies of Minnesota.” Some groups, while
of interest to the amateur, do not, on account of their comparatively
small size, call for such extended reports as the above. Hence we
feel very fortunate to obtain, in line with the above plan, this con-
tribution upon the Dragon Flies of Minnesota, for this report. We
also include here Professor M. P. Somes’ excellent report upon “The
Acridiidae of Minnesota,” published as Bulletin No. 141 (Tech-
nical) of the Minnesota Experiment Station, July, 1914. This work
was done entirely under the direction of the State Entomologist
and with the funds in his state department. Because of this,
and since we believe it one of the best publications in that particular
field, representing in part the careful work of three years in Minne-
sota, and feel that it will be useful to specialists in this group
and to the schools 1n this state and elsewhere, we include it in the
1913-1914 report. The three colored plates were first used in the
Fifteenth Report, 1912-1913, but since their presence is necessary
for the more perfect understanding of Mr. Somes’ paper, in which
occur many references to the plates, we hope we may be pardoned
for repeating them here. These plates represent excellent work,
both by artist and lithographer, as do also the three colored plates
of heads of birds, finished by the quadri-colored process. The col-
ored plate illustrating San Jose Scale and Crown Gall is made by
the same process. The paging in Mr. Somes’ article, since it was
first printed as a technical bulletin from the Experiment Station,
does not conform to the paging in the body of this Report.

xv

Acknowledgments. We take pleasure in acknowledging the
generous co-operation during the two years just past of the entomo-
logical force, the Director of the Station, and members of the Sta-
tion staff in general.

We wish particularly to acknowledge the co-operation of Mr.
H. L. Viereck, specialist in Hymenoptera, who has been of material
service to us in the work on the Hymenoptera of this state.

The press, as usual, has been courteous and helpful. Nursery-
men and florists have willingly complied with the provisions of the
Inspection Law and we feel that the years of 1913 and 1914 have
been successful in this particular.

We are deeply indebted to Professor Whedon for complying to
our request for a contribution on Minnesota Odonata.

The Governor of the State, to whom this report is addressed, has
shown his interest and co-operative spirit in various ways.

Respectfully submitted,
Le WASHBURN:
State Entomologist.
Financial reports for 1913 and 1914 are herewith appended.

HUANG EAL SL Ate MENT,* PISCAL YEAR, AUGUSTE 4°1912% TO
AUGU Sie 190s:

NINA MAPLE EER POUR TRENT i oho en, stot atendvo-d cr avete he aie e ae wun were $ 25.00
Hooks pemodicalswanduindex Catdsiiy.4...0- 452.504 e2 es 98.58
Glee saccountant sand sstenogtapher:...sc0.4.5 2-00 - 825.00
CitseandmercinnecetoneINeport: «tacos oessnons den cles ee 63.76
Drawings and colored plates for Report................ 369.16
Ee CPI @ HES ter rere tay codec es age, sch srayeccale, ol aitehe log seavehohal-o esilonae 20.27
Insecticides: apparatus, and reagents... ....40.4..sce.e 58.28
Onincemsuppllesmstatoneny, -elGses acl clack cr geese -e 77.90
EnoOrogtapliGs Supplies saci cls sc/vic oisre > cicieuehe aicceeia ciacaun als, « 20.40
Rrintine circulanswulnsect Mite, cands, €tC...c.s. 6.2... 190.25
Salaries and traveling expenses of Entomologist’s staff. 1,862.11
Salaries and traveling expenses of Field assistants..... 1,257.70
SUbStiEMbe: sStENOGTAaples: ....<. .<. ches atts «ohne vaneless 106.25
Supplies) toGulabonratony and insectatiy. . saw... selec 50.47

Telephone and telegraph service, freight and express

Chat estercin Ge POSEARE ar, woe cindinsisiauertctetceietnele Ge hence 319.77
$5,344.90
TENINEGL 8, a hee Set oh cE eR an De lea ae ee $5,000.00
(Gredit by Nursery Inspection, ete... 2. 07 eas aoe S 464.99
$5,464.99
5,344.90
[Breillareigey Opal ale otal ieee Reet erica Ieee CES CRIES cease ney $ 120.09

*Bills covering details of above on file in State Auditor’s office.

xvi

FINANCIAL STATEMENT,* EISCAL, YEAR AUGUST eiSisyit Ge
AUGUST 1, 1914:

AD PLOPLIATIONS ys, bith tlecrta cic Sete ieitees crore hc dese Lamers $6,300.00
Railroad rebates for-excess fares. 6.25 e225. cs . sled Clases OZ. Ol Oona
paisa

Apparatus .... Oe sl ns Aton se oae

Assistance and working ‘expenses 5d eee oe Aha s: SRLS TEN Re 545.88

Clerk, accountant and “stenographer PEER ARERR Chae eo 808.31

Etchings, drawings, and colored plates for Report...... 321.30

Entomological periodicals) Samm vase ccc eae eee 16.42

EEXMEenSeSHOLlASSIStAI LS err aaeicee Seranes ae ae 223.09

Bretcht and (express). fin cs. ec cece en ee eee 67.94

Insecticides serials me eo ae Pie eee ae eer ne HSIoe

aboratonye supplies: w=) cues cee eee See ee ee ONS 7

Lantern slides, etc., for Farmers’ lectures. .2........... 18.18

Models..of insects for tair- and lectures: ., 258--<0 on eer 116.85

Nursery Inspection expenses for June.................. 242.15

@OfhicesSuppliesy he yyw sees Peo nee at eR AOD

Bhotocraphic. Supplies: sss + -tacee acter eee es creehe eeee reper ae 4.28

Rostace "Gncluding report) iaseco eee ee eee 102.00

Printing of circulars, cards) report, (ete... 4.566. ee: 605.00

Salaries of Assistant Entomologist and other assistants. 2,578.85

Telephones: long distance and tulegraph messages...... 53.70

Traveling expenses of Entomologist.................... 197.24 6,384.42
Balasicetien tins 2 selerd 3 eae ay oe ne rena nn $ 78.49

*Bills covering details of above on file in State Auditor’s office.

Statement of sums appropriated by the legislature, the aggregate
amounts drawn from the State Treasury and balance unexpended, are
correct as shown by the records of this department.

State Auditor.

l. L. WOOD, DE

BUR, ENGRAVING, MPLS.

SOME USEFUL MINNESOTA BIRDS

Plate 1,

USEFUL BIRDS FOUND IN MINNESOTA *

F. L. WASHBURN.

There have been so many and so insistent demands, particularly
from the schools of the state, for information about Minnesota
birds, and requests for Bird Charts similar to the Insect Charts
distributed by the Entomologist to the schools several years ago,
that we hope to obtain from the legislature at the coming session
$3,000 to prepare and distribute with educational text about 9,000
such charts illustrating our useful birds. Rather than depend,
however, upon a resource available only in the future and of an
uncertain nature, we have endeavored to discuss and figure a few
of our representative insect-eating birds in this Report, trusting
that such contributions will be helpful.

Disregarding any sentimental views upon birds caused by their
song and beauty, and basing our opinions as to their usefulness or
the contrary purely upon a study of their food-habits at different
seasons, and in different years, it is believed that we may safely
say that almost all of our common birds, including a goodly number
of hawks and owls, the so-called “birds of prey,” are useful to
the agriculturist and fruit-raiser. Some are more so than others, a
few are of doubtful utility, and a still smaller number, representing
a very small proportion of our bird fauna, we now regard as in-
jurious in the light of our present knowledge. It is possible that
additional investigation may cause us to entertain a different
opinion of the latter. A farmer, or orchardist, or berry-raiser, or
truck gardener, has a perfect right to protect his crops from exces-
sive bird injury and we have seen occasions where resort to a
shotgun was justifiable, but, in such cases, one should be absolutely
sure that the bird he seeks to destroy is really guilty, that the injury
caused is serious, and, particularly, that the benefits accruing from
the destruction oi a large number of insects on the part of the bird
in question, during the nesting season, do not more than compen-
sate for the few berries or small amount of other fruit or of garden
or farm crop destroyed. For this information, the agriculturist has
to rely mainly upon the results of the studies of experts in this
line, since it requires long and careful observations and the exam-

* Also printed as Circular No. 32.

2 USEFUL BIRDS.

ination of a large series of birds’ stomachs to place this matter
upon even an approximately accurate basis.

In this connection, we should note that the parent birds secure
the enormous number of insects, which form the main part of
the food of the nestlings, as near the nest as possible; the nearer,
the more trips each day and, consequently, the more insects con-
sumed. A bird nesting a mile away from a berry patch is not going
to cover that distance seeking for insects if it can get them near
at hand. Therefore, it behooves the agriculturist to encourage
nesting of birds upon his own place.

As evidence of the voracity with which birds attack insects, the
writer might cite his observations at Lake Minnetonka in September
of the present year at a time when enormous numbers of “gnats”
(Chironomids) filled the air, producing, at sunset and after, a hum-
ming noise audible for a long distance. These flies are of no
special importance to the agriculturist, but by their immense num-
bers are sometimes disagreeable accompaniments of a sojourn near
bodies of water, their larval life being aquatic. In this particular
instance, these huge swarms attracted hordes of Tree Swallows
massing for their southward migration. These beautiful birds,
thousands of them, remained in the vicinity of the lake for several
days, and must have made a decided impression upon the numbers
of the flies. They not only caught these gnats in the air, but clus-
tered upon trees and even lit upon lawns, seeking the flies in places
where the latter had sought shelter from the wind. In an effort
to determine how great had been the destruction of gnats by the
swallows, the writer secured three of the birds and examined their
stomachs. These were found distended with immense quantities of
flies, but in such disintegrated condition that anything like an
accurate count was impossible. By turning the lens of a camera
toward the sky, the accompanying photographs of the swallows
were obtained. With hundreds of them on the wing, there were,
of course, many out of focus. The indifferent pictures, however,
may illustrate the fact that the air was literally full of swallows.

Reference has been made to the raptorial birds, our hawks and
owls. From time immemorial practically, the farmer’s boy has felt
justified in shooting every hawk and every owl met with, under the
impression that he was doing agriculture a good turn thereby.
Whenever he could bring down a crow or shoot into a bunch of
blackbirds, he felt an honest conviction that his action would be
approved at home; hence he returns triumphant, proudly display-

USEFUL BIRDS. 3

ing his dead crow, or hawk, or owl as he walks the village street,
while perchance the “partridge” or “quail” or chicken shot out of
season is snugly tucked away in the pocket of his hunting coat.
As a matter of fact, most of our hawks and owls are decidedly
useful; crows frequently pick up white grubs turned up by the
plow, and the writer has seen in Minnesota both blackbirds and
crows in the stubble eating large numbers of grasshoppers, in a

Fie. 5. Tree swallows in enormous numbers catching gnats.
Lake Minnetonka, September, 1914.

bad grasshopper year. Of course both of these can be and are at
times injurious in corn fields and in grain. And the poultry raiser,
particularly if living near timber, will occasionally lose poultry
on account of the presence of hawks, but practically never on ac-
count of the two or three birds of prey whose heads are shown in
the accompanying plates. There are one or two notoriously bad
hawks, but the little sparrow hawk, Fig 13, is a great eater of grass-
hoppers, and the marsh hawk, Fig. 11, so plentiful about meadows
and on the prairie, is a constant hunter of field mice and other

4 USEFUL BIRDS.

animals; while the screech owl, Fig. 4, is a useful resident upon any
farm as a mouse killer.

Teachers in our public and district schools have an excellent
opportunity to inculcate in the minds of their boys a desire to
study the habits of birds and to discourage the maiming and killing
of song birds or the destruction of their nests and eggs. Usually
the small boy who would “make a collection” of birds’ eggs wishes
to do so because they attract him partly by their color, partly per-
haps by the difficulties involved in securing them, and no doubt also
influenced by a desire “to collect” which sometimes makes impera-
tive demands upon both young and old. The loss to agriculture by
such collections is decidedly great, a loss which is avoidable if the
boy’s ambitions can be turned into other channels. Acts of this kind.
egg-collecting without a license, and the killing of song birds are, for
the most part, punishable by law, but if the child can be led into
observance of these laws through an intelligent interest in the
birds themselves, the result is better than if fear is the instigating
cause. Enough has been said perhaps to emphasize the need upon
the part of both adults and young of a careful and discriminating
judgment of birds based upon their food habits before condemning
them, and the need of encouraging in every way possible their
continued presence on farm, in garden, and in orchards by boxes
for wrens, bluebirds, and martins, and by exposing material used
in nest building; by winter feeding and by fostering generally a
wise and humane policy towards our feathered associates. The
recent enactment of laws by Congress protecting birds during
their migration is one of the best evidences of the growth of a
higher, and at the same time, a more practical sentiment in this
direction. A brief description of the birds figured on the plates
follows:

Except where noted, the male bird is figured and described.

ROBIN.
(Plater, Wis. 13)

What would a country home be without robins on the lawn!
As a rule, the robin, which is really a thrush, is useful, although
a large per cent of its food is fruit. Because of our general attach-
ment to the bird, agriculturists will probably try every possible
protective means before having recourse to the shotgun when fruit
is to be saved. Individuals of this species are found frequently very
late in the fall, and occasionally where evergreen thickets afford

USEFUL BIRDS. 5

shelter, even in the winter. The writer found them in 1885 on
November 9th in Otter Tail County. They have been observed in
Minnesota, evidently returned from the south, as early as February,
but generally they begin to arrive the latter part of March or early
in April, welcome harbingers of spring.

.YELLOW-RUMPED WARBLER; MYRTLE WARBLER.
(Plate Joie. 2.)

One of our more common warblers, breeding in the northern
part of the State and in Canada and observed in vicinity of Minne-
apolis about April 15th. Found in small flocks amongst bushes and
other low growth. Its food consists almost entirely of injurious
insects, a small per cent only represented by fruit and seeds. It is
particularly fond of scale insects and plant lice, and is something of
a fly-catcher as well. It is a little over five inches in length, and can
be easily recognized by the presence, in the adult males, of a bright
yellow patch on rump, on top of head, and on each side of breast.
General colors,—grayish with darker stripes, throat white, more
or less black on breast and lower parts. In the young and in the
adults in late fall, the colors are duller and the characteristic yellow
of the crown and rump either very dim or absent. Length, about
five and a half inches. Nests in evergreens a few feet above the
ground; eggs, whitish-gray blotched with brown or blue.

CHICKADEE.
(Plate tT, Hic. -3:)

Found as a resident throughout northern part of the United
States and in Canada and Alaska. Dear to us because of its
cheerful activity in the cold of winter when almost all other bird
friends have left us. From an economic standpoint, a great bene-
factor, for not only does it consume large numbers of insects in
summer, but more than one-half the winter food consists of insects
and their eggs. The eggs of plant lice make up one-fifth of the
entire food; in fact, the destruction of these eggs on fruit and
shade trees is the chief beneficial work of this bird in the winter,
and the good it does in this way must not be underestimated.
Examinations of the stomachs or crops of these birds have shown
that sometimes more than four hundred and fifty eggs of plant lice
are consumed by one bird in one day. Eggs of canker worms and
tent caterpillars are also eaten. Four stomachs or crops examined
showed, as the result of a single day’s feed, one thousand and

6 USEFUL BIRDS.

twenty-eight eggs of canker worms. Four others contained about
six hundred eggs of canker worms and a hundred and five mature,
female canker worms. Surely, if any bird deserves protection, it
is this one. Such a familiar bird hardly calls for a description.
Head, back of neck and throat, black; sides of head and neck,
whitish; breast, white; sides, washed with brownish yellow.
Length, about five and one-half inches. Nests in old stumps and
decayed trees, preferably birch; holes generally not far from
ground. In addition to its cheerful “chick-a-dee-dee” it has a
number of other notes, some of them extremely musical.

SCREECH OWL.
(Plate I, Fig. 4.)

Varies greatly in color from reddish or rufous to gray. In
rufous specimens, rufous above, generally showing fine black lines.
Below, whitish, with feathers barred with reddish or rufous. Or,
in grayish specimens, above, brownish gray with faint black mark-
ings mingling with brown. Length, about ten inches. This is a
quite familiar bird about our orchards and barnyards, and as its
food habits show, its presence should be encouraged. Of two
hundred and fifty-five stomachs examined under the direction of the
United States Department of Agriculture, one contained poultry;
thirty-eight contained other birds; ninety-one contained mice;
eleven contained other mammals; one hundred contained insects;
two contained lizards; four contained batrachians; one contained
fish; five contained spiders; nine contained crawfish; seven con-
tained miscellaneous matter; two contained scorpions; two con-
tained earthworms; and forty-three were empty.

WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.
(Pilate J, Fige-5:)

The only one of our birds which is commonly seen “climbing”
down a tree as well as up. About six inches long, gray, with white
under part; top of head, black; back, bluish. Ranges practically
over the entire United States and Mexico. Over one-half of its
food consists of insects. Nests in holes in trees. This is one of the
few birds which remain with us over winter, at which time we fre-
quently find it associating with chickadees, downy woodpeckers,
kinglets, and brown creepers. Its rather coarse note frequently
repeated has been likened to the word “yank” repeated, with a
nasal sound. A close cousin of this bird, the red-breasted nuthatch,

|. L. WOOD, DEL BUR

SOME USEFUL MINNESOTA BIRDS

ENGRAVING, MPLS

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USEFUL BIRDS. a

has a somewhat more northerly range. The writer has collected
both old and young of the red-breasted nuthatch at St. Vincent in
August, and it perhaps finds there its southern limit in this State.

CHIPPING SPARROW: “CHIPPIE.”
(Plate Tewitic. Gs)

One of our most common garden birds; unobtrusive, useful and
welcome; easily recognized by its modest grayish and brownish
colors and the chestnut or bay patch on top of head. Furthermore,
it is very friendly; its somewhat monotonous “chipping” note is a
common sound in many gardens and dooryards in this country.
Eats seed in the fall, at which time its colors change somewhat.
During the summer, it helps destroy various insects, including
caterpillars, beetles, plant lice, etc. The chipping sparrow is a
little over five inches long. Nests in trees or vines near house or in
garden or orchard; nest generally lined with horsehair; eggs, four
or five, bluish, with blackish or brownish markings.

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO.
(Plate 2 igs 75)

A shy bird with back and long tail a fashionable brown; under
parts, white; lower half of bill, yellow, except at tip. Constructs
a loose nest of twigs and lays therein three, four, or five pale-green
eggs, unmarked. This bird is generally silent but at times gives
utterance to a note repeated in such a way that it sounds like some
one calling the cows. Because this is heard sometimes in lowering
weather preceding rain, the bird is called by many “rain crow.”
Without doubt one of our most useful birds and one of the few
which will eat hairy caterpillars, such as tent caterpillars and fall
web worms. Henshaw (U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bulletin 513)
reports that one stomach which was examined contained two
hundred and fifty American tent caterpillars; another two hundred
and seventeen fall web worms.

The Black Billed Cockoo is perhaps more common in Minnesota
and more generally met with than the above species.

RED-EYED VIREO.
(Plate 2, His ss)

Who has not heard and enjoyed the song of this bird emanating
from shade trees along a village street on a hot day in summer?
It is heard at a time when other birds are silent, and if one sees

8 USEFUL BIRDS.

the songster amongst the leaves, he will be found to be actively
searching for insects, even while giving voice to his song. The
nest is pensile, in a fork, and characteristic in its structure, con-
taining strips of vines, bark of trees, frequently pieces of paper.
This nest may be thirty or forty feet above the ground. Eggs,
three or four in number, white, the larger end sparingly spotted.
The bird is about six and a quarter inches long. Top of head,
gray ; white line over the eye, which is red. The remainder of body
olive colored, except under parts, which are white. We found this
species to be the most abundant of its family in the Red River
Valley some years ago.

DOWNY WOODPECKER.
(Plate 2, Fig. 9.)

A true benefactor in that its food consists almost entirely of in-
jurious insects, and it is with us both winter and summer. It is
the smallest of our woodpeckers, being only six and four-fifths
inches long. Black above: a scarlet band on back of neck; white on
middle of back; under part, white; central feathers of tail, black;
the outer ones white with black markings; wings, black spotted
with white. Length, 6%4 inches. The female lacks the scarlet
patch on back of neck. It nests in holes in trees. Often seen in
winter in company with nuthatches, chickadees, and brown creep-
ers. What little vegetable food it eats consists of seeds of poison
ivy, sumac, etc. Seventeen Wisconsin specimens had eaten forty
insect larvae, twenty wood-boring grubs, three caterpillars, seven
ants, four beetles, a chrysalid, one hundred and ten small bugs, a
spider, with a few acorns, small seeds, and a little woody fibre,
apparently taken by accident with the grubs. Three-fourths of the
food of one hundred and forty specimens examined by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture consisted of insects. Nearly one-fourth con-
sisted of ants, chiefly those which were caring for plant lice, or
burrowing in wood.

BROWN CREEPER.
(Plate 2, Fig. 10.)

This inconspicuous, active bird being with us throughout the
entire year is to be ranked amongst our most useful assistants in
keeping down injurious insects, for it eats many insects in hiber-
nating stage in winter besides consuming large numbers of insect
eggs which would otherwise hatch in the spring. It appears to be

USEFUL BIRDS. 9

always in motion in the daytime, “creeping” over trunks and
branches on the lookout for food. General color, brown more or
less streaked with lighter colors; white below; about five and
one-half inches long; end of tail feathers stiff and pressed against
bark of tree after the manner of woodpeckers. Bill slightly curved.

MARSH HAWK (Female).
(Platesz; Bigy 11.)

Male and female quite different, both in size and color. Adult
male nineteen inches long, grayish ahove, the tail being barred with
blackish; feathers above at base of tail (upper tail coverts) con-
spicuously white; breast. gray, fading into white on belly, where
brownish markings are found. The adult female is twenty-two
inches long, dark brown above, marked on head and neck with
reddish brown; upper tail coverts as in male, conspicuously white;
tail darker brown, barred with reddish brown; breast buff, the color
fading on belly. Nests on the ground in marshes. This is pre-
eminently a bird of the meadows and prairies, and is often seen
skimming over the top of the marsh grass hunting its food, at which
time the white of the upper tail coverts is conspicuous. It eats
field mice, squirrels, rabbits, grasshoppers, frogs, reptiles, and occa-
sionally small birds or poultry, but not often. The writer regards
is as a useful bird to the agriculturist. Out of one hundred and
twenty-four stomachs examined by the United States Department
of Agriculture, seven contained poultry or game birds; thirty-four
contained other birds; fifty-seven contained mice; twenty-two con-
tained other mammals; seven contained reptiles; two contained
frogs; fourteen contained insects; the contents of one were un-
determined, and eight were empty. Dr. B. H. Warren examined
fourteen stomachs with the following results: Seven had only
held Gnmiice, in) their “stomachs; three, frogs; two, small birds
(warblers); one, a few feathers, apparently of a sparrow, and
fragments of insects; one, a large number of grasshoppers, with
a small quantity of hair, evidently of a young rabbit. This bird is
recorded as having been observed in southern Minnesota in
January.

KINGBIRD.
(Plate 2, Fig. 12.)

This is the policeman of our garden and orchard, bravely attack-
ing large hawks and crows which might be disposed to do mischief.
It is a typical flycatcher and consumes an enormous number of

10 USEFUL BIRDS.

insects and deserves our protection at all times. What few honey
bees he takes appear to be mostly drones; examination of six hun-
dred and thirty-four stomachs showed only 61 bees in 22 stomachs.
Of these 51 were useless drones. On the other hand, it devours
_robber flies which catch and destroy honey bees. (From Biol.
Survey Bull. U. S. Dept. of Agr.) Length, eight and a half inches;
upper parts, dark gray, almost black on head. Concealed flame-
colored crest on head; under parts, whitish.

SPARROW HAWK.
(Plate, Hic? 13:)

Our smallest and most beautiful hawk. Common in fields and
along roadsides in the late summer and fall, at which time it con-
sumes large numbers of grasshoppers. It also eats other insects,
caterpillars, spiders, and at least one-quarter of its food consists
of field mice, shrews, and field-dwelling house mice. It occasionally
preys upon young birds but this is not a common trait of this
species. Quoting from a Biological Survey Bulletin: “Out of four
hundred and ten stomachs examined, three hundred and fourteen
were found to contain insects, one hundred and twenty-nine small
mammals, and seventy, small birds.” We unhesitatingly class
these amongst our useful birds. It is found throughout the United
States, breeding wherever it is a summer resident; is about ten
inches long; back, brownish red or rufous with black bars. Black
band at end of rufous tail, the extreme end of which is white. Head,
bluish with brown shadings. Under parts and sides spotted with
black. The above brief description applies to the male bird. A
hole in a tree is utilized as a nest; eggs, whitish or creamy, three
to seven in number.

MEADOW LARK.
(Plate 2, Fig. 14.)

The Meadow Lark is common from the Atlantic to the Great
Plains, and a variety extends west of the Plains to the Pacific
Coast. It is an inhabitant of both prairie land and fields in dis-
tricts more or less wooded, and while not a fine songster, in the
opinion of many, adds much to our enjoyment of the country. The
color of the upper parts is a mingling of black, whitish and chestnut,
darker on the head, where we find a light streak running back from
the bill; side of head light, showing a yellow streak over and in
front of eye; chin, throat, and breast bright yellow, with a jet black

USEFUL BIRDS. i131

collar or cravat on breast in form of a crescent; all but the central
tail feathers showing considerable white. Length, ten to eleven
inches. It nests upon the ground. Analyses of stomach contents
give interesting results: Two hundred and thirty-eight stomachs
examined contained seventy-three per cent animal matter, and
twenty-seven per cent vegetable, the latter being found in the win-
ter. The animal food consisted of insects of ground species—
beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and a few flies, wasps, and
spiders. A number of the stomachs were taken from birds killed
when the ground was largely covered with snow, but still contained
a large percentage of insects. Crickets and grasshoppers constitute
twenty-nine per cent of the entire year’s food, and sixty-nine per
cent of the food in August. Twenty-one per cent of beetles was
found, of which about one-third were predaceous ground beetles;
the others all harmful species. In May caterpillars constitute over
twenty-eight per cent of the whole food, with a large number of
cutworms. Grain makes up fourteen per cent, and weed and other
seeds, twelve per cent.

MARYLAND YELLOW THROAT.
(Plate 3, Fig. 15.)

This beautiful warbler is one of the most attractive of the fam-
ily. It perhaps is not as useful as many others because of its some-
what shy habits and the environment of its nest. It is, nevertheless,
thoroughly insectivorous and as such, and because of its beauty, en-
titled to our friendship. The male has a jet black band across
forehead and over the cheeks; remainder of upper parts and tail,
olive green; throat and chest, bright yellow. Nests frequently on
the ground; eggs. white, speckled. Found throughout the United
States east of the Great Plains. We have found it common in the
Red River Valley. It may be regarded as fairly common throughout
most of Minnesota, but not conspicuous on account of its retiring
habits.

CEDAR BIRD: CEDAR WAXWING, OR “CHERRY BIRD.”
(Plater3 hiazal6.)

This beautiful bird is about seven inches long, the tips of the
secondary feathers in wing and frequently the tail feathers with tips
resembling red sealing wax; hence the above name. The head and
upper parts, a warm grayish brown; a conspicuous crest; a jet
black line across forehead and through eyes; a yellow band across
tail at its end; yellowish below.

1 USEFUL BIRDS.

It is found in varying abundance over the United States and
breeds throughout its range. The nest is characteristic, rather bulky
but of loose construction, in which rootlets, moss, twigs, and lichens
may appear, and is found in fruit trees or shade trees from six feet
to fifteen or more above the ground. Eggs have been described
as “putty colored.” There may be three, four, or five in a clutch
and irregularly spotted with black or brownish markings. These
birds are fond of canker worms and other caterpillars and are
valuable allies in any orchard. One year in August I noted in the
Red River Valley a fly-catching habit of this bird and find the
following entry in my notes: “For almost half an hour, I watched
six of these birds, constantly on the wing, hovering over a slough
and catching quantities of (these) insects. They seemed never to
grow tired, but flew slowly against the wind, deviating now a little
to this side, now to that, until they reached the end of the slough,
when back they came to repeat the same maneuvre and go over
the same ground again and again. Occasionally, they uttered the
characteristic note of the species, but, for the most part, flew silent-
ly. During the time I stood watching them, they did not once rest.”

CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER.
(Plate 3, Fig. 17.)

An attractive insect-eating summer resident, typical of the large
family of warblers, a goodly number of which either pass through
Minnesota in spring and fall, or nest here. A male bird is figured,—
crown, yellow; sides of breast, chestnut; and some greenish yellow
in the black of the upper parts; below, white; length, about five
inches. It reaches Minnesota about the middle of May.

CROW BLACKBIRD; PURPLE CRACKLE.
(Plate 3, Fig. 18.)

Eats white grubs, grasshoppers, and other insects including
army worms but capable of doing damage in grain fields when
present there in large flocks. It is at such times that a farmer is
justified in protecting his crops by the judicious use of the shotgun.
But the bird should not be classified as an enemy to the farmer be-
cause it is also known to do good as indicated above. It is unfor-
tunate that the engraver should have placed the bluebird’s head,
with its contrasting blue, so close to the head of the blackbird.
This inharmonious grouping came to the notice of the writer too
late for correction. The crow blackbird is twelve inches long,

USEFUL BIRDS. 13

builds a coarse nest of grass and mud, frequently in evergreens, or
even in niches in the cornices of public buildings. We have found
them as far north as Otter Tail County the latter part of October.

BLUEBIRD.
@elate 3, his." 19:)

Too well known to need detailed description. Found through
the United States, Canada, Mexico, and parts of Central America.
Upper parts, including wings and tail, bright blue; breast, throat,
and sides, reddish. Iength, seven inches. It is of wide distribution,
from the Atlantic to the Rockies, and from Canada to the Gulf of
Mexico. Its note is among the first to be heard in the spring, and
one of the last in the fall, at which latter time we associate it with
the falling leaves of Indian summer. To the writer, its note in the
fall has always appeared to take on additional sadness, as though
lamenting the dying of the year. It nests in hollow trees and in
boxes erected in suitable places, and should be encouraged by pro-
viding it with plenty of such opportunities for housekeeping. An
examination of two hundred and five stomachs showed that seventy-
six per cent of the food consisted of insects and their allies, while
twenty-four per cent is made up of vegetable substances. Beetles
constitute twenty-eight per cent of the whole food; grasshoppers,
twenty-two; caterpillars, eleven; and various insects, including
spiders, comprise the remainder of diet. All these insects are more
or less harmful, except a few predaceous beetles, which amount to
eight per cent. Prof. S. A. Forbes of Illinois examined one hundred
and eight specimens secured in every month except November and
January, and results of these examinations prove that although the
bluebird eats some insects which are beneficial, and occasionally
takes a raspberry or gooseberry, it consumes such an immense
number of injurious insects, cut worms, and army worms, moths
grasshoppers. and crickets, that it is undoubtedly a beneficial bird.
Nestlings of the bluebird, like the young of almost all of our
common birds, are fed an enormous quantity of insects. These
birds have been known to arrive in the vicinity of Minneapolis
as early as January, but generally they need not be looked for
until late in March. They remain with us until late in October
and occasionally into November.

14 USEFUL BIRDS.

BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER.
(Plate 3, Fig. 20.)

A beautiful representative of the warbler family and a strictly
insectivorous bird, though breeding as it does in the. evergreen
woods, it consumes more insects there than it does in the neighbor-
hood of farms. However, even the warblers that pass through this
latitude in spring and again in the fall, not nesting here, are useful,
in that they are keen hunters of insects found in our trees at that
time. The Blackburnian warbler is hardly to be regarded as a
common bird in Minnesota and it seems quite natural in view of its
gaudy colors that it should winter in the tropics. It is about five
and a quarter inches in length, and the male, strikingly colored, is
indicated in the illustration. The back is streaked with black and
white and the deep orange shown in the figure extends over the
chin, throat, and breast; under parts are tinged with the same color.
Regarded by many as the most beautiful of all the warblers.

ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK.
(Gelate ose = 216)

This beautiful bird and excellent songster is common in almost
all parts of Minnesota, the male at once recognized by the striking
black and white coloration and beautiful rose coloring of breast and
under side of wings. The female is brownish or olivaceous and in
her the rose of the male is replaced by yellow. As the name indi-
cates, the bill is strikingly large and, even without the above colors,
would be sufficient to distinguish these birds from other summer
bird residents. This species is found breeding as far north as
southern Canada and throughout its range is a help to the agricul-
turist. It occasionally eats peas and a little fruit, but consumes
an enormous number of potato beetles as well as striped cucumber
beetles. It is reputed as attacking scale insects and the writer has
seen it foraging for grasshoppers. Canker worms, tent caterpillars,
army worms, cut worms, chinch bugs, and others are known to be
included in its dietary. This grosbeak is about eight inches long;
nests from five to fifteen feet or more from the ground; eggs, four
or five, light blue with irregular brownish markings. Reaches
Minnesota generally about the first week in May, though it has
been noted here the latter part of April. In the Red River Valley
we have found them common in wooded sections. :

|. L. WOOD, DEL BUR. ENGRAVING, MPLS.

SOME USEFUL MINNESOTA BIRDS

Plate 3.

USEFUL BIRDS. 15

The above list is far from complete but it is fairly representative
and we have not finances and consequently not sufficient space to
make it more extensive.

We might add the following common and also beneficial birds:
House Wren, nearly 100 per cent of its food being insects, reaching
Minnesota about April 25th; the Barn Swallow, which captures,
while on the wing, moths, flies, beetles, and frequently grasshop-
pers (house bedbugs, contrary to a very common belief, are not
found in swallows’ nests) ; the Purple Martin, an excellent addition
to any farm; should be provided with martin houses and its pres-
ence encouraged. It wages relentless war upon hawks and crows
and constitutes therefore a guard for poultry and small birds. In
the writer’s notes on Minnesota birds occurs the following entry
regarding the Purple Martin, resulting from an ornithological trip
through the Red River Valley some years ago: “This species, too,
occurs about Mille Lacs, where the farmers provide boxes for them.
The great majority of them there, however, nest with the gulls on
an island called Spirit Island by the Indians, lying about two miles
from the southeastern shore of Lake Mille Lacs. Here large
numbers lay their eggs in the crevices and fissures of the rocks
and serve as allies in driving away the ravens and other birds dis-
posed to prey upon the eggs and young of the gulls.” This bird
appears to be growing rarer in Minnesota, due perhaps to lack of
provision in the way of bird houses.

The Song Sparrow, so dear to us all, deserves a prominent place
on our list; it is not only friendly and attractive because of its song
and from the fact that it is one of the earliest of bird arrivals from
the South, but it consumes a large amount of weed seed and many
insects. The food of the Night Hawk also appears to be May flies,
dragon flies. beetles, gnats, ants, and frequently potato beetles,
grasshoppers, etc.

The Yellow Hammer or Flicker, we purposely left off the
colored plate, to allow space for a more useful woodpecker. The
Flicker or High Hole is something of a “ground bird;” that is, it
is very fond of ants and is quite apt to be discovered dining on ants
upon the ground. It eats wood-boring grubs to some extent, but is
not as industrious in that direction as many of our other wood-
peckers. It occasionally takes a little fruit and is reported to eat
grain, though rarely. On the whole, it is a useful bird, and we are
attached to it because we associate its characteristic call with

16 USEFUL BIRDS.

the promising days of early spring before the leaves appear on the
trees.

The Ruby-crowned and Golden-crowned Ringlets, tiny denizens
of woodlands, consume large quantities of beetles, bugs, tree hop-
pers, scale insects, plant lice, and leaf hoppers.

It is unfortunate that the Mourning Dove or Ground Dove is
included amongst our game birds, as it deserves protection. A
bulletin from the United States Department of Agriculture (Farm-
ers’ Bulletin 513, Bureau of Biological Survey) reports the finding
in one stomach of seventy-five hundred seeds of yellow wood sorrel ;
in another sixty-four hundred seeds of foxtail, and in a third twenty-
six hundred seeds of slender pospalum, forty-eight hundred and
twenty seeds of orange hawkweed, nine hundred fifty of hairy
vervain, one hundred twenty of Carolina cranesbill, fifty of yellow
wood sorrel, six hundred twenty of panic grass, and forty miscel-
laneous weed seeds.

Amongst our game birds, the Quail gets most of its grain after
the crop has been gathered: it eats insects, some of them very in-
jurious; large numbers of potato beetles and chinch bugs have
been found in its crop; army worms, cut worms and wire worms
form a portion of its diet. It appears to be growing more abundant
in the State from year to year, and working farther north each
season, yet its occurrence in any latitude in any year naturally
depends upon the severity of the preceding winter and upon gen-
eral climatic conditions.

The Killdeer or Ringneck Plover, common in low-lying fields
and frequently seen about the barnyard, easily recognized not only
by its rather plaintive note but particularly by the black band across
the white breast, consumes the larvae of many injurious insects
found in pastures and meadows; it eats wire-worms, caterpillars,
grasshoppers and crickets and the eggs of the two latter.

The Black Tern, found so abundantly about our prairie sloughs,
and the most abundant representative of the group in Minnesota,
is a good friend of the farmer, for when the sloughs are dry, and
even before, they consume large numbers of grasshoppers. Amongst
others of this family (gulls), Franklin’s Rosy Gull is one of the
chief breeders within the State’s borders and is a voracious eater
of grasshoppers.

USEFUL BIRDS. if

BAD BIRDS.

Under this head, we would unhesitatingly place the Sharp-
shinned Hawk, Cooper’s Hawk and Goshawk, the chief maraud-
ers against poultry and small birds; the Yellow-bellied Wood-
pecker. or “Sap-sucker,” which feeds upon the sap of trees, leaving
rows or holes about the trunks, and the English Sparrow, or more
correctly speaking. the European House Sparrow.

The Sap-sucker (the only bad woodpecker we have) preys upon
birch, maple, apples, mountain ash, evergreens, and other trees.
Some of the cambium or inner layer of bark is eaten also. While
this bird eats a few insects, the damage it does in causing trees to
bleed, far outweighs the benefits derived from its presence.

The English Sparrow, too, eats some insects, but its noisy
chatter, filthy habits, and pugnacious disposition make it an unde-
sirable bird member of any community.

BIRDS OF DOUBTFUL UTILITY.

Amongst doubtful birds, we place with reluctance our friend
the Cat-bird. Although having a delightful song, equal or sur-
passing that of the Brown Thrush in our estimation, it neverthe-
less is not of valuable assistance to the gardener or farmer. It eats
some insects, it is true, but in the latter part of June “these insects
were largely replaced by cherries, currants, raspberries, and straw-
berries. Three-fourths of the food of eleven July catbirds con-
sisted of small fruits, mostly (64%) blackberries. Nine percent of
beetles had been taken, most of them being predaceous (bene-
ficial).”’” (From observations by Forbes of Illinois in “Birds in
Their Relation to Man,” by Weed & Dearborn.) Nevertheless, on
account of its song and friendliness and from the fact that it does
consume some injurious insects, the cat-bird will doubtless continue
to be protected except in cases of particularly flagrant destructive-
ness.

The Crow and the various blackbirds will at times call for radi-
cal treatment. The writer has seen both crows and blackbirds
hunting grasshoppers in stubble fields and both are known to eat
other insects, yet their food habits are such as to make their con-
stant protection undesirable and, when necessary, the farmer should
not hesitate to resort to extreme measures to protect his crop.

Like the Crow, our Bluejay sometimes robs birds’ nests of
both eggs and young birds. However, since he is something of an

18 USEFUL BIRDS.

insect eater, and only occasionally resorts to corn or other grain, it
would be hardly just to make war upon him.

Interesting and valuable publications upon this subject are
Chapman’s “Bird Life’ (not economic), Appletons publishers ;
“Birds in Their Relation to Man,” by Weed and Dearborn, Lippin-
cott; Chapman’s “Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America ;”
synoptical and descriptive; very helpful in identification, Appleton
& Co.

Amongst larger works, perhaps not so easily accessible to the
amateur are Coues’ “Key to North American Birds;” Baird,
Brewer & Ridgway’s “North American Birds;”’ several publica-
tions of the Department of Agriculture, for the most part out of
print now, and somewhat antiquated; and more recently Farmers’
Bulletin No. 531 (U. S. Bureau of Biological Survey) “Fifty Com-
mon Birds” with colored illustrations (out of print); and a helpful
publication upon “Bird Houses and How to Build Them,” by Dear-
born—Farmers’ Bulletin No. 609, Sept. 11, 1914.

In the United States Yearbook for 1909, pp. 185-196 (Yearbook
Separate No. 504) occurs an interesting article by McAtee on
“Plants Useiul to Attract Birds and Protect Fruit.”

PROTECTION OF PLANTED CORN FROM CROWS AND
OTHER ANIMALS.

Corn, after being planted, is subject to the attacks of a few ani-
mals which cause loss to the farmer. Chief among these at times 1s
the crow, and any treatment given the seed to protect it from the
attacks of this bird, will, at the same time, afford protection against
a few insects which occasionally eat the seed, and also reduce the
loss from striped squirrels, gophers, and kindred four-footed crea-
tures.

We have found that white twine about the edges of a corn field,
strung on high poles, and hung with strips of tin (one about every
thirty feet), white rags, etc., to be an excellent device in keeping
crows away from a planted field. If, in addition to this, a few dead
crows are suspended from high poles in different parts of the field,
the combination of white twine, bright tin shining in the sun, and
the dead crows as a warning to would-be evil doers, works so well
that the farmer may rest assured it will be many days before his
field is touched by these marauders. This remedy, or the twine
alone, by the way, is 1n quite general use today.

USEFUL BIRDS. 19

Crows can be poisoned by dissolving ten cents worth of sulphate
of strychnine in enough hot water to soak up two quarts of corn.
This should be scattered about the field where crows are working
late in the evening that they may find it there in the early morning.

‘If scarecrows are used they should be changed occasionally.
Forbush in “Useful Birds and Their Protection,” advises the use of
a barrel hung on a leaning pole.

One of the safest and best ways of tarring corn and yet not
affecting its use in a planter is one originating in Massachusetts.
“Put one-fourth to one-half bushel of corn in a half-barrel tub; pour
in a pailful of hot water, or as much as is necessary to well cover
the corn; dip a stick in gas tar and stir this briskly in the corn;
repeat until the corn is entirely black; pour off on to burlap (bran
sacks are good) ; spread in the sun and stir two or.three times dur-
ing the day. If this work is done in the morning and the day is
sunny, the corn will be ready for the planter the next day without
any other care.” A machine will easily handle corn treated in this
way. Another way is as follows: “Put corn in fertilized sack,
pour (thinned) tar on corn, tie the sack; let the boys tumble the
sack about; add ashes or land plaster; tie sack, tumble some more
and it is ready for the planter.” The gas tar can be and should
be diluted with linseed oil.

Deep planting, three or four inches, will, in some heavy soils,
discourage the crow.

If one is a good enough shot with a rifle, and can pick off a crow
or two at long range, the birds keep away from a field so protected.
Even if not hit they seem to realize that it is dangerous ground.
Any birds killed should be hung up in the field.

REPORT ON INSPECTION OF MINNESOTA NUR-
SERIES AND OF IMPORTED NURSERY
STOCK AND ORNAMENTALS 1913-1914 *

F. L. WASHBURN.

The nursery industry of Minnesota is rapidly assuming pro-
portions which places the State amongst the front ranks as a pro-
ducer in this line. The nurseries of the State represent now one of
our large industries, rapidly increasing in size, due to the increas-
ing prosperity and the growing civic spirit of our citizens. The
increase in the amount of work involved in inspection has been
most striking. In 1903, only 25 certificates were issued; in 1913, we
issued 101 certificates, and in 1914, the number has increased to
117, 51 more than were issued in 1912. The total area in Minne-
sota devoted to the growing of nursery stock approximately totals
3,000 acres, represented by about 130 nurseries. It is to be noted
that all of these do not receive certificates. They are all inspected,
but some do not ship, and therefore we save them the $5.00 fee by
not issuing certificate.

In view of the above mentioned facts, and the splendid stock
and large assortment of varieties of hardy fruit trees, shade and
ornamental, grown by our Minnesota nurserymen, it would seem
not amiss to urge our citizens to plant Minnesota grown stock.

The increase in importation of foreign stock and the consequent
inspection of same, have kept pace with that of domestic inspection.
In 1913 we inspected 439 cases, representing about 10,000 azaleas,
3,500 roses, 2,500 hydrangeas, 235 palms, and enough other miscel-
laneous and ornamental shrubs to total approximately 100,000
plants. Bulbs we do not inspect, as the labor involved would
require an enormous outlay of both money and time, and the few
pests at all likely to be introduced, for the most part already exist
in this country.

Under the conditions of a law enacted by Congress, the import-
er, when foreign stock is received at the port of entry, is obliged to
notify the inspector in the State to which the consignment is to be

* Also pr.nted as Circular No. 31.

NURSERY INSPECTION. 21

shipped, stating probable date of shipment to the ultimate con-
signee. Upon receipt of this notice, or an equivalent notice from
the Federal Quarantine Board, the Entomologist notifies the con-
signee in Minnesota, requesting him to advise this office of the date
of the probable receipt of said stock, or that he notify us imme-
diately upon its arrival, so that it may be inspected at once. Under
the Federal law the secretary of the Horticultural Board at Wash-
ington also receives a notice of each consignment and he mails a
Federal notice to the Entomologist in duplicate. Thus we are
enabled to check up all shipments, and after stock is inspected here,
the original Federal blank is filled out and sent to Washington.

It is necessary that Minnesota work in coordination with the
Federal government, and largely with that intent, the new State
law, a copy of which we print herewith, was passed and became
effective in 1913. The State Entomologist regards this State law
in a purely impersonal way. He is simply the instrument for car-
rying out its provisions and is not at liberty to make exceptions or
disregard its instructions. He is not in the slightest degree respon-
sible for its effect upon any individual, or individuals. At the same
time he believes that all interested will unite in saying that it is on
the whole a good law, and necessary to prevent spread of pests
from place to place within the state, and the introduction of any
pests into the state. Occasionally it is possible the law, as worded,
works a hardship, but on the whole, we are, or should be, willing to
make some sacrifice for the common good, and the public at large
cannot always be best served without embarrassment to some indi-
viduals—fortunately only a comparative few. All nurserymen, as
well as the Entomologist, desire to see Minnesota’s standard, in the
line of nursery stock, upheld, and none of us want to see the intro-
duction into the state of the Gypsy or Brown-tailed Moth, the Elm-
leaf Beetle, the San Jose Scale, or the White Pine Blister Rust and
other destructive plant diseases. Further, a good system of inspec-
tion is a guarantee to other states that Minnesota puts reliable
stock on the market.

With a limited number of assistants, at times in fact reduced to
one man, and frequently with several large shipments arriving
simultaneously from Europe, it is sometimes impossible to respond
to all telephone calls, requests by mail, and telegrams from differ-
ent firms asking us to “come immediately, stock must be unpacked.”
When this emergency arises, although the law definitely states
that shipments from abroad shall not be unpacked before the arrival

Beye NURSERY INSPECTION.

of the inspector, we sometimes, in order to prevent the plants spoil-
ing, allow florists and nurserymen to unpack consignments with the
understanding that plants (shrubs or vines) and containers as well,
must remain in greenhouse or packing shed until the arrival of the
inspector, and we further request that the labels must be left intact
on boxes in order that we may check up with notice from Wash-
ington, and that all packing material in said boxes must be imme-
diately burned. Consignees understand that permission to do this
must be secured from the State Entomologist in each case, since
it is a courtesy extended to insure the safety of the plants. Any one
presuming that it can be done at any time without the above per-
mission is liable to prosecution and fine, as provided for in the
State Law.

In this connection it is an interesting fact that up to this date
(November 10, 1914) consignments of azaleas have been arriving
from Belgium in the usual number, in spite of the terrible condi-
tions which must have prevailed there this fall, at the time of pack-
ing. We have already examined about 16,000 azaleas from that
country. One consignment was sent from a Belgian town near
Ghent, and upon the Belgian certificate appeared the inspection
date of September 15th. Another Belgian inspection was made
September 24th; shipments being made, of course, subsequent to
those dates. We have also been notified of the arrival of shipments
from Holland consisting of hydrangeas, roses, begonias, etc.

Mr. A. J. Spangler was our chief inspector in the field during
1913 and rendered excellent service. His work evidenced a high
degree of efficiency, and his experience in this line, before he came
to Minnesota, was such as to make his work here a real help, not
only to the inspection force but to the nurserymen with whom he
came in contact. During the season of 1914 he has been away on
leave, and his place has been filled temporarily by Mr. G. W. Peake,
also an efficient and acceptable worker in this field of activity.

Condition of Minnesota Nurseries and Certificates Granted in 1913:

The season was, on the whole, a favorable one for tree growth,
and for the most part, all nurseries appeared to be in good condi-
tion. During the summer there was considerable rainfall, causing
a rank growth of weeds and calling for assiduous cultivation on the
part of those who would keep their nurseries clean.

The most abundant and injurious insects were the apple leaf-
hopper, Empoasca mali, the striped poplar beetle, Melasoma scripta,

NURSERY INSPECTION. 23

and the apple aphis. According to Mr. Spangler’s record on field
work, the apple leaf-hoppers were very abundant and in many cases
severely checked the growth of large blocks of apple trees. This
pest has been always with us. One nurseryman who had been very
much troubled with the leaf-hopper had been in the habit of propa-
gating from an old scion block severely infested by this insect, but
is now starting a new orchard from which scions will be cut in the
future. (NOTE: In the fall the apple leaf-hopper lays its eggs
in the new twigs and branches of the apple, and scions being made
from these, the pests are carried to new fields. F. L. W.)

The increasing acreage devoted to the growth of poplar and wil-
low cuttings has apparently had a similar effect on the number and
severity of attack of the striped poplar beetle. This insect is now
present in every nursery growing its host plant. It is a voracious
feeder and if the trees are not sprayed upon its first appearance,
becomes hard to control.

Of plant diseases, the most injurious and most prevalent was
crown gall. We also found anthracnose on raspberry, and Mr.
Spangler reported leaf rust on poplar and ash.

Quoting again from his report on field work: “Crown gall is
present in a greater or less degree in every nursery. The effect of
this disease on the growth of apples in the nursery row, is not always
marked and the only way to ascertain its presence is to dig or pull
up the trees. This, at best, is an unsatisfactory and unscientific
procedure. An inspection at the time the trees are dug in the fall
or packed in the spring is the only scientific method. However,
such an examination would be prohibitive considering the number
of nurseries. and until it can be shown that the disease is more
decidedly injurious to the apple, the present policy of warning the
nurserymen to cull out the affected trees when dug, would seem the
best solution of this problem.” It is believed, although crown gall
may not affect the apple injuriously, that the soil where crown gall
stock of any kind is grown, is so thoroughly inoculated with this
disease, that any stock whatever subject to galls planted thereon,
either with the affected stock standing in close vicinity or planted
immediately following the removal of the diseased stock, would be
seriously affected. For example, it is probable that nursery rows
of apples planted between the trees of a young orchard infested
with crown gall, would become in turn seriously affected.

In the case of raspberries, however, this being a plant of rapid
growth, crown gall is very injurious, and is so recognized. An

24 NURSERY INSPECTION.

infestation of 20% is considered a sufficient cause for ordering the
removal of plants so affected. In one nursery it was known to
destroy all of one variety, and in several cases when young plants
were badly affected, they were allowed to stand for this season
(1913) for fruiting purposes only. Anthracnose on raspberries was
found in injurious amounts in two nurseries. The varieties suscep-
tible to this disease are propagated by tip-layering and if the parent
cases are removed, the disease seldom becomes serious.

Leaf rust of poplar and ash trees and the tar spot on maple seem
very general in the older and larger nurseries, but since this disease
exists on the native trees, their presence in the nursery row is not
surprising.

MINNESOTA INSPECTED NURSERIES.

1913.
Date of

Certificate Expiration

Number Nursery Town 1914

5o2,, une Albect ea Nursery iCo. fo. eon whee Albert Lea. csc2sce5 July 27
C. M. Peterson

579 The Minnesota State Nursery...........1 Albente ies (seer asee July 27
E. C. Eaker

553", Dhe Southside Nursery) 42.4.2. -22 eee Albert: Lean. cones July 27
Martin Fridholm

563) “hes Wedge (Nursery =: 4) 2.6.2.6 aoe iee Albert eas... esese Aug. 15
Clarence and Robert Wedge

bs The AskovsNaetseryicts otc.u oe dosu ose d ASKOVii: «2235 aoe Sept. 16
Ludvig Mosback

554) The W@urtle Creek Nursery... ....4..56.06¢ AUSTIN: «20 ade July 29
J. M. Lindsay

bas), whe Austin GNUrseny., sia, 60 6 dae bee ewes UUSEIM ote ne e July 29
C. F. Woodle

523) ithe Battle: Lake, Nursetry..7.0.242.2.42- Battle. Lake. tia July 3
A. A. DeSmidt

524 The Itasca Park Region Nursery Co.... Bemidji ...........- July 12
L. P. Anderson

S/ Sam hem by Lone wNULSehyse oan eee eee Byron |... sch sge a oe
F. E. Cutting

BiOsVOsland's* Nutseryecs cos eee ecee aes Cambridge: .. essen Oct
N. N. Oslund

S50" SSivert s. INUPSeLy «ne. ..4<,2 cea aac wie Ganby: <...s¢4 soe July 20
Peter Sivert

580 The Fillmore County Nursery.......... Canton... eee Sept. 8
Geo. F. Snyder ,

520) ihe INotth Star. Barmis.' 24. avaces foe ee Cokatow-<.: scan July 17
J. W. Beckman

530 The Wright County Nursery Co........ Gokaton s,s. 2 sane July 17
John Eklof

nod) aS bhe: Cokato -Berry, Pati. ac. a. joeeeaee Cokatoeauua none! July 17
A. L. and F. Lee

S065 ihe Redpath eNursenys sc. ose fee Crystals averse June 12
Thomas Redpath :

SsoegPheniiven Nursery v.fd.0cucee ease cee me Dawson o3. 34:06 Shae July 22

Henry Flyen

H. W. Harrison

NURSERY INSPECTION. 25
ines Dcephavenm Nursery... 440624250. Deephavenwna eee June 12
Alfred O. Hawkins
mene; Meermeld Nursery > ....c520 es coe ek: Deenneldew yo see Aug. 27
J. F. Brady
@eéalers) Thiet Dualuth Floral Co... 40.3. DUES | ores ae oe Sept. 19
Hast Grand) Works Nursefy.... i606. 20 ES. Grand ‘Forks: .. +. July 17
Oscar Wick
Old Fashioned Flower Garden.......... PXCEISIOn- ate nace unen 14,
Mrs. M. S. Sawyer
PROMISE AC COLE tea cits Miers ShRLL bcs oS eine Beene Ixcelsiort.ses cee April 28
phew omber Lake Nursery. /inac ans. 450 Biainmonty masse ceo July 24
P. C. Christenson
McKisson’s Fairmont Nursery.......... Fairmont (21h eases oe July 24
G. D. McKisson
@ealers)PRoyaliNursery, Co.s.5-.4----- Wairmont “27 5.)0 sn! Aug. 17
Fred Ward
sive: St wiohns, NursetysCoswin ciok.cie 30s = Bainmonte 60 ase es July 23
B. E. St. John
wUtherbarihbault Nursery: Cots. .c sas. ac Faribault 20%... cts: Aug. 17
A. M. Brand & Co.
The Farmers’ Seed and Nursery Co..... Karibanht #o* 5 ice.a: Aug. 26
Wm. Kueker
pihewAndrews Nursery) (Con aa.nsen ese « Raribaulte 2p Ate a Aug. 27
John P. Andrews
files eroicopper Nursery: ....5. 2 sees 8. Pereus Falls.5. 5". June 28
Hugo Koppe
slice MillicmibalcesNiirsetiyracc teem ee a: Garden: (Gityr 92.220. july 227.
ED) Malis
finewlbalke wVirews INuUnseryic.s soc. ase. - Grayling® J2..<5...<-Sepievel
Victor Carlson
Biawathas Gardens Nursery. «...-.. +24. Efamels au ee a June 25
Hiawatha Gardens Co.
Pugare é.-Sous Nursery Co.. 25.2.0 05655 Platiels ants ear con! Sra July 15
H. F. Hugart
Howard Lake and Victor Nurseries..... Howard Laker: 5.22 July 15
W. H. Eddy
Chaistensenis pNUrSery-.. 2. ..6 chk ee to Hutchinsons..t4 sea July 24
P. Christensen
Ela inane Ate DePea tous hie wok pieie bai reais omits Jacksonpi 2 Gee July 22
Dew aman COOlins sees cei. ncmelencce hc ce ote Jiethens 8 Si ae Ce, 7/
AiinemitenyOnmNUGSeIyer assess sane oociae Kenyon! tei tyes eA tiol
J. A. Mogren & Son
nes @Oaks Grove Nursery..o2.6h-sueee.: KGEMy.Onr teiet seee et ee Io
P. H. Volstad
Ayers, jack, Pine Nursery: . 2.22.2. 8s <. iimbetl yess ases ote Sept. 22
H. B. Ayers
Kenyous Riverside. Nurseries: .........- Lambertont. 226." . aly <2)
J. M. Kenyon
siivesjewelis Nursery (Coy i. % 0032. da lbe 8 ake cGity ae Aug. 20
J. M. Underwood
Pie; National Nursery. .Cos. v2.2 oss fea Eake Cityive site nao Aton al
J. F. Anderson
The Sugar Loaf Valley Nursery Co..... akei€itysc a. soe soe
Moseman Bros.
(Dealers) The Johnson Nursery. ........ Lake Gitynie.- is ove
P. G. Johnson
sollesonesmNiimsetvin Comet ei eae Wake City 602 ee Anos ot
G. A. Tolleson and A. V. Wickstrom
iMhieeMiaytveld Nurseries. eserves 625 Walkela md arenes 2 Sept. 9
Ele Viavareel Com St. bau
hewOaks Valley MruitParmsico. 6: ....4- WSR Oya aera ene Aug. 30

mn on Ut
—_ \o Nw
Nw fund

bo

Ww

NURSERY INSPECTION.

Citisaro Wuake: Nurseryer. «cine os ctor ome indistroma ee arieeee) June 24
Ludwig Carlson

Morrison, County, Nursery. ...:.'- 2... 6. Little: Ralls -See.2 oe as July 27
C. Kelly & Sons

Minnetonka Nunsenydecmece cis sar esi [congalWakes serene May 26
J. D. Winter

Ano bones INfisengan coos ooeoSepoDeel one songwitakesaeeaeeer May 26
Geo. Tong

shenlearverme .NUrSery. 20 gle -.ucje ob els ol Luverne> >: s44ou.0eee July 18
GEE. Older

ihe Wladison: Nursery... tisec « cine.cnrecie.orie Madison... stapes July 19
M. Scholt

Mite Mankato Nursery:..2 sc ccf enc sj vielen Mankato, ci: aorhacee July 16
ie Za smith

CDealers) Ms eMesSinottes 262 Vcr fiue ot Mankato, <2.44-nanee Sept. 9

he Dodge County Nursery a,c). 00 .,< se Mantorville® ..;.29ee Aug. 28
W. E. Fryer

hheyOrton sank NUGsenve essa ssc Marietta, scc.5 eee June 22
Gye Orton

‘hie Medtord WNursery.... 2: eae: Medford. «....7 ieee Aug. 27
@; CG. Patten

The Deerheld Nursery Goit.. 2s.ctas. 1. Medtord: ict Rasen Aug. 27
@ H. Brady

Highs Dakets aap rnse row hie stentacieic wenn Bho es Minneapolis <..:..... June 21
4629 Lake Harriet Boulevard

Farmer’s Nursery and Fruit Farm....... Minneapolis 3. .-%...068 Oct #
EK. A. Farmer

hes rsranicline INansenyre saeeses ace cence Minneapolis ........ June 18
A. B. Franklin

Gharlese Haw KinSOms 05 -.05.<mscarerre stasis Minneapolis ....2. 4: June 14

GrGr Hantet: 67 Coie aasctis cicein crs onl aanes Minneapolis >). saseee June 18

(Dealers) The Minneapolis Nursery....Minneapolis ........ Sept. 12
A. Norlander

(Dealers)! Northrup Kune @2iCo.c. 5... Minneapolis ...:..2.J@ctl4

ihe Ritchell Berry (Farm... <<. se Minneapolis ........ Septidz
W. Ritchell

he Rose Hill! Nursery. 22).°.. 2222-608: Minneapolis < 253068 June 17
John Hawkins

ee Ger lobmsomersrir treet cece ocacricces - Mpls. (Lake City)...Aug. 21

Wane Grove Nursery: Con s5i./2o00 o. ee alee Minneapolis 220 ae June iy,
A. M. Shepard & Son

Mieclamadse NtiGseiyeee steerer « Minne otal eee July 19
Ji, Le breslanid

Ge Rm TAB OLE et Oris evan lie ale mtr dors was Monticello ......... April 30

(Dealers) The New Ulm Greenhouses... New Ulm............ July 15
Chris Boock

Mbhe Proneete NULSEEY .ccle ache tes. New: Whm.;,, tx199 eee July 15
Wm. Pfaender

The Northfield Seed and Nursery Co.... Northfield ........... Aug. 9
J. M. Punderson

Dinsmore) NiwirSenyaecki ons ee ae nee Olivia.ns aes eee June 28
Henry Dunsmore

Clinton’ Falls, NarseryCo..05 92-2. 4... Owatonna: :).5e.4ee Aug. 13
T. M. Cashman

ihe Witchelle Nursery Conssen aves eee Owatonna. = see Aug. 14
D. M. Mitchell

hes Owatonna Nunsehya COne sas ce sie @Oxvalonina lee Aug. 14
L. S. Wesely

The Elmwood Select Nursery. .......... Paynesville 72. see June 28
Frank Brown & Son

ASFA Graal ATTN Ps Sie oa nn rsenshase ote suite he cae Pines Citys o.. iee Sept. 16

502

NURSERY INSPECTION. Pai

(Dealers) Plainview Nursery............ Piainviewor eae sa AS 2
R. W. Chapman

SireeerestOm INULSERY 4. sardines eile eos IPrestone erase te: July 30
C. E. Snyder

avenb ailey Se NUTSETY . . 8c See silg woes RedpRock aortas cs Sept. 30
Je V. Bailey

‘Sie, Vanegar Hall Nursery . 2% bc sete 22 Rushford asaneaso: SeptrZ
Wm. Sandrock

mhesSacred Heart YNUursery.r. ci cto mele 2c Sacred Hearteso: kis. July 22
J T. Flagstad & Son

HV Intra gto Were ere ee Ras aio oes asia Totes SE waniesr $2 20ers 2 July 17

Mine Rar lon NIESELY.. nips otis oot iols Sco She Sestane Seubaclte a. womans June 26
Holm & Olson

PaCS ET COM sane. 6 cause chen ce wee wees Stew aligning tan cues June 13
Been Eloyit

erie May Orr GOs gear nites nit eve see Re als St. P. (Lakeland) ....Sept. 9

ithe Minnesota Northern Nursery €o..St. Paul.<. 2.1.3.2... Octs 27
J.-E. and E..C: Killmer

ihe: Nicollet County Nursery... sj. 35 200: Sta Peters ns: -caaee sone ular s10
C. E. Swanson

Woe et ae asap ocr eked s eee we ee SHER URI Vy trte ee July 23

ibhepkicrodowillNurseriess.a-sste anes Spilnicgsivanket sn nee July 19
F. X. Ferodowill

fies ainviewapNunsenles. sees erga Spillet 1s ene June 26
Frank Berry

(CERNE tania oes ee eres As ieee gt a ph cete MMaylorssmkalllli serene Sept. 15

(Dealers) eiihremiiyder Nis eiys wea ara MR ere, ahem geteeerne ae ict
J. P. Ericksen

ioe Merodowmill 25. yosangeeaseae ert. s WVEIIANIBD Slo eons soo ec June 19

he DeephavensNurseny. ge saneeen eel WWianyz atone anew Aire ak June 12
A. C. Hawkins ;

Ghanles@rlawikinsonwese sete aoe \WWiayizaitaune eee een ue a4:

aarem\ esis Concorde NurSeiye teas eee Wiest Concordance Aug. 1
F. J. Cowles

Sa Dee erchiand Some Nitiiss iiyens tar erretarr tee Winnebago City..... July 24

Niiinmeba com NItGSeiyar cess aco aoe cele « Winnebago City..... July 24
John Van Blair

The University Fruit Farm Nursery.... Zumbra Heights..../ April 12

State of Minnesota
A summary of the moneys collected as fees for the Nursery Inspections

~ as provided by Sections 1 and 7 of the Nursery Inspection Act is as follows:

July 3, 1913 State Treasurer’s Receipt No. 874........ $ 98.00
Nulyasl, 1913" "State dreastnerns Receipt No. 9810%.255.% 120.00
Ane. 6, 1913 State Treasurer’s Receipt No. 993........ 55.00
Aug. 6, 1913 State Treasurer’s Receipt No. 1909........ 228.00
INOW Zh sim Casi oro oebole wets ccna iievot a cob elo oa.oc 5.00
rae 00

89 Nursery Inspection Fees....$5.00......... . .$445.00

8 Special Inspection Fees. SOO eet Ai Neat cP ice 40.00

2 Inspection Fees (affidavits not yet filed) $5.00. 10.00

2eiTISPECtiOm FeesmatemlOlZ = maida lO meres reece 11.00

$506.00

The new law requiring all fees collected to be turned into the

State Treasury, did not become effective until August, 1913, and
hence all money collected in 1913 previous to that time ($454.99)
were credited by the State Auditor to the Entomologist’s fund and

28 NURSERY INSPECTION.

used in carrying on the work. The total receipts from certificates
of inspection in 1913 were $506.00. We hold State Treasurer’s
receipts Nos. 874, 981, 993 and 1909 for $501.00, which was turned
into the State, $464.99 of this being credited to the State Entomolo-
gist fund as before stated. One $5.00 fee was received too late to be
listed in 1913, and was credited on the 1914 account.

Legislation in 1913.

In the early part of the Legislative session of 1913, a new nurs-
ery and orchard inspection law was passed, making inspection com-
pulsory, establishing a flat fee of $5.00 for each certificate granted,
and articulating with the provisions of the new Federal quarantine
laws. A copy of the State law is here appended.

STATE OF MINNESOTA
Chapter 206, Session Laws of 1913
AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE INSPECTION OF NURSERIES
AND ORCHARDS.

Be It Enacted by the Legislature of the State of Minnesota:
Section 1. State Entomologist Designated Inspector of Nurseries—

Fees—Powers and Duties.—That the State Entomologist is hereby desig-
nated as State Inspector of nurseries and is authorized, either himself or by
deputies duly appointed by him, to inspect all premises in Minnesota where
nursery stock is grown or held for sale, and further to inspect all orchards
or any premises whatsoever within the State, where he has reason to sus-
pect the presence of injurious insects or injurious and contagious plant
diseases. Nursery stock shall be regarded as including all field-grown
plants (except herbaceous annuals) of any kind, also trees, field-grown
shrubs, vines, cuttings, buds, grafts and scions. For this purpose he or his
deputy or deputies shall have free access to any field, ground, packing
ground, buildings, cellars and other places where the carrying out of the
provisions of this act shall make necessary. The State Inspector of Nurs-
eries is empowered and required to grant certificates upon request to such
nurseries as he may find free from injurious insects and contagious plant
diseases. Such certificates shall be good for one year unless revoked by
him. This inspection of nurseries shall take place between May 1st and
September 30th, and at such other times as may be necessary to comply
with the provisions of this act. Nurserymen or others having stock to
inspect shall make application to the State Nursery Inspector for the
inspection of stock as far as practicable on or before May Ist of each year.
It shall be the duty of the inspector or his deputy to make the inspection
as soon thereafter as possible.

For inspection of nurseries a fee of $5.00 per annum shall be paid at
time of inspection or before certificate is granted. If a dangerous insect
pest or plant disease is found by the inspector on the premises above
described and if in his judgment such pest or disease can be eradicated he
may direct the owner or his representative in writing what means shall be
employed; in case any trees, shrubs or plants are so infested that treat-
ment would be ineffectual he may direct the owner or his representative to
have them destroyed. Said order shall be issued in writing. If the order be
not obeyed within ten days after service thereof, the State Inspector shall

NURSERY INSPECTION. 29

cause the work to be done and render to the owner or persons in charge an
itemized bill of the cost; and if such cost shall not be paid within sixty days
thereafter the bill shall be reported to the County Attorney who shall
forthwith collect same in a civil action in the name of the state and shall
turn same over to the State Treasurer to be credited to the inspection fund.

Sec. 2. Nursery Stock Brought Into the State Must Be Certified To.—
No person shall bring into the State for sale or use therein or re-shipment
any trees, plants, vines, cuttings or buds or other “Nursery Stock” unless it
be accompanied by the certificate from the Inspector or other proper official
of the State from which it came, that it has been inspected and found free
from any of the pests or diseases referred to. Such certificates shall be
prima facie evidence of the facts therein stated but the Entomologist may
if deemed necessary, inspect such stock and proceed with respect thereto
as provided for in Section 1.

Sec. 3. Copy of Certificate to Be Filed With Minnesota Inspector.-—
A copy of the state inspection certificate granted to any firm or firms in
any other state, territory, or the district of Columbia, shall be on file with
the Minnesota inspector before any such firm or firms shall make shipment
of nursery stock to be sold or distributed in the State of Minnesota.

Sec. 4. Shipments to be Accompanied by Certificates of Inspection.—
All shipments from any point or points in the state of Minnesota to other
points within the state must be accompanied by certificate of inspection on
each package.

Sec. 5. Railroad and Express Companies Not to Transport Unless
Tagged.—Railroad and express companies are hereby prohibited from
accepting stock not tagged with certificate as above stated (and must
promptly notify the shipper. If the shipper does not furnish a certificate,
such companies shall report said fact with the name and address of party
offering said stock for shipment to the State Inspector).

Sec. 6. Foreign Stock Must Be Inspected.—Foreign grown stock
imported into Minnesota under the provision of the Federal Quarantine
Law is regarded as coming under the definition of nursery stock and must
be inspected at points of destination. It shall be unlawful for any party or
parties to open any package containing such stock from a foreign country
unless the inspector or deputy is present. It shall be the duty of the inspec-
tor to be present in person or by deputy when notified at least forty-eight
hours in advance of the opening of such package.

Sec. 7. Dealers and Florists May Obtain Special Certificate——Dealers
or florists not owning nurseries and shipping by post, freight, express or
otherwise may obtain from the State Entomologist a special certificate in
order to comply with the Federal and State Laws. Such certificate will be
granted only to stock purchased in Minnesota from an inspected nursery
or to foreign stock inspected in Minnesota.

Sec. 8. Penalties—Failure to comply with any of the provisions ot
this act shall be subject to the penalties provided in Section 2389, Chapter
38, Revised Laws of Minnesota, 1905.

Sec. 9. Annual Report Required.—The State Inspector shall be re-
quired on or before December Ist of each year to submit a report and
financial statement to the Governor of the State, covering the year’s work.

Sec. 10. $3,000.00 Appropriated for Expenses.—For all expenses neces-
sary to carry out the provisions of this act there is hereby appropriated
from the State Treasury from money not otherwise appropriated the sum
of $3,000.00 annually. Al! fees collected hereunder shall be paid into the
Treasury of the State of Minnesota and added to the State Entomologist’s
appropriation for combating injurious insects.

Sec. 11. Certain Sections Repealed.—-Sections 2383 and 2384 of Chap-
ter 38, Revised Laws of Minnesota. 1905, are hereby repealed.

Sec. 12. Existing Emergency Declared.—In view of an existing emer-
gency this act is to become a law immediately after its passage and signa-
ture by the Governor.

Approved April 8, 1913.

30 NURSERY INSPECTION.

A number of problems have presented themselves to the Ento-
mologist and his deputies in connection with some of the sections
of this law. Section 7 refers to the treatment accorded a dealer and,
for some time, it was a question as to what constitutes a dealer.
* The general purpose of the inspection law is to prevent the intro-
duction of dangerous insects or injurious diseases from other states
and to also prevent the spreading of same in Minnesota. While
dealers in the State are, for the most part, honest and careful as to
where they buy their stock, there are some who unquestionably
would not hesitate to fill their orders with stock from any source,
grown perhaps in the far South, not hardy, possibly diseased, and
in consequence many times purchased at a discount. In order to
prevent this the above wording of this section was chosen, although
it at times works a hardship upon the honest dealer. For example,
dealers located near our state line, absolutely upright, are prevented
by the terms of this provision, from purchasing stock in adjoining
states, while the regular nurserymen who own their own property
and propagate their own stock, can buy elsewhere. In meeting
with this problem, as to what constitutes a dealer, we discussed
this matter with many of our representative nurserymen who gen-
erally purchase from 8 to 15% of the stock sold. These men were
originally, for the most part, dealers when they began this work,
and neither they nor the inspectors are disposed to place any unnec-
essary restraint or unjust burden upon the men who are now begin-
ning as dealers. Acting largely upon the advice of our representa-
tive nurserymen, it has seemed desirable to issue a dealer’s certifi-
cate to a man who raises less than 50% of the stock sold. Before
receiving a certificate, a dealer is obliged to file with the State Ento-
mologist, an affidavit executed before a Notary Public, to the effect
that all stock sold would be purchased in Minnesota from a duly
inspected nursery, or would be represented by foreign (European
or English) stock inspected in Minnesota. In 1913 eight of these
certificates were issued to dealers. When we bear in mind that some
of these dealers rent only a small plot of ground, or possibly a lot
or two in the city, and heel in left-over stock, or perhaps grow a
little stock and advertise it as a nursery, this decision of the Inspec-
tion Department seems a wise one. The section of the law so
construed will be a check upon the spread of dangerous insects and
injurious plant diseases in Minnesota, and be an inducement to all
dealers to become regular nurserymen as soon as possible.

NURSERY INSPECTION. 31

A criticism upon the law is made by some because a party not
in the nursery business cannot ship a bundle of shrubs or trees from
any point in the State to another without Certificate of Inspection
signed by the State Entomologist attached to the package. This
criticism is met with in the case of a citizen, not a nurseryman,
desiring to ship stock, by the Entomologist giving a permit upon
proper investigation, which permit is accepted by the expressman
or at the freight office: or when desirable, stock can be sent to the
Experiment Station and inspected there by the Entomologist and
then forwarded to the consignee. In such case the shipper or the
consignee must bear the expense of carriage coincident with this
examination. This feature of the law, and the provision made for
it by this office, must appear just to any one who bears in mind that
this material, coming from a garden not inspected, might, for all
we know, or the owner knows, to the contrary, harbor scale or other
injurious insects or plant disease, and if permitted to be taken with-
out inspection to another part of the state, might readily be the
cause of spreading a pest or pests within our State border. Ina
few instances we have permitted private parties shipping a package
not intended for trade purposes, to use the certificate of a nursery-
man friend. This privilege has been abused, however, and hereafter
each and every shipment of this kind must be accompanied by an
official permit. In this connection we again remind our citizens
that the Federal law is so constituted that no one in Minnesota
can ship by parcel post without every and all shipments bearing
Certificates of Inspection issued by the State Entomologist. State
officials are of course powerless to change the Federal statute.

We find that quite a number of private parties who own gardens
make it a point to sell plants, etc. Naturally, these should be
inspected and receive a certificate, if entitled to same, for they come
under the definition of “nursery,” namely “a place where plants,
trees, vines, shrubs. etc., are grown for sale.”

TWO ENEMIES OF THE NURERYMAN:
San Jose Scale and Crown Gall.

The presence of oyster shell scale on the apple in increasing
abundance in Minnesota is of course a menace to the growing of
good trees, and the woolly aphis of the apple, apparently on the
increase here, would prevent a nurseryman from obtaining a certif-
icate if present upon his trees in sufficiently large numbers.

32 NURSERY INSPECTION.

There are. however, two pests in particular which we have with
us: one, an insect not frequently observed here, though presumably
more abundant in old orchards than the public is generally aware
of, and the other a plant disease of bacterial origin, with us always,
and causing the death of thousands of raspberry canes in Minnesota,
whatever effect it may or may not have upon the apple.

San Jose Scale:

A fruit tree may be badly infested with oyster shell scale and
still survive, but for some physiological reason, let one-half or one-
fourth as many San Jose scales infest it and it generally succumbs.
This much-dreaded insect has been found by the Inspection force
three times in Minnesota nurseries, twice upon stock in two differ-
ent nurseries, shortly after it had been brought here from another
state (Pennsylvania), and recently, in our 1914 inspection, upon
mountain ash received from Michigan a few years ago. The female
scales upon these latter trees had matured and given birth to young
which had infested an adjoining block of young apples. See
Figure 1 on colored plate, representing a cutting from one of the
apple trees referred to, showing characteristic reddening of the
new bark where this scale is attached. Young scales were found
crawling about amongst the parent scales, upon the apple and ash
trees, even as late as the latter part of August. It is evident that
these mature scales must have lived in Minnesota at least two
winters, and we have personally, as an experiment, a few years
ago, kept San Jose scales alive here, out of doors, on plum and
apple for two succeeding winters. It is apparent, therefore, that
this scale will endure our climate long enough to do considerable
damage.

Our radical treatment of the conditions met with in this infesta-
tion of 1914 is referred to elsewhere. By a coincidence, at almost
the same time as this discovery in the nursery, the Entomologist
purchased from a leading grocer in Minneapolis some Seckle pears
which were found badly infested with this same scale. See Figure
2, colored plate. Inquiry developed the fact that these pears also
came from Michigan. It has been known, of course, for a long
time that this scale existed in Michigan as well as in many other
states, and there is nothing particularly threatening to the fruit
industry of Minnesota in the fact of this infested fruit being sent
here. At the same time, these two findings indicate either an
indifference or lack of thoroughness and system, or lack of funds

!. L. WOOD, DEL

BUR. ENGRAVING, MPLS

TWO ENEMIES OF THE NURSERYMAN

4
Figs. t and 2, San Jose Scale; Fig. 3, Crown Gall on Raspberry

NURSERY INSPECTION. 33

in the Inspection work in the State referred to. In this connection
it is interesting to know that, in 1913, officials in 27 states tempo-
rarily withheld certificates because this scale was present.

Crown Gall on Raspberries.

Hardly a nursery in Minnesota is absolutely free from this
disease. See Figure 3, colored plate, and also PI., facing p. 34. From
5% to 80% or over of raspberries were found affected in 1914.
Perhaps Loudons are the most susceptible, although no variety
appears to be absolutely immune. The disease is characterized by
swellings on the root, as shown (and occasionally on the stem).
It is also found upon the apple and plum;; it is infectious and can be
conveyed from cane to apple and vice versa. At one time the
finding of a large percent of trees infested with crown gall would
disqualify for certification. but with the lack of any proof of perma-
nent injury upon the apple in doubt, as it is now, apparently many
inspectors, Minnesota officials included, take but little note of
affected apples. They are necessarily strict when the disease is
found upon canes, for whatever the effect upon fruit trees, we
know absolutely that it greatly weakens and kills raspberry plants,
and have found hundreds of these plants in Minnesota dying from
this disease. We have urged patrons of nurseries to scrutinize
their raspberries, personally, when purchasing. Any consignment
which shows even a small percentage of infestation should be
rejected. Such exhaustive experiments have been made upon this
organism, and so many instances of its infectious nature have been
proven, that it seems unnecessary to discuss it. Rotation of crops
and the prompt destruction of diseased plants is advised. One
nurseryman claims that in planting cuttings he finds that he can,
to a large extent, avoid infestation by planting deep at least 5 or 6
inches. This feature has not been made a matter of Station experi-
mentation. It may be undertaken later. In the latitude of St. Paul,
diseased plants of bearing age can easily be detected by their scant
and drooping, frequently yellowing foliage. Such plants, if pulled,
almost invariably show crown gall on roots. However, plants
which look healthy above ground, may also occasionally bear gall
below the surface. In 1913 inspection officials in 15 states withheld
certificates temporarily on account of the presence of this disease
in nurseries under their jurisdiction.

34 NURSERY INSPECTION.

INSPECTION IN 1914.

The winter of 1913-14 was rather hard on nursery stock, but
our inspectors state that on the whole the stock looks very well
this season, some nurseries getting wonderful growth on certain
trees.

Commenting on the copious rainfall last spring, Mr. Peake in
his report states: “The month of June was so wet that clean
culture was about impossible, the result of which was that a
very bad crep of weeds and much hard work was required for the
nurserymen to keep their fields clean. In one or two instances
the weeds were so dense as to make thorough inspection almost
impossible.

The Inspection Service feels that the nurserymen have done all
in their power, with the possible exception of one or two cases, to
help the Inspectors in their work, and especially when a pest was
discovered, have been quick to co-operate for its eradication.”

In connection with the occurrence of scales in some of the
nurseries, several kinds of scale insects were found in the various
localities and San Jose scale in one particular locality. At this
latter place measures were at once taken to stamp out the scale
while it was still under comparatively easy control.

The stock coming from this nursery will be as safe to buy as
any, for there will be no possibility of live scales being sent from
there. Not only has the place been carefully inspected and all
infected stock taken care of, but all stock leaving the premises
is treated so as to destroy any scales which might slip past the
inspectors.

The following insect pests and plant diseases were reported
by Mr. Peake upon nursery stock during 1914: Willow aphis, leaf
roller on strawberry, snow ball aphis, leaf aphis, soft scales, leaf
miners, leaf rollers on box elders, apple aphis, poplar beetles on
poplar and willows, cherry slug, plum aphis, woolly aphis on apple,
poplar scale, oyster shell on apple, scales on roses, Buffalontree
hopper, snowy tree cricket, apple leaf hopper, lilac borer, tent
caterpillar, canker worms and others. Also leaf spot on currant,
mildew on same; shot hole fungus, especially on young plum; leaf
spot on basswood, fire blight on mountain and apple ash; crown
gall, black knot, fire blight canker on apple trees, black rust on
barberry; plum pocket; anthracnose on blackberry, raspberry, etc.

Three varieties of Raspberries affected with Crown Gall. Washburn

35

NURSERY INSPECTION.

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I Suni aL) shiveliokeleseiefeiie isjece sljodeouuryy °° ai Lofelieheissreisveliel ets sielwiiniistekelleleifete shrouds Sit Om) y Sury ‘dniyqioNn SI ‘ON siayeoq

38 NURSERY INSPECTION.

INSPECTED MINNESOTA NURSERIES
NOT HOLDING CERTIFICATES

1914.
Dealer .... eee NODeLtE in Elacl:= erent Albert Lea
Dealer The Flye en ‘Nursery LGomueere Elenny whlyentcas oes aoe eee Dawson
Dealer ... Loe els eB OnIOUSs a acne eoee Duluth
Dealers Duluth Floral Co. cae he oases coon e Dull
ID\CENg 8 ae ce in eek Bet eee TELS ror ain WW Wie Seeking 04 eto eee Duluth
ihe velimores Nursenyeeeese ens as COUpaneene. seni Elmore
Birch Lake Ginseng Gardens.Vet Brees ............... Grey Eagle
Ry ee ots Se ren gg ays Be Freeman Thorpe..:...... 5... Elubent
Re ee ee ie PRT ce ee a ae Loegren.........Long Prairie
WO Rae Wis Nines payee See Fae S-Silan ish reer La Crescent
Ba At Met eee na ee A ea Woolenwider.....La Crescent
sGEOs, Bs (COME Yizss = scion eee Medford
5 ARE Se Nhe . Ruedlinger ......Minneapolis
Dealer The Plainview Nurse ry. R. W. Chapmanisa-.ss-ec. Plainview
ee Bes eee tesa cekse Oe ae is ees J.4S)2Bixby.. thee eee achivallie
Dealers The Minnesota Nor. Nurs’y.J. E. and E. C. Killmer...... St.Paul
PAG Oy ORS re is cee AE Svat ee ete SOW CoORIGEE So os cto aerate ee
ee lnatil ele vann. > yee Starbuck
Norw ay "Poplar Forest Grove.Emil Sahler ...........-...-. Waseca

During the past year, the Inspection Service has inspected 640
containers of foreign stock which has been shipped in from various
countries of Europe, especially Belgium, Holland, France, Ger-

many, and England. Of this stock, more than 21,000 plants were
roses, over 18,000 azaleas; spirea, 20,000; apple seedlings, 36,000;
palms, 1.440; syringas, 1,575; clematis, 651; tree roses, 200; lilacs,
907 ; rhododendrons, 152; aspisdistra, 1,290; plum stock, 500; acer,
450 ; coniferous trees, 1.360; citrus, 37; astilbe, 400; aralia, 160; ulm,
225; quercus, 125; araucaria, 900; fruit stock, 200; box pyramids,
50: laurels, 50; philadelphus, 2,427; cornus, 2,710; caragana, 500;
rhamnus, 4,140; calycanthus, 200; evergreen shrubs, 1,950; forest
and deciduous trees, 11,265; deciduous shrubs, 131,398; field grown
floral stock, 4,800; ribes, 5,295; picea, 600; betuda, 6,450; pinus,
10,000 : abies, 10,575 ; chamaccerasus, 4,000 ; symphoricarpos, 19,200;
amelanchier, 1,700; berberis, 8,000; amygdalus, 2,000 ; corylus,
2,000; deutzia, 500; bay trees, 98; sambucus, 2,350: buckthorn,
10,000; hydrangeas, 1,540; vibernum, 11,000; boxwood, 100; buxus,
500); Sprice,-136;;sorbus, 3,315.

A summary of the moneys collected as fees for the Nursery
Inspections as provided by Sections 1 and 7 of the Nursery Inspec-
tion Act is as follows:

Auge 15, 1914, State Mreasunerss Receipt: Noy WolSene ee eae $240.00
Nov. 19, 1914. State Treasurer’s Receipt No. 1808................. 320.00
Gashsoniinali ds its cra. catchy ee ee or renee 10.00

$570.00

Gashe brought: tofward@ «cece er aso ce a er ee en eee 5.00
Selnspection 1eesiaties ONS epartd ol OlA ae. nee eee eee eae 15.00
LOleNursenyslnspectionplees gw eres. cec es See ner ee See 505.00
SESpecial vinspectionm MPeesi cc cee, tee eee ee ee = oe ee 45.00

$570.00

NURSERY INSPECTION. 39

PROPOSED LEGISLATION AFFECTING STATE ENTO-
MOLOGIST AND NURSERY INSPECTION.

The State Efficiency Commission recommends that the State
Entomologist’s duties be transferred from the University to the
proposed State Department of Agriculture, which the legislature
may create at the next or some subsequent session, upon the
ground that it is more fitting that police work, if nursery inspec-
tion work can be so regarded, be done by a State Department
rather than by the University. It is further proposed that the
University co-operate with such official to the extent of perform-
ing whatever research work is needed by the State Department,
perhaps furnishing some assistance to the inspector when such 1s
needed in the discharge of his duties.

We have every reason to believe that this is a good plan, partic-
ularly from the standpoint of the University, which institution
should be freed of responsibility of any work representing the dis-
charge of State laws, and we heartily endorse the views of the
Commission. It is evident, however, that such an arrangement
would be more expensive to the State than inspection is at present.
Under the existing plan. where the entire salary of the Entomologist
is paid through the University, and where we can have recourse
to assistance of properly qualified Agricultural College or Station
experts at times when the demands of the work require it, inspec-
tion costs the State approximately $4,000 per annum. Under the
arrangement suggested, wherein it would be necessary to engage
permanent help of a high grade, it would call for at least $12,000
or $14,000 per annum for nursery and orchard inspection alone.

We very much doubt, however willing University authorities
might be to co-operate, that when it came to the actual demand
for assistance, without clearly defined legal authority for same
established, that the request would or could be always granted.

The above figures are conservative and based upon careful
study of the work in Minnesota, compared with the following states
where the State Entomologist is not connected with University or
Experiment Station. Letters of inquiry have brought out the fol-
lowing facts: In Pennsylvania the annual appropriation for Nur-
sery Inspection work is $40,000. They have two permanent re-
search assistants at $1,500 each, and about 25 permanent field
assistants, each drawing a salary of $125 per month. The Assist-
ant Entomologist receives $2,000 per annum. The yearly ex-
penses of field and office work of the State Entomologist of Illinois

40 NURSERY INSPECTION.

approximate $25,000. (This includes $2,500 for Chinch Bug
work.) The State Entomologist’s Department of Indiana has on
an average 5 permanent field assistants and 3 temporary field
assistants, each at a salary of $100 per month, and one office
assistant at the same figure. Their annual appropriation for 1n-
spection (including bee inspection) is $15,000. Georgia appro-
priates $38,000 per year for their Entomologist. In that state
they have 5 permanent research assistants, one drawing a salary
of $2,000, and 4 receiving $1,800 each. They also have 3 office
assistants. Ohio spends about $12,000 annually upon this work,
having 9 permanent field assistants, one at $1,500, one at $1,400,
4 at $1,200 and 3 at $1,080 per year.

Two matters which would affect Nursery Inspection in all
states are being carefully considered by the American Association
of Horticultural Inspectors. One is to bring about a standard of
phraseology and value of inspection certificates, doing away with
the prevailing diversity of wording and meaning, which is fre-
quently both confusing and misleading. The report of the com-
mittee appointed to consider this matter will be discussed at the
coming meeting of the Association at Philadelphia in December.

The second point under consideration is the adoption by all
states of a similar inspection law. This movement also, as well
as the first mentioned, is intended to do away with diversity of laws
and make all inspection work more uniform. The tentative bill
has been practically approved by the American Association of
Horticultural Inspectors and endorsed in its main features by
the American Association of Nurserymen. It would be impossible
to include here the entire wording of the act, and we conse-
quently merely abstract certain provisions the nature of which
might provoke discussion on the part of nurserymen. Our per-
sonal opinion upon the points cited is expressed in each case.

Section 1. Par. 1. “The term ‘nursery’ would include any grounds or
premises on which nursery stock is being fumigated, packed or stored.”

Comment: Since nursery stock is sometimes stored in department stores

which sell the same, it is possible that, by free interpretation, department
stores might be included.

Par. 2. Defining nurserymen.

Par. 3. Defining nursery stock.

Par. 4. “The term ‘dealer’ shall be construed to apply to any person,
firm or corporation, not growers of nursery stock, who buy nursery stock
for the purpose of reselling and reshipping under their own name or title,
independently of any control of a nursery.”

Comment: We regard this section as too lax, for a dealer might easily
be growing a little nursery stock and still be purely a buyer and seller of
nursery stock. Our own ruling in Minnesota seems much better; namely,

NURSERY INSPECTION. 41

that if a man can show that he raises 50 per cent or more of the stock he
sells, we regard him as a nurseryman and entitled to a regular certificate.

Sec. 2. Provides for the creation of a state horticultural inspection
board, forming a court of appeal from an inspector’s decision.

Comment: Since there would be some delay in getting members of this
board together to relieve the distress of some nurseryman who might think
he had been wronged, some provision should be made for more prompt
settlement than a meeting of the full board.

Sec. 10. “It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation in
this state knowingly to permit any dangerous insect or plant diseases, here-
by declared to be a public nuisance, to exist on their premises. It shall
also be unlawtul to offer for sale any infested or infected stock.”

Comment: We regard this as a most excellent provision.

Sec. 13. “Nurserymen, dealers, or any person, firm or corporation de-
siring to sell or ship nursery stock shall make application before July Ist
of each year to the State Nursery Inspector for inspection of their stock
and any one failing to comply with this section shall be liable for extra
charges to cover traveling expenses of the inspector.”

Comment: This also we regard as being a most excellent provision.

Sec. 14. Par. 1 has to do with the issuing of a certificate, which cer-
tificate sets forth the fact of the inspection and also the number of acres or
fractions thereof inspected.

Comment: Some Minnesota nurserymen might possibly object to their
acreage being made public.

Sec. 15 provides that all dealers shall secure a dealers’ certificate by
furnishing a sworn affidavit that they will buy and sell only stock which
has been duly inspected and certified to by an official inspector and that he
will maintain with the inspector a list of all sources from which he secures
his stock.

Comment: We have not this latter provision in Minnesota, but it seems
to be a most excellent thing.

Sec. 18 states that it shall be unlawful to willfully misrepresent the
character and variety of stock offered for sale or to make a false declaration
of acreage or to cause any concealment of stock from inspection.

In the same section, any person, firm or corporation selling nursery
stock in the state shall, if requested, furnish the inspector with copies of
their order forms, contracts and agreements which are furnished for the
use of agents or customers or both.

Sec. 20. “The use of tags or posters bearing an invalid or altered
certificate and the misuse of any invalid certificate is prohibited.”

Minnesota nurserymen are probably aware of the fact that
Canadian authorities have opened a new fumigation station at
North Portal, Sask., and that the Canadian importation season
was not extended from October 7th to October Ist, as at first
planned. The Entomologist decided that it would not be desir-
able to fumigate nursery stock as early as October Ist, accord-
ingly no change has been made in the Canadian regulations.

Field Mice in Nursery and Orchard.

Field mice have caused Minnesota horticulturists enormous
losses by the girdling of orchard, nursery and young shade trees.
In one season (1902) nursery stock in the vicinity of Rochester,

New York, suttered a loss of $100,000 due to the work of field
mice. We have no hesitancy in saying that the war of extermi-

42 NURSERY INSPECTION.

nation carried on against Hawks, Owls, Crows, Skunks, Foxes,
Badgers and Weasels. all of which at times prey upon field mice,
is to a large extent responsible for present day losses in this
particular.

The extreme fecundity of this pest is emphasized by a pub-
lished statement of D. E. Lantz, that “a single pair and their
progeny in five seasons, would amount to nearly 1,000,000 in-
dividuals.”

While the clearing up of all rubbish piles which afford places
of refuge for these pests, is desirable and helpful, the nurseryman
will have to resort to some offensive measures if his trees in
orchard and nursery are in a locality likely to be overrun with
mice. In the light of our present knowledge, we believe that
poisoned grain is the best means of control. One progressive
nurseryman claims to have obtained relief in his orchard by
placing poisoned wheat in old cans at every other tree. In view
of the fact that quail and other grain-eating birds could easily
obtain the poisoned material from the open cans, it was suggested
that the same bait be placed under boards raised an inch or two
from the ground, would be just as attractive, or more attractive,
to mice and at the same time prevent birds having access to it.

The Entomologist is testing certain advertised materials
claimed to inoculate mice and spread disease amongst them, but
sufficient data are not yet available upon which to publish results.

A small area infested with field mice, or houses invaded by
them, may be practically freed by the use of the small wooden
mouse traps, which sell at the rate of two or three for 5 cents.
Smear the pan with bacon and then dust oatmeal over it.

NURSERY INSPECTION FUND.
Cash Account.
AUGUST AS19135 LO;DECH MBER TIE 191s

Cash-onsliand! (Appropciation <0. 0 ene ae eee $3,000.00

Assistant Inspector ss Salary... ©. o-) ous ose cise oes 2 ose OL LOO

Clerk and«Accountant-2oe ee oe ose ee oe ee 150.00

Expert Assistants, Traveling Expenses, etc............. 595.62

IPOStACE te So con eae RO en aoe ee negra ee 20.00

Printings SA steko c tar tees ocstetieiiee MEP ite teen. Soke reemeee 50.25 3

Melephonel tw eee nae ake ee ee eee ee eee eee 15.00

Traveling Expenses of Assistant Inspector.............. 305.57 — Ik7OlkS7
Balan erent ots to creed aeons oe ee $1,238.56

* NorE—The above covers only four months work.

NURSERY INSPECTION. 43

Cash Account.
DECEMBER 1, 1913, to DECEMBER 1, 1914.*

(CaaS ar erin: Taig vara lee eee a Se et a i a eae Bi ere $1,238.56

Appropriation (Aug: 1, 1914, +o Aue! I 1915) os ee: 3,000.00 $4,238.56

ENGCIStAM He IMSpPeCLOnSMSalakye rn eelite oe te ee ZO lLOD

DrcaiwiceroOmelnspector Ss IMepottan sce sacle cen oes 6.00

Expert Assistants, Traveling Expenses, etc............. 475.90

IB SS RAS 5 hg Sees OS Asta oat eae eh ee a aie ie pease Pala 1.61

OLCEMSIID PINES an wetter isons a Curae ee ine ease eee 4.70

AFatetinitsln gee eames aoa ernst kent ae iehnee eae eee onitea rte ty eta es 4.00

Subscrpionpto National Niursenyiman.>s.....0.06. 0.26. 2.00

TP SISDIMNGIMEGS Fike, SOS aed Bie oes EERE PO cena era 5.00

Traveling and Miscellaneous Expenses of Inspector.... 36.34

Traveling Expenses of Assistant Inspector.............. 561.25 2,388.45
BrallaniCe mae trans pants een roan ro ee tas lle oie carne $1,850.11

* NorE—Stenographer and clerk paid from State Entomologist Fund; also bills for June,
1914 ($242.15). Eight months expenses, Necember], 1914,to end of fiscal year August 1, 1915, must
be met with the balance available.

ABSTRACTS OF INSPECTION LAWS IN VARIOUS STATES.

We include here abstract of inspection laws of all states where inspec-
tion is in force, for the benefit of our nurserymen, and suggest that ship-
pers become familiar with the laws of those states into which they propose
to ship, thus avoiding delays and possible loss. This list is the latest
which has come to our attention, being compiled by officials in New Jersey,
and is dated March, 1914. It is therefore probably correct in all essential
features.

Alabama. Every nurseryman or dealer in nursery stock doing business
in Alabama must take out a license, which is of two kinds: one regular
nurseryman and dealer’s license and another an agent’s license, the agent’s
license to be obtained only through the principal, who must hold a regular
nurseryman’s or dealer’s license. The fee for each nurseryman’s or dealer’s
license is ten dollars ($10.00). The fee for each agent’s license is one
dollar ($1.00). All license fees must be paid before the license is granted.
A signed copy of the inspection certificate held by the applicant must be
filed with the State Horticulturist and money sent to pay for the license
and tags needed A tag must be placed on each order delivered. One tag
on a box does not cover individual orders therein. No one is allowed to
receive a package of nursery stock unless a tag is attached. Printed
official tags are furnished at a cost as follows: First one hundred, 65 cents
postpaid; first two hundred, $1.00 postpaid; first three hundred, $1.20 post-
paid; first five hundred, $1.60 postpaid; in thousand lots, $2.20, sent by
express collect. Personal checks will be received. Use money order or
draft. Send small amounts in two-cent stamps. It is unlawful for any
person, firm or corporation outside of the State of Alabama to ship into
the State any citrus stock for propagation or for planting unless said stock
is first completely defoliated and fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas of
standard streneth. Further, the official inspection tag on such shipment or
shipments must state that such citrus stock has been properly defoliated
and fumigated. E. P. Sandsten, State Horticulturist, Auburn, Alabama.

Arizona. Nursery stock shipped into the State must be prominently
labeled with the name and the address of both the shipper and the consignee,
and must be accompanied by a valid certificate of inspection or a copy of

44 NURSERY INSPECTION.

such certificate. Shipments into the State, consisting of or containing
plants not grown in the locality from which shipment was made, must in
addition, specify where such plants were grown. State quarantine orders
of interest to nurserymen prohibit: (1) the importation of stock from
sections infested by the alfalfa weevil; (2) the importation of citrus, privets,
cape jessamine and rubber trees and plants from North and South Carolina
and all States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico; (3) rooted grape vines from
north of the line of San Bernardino, Kern and San Luis Obispo counties,
California; (4) citrus trees from California except from Imperial, Tulare
and Fresno counties. All shipments of living plants into the State of
Arizona are inspected by Arizona State Inspectors and not delivered until
a certificate of release is issued in each case, to the common carrier and
to the consignee. If trees or plants are infested or infected with insect
pests or plant diseases of general occurrence in the section of the State
where the shipment is received, treatment to eradicate, or the separation
of the infested or diseased plants or trees, is in most cases permissible;
otherwise all plants or trees of the kind found to be infested or diseased are
held in quarantine and are shipped from the State or destroyed at the
owner’s option. Copies of quarantine orders furnished upon application.
A. W. Morrill, State Entomologist, Phoenix, Arizona.

Arkansas. Shipments of nursery stock into the State must be accom-
panied by a copy of the valid certificate of inspection, a copy of the valid
permit issued to the nurseryman by the State Entomologist of this State and
must bear the name and address of the consignor and consignee with a
brief statement of the contents of the shipment; all shipments not so
labelled or tagged must be refused for shipment by the carrier. Carriers
bringing into the State shipments of nursery stock which originated in
foreign countries or foreign possessions of the United States must notify
the State Entomologist in writing and must hold such stock at any place
designated by him until the same has been duly inspected and released.
Nurserymen located out of the State may secure permits by filing with the
State Entomologist a copy of their certificate. George G. Becker, State
Entomologist, Fayetteville, Arkansas.

California. All horticultural material of every kind is inspected upon
arrival. Shipments are held by transportation companies until inspected
by State or county inspectors. Each carload, case, box, package, - crate,
bale or bundle of trees, shrubs, plants, vines, cuttings, grafts, scions, buds,
fruit-pits or fruit or vegetables or seed, imported, or brought into this
State, shall have plainly and legibly marked thereon in a conspicuous
manner and place, the name and address of the shipper, owner or owners,
or person forwarding or shipping the same, and also the name of the
person, firm or corporation to whom the same is forwarded or shipped, or
his or its responsible agents; also the name of the country, State or ter-
ritory where the contents were grown and a statement of the contents
therein. Peach, nectarine or apricot trees, or any trees on peach roots
from districts infested with peach yellows or peach rosette, will be refused
entry. Notices of all shipments should be sent to the horticultural quar-
antine officer, Room 11, Ferry Building, San Francisco, California. Fred-
erick Maskew, Chief Deputy Quarantine Office, Room 11, Ferry Building,
San Francisco, California.

Colorado. All shipments into the State must bear certificates of inspec-
tion and fumigation. All shipments are inspected by county inspectors.
Trees with crown gall or hairy root will be condemned and destroyed unless
promptly removed from the State. G. P. Gillette, State Entomologist, Fort
Collins, Colorado.

_ Connecticut. All imported stock must not be unpacked without per-
mission from the State Entomologist’s office, and all stock entering the
State must bear a certificate of inspection. Dr. W. E. Britton, State Ento-
mologist, New Haven, Connecticut.

NURSERY INSPECTION. 45

Delaware. Shipments into the State must bear a certificate of inspec-
tion and a statement from the shipper that the stock has been fumigated.
Wesley Webb, Inspector of Orchards and Nurseries, Dover, Delaware.

Florida. All shipments of nursery stock into the State without certifi-
cates of inspection and fumigation are illegal. All shipments of citrus trees,
chinaberry, umbrella trees, cape jessamine, privets, persimmons, green ash,
cherry, laurel, virburnum, nudum, pomegranate, allamanda and other plants
subject to white fly infestation must have their leaves removed. All out-
side persons selling nursery stock within the State must pay a fee of five
dollars ($5.00). register with the inspector of nursery stock and file a cer-
tificate of inspection before receiving permission to sell. All shipments
must be securely boxed, or covered to prevent infestation or infection.
Dr. E. W. Berger, Inspector of Nursery Stock, Gainesville, Florida.

Georgia. Nurserymen or dealers in nursery stock residing in other
States, who desire to ship nursery stock into Georgia, must file with the
State Entomologist (Atlanta, Ga.), a copy of their certificate of nursery
inspection signed in person by a duly authorized State or Government
Entomologist. In addition to the certificate the nurserymen are required
to file a signed agreement to the effect that all stock consigned to points
in Georgia will be fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas, in a manner
approved by the State Entomologist of Georgia. Upon receipt of the above-
mentioned certificate and fumigation agreement the official tag of the
Georgia State Board of Entomology is issued to the nurseryman at the
cost of printing, as follows: 100 tags, 60 cents postpaid; 200 tags, 85 cents
postpaid; 300 tags, $1.10 postpaid; 500 tags, $1.35 sent by express collect;
1,000 tags, $2.00, sent by express collect. All shipments of nursery stock
into Georgia must bear a copy of the official Georgia tag, which bears a
facsimile of the signature of the Entomologist of Georgia, and also a
copy of the certificate issued by the proper official of the State where such
shipment originated. Any shipment not so labeled shall be liable to con-
fiscation upon the order of the Entomologist of Georgia. E. L. Worsham,
State Entomologist, Atlanta, Georgia.

Idaho. All nursery stock shipped into the State is inspected upon its
arrival, the consignee paying for such inspection. Shipments must bear a
label showing the name of the shipper, the locality where grown and
variety of nursery stock, in addition to a copy of an official certificate of
fumigation emanating from the place where the stock was grown. Applica-
tion to sell stock in the State must be made to the State Board of Horti-
cultural Inspection, a_bond of $5,000 filed and annual license secured upon
payment of $10.00. Every nursery firm doing business in the State must
pay one dollar ($1.00) annually for each agent who represents them. All
nursery stock sold or delivered must be true to name and variety as repre-
sented. J. U. McPherson, State Horticultural Inspector, Boise, Idaho.

Illinois. Each shipment coming into the State must bear a certificate
of nursery inspection. Agents and dealers selling stock obtained from out-
side nurserymen must file every year with the State Entomologist a sworn
statement with certificates showing sources of stock. Dr. S. A. Forbes, State
Entomologist; P. A. Glenn, Chief Inspector, Urbana, Illinois.

Indiana. Stock shipped into the State from another State or from one
point to another within the State, must be plainly labelled with the name
of the consignor and consignee and must bear a certificate of the State or
government official showing that the enclosed stock has been inspected and
found free from injurious insects and plant diseases. All foreign-grown
nursery stock is unpacked and inspected by the State Entomologist upon
arrival at its destination in Indiana. C. H. Baldwin, State Entomologist,
Indianapolis, Indiana.

46 NURSERY INSPECTION.

Iowa. Duplicate certificates of nursery inspection must be filed with and
approved by the State Fntemologist. Stock shipped into the State must
bear an official certificate of inspection. Prof. H. E. Summers, State Ento-
mologist, Ames, Iowa.

Kansas. A certificate of inspection must accompany every shipment of
stock into the State. Prof. George A. Dean, Manhattan, Kansas, and Prof.
S. F. Hunter, Lawrence, Kansas.

Kentucky. All packages of stock shipped or delivered in the State must
bear a copy of a valid certificate from an official inspector. In addition,
each package must bear on the outside a statement of its contents and be
plainly labelled with the names of the consignor and consignee. Copies of
certificates may be filed with the State Entomologist. Prof. H. Garman,
State Entomologist, Lexington, Kentucky.

Louisiana. All stock must be labelled with certificate of inspection,
and in addition a copy of such certificate must be filed with the State Board
of Agriculture and Immigration. All shipments of orange, lemon, lime,
sweet lime, kumquat, Tangerine, grape, fruit trees or other citrus plants
shipped into this State must be completely defoliated. All correspondence
should be addressed to J. B. Garrett, Entomologist, State Board of Agricul-
ture and Immigration, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

Maine. All stock coming into the State must bear a certificate of inspec-
tion. J. A. Roberts, Commissioner of Agriculture, Augusta, Maine; A. R.
Lardner, State Entomologist, Augusta, Maine.

Maryland. Stock shipped into the State must contain a certificate of
nursery inspection and the names of the consignor and consignee. All trees
are required to be fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas. A duplicate cer-
tificate of inspection must be filed with the State Entomologist. Prof. T. B.
Symons, State Entomologist, College Park, Maryland.

Massachusetts. There are no requirements whatever with reference to
sending stock into Massachusetts, not even a certificate being needed. All
stock, however, received in this State is inspected at its destination, and if
its condition requires action of any kind, such as its destruction, return to
the consignor, or anything of the sort, this is taken as the result of our
inspection, and any shipper sending bad stock into the State does so at
his own risk. Dr. H. T. Fernald, Chief Nursery Inspector, Amherst, Mass.

Michigan. Shipments of stock into the State must have attached certifi-
cate of inspection. Trees and shrubs subject to the attack of San Jose
scale must be fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas and a statement to this
effect, from the nurseryman, should accompany each shipment. Nurseries
having agents canvassing for the sale of stock in Michigan are required to
take out a license for which the fee is five dollars ($5.00), and in addition
file a bond for one thousand dollars ($1,000). Certificates of inspection must
be filed with the State Inspector of Nurseries before any stock is shipped
into the State. A license is not required for stock sold on mail orders, but
a copy of the certificate should be filed and another copy attached to each
package shipped into the State. Prof. L. R. Taft, State Inspector of Nur-
series, East Lansing, Michigan.

Minnesota. Nursery stock brought into the State must bear an official
certificate of inspection. In addition a duplicate certificate of inspection
must be filed with the State Entomologist, before shipments of stock are
made. Railroad ard express companies are prohibited from accepting
stock not properly certified. Prof. F. L. Washburn, State Entomologist, St.
Anthony Park, Minnesota.

NURSERY INSPECTION. 47

Mississippi. All stock shipped into the State must bear a certificate
of nursery inspection and fumigation statement and a copy of such certificate
must be filed with the Entomologist in addition to a statement that all stock
shipped into Mississippi will be fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas.
R. W. Harned, Entomologist, Agricultural College, Mississippi.

Missouri. Nurserymen shipping stock into this State must apply to the
State Inspector for a permit, accompanying the application with a copy of
their nursery inspection certificate and an affidavit that no stock will be
shipped into Missouri which has not been duly inspected and certified. No
fee is charged Agents for outside nurseries must apply for an agent’s
permit. All shipments entering the State must bear a statement of its
contents, name of consignor and of consignee and a certificate of inspection.
Prof. Leonard Haseman, Entomologist and Chief Inspector, Columbia, Mis-
souri.

Montana. All stock shipped into the State must be unpacked and in-
spected and if necessary fumigated. This takes place at the following quar-
antine stations: Miles City, Billings, Dillon, Missoula, Glendive, Livingston,,
Baker, Big Timber, Bozeman, Kalispell, Great Falls, Troy, Plains, Glasgow,
Eureka, Helena, Mondak, Havre and Anaconda, or at other points of delivery
upon payment of all costs. All persons shipping stock into the State must
secure a license for Which the fee is ten dollars ($10.00), and file a bond for
one thousand dollars ($1,000) with the State Horticulturist. License is
good for one year from date of issue. Notice of shipment including an in-
voice of stock must be sent to the State Horticulturist five days before day
of shipment. M. L. Dean, State Horticulturist, Missoula, Montana.

Nebraska. Shipments of nursery stock entering this State must bear a
certificate of nursery inspection and be labelled with the name of the con-
signor and consignee. Prof. Lawrence Bruner, State Entomologist, Lincoln,
Nebraska.

Nevada. All nursery stock shipped from other States to points within
the State of Nevada, whether fruit trees, ornamental trees, shrubs, vines,
cuttings, or other nursery stock of any description whatever must bear on
the outside of each car, crate, bale, bundle or package a label giving the
name of the consignor and consignee, together with a copy of an inspection
certificate of recent date. Such certificate of inspection must certify that
said stock has been inspected and found free from insect pests or plant
disease of any kind. It must bear the signature of the State Entomologist
or Plant Pathologist or other duly qualified person in authority in the
State in which said nursery stock was grown. J. E. Stubbs, President,
State University, Reno, Nevada.

New Hampshire. Each shipment into the State must contain a certificate
of nursery inspection or an affidavit showing that the stock has been properly
fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas. W.C. O’Kane, Acting State Nursery
Inspector, Durham, New Hampshire.

New Jersey. The law requires the inspection of all nurseries at least
once in each year. Shipments into the State must be accompanied by a
certificate of inspection of current date, or copy thereof, attached to each
car or parcel, together with a statement from the shipper that the stock
therein is a part of the stock inspected, and stating whether such stock
has been fumigated with hydrocyanic gas or not. It shall be the duty
of all carriers to refuse for transportation within the State, all stock not
accompanied by a certificate of inspection. All stock coming into the State
may be detained for examination, wherever found, by the State Entomol-
ogist or the State Plant Pathologist, and if found to be infested with any
insects or plant diseases, injurious or liable to become so, will be destroyed.
Dr. T. J. Headlee, State Entomologist, New Brunswick, New Jersey; Dr.
Mel. T. Cook, State Plant Pathologist, New Brunswick, New Jersey.

48 NURSERY INSPECTION.

New Mexico. No Jaws covering transportation of nursery stock. The
Territorial Legislature of 1903 provided for county boards of horticultural
commissioners, which were given authority to control orchard pests. Prof.
Fabian Garcia, Horticulturist, Agriculturist Experiment Station, State Col-
lege, New Mexico.

New York. Any nursery stock brought into the State must remain
unpacked and unopened until permission is given by the Commissioner of
Agriculture. All stock is inspected at destination. To facilitate rapid in-
spection receivers of nursery stock should notify the Department Office at
Albany of the receipt of consignments. It would also be well for shippers
into the State to notify the Commissioner of Agriculture, giving all names
and possible date of arrival. All nursery stock shipped into this State must
bear a copy of a certificate of inspection. Calvin J. Huson, Commissioner
of Agriculture, Albany, New York.

North Carolina. Stock shipped into the State must bear a certificate of
nursery inspection and also a statement that the stock has been fumigated.
A duplicate certificate must be filed with the State Entomologist. Franklin
Sherman, Jr., Entomologist, State Department of Agriculture, Raleigh,
North Carolina.

North Dakota. Nursery stock shipped into the State must bear a cer-
tificate of inspection. Every individual, firm or corporation who employs
agents or traveling salesmen, or who solicits for the sale of nursery stock in
the State, must obtain a license from the Director of the North Dakota
Experiment Station, the cost of which is ten dollars ($10.00). In addition
a certificate of inspection and a bond for five hundred dollars ($500) must
be filed. License is good for one year following date of issue. Director
North Dakota Experiment Station, Agricultural College, North Dakota.

Ohio. Shipments of nursery stock entering the State must bear the
name of the consignor and consignee, and be accompanied by an official
certificate of inspection or fumigation. Agents are required to pay a license
fee of one dollar ($1.00) and dealers a license fee of five dollars ($5.00);
also to file sworn statements that the stock which they sell or deliver has
been officially inspected and was received by them accompanied with a
valid certificate of inspection or fumigation. N. E. Shaw, Chief Inspector,
Ohio Department of Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio.

Oklahoma. Outside nurserymen desiring to do business in Oklahoma
must file in the office of the State Entomologist, prior to shipping, a dupli-
cate copy of the season’s inspection certificate, and give such information in
regard to their business methods as may be necessary to convince the
Oklahoma Entomological Commission that they are conducting their busi-
ness in a fair and honorable way. Each individual shipment must be accom-
panied by a tag bearing valid copy of said inspection certificate. Failure
to comply with this rule will render shipment subject to confiscation.
Benjamin F. Hennessy, Secretary, State Board of Agriculture, Oklahoma
City, Oklahoma.

Oregon. All nursery stock shipped into the State is inspected at point
of delivery. All nursery stock, shipped into the State, which is affected with
crown gall or hairy root will be destroyed or returned. It is unlawful for
any person to send or bring into Oregon, peach trees, nectarine trees,
apricot trees or trees on peach roots or peach pits from districts where the
peach yellows or peach rosette is known to exist. Shippers of nursery
stock must mark on each package, in a legible manner, the name and
address of shipper, name and address of consignee, the place where the
contents were grown, and the fact that the contents are nursery stock,
seedlings, or seeds as the case may be. H. H. Williamson, Secretary, State
Board of Agriculture, Portland, Oregon.

NURSERY INSPECTION. 49

Pennsylvania. Certificates of fumigation are required to accompany
shipments from other States and the word “fumigated” printed or stencilled
on or accompanying the certificate of inspection will not be accepted unless
it is apparent that such word is a part of the certificate granted by a State
Inspection officer. Nurserymen from other States are also required to file
affidavits that all nursery stock of kinds subject to infestation by San Jose
scale will be properly fumigated before shipment into the State. Blanks
furnished upon application. Transportation companies are required to reject
all stock entering the State unless certificates of inspection and fumigation
are attached. Prof. H. A. Surface, Economic Zoologist; Enos B. Engle,
Chief Nursery Inspector, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

Rhode Island. All shipments of nursery stock into the State must have
attached to each package in a conspicuous place, a copy of the certificate of
inspection signed by an official inspection officer. Agents having no nursery,
who wish to sell stock within the State must apply to the State Entomologist
for an agent’s license and must state where they propose to purchase the
ae they intend to sell. A. E. Stene, Entomologist, Kingston, Rhode

sland.

South Carolina. Stock coming from other States, provinces, or foreign
countries and consigned to points within this State, must have attached to
every bundle cr package an interstate tag or permit issued by the South
Carolina State Crop Pest Commission. This interstate tag or permit can
be issued only after the certificate of inspection of the State, country or
province where shipments originated, has been approved by the South
Carolina State Crop Pest Commission and filed in the office of the ento-
mologist or pathologist of the State Crop Pest Commission. It is further
required that the fumigation certificate of the South Carolina State Crop
Pest Commission be properly filled out and filed in the office of the entomol-
ogist or pathologist of the Commission before the interstate tag or permit
can be issued, unless the official inspection certificate includes a statement
that the nursery is properly equipped for fumigating. Prof. A. F. Conradi,
State Entomologist; Prof. H. W. Barre. State Pathologist, Clemson college,
South Carolina.

South Dakota. Nurserymen residing outside of South Dakota must file
in the office of the State Entomologist a copy of his official inspection cer-
tificate and in addition attach to each shipment of stock coming into South
Dakota, a copy of his inspection certificate and a statement stating where
the stock was grown. Prof. Harry C. Severin, State Entomologist, Brook-
ings, South Dakota.

Tennessee. All shipments of stock into the State must have attached
a certificate of inspection and a fumigation tag. Outside nurserymen must
file in the office of the State Entomologist, Knoxville, Tennessee, a duplicate
certificate of their nursery inspection signed in person by the official in
charge, and in addition file in that office an agreement signed by the
proprietor of the nursery to thoroughly fumigate with hydrocyanic acid
gas all nursery stock subject to San Jose scale and other dangerous insect
pests. Prof. G. M. Bentley. State Entomologist and Plant Pathologist,
Knoxville, Tennessee.

Texas. Before shipping nursery stock into this State nurserymen must
file with the Commissioner of Agriculture a certified copy of their inspection
certificate. In addition a fee of five dollars ($5.00) is charged for the issu-
ance of a permit to ship into the State. All shipments must bear a certificate
of inspection from the State in which the shipment originated and a tag
showing copy of the permit from Texas. Agents are required to procure
agents’ credentials from their nurseries on a form approved by the Com-
missioner of Agriculture. Dealers are required to take out the same permit
as nurserymen. Greenhouse plants are included in the inspection. Com-
missioner of Agriculture, Austin, Texas.

50 NURSERY INSPECTION.

Utah. No person can engage in the business of selling or importing
nursery stock without having first obtained a license to do business in the
State. Any person may obtain a license from the State Horticultural Com-
mission upon the payment of a fee of $2.50 annually and by filing with the
State Horticultural Commission a bond in the sum of five hundred dollars
($500). Each salesman or agent must hold a certificate giving his name and
the name and address of the persons he represents, together with the license
number of his principal. A copy of the certificate of inspection must be
attached to each shipment. All nursery stock will be quarantined on
arrival and, if deemed necessary, disinfected or destroyed at the cost of
the owner. J. Edward Taylor. State Inspector, Salt Lake City, Utah.

Vermont. Nursery stock transported into this State for delivery therein
must be accompanied by a certificate of inspection from a duly authorized
nursery stock inspector of the State from which the consignment is made
and the name and post office address of the consignor and consignee.
M. B. Cummings, State Nursery Inspector, Burlington, Vermont.

Virginia. Before shipping stock into this State it is necessary to pro-
cure from the Auditor of Public Accounts, Richmond, Virginia, a certificate
of registration, the fee for which is twenty dollars ($20.00). Duplicates for
agents’ use are free. (Send certified check or draft for $20 drawn payable
to the Treasurer of Virginia.) In addition outside nurserymen are required
to file a duplicate certificate of inspection from their local State Entomol-
ogist with the State Entomologist of Virginia, who will furnish tags at cost.
One tag must be attached to each package of stock sold in the State.
W. J. Schoene, State Entomologist, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Washington. No person, firm or corporation can engage in or continue
in the business of selling, as agent or otherwise, within this State, or
importing, nursery stock, without first having obtained a license. Applica-
tion therefor must be made to the Commissioner of Agriculture and a
satisfactory bond in the sum of one thousand dollars ($1,000) must be
filed with him; each bond must be renewed every year. The license fee
for nurserymen and tree dealers is five dollars ($5.00) per annum; for
agents one dollar ($1.00). All licenses expire one year from date of issue
unless renewed upon the same as originally provided for. Every person
licensed to do business in the State must notify the State Commissioner
of Agriculture and district inspector of his intention to ship nursery
stock, giving the name and address of the consignee. Hon. J. H. Perkins,
State Commissioner of Agriculture, Olympia, Washington.

West Virginia. Each shipment of nursery stock into the State must be
accompanied with an official certificate of nursery inspection, and in addi-
tion, the official permit tag of the State. Tags are issued at cost upon
acceptance of the certificate of the shipper, and after the State certificate of
registration has been procured. This is issued by the Auditor of State at
Charleston, West Virginia, upon payment of a registration fee of five
dollars ($5.00) Transportation companies are required to notify the
State Entomologist of all shipments of nursery stock entering the State
and give the names and address of the consignor and consignee. W. E.
Rumsey, State Entomologist, Morgantown, West Virginia.

Wisconsin. All shipments of nursery stock into the State must bear
certificates of inspection and certificate tags. Transportation companies
are forbidden to deliver nursery stock unless accompanied by certificate
tags. Nurserymen or dealers desiring to sell stock in the State must secure
a Wisconsin State license by filing a duplicate of their State inspection
certificate with the State Inspector and enclosing five dollars ($5.00) to
cover cost of license. All nursery agents canvassing in the State must
carry an agent’s duplicate license, furnished for one dollar ($1.00). Wilful
misrepresentation of nursery stock is considered a misdemeanor. Prof.
J. G. Sanders, Entomologist and Chief Nursery Inspector, Madison, Wis-
consin.

NURSERY INSPECTION. 51

Wyoming. Any person or firm wishing to do business in this State
must first obtain a license. Licenses are issued on application for a period
terminating on July lst of the next succeeding inspection year (approxi-
mately two years). All applications must be accompanied by the license
fee ($25), a bond in the sum of five hundred dollars ($500), conditioned
that the principal will faithfully obey the law of the State of Wyoming,
and by a certificate of inspection from an authorized inspector in the State
from which shipments are to be made. On receipt of these papers, the
Secretary of State Board issues authorized shipping tags (at cost).
Nursery stock may not enter the State and transportation companies
may not deliver unless such tag be attached to each and every box, bundle,
or bale. The presence of the shipping tag shall be taken as prima facie
evidence of inspection, and no further inspection is required, though the
Board reserves the right to re-inspect. if for any cause it may deem it
wise to do so. It is the duty of every outside nursery, holding a license
to do business in Wyoming, to notify the secretary of the board, as
inspector-in-chief, of every considerable shipment of nursery stock that it
proposes to send into this State. said notice to reach the secretary at least
five days before the delivery of the said goods, and to state the kind
of stock included and the probable time of its delivery, the railroad station
and the name of the consignee. It is the further duty of each nursery to
file with the secretary the full address of every agent or solicitor it may
employ in the furtherance of its business in the State. For circular of
detailed information, address Mr. Aven Nelson, Secretary of the State
Board of Horticulture, Laramie, Wyoming.

Canada. Nursery stock entering Canada must be imported through the
following ports, during the periods mentioned, at which places the stock is
fumigated:

Vancouver, B. C., from October Ist to May Ist.

Niagara Falls. Ont., from October Ist to May 15th.

Winnipeg, Man., North Portal, Sask., and St. John, N. B., from March
15th to May 15th and from October 7th to December 7th.

Windsor, Ont., and St. Johns, P. Q., from March 15th to May 15th, and
from September 26th to December 7th.

No stock can be taken out of bond without a fumigation certificate.

The following stock is exempt from fumigation and may be imported at
any time through any port without inspection: (a) Greenhouse grown
plants, including roses in foliage which have been grown in pots up to 3
inches in diameter but not larger. A certificate that the plants have been
grown under glass must accompany the invoice and shall be signed by the
consignor. (b) Herbaceous perennials (the stems of which die down in
winter), such as peonies, sunflowers, etc. (c) Herbaceous bedding plants, as
geraniums, pansies, etc. (d) Bulbs and tubers, such as hyacinths, lilies and
dahlias, irises, etc. (e) Cottonwood or Necklace poplar, when shipped
from and grown in Dakota or Minnesota. The port by which it is
intended that the nursery stock shall enter, must be clearly marked on
each package. All persons importing stock, except that which is exempt
from fumigation, must notify the Dominion Entomologist.

The importation of all nursery stock through the mail is prohibited.
This does not apply to greenhouse-grown florists’ stock, cut flowers.
herbaceous perennials and bedding plants, which will be admitted provided
that a detailed statement of the contents is attached to such parcels. The
term nursery stock includes trees, shrubs, plants, vines, grafts, scions,
cuttings and buds. Copies of the regulations or additional information
can be obtained from Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, Dominion Entomologist,
Ottawa, Canada.

SPRAYING IN MINNESOTA
A. G. RUGGLES.

During the last four or five years, rather extensive spraying
operations have been carried on in the fruit and potato regions of
the State. These were designed to find the best spraying compound
for the purpose, as well as the cheapest and the most economical
method of using it. Some of the results obtained are incorporated
in the following spraying notes.

As an insecticide for all leaf-eating insects, we have proved
beyond a doubt that arsenate of lead is the best. One reason for
this is that it sticks and hard rains do not wash it off imme-
diately. Another reason is that. no matter how strong it is applied,
it never burns the foliage. Many potato growers at the present time
do not consider this the best potato beetle insecticide. The reason
for such belief is that spraying operations are not begun until the
grubs are present in large numbers. At this time a quicker-acting
poison is thought necessary and Paris green does act quicker. If,
however, the arsenate of lead is put on as the eggs are being laid
and before many grubs hatch, a smaller number of sprayings are
necessary and never does one get burning of the foliage. We there-
fore recommend its use at the rate of 3—4 pounds in fifty gallons of
Bordeaux mixture.

In our orchard spraying work, we have given some attention
to spraying before the leaf buds open in the spring and have found
it of little value unless scale insects are present. The dormant
spray used at this time is used chiefly against scale insects which
are of very little consequence in many orchards; therefore we have
not been advising its use except under special circumstances.

Three sprayings have been recommended :—the first given just
as the blossom buds begin te show color; the second just after the
blossoms fall; and the third spraying ten days or two weeks later.
If brown rot of plums or black rot of apples or scab or leaf-eating
insects are very abundant, a fourth spraying should be given four
or five weeks later. The material used in each of these sprayings
is arsenate of lead and lime sulphur. We recommend the com-
merical concentrated lime sulphur, diluted one gallon of the lime-

SPRAYING IN MINNESOTA. 53

sulphur to forty gallons of water. Into this weakened lime-
sulphur, two pounds of arsenate of lead paste are placed. Only
one pound of the powdered arsenate of lead is used for this
amount. In each case, however, the “lead” must be thoroughly
mixed with a small quantity of the liquid before placing it in the
spray barrel. This, if a good agitation is present in the spraying
outfit, insures an even spread of the insect-killing material.

In some years, it often happens that from pressure of other
work or from some other good reason, all the sprayings necessary
for an orchard can not be given. If only one can be given, it
should be the one just after the blossoms drop. This should
be given in the most thorough way possible, thorough in its
amount, in its covering quality, and its ability to force its way into
the calyx cup of the fruit.

If, on the other hand, only two sprayings can be given, the
one just mentioned and the one as the flower buds begin to show
signs of opening are the ones recommended. It must be remem-
bered, however, that it more than pays to give the three sprayings.

In our experience in spraying, over the State, a great deal of
poor spraying has been seen. The material is put on the trees
in a slovenly way; no attention is paid to the proper mixtures
for the occasion and the spraying outfit is very often not fitted for
the purpose. Spraying of this character is of very little value.
The operator will very seldom get back any return for his money
and will of course claim that spraying is not a paying operation.
If any operation of the orchard requires careful thought and at-
tention, spraying is one of them.

SOME IMPORTANT TREE INSECTS
A. G. RUGGLES.

During the last year, there have been many calls made upon
the division for advice concerning tree insects. In all, about two
hundred letters have been answered on this subject alone, besides
the many telephone calls for aid. The relative importance of these
insects is shown by the order in which the insects are mentioned
below:

Bark borers, canker worms, cottony maple scale, spiny elm
caterpillar, walnut Datana, yellow striped oak worm, scale in-
SECES, EEC:

The injury done by the borers to the several species of oaks
has been the subject of most inquiry. The insect causing this
damage to the oak timber, called the two-lined chestnut borer
(Agrilus bilineatus), has been the object of close investigation
this past summer and a number of new points have been brought
out in its life history that may enable us to later find a better
method of control.

For this locality in a normal year, the life cycle has been
definitely determined as follows: The adult beetles fly from June
15th to July 15th, during which period the eggs are laid. The
beetles are most numerous around July Ist. The eggs are laid
singly or in batches of three to ten in the bottom of natural
crevices in the bark. In ten days or more, these hatch and imme-
diately bore into the bark until they reach the wood. After
they burrow their length in the wood, they return to the growing
layers between the wood and the bark, called the cambium, where
all the injurious burrows are made. During the early stages of the
grub life, the burrows are made with the grain of the wood or
in an oblique direction. lL.ater, particularly in the last stage, the
burrow is almost always across the grain of the wood. It is at
this time that the tree is being actually girdled. If the burrows
extend far enough or if the grubs are numerous enough, the tree
then dies.

In August the majority of the grubs have made their pupal
chambers in the bark. In the spring, about June 10th, they
pupate and adults are seen at the time mentioned before.

atus.

Agrilus biline

lined Chestnut Borer,

an Oak showing burrows of the Two

Bark removed from

A few larvae visible.

TREE INSECTS. 55

As these insects do their damage while completely concealed
beneath the bark, very few natural enemies have been noted.
We did, however. find two,—one an egg parasite belonging to the
family Trichogrammidae and the other a larval parasite belonging
to the genus Atanycolus, both Hymenopterous parasites. These
were determined by Messrs. Rohwer and Crawford. No further
record was taken, although we expect to obtain more upon further
research. Working as they do beneath the bark, no artificial
remedy has yet been found to kill these pests while they work.
As the life history shows, our only point of attack is while the
beetles are laying eggs, a period of only one month. Although we
have in mind a number of experiments, the only results obtained
thus far have been with preventive remedies; that is, material
put on the tree to deter the adult beetle from laying eggs. Experi-
ments so far show that iron-sulphide or Bordeaux mixture sprayed
on the trunks of trees discourage the visiting of such trees by
the insects.

It has been found in our work that a relationship exists be-
tween these insects and a disease, the shoe-string fungus. Many
times the borers have been found present with the disease. In
some cases, the fungus alone was present and in others the insects
alone. Whether the fungus is necessarily present, first acting as
a primary cause of death to the tree or whether the combination
causes death, is a question for further investigation.

Two insects very commonly asked about are the fall canker
worm and the cottony maple scale. So much has been written
about these that it is perhaps undesirable to take much space in
this report. The fact remains that these insects can be success-
fully combated, but it requires absolute co-operation among all
concerned in a community and long tedious effort. For literature
on these insects, write to the Division of Entomology, University
Farm.

Another insect doing considerable damage and new to the
state is an oak twig-girdler. The work is entirely different from
that of the oak twig--pruner and the difference is easily recognized.
The tree seems to be infested with blight, many of the leaves on
the ends of the small twigs withering. The damage is done by a
small grub, a close relative of the two-lined chestnut borer. The
adult has not yet been taken. As the life history is not known at
the present time, only one method of combating the insect has
been tried and no results have been obtained to date. This

56 TREE INSECTS.

method consisted in pruning the tips of all the infested branches
on a tree and burning them. When the infection is abundant, this
means a tremendous amount of work and it may not pay even if it
proves an efficient remedy.

The poplar beetle has been doing considerable damage to the
poplars and willows in the nurseries of the State. We are inves-
tigating the life cycle of this insect and propose to perform a
considerable number of experiments on spraying against it. We
believe that a thorough spraying at least twice during the season
with arsenate of lead paste at the rate of 3 or 4 pounds to 50
gallons of water will be effective. So far, the most interesting
phase of the work has been the discovery of a parasite, a Tet-
rastichus sp. according to J. C. Crawford, which destroys over
sixty per cent of the grubs in certain localities.

The spiny elm caterpillar has done considerable damage to
the elms and willows. Spraying with arsenate of lead 4 pounds in
50 gallons of water will keep them in check. A bacterial disease
has been noted killing many of the caterpillars.

As mentioned in the article on spraying, scale insects in Min-
nesota have not, up to the present time, caused any alarm. To be
sure, from time to time, the oyster-shell scale and scurfy bark-
louse causes considerable anxiety, but it is only rarely that these
two scale insects have caused trouble. During the last year or
so, however, the dread San Jose scale has made its appearance.
With these three armored scales and perhaps more, capable of
doing considerable injury and even causing death to orchard and
shade trees, everyone must be on guard to stop the ravages of the
pest in its incipiency.

The remedy for all scale insects is the dormant spray of lime-
sulphur. The lime-sulphur is the commercial concentrated ma-
terial and is diluted in proportions of about one part of the lime-
sulphur with nine parts of water. This is sprayed on the trees
just after the leaves drop in the fall or in the spring before the
buds swell. A warm day in midwinter is also suitable. Some-
times two applications are desirable. During the summer months
no insecticide will kill the mature scales without destroying the
fohage. However, if in each case the time can be definitely deter-
mined in which the young are crawling around in numbers, spray-
ing with some contact insecticide like kerosene emulsion, dilute
lime-sulphur or whale-oil soap will kill many and prevent serious
injury until the dormant spray can be applied.

Spring Elm Caterpillars, #. antiopa, killed by bacterial disease

SOME NEW SUGGESTIONS IN FLY CONTROL
Cc. W. HOWARD.

The last year has seen several new suggestions put before the
public for the control of house-flies. Most of these are designed to
destroy the fly maggots in their breeding places with the least
amounts of effort on the part of the individual.

The most recent suggestion is borax on manure. The United
States Bureau of Entomology claims that the use of borax is the
most eftective, economical, and practical substance to use for this
purpose. It does not seem to have any effect upon the manure, so
far as their present investigations have gone, which would render
objectionable its use as a fertilizer. The method in use is to apply
borax at the rate of 0.62 of a pound to eight bushels (10 cubic feet)
of manure immediately on its removal from the stable. The appli-
cation must be made promptly as flies lay their eggs in the freshest
manure. It is claimed that the presence of the borax prevents
the eggs from hatching as well as killing the maggots. The borax
must be applied more heavily at the outer edges of the pile as the
maggots congregate there in greater numbers. Treatment must
be repeated with each fresh supply of manure, unless the manure
is kept in boxes or bins, when it can be applied less frequently.
It will have the same effect upon other manures than that from
horses and upon garbage and refuse. It may also be used on floors
and in crevices and cracks about stables where flies sometimes
breed. The cost is comparatively slight; if purchased in quantity,
it should cost only about 5 or 6 cents per pound, and the Bureau
claims that the average cost of using borax is approximately one
cent per horse per day.

As soon as this recommendation of borax was published, we
tried out some small experiments to ascertain its value on manure
and garbage. We found that, while borax, without question, kills
fly maggots, when it comes in contact with them, the difficulty
seems to be to get it so distributed through the manure or garbage
that the fly eggs or maggots cannot avoid coming into contact
with it. This difficulty can be, to a large extent, overcome if the
borax is thoroughly dusted over each lot of manure or garbage
as it is added to the pile or bin.

58 FLY CONTROL.

On the University Farm, the past summer, we tested out the
use of an arsenical spray for killing fly-maggots in manure. This
spray had been orginally suggested by Mr. M. P. Somes, and was
taken up by the South Carolina Experiment Station in the summer
of 1913. They found that a spray prepared as follows:

Arsenate ot Soda. ya. tA.) Soe 4 pounds
MolasSeS <a). sate nee nen: che eee 2 quarts
Water cac,s ic. wan ao pee ieee ante eee Owe aulom

or, in these proportions for smaller quantities, would kill 98 per
cent of the fly-maggots when sprayed over the manure so as to
thoroughly moisten the surface.

This spray gave excellent results when used on our compost
heap, but here again we met the same difficulty which we experi-
enced in the trials with borax. It was difficult on a large heap of
manure, to cover every fresh addition with the spray promptly and
thoroughly, so that some maggots escaped destruction and some
flies emerged from the pile which had to be destroyed by other

ethods. At smaller stables, where less manure is produced and
where additions are made only once a day when clearing out the
stable, spraying can be done more effectively. Arsenite of soda
is very poisonous and must be kept out of the reach of children and
of stock. The spray when applied to the manure need cause no
fear as it does not detract from its value and poultry feeding about
the pile suffer no harm.

The same objection may be made to both of the above methods;
that is, the difficulty which the ordinary individual will find in
making the applications regularly and with sufficient thorough-
ness. For this reason, it seems to the writer that the system of
drawing out the manure daily or at very frequent intervals from
the stable and spreading it upon the field is the most satisfactory
one to employ.

Another suggestion made for the destruction of maggots in
manure piles is the use of “maggot traps.” These are based upon
the fact that when the fly maggot is full grown and ready to
transform to the fly stage, it leaves the warm and moist part of
the manure pile and seeks the dryer and cooler outer edges and
especially the soil surrounding and beneath the pile, where it
passes through the resting stage. It was found that if manure in
large cages was kept moist, 98 to 99 per cent of the maggots
contained in it left when ready to pass through the transformation
stage before becoming flies. Several styles of traps have been
suggested by different writers. The essential details are to have

FLY CONTROL. 59

a large bin with a perforated bottom through which the maggots
can find their way. Beneath the bin must be a pan or basin of
metal or concrete, either containing an inch or more of a weak
disinfectant or water, covered with oil, which will kill the maggots
when they drop in. Such a basin should have straight, vertical
sides, and if connected with a sewer, could be easily flushed out
once a week. Much remains to be done to perfect such a trap
for practical use.

We have had frequent requests from people wishing to know
what they could use in order to clear a house of flies, after they
have screened the doors and windows. Many substances have
been recommended and it was difficult to know which was the
best to advise. With this in view, several tests were made of
these fumigants during the past summer. Fumigation with hydro-
cyanic acid gas would, of course, kill flies, but owing to the danger
which might result from its use by an incautious person, it seems
advisable not to suggest it. The cost is also prohibitive to most
people. We tried the following, which are easily manipulated
and the ingredients of which are easily secured: phenol-camphor,
formaldehyde-gas, cresol, carbolic acid, sulphur, chlorine gas, and
pyrethrum (insect powder). Only three of these gave satisfactory
results.

Formaldehyde was used at the rate of one pound of 40 per
cent formaldehyde with eight ounces of potassium permanganate,
to each 1,000 cubic feet of space. When the room was left closed
for four hours, it destroyed practically all of the flies. Out of
nearly 2,300 flies, only twelve survived. Formaldehyde and potas-
sium permanganate can be purchased at any drug store. The
permanganate should be spread evenly over the bottom of a large
enameled pan and the formaldehyde poured over it. Formalde-
hvde gas is liberated as a result of the chemical action which takes
place. Where this gas is used for disinfection purposes, a con-
siderable quantity of water is added to the formaldehyde before
pouring it over the permanganate. A parallel experiment, how-
ever, in which water was used with the formaldehyde did not give
us as good results, fully 10 per cent of the flies surviving. Before
fumigating, the room or rooms must be made as nearly air-tight
as possible by closing up all openings, plugging up cracks in
walls and around windows, etc. After fumigating, the room must
be aired out for a couple of hours before entering. An individual
will, however, not be apt to enter a room full of formaldehyde gas,

60 FLY CONTROL.

as the irritation to eyes, nose, and throat is severe. After entering
the room, the flies should be at once swept up and burned, to avoid
the possible chance of any reviving.

Another substance which gave as good results as the formal-
dehyde is phenol-camphor, a compound used to kill mosquitoes in
the yellow-fever outbreak in New Orleans a few years ago. It is
far less offensive to the user than formaldehyde, but a little more
trouble to prepare. Its preparation is as follows:

It consists of equal parts of carbolic acid crystals and camphor
gum. The carbolic acid crystals can be liquified by heat, and
then poured over the camphor gum. When moderately heated,
this mixture gives off dense fumes which rapidly diffuse. They
soon condense and settle on all exposed surfaces as a light mois-
ture. The effect of these fumes upon flies is somewhat the same
as that of pyrethrum but more certain in its effects. The flies,
however, should be swept up afterward and destroyed. The fumes
are irritating and produce symptoms of phenol poisoning in some
people. This camphor-phenol mixture has an advantage over
pyrethrum in the material being less in bulk and the rooms may
be entered after an hour, thus enabling one to make a quicker ap-
plication. Four ounces of this mixture should be used to every
thousand cubic feet of space and the exposure should be for two
hours to secure best results, after which time, doors and windows
may be opened. Not more than eight or ten ounces of the cam-
phor-phenol should be placed in a basin, preferably an agate wash
basin. It is vaporized by heat and can be placed over a lamp or
other flame, at such a height as to volatilize rapidly but not over-
heat the dish and cause the contents to take fire. If a small
alcohol lamp is used, the basin should be placed over a piece of
stove pipe which has been so cut as to form legs at the bottom
and to bring the basin ten inches above the flame. Punch a series
of holes just below the top of the pipe to provide a draft.

Chlorine gas generated by pouring sulphuric acid over chloride
of lime gave excellent results. We used four ounces of lime for
each 1.000 cubic feet of room space; five ounces would be better.
To each ounce of chloride of lime was added two fluid ounces of
sulphuric acid. This was done in an enamelled pan. - Owing to
the dangerous nature of chlorine gas, however, we do not feel
like recommending it as a fumigant except for those who are
familiar with the handling of chemicals.

Experiments with the use of carbolic acid, creosol, sulphur and
pyrethrum did not give satisfactory results.

WARBLE FLIES
Cc. W. HOWARD.

Until the spring of 1914, the pest of cattle, known as ox-
warbles or warble-flies, seemed to have been absent from Minne-
sota. But at that time, three cases of infested cattle which had
been shipped in from other states, came to our attention. The
injury to cattle is caused by the grub stage of the insect which
lives in large tumors under the skin on the back of the cattle.
When numerous, the loss due to the weakened condition of the
cattle, as a result of the presence of these warbles is very con-
siderable. At the Union stock yards, Chicago, it is estimated
that during the grubby season, fully 5 per cent of the cattle re-
ceived are grubby and the accompanying perforation of the hides
by the grubs lessens their value on the market. When the flies
are laying their eggs upon the hair of the cattle, the fretting and
stampeding cause a loss in milk and beef. Osborn states that,
considering the animals’ comfort as a mere matter of sentiment,
it is fair to estimate that the average annual loss in the United
States from this insect should be reckoned at $1.00 per head. Us-
ing the census of 1910 as a basis, this would give us a loss of
$69,000,000 annually. These flies are present in the greater part
of the eastern and middle-western states and Canada. Apparently,
Minnesota is an oasis in the center of an infested area. For this
reason, great care must be exercised to prevent this pest being
brought in from neighboring states and obtaining a foothold
here. The three importations last spring to which we have
referred, came from Massachusetts, New York and Wisconsin.

The fly which produces these warbles is one of the bot-flies
and resembles slightly a large, dark-colored bee in general appear-
ance. They appear early in spring and last well on into summer,
from March until July being the months of appearance. The eggs
are placed on the hairs of the legs, preferably in the region of the
hock and back of the knee. The fly is not provided with a sting
and its mouth-parts are rudimentary, so it is unable to do any
injury to the cattle, but when depositing an egg, strikes the

62 WARBLE FLIES.

animal in a clumsy manner. For this reason, they seem to
recognize it as an enemy and become very nervous and excited,
racing pell-mell about the fields
in an attempt to escape from it.
It was formerly thought that
the fly inserted its egg in the
skin on the back or placed the
eggs so that the grubs could
work their way through the

ond

Fic. 6. Vertical ssction of hide and subjacent skin, but this 1s now disproved.
tissue. showing oxwarble in position, Diagra- ra
matic. Courtesy of Country Gentleman. When the young grubs hatch
from the eggs, they are licked up by cattle and carried into the
mouth. From there they migrate into the gullet and bore into its
walls. Part of their development takes place here. Some observers
have found them in the spinal canal and pancreas. How the migra-
tion takes place we do not know, but about January they suddenly
appear under the skin on the back, forming swellings or tumors. A
small opening is made through the hide, which is enlarged as the
grub grows, until in spring it may have a diameter of one-quarter
of an inch. The posterior end of the grub is forced against this
opening and it is thus able to breathe and to discharge its excrement
to the exterior. By spring or early summer, the grub is fully grown
and working its way through the opening in the hide, falls to the
ground, into which it burrows and transforms to the pupal stage.
About a month after this the fly emerges.

The flesh in the vicinity of the grub becomes slimy and of a
greenish color and is known as “licked beef.” This is another
cause of loss as the consumer is apt to be prejudiced against the
use of such beef.

The treatment for warbles is fairly easy. In late winter and
spring, examine the cattle for the presence of the tumors. They
can be readily felt by passing the hand over the back. The size
of the tumor can be imagined when it is known that the full-sized
grub may measure 144 inches in length. If the grubs are full-
grown and nearly ready to emerge, they can be forced out through
the opening in the skin with very slight pressure. If they are
not full-grown, it is more difficult to remove them by squeezing,
but frequent examinations will make it possible to secure each
one. Care must be exercised to crush each grub as soon as
removed so as to avoid the possibility of any reaching the soil
and eventually producing adult flies.

WARBLE FLIES. 63

Another method of removal
is to force grease or oil into the
openings of the tumors and
thus kill the grubs. Recently it
has been stated in Europe that
the injection of one-half to one
cubic centimeter (20 to 40
drops) of tincture of iodine into
the tumor will kill the grub. It
has also been claimed that the

use of repellants such as some Fic. 7. Method of squeezing out ‘‘grub.”’
Conrtesy of Country Gentleman.

of the oily washes or sprays so

often recommended to keep flies from cattle and horses, will pre-
vent the flies from laying eggs on the animals. It is also thought
that the use of arsenical dips as employed for tick destruction in
the South will reduce the number of grubs.

It is still open to question whether any remedy is so effective
as that of squeezing out and crushing the grubs in spring. Where
the herds are of such a size as to make it possible to give system-
atic supervision and examinations to cattle, it is possible to reduce
the flies to their minimum numbers if not to entirely exterminate
them in one or two seasons. Success in a community, of course,
involves team work on the part of everybody.

Considering the losses which will follow its introduction into
Minnesota, it will be well for everyone importing cattle to watch
carefully for these warbles and see that they are exterminated
on those animals, if they are found to be present. Their distribu-
tion through the State will cause inestimable loss.

TRUCK CROP INSECTS
WM. MOORE.

During the year 1914, work on several different projects was
carried out by this section beside the general breeding work of
the insectary. The factors influencing the successful fumigation of
greenhouses with hydrocyanic acid gas as a means of controlling
insect pests were studied, but as this work was rather technical in
character and has neither been completed nor the practical appli-
cations determined, it would be inadvisable to report on it at this
time.

White Grubs: During the spring, it was noticeable that large
numbers of June bugs or May beetles were emerging. They were
abundant about the lights and in many places, attracting con-
siderable attention from various people. As the larva of the
June beetle is the common white grub, which is so injurious to
farm and truck crops, ornamental plants and in the lawn, an effort
was made to determine which species would emerge this year and
in what parts of the State. Four species were found to be particu-
larly abundant: Lachnosterna fusca, Lachnosterna rugosa, Lachno-
sterna dubia, and Lachnosterna grandis.

The result of this work is shown in the accompanying map.
Due to limited funds, it was impossible to travel extensively over
the state, so that in collect-
ing data wherever possible,
it was requested that people
send in a number of speci-
mens. A few night trips
were taken through the
State but, unfortunately, no
data was obtained from the
lower tier of counties. Al-
though it was known that in
Jackson County the beetles
were abundant, no_ speci-
mens were obtained. Lach-

osterna fusca and rugosa

Fic. 8. Lachnosterna fusca, Froehl. 1 pupa. 2 larva, . ap
3and4imago. Bu. Ent. U.S. Dep. Agriculture. seem to be generally distt ib-

TRUCK CROP INSECTS. 65

uted over the southern part of Minnesota but do not extend much
beyond the middle of the State; dubia, which is very similar to the
two preceding, has been found as far north as Kittson County and
as far south as Brown County. Dubia and grandis may be termed
the northern species. L. grandis is probably the species injurious
to seedling trees in nurseries in the northern sections.

Ai :
KiTTSON | ROSEAU +
L
ee hee ee
zl | I
MARSHALL \ 1 i
|
—--—-—-—- -| BELTRAM! I KOCCHICHING | !
| PENNINGTON \ | j i
aa ’ j
i REOvaKe ! | | ' othe sb] :
SSeS aE ee 7 adits eax \ |
POLK it | J | !
in -
+ | ITABCA
Sates, A at if- ire i ST Louis I
z « Paved! ON {
* ! ili teen
ORMAN eS) NS | ;
Wands? 0 | ' a 1
mr \ a+ 1
a ale en | e! J 1
! Sr eT : ay)
2 ' Cass (asa re
Clar I! BECKER ~S | ' !
J epee l
hor sabe © Led Me 8 a eee
ee c zl ! yf |
a 1 \ es AITKIN CARLTON
ae t = | |
2 Se
ory | a.o ' =
-) EB ;
(c:

|
stevens! POPE |
i .

STEARNS aS
ISANT
anes | H SHERBURNE RAD
SS Se SA t-

| i WRIGHT
MEEKER

. , e * =
ay ‘ | | ' “Ba
Qui Parte ~ SO) i SoS Ceraet Sey]

PNBest- ba —- re
---—- i CLEOD CARVER ¢ /
YELLOW MEDICINE ‘: Pie ~ a NS pe \f
5S i \ ==) —> TAKorA
. scorr =
| eS = SIBLEY i ane dae
| Ce ee lec: .
oa | YON yy Geet t *Sonicouer 7 \ 5) Cee
s ry
nd . ae ; ZLESUEUR: RICE ~ WABASHA
Set ee eee J crown ~ eel Meee es — -- ‘
ALS eg I nig aaa ‘ | t Demy @ay
Tone | URRAY I corron | tr jetve SRL ene Sap rete ooace, OLMSTED i WINONA
woop ; ” t ;
Sar - == eel a ZANfieeS = Ae SNe
1 1 ! . |
ROCK | NOBLES | YACKSON | Martin | FARIBAULT | rreesorn! mower PeeCOMORE ae

Fic. 9. Map of Minnesota showing distribution of Laahnosterna dubia (triangle)
L. grandis (cross) and L. rugosa (square.) W. Moore.

From the above data, it will be seen that the June beetles—at
least one or more of the four species—were abundant in almost
all parts of the State during the last summer. Probably even in
those places not marked on the map, the beetles were abundant

66 TRUCK CROP INSECTS.

but, owing to lack of funds, it was impossible to make a complete
survey. The beetles feed upon the foliage of various trees during
the night time and hide in the soil during the day. They lay
their eggs in the soil, particularly that which is in grass or similar
crops and not well cultivated. Well-cultivated fields planted in
crops such as potatoes or corn, probably had few eggs laid in
them. The fields nearest to trees or woods would have more
eggs than other fields out in the open. These eggs hatch into
small white grubs during the summer and after passing the winter,
they will be particularly abundant next year and destructive to
such crops as corn, strawberries, potatoes; in fact, to most any
crop planted in hills; and it also may prove very destructive to
lawns.

As it is impossible to successfully deal with the white grubs
after they have started their injury, it is necessary for the farmer
to plan his work and his planting in such a way as to avoid white
grub injury.

Notices have been sent out at several times during the summer
to farmers, advising them of the approaching attack of white
erubs. Some farmers have probably fall-plowed their land which
is the first step for avoiding injury. All land which has been in
sod, and particularly if it is near woods, is apt to be infested. If
it is intended to plant crops in hills during the next summer in
such fields, they should be fall-plowed. At the time of plowing,
the farmer can readily determine if his fields are severely infested.
Thirty to forty grubs turned over to each quarter-mile of furrow
will mean a severely infested field next spring and hogs should
be turned into such fields to root out the grubs. Such crops as
are most susceptible to injury should be planted in fields not
severely infested. Other crops, such as grain, buckwheat, clover,
etc., should be planted on the infested land, as these suffer but
little from the attack of white grub. Farmers throughout the
State should plan their work now and carry it out next year, in
such a way as to avoid injury from white grubs.

If the farmer has failed to fall-plow grass land and, on plowing
it in the spring, finds it infested with white grubs, he should not
plant it in corn or other susceptible crop. In the case of lawns
where it is impossible to plow, very little can be done. A recent
bulletin from Michigan mentions a bacterial disease of white
grubs which is considered to be rather wide-spread. If this is
present in grubs in the lawn, it could be encouraged in its work

TRUCK CROP INSECTS. 67

of destruction by wetting the lawn thoroughly as the disease
rapidly develops under humid conditions, killing off the grubs.
Tobacco extract is also of value in destroying grubs in the lawn.
A quickly available fertilizer is of value in enabling the plants
to recover.

The grubs will be bad during next summer and during the
early part of the summer of 1916 and will emerge again as adults
in great abundance in 1917. Unfortunately, it is difficult for the
farmer to realize that he should destroy these June beetles to save
his crops from an attack of white grubs. A very few no doubt have
been collected and destroyed by the farmer at the time they were
abundant during the last year.

To show the value of what could be done: on June Ist the
author and two assistants collected in one hour’s time, in Still-
water, around the electric lights, 1,928 beetles, of which 1,424 were
females, with an average number of 52.7 with eggs which had not
been laid. By the destruc--
tion of these beetles, it can
be estimated that nearly a
million eggs were destroyed
which would have produced
a million young white grubs.

Cabbage and Onion Mag-
‘gots: Two other insects
which attracted considerable
attention during the sum-
mer were the cabbage and
onion maggots. They are
of increasing importance
each year in Minnesota and
although work was started
to advise a new treatment
for these pests, it has not
continued far enough to pub-
lish satisfactory results. By
another season no doubt
more satisfactory results will
be obtained. Notes on this
work were published in Min-

nesota, Insect Life, August,

1914 Fic. 10. Melon leaves curled by attacks of lice.
‘ Chittenden, Bur. Ent. U.S. Dep. Agr.

68 TRUCK CROP INSECTS.

Melon Lice: Many inquiries were received during the sum-
mer concerning lice on melon vines. In almost all cases, at the
time the lice had been noticed on the vines, and reported, it was
too late to give a satisfactory treatment. For this reason, a few
notes on the melon louse may be advisable.

The success of the treatment of the melon aphis depends upon
how soon after the vines become infected they are discovered and
treatment started. Farmers growing melons should examine their
vines about the time that they send out their runners. By looking
on the under side of the leaves, the aphis can be easily discovered
while in many cases, their presence is plainly shown by the curling
of the leaves. Frequently it will be found that only one or two
vines in a field are infected. These should immediately be taken
out and destroyed by burning, thus preventing the spread of this
aphis to the other plants. If a larger number of plants are in-
fested, they can be fumigated with carbon bisulphide or tobacco
paper. A wash-tub or similar air-tight box should be inverted
over the plant and a teaspoonful of carbon bisulphide used for
each cubic foot of space enclosed. This treatment gives satis-
factory results but recently it has been found that burning tobacco
paper underneath the tub or box gives more satisfactory results.
From one-half or one sheet of tobacco paper, according to the
brand which is being used, should be burned under each tub or
box. It is usually torn into one or two pieces and placed in per-
forated tin cans on opposite sides of the frame and ignited. Fumi-
gation lasts for from ten to thirty minutes, according to the
strength of the paper used. If melons are grown extensively,
frames made of muslin which have been painted over with oil to
make them gas tight, can be used. One man can handle about ten
such frames. At this rate, the work is rapidly carried on. If the
aphis is not treated early the plants become too large to fumigate
economically and as the leaves are curled, it is impossible to spray
them successfully.

Cucumber Beetle: During the summer, a graduate student,
Mr. C. A. Sell, carried on some successful experiments upon the
cucumber beetle. He was able to show that one teaspoonful of
Nicofume or similar tobacco extract to each gallon of water makes
a solution which is strong enough to kill larvae of the beetles on
the under-ground portions of the cucumber plant, the stage found
most destructive to cucumbers in cold frames. A cupful of the
mixture is applied to each plant and at this rate, treatment costs
about 40 cents per hundred hills. Further details of his work
will be published during the winter in a circular of this depart-
ment.

* Work based upon data furnished by Mr. Frank Glbbs.

WIREWORMS
WARREN WILLIAMSON.

During the past season, many reports have been received of
injury by wireworms to seed corn after planting and to young
corn plants as well as some damage to wheat, barley, and potatoes.
Among the localities suffering injury to corn were Blooming
Prairie, Fairmont, Fulda, Litchfield, Montevideo, Owatonna, Rush-
more, Sherburn, Tracy and Verdi. Damage to potatoes occurred at
Chatfield and Faribault and to wheat and barley at Owatonna.
The amount of injury to corn in fields where the infestation was
severe, as estimated by the owners, varied from one-fourth to one-
half of the crop. In one report of injury to potatoes, the owner
estimated the loss at half the crop.

Corn is injured in several ways. The wireworms may burrow
into the planted kernel, often devouring it completely. Other
points of attack are the roots of the young plant which are eaten
so that it may be dwarfed or even killed. The underground por-,
tion of the stalk is frequently tunneled so that the plant dies. The
effect in a badly infested field is seen in a large number of missing
hills and dwarfed, unhealthy-looking plants. Wireworms are most
numerous in corn on ground that has been in grass for several
years, and are more likely to cause the worst injury the second
year after breaking up from sod. Usually, but not always, it is
in the lower parts of the field that the corn suffers most. Injury
to potatoes is done by the wireworms tunneling into the tubers or
gnawing the skin. It is said that they will occasionally bore into
the stalk. We have had reports of a continuation of the work in
the tubers after storage. Wheat and other small grains are killed
by the destruction of the roots. While the above-mentioned crops
are the only ones reported this year as suffering injury in Minne-
sota, it is known that wireworms will attack other plants such as
turnips, beets, onions, lettuce, strawberries, and numerous garden
flowers. Being originally natives of wild prairie sod, they find a
suitable habitat in grass lands where they feed upon the roots of
grass, but rarely in sufficient numbers to do noticeable injury.
When deprived of such food, as occurs in a cultivated field, they

70 WIREWORMS.

concentrate on the comparatively few plants of corn, potatoes, or
smal] grain.

Wireworms are the larval stage of various species of beetles
belonging to the family Elateridae. The latter are popularly
known as “click beetles,” “jumping jacks,” or “jack snappers,” on
account of their peculiar habit of springing into the air with a
clicking sound when placed upon their backs.

=— era ns While we have found no records
showing that the life history of any of
our Minnesota species has been com-
pletely worked out, the following gen-
eral statement will apply to practically
all that are of economic importance. It
is believed that the eggs of our com-
mon species are laid in the soil in the
‘samey Spring by the beetless soon after they
emerge from hibernation. The larvae
remain in the soil at least two years.
In this fact may be found the explana-
_o tion of the greater damage done to
y corn the second year after sod. The
: ph .
Hig. 11. A‘comion elick beste, Me. gtass roots are: not all ialled(thegums:
lanotus communis. After Forbee. year so that the wireworms are not
forced to concentrate upon the corn as they do the following sea-
son. When full-grown, the wireworms are about one inch long,
slender, and of equal diameter throughout their length, distinctly
segmented, yellowish or brownish in color. They have three pairs
of legs and an additional foot or prop on the last segment. This
last segment is of peculiar form, being lobed, toothed or notched,
according to the species, and is of use in separating the different
species. Their hard, smooth, cylindrical bodies and the vigor with
which they bend and wriggle when held in the fingers probably
accounts for the name “wireworms.” From midsummer onward
the full-grown larvae form cells in the soil where they pupate.
After about one month passed in the pupal stage, they transform to
beetles, the majority of which remain in their earthen cells until
the following spring. The adults of our injurious insects are about
one-half inch in length, elongate-oval in form, brown in color, and
readily distinguishable by the springing habit previously men-
tioned. The body is loosely jointed between the prothorax and
mesothorax. When placed on its back, the beetle straightens its

WIREWORMS. (il

body, then by the contraction of powerful muscles, the anterior
part of the body is bent upward with such force that the insect is
hurled into the air. If it does not alight on its feet at the first
attempt, it tries again.

Among the natural enemies of wireworms are the predaceous
ground beetles and several species of birds including robins, crows,
and shore birds.

Wireworms are rather difficult to control for the reason that
nearly all of their work is done underground. The following
methods of treatment have been recommended by workers in other
states, although we have not tested them experimentally in Min-
nesota. If old sod that is infested by wireworms is to be broken
up, the plowing followed by a thorough harrowing should be done
in the late summer or early fall. At this time, the full-grown
wireworms have changed to the pupal stage when they are
delicate and easily killed. If any of the pupae have transformed
to beetles, these are sure to be in a more or less helpless condition.
In addition to killing some of them directly, the plow and harrow
will turn many of them up to the surface and break their earthen
cells so that they will be exposed to the weather and natural
enemies. Pasturing with hogs previous to plowing would help to
destroy many of the wireworms as well as white grubs, cut
worms, and other grass-eating
insects. If the sod is followed
by two years of clover before
planting to corn, the danger
to the latter crop would be
greatly diminished. If the
clover is sown with a nurse
crop of small grain, the latter
might suffer some injury from
the wireworms, but not as seri-
ously as corn. In addition to
fall-plowing, the practice of
clean cultivation and a short
rotation in which the land is
not allowed to remain in grass
for a long time will help to
keep the pest in check.

If the attack of wireworms
makes it necessary to replant

Fic. 12. Wireworms, larvae of
M,. communis.

72 WIREWORMS.

corn, it might be worth while to try the following method of treat-
ment for seed.

Dip the seed in tar as is done to protect it from crows; then
dust it with a mixture of road dust and Paris green, using enough
of the latter to give the dust a green color. Allow the seed to dry
before using. This treatment will not interfere with the operation
of the planter nor prevent the seed from germinating.

The localities which suffered most this season may not be
troubled much again for two or three years. The majority of the
wireworms that were found were full grown and will emerge as
beetles next spring. Eggs will then be laid but the young larvae
will not become large enough to cause serious injury next year.
In the following season their work may become apparent. These
things should be remembered when planning a cropping system
for the next two or three years.

INSECT LIFE

Complete Index of Vols. I and II.
(From June 1, 1910, to August 1, 1914, inclusive; compiled by O. J. Wenzell.)

The initial copy of Insect Life was issued in June, 1910, but
since that date our first number each season is mailed on or about
April Ist. The object of the publication is to place before farmers,
nurserymen, fruit-growers, gardeners, and housekeepers timely
items which we hope will be of value in suggesting methods of
preserving property from the attacks of insects. It is not purported
to be technical, nor does it necessarily publish methods originating
in this Department, though much of the material is the result of
personal investigation. The mailing list is increasing and many
letters approving the publication have been received during the
past two years. Insect Life is intended primarily for distribution
within the State, and is mailed free to any citizen of the State
requesting it. [F. L. W.]

AS

Agtseviclule. No.5: Voll, No. 6) Vol. il; No.1: Vol..11, No: 10) p57.
Aphids, Vol. II, No. 1.

Apple Sprays, Vol. I, No. 10.

Army Worm, Vol. I, No. 3.

Arsenate of Lead, Vol I, No. 8.

Aster, Vol. I, No. 2.

B-

Bagging Grapes. Vol. II, No. 9, p. 4.
Basswood, Vol. II, No. 4, No. 6.

Bats; Vol, Pe Nos. 1and 12, p. 9-

Bean Weevil, Vol. I, No. 9.

Bed-bugs, Vol. if No. ie Now 12 Vol, I Nom 5:
Bee pasture, Vol. I, No. 1.

Bill-bug, Vol. I, No. 72 Moll, WL, IN@s ile
Birch-tree Borers, Vol. I, No. 8.

Birds, Vol. I, No. 6, No. 10; Vol. II, No. 1, No. 2, No. 9, p. 6.
Bird Charts, Vol. ie No: 7.

Biting Insects (treatment) Wolke, a ial
Black-birds (items), Vol. II, No. 9, Ue

Black Flies (items), Vol. I, No. 3; Vol. Nios
Black Leaf, Vol. I, No. 4.

Bordeaux Mixture, Vol. I, No. 1; Vol. I, No. 4.
Borers, Vol. I, No. 8.

Buffalo Bugs, Vol. NG Violas wNio., 9:
Buffalo Gnats, Vol. I, Ne. 8.

Buffalo Moths, Vol. I, No. §.

Bugs (poem), Vol. I, No. 6.

Bumble Bees, Vol. II, No. 6.

74 INSECT LIFE.

C.

Cabbage Maggot. Vol. I, No. 2; (On Radishes) No. 11; Vol. II, No. 2,
No: 3; No: 8, p. 6; Nos. 11 and 12. p. 3-

Cabbage Worm, Vol I, No. 1.

Canker-worm, Vol. II, No. 9. p. 6.

Carpet Beetles, Vol. I, No. 5, No. 9.

Chart, birdssVoletl. Noms.

Cheese Maggots, Vol. I, No. 12.

Chicken Hawks, Vol. I. No. 5.

Chicken Lice, Vol. I, No. 2.

Chiggers, Vol. I, No. 12.

Chinch Bug, Vol. II, No. 10, p. 4.

Chironomus, Vol. I, No. 12.

Clothes Moths, Vol. I, No: 1, No. 9.

Clover Seed Pests, Vol: I, No; 12: Vol. Il, No..3; No. 8) ps 39° No.we;.peeae

Cockroaches, Vol. I, No. 3; Vol. ‘oe INOS:

Codling Mcths, Vol. le No. 4, No. 9.

Corn, Vol. I, No. 10.

Cottony Maple Scale, Vol. II, No. 5, No. 6.

Crown Gall, Vol. II, Nos. 11 and 12, p. 7.

Crows, Vol. I, No. 10 (items); Vol. II, No. 9, p. 7.

Cucumber Beetles, Vol. I, No. 1; Vol. II, No. = No: 95epie3s

Curculio, Vol I, No. 4, No. 9.

Currant ‘Worms, Volo i~No: 11: Vol) Ei No.5:

E.

Elm Borers, Vol. I, No. 5.

Elm, Worms on, Vol. II, No. 4.

English Sparrow, Vol. II, No. 9, 5
Entomological terms (Glossary). Vol. ee Nowle

F.

Fall Plowing, Vol. I, No. 8.
Farm Sanitation, Vol. II, Nos. 11 and 12, p. 4.
Ferrets, Vol. II, No. 2.
Flea Beetles, Vol. II, Nos. 4 and 5.
Flies, Vol. I, No. 2, No. 8; Vol. II, Nos. 11 and 12, p. 4.
On Stock, Vol. I No.l Volonie NovosNo- id, ps.5:
Field Mice, Vol. II, No. 4, No. 7, No. LOn ps 4:
Fly Trap, Vol. II, No. 1, No. a (Items), Vol. TT, No: LOp29:
Forest Caterpillar, Vol. fe No. 2.
Foxes (Items), Vol. II, No. OP. i/-
Fur-bearing Animals, Vol. Tis Nos. dland 125\p.78:
G.

Glossary, Vol. II, No. 1.

Gophers, Vol. I, No. 8: Vol. II, No. 7, No. 8, p. 10; No. 9, p. 7; Nos. 11
and 12, p. 9.
eae Pests, Vol. I. No. 4.

Grasshoppers, Vol. I, No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, No. 5, No. 6, No. 7,
No. 8, No. 12; Vol. II, No. 5.

Grubs, White, Vol. TI, No. 9, 2.

Gypsy Moth (Items), Vol. IT, No. OM DAO:

H.

Hares, Rabbits and, Vol. II, No. 7.
House Fly, Vol. I, No. 1. No. 3, No. 10; Vol. II, No. 2, No. 3.
Campaign Against. Vol. II, No. 3, No. 10, p. 2.

INSECT LIFE. 445)

Ie

Insects, Birds and, Vol. II, No. 1.
Blood Sucking, Vol. II, No. 2.
Twenty Common, Vol. II, No. 3.
Fall Methods Against, Vol. II, No. 6.
Tree Destroying, Vol. II, No. 10, p. 9.
Insect Life, Vol. I, No. 10.
Insect Pests, Vol. I, No. 9.
Insecticide Laws, Vol. I, No. 6.
Inspection, Nursery, Vol. II, No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 5, No. 7, No. 8,
peo; No.9!) p. 53 No. 10; p. 8; Nos. ll‘and 12, p. 5.
Introductory, Vol. II, No. 2.
Rodents, Vol. II. No. 8, p. 10.
Robins (Items), Volelin eNor 10)
Items of Interest, Vol. I, No. 1, ce. oe No. 4, No. 5, No. 6, No. 7, No. 9,
No. 10, No. 11, No. 12.
Nie

Jiggers, Vol. Ii, No. 2, No. 7, No. 12.
June Beetles, Vol. I, No. 10.

arch saws bly, Vol. T, No. 12.
Lime Sulphur, Vol. I, No. 4.

M.

Maggot, The Cabbage, Vol. II, No. 3.
Manufacturers, Of Sprayers, Vol. I, No. 3, No. 9.
Of Sprays, Vol. I, ae SueNowo:
Martins, Vol. II, No. 10, p. 9.
Mice, Vol. I, No. 8, No. 10: Vol) ll, No: 4 No. 8} ps 10:
Minnesota Insect Life, Vol. eeNios lt
Mites. Vol. I, No. 2.
Moles, Vol. I, No. 7; Vol. II, Nos. 11 and 12, p. 9.
Mosquitoes, Vol. If, No. 3, No. 5,:No: 7, No: io: ‘Vols It Novo! p. 3.

N.

Nursery Inspection, Vol. I, No. 11; Vol. II, No. 1.
Nursery Stock, Vol. II, No. 11 and 12, p. 7.

O.

Oak Borers, Vol. I, No. 8, No. 10.

Oak, Brown Twigs, Vol. II, No. 5.

Oak-twig Pruner, Vol. I, No. 5; Vol. II, No. 5.

Onion Maggot, Vol. I, No. 12; Vol. II, No. il No. 8, p. 6.
Orchard, Vol. I, No. 11.

Orchard Notes, Vol. II, No. 1.

Orchard and Shade Tree Pests, Vol. IJ, Nos. 11 and 12, p. 3.
Orchard Spraying, Vol. I, No. 12; Vol. II, No. 4.

Oyster Shell Scale, Vol. I, No. -

Ox Warbles, Vol. II, No. 9, p.

Paris Green, Vol. I, No. 8.

Pea Weevil, Vol. I, No. 9.

Plant Lice, Vol. I, No. 1, No. 4, No. 7, No. 11.
Plum Sprays, Vol. I, No. 10.

Pocket Gophers, Vol. I, No. 7, No. 10.
Poultry Pests, Vol. I, No. 6.

Potato Flea Beetle, Vol. II, No. 4.

Potato Spraying, Vol. II, No. 4.
Publications, Vol. I, No. 9.

76 INSECT LIFE.

R

Rabbits (Items), Vol. II, No. 8, p. 10; Vol. II, No. 9, p. 7.
Rabbits and Hares, Vol. II, No. 7.

Radish Pests, Vol. I, No. 11.

Rats. Vol. I, No. 8; Vol. II, No. 7, Nos. 11 and 12, p. 10.
Red Spiders, Vol. I, No. 5.

S:

San Jose Scale, Vol. 1, No. 7.

Scale Insects, Vol. I, No. 6, No. 7, No. 8.

Scurty Scale, Vol. I, No. 1.

Screech Owl (Items), Vol. II, No. 10, p. 9.

Seed, Protection, Vol. II, No. 4.

Seed Corn Protection, Vol. I, No. 5.

Shade Trees, Vol. I, No. 3.

Silver Fish, Vol. I, No. 9.

Skippers in Ham, Vol. I, No. 12.

Skunk (Items), Vol. II, No. 9, P. 6.

Slugs, Vol. 1; No: 4; Vol LI; No.1:

Snails, Vol. I, No. 4.

Sow-bugs, Vol. I, No. 4.

Sparrows, Vol. I, No. 10, No. 11; Vol. II, No. 8, p. 2, p. 5.

Specimens Wanted, Vol. II, No. 2.

Spraying, Vol. I, No. 1, No. 3, No. 4, No. 8, No. 9; Vol. II, No. 2, No. 3,
No. 4 (2 articles), No. 9, p. 2.

Squash, Vol. II, No. 10, p. 9.

Squash-bug, Vol. I, No. 1.

Stalk Borers, Vol. I, No. 1; Vol. II, No. 5 (2 articles); (Items), No. 10,
p. 9.
Strawberry Weevil, Vol. I, No. 1, No. 10; Vol. II, No. 5.

Pests, Vol. I, No. 14.
Striped Cucumber Beetle, Vol. II, No. 9, p. 3.

at.

Tanglefoot. Vol. II, Nos. 11 and 12, p. 8.
Tent Caterpillars, Vol. I, No. 2.

Toad, Vol. II, No. 4.

Tree Pests, Vol. Il, No. 10, p. 2.
Typhoid Fly, Vol: 1,<No: 3.

W.

Weevils, Vol. I, No. 11; (Items), Vol. II, No. 5.

Wheat Stem Maggot, Vol. II, No. 6.

White Grubs, Vol. I, No. 2, No. 6, No. 10; Vol. II, Nos. 11 and 12, p. 6.
Wire Worms, Vol. I, No. 7; Vol. II, Nos. 11 and 12, p. 2.

Wood Chucks, Vol. I, No. 7.

Wood Lice, Vol. I, No. 4.

Woolly Aphis, Vol. II, No. 10, p. 3.

Work of Entomological Division, Vol. 1, No. 12.

“Worms” on Basswood and Elms, Vol. II, No. 4.

———

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA
OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA

A. D. WHEDON, MANKATO, MINN.

Introduction.

The dragon-flies have always attracted attention. Due to their
form, life history and habits they have been the center about which
grew up myths, superstitions and poetry on the one hand, and on
the other a fundamental branch of biological science. Not being
known, however, as insects of great economic importance their study
by American entomologists came rather later than in Europe. In 1861
the Smithsonian Institution published a “Synopsis of the Neuroptera —
of North America,” written by Dr. Hermann Hagen of Konigsberg.
The first important work by an American author was Calvert’s “A
Catalogue of the Odonata of the Vicinity of Philadelphia, with an
Introduction to the Study of This Group of Insects,” published in
1893. In 1899 a posthumous paper on the “Dragon-flies of Ohio,” by
Professor David S. Kellicott, appeared, edited and completed by Mr.
J. S. Hine. Stimulated by these papers or by contact with their authors,
several entomologists issued state faunal lists, the best known being
those of Williamson for Indiana (1900), Needham for Illinois (1901)
and New York (1901 and 1903), Calvert for New Jersey (1900, 1903
and 1909), Walker for Canada (1908) and Muttkowski for Wisconsin
(1908). It might here be mentioned that the writer has been at work
on the Iowa fauna since 1900, though the results are not yet pub-
lished, and that for the past three years considerable collecting has
been done in southern Minnesota. Wilson’s “Dragon-flies of the
Mississippi Valley” (1909) records species collected on the river.

In other than faunal lines the most important Odonate studies
undoubtedly have related to wing venation. The principles discovered
in the study of the dragon-fly have been applied to insects generally.
This task was attempted by Professors Comstock and Needham and
extended and further illuminated by the latter in his “Genealogical
Study of Dragon-fly Wing Venation,” 1903. The effect upon every
line of entomological work has been immeasurable.

78 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

Fie. 13. Anax junius assuming defensive attitude. Dragon flies, however,
do not sting. Photo by A. D. Wheden.

Again Professor Needham’s work in Illinois and New York
upon the life histories and the nymphs of the dragon-flies has stimu-
lated new interest in a neglected phase of the work on this order, most
of the papers having dealt with the adults only. Among the many
who have since added to the results of Calvert and Needham none has
done more than Dr. Walker during his study of Canadian species and
in his revision of the genus Aeshna.

To aid us in clearing up the whole history of the group have
come several European writers on fossil insects, Handlirsch in the
lead, with descriptions, illustrations and classifications of fossil
Odonata. In America Professor Cockerell has unearthed several very
interesting forms which have been carefully studied by Dr. Calvert.
Professor Needham also made very considerable use of accessible
Odonate fossils in his paper on wing venation.

Thus, from a biological point of view at least, the progress made
during the past score of years in our knowledge of American dragon-
flies is of significance. On the one hand general principles have been

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 79

added to the science of life, and, on the other, a group of beautiful
insects has been systematized and placed beside the Lepidoptera and
Coleoptera for purposes of more popular study.

The Life Cycle.

All aquatic organisms are especially interesting because they are
nearer to the primitive and generalized products of evolution than are
their more highly specialized terrestrial relatives. Not only did all
life begin in the water but the seas were the early battle grounds of
hosts of evolving races. For ages before the barren lands were clothed
with vegetation, myriads of armored animals patroled the waters, rend-
ing one another in continuous carnal warfare and laying the founda-
tions for the changes to come. We read in the records of those times
the chapters of phylogeny, but yet more, our science and philosophy
seize upon forms which in the present day have risen only to the lower
levels of organization, and make them contribute what they may possess
to our perspective. And further, if to this lower stage of existence an
animal adds a transformation to the terrestrial or aerial, and all in one
life cycle shows us the primitive aquatic cell, the armored and pre-
daceous Paleozoic monster and the best and swiftest aerial mechanism
the world has ever known, our interest is more than doubled. This
is true of the dragon-flies.

The story of the development and transformation of the dragon-
fly has been so frequently told that its treatment here will be brief.
The cycle begins with the laying of the egg, either in the water or in
some partly submerged stem, or even upon masses of floating plant
debris. The eggs of different species vary in shape from elliptical to
nearly spherical, and are usually a millimeter or less in length. Upon
contact with the water the gelatinous covering becomes swollen by
absorption and in some genera, as Tetragoneura, takes the form of a
thread not unlike the egg strings of the toad.

The egg hatches in a few days and there appears a curiously
armored little nymph with large head and abdomen and a weak thorax
bearing the six long, slender legs. The head is dorsi-ventrally com-
pressed and accommodates a pair of rather large eyes, some short
antennae and a remarkable labium. This latter is arm-like in struc-
ture with its distal or lip portion supplied with a pair of strong man-
dible-like appendages. When extended for grasping prey it reaches
out several times the length of the head; when retracted the arm is
folded beneath the head and thorax with the terminal portion arranged

80 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

like a mask over the face. The wings are represented by wing-pads
which enlarge as the successive moults occur. The more external
organs of respiration differ in the two sub-orders, the damsel-flies
breathing by means of three terminal caudal gills and the dragon-flies
by drawing water into a highly modified rectal chamber, exchanging
gases and again pushing the water out.

The nymphal stages last in different forms from two to four or
five years. In Eeshna Walker’s observations indicate that about a
dozen moults are accomplished. At each of these periods changes in
form and the development of systems can be noted. During the months
or years thus occupied the nymphs spend their time in capturing food,
some searching the debris at the bottom, some burrowing in the mud
or sand and others climbing amongst the submerged vegetation.

For a week or two before the last moult, which is to end its aquatic
existence, it is quiescent and eats little or nothing. Internal changes
are occurring with great rapidity and certain of them can even be
seen from the exterior, as the withdrawal of the adult labium from
that of the nymph. When reorganization is completed the nymph
crawls out of the water and clings to some support until its cuticle drys
and splits across the head and down the back of the thorax. Within
ten to twenty minutes the head, thorax, legs and wings may be free
from the larval shell. At this stage there is usually a rest of several
minutes, followed by the freeing of the abdomen as the imago clings
to the shell or exuvia it is abandoning. All parts of the body are now
extended or expanded to their proper adult proportions, the wings
changing most remarkably, and the process of hardening or chitinizing
the cuticle begins. If weather conditions are favorable and no calam-
ity in the form of bird, frog, fish or larger dragon-fly appears, the
imago may be ready for flight in a few hours; the colors do not mature
completely for some days, however, and the reproductive system
requires a still longer time for development.

Thus the day of feeding is not past, as is practically the case
with many other insects, and they spend their time for a month, more
or less, in devouring the Diptera and small insects about the pond or
stream from which they recently emerged or over neighboring pas-
tures or roadsides.

When sexual maturity is attained pairing and ovipositing become
the paramount issues. There seems to be little if any courtship in the
Odonata, and struggles between males for the possession of the female
are rare. There are, however, apparent exceptions to the latter state-
ment: Kellicott believed that Caloptery~ and Hetaerina generally

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 81

possess this habit. “Two combatants will fly about each other, evi-
dently with consuming rage, when one finally appears to have secured
often suc-
cessfully, to tear and damage his wings.”” Everyone who has watched
maculata has also observed this repeatedly, no doubt, and has wondered
at the frequency of these “free fights’’ during which each male does
his best to disable indiscriminately any or all of the rest of his kind in
the gathering crowd. Few fatalities seem to occur, but the stronger
may possibly tire out the weaker ones and then seize and carry off the
females. Often a whole group of quarrelsome males may be netted at
once, so preoccupied are they. In the case of Aeshna, where the sexes
are very much alike, it is Walker’s opinion that nothing of the kind
occurs and that pairing is even attempted, though prevented by the
mutual inadaptability of the genitalia, between males and females of
different species. He even records attempts of males to copulate with
males and in one instance found three individuals, two males and a
female, in tandem. In Plathemis lydia and, to a lesser extent, Libellula
pulchella, the writer has often observed momentary conflicts between

a position of advantage and darts at his enemy, attempting

)

two or more males which were trying to gain possession of a single
female.

Space does not allow of a summary of observations upon modes
of copulation, but it is in general true that the prothorax (A grionidae )
or the back of the head (Aeshnidae and Libellulidae) is clasped by the
terminal abdominal appendages of the male, often so vigorously as to
leave distinct scratches or dents upon the eyes or the back of the head
of the female (Anax, Aeshna, Gomphus, etc.). In Argia moesta
putrida, Walker has described a condition of mutual adaptation of
sexes so close that once firmly clasped, the female can prevent the male
from escaping as long as she so desires. It would not be surprising to
find this true of most damsel-flies; it is not at all uncommon to see
the males accompanying ovipositing females of Enallagma, Lestes, etc.,
in full flight activity but apparently anchored by the female, who works
half-submerged upon some stem. The writer has observed the males
of Enallagma hageni drawn thus beneath the water.

Following the capture of the female, the pair either engage in a
wild nuptial flight (many Anisoptera) or settle down upon a rush or
weed stem (some Anisoptera, and Zygoptera) ; while in this condition
the female bends the abdomen forward and applies the vulva to the
male genitalia of the second abdominal segment, the spermatic vesicle of
which has been filled previous to pairing. When copulation is completed
Oviposition immediately ensues, and during this later process it is not

82 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

uncommon for the male to retain his hold upon his mate. In fact,
copulation and oviposition are often repeated without an intervening
separation of the pair. The male may be of use in aiding the female
to evade the sudden dash of an enemy.

The mode of oviposition differs with the groups: in the 4 grionidae,
the Aeshnidae and the Cordulegastrinae there is a well developed ovi-
positor and the eggs are placed in holes cut in the tissues of submerged
stems (Endophytic oviposition) ; in the Gomphinae and the Libellulidae
the ovipositor is absent and the eggs are simply dropped or washed
from the tip of the abdomen as it dabs the surface (Exophytic oviposi-
tion).

The hemimetabolic life cycle from egg to egg is thus completed.
It differs little with the various species except in the period required
and the habitat. As to the latter, it may be said that there are no
known marine Odonata and but few inhabit even brackish water. The
very interesting case of Mecistogaster modestus Selys completing its
life history in the water collected between the leaf bases of epiphytic
bromeliads in Costa Rica and Mexico is described in several papers
by Calvert. Most species inhabit lakes, ponds or streams.

Enemies of the Dragon-flies.

Notwithstanding the specialization of the dragon-flies, both nymph
and imago, for an exclusively predaceous existence, they are preyed
upon by many enemies. Walker and others state that in certain regions
there is a great excess of males over females due to the activity of
frogs. The females are knocked into the water and devoured while
ovipositing in the stems of plants at the surface or while resting upon
masses of floating vegetation. Asa few species, especially the damsel-
flies, descend beneath the water to deposit the eggs, there is every
chance for the success of this enemy. Teneral and newly merged
insects are picked up without resistance.

Birds are undoubtedly responsible for the scarcity of many
species in the adult state. Walker took Coryphaeschna ingens and
Epiaeschna heros from the stomach of Chuck-will’s-widow (Antro-
stomus carolinensis). The WKingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) is several
times recorded as feeding upon dragon-flies, and it is quite reasonable
to suppose that many of the Tyrannidae have this habit. Moore records
the capture of so large a species as Eptaeschna heros by the Kingbird.
Several times in the writer's experience families of Kingbirds have
been found perched upon some tree or fence at the pond-side, the
young clamoring loudly for the insects taken by the parents. The best

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 83

illustration of this was found at a small slough in Cedar County, Iowa,
on July 17th, 1908. Four young birds, as large as their parents, were
lined up on the uppermost wire of a fence that cut across the margin
of the pond at a distance of six or eight feet from the shore. The
old birds were busy upon repeated trips to the center of the pond,
where they could usually be seen to take Pachydiplax and Sympetrum
on the wing, though they at times half-descended among the tall grasses
that formed dense clusters everywhere in the shallow water and arose
again immediately with food in their beaks. All of these insects were
fed to the noisy young upon the fence. It happened that the wind was
blowing from the pond past the birds to the shore, and here, scattered
over the pasture land were dozens of dragon-fly wings, which had
been clipped off as their possessors were given to the young birds. The
species represented were Pachydiplax longipennis, Leucorhimia intacta,
Sympetrum sp., Libellula pulchella, Plathemis lydia and certain Lestes.

Years ago the writer remembers having seen numbers of dragon-
fly wings about the ponds where swallows were very plentiful, and
for several seasons (1907-1909) observations were made beneath a )
Martin house (Progne subis subis) in the yard of a friend. Innumer-
able Aeshnid and larger Libellulid wings were picked up.

Mr. Geo. J. Miller has described to the writer the capture of Anax
junius by chipmunks (Tamias sp.). While on a canoe cruise down the
boundary to International Falls during the summer of 1914, he found
the Chipmunks very common and absolutely fearless about camp.
And as they perched upon logs or stumps within a few feet of him
they were quite likely to be munching away on a big green body of this
dragon-fly, the four wings extended to the sides between the grasping
paws and the long abdomen hanging, tail-like, beneath. How the
insects were captured was not discovered.

Dragon-flies of all sizes have been found caught or enmeshed in
spiders’ webs. Most of the cases reported do not indicate, however,
that the captives had been eaten into by the spiders. Walker gives an
account of a single case of a partly eaten specimen of Aeshna tuber-
culifera in the web of Argiope trifaciata Forsk. At Lake Madison,
near Mankato, the common garden spider (Miranda aurentia) was
very abundant among the vegetation on the gravel flats, and several
instances of enmeshed insects were noted by the writer. Dead but
uneaten Enallagmas and Lestes were not uncommon in the webs and
some of them had been there long enough to become dry and hard.
One male of Aeshna interrupta lineata was come upon, however, while
still struggling violently for freedom. The spider ran out to the center

84 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

of disturbance several times and succeeded in binding the dragon-fly
fast before becoming frightened at the observer and retreating. It
was not seen to bite and the insect remained active, until, after waiting
some fifteen minutes for further developments, 1t was removed to the
cyanide bottle.

In his “Dragon-flies of the Mississippi Valley” Wilson states that
he found Gomphus spicatus feeding largely upon damsel-flies, notably
Enallagma and Ischnura. Gomphus villosipes was seen catching and
eating Leucorhinia and Sympetrum.

Regarding the nymphs, not so much is known in this particular:
Needham shows that a few of the larger species are eaten by the trout
and it is more than probable that the damsel-flies are destroyed in
great numbers. Many, if not all, species are cannibals. The larvae of
the water beetles (Dytiscidae, Hydrophilidae, etc.) prey upon crayfish,
tadpoles and probably on nymphs.

Economic Importance of the Odonata.

It has been the custom to consider the Odonata of no practical 1m-
portance. These insects have never annoyed man and seemingly have
not aided him in combating pests which destroyed his crops or harmed
domesticated animals. Dr. J]. B. Smith repeatedly affirmed his faith in
the neutrality of the group and other workers have quite universally
taken the same stand.

It is certainly true that if dragon-flies are influential for better or
worse in man’s welfare, the part they play is not obvious. However,
we cannot but refer to the day, a decade or two ago, when the mos-
quito, the stable-fly, the house fly and the sand-fly were but annoy-
ances, and though the dragon-fly seems incapable of directly taking a
place similar to that of these insect carriers of disease, it may be shown
later to be of value in control conditions.

The most frequent suggestion of this kind is that dragon-flies
reduce the number of mosquitoes. Applied to the adults the objection
is made that mosquitoes are active at night and that the dragon-flies are
on the wing during the day only. While this is generally true there
are several species of our larger and more numerous dragon-flies
( Aeshna, etc.) that are very active from sundown until dark, hawking
about quite close to the earth and frequenting not only the swamps
and open woodlands but even venturing in numbers about the lawns in
town and cities. Dr. Walker describes the occurrence of Neurocordulia
yamaskanensts on Georgian Bay, Ont., and states that no imagos could
be found on the wing during the day but that numerous specimens were

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 85

seen and taken after sunset on many occasions. It must not be over-
looked that the hour of dusk is greeted by rising hordes of mosquitoes
and that one of these large dragon-flies possesses an enormous capacity
and rapid digestive powers, coupled with unlimited agility. Doane, in
his work on “Insects and Disease,” does not hesitate to say that dragon-
flies “‘often devour large numbers of mosquitoes during the course of
the day and evening.”

What applies to the mosquito may be much more true in certain
other cases. In searching for the carriers of Pellagra, a disease
which is entering Minnesota, it has been suggested that the insect,
if it be an insect, must be one that bites during the day and that
lives along streams, and every effort is now being made to incrimi-
nate Simulium. The sand-fly passes its larval stages in the water and
the adults remain near the streams; they also bite during the day.
It is thus more than probable that these gnats are commonly destroyed
by many species of dragon-flies. Again, it passes without question that
myriads of flies, including the stable fly and others which follow cattle
about the pastures, are captured by these same mosquito hawks. The
writer has many times observed Aeshnids darting to and fro about, and
even beneath, the cattle along some creek or in the adjoining lowlands.

But a consideration of the adult is less than half the story. The
nymphs of the Odonata are doubtlesss among the most predatory and
voracious inhabitants of the waters. Their length of life is from one
to four years and countless adults will emerge from a single pond or
small stream in a season. They are quite indiscriminate in their choice
of diet, only so it be animal, and have been known to eat most of the
common aquatic insects and larvae and in addition to occasionally feed
upon young fish, tadpoles, crayfish, etc. They are even notoriously
cannibalistic.

We may, then, well expect, as is actually stated by some authorities,
that Odonate nymphs greatly reduce the number of larvae of various
important Diptera, the mosquito especially. The larvae of the midges
and “punkies” (Chironomidae) have been shown by Needham and
others to be very abundant in the habitats of the nymphs and to form a
large part of their food supply. In reference to Simulium, Professor H.
Garman, in his “Preliminary Study of the Kentucky Localities in
which Pellagra is Prevalent,’ 1912, state that “Species of Pro-
gomphus, Gomphus, Macromia, Calopteryx, etc., were collected among
the rocks on which Simuliwm larvae occurred.”

Regarding the relation between fish and the nymphs, there is as
yet no decision. The work of Professor Needham in New York
showed that the food of the brook trout consisted mainly of Chirono-

86 PRELIMIN4RY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

mid larvae and pupae with but an occasional dragon-fly nymph. In
Illinois, Professor Forbes’ results on the food of fishes are much the
same. Whether or not these nymphs are injurious to the fish in killing
some of the young and in using a part of their food supply has not
been ascertained.

It is a difficult task to determine the economic status of any animal,
and the problem increases in complexity very materially when the more
intricate ecological conditions are approached. It is not at all rare to
find that those forms least suspected actually possess the greatest in-
fluence upon man’s welfare. In the case of the Odonata it seems the
part of discretion to suspend judgment while awaiting further de-
velopments.

Topography and Faunal Areas of Minnesota.

A brief survey of the topography and faunal zones of Minnesota
may be helpful in showing the relation of the fauna dealt with in this
list, from but a small section of the state, to the whole.

The topography of the state is characteristically glacial ; its native
rocks, from the Archean to the Cretaceous, are covered throughout all
but the extreme eastern points with recent drift of varying thickness.
This drift is from 100 to 300 feet thick in the valleys of the Minnesota
and the Blue Earth, and thins out gradually to the east and north.
Practically no rock is exposed in situ within the drift area, except along
the larger rivers of the southern and eastern sections. Hundreds of
kettle-holes and many larger lakes lie in the drift or upon the underlying
rocks, the former condition being common in the south and the latter
in the north.

Of the two areas not covered at present with till, that in St. Louis
and Cook Counties is far the most extensive, the boundary line run-
ning from near the western end of Lake Superior northward to Rainy
Lake. The western part of this region possesses scattered patches of
drift, always quite thin. The Mesabi and Vermilion Ranges, with an
elevation of 2,200 feet, and the mountain-like hills of the Superior
region are of Pre-cambrian quartzytes and granites, laid bare by ages
of scouring by the ice.

The other, and truly driftless area, occupies Houston County and
the eastern three-fourths of Winona and one-half of Fillmore Counties
in the southeastern corner of the state. It is directly continued into
Iowa, covering Allamakee and the eastern half of Winneshiek Counties
and follows the Mississippi in a narrow belt. Its topography is
wholly erosional. Its rivers, of which the Rock is the largest, run east-

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 87

ward to the Mississippi through valleys and entrenched meanders in
the Cambrian strata from one to five hundred feet in depth. Its gorges
and valleys are wildly picturesque and its general surface is flat or
slightly rolling and covered with loess from the great river.

In general, the highlands of the State lie in the central western
part. The Leaf Hills of Otter Tail County have an elevation of 1,700
feet and the prairie west of Itasca Lake in Becker County stands some
1,600 feet. Irom this center arise three drainage systems of varying
ages: the waters are carried northwestward by the tributaries of the
Red River of the North and the Rainy River; to the southward and
eastward by the Mississippi, the Minnesota and the St. Croix, and to
the eastward in the northern portion by the smaller streams feeding
into Lake Superior. The elevation of the northwest corner of the
State is a little more than 750 feet, increasing in the southeast to 900 or
1,000 feet. In the extreme southwestern corner, set off by the Coteau
des Prairie, Rock and parts of Pipestone and Nobles Counties have an
elevation of 1,800 to 1,900 feet, and drain to the southwest.

Thus the central belt of the State is occupied by a great depression
in which lie the valleys of the Red River of the North, the Mississippi,
the Minnesota and the western half of the St. Croix, flanked by high-
lands from 1,800 to 2,200 feet in elevation on the southwest and north-
east. This depression marks the ancient outlet of glacial Lake Agassiz.

If we now turn to the life zones, we immediately note their coin-
cidence with the topographic features. The boundary between the
Canadian (the lower division of the Boreal Region) and the Transition
(the upper division of the Austral Region) Zones enters Minnesota in
Pine County on the east, near the head waters of the St. Croix, and
passes westward through Mille Lacs to the junction of the Crow Wing
River with the Mississippi, hence northwestward between Leech and
Itasca Lakes, west of Red Lake and into Ontario to the west of Lake
of the Woods. On the south, the boundary line separating the Transi-
tion from the Upper Austral (Alleghanian) bisects Houston County
from north to south, meanders through the two northern tiers of coun-
ties in Iowa and again enters Minnesota in Nobles County and fol-
lows the Coteau des Prairie into South Dakota. Thus the northeastern
third of the State belongs to the Canadian, a fragment of the south-
western to the Upper Austral and the whole central belt of valley land
from northwest to southeast, 800 to 1,200 feet below the highlands, to
the Transition Zone.

The region thus covered by the Transition, or Alleghanian Zone
includes four topographic types. The areas drained by the Red River
and the Minnesota are markedly prairie and constitute the richest farm

88 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

lands of the Commonwealth. The valley of the Mississippi, within the
State, is more rugged and is occupied by the Big Woods. Here the
forests run from wholly coniferous in the north to the ordinary de-
ciduous trees in the south, its lower limit being a little north of Mankto.
The third area is made up of the deeply eroded, though glaciated, and
densely wooded valleys of the St. Croix and the Mississippi (between
Dakota and Wabasha Counties). And the last division, described in
an earlier paragraph, is the small driftless area of the southeastern
counties.

Preface to the Faunal List.

The faunal list included in this paper relates to but a small part
of Minnesota’s Transition Zone, that triangle which might be cut off
by drawing a line from Nobles County through Hennepin to Washing-
ton. The writer’s records from that part of Iowa which lies within
the zone have also been included: Dickinson, Emmit, Winneshiek and
Allamakee Counties. In Minnesota the counties in which collecting
has been done are as follows: Blue Earth, Nicollet, Freeborn, Winona,
Wabasha, Goodhue, Dakota, Washington, Ramsey and Hennepin.
Most of the records along the Mississippi are taken from Wilson’s list
for the Mississippi Valley. The remainder have been made by the
writer, and on account of the latter’s location at Mankato, Blue Earth
and Nicollet Counties have been more thoroughly worked than the
rest. Lake Madison is a small lake some four or five miles in length in
the northeastern part of Blue Earth County.

In preparing the catalogue that follows, the species in the col-
lections of the University at St. Anthony Park are not included.
Through the kindness of Professor F. L. Washburn the writer was al-
lowed to examine this material but as the specimens bore no locality
labels and had been in the Department for some years their origin was
not actually known. It is, however, more than probable that they are
from the State and most likely from Ramsey and Hennepin Counties.
The species in the Lugger collection determined with certainty follow :

Calopteryx maculata. Erythemis simplicicollis.
Ischnura verticalis. Pachydiplax longipennis.
Hagenius brevistylus. Plathemis lydia.

ZEshna_ constricta. Libellula luctuosa.

Anax junius. Libellula quadrimaculata.
Celithemis eponina. Libellula pulchella.
Celithemis elisa. Libellula incesta.

Sympetrum vicinum,

Of these, but three, Celithemis elisa, Sympetrum vicinum and
Libellula incesta, are not listed in the catalogue from definite localities.

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 89

It is to be regretted that the limits of this paper preclude a treat-
ment of the nymphs. Those desiring descriptions of the nymphs of
Minnesota species must be referred to the papers of Needham, Walker
and others.

The plates accompanying the paper are made from photographs
taken from life by the writer.

Classification of the Odonata.

This group of insects is made up of forms possessing an aquatic
nymphal or larval stage and a winged imago. These states being
separated by no marked pupal stage the metamorphosis is Hemi-
metabolic. Both nymph and adult have large compound eyes, seg-
mented antennae and mandibulate mouth parts; they are voracious in
all stages. The four membranous, netted-veined wings of the adult
usually possess a pterostigma on the costal, apical region of each. The
antennae and the tarsi are each three segmented. The abdomen is very
long and slender, and consists of ten distinct segments, exclusive of an
anal segment ending in the dorsal or superior appendages. The males
have inferior terminal appendages also, and the opening of the testes
is on the ninth and the accessory genital organs are on the second seg-
ment. The females are without terminal inferior appendages and have
the vulva at the sternal apex of the eighth segment.

Key to the Sub-families.

A Slender species with eyes widely separated, thorax weak, wings similar and
laid together along the back when resting; nymphs with three caudal gills.
(Sub-order Zygoptera.) Family Agrionidae.

a More than two antecubitals Sub-family Calopteryginae
b Two antecubitals only Sub-family Agrioninae

B Usually larger and heavier bodied, with eyes touching or but slightly separated ;
thorax large and strong; front and hind wings unlike, the latter widest, and
both held horizontally in repose; males with single inferior appendage.
Nymphs without caudal gills. (Sub-order Anisoptera.)

a Triangle equally distant from arculus in front and hind wings; antecubitals
of the two series not corresponding throughout. (Family Aeshnidae.)
a’ Pterostigma with a brace at its inner end in space below it.
a” Subtriangle of fore wing of single cell.

a Eyes widely separated by occiput Sub-family Gomphinae

y Eyes touching for some distance Sub-family Aishninae

b” Subtriangle of fore wing of three cells Sub-family Petalurinae

b Pterostigma without a brace vein Sub-family Cordulegastrinae
b Triangle of hind wing much nearer arculus than that of front wing; ante-
cubitals of two series practically corresponding. (Family Libellulidae)

a’ Triangle of hind wing considerably beyond arculus; more than two cubito-
anal cross veins Sub-family Macromunae

b’ Triangle of hind wing on a level with arculus or in front of it; one or
two cubito-anal cross veins
a” Sectors of arculus distinctly separate at their departure from the ar-
culus; eyes tuberculed behind Sub-family Cordulinae
b’ Sectors of the arculus closely approximated or fused for some dis-
tance beyond arculus; eyes not tuberculed behind
Sub-family Libellulinae

90 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

SUB-ORDER ZYGOPTERA, THE DAMSEL-FLIES.
FAMILY AGRIONIDAE.

SUB-FAMILY CALOPTERYGINAE:

Genus Calopteryx Leach.

C. maculata Beauv. Wilson’s records of this widely distributed
and usually common species are the only ones thus far for the State:
Lake Amelia and Reed’s Landing, July 6 and 7, and 18, 1907. It is
common to the Transition and Austral Zones and has been taken fre-
quently in lowa and Wisconsin.

This very conspicuous damsel-fly is to be found along streams,
generally the smaller ones, weakly fluttering over the ripples at the
water's edge or perching on the vegetation within a foot or two of the
surface. Not infrequently numbers of them rest among the taller
grasses of the shady flood plains some distance from the water. Though
sometimes taken about ponds they are usually much less plentiful
there. They are especially fond of small streams overshadowed by
willows and wild cucumber vines.

C. aequabilis Say. A few specimens were taken in Wabasha and
Hennepin Counties by Wilson. It is common over the greater part of
Wisconsin, belonging to the Transition and Upper Austral Zones, and
the writer possesses several records of it in northern and northeastern
Iowa. Its habits are very similar to those of C. maculata.

Genus Hetaerina Hagen.

H. americana Fabricius. Though not in the Minnesota collections
and lists at the author’s disposal, this species is sure to be found native
to the State. It is very generally distributed over the Transition and
Austral Zones and has been taken by the writer in many counties of
Iowa, including Dickinson on the Minnesota border. Muttkowski
records its general distribution in Wisconsin.

This beautiful species is often found in company with H. tricolor
and C. maculata along rippling brooks and even larger streams, prob-
ably never about ponds or lakes. Like the other members of this sub-
family it is a gregarious species, at times occurring by hundreds over
small rapids and resting upon protruding rocks or drooping branches
of willow. On the wing during July, August and September.

H. tricolor, the nearest relative of H. americana may be found in
the southern part of the State but not extensively. It has been taken
as far north as Cherokee County, Iowa, by the writer and apparently
belongs to the Austral Zone.

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 91

SUB-FAMILY AGRIONINAE.
Genus Lestes Leach.

L. eurmus Say. Will probably be found occasionally over the
southern counties of Minnesota. It was taken in June, 1909, on Lake
Okoboji in Dickinson County, Iowa, and Muttkowski states that it is
found in western Wisconsin.

L. inequalis Walsh. Wilson records two specimens from near St.
Paul, and at Red Wing, Goodhue County, “Both sexes common in
shady places near the woods.”

L. unguiculatus Hagen. This seems to be the commonest Lestes
in southern Minnesota. At Mankato, and on Lake Madison, Blue
Earth County, the author has collected hundreds of specimens during
late May, June, July, August and early September. It is an inhabitant
of pond and small lake regions and is very seldom seen about streams.
Wilson’s list does not show a single occurrence along the Mississippi
River. It seems clear that great numbers of this species migrate from
pond to pond or lake to lake during the breeding period, ovipositing for
a day or so at each stopping place. Incomputable myriads of copulat-
ing pairs will one day cover the rushes of a swamp, and on the follow-
ing morning but a few scattered pairs will remain.

L. uncatus Kirby. The only records of this heavy bodied, bright
colored Lestes are from Manakto, Blue Earth County, and Alden, Free-
born County. Three pairs were collected in the latter locality June
10-15, 1914, by Miss Anna Holgersen. Uncatus is often found at
considerable distances from water.

L. disjunctus Selys. This species is included as a possible Min-
nesota form on the strength of collections made by the writer at Spirit
Lake, Iowa, in July, 1909. It is never a common species.

L. forcipatus Rambur. Lestes forcipatus Rambur was taken at
Mankato on July 13 and 20, 1913, and at Lake Madison, August 4-
11,1914. It was fairly abundant during July, though copulation seemed
to occur more freely on the later dates. This was also found true in
studying the Iowa fauna.

L. rectangularis Say. Two males only of this form were collected
at Lake Madison, August 4-9, 1914. Both Wilson and Muttkowski
record it for western Wisconsin and the writer has taken it in several
Iowa localities. Lestes rectangularis frequents lakes, rivers and even
woods. It is not common to the Lower Austral.

L. vigilax Selys. “Both sexes found in tall weeds and grass back
from the water; not very common.” Reed’s Landing. Wilson.
Also recorded Lake Phalen, Ramsey County. It is a very common
species in Wisconsin.

ite)
bo

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

Genus Argia Rambur.

A. moesta putrida (Hagen). Wilson took this species along the
Mississippi between St. Paul and Hastings, July 12, at Red Wing,
July 17, and at Winona, July 19, 1907, including both sexes. It was
usually seen in company with others of the same genus. The writer
has collected all four species together sunning themselves upon the
rocks and sandy banks of the Iowa River. At the approach of the net
they seem to dissolve in the sunshine, so rapid are their motions, and at
its retreat to again precipitate from the atmosphere upon the gray face
of the rock.

A. violacea Hagen. Recorded from Lake Okoboji, Dickinson
County, lowa, and from Wisconsin.

A. tibialis Rambur. Wilson’s records are the only ones for this
form thus far. Stillwater, July 15, 1907: “Both sexes flying about in
open sunshine in company with L. quadrimaculata and Leucorhinia in-
tacta.” Red Wing, July 17, 1907: “Both sexes common along the
river bank.” Found also in northern Iowa.

A. apicalis Say. This is the only species of Argia that has come
under the writer's net within our boundaries. Numerous specimens
are at hand dated as follows: August 1, 1912, July 20, 1913, and
August 14, 1914. Wilson took the species at Hastings, Stillwater and
Red Wing, July 12-17, 1907. It is the commonest Argia of Minne-
sota and Iowa.

Genus Nehalennia Selys.

N. wene Hagen. Taken very frequently during June and July,
1913, at Mankato. Also at Beaver Lake, St. Paul, on July 10, 1910
(Wilson). It is usually found in the tall grasses about marshy places
and kettle-holes, never venturing into the higher air but keeping close
to the water along the shore line or fluttering unseen between the
stems of the sedges. Common in surrounding: states.

Genus Amphiagrion Selys.

A. saucium Burm. After two seasons collecting in Blue Earth
County without seeing this species, the writer discovered it in small
numbers and in teneral condition along a very small stream leading
from the “slough” to the Minnesota River at Mankato, on June 11,
1913. A few days after, thousands of fully colored individuals were
copulating and ovipositing in the shallow water among the sedges and
Sagittarias. A week later their numbers began to reduce and by July
7 but an occasional specimen could be found. During the whole period

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 93

their distribution was limited to an area of 200 yards along this little
rivulet, so narrow that one could easily leap across it anywhere, and
but a few inches deep. Again in 1914 they were common here and
nowhere else. Such a localization is not what would be expected of a
species distributed from the Atlantic to the West.

Genus Enallagma Charpentier.

E. carunculatum Morse. Innumerable specimens were taken at
Lake Madison, August 4-11, 1914. Wilson took the species at Lake
Phalen, Ramsey County, July 8, 1907.

E. civile Hagen. A few males were found among other Enal-
lagmas collected at a pond near Mankato on June 14, 1913, and during
October, 1914, several more specimens, male and female, were brought
in by students. Three males were netted at Lake Madison, August 8,
1914. Civile resembles carunculatum in everything except the ap-
pendages of the male.

E. hageni Walsh. From the middle of May until September FE.
hageni is the most plentiful and universally distributed Enallagma in
southern Minnesota. During June it is usually present about ponds in
such numbers as to be taken by the netful rather than as individuals.
Masses of algae, sphagnum or other floating vegetation are dotted with
its bright blue and black.

Wilson has taken it all along the Mississippi River, “hundreds at
a sweep of the net.”

E. ebrium Hagen. Records at Mankato for males July 6, 1912,
June 14, 1913, and July, 1914. Taken by Wilson at Minneapolis, St.
Paul, Red Wing, and Winona from July 8-19, 1907. Common; usually
in company with EF. hageni.

E. signatum (Hagen). “Quite common flying about the floating
algae.” Wilson, St. Paul, July 8, 1907. Taken by the writer at Center
Lake, Dickinson County, Iowa, July 13, and at Lake Okoboji, June 29,
1909. A companion of antennatum and hageni, and Nehalennia irene
in the marginal grasses.

E. antennatum (Say). “Rare, only a few seen; found on rushes
over water.’’ Wilson, Lake Phalen, July 8, 1907. Probably not com-
mon in the Transition Zone, though fairly so in the Austral.

Genus Coenagrion Hagen.

C. angulatum Walker. Two males of this recently described
species* were picked up with a lot of Enallagma hageni and Nehalennia

* Canadian Entomologist for September, 1912. See also “New Species of
Dragon-flies,’ by Richard A. Muttkowski. Bulletin of Wisconsin Natural
History Society, Vol. X, Nos. 3 and 4.

94 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

irene at a little kettle-hole at Mankato on June 10, 1913. It flies rather
low over the water between grass tufts a foot or two from the shore.
Its short heavy body and bright blue and black coloration quickly
catches the eye of the collector. In Iowa it was taken with Coenagrion
resolutum Hagen.

Genus /schnura Charpentier.

I. verticalis Say. Innumerable specimens taken at Mankato from
May to September, including both sexes. It was very common at Lake
Madison, August 4-11, 1914, and here the orange females predom1-
nated. Found at Minneapolis and St. Paul by Wilson, July 6-8, 1907.
Ischnura is as constantly present as Enallagma hageni, though never
in great numbers, and in the same habitats.

I. posita (Hagen). ‘Found in company with Enallagma hagent
and E. ebrium everywhere; not as plentiful as the former but more
so than the latter.’’ Wilson, Beaver Lake, St. Paul, July 10, 1907.
Also at Winona, July 19.

SUB-ORDER ANISOPTERA, THE DRAGON-FLIES.
FAMILY AESHNIDAE.

SUB-FAMILY GOMPHINAE.
Genus Hagenius Selys.

H. brevistylus Selys. A single male specimen of this conspicuous
dragon-fly was found by the writer in the collections of the Mankato
State Normal School. It bore the label “Mankato” only, without date.
Occasional specimens have been collected throughout every faunal zone
from the Boreal to the Lower Austral, usually over swift water in
large streams. In New York, Needham also found the nymphs plen-
tiful in ponds.

Genus Gomphus Leach.

G. fraturnus Say. Pair in copulation taken at Mankato, June 11,
1913. Wilson found both sexes common from St. Paul to Red Wing,
July 12-17, 1907. It is very often taken in pastures and open wood-
lands back from the rivers. About rapids they dart swiftly here and
there above the turbulent water, dash in and out of the leafy arches
along the banks or rest tightly flattened against the boulders in mid-
stream. Common to the Transition and Upper Austral Zones.

G. externus Selys. Both sexes taken by Wilson at Red Wing,
Minn., and at Lansing, Iowa, July 17-24, 1907.

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 95

G. spicatus Hagen. ‘Three captured, all females.’’ Wilson, Lake
Phalen, ot. Paul) july 8, 1907.

G. villosipes Selys. Taken in numbers with G. spicatus as above.

G. cornutus Tough. On June 7, 1913, this rare and little known
species was found transforming at a little kettle-hole near Mankato. A
fresh female and a dozen exuviae were picked up from the floating
sticks, algae, etc., at this time. On June 10th a male was obtained as it
transformed. No mature adults were seen. So far as the writer knows
the nymph has never been described.

G. amnicola Walsh. Two males were captured at Mankato, June
21, 1913, and August 14, 1914. One female taken at Red Wing, July
17, 1907. Amnicola is very swift upon the wing and often keeps well
to the middle of the stream. The nymph is still unknown.

G. vastus Walsh. ‘Common everywhere; most of the specimens
secured were males.” Wilson, Red Wing, July 17, 1907. Also taken at
Prescott, Wisconsin, and Lansing, Iowa.

G. crassus Hagen. “A single female secured in company with G.
vastus.’ Wilson, Red Wing, July 17, 1907.

Genus Aeshna Fabricius.

Ae. terrupta lineata Walker. A male of this species was taken
at Lake Madison, August 9, 1914, and a female at Mankato, June 19,
1913. Walker states that Aeshna interrupta lineata is the most char-
acteristic dragon-fly of the Canadian Zone and that it also ranges as
far south as Missouri.

Ae. verticalis Hagen. (Ae. juncea verticalis (Hagen), of Wil-
son’s List.) Taken at Lake Phelan, St. Paul, July 8, and at Hastings,
July 12, 1907.

Ae. constricta Say. A pair in copulation was captured in an open,
pastured woodland along the Minnesota River near Mankato. The in-
sects hung quite motionless from the lower branches of the oaks, al-
lowing the net to approach them without seeming to heed it. Three
females were taken along a wooded roadside which skirts Lake Madi-
son, most of them as they clung to the under sides of leaves or twigs,
devouring their prey. All of the above females were heterochromatic.
This seems to be our commonest species of Aeshna.

Genus Anax Leach.

A. junius, Drury. Undoubtedly this large dragon-fly is to be found
very commonly over the entire state from April to November. Speci-
mens in the writer’s collection represent three localities—Alden, Man-

96 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

Fie. 14. Anaz junius,Male. Photo by A. D. Wheden.

kato and Lake Madison—and are too numerous to list separately.
Wilson found it common at every stop made along the Mississippi
River in July, 1907.

As early as March 5th the writer has observed Anaxv junius ovi-
positing in the ponds, usually the smaller and more shallow ones, and
the worn condition of these females suggests that they had hibernated
through the winter. While in copulation the pair flies rapidly about
over the pond or settles upon a weed stalk near the ground. When
ready to oviposit, they alight upon a floating stem, the male retaining
his hold on the female while she plunges her abdomen half its length
into the water and begins working its tip upon the submerged stem,
the abdomen at first straight and then by degrees arched until the tip
almost reaches the thorax. When once well at work she is not easily
disturbed and will remain for fifteen or twenty minutes without chang-
ing position, although the male at frequent intervals tugs away as
though to lift her bodily into the air. Sometimes the female deposits
her eggs unattended and Needham states that she may even descend
beneath the water for this purpose. Both sexes are constant hunters
and may be noted, at dusk especially, hawking about lawns and dwel-
lings and over cornfields or along the margins of the woods.

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 97

FAMILY LIBELLULIDAE.
SUB-FAMILY CORDULINAE.
Genus Epicordulia Selys.

E. princeps Hagen. Two males of this expert flier were brought
down by the net on the shore of Lake Madison, August 10, 1914. It
was seen on this one occasion only and but four individuals, three
males and one female, were counted. The shore here was covered with
tall weeds and bushes, with trees a few yards back and a Sagittaria bed
in the shallow water in front. Libellula pulchella and Plathemis lydia

were the only other large dragon-flies present. Wilson captured one
male at Stillwater, July 16, 1907.

Genus Tetragoneuria Hagen.

TI. cynosura Say. Wilson’s records of this form are from Lake
Phalen, St. Paul, and Hastings, July 8 and 12, 1907. He found it
common. About the lakes in Dickinson County, Iowa, it was fairly
numerous during the latter half of June and the whole of July 1909.
T. cynosura semiaquea Burm., given specific rank by some writers,
was also present.

These insects are extremely quick and tireless on the wing. They
often dart back and forth across some glade or small clearing near the
shores of the larger lakes, keeping at a height of thirty or forty feet
from the ground and at long intervals resting for a moment upon the
upper boughs of a tree. When over the water they fly lower but dart
with extreme rapidity along the reedy margins of some promontory.

T. spinigera (Selys). Taken at Lake Amelia, Minneapolis, Beaver
Lake, St. Paul, Hastings and Stillwater by Wilson, July 6-16, 1907.

Quite abundant.
Genus Dorocordulia Needham.

D. libera (Selys). “Several seen flying over small streams; hard
to catch but both sexes secured.” Walson, Stillwater, July 16, 1907.
This beautiful species seems limited to the Transition Zone.

SUB-FAMILY LIBELLULINAE.
Genus 7ramea Hagen.

T. lacerata Hagen. No specimens of this or other members of the
genus have been actually taken within our limits, but the writer has
spent hours on several occasions in unsucessful attempts. From June
10, to July 15, 1913, two or more species of Tramea were quite com-
mon about the ponds in the sand bars of the flood plain along the Min-

98 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

nesota River at Mankato. Lacerata could be identified with certainty
but the other and lighter colored species could not be recorded without
capture. A brief quotation from the writer’s note book for June 28
will suggest something of the habits of these swift and wary Libel-
lulids: ‘The hours from 9-11 were spent at the sand-bars on the river.
In the sun the temperature was excessive, probably 100° or over, and
the sands seemed alive with tiger-beetles and Hymenoptera. About
several small ponds left by the falling river sailed dozens of Libellulas
and among them a lesser number of Trameas of at least two species,
lacerata and another of lighter color. Plathemis lydia and Libellula
unfailingly darted after every Tramea that came near, pestering it
much as kingbirds will a hawk. I attempted to take advantage of the
moments when they were hard pressed but my efforts resulted in noth-
ing but danger of sun-stroke. The ponds are very similar to those
where Pantala and Tramea were so common at Cherokee, Iowa.”

In all probability these species are limited to the Austral and
southern parts of the Transition Zones.

Genus Libellula Linneé.

L. luctuosa Burm, Quite common at Lake Madison, August 4-11,
1914, several well colored males and a teneral female being taken.
Many more were seen about the docks and boat landings. Along our
eastern border Wilson found this species, both males and females,
common and usually well matured by July 10-16, 1907.

L. exusta Say. A female was sent in from Alden, Freeborn
County, about June 12, 1914, and a male is recorded from Mankato,
June 21, 1914. Lake Amelia, Minneapolis, July 6-7, 1907, one male.
At Beaver Lake, St. Paul, on July 10, Mr. Wilson writes: “Abundant
everywhere, most common with quadrimaculata in the undergrowth
close to the shore. When it alights it squats like a Gomphus on the
rocks, stumps, or even on the ground. It is gregarious, as many as
fifteen or twenty alighting on the same spot; it is also inquisitive and
many were caught that actually alighted inside the net as it was being
carried. The males are predominant and all are pruinose thus early.”

L. quadrimaculata Linné. Between the 10th and 30th of June,
1914, Miss Holgersen collected 10 males and 5 females in good color at
Alden. At Mankato a pair was taken on June 13, 1913. Wilson col-
lected numbers of these insects at St. Paul, Hastings and Stillwater,
July 8-16, 1907. At the latter place they were extremely plentiful:
“Found by hundreds in the old lumber yard on the bank of the St.
Croix; every stick, stub and bush alive with them. They were very

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 99

tame, alighting not merely on the net but also on the hand and arm
and all over the clothing.” The writer has found this species, much
less common and far more wary, in northern Iowa.

L. pulchella Drury. The records of this largest and most common
Libellula are far too numerous to list here. Males and females in all
conditions have been taken at Mankato, Alden, Lake Madison, Min-
neapolis, St. Paul, Hastings, Red Wing and Winona by Wilson, Miss
Holgersen and the writer from June to September. It is as much to

Fig. 15. Libellula pulchella on mullen stalk in pasture. These dragon flies have
been repeatedly observed industriously catching flies which
attack stock. Photo by A. D. Wheden.

be expected about every pond and stream as is the usual vegetation.
It feeds quite constantly upon Diptera and undoubtedly destroys hosts
of small and medium-sized flies. On capturing the prey, the dragon-
fly kills it by piercing with its sharp mandibles; it is then rolled rapidly
over and over by means of the feet and spiny legs, while the jaws
are kept constantly busy clipping and crushing until only a pulpy ball
remains. This is rapidly devoured, the time required being from one to
two minutes, and the insect is off again after another victim.

100 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

Genus Plathemis Hagen.

P. lydia Drury. Taken in numbers at Alden, June 10-20, 1914; at
Mankato from June 1 to August; Wilson’s records cover July 12-20,
1907, at Hastings, Stillwater, Red Wing, Winona and Homer.

This species is a constant companion of L. pulchella. Often they
have a definite beat along some bend in the shore or around beds of
bulrushes where they race up and down the banks, now and then meet-
ing with a rustle of wings. The female of lydia very much resembles

L. pulchella.
Genus Celithemis Hagen.

C. eponina Drury. At Lake Madison, August 4-11, 1914, this
species was more numerous than any other, except certain damsel-
flies. The lake having fallen several feet in the past few years has in
many places about its shores wide gravel flats, grown up to shrubs and
tall-stemmed weeds. It was upon these flats that Celithemis was most
common, in fact, it was seldom seen elsewhere. A few were taken on
August 4th along a bay filled with cat-tails, bulrushes and sedges. On
the 5th they were present in great numbers on the gravel flats, not-
withstanding that the day was very dull and a steady drizzle of cold
rain falling. They were covered with glistening rain-drops, which
were shaken from their wings as they fluttered from perch to perch.

In bright weather they were much more agile and quite difficult to
capture. When in copulation, they would often ascend fifty or sixty
feet and dart off over the lake for a time. During windy days, and it
was very windy whenever it was bright, they seemed to delight in
battling with the gale and in clinging like weather-vanes to the tallest
weed-stalks, their wings half set.

Celithemis is distributed over the whole of the Austral and the
Transition Zones and other species will likely be taken, especially elisa.

Genus Leucorhima Brittinger.

L. intacta Hagen. During June and July intacta is to be seen daily
about our ponds. In 1913 the first record at Mankato was June 7th, and
August 11, 1914, a single female was taken at Lake Madison; the
writer possesses dozens of specimens collected between these dates at
Mankato. Wilson also took the species all along the Mississippi. They
are usually very alert and agile, floating before the cqllector like a host
of jet-black ivory-centered balls. When resting, the wings are thrown
forward, the abdomen held high in the air and the head is kept turning
watchfully from side to side.

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 101

L. proxima Calvert (Frigida Hagen). Wilson secured both sexes
of this hitherto eastern species at Lake Phalen, St. Paul, July 8, 1907,
and other specimens at Beaver Lake, St. Paul, and Hastings on the
10th and 12th.

Genus Sympetrum Newman.

S. rubicundulum Say. Probably common over the State from
June to September. Seen on every field trip at Mankato during this
period and was found breeding in very great numbers in the swamps
about Lake Madison during August. Reed’s Landing, July 18, 1907;
Wilson.

This is our commonest and most universally distributed Sympet-
rum, being seen everywhere from the swamps and streams to the side-
walks of the cities.

S. rubicundulum assimilatum Uhler. The data for this sub-species
is almost identical with that for the above species. It is not quite so
plentiful, however.

S. albifrons (Charpentier). ‘Both sexes were captured in the tall
weeds along the edge of the woods ; they seemed to prefer shady spots.”’
Wilson, Reed’s Landing, July 18, 1907. ;

S. obtrusum Hagen. Mankato, August 18-20, 1914, 3 males and
1 female. Lake Madison, August 8 and 9, 1914, 2 males. Taken
about lakes and ponds.

S. semicinctum Say. Quite common at Mankato from June to
August. Usually found among the low shrubs and brush at the mar-
gins of woods near streams or ponds, and most plentiful in August or
late July.

S. corruptum Hagen. Mankato, June, 1912, male and female;
April 27, May 11, June 10, and August 15, 1913, both sexes; April to
October, 1914, many specimens. Along the roads and railroads and in
the open woods this large Sympetrum is very common at all seasons but
is most plentiful perhaps in August and September. It is one of the
first dragon-flies to appear in the spring, having been repeatedly taken
or photographed in April.

Genus Perithemis Hagen.

P. domitia Drury. The only record of this little species is from
Lake Madison, August 4-10, 1914. It is, however, of very general
distribution and may be expected over most or all of the State. It is
common in nor’iern lowa. On Lake Madison it was present in great
numbers about the beds of yellow water lilies and Potamogeton in the
quieter bays, now flitting over and now resting upon the lily pads and
never far above the surface.

102 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA.

Genus Erythemis Hagen.

E. simplicicollis Say. This cosmopolite is recorded at Mankato,
Lake Madison, Lake Phalen (St. Paul) and Stillwater. It is common,
though not very abundant, wherever found, from June to September.
During July and August many of the individuals taken are old enough
to be wholly pruinose, obscuring their original bright green coloration.
One usually meets with it along the shores of lakes and ponds where
it perches upon weed stems or flattens itself against a path, a dock or
an old boat. Its voracious appetite keeps it continually active.

Genus Pachydiplax Brauer.

P. longipennis Burm. Taken at Mankato, June 13, 1913, and at
Alden two males and three females, June 10-30, 1914. In habit and
actions P. longipennis is very much like Leucorhinia intacta, with
which it quite constantly associates. It is recorded from many localities
in Iowa and Wisconsin.

Bibliography.

Banks, NATHAN.
Synopsis, Catalogue and Bibliography of the Neuropteroid Insects of North
America. Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., 1892.

CALVERT, PHILIP P.
Relaioeue a Odonata of Philadelphia and Vicinity. Trans. Am. Ent.
oc., 1893.

List of the Odonata of New Jersey. New Jersey State Board of Agri,
1900-1909.

Habits of the Plant-dwelling Larva of Mecistogaster modestus. Ent. News,
Vol. XXII, page 402.

Various papers on Nehalennia, Libellula and other genera in Entomological
News and other periodicals, 1900-1914.

Burmeister’s Types of Odonata. Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., 1898.

The Fossil Odonate Phenacolestes, etc. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. of Phila.,
1913.

Progress in Our Knowledge of the Odonata from 1895 to 1912. Trans.
of Second Ent. Congress, 1912.

DoANE, RENNIE W.
Insects and Disease. Henry Holt & Co., 1910.

HaAGEN, HERMANN.
A Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
1861

Monograph of the earlier stages of the Odonata. Trans. Am. Ent. Soc.,
1885. :

GarMAN, H.
A Preliminary Study of Kentucky Localities in which Pellagra is Prev-
alent. Kentucky State Univ., Bull. 159.

Keiiicort, Davin S.
Odonata of Ohio. Ohio State Acad. Sc., 1899.

Kirpy, W. F.
A Synonymic Catalog of the Neuroptera-Odonata. London, 1890.

Pasture land bordering a stream favorable to the breeding of Calopteryx and Hetaerina. These dragon flies
prey upon insects annoying stock. Photo by Whedon.

Female Anax junius accompanied by male, ovipositing upon floating cat-tail stem.
Photo by Whedon.

Celithemis eponina, male and female. Photo by Whedon.

Pasture land about Lake Madison, Minn.; favorite habitat of Celithemis eponina.
Photo by Whedon.

Indian Lake, a typical Odonata pond. Note pasture land in background, frequented
by various species. Photo by Whedon.

Libellula pulehella, male. Photo by Whedon.

Plathemis lydia, female. Photo by Whedon.

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ODONATA. 103

Merriam, C. Hart AND OTHERS.
Fourth Provisional Map of Life Zones of North America. Biological Sur-
vey, U. S. Dept. Agri., 1910.

MuttTKowskI, RicHarp A.
Review of the Dragon-flies of Wisconsin. Wisc. Nat. Hist. Bull., 1908.
A Catalog of the Odonata of North America. Wisc. Nat. Hist. Bull., 1910.
Studies in Tetragoneura. Wisc. Nat. Hist. Bull., 1911.
New Records of Wisconsin Dragon-flies, and Misc. papers. Bull., 1910-1914.

NEEDHAM, JAMES G. AND Hart, Cuas. A.
Dragon-flies of Illinois, Part I. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., 1901.

NEEDHAM, JAMES G. AND BETTEN, CORNELIUS.
Aquatic Insects of the Adirondacks. N. Y. State Mus., Bull. 47, 1901.

NEEDHAM, JAMEs G.
Aquatic Insects of New York State. N. Y. State Mus., Bull. 68, 1903.
A Geneological Study of Dragon-fly Wing Venation. Proc. U. S. National
* Mus., Vol. 26, 1903.

Patron, WALTER Scott, AND Cracc, FRANcIS Wo.
A Textbook of Medical Entomology. London, 1913.

Roperts, STEWART R.
Pellagra. St. Louis, 1912. Chapter X.

Watker, E. M.
The North American Dragon-flies of the Genus A*shna. Univ. Toronto
Studies, 1912.
Collecting and Rearing Dragon-flies at the Georgian Bay Biological Sta-
tion. Rept. of Ent. Soc. of Ontario, 1907.
Descriptions of new species and nymphs of dragon-flies in Canadian
Entomologist, 1905 to 1914.

WILLIAMSON, E. B. ;
’ Dragon-flies of Indiana. Annual Rept. of Dept. of Geol. and Nat. Hist.,

Copulation of Odonata. Entomological News, May, 1906.

Witson, CuHas. B.
Dragon-flies of the Mississippi Valley collected during the Pearl Mussel
Investigations on the Mississippi River, July and August, 1907. Proc.
U. S. National Mus., 1909.

WIncHELL, N. H., Aanp UPHAM, WARREN.
The Geology of Minnesota, Vol. 1-4. Minneapolis, 1872-1882.

GENERAL INDEX

A
N.@lkemi@r APG GhER TO GVO ES Be eke ae Peer ee eee Sees cata tar a eee ae Ht ms Bee XV
B
Weangl 1nenGhen Fe Fe ee eae aoe Sa Fe Os oe eo eee PS ne ee ERE A ne Tg 17
PASS NViOO CS te VAO TIIUS| OTs cx so) Seeccic oe rade eastu/oliale. eteuahe spears cfeenee oe Rite ee vi
Seimei) OUP ETUC Y: sia ikord a) acu conse nas Serica s, tees) ebeta ae sw aww ew oe 17
EncomUSentlpatounds in Muimmnesotas c-cies- ns sh at sacs Sense seen 1
IBN kaye leloyrnccal be 2A Oy ee, esta ese ho eR RA Pen eR Re RENE THe PL 7
Bie Clisloatipimneiriiy WAY W ea) Lent ea aeaa le oe hes ena alee Us ORB See or Ste bean va vig 14
(Billavelke “IN Eciil, a tll aes a hea siteres See ne ee ae pee ne Be aa RE Brea ee MENG Seip SRE 16
Bice ise Oe ON ert arctic, era. Pen Oe sly.) Ge Me. Ry Ae oe 13
GOL ORCC elim ce e elke e reste oman ss. 2) Sekar cates tn tases Ser ee ee as 8
C
SA a Gem VA GO lies piace ss eeay eee sae ata sy hel Ee sd needs 66
(Casmliceie WA Ghermalce hal IEE ISh OVOKGlcie ae a een aoe Sey Gab ecico owen Gaal oc vi
(Cath, « JBSTiG eee Oe eR AS Pa re a 2 BET erie are ie ee em BRA ie 17
(CRCaT BITE Ay 08 cases ean ae een Ree eI Leave MRA arse ta ile Ee 11
Ghtestnmtesided = Warbler... yc1sk sola tne clei) cole Gulsace eee eae RE 12
Giintekca dle ener teas eres dciahs & cise eat eee la cielo ict Dore ao ene 5
Claiippyaihingsey AS yah oi iteeee meetin aeet cries CARR en ys cee greta SS cchen await care 7
(COG iD aL id Feat Oe Ae RG ROO IC CaP ENING LY Seen nt Cancth aa e E 17
Con werotectionson elanted, trom, Crows). ..05 0 eo eee ee eee 18
Conmespondence and wmIbeECturesin st 5 .clsee . tae eee aie wieienee ay arane een X11
(Coan: ll ASG, aI Nea eae Re enn ae TE EN dra APs An elaine al ate aT at at ae 17
‘Crow: IBGE otra Re eee en a ee ee Mer sie eM ce ee pnb ee 12
Crow sSmoTotechion of blanted (Cori tiom. 7.40 0eee eee oe 18
Crowns Gall Sees ae ae ORG Me ONES i A wie ote oe 31
(Cine tnrainives? “BG |S eee Pa me nee nLite arta, Sue! 6 1 2 68
D
Micra O OC DECKER oo i odie Vigcia talus ¢. vim, de. pena) sate i euencte ore meh eg nara 8
E
Ememiresworathem Nurse ryaman GiwWiO/a sa seis sells cle ea.) eis lciegso) oat tedacael 31
ERCP MNS IRTP Ac ere too cncrarei snore bis sicher » sus. Nolan cnonsitle,«) lage canis Wenall eee eee 17
MIRO MeAMEOUSeESPAnhOW: Seem. + siacicats settee be tiarate eerie iencese 7

Eszinilonth, Sishe IDSs eee eee eee Ai tr ea iw ee een te coc nts on | = xii

106 INDEX.

F
BieldvMicecin’ NUrsery: sc. .2e)0 cadence eek ord risen aces ie oe etc aes area ee 41
Binancial Statement ancsere ne far eos ache aieis oh erte Ree eee XVi-Xvil
Blies War bile. tes aie eptters ccs cie ech cena de ars uae aL Ale eat ee Tere ee 61
Biv. Campaign: & gis i sect ete Ales o erebte oat ie oe ae eer ee eee x
Fly Control, Some New Suggestions 1m: O.c2, 0.22245 +e cust eee eae 57
G
Gosha where aise Seow coos ented ee Rrateas Motto co PR. uch oe Cee 17
Groun dial) OV. Gare pee fark As tebe beet oneal Solent Cae eee 16
H
ET OUSEs OVW REM. 2/10 vious reteeraie sister noting et slars Sie OTE rae Gee eee 15
I
PM SE CHAT Er leis iar snore RS eae ace lake eRe rece os Agi towaunie eu ees coke TCE xil
Insect.sCondition's, 19T3=1A een. os eee arc se ce cobhe ae re Eee ili-xi
insect luitewMndex Volssicand hls. since ci acre ee one eee 73
inspected Nurseriess 1sist cof. 1913s. ea ios eee oe eee 24
Inspected Nurseties: List of, 1914502 2. seine fons one eee 25
Inspection, Law: Minnesota «= “ssc5 oss, cee cance 2 ae ee 28
Inspection ‘Law, Discussion <0? -picdacss akeneaieaccees te eee eee 30
Inspection Laws in United States, Abstracts of.............--.--«- 43
Inspection of Minnesota Nurseries and of Imported Nursery Stock 20
Inspection of Nursentes, 191432. et an eee eee eee 34
K
FCM deer: a9 52 89 £5. sagt ee bad wis, kei ieee rete HOR 16
NOD hee Reco deol or Sho Ras doe eee Re Se ee 9
L
Legislation Affecting State Entomologist, Proposed............... 39
icetter or “Ttansimiittal nc oe eis ieee we erence ee ee ili
M
Marsh ‘Hawle si ote.c nose uo xeon o hada oetets ne oe oe 9
Maryland Wellow-throat ca: €hhusac. ) a ace ins ona ee ote eee ial
Meadow “Lathe: fn ac isin Yd oe aan a eh Oaks s hhc the ee ee 10
Melon’ Dice® %...3c0n< vediiger tau os tote mntitn a aes Oe eee ~ 66
Mourning Dove ss ccc. Rice ce trcde ost SOSA ce oul ee ee ee 16
N
Nutserys Piel dies Micesin« scc4) cree tina eee ok ceca a eee eee 41
Nurseryolnspection Fund) 1903) 2 fee eae a en 42
Nursery ‘Inspection’ Fund s1OlA te er ieee oe eee ee 43
Nursery Inspection, Proposed Legislation Affecting............... 39
Nutsery/ Inspection Reports: 62 ti nycnb eae, oc ee ee eee 20

Nursery, Dnspections. “USI 4 ae eee a ee rd ee ee ee ee 34

INDEX. 107

O

Waonsttawerelummary Notes: Off .is ss su cde soe oes awe ds vokele 77

Was CMMENEE OCG e ee Merce a arian seo Are 6 eee ee 66
Pp

EM ierdons MOL MmtOnrolO SISE.2).5.0s5\hate' se oe aes ck ow oo ee Xi-xii

LP TOUTES < LUIS WC ally 5 a ee ReN ines PR A Age I Per RNB Pe EUAN gl 15
Q

LDU), 9 ede Ne ROR oe REE et eater ee a RP Be PAT 16
R

[EtG WEG! NA Sto aa tal ns oa nan el oe Soir 7

eae ECA G CCG iG rOG Gdn yee at na shhre bocce ane me ike a eee 14
S

SIG. OSE SCENE SAGAN nD a i ie OOM ne oe Peer ge yo 31

SEUPSOUIGAGTE «4 Pia; ON ho OA ade CR ee an en SUR ogee we RPS 17

SEIRGIT Clay. (ONaIE AR Sach cate Re aR eNO scat iO oa a SP PO ag Re EG ER Ne cng 6

SRM as hMninve deel aw koe a eps ay eater oe ned a ae ee ks aan ee 17

SPONGE SIDI 5 De OSE eA Re Co RRR SERN ToeE re RM Ee EU Al 15

SELERORY LIAN ULB aac iae ian Saar Pr ren pee S NC emir id ai an: 10

SMG R TPIT ESOL, (hi clS/aieis cee Ge sacle Say avi oe eke eee eee aol ee 52

PG CMeLU ig MeITT aby eke e ines Macca tas dcke dare sic is Gigins cists reniths ee arama eee xii
ap

seem lnsects Some Linportante:s: <2. tne sacs wteees cide dew paitaene detoar 54

Sree Sill OWSis Oa CIT. CrIV ES /8 hays o fccta vst ole d «1 epinrcnss avy aloo le oleo cach ncaa aeena oe 2

Sib ELC) IP LIAS CCES) coin gays. ote siarssnhe ere wintain@ wpe ati ole. s-adelsi endisnauehe cashes eyorerteets 64
U

Wecrwiabirds Hound. mm. Minnesota .c 06.4 ose. «eas osroed eames 1
Ww

WV ALTIBIIG LRG G6 i Sin CNAs Sa a es er ire oe ih PCM a | 61

Nii wmenScedy AN MeMaAtCl i-céis mike clave avs siwlece ciguatete ehewecn eben ove Art lerets alone 6

SMA pesIm CAGE T INS iaiSiePe coca ¥ha 2 Scho a5) Seales abla’ Gieke Bom Rad Stee aR Sra mets BRS eee 64

Waiee WY GOIRTIG! SSS aie ee tice re SEI ne ERASE TENSES tu aS Bree ate ce 69
BY

Beetloanw-Dellscdm VWiOOUPeCKen <2 4.65 65 calsis vapa's sidce bs tue, wit 4 cb» Oe ase melee 17

ie ele reptile et CKOG' | \< cs sete lcbis 1h aro is Sucks zlib land evictoe ene Cietiete 7

Wallon? LSLSuaataTIGie > BAM eRe Ree ere ae Ha RPP Nie eet I el ie oog Se ete UF) 15

THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA
By M. P. Somes

INTRODUCTION

The material upon which this paper is based includes, in large
part, the collections of insects accumulated during the seasons of 1911
and 1912, while the writer was engaged in economic work against the
destructive locusts of Minnesota. In addition many facts are included
which were drawn from a study of the collections of the Division of
Entomology of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station and
from collections made by the writer in Iowa and Minnesota at other
times.

The aim of this paper has been to place before students inter-
ested in the Orthoptera the facts which have been gained to date con-
cerning the most important family of the order, together with field
notes, life histories, ranges, and generic and specific descriptions and
keys which may facilitate accurate and definite identifications. In
every instance a definite Minnesota record for each species has been
included, if possible. Every effort has been made to furnish data which
shall apply to the forms found in this State, and the tables and descrip-
tions have been rewritten and modified to fit them to local conditions
instead of including details which may apply only in areas widely sep-
arated from Minnesota.

No glossary is included since no new terms have been used and
all here included are fully covered in numerous glossaries and die-
tionaries readily accessible.

This bulletin was prepared at the suggestion of Professor F. L.
Washburn, Chief of the Division of Entomology of the Minnesota
Agricultural Experiment Station, and to him thanks are due for the
attention given to the preparation of the illustrations, colored plates,
and figures in text, all of which are new, and for numerous other cour-
tesies. Our thanks are also extended to D. Stoner, M. C. Tanquary,
J. Zetek, C. W. Howard, and others who were associated with us in
the economic work. Quotations have been taken from some of their
notes but in every such case full credit has been given. Without such
helpful codperation in collecting and field observations the data here
presented must have been much less complete. To Professor L.
Bruner, of the University of Nebraska, and A. N. Caudell, of the

7

to

8 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

Smithsonian Institution, who have aided with kindly advice and criti-
cism as well as in the verification of certain species, we extend our
grateful thanks for these and previous favors. To the many friends
in Minnesota who have contributed in various ways to make our work
not only possible but also pleasant, we desire here to express our fullest
appreciation. Among those of conspicuous service to us, both in this
and in our economic work, were the county officials of Norman County,
who furnished us with excellent laboratory facilities at Ada; the school
board of Fergus Falls, Superintendent R. B. MacLean, and J. E.
Metzger, who aided us in various ways and generously gave the use
of their high-school building for office and laboratory purposes; and
Wright Brothers, also of Fergus Falls, who gave us enthusiastic
cooperation and gratuitously furnished tracts of land for our field
experiments. Acknowledgments are also due to Miss I. L. Wood,
artist of the Division, for her work in making drawings.

ACRIDITDAE

The Acridiidae constitute that family of the saltatorial Orthoptera
in which the antennae are shorter than the body, the tarsi three-jointed,
the ocelli three, and the ovipositor short and never ensiform. It thus
includes the group commonly called the ‘“‘short-horned” grasshoppers
and among this group will be found almost all of the species which
are of serious economic importance, at least within our area. The
subfamilies may be separated by the following characters:

Tarsal claws without an ariolum; pronotum dorsally prolonged over the abdomen ;
tegmina lobiform; insects of small size Tettiginae
Tarsal claws with an ariolum; dorsum of pronotum never extended over more
than the basal segments of abdomen; tegmina various; insects of various sizes
Prosternum not armed with a distinct conical or cylindrical spine, though
sometimes supplied with a low blunt tubercle
Face more or less oblique, usually meeting the vertex at an acute angle;
foveolae usually well developed; wings (in our species) never marked
with contrasting colors ; ; Tryxalinae

Face vertical or nearly so and rounded at meeting with vertex; foveolae

usually obscure; wings usually marked with contrasting colors, though

pale yellowish in some, and clear in Camnula ; Oedipodinae
Prosternum armed with a distinct conical or cylindrical spine Acridinae

SUBFAMILY TETTIGINAE

The first subfamily, Tettiginae, is made up of small, obscurely
colored insects found, for the most part, in low open places upon
either mud or sand. Their colors, blending well with the background,
render them very inconspicuous and they are commonly passed unno-
ticed, save by collectors who know their habitat. We have but two

SUBFAMILY TETTIGINAE 9

groups of this subfamily represented in Minnesota and these may be
separated as follows:

Anterior femora more or less compressed, carinate above; antennae with 12 to

14 joints Tettigiae

Anterior femora distinctly and broadly sulcate above; antennae with 16 to 22

joints Batrachideae
TETTIGIAE

The Tettigiae are represented within our borders by three genera
which may be distinguished by the following characters:

Median carina of pronotum cristiform; antennae with 12 (rarely 13) joints
Nomotettix
Median carina of pronotum low; antennae with 14 (or less) joints
Vertex advanced beyond the eyes and wider than one of them; generally

angulate anteriorly Tettix
Vertex not advanced beyond the eyes; generally truncate anteriorly; body
broad between the shoulders ’ Paratettix

NOMOTETTIX Morse

Body scabrous, granulate, or rugose; vertex of head extending
beyond the eyes and wider than one of them, its front angulate or
rounded but not truncate. Pronotum with its median carina raised and
cristiform, more or less arched longitudinally, the front margin pro-
duced in an angle projecting over the back of the head. Superior
sinus on posterior margin of lateral lobes of the pronotum shallow,
being only about one half as deep as the lower. Between the posterior
portion of the eyes and the median carina of the pronotum, a pair of
nipple-like tubercles are usually present. The antennae are normally
short and filiform with 12 or rarely 13 joints. In this genus the ab-
breviate form with the pronotum extending only to the tip of the
abdomen, is most common, although occasionally the long or extended
form is taken. The genus is represented in the United States by a very
few species, nearly all of which are rare and local. We have but one
species which is unknown outside our limits.

Nomotettix parvus Morse

Nomotettix parvus is an interesting little insect which is readily
distinguished from the members of the following genera by the arched
and cristiform pronotum and by the considerably smaller size of the
individuals. In general appearance it has much the aspect of immature
Tettix. There is much variation in coloration, the general tint of the
body varying from gray or brown to nearly black, while forms occur

10 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

in which the dorsum is unmarked, although commonly there are four
dark spots arranged on the disk of the pronotum and occasionally a
light-colored mid-dorsal line. This species was first noted by us at
Cass Lake, July 24, 1912, when it was abundant in both adult and im-
mature forms. It was most plentiful in a spot evidently flooded at
times but not marshy. At that time it was simply moist soil covered
with a turf of Trifolium repens among which were scattered plants of
Polygonum, Mentha, and Parnassia. The insect was noted feeding on
Trifolium and apparently also on algae, as Hancock has described un-
der Tettix. It moves by short, low hops, not at all like the vigorous
and surprisingly powerful hop of Tettix. The species has been taken
at Pipestone, St. Anthony Park, Mahtomedi, Cass Lake, Bena, and
Tower.

TETTIX Charp.

Tettix includes insects of relatively small size with the body more
or less rugulose granulate. The vertex, when viewed from above, is
wider than one of the eyes and, viewed laterally, more or less sinuate;
the anterior border angulate, subconvex, or subtruncate; viewed lat-
erally more or less produced before the eyes. Antennae stout, not
reaching to the shoulders, and made up of from 12 to 14 joints. The-
dorsum of the pronotum may be subcompressed, flattened, tectiform,
subconvex, or slizhtly depressed. Pronotum truncate or but slizhtly
subangulate anteriorly; posteriorly more or less attenuate and acute,
the apical process sometimes abbreviate. Femora entire or with mar-
gins more or less undulate; posterior tibiae slightly enlarged apically;
carinae serrulate, short, and spinose. The first joint of the posterior
tarsi distinctly longer than the third; pulvilli flat below or subspiculate.

Most of the species of this interesting group occur in two forms,
those of the common or extended form and those in which the pro-
notum is more or less abbreviated. These, while evidently mere
forms, have been given varietal names as shown in the table. The
insects are all small and of obscure coloration, though in some forms
there 1s a well-marked color pattern. The colors, however, are so va-
riable as to be of no value in separation of species.

Median carina of pronotum distinctly elevated, percurrent; the dorsum more
or less tectiform
Body slender; pronotal process posteriorly attenuate
Vertex, viewed from above, obtuse angulate; frontal costa, viewed in profile,

slightly sinuate granulatus
Pronotum and wings abbreviate Var. variegatus

Vertex, viewed from above, convex; frontal costa, viewed in profile, not
at all sinuate luggeri

Body more robust; pronotal process and wings shorter
Median carina of pronotum distinctly percurrent, slightly elevated anteriorly;

SUBFAMILY TETTIGINAE 11

body rather slender ornatus

_ Pronotum and wings abbreviate Var. triangularis
Median carina arcuate, compresso-elevate; body more robust; middle femora
of male nearly half as broad as long hancocki
Pronotum and wings abbreviate Var. abbreviatus

Median carina of pronotum not at all, or but slightly, elevated; in profile barely

undulate or anteriorly gibbose; dorsum not tectiform but flattened or sub-
concave

Frontal costa distinctly sinuate; vertex slightly depressed anteriorly; eyes not
prominent; body moderately robust obscurus

Tettix granulatus Kirby

Tettix granulatus is a rather slender species with the eyes only
moderately prominent, the vertex distinctly angulate, and the median
carina very slightly advanced. The dorsum of the pronotum and the
legs are finely granulated, the dorsum of the pronotum being usually
more or less rugose. Jn this species, as in others of the group, the
coloration is variable, running through varying shades of gray and
brown to forms nearly black. The disk of the pronotum is often
marked with blackish spots and at times bears a median light-colored
line. The species is dimorphic, a form being found occasionally in
which the pronotum and wings are much shorter than normal. Han-
cock has designated this abbreviate form as variety variegatus.

The species is found throughout the eastern and northern portions
of North America. Within our limits we have taken it at Worthington,
Redwood Falls, St. Anthony Park, Fergus Falls, Detroit, Crookston,
Warroad, Hibbing, Tower, and Duluth. Like others of this subfamily
it commonly hibernates and has been found even in midwinter in the
borings of beetles or other sheltered places.

We have found this insect active even during midwinter, in pro-
longed warm weather. While normally a shore-loving form, it is
sometimes found far from lakes and streams. We once noted a colony
of this species in a sandy field in Iowa at least a mile from any stream
or body of water. In this instance it was in a cultivated field and
feeding upon the tender stems of young grain, where by use of a
“sweep-net’’ we took many specimens.

Tettix luggeri Hancock

Tettix luggeri is very closely related to T. granulatus, from which
it may be distinguished by the characters given in the key. Separa-
tion is possible, however, only in typical forms and since intermediate
forms occur, especially in specimens taken near our northern limits,
it is very difficult to separate the two positively. We have taken it at
Warroad, Cass Lake, and Allen Junction, in what we consider the
typical form, basing identification on a specimen in the collection of

12 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

this Division, collected by Lugger. In forms intermediate between
this species and 7. granulatus we have taken it at Detroit, Mahtomedi,
and Crookston. Because of the close similarity of the two species as
mentioned above and the constant occurrence of intermediate forms it
might be more logical to consider these as not specifically distinct but
rather as extremes of a variant species.

Tettix ornatus Say.

In Tettix ornatus the eyes are prominent and the anterior margin
of the vertex is rounded, with the median carina strongly projecting.
It is more robust than in the preceding species, with the pronotum
less prolonged and with the median carina less elevated, though dis-
tinct ; coloration is variable, though normally grayish, with the dorsum
marked with four velvety blackish spots. Like T. granulatus it is
found in two forms and to the short or abbreviated form, once known
as T. triangularis Scudd., the varietal name triangularis is sometimes
applied. This species is less confined to banks and shores than the
preceding species and is at times found far out in woodlands or in fact
almost anywhere on sandy soils. In early spring and late fall it may
be observed in numbers on sunny exposures, such as rocks or even the
cement walks of cities, evidently enjoying the warmth of the sun’s
rays. We have taken this species at Worthington, Redwood Falls,
Pipestone, Mankato, Ortonville, St. Anthony Park, Mahtomedi, Fergus
Falls, Crookston, Warroad, Bemidji, Cass Lake, Hibbing, Tower,
Mesaba, Duluth, and Hinckley. It is known to occur throughout east-
ern North America.

In connection with this species we must note 7. acadicus Scudd.,
which is closely related to it and most readily distinguished from it
because the median carina of the vertex is more prominent anteriorly
and the body is shorter. Since this species was described by Scudder
from specimens taken at Lake of the Woods, doubtless at or near
Warroad, and has also been recorded by Lugger from St. Anthony
Park, it is almost certain that it is included in the series listed above,
but we were unable to distinguish among them any which could be
positively referred to this species.

Tettix hancocki Morse

Tettix hancock is closely related to 7. ornatus, from which it may
be distinguished by the more robust form and more strongly elevated
pronotal carina and the more enlarged posterior femora. In surface
granulation and color it is very similar to T. ornatus and does not differ

SUBFAMILY TETTIGINAE 13

in habitat from that species. We have not as yet taken this species in
the northern part of the State but only at Worthington, Redwood
Falls, and Fergus Falls. Dugger has recorded it from St. Anthony
Falls.

Tettix obscurus Hancock

Tettix obscurus is a slender form, very similar in general appear-
ance to T. granulatus but has the dorsum of the pronotum flattened
and the median carina very slightly or not at all elevated. It is also
very similar to the more southern species, 7. arenosus Burm., from
which it may be distinguished by the more robust form and the less
prominent eyes. In habitat it is found in dry open places, varying
from sandy banks of streams to the open prairies of the Red River
Valley. It has been taken at St. Anthony Park, Redwood Falls, Fer-
gus Falls, and Warroad, and will doubtless be found throughout the
State.

PARATET Tix: Bol:

Body granulate, scabrous, or rugose; vertex horizontal, narrower,
as wide as one of the eyes, or slightly wider, very slightly nar-
rowed anteriorly ; the front margin truncate and not produced beyond
the eyes; frontal costa between the antennae more or less declined and
rarely subsinuate toward the base; the eyes noticeably prominent and
subglobose ; antennae made up of 14 joints; pronotum rather flattened
above and with its anterior margin truncate; posteriorly attenuate,
surpassing the tips of posterior femora, although sometimes abbre-
viated ; median carina low; tegmina oval or elongate, the wings usually
well developed ; hind tibiae with apical third gradually and considerably
enlarged; pulvilli of posterior tarsi spiculate. This genus is repre-
sented in North America by several species, all save one of which are
found only in the South or West.

Paratettix cucullatus Morse

Paratettix cucullatus appears to be especially fond of muddy banks
along streams and lakes, and in such places may sometimes be found
in great numbers. Hancock has written of its habits as follows: “The
muddy shores of the Skunk River, in Iowa, afford a favorable habitat
for water-loving and semi-aquatic insects. Along this river, seven
miles from What Cheer, the writer found that the Tettigids were
unusually abundant June 29, 1894, the species mostly represented being
P. cucullatus. Swarms, many of which were in sexual union, were
frightened up from the immediate margin of the water while the

14 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

author made excursions along the shore. A diversity of color existed
among this species; many were so colored as to look exactly like the
wet varicolored soil. Some had rich russet-red over the whole upper
surface of the body or the visible portions of the individuals were
entirely clay-colored, or a part of the pronotum only was colored in
this manner, while still others were almost coal-black above. These
varieties, to say nothing of many more not mentioned, were in perfect
harmony with the environment. On careful inspection it was interest-
ing to observe with what accuracy these colors agreed with the tinges
of reds, yellows, browns, and grayish blacks existing here and there
as patches in the soil. The extreme caution of these insects made it
difficult to capture them, and, as they use their wings perfectly in
flight, this added to the difficulty of taking the species. Keeping close
to the water’s edge, the author drove them along with an open um-
brella until coming to a little projection of land upon which a large
number had congregated. Finally upon a sudden rush at the insects,
they flew up in hundreds, to find that return to land was impossible;
they fell back into the water. It was only necessary now to gather the
little swimmers in as they made exquisite use of their dilated, paddle-
like, hind tibiae in seeking the shore. The aquatic powers of this
insect are more perfect than those of any other of our local species.”

The following notes made by the writer while in Iowa may be
added: Fort Dodge, Iowa, July 12, 1910—P. cucullatus was very
abundant along the muddy banks of a small stream. Mating was in
evidence and many pairs were im coitu. There appears to be every
possible shade of dark coloration among the individuals. The males
are mainly of two distinct color types: one rather uniformly light-
colored or grayish and the other very dark-colored with the ventral
parts and cheeks chalky, giving much the appearance of Tettigidea
lateralis. The grayish males appear to predominate.

This insect has been taken at nearly all places in Minnesota where
collecting has been done and will doubtless be found throughout the
State wherever muddy banks offer favorable habitation.

BATRACHIDEAE

Among the Batrachideae the body is rugulose or scabrous; the
front is vertical or slightly oblique; vertex generally large and trun-
cate anteriorly; frontal costa always sulcate from base to median
ocellus ; usually narrow though sometimes widely separated; antennae
are rather long and usually of from 16 to 22 joints, the first joint being
much larger than the others and the second joint globular and small;

~SUBFAMILY TETTIGINAE 15

pronotum always more or less tectiform, advanced anteriorly above
the occiput, the front margin rounded, obtuse-angulate or terminating
in a small cusp, which is directed forward between the eyes; the pos-
terior process of the pronotum is acute and variable in length; the
elytra are more or less rounded apically and normally marked with a
small light spot near the tip; posterior tibiae are enlarged toward the
tip; the carinae multispinose; first joint of posterior tibiae scarcely
longer than, and often only equal to, the last. We have only one genus
represented in our fauna.

TETTIGIDEA Scudd.

Vertex distinctly wider than, or at least equal to, one of the eyes
in width, the anterior lateral carinae terminating obliquely or rounded,
middle carinae more or less elevated. Frontal costa compressed and
advanced before the eyes and coalescent above with the median carina
of the vertex. Antennae relatively short and made up of 22 joints.
The dorsum of the pronotum is scabrous, finely granulate, and usually
more or less rugose; its sides sloping downward between the shoul-
ders, the posterior portion flattened and attenuate or abbreviate; the
anterior margin more or less projecting forward upon the head and,
in our species, rounded or obtuse-angulate. We have but one species,
although, as is common in this subfamily, it is found in two forms.

Tettigidea parvipennis Morse

Body moderately robust; vertex about twice the width of one of
the eyes (very distinctly so in the male) and projecting before the
eyes; from the crown there projects a small lobule upon each side
covering a portion of the upper, inner border of each eye; dorsum of
pronotum distinctly tectiform anteriorly and flattened posteriorly,
where it is normally extended and attenuate. This insect is, within
our limits, commonly found in the long-winged or extended form, to
which the varietal name pennata is sometimes applied. It appears to
be common throughout the State, though rather scarcer in the north-
ern part. In spring and fall it often congregates in great numbers
and we have taken it in great numbers by “sweeping” through sandy
fields of young grain in spring. During the winter it hibernates under
various covers. The short-winged or typical form is found associated
with the long-winged but is commonly much less abundant. Rather
peculiarly, with us, the short-winged form appears much darker in
tint than its relative and often bears very distinct and striking whitish
markings on dorsum, cheeks, and femora.

16 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

SUBFAMILY TRYXALINAE

The subfamily Tryxalinae is exceedingly closely related to the
Oedipodinae and the differentiation of these two 1s sometimes an ex-
tremely difficult matter. While it is true that in general the forms are
readily placed, yet on the other hand there are forms in which the
characteristics of the two subfamilies are so mtermingled that separa-
tion becomes a matter of arbitrary rule. The characteristic forms of
Tryxalinae have an oblique front with the vertex horizontal or even
slightly ascending, but in the Oedipodinae also forms are found having
similar characters. ‘There are a few characters which may be relied
upon to differentiate these subfamilies, at least so far as our species
are concerned. In the Try.valinae the carina of the pronotum is never
crested, or cut by more than one sulcus save in Mecostethus, while in
the Oedipodinae the carina may be cut by one, two, or no sulci
and is often crested. In the Tryxalinae we have no forms with colored
wings, while in the Oedipodinae practically all of our species have at
least the basal part of the wings distinctly colored.

The insects of the Tryxalinae have in general slender bodies, often
with elongate, cone-shaped heads much suggesting the Conocephalinae
among the Locustids. Long- and short-winged forms of species are
common and the coloration is also extremely variable, there being
often distinctly green and brown forms with all the intermediate tints.
The subfamily in general frequents tall grasses, and such plant forma-
tions as the Carices offer the most common habitat, although some
species are more commonly found amid the scattered vegetation of
sandy areas. Usually the postericr legs, while long, are very slender
and the insects in general have much poorer leaping powers than
those of related groups, all appearing to depend more upon flight as
a means of escape from danger. The coloration is such, in many
forms, as to render the insects almost invisible when feeding and these
species appear in large measure to rely upon this protective colora-
tion. While, as has been suggested, flight is the common means of
escape, in many forms the wing area is too small to aid greatly in
this and even in those forms with well-developed wings the flight is
rather feeble and in most cases not well sustained.

More than thirty genera belonging to this subfamily are known
in North America and of these less than a dozen are represented in
Minnesota. Several of our species are extremely rare and we have
but one species, Stenobothrus curtipennis, which becomes abundant
enough to be of economic importance. ‘The following key will serve
to distinguish the genera of this subfamily as represented in our State:

SUBFAMILY TRYXALINAE 17

Mesosternal lobes separated by a space almost linear in narrowest part; meta-
sternal lobes almost approximate in both sexes Mermeria}
Mesosternal lobes separated by a space never much longer than broad, generally
broader than long; metasternal lobes rarely approximate i
Antennae triquetrous, acuminate, and strongly flattened at base O peta
Antennae never triquetrous, not acuminate or distinctly flattened at base,
usually filiform, though sometimes clavate ’
Tempora foveolate or plain, not visible from above; face decidedly oblique
Scutellum of vertex with a distinct median carina, usually stronger

anteriorly

Antennae depressed apically, somewhat clavate; supplementary carinae
accompany the median on head or pronotum or both Eritettix

Antennae not depressed or clavate but long and filiform; no supple-
mentary carinae on head or pronotum’ Chloealtis

Scutellum of vertex with no median carina
Median carina of pronotum cut much behind the middle; lateral carinae
of pronotum parallel; foveolae of vertex wanting Dicromorpha
Median carina of pronotum cut at or near the middle; lateral carinae
of pronotum more or less arcuate; foveolae of vertex evident
Orphulella
Tempora foveolate or plain, visible from above; face less oblique to nearly
vertical
Intercalary veins of tegmina strongly developed; median carina of
pronotum high and sharp, cut plainly before the middle, or very rarely
at the middle, by the principal sulcus Mecostethus
Intercalary veins of tegmina not strongly developed; median carina of
pronotum not high or sharp
Inner apical spines of posterior tibiae subequal in length
Antennae filiform Stenobothrus
Antennae clavate Gomphocerus
Inner apical spines of posterior tibiae very unequal, the inferior about
twice as long as superior; median carina of pronotum not cut by
principal sulcus A geneotettix

OPEIA McNeill

The vertex nearly horizontal, shorter than the distance between
the eyes, convex and a little sulcate behind the lateral carinae which
are prominent and meet at an angle of about ninety degrees. Median
carina distinct. Lateral foveolae are small sulci, not visible from above, |
extending from the ocellus toward the vertex; frontal costa sulcate.
except at apex. Viewed laterally the face is nearly straight and
strongly declivent. The antennae are decidedly flattened, especially
toward the base, regularly acuminate, and shorter than the head and
pronotum. The pronotum has the disk nearly flat though somewhat
tectate upon the prozona. The median and lateral carinae are very
strong and cut by the principal sulcus considerably behind the middle.
The lateral carinae are nearly parallel upon the prozona but diverge
somewhat posteriorly from the principal sulcus to the posterior margin
of the pronotum which is subangulate. The lateral lobes of the pro-
notum are not quite so high as long and are in large part perpendicular
although slightly convex above; they bear, below the middle, a nearly

1Mermeria is included above for the ready identification of M. bivitatta Serv. which,

although not yet taken in Minnesota, has been taken by us in Iowa near the border of
Minnesota and may be expected within our area.

18 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

horizontal carina extending from the principal sulcus to the posterior
margin; their anterior and posterior borders are oblique and their
lower margin nearly straight. Prosternal tubercle absent. Tegmina
usually shorter than the abdomen in the female although in a specimen
now before us they extend considerably beyond the tip of the abdomen.
This genus is represented in North America by but one species.

Opeia obscura Thom.

Opeia obscura is, in general, western in distribution but we have
taken it at Brown Valley, Fergus Falls, and Mankato. It is extremely
variable, particularly in coloration. In typical forms the dorsum is
green or brown and nearly plain, although sometimes more or less
distinctly streaked with fuscous along the median carina. The sides
are marked by a stripe extending backward from the eye, largely dark
upon the head but widening and becoming more obscure posteriorly.
This stripe consists, upon the pronotum, of five parts as follows: An
upper streak of brownish or fuscous below the lateral carina; below
this a somewhat broader light or greenish streak, followed by a white
line on the prozonal lobe, which is continued as a white, raised, nearly
horizontal carina across the metazonal lobe; below this a dark streak
similar to the upper one and this followed below by another light or
whitish streak. Bruner, speaking of this species, says “it occurs
where the grasses are short and the climate arid,’ but in all cases
where it has yet been taken in this State, it has been found in damp
or marshy places amid tall grasses and Carices. The following meas-
urements are from a female, taken at Fergus Falls: length 19.5 mm.,
tegmina 14.5 mm., and hind femur 11.5 mm.

ERITETTIX. Bruner

Head more or less conical, occiput not elevated, furnished with
three carinae, one median and two supplementary. The median carina
extends from the pronotum to the tip of vertex where it becomes
enlarged, the supplementary from the pronotum to a point opposite
the anterior margin of the eye where they are each abruptly deflected
to join the lateral carinae of the vertex, thus marking off the vertex
into an equilateral triangle. Foveolae are shallow and triangular, not
visible from above. Frontal costa has the sides regularly divergent
from the vertex to the clypeus, generally a little constricted above the
ocellus and slightly sulcate for a greater or less distance above this
but never sulcate to the vertex. The antennae are thick, generally
somewhat flattened at the base, and clavate at the apex, which is bluntly

SUBFAMILY TRYXALINAE 19

acuminate, and are scarcely longer than the head and pronotum. The
pronotum has the lateral and median carinae distinct and cut only once,
decidedly behind the middle, by the principal sulcus. Besides the three
usual carinae there are two supplementary carinae, one on either side
of the median and lower, or obsolescent, at the principal sulcus. The
posterior margin of the pronotum is very obtusely angulate. The lobes
of the pronotum are about as high as long, with the anterior border
decidedly more oblique than the posterior. They bear a more or less
distinct carina, which runs obliquely downward from the first sulcus
to or near the posterior margin. The anterior lower angle is obtuse
while the posterior is nearly rectangular. The lower margin is straight
and nearly horizontal on the posterior half and slightly ascending on
the anterior half. The mesosternal lobes are separated by a space
much wider than long and the metasternal lobes by a space longer
than wide in both sexes. The wings are usually well developed in both
sexes. There is no intercalary vein and the dividing vein is soon
united with the plicate vein. The ovipositor of the female is nearly
included. The posterior femora are stouter than is usual in this group,
with the tip extending more or less beyond the end of the abdomen;
they are not marked with cross bands but the colors are sometimes
arranged in longitudinal bands. Posterior tibiae are usually obscurely
colored in yellowish or clay but never blue; the inner apical spur is
about twice as long as the outer. The genus includes small, variously
colored, active insects which may be readily distinguished by the
supplementary carinae and the oblique carina upon the lobes of the
pronottm. But one species has, as yet, been taken within our area.

Eritettix tricarinatus Thom.

Eritettix tricarinatus occurs, with us, in two distinct color forms,
most commonly of a brownish tone with the dorsum and tegmina
marked with black spots, but sometimes of a bright green general
color, similarly marked. It has been noted as rather common in early
spring on high gravelly hills in Ottertail County. We have taken it
there as early as May 1, and it is numerous until near the middle of
July. Hibernation carries it through the winter in the immature stages
and mating and oviposition occur in early summer. As with most
related forms, the males are much smaller than the females but similar
in general appearance. It is a very alert and active little insect and
the pale color, small size, and active habits make it a very hard subject
for close observation in the field. The green form somewhat resembles
Orphulella speciosa Scudd. in the field, although the clubbed antennae
and the supplementary carinae readily distinguish it from that species.

20 l!HE ACRIDHDAE OF MINNESOTA

While the association may be purely accidental, we have always taken
this species in the vicinity of the low wild sage, Artemisia.

CHLOEAL TS Hacer.

Vertex triangular and slightly declivent, not extending before the
eyes as much as the distance between the eyes, convex, sulcate to a
greater or less degree, the lateral carinae a little elevated and the
median carina weak but never entirely wanting. Lateral foveolae
absent. Frontal costa more or less rounded above the ocellus, plain,
or but slightly sulcate below with the sides subparallel. The antennae
are decidedly flattened at the base and much longer than the head and
pronotum, in the male being as long as the posterior femora. Face
nearly straight when viewed laterally. The disk of the pronotum
nearly plane with the three carinae, equally distinct, and cut much
behind the middle by the principal sulcus; the lateral carinae curved
in both sexes, more strongly so in the female. Posterior margin of
the metazona is straight or gently curved but not angulate. The lat-
eral lobes of the pronotum are longer than high with anterior and
posterior margins straight, strongly and about equally oblique; the
inferior margins straight and nearly horizontal or slightly descending
posteriorly and more decidedly so anteriorly. Mesosternal lobes sep-
arated by a space much broader than long and the metasternal, by a
space broader than long in females and about as broad as long in
males. Tegmina generally abortive in females and well developed,
though rather short, in males. The scapular area is strongly expanded,
especially in males. Posterior femora are moderately slender, more
or less banded above. Inner apical spurs of the posterior tibiae are
about equal in length. Two species of this genus have been noted in
Minnesota and thesé may be separated as follows:

Posterior margin of disk of pronotum straight; lateral lobes of pronotum black

in males ; conspersa
Posterior margin of disk of pronotum obtusely rounded; lateral lobes of pronotum
not black in males; larger species abdominalis

Chloealtis conspersa Harr.

Chloealtis conspersa is a small and rather inconspicuous, although
brightly colored, species in which the sexes differ markedly in colora-
tion. The males are brown, beautifully mottled with fine black spots
and with the lateral lobes of the pronotum shining black. The color
of the ventral surface of the body is a rich reddish brown. The wings
and tegmina are well developed and notably expanded at the scapular

SUBFAMILY TRYXALINAE 21

@tea (see Plate I, 3). .The females’ are considerably larger, of
duller coloration, without the black lobes on the pronotum, and have
- short and abortive tegmina and wings. There is a truly remarkable
likeness in color and form of the females of this species to those of
the brownish forms of Dicromorpha viridis Scudd., but they may be
separated by the fact that in Chloealtis there is a distinct median carina
on the vertex and the lateral carinae of the pronotum are not parallel.

In Iowa this species is confined to woodlands or their immediate
borders, but in Minnesota, where it is very generally distributed, it
may be found even far out on the treeless tracts of the Red River

Fig. 2, Normal Habitat of Chloealtis conspersa

Valley. Its common mode of oviposition is by drilling holes in wood
and there depositing the eggs and mucous, but on the open prairies of
Minnesota it must adapt itself to different conditions and possibly
oviposit even in the soil, as we have taken it in many places where
there were no trees or even fence posts, yet the species was more
plentiful than in the woodlands of Iowa. The following from our
field notes, taken in Iowa, may be of interest here.

July 26, 1909. We noted a female C. conspersa drilling in a dis-
carded fence rail of birch which was lying on the ground. She tried
one spot after another and after a few minutes wandered aimlessly
upon the log making tentative examinations of the surface at intervals,
but finally came back almost to the spot she had left and there began

22 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

work again. After working busily for nearly half an hour, she with-
drew the abdomen and walking down the side of the log climbed upon a
stalk of Carex and spent some time nibbling there, until an incautious
movement alarmed her, when she dropped to the ground below. We
lay perfectly quiet, hoping she would return and perfect the drilling
in the log, but after a time she began to edge cautiously away evidently
seeking to escape. We caught her, placed her in a box, took her home,
arranged a cage, and supplied a number of pieces of wood, hoping to
see the process of drilling repeated. Although she fed freely we were
apparently unable to select satisfactory pieces of wood as she rejected
all and died within a few days. Dissection showed 19 well-matured
eggs in the body.

From the insectary notes of C. W. Howard, taken during the
summer of 1912, we take the following regarding this species: “My
specimens oviposited in fallen branches of oak, about 1% or 2 inches in
diameter, usually in quite firm, sound pieces. The female bores a hole
in the wood, either straight down from a broken end, following the
grain of the wood or at a wide angle with the surface of the wood.
About 10 eggs are laid in each pod although as few as 4 are sometimes
deposited. The pod is about 10 mm. broad and 20 mm. long, from 4
to 7 mm. of which is occupied by the dark brown varnish which cements
the top, bulging up in the center with a convex surface. The eggs are
about 5 mm. long by 1 mm. thick and are creamy white in color, slightly
narrowed at the cap end.”

Although doubtless state-wide in distribution, the following will
give definite locality records of places where we have found this inter-
esting little insect: Pipestone, Redwood Falls, Granite Falls, Camp-
bell, Fergus Falls, Crookston, Bemidji, St. Cloud, Tower, Duluth,
Hinckley, Mahtomedi, St. Anthony Park, Invergrove, Northfield, Man-
kato, and Sauk Center.

Chloealtis abdominalis Thom.

Specimens of Chloealtis abdominalis were taken in July, 1912, in
a dense brush of Ceanothus, Salix, and Taxus, near Bemidji, in land
now partly cleared but formerly covered with a growth of piniferous
forest. Even at first glance, its rather more elongate form, slightly
different coloration, and the brown lobes of the pronotum assured us
that it was not C. conspersa. But one adult male was taken, although
careful search disclosed several immature forms but no more adults.
This locality is doubtless near the eastern extreme of the range of
this species which has heretofore been taken in Montana and North
Dakota.

SUBFAMILY TRYXALINAE 23
DICHROMORPHA Morse

Vertex much shorter than broad, somewhat declivent, convex but
more or less sulcate behind the distinctly elevated lateral carinae.
These are straight or gently curved and meet at an angle, usually
exceeding ninety degrees. The median carina is entirely wanting as
are the lateral foveolae. The frontal costa is sulcate above and below
the ocellus with the sides gently divergent downward and more or less
constricted just below the ocellus and at the vertex. The face viewed
laterally is nearly straight. The antennae are a little longer in the
male but scarcely as long in the female as the head and pronotum.
The disk of the pronotum is plain with the three carinae nearly straight
and parallel, all cut distinctly behind the middle by the very faintly
marked principal sulcus. The first and second sulci are not visible on
the disk. The lateral lobes of the pronotum are perpendicular, longer
than high, with the anterior and posterior margins strongly oblique,
the latter plainly sinuate with the lower margin a little descending
posteriorly, more strongly ascending and sinuate anteriorly. Lobes
of the mesosternum are separated by a space broader than long in the
female or as broad as long in the male; lobes of metasternum separated
by a space as long as broad in the female or contiguous in the male.
Tegmina are generally abortive, though rarely well developed; but in
such cases the scapular area is not noticeably expanded. Posterior
femora are stout and not banded; posterior tibiae are obscurely colored
with the inner apical spurs very unequal. But one species, which is
common throughout North America, is found here.

Dichromorpha viridis Scudd.

Dichromorpha viridis is dimorphic in both coloration and length
of wings. The long-winged form (Chyrsochraon punctulatum Thom.)
is rare but has been noted at Worthington. The short-winged form is
very common and most of the males are green in color while the
females are more commonly of grayish or brownish tints. It has
appeared in the field that there may be some element of sexual attrac-
tion attached to this diversity of coloration, since in numerous pairs
observed in coitu the great majority were of oppositely colored indi-
viduals. The species is commonly found in damp, shaded places, such
as the rich vegetation of lowlands and low woodlands. It has been
taken at Worthington, Pipestone, Amboy, Mankato, Redwood Falls,
Monticello, and Fort Snelling. It has not been noted as yet north of
the Minnesota Valley.

=

24 THE ACRIDIDAE OF MINNESOTA
ORPHULELLA Giglio-Tos.

The Orphulellas include insects of small or medium size, slender,
and vary, in our forms; from green to brown, sometimes variegated
with pink or purple. Vertex nearly horizontal and not extending before
the eyes a distance greater than its own width; median carina obsoles-
cent, sometimes very faintly indicated in part; the lateral foveolae
usually present though small and not visible from above. The antennae
are filiform, medium in length, sometimes depressed or acuminate.
Pronotum with median carina distinct and usually of moderate
strength, cut at or behind the middle by one sulcus; lateral carinae,
in ours, more or less divergent before and behind the sulcus, which is
very weak; front margin of disk truncate or rarely slightly cuspidate ;
posterior margin broadly rounded or subangulate. Posterior femora
moderately slender, exceeding the abdomen in both sexes; tegmina
reaching or exceeding the tip of posterior femora.

So far as now known we have but two species within our State,
but as more general collecting is done, it appears very possible that
others may be found. Our species may be separated by the following
characters:

Lateral carinae of the pronotum strongly incurved; prozona and metazona about

equal in length pelidna
Lateral carinae of the pronotum slightly incurved; prozona considerably longer
than the metazona speciosa

Orphulella pelidna Burm.

Orphulella pelidna is rather small and quite variable in colora-
tion. It has been found at many widely scattered points throughout
the State but usually not in very large numbers at any one point. The
brown form, with the tegmina and posterior femora somewhat lighter,
is the predominant type but in certain localities distinctly green forms
may be taken. In this species, as in many of the Tryalinae, most of
the green specimens are males. We have taken this species usually
amid low vegetation and in areas of moderately moist soil. In the
vicinity of Fergus Falls it matures about the middle of July. We have
collected this species at Winona, Gray Cloud Island, Mankato, Red-
wood Falls, Detroit, Fergus Falls, Wadena, Ada, Crookston, and
Mahtomedi.

Orphulella speciosa Scudd.

In Orphulella speciosa the green form is predominant in both
sexes, the vertex and pronotum are somewhat broader than in
O. pelidna, and the posterior femora generally somewhat stouter with

SUBFAMILY TRYXALINAE

bo
on

the tibiaé lighter in color. This insect matures somewhat earlier than
its congener and, at Fergus Falls, adults are usually taken by about
July 10. In the immature instars and frequently in freshly moulted
adults the dorsum of the pronotum is pink, yellow, or even purple.
A rather dark-colored female is shown on Plate I, 1.

i JrLA
xittson | ROSEAU i
t i 4j
—- © qmen. © aus ames ous cane oa! bs
Lei
MARSHALL 4 | |
pes let i re pectram | KOOCHICHING | l 1
1 PENNINGTON | i ! |
ro Cee: ? - | 1 cook
{RED LAKE | | | ss; J 2 1 !
4 igniccee: oS ; | \
ete ee) | . | . Aue
POLK * j | G
g. I ITASCA : ST. LouIs 3 |
--—-—-—. ote TA ll ey Bj -~. 1 »
fs ze os An 3 2 |
een tate) \ | g :
NORMAN j 6 H : nee
cal: Loh i ? i !
(eee Lae Sell ol if : !
! lp coal : al
3 oy ake
’ > ‘ CASS =
any BECKER 2 i , i 4
hase eres al [eaye'a eae Las ee a
eel ies .
aly | él \ 2 ! AITKIN | CARLTON
</ | i} | < i : S | 2
Sj OTTER TAIL l : | a 1 leer
24 4 Soe Ie Loe at :
PSS ieee
ea a St a ee | ih NES —|miutel—-—-4 PINE
q LS Topp | peacst ol
i | | i MORRISON == = Ort
& | GRANT jpoucras i ae 4
op) Meee es jae 1 MecosveTHUs LINEATUS
Aa cml \eenton; fe 2. MECOSTETHUS GRACILIS
. C \ i <
“ZT stevens! Foe || STEARNS, (Sel a 3. MECOSTETHUS PLATYPTERUS
, eee ee a ee “SHERBURNE | 1% 4. PODISMA VARIEGATA
ne i Swikt ieee Sf ANOKA tas 5. CHLOEALTIS ABDOMINALIS
Sy meron ‘ wricHT Se 6 MELANOPLUS CONSPERSUS
Sas 4S | meeker | Wiles (arane
tac \. cHippewa | | | 1% RAM =
: ' <a Ly . Sey| =
QUI PARLE ESS pe RY . eS Gees a
pete 2 et Rs + McLEOD , CARVER | 27, vs
' rhe, 5
YELLOW MEDICINES Ip cong remem) gees
pease oor meen RNG fp ae (a Scoltas ‘
al b-! =o sy SIBLEV SS ease eleven tl
Sieh le en ieee at
2 j LYON | REDWOOD ! :\NICOLLET 1 =
= | ! fal Af ~ /vesueuR, RICE = * WABASHA
—-—|—-—.—-L._._.J Brown | </> Pate apa Pat itis
( | ae ee j I \ : arg
Pomel MURRAY | coTTON- i”, (oe EAN THiwasecnisrEELe copa! OLMSTED i WINONA
noe) se TEL wOCD Be LZ) peas ae J.—-4- = SE Oe
I | i i | i ‘
ROCK | NOBLES j vAckson j MARTIN | FARIBAULT | FREEGORN | mower | FILLMORE Higa

Fig. 3. Records of Some Rare Species

Like the preceding species it delights in areas of low vegetation,
although this species is not so closely confined to lowlands, being found
even amid the somewhat scattered vegetation of high hills. It doubt-
less occurs through most parts of the State and we have the following
records of captures: Albert Lea, Mankato, Mahtomedi, St. Cloud,

26 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

Fergus Falls, Detroit, Ada, Crookston, Pipestone, Redwood Falls,
Lake of the Woods, Bemidji, Biwabik, and Vermillion Lake.

MECOSTETHUS Fieb.

Insects of large or medium size, slender, and more or less com-
pressed, for the most part brownish or yellowish in coloration and
very local in habitat. The vertex is horizontal, sometimes slightly
declivent, produced anteriorly to the eyes for a distance considerably
greater than the width of one of the eyes; disk of vertex rather broadly
triangular and acute or obtuse at apex; median carina distinct, stronger
anteriorly ; lateral carinae rather strong; lateral foveolae minute, shal-
low, and widely separated, visible from above, though sometimes al-
most obsolete. The antennae are as long as the head and pronotum
together in the female and much longer in the male. They are filiform
though sometimes somewhat depressed basally. The disk of the
pronotum is plane with all the carinae distinct, the median cut at or in
advance of the middle. The lateral carinae are also cut at or before
the middle, usually by two sulci. The anterior margin of the pronotum
is truncate or very broadly angulate, the posterior margin very ob-
tusely angulate. The tegmina are well developed in both sexes, the
posterior femora long and moderately slender. The subgenital of the
male is acutely produced and nearly horizontal.

Our species may be separated as follows:

Prozona shorter than the metazona; lateral carinae strongly sulcate and divergent

from the first sulcus to the posterior margin
Scapular area of the tegmina with a pale streak; intercalary vein of male

with very obscure low teeth : lineatus
Scapular area of tegmina without a pale streak; intercalary vein of male with
sharp, elevated, minute, closely set teeth gracilis

Prozona not shorter than the metazona; lateral carinae nearly straight and very
gently divergent platypterus

Mecostethus lineatus Scudd.

Mecostethus lineatus is a very rare insect and has been reported
from but few localities, ranging from New England to northern In-
diana, Illinois, and Iowa. It is an unusually trim and attractive locust,
rather large in size and, while its general coloration is rather somber,
the touches of coral-red tend to make it a very handsome insect. The
general color is a rather dark brown but a narrow yellowish line
extends from behind the eye to, and sometimes more or less distinctly
along, the lateral carinae of the pronotum. This line is bordered below
by a rather broad dark streak. In most specimens there are also one
or two oblique, anteriorly descending, yellow lines on the face and

/

SUBFAMILY TRYXALINAE 27

prozona. The scapular area of the tegmina is inturned, forming a
plane dorsally, and is in large part pale or yellowish. Hind femora
with the outer face brown of varying tones, the lower sulcus coral-red ;
the inner face with a longitudinal dark bar in both the superior and
inferior fields, sometimes nearly the whole inner face more or less
suffused with coral-red; hind tibiae rather pale yellowish with a dark
annulation at the base, a somewhat fainter submedian band and apically
another dark ring, indistinctly bounded above.

During the season of 1911 we noted one specimen in a marsh near
Fergus Falls, but in July, 1912, in low areas near Lake of the Woods,
it was found in very considerable numbers and in almost every instar
of its development. It was most numerous in the edge of poplar
“islands” where the swamps were somewhat drier than in the open.
The males especially are very active and not readily taken. Blatchley
(The Orthoptera of Indiana, p. 250) says of this species, ‘“The males
appear to far outnumber the females, and are much more wild and
active, taking flight when a person is a dozen yards distant. They use
the wings only in escaping, flying swiftly and noiselessly for 50 to 100
feet and alighting on the stems of tall grasses and sedges among which
they make their homes. The only way in which I have been able to
effect their capture was by running after them and swooping them with
the net as they rose or before they had time to arrange their legs for
the upward impetus at the beginning of a new flight.” All of this
applies exactly in the swamps of Minnesota and it was a matter of
considerable hard work to take them in the tangle of wiry plants where
they are found. The females are much heavier and more clumsy than
the males and apparently rely largely on concealment for escape from
danger as they were only taken by sweeping the sedges. The young
are uniformly much darker than the adults, some being nearly black,
and save for the peculiarly trim pronotum do not suggest the species.
When not alarmed, the insects of this species are very similar in habits
to the Locustidae and especially to Conocephalus, climbing slowly up
and down the stems of tall sedges and swinging around to hide behind
the stems at the slightest motion of the observer. The very elongate
head and slender legs tend to emphasize the resemblance.

Mecostethus gracilis Scudd.

Mecostethus gracilis is an especially attractive insect, its trim, neat
lines and pleasing coloration serving to distinguish it from its con-
geners. It can be readily separated from the preceding by the char-
acters given in the key, and especially by the absence of a pale streak
along the scapular area of the tegmina. All of our captures of this

28 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

insect were accidental in sweeping, and in every case it has been taken
from Carices. We have taken it at Fergus Falls, Lake Winnibigoshish,
Allen Junction, and near the upper end of Vermillion Lake.

Mecostethus platypterus Scudd.

Mecostethus platypterus is about the size of M. lineatus, but with
the wings relatively shorter. The coloration is of a dull brown with
the dorsal field of the tegmina grayish and with no pale stripe along
the scapular area. The figure gives a good idea as to the general
appearance of this insect, although the relative length of the prozona
is apparently exaggerated. The drawing, however, is accurate and
correct and the suture passes but little behind the middle. We have
taken this insect only in the dense tangles of tamarack swamps near
Mesaba and at Allen Junction. At these places the immature stages
were not at all rare on July 25, but there were relatively few adults.
The species has been reported outside the New England States but
rarely; Hart (Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., VII, p. 205) mentioned
it from Illinois, and there is a specimen taken at Little Rock, Iowa, in
the collections of Iowa State College at Ames.

STENOBOTHRUS., Fisch.

Stenobothrus, as now recognized, is largely western in distribu-
tion and is made up of insects of small size and varying coloration.
The vertex is broadly triangular in both sexes, more obtuse anteriorly
in the females. The foveolae are narrow rectangular or almost linear
depressions, rather deep, and plainly visible from above ; median carina
wanting or sometimes indicated by a lighter line; face quite oblique
though rounded at the vertex; head somewhat elevated above the
plane of the pronotum. Pronotum rather short, the anterior margin
truncate, the posterior broadly subangulate in males, sometimes almost
rounded in females; the median carina is distinct and cut somewhat
behind the middle by but one sulcus; the lateral carinae are, in all our
forms, somewhat incurved before the middle. The tegmina are fully
developed although varying or dimorphic in length. The posterior
femora are somewhat mottled but rarely distinctly spotted; posterior
tibiae testaceous or, rarely, red. As now known we have but one
species within our limits.

Stenobothrus curtipennis Harr.

Stenobothrus curtipennis is a small insect, which in Minnesota is

SUBFAMILY TRYXALINAE 29

generally yellowish (Plate I, 6) in coloration. It was found at
every point where collections were made and we are inclined to believe
it generally distributed over our whole State. It may be noted in
almost any habitat although it appears to be most at home in low moist
areas. In early June the nymphs appear in and about such low
grounds and these are doubtless its favorite breeding places, but later
in summer it spreads out over all adjacent tracts and is one of the
species that must be regarded as serious pests in Minnesota. In the
extreme northern part of the State, at Lake of the Woods and else-
where, we found certain variations of color that we did not note at
any other points. In these the coloration was a dull brown tint, very
similar to that of most of our Melanopli, while among them were forms
more or less, occasionally quite distinctly, reddish, which had a strik-
ing resemblance in the field to some species of Melanoplus. In other
places we have noted the cheeks and sides of pronotum, together with
more or less of the ventral portions of the body a distinctly green color,
more or less variegated with brown. In fact an extended study of the
variations of this insect would offer a very interesting problem. The
flight of this little insect like that of most of the Tryxalinae is short
and not particularly strong but the males are very active and have truly
remarkable leaping powers.

The following, from Mr. Howard’s insectary notes is of interest
here: “May 27, 1912. Pod of eggs found near Foxhome; hatched
May 30. July 8 adults appeared in field near Fergus Falls. Egg
pods laid in cages were normal as compared with those dug up in the
field. Three examined August 9 were from three-quarters of an inch
to an inch long, and somewhat keg-shaped with the opening to the
surface of soil tapering and slightly curved and contained five, six, and
seven eggs respectively, placed on end in a vertical position in the keg-
shaped basal part of the pod. Above them the tube was filled with a
pinkish frothy mass. Eggs are of a brick-red color, with the surface
roughened. This color makes them easy to distinguish from other
species in the field.”

GOMPHOCERUS Thunb.

Gomphocerus includes a number of small insects of varied colora-
tion, the structural characters almost exactly as in Stenobothrus, save
that the antennae are clavate, having a short depressed club at the apex..
According to Bruner the tympanum is partly open. While but one.
species has been noted in our collecting, the following key will serve
to distinguish the only two species likely to be found in our State.

30 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

Anterior tibiae clavate, with a distinct groove on outer face; size of males

about 14 mm. in length clavatus
Anterior tibiae only moderately and regularly expanded apically in the males,
which are about 18 mm. in length clepsydra

Gomphocerus clepsydra Scudd.

All of the material that we have seen or collected from Minne-
sota appears to belong to Gomphocerus clepsydra, taking McNeill’s
Revision of the Tryxalinae as a basis for classification. The anterior
tibiae are not noticeably clavate and bear on the outer face no trace of
such a groove as that mentioned for G. clavatus. The size of the males
is subject to too much variation to be of real value, since we have
before us specimens ranging from 11.5 to 21 mm., yet identical in all
structures and in some cases taken together. In 1911 a brood of this
species reared in cages from the egg, gave two males measuring 13
mm. and 19 mm. respectively. The coloration is widely variable and
ranges from green to neutral grayish and through all intermediate
shades to distinctly brown forms. This color variation is, however,
much more common among the females than among the males, which
are in general a rather light brown. The length of tegmina and wings
is also subject to great variation, especially among the females, where
it is often very short, while in the males it usually reaches or surpasses
the tip of the abdomen. This interesting little species has been taken
in the western part of the State at many points, always in open places,
but ranging from the dry soil of gravelly hills to the lowlands and
open flats of the Red River Valley proper. It matures early in July
and is especially abundant in August and early September. We have
taken it at Crookston, Ada, Fergus Falls, Redwood Falls, Morton,
Pipestone, Worthineton, Detroit, and Glenwood.

AGENEOTETTIX McNeill

The genus Ageneotettix is made up of small insects very similar
in general aspect to the Oedipodinae,; the vertex somewhat declivent,
broader than the frontal costa at the clypeus; median carina wanting
and the lateral carinae slight; lateral foveolae subquadrate, about twice
as long as wide, plainly visible from above; face moderately oblique
and more or less arcuate; antennae filiform and exceeding the length
of the head and pronotum in both sexes. Median carina of pronotum
quite distinct and cut once behind the middle by the principal sulcus;
lateral carinae are strongly sinuate and the posterior margin of the
metazona is rounded. The lateral lobes of the pronotum are higher
than long and the anterior and posterior margins nearly straight and

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 3]

vertical. The mesosternal lobes are separated by a space several times
as wide as long in both sexes; the metasternal lobes are separated by
a space a little longer than wide in male and female. The tegmina
and wings are well developed, not quite equaling or somewhat longer
than the abdomen. The posterior femora have three, usually well-
marked, subtriangular or irregular brown spots on the upper face.
The posterior tibiae are red or yellowish with the apical spurs on the
inner side much elongated and very unequal. We have but one species
in this genus.

Ageneotettix scuddert Bruner

Ageneotettix scudderi is a beautiful little insect which has been
noted at a number of places but which, owing to its habit of dropping
to the ground when alarmed, is commonly overlooked. Blatchley (The
Orthoptera of Indiana, p. 249) has said that “when disturbed it leaps
vigorously and without noise for several times, then settling down
upon a sandy spot will allow a close approach.” This is true when
it is found, as is often the case, among low or scanty vegetation, but
we have noted that when in tall or close grasses it will simply dive
headlong to the ground and crouch there among the stems. Certain
forms of this species have a very distinct light-colored median line on
the dorsum as has been noted in Arphia and Tettix. We have taken
adult specimens of this species at Fergus Falls as early as July 12. It
has been taken at Fergus Falls, Granite Falls, Mankato, Northfield,
Albert Lea, Mahtomedi, Glyndon, Detroit, and Ada, and will doubtless
be found in open places through most parts of the State, save possibly
in the extreme north.

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE

The insects of the subfamily Oedipodinae have the prosternum
unarmed, the face nearly vertical, and the head rounded at the vertex.
The fastigium of the vertex always slopes strongly downward, the
foveolae are usually present but obscure; the antennae filiform, never
strongly modified, though the basal joints or one edge may be some-
what modified in some genera. The eyes are less elongate than in the
Tryxalinae, being generally shorter than the infraocular portion of
the genae. Dorsum of the pronotum usually considerably widened
posteriorly ; the lateral carinae either indistinct or wanting; the median
carina usually strong or cristiform and cut by one or more sulci, except
in Arphia; the whole dorsal field of the pronotum generally more or
less rugose or tuberculate. The tegmina are always well developed

32 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

and the wings are nearly always, at least in part, brightly colored.
This group includes all of those species of our fauna in which the basal
portion of the wings is brightly colored, the colors ranging from
yellow to red or in some cases even black, while in certain forms found
outside our area they are even blue. So strongly marked is the colora-
tion that members of some species are as conspicuous in flight as the
butterflies. The purpose of this coloration has been of considerable
interest among students and several theories have been advanced to
explain its significance. Morse has said that “it is in no sense pro-
tective” and his suggestion is that the colors are probably “‘of value in
the mating of the sexes” but this, while possible, is rather vague.
Without attempting to enter into a full discussion of this subject
here, we may call attention to the close similarity in the details of the
common Oedipodine coloration to that of the Catocalae among moths.
In both cases the body color is of some obscure brown or gray, the
tegmina similarly obscure, and the wings strongly marked, consisting
of a brightly colored field broken by one or more dark bars, contrast-
ing strongly with the field. The coloration is visible, in both cases,
only when the insect is in flight and the insects are commonly found
upon a background having more or less close resemblance to the ob-
scure colors of the body and tegmina. Two ideas present themselves
as worthy of note, though not necessarily as the only explanations pos-
sible for the problem. The one is that conspicuous objects, such as
these insects are when in flight, may become very much less apparent
when the insect suddenly drops upon a suitable background. The
strongly contrasting colors being suddenly covered by the obscurely
colored tegmina causes the insect to “fade away” in bewildering fash-
ion. We are here considering this coloration, however, solely from
the view-point of human optics and can not be certain that the effect
upon the eyes of a pursuing bird would be the same. Another thought
that has been put forth already by some as a theory explanatory of
this coloration scheme, is that the brightly colored area of the wing
being so conspicuous will lead a pursuing bird to strike at this non-
vital part rather than at the body of the insect. We may here note
that we have on numerous occasions seen the English sparrow rise and
strike at specimens of Dissosteira carolina in flight but pass the same
insect without notice while it fed upon the ground. Further, after
watching these attempts at capture, we have noted that the bird, in
this case at least, does attempt to seize the wing. As to the value of
this coloration in mating, it is noteworthy that the coloration is dimor-
phic in a number of these species and mating occurs, for instance in
Hippiscus rugosus, between individuals with the wings red or yellow
alike. Further, the shades of red or yellow are often identical in dif-

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 33

ferent species and even in different genera. An interesting point in
connection with this dimorphism of coloration is the fact that while in
the Try-xalinae it is the front pair of wings that are subject to varying
coloration, among the Oedipodinae this variation is confined to the
second pair.

In most of the members of this group the males, and in some cases
the females as well, have the power of “aerial stridulation” by rubbing
the bases of the tegmina and wings together during flight and this is
under control of the insect. True stridulation, produced by rubbing
“the posterior femora against the rough edge of the tegmina, is also
common here. The members of this subfamily average considerably
larger than those of the Try-alinae and the insects are in general much
more active and vigorous both in flight and leaping power, some of
the species being among the most active and alert of the whole order.

Economically, the members of this group are generally of little
importance with us, although two, Dissosteira carolina and Camnula
pellucida, are sometimes capable of doing great damage to crops. Two
tribes of this subfamily are found in the Central States and may be
distinguished as follows:

Outer margin of hind tibiae with no apical spine next the spurs Oedipodini
Outer margin of hind tibiae with an apical spine next the spurs Eremobini

The second tribe is represented by a very large and clumsy species
Brachystola magna Gir. which, while found in Nebraska and Iowa, has
not yet been taken in Minnesota. The Oedipodini, however, are well
represented in our State and may be separated by the following key:

Interspace between metasternal foramina linear, or longer than broad, in males
and narrower than mesosternal interspace even in females
Median carina of pronotum high and arcuate, not cut or but faintly cut by
the principal sulcus; tegmina subcoriaceous, the apical portion irregularly
reticulate; wings bright red, orange, or yellow, the ulnar area not cited
rphia
Median carina of pronotum not arcuate, cut by the principal sulcus; tegmina
membranaceous throughout the apical half or at least in the discoidal field;
wings nebulous yellowish or fuscous; the ulnar area dilated
Pronotum with the disk tectate and the anterior dorsal margin angulate;

hind femora without dusky bars on outer face Chortophaga
Pronotum with the disk flat and the anterior dorsal margin truncate; hind
femora with dusky cross bars on outer face Encoptolophus

Interspace between metasternal foramina rather broad; in the male quadrate, in
the female transverse
Lateral canthi of metazona crossing the principal sulcus and not intersected
by it; principal sulcus obsolete or delicate in the lateral lobes :
Smaller forms; dorsum of pronotum not rugose or tuberculate; wings sub-

vitreous ; Camnula
Larger forms; dorsum of pronotum rugose or tuberculate; wings red, orange,
or yellow with a dark contrasting area Hippiscus

Lateral canthi of metazona usually intersected by the principal sulcus; often
obsolescent before it; principal sulcus well developed on the lateral lobes
Carina of pronotum entire or cut by but one transverse sulcus

34 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

Wings blackish, with a light-colored marginal area Dissosteira
Wings yellowish with a fuscous, arcuate median band Spharagemon
Carina of pronotum cut by two transverse sulci
Inferior margin of lateral lobes of pronotum oblique; posterior angle
acute or produced
Lateral canthi of metazona terminating at the principal sulcus or else
there diverted; tegmina maculate with two large squarish fuscous
areas Mestobregma
Lateral canthi of metazona passing and not diverted by principal sulcus;
proximal half of tegmina coriaceous; antennae long and _ basally
flattened Psinidia
Inferior margin of lateral lobes of pronotum horizontal posteriorly; an-
teriorly oblique; posterior angle rounded or rectangulate
Radiate veins of anal field of wing normal; hind tibiae unicolorous or

but slightly paler basally Trimerotropis
Radiate veins of anal field of wing distinctly incrassate; hind tibiae
with dusky or blackish bands Circotettix

ARPHIA Stal.

Our species of Arphia are all insects of rather more than medium
size with the body more or less compressed and of dull brown, fuscous,
or sometimes luteous coloration. The vertex is horizontal, subtriangu-
lar, triangular, or sometimes nearly pentagonal, the disk having a dis-
tinct curved transverse impression behind the middle; the median ca-
rina extends back from this impression and the lateral carinae are dis-
tinct and well marked; foveolae are rather large, shallow, triangular,
or rhomboidal. The antennae are rather long, being about the length
of the head and pronotum together. The pronotum has the disk
heavily granulate or rugose, the anterior margin broadly and obtusely
angulate, the posterior margin also obtusely angulate. The pronotum
is narrowed at the principal sulcus and considerably widened posterior
to this; prozona very short; median carina very strong and cristiform,
very faintly or not distinctly notched by the principal sulcus; the lat-
eral carinae rounded, visible only on the metazona; lateral lobes of
the pronotum deeper than long, anterior margin somewhat sinuate,
posterior margin somewhat oblique, nearly straight though somewhat
sinuate just below the humeri, and the lower corner rounded. Teg-
mina ample, coriaceous, densely and irregularly reticulate; wings
bright red or yellow through most of the field, with a dark curved bar
extending from the costal margin to a point near the anal angle, which
it does not meet. Near the costa there is, in most species, a more or
less well-marked ray projecting toward the base of the wing, and the
tip of the wing is usually clear or slightly clouded. Hind femora rather
stout, the basal half compressed and dilated, strongly carinate above;
hind tibiae are variable in coloration and often somewhat annulate.
Our species are all of very similar general appearance and of nearly
uniform size. Certain of the species are extremely closely related

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 35

structurally and others are dimorphic, thus making the genus one of
considerable confusion in separation of species. The following key,
which is modified from Bruner’s more general key (Biologia Cent.
Americana) will serve as a basis for specific separation :

Frontal costa with subparallel sides, not sulcate or carinate, broadly truncate at
vertex or continuous with the scutellum of vertex; median carina of pronotum
variable
Median carina of pronotum cristate and more or less arched

Lateral foveolae of vertex elongate triangular; carina of pronotum high

and strongly arched carinata
Lateral foveolae of vertex four-sided; carina of pronotum lower and less
arched xanthoptera

Median carina of pronotum nearly straight, not cristate or strongly arched;
wings deep red with curved band very broad and very dark pseudonietana
Frontal costa narrowed above to half or less than half the width below the
ocellus, sulcate and sometimes carinate above; median carina of pronotum
generally straight and not greatly elevated
Frontal costa truncate at apex; wing band incomplete, not attaining the costal
margin
Body unusually deep at thorax; pronotum rather long, finely rugose; median
carina moderately elevated and gently arched; hind femora robust; disk
of wing usually vermillion conspersa
Body more slender; pronotum shorter, the rugae coarser; median carina
less elevated and hind femora less robust; disk of wing usually yellow

arcta
Frontal costa convergent above, acuminate at vertex; foveolae of vertex
broader than long sulphurea

Arphia carinata Scudd.

Arphia carinata is very similar to the following species but may
be separated by the characters given in the key. It is dimorphic in
coloration of the wings, being found in forms varying from deep
yellow to orange red. The coloration of the body and tegmina is also
extremely variable, forms occurring of every shade from rich glossy
black to reddish tan. The species does not occur until rather late and
is not abundant until July. It prefers dry open places, such as the
edges of fields and along railway embankments and is often very
abundant on sandy bars along streams. It has a very strong flight
and, when it endeavors to escape, its flight usually describes an irregu-
lar semicircle made up of numerous zigzags, the insect invariably
alighting with the head toward the pursuer. During flight it stridu-
lates freely, especially at the angles or zigzags, though when sud-
denly startled its flight is swift and almost noiseless. It occurs through-
out Iowa in sandy areas, and within Minnesota has been taken at
Albert Lea, Pipestone, Redwood Falls, Mahtomedi, and Fergus Falls.

Arphia xanthoptera Germ.

In size, general appearance, and coloration Arphia xanthoptera
is extremely like the preceding and is subject to the same variations

36 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

of color of wings and body but may be separated by reference to the
key. Like the preceding it is a midsummer species and is most com-
mon in sandy areas in the southern part of the State during late sum-
mer. Blatchley (The Orthoptera of Indiana, p. 257) states that in
Indiana a third of the males have the wing coloration orange, while but
a sixth of the females are so colored. In Iowa we have taken twenty
specimens at one time, in the field, for examination. Of these nine
were males and eleven females ; seven of the females had red or orange
wings, while but one male was so colored, and four females and eight
males had yellow wings. Another peculiarity there noted was that
the males were all notably dark in body color, save one, and the
females uniformly of a lighter coloration. This examination was made
August 10, 1909, and the facts, kept in mind through the collecting
season, led to the conclusion that in Iowa, at least, the males are in
general considerably darker than the females. The species is rather
scarce in Minnesota and we have taken specimens only from Pipestone
and Redwood Falls, although it will doubtless be found at other points
when careful and continued collecting shall be done.

Arphia pseudonietana Thom.

Arphia pseudonietana is about the size of A. sulphurea but the
coloration is extremely variable. The tegmina are of a gray to brown
or nearly fuscous tone, but the wings are nearly always of a bright red
color (Plate II, 1), though rarely forms are found in which the
wings are a deep yellow. The pronotum frequently has a light area,
anteriorly located, giving a “collared” effect. This is a very common
insect especially in the western parts of the State in early spring and
by May it is normally abundant at Fergus Falls and other points in
the Red River Valley. By mid-July it has disappeared and again be-
comes common in late August and September. For the most: part
it is found in open places on dry soil, being often very abundant on
gravel hills. It has a flight which is strong but not so vigorous as that
of carinata or xanthoptera, and its aerial stridulation is less noticeable
than in these. It is a very beautiful insect and in flight appears almost
like some brilliant butterfly. On a clear, hot day in June at Fergus
Falls, we once noted two males of this species standing facing one
another about two inches apart. First one would raise the hind
femora and rub them briskly against the sides of the tegmina a num-
ber of times, producing a dull rasping sound which to our ears was
certainly poor music; then he would drop to a position of attention
and his vis-a-vis would go through the same performance. This con-
tinued for some time and we at length left the two isolated “fiddlers”

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 37

on their hillside. Was this in some way a competition or merely for
the pleasure of the music?

This species is attacked, especially in late fall, by a small fly
(Anthomyid?) which rises and darts after the brightly marked locust
while it is in flight, evidently seeking to deposit eggs or maggots upon
the insect. This species has been taken at Fort Snelling, Gray Cloud
Island, Mankato, Albert Lea, Pipestone, Redwood Falls, Monticello,
Fergus Falls, Ada, Detroit, St. Cloud, and Mahtomedi.

The following is taken from Mr. Howard’s insectary notes: “The
eggs are laid in a slightly irregular clump at the bottom of a boot-
shaped pocket. These pockets are either perpendicular for a distance
of about three-quarters of an inch and then turned at nearly a right
angle, or they may slant at a sharp angle with the surface of the soil
with the basal portion more nearly parallel with the soil. The tube is
not so compact and hard as with the Melanopl. Five tubes examined
contained 21, 25, 21, 20, and 21 eggs respectively.”

Arphia conspersa Scudd.

Arphia conspersa is structurally very similar to the following
species but in typical forms may be readily separated by the characters
given in the key. We have found it rather rare and local within our
State, having taken it but twice, once at Pipestone in the southwestern
part and again near St. Paul Park in the eastern part of the State.
In both cases it was taken amid sparse grasses, such as Sporobolus, on
very dry, gravelly soils. In both cases it was apparently few in num-
bers and careful search afforded but one or two specimens of this
among the large numbers of A. carimata and Melanoph with which it
was associated. In flight and in general appearance it bears consid-
erable resemblance to A. sulphurea.

Arphia arcta Scudd.

Lugger has recorded two specimens of Arphia arcta from St.
Anthony Park (Third Ann. Rept. of Entomologist, Minn. Exp. Sta.,
p. 143), but it has not been taken there or elsewhere in the State since.
It does, however, occur in both Iowa and Nebraska near our borders
and will doubtless be found again within our State. Since it has not
been very generally described in recent publications the descrip-
tion is here quoted in full to aid in recognition of the species. “Head
grayish brown above, yellowish elsewhere; the median carina of ver-
tex broken at the posterior limit of the fastigium by the deeply im-
pressed arcuate transverse furrow which marks the same, extending
through the frontal costa nearly to the ocellus, expanding and forming

38 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

a loop at the extremity ; lateral foveolae strongly and deeply impressed,
narrowing anteriorly. Pronotum grayish brown, the upper surface
unusually flat for an Arphia, rugulose, the median but little elevated,
not laterally pinched at middle, regularly but slightly diminishing in
height posteriorly. Tegmina profusely sprinkled with small grayish-
fuscous spots, less abundant apically where the area is pellucid. Wings
yellowish at base, pellucid to an unusual extent at tip (nearly one third
of the ante-anal field is included in the pellucid area) making the
transverse dusky bar narrower than in any species of Arphia known
to me; the radial shoot toward the base, however, is unusually broad

Fig. 4. Normal Habitat of Arphia sulphurea

and long, equaling at its origin the entire breadth of that part of the
wing and scarcely stopping short of the base. Hind femora brownish-
yellow, externally with two broad, a little oblique, dusky transverse
bands; hind tibiae pale yellow, with a broad fuscous cloud at tip and
just before the middle. Length: male 21 mm., tegmina 22.5 mm.,
antennae 8.5 mm., hind femur 11.5 mm.” The species was described
from one male taken at Denver.

Arphia sulphurea Fabr.

Arphia sulphurea is one of our earliest forms and may often be
taken in early spring in company with Chortophaga viridifasciata. It

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 39

is of a more uniform coloration than any of our other species and the
wings are uniformly a bright sulphur-yellow in the basal field. The
body and tegmina are usually sprinkled with fine fuscous dots and at
the inner margin of the tegmina, especially in males, there is often a
narrow light-colored area giving the effect of a light dorsal bar when
the tegmina are closed. There is usually a pale annulation of the hind
femur near the base and a similarly colored pregenicular annulation.
The hind tibiae are dusky or blue black with a pale annulus near the
base.

This insect 1s especially fond of rather open woodlands and is
strong and vigorous with a swift and well-sustained flight. It is very
alert and active and with its effectively protective coloration is not
easy to capture even where abundant. Like most of the genus it
stridulates while in flight. It is quite gregarious and frequents certain
favored localities, being numerous in these spots, while in others of
apparently similar type it may be entirely absent. We have found it
quite widely scattered and it is doubtless very generally distributed
throughout the State. We have taken it at Winona, Albert Lea, Man-
kato, Worthington, Pipestone, Brown Valley, Fergus Falls, Duluth,
Mahtomedi, and St. Anthony Park.

CHORTOPHAGA Sauss.

The Chortophagas are insects of medium size with somewhat slen-
der form, more or less distinctly compressed, punctate or finely rugose
body, coloration usually greenish to brownish and surface more or less
finely pubescent. Vertex nearly horizontal, triangular, apically trun-
cate, the lateral carinae well marked though not prominent; median
carina weak or wanting, often faintly visible on the posterior part of
the head behind the eye; foveolae shallow, triangular, broadest next
the eye. Antennae rather short and somewhat flattened. Pronotum
with disk tectate, constricted near the front and considerably expanded
posteriorly, its front margin broadly obtuse-angulate, hind margin
acute-angled although with the point often rounded; median carina
strong, faintly notched before the middle by the principal sulcus, which
is nowhere strongly developed; lateral carinae distinct only on the
anterior part of the metazona and rounded or obsolescent posteriorly,
more strongly marked in the male. The tegmina are rather narrow
and exceed the abdomen nearly the whole apical half, especially in
the discoidal field, membranaceous and traversed by a series of straight
and nearly parallel veinlets; inner wings nebulous, often more or less
tinged with yellow, the veins somewhat incrassate. This genus pre-

4

40) THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

sents certain characters of the 7ry.xalinae, with which it was formerly
classed but has a predominance of Oedipodine characters.

Chortophaga viridifasciata DeG.

Excluding the Tettigidae, Chortophaga viridifasciata may be
considered our orthopteran “harbinger of spring,’ being normally the
first of this order to appear. We have noted it in some numbers near
Minneapolis as early as April 1, while in Iowa we have taken it a
month earlier. It is found in two color phases, a smoky brown and a
distinctly green form. The green ones are predominantly females,
although males of this color are occasionally found. Some of the
green form are very beautifully variegated with pink or lavender on
face, antennae, pronotal carinae, and posterior femora. Bruner, speak-
ing of this species, states that in Nebraska the brown form appears
first in the spring and the green form later in the season, but in both
Iowa and Minnesota we have noted that the two forms appear simul-
taneously, the brown form being relatively more abundant in clear
fields and open woods where it occurs with Arphia sulphurea, while
the green form predominates in grassy spots, such as meadows and
borders of streams. The species becomes very generally distributed
later in the season and both color forms are together in almost any
place where grasses and low vegetation offer sustenance. It is appar-
ently double-brooded since we have found the young swarming in
lowland meadows as early as June 26 and again in September. The
males are very active and have a swift, low flight, often somewhat
broken by zigzags and usually turning abruptly at an angle from the
general direction of flight upon alighting. The females are heavier
and have a somewhat labored flight usually ending by an abrupt dive
into weeds or other concealing vegetation.

Hancock (Nature Sketches in Temperate America, p. 410) has
given the following interesting notes: “At Miller’s, Ind., June fifth,
I found a female laying her eggs in damp sand at the border of a pond.
When I approached she had her abdomen buried quite deeply. After
I waited about fifteen minutes she moved away from the place. I
proceeded very carefully to dig the earth away to one side of the bur-
row and then it was found to be twenty-seven millimeters deep, and
at the bottom, the eggs, twenty-five in number, were laid in a compactly
cemented mass. They were bound together with a whitish mucous
and there was quite an amount of this substance lying above the eggs
in the burrow. The smaller poles or ends of the eggs were directed
upward as is usual with Acridians. The eggs measured four and one
half millimeters in length and about one millimeter in width and they

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 4}

were slightly curved in their long axes. Both ends were rounded, but
the cephalic or head end was slightly smaller than the opposite one
and further distinguished in the fresh eggs by the very small densely
opaque, cap-like structure occupying the tip.” This species has been
found throughout the State and at times in favored localities increases
to sufficient numbers to do noticeable damage to crops.

ENCOPTOLOPHUS Scudd&

Body of medium size, somewhat slender though not so much so
as in Chortophaga, somewhat compressed; the head slightly swollen;
vertex more broadly triangular than in the preceding and somewhat
declivent, lateral carinae weak, apex obtuse in females, median carina
present but terminating at middle of disk. The antennae rather long
and slender, longer than head and pronotum together, especially in
the males, the joints somewhat flattened. Pronotum with disk flat-
tened, the median carina distinct or strong, notched near the middle ;
lateral carinae visible only on the metazona. Anterior margin of the
pronotum truncate, hind margin sharply angulate; lateral lobes deeper
than long, much wrinkled, front and hind margins nearly straight and
vertical, the posterior more oblique and with the lower corner rounded.
Pronotum less constricted anteriorly than in the preceding genus. Teg-
mina broad and longer than the abdomen with the intercalary vein
distinctly nearer the ulnar than the median. But one species 1s known
in Minnesota.

Encoptolophus sordidus Burm.

The color of Encoptolophus sordidus (Plate I, 8) varies
through the shades of brown, and the somewhat mottled pattern sug-
gests some of the dark forms of Hippiscus. There is usually a light-
colored, pink-tinged, X-shaped mark on the disk of the pronotum,
very conspicuous in dark specimens. The tegmina are marked with
two transverse, light-colored bars near the middle, which contrast with
two larger fuscous patches between and on either side of them; the
inner wings are yellow, somewhat clearer toward the base and smoky
apically. The antennae are brownish, darker apically. The hind
femora are banded or almost covered with fuscous; hind tibiae dark,
with a pale annulation near the base.

This species matures late in summer and during August and early
fall may be found in some numbers in dry sandy areas. We have gen-
erally taken it amid such vegetation as Aristida basiramea Eng. and
Bouteloua hirsuta Lag., although it is also found even far out in culti-

42 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

vated fields, in spots where the growth is sparse. The male usually
stridulates rather loudly during flight, which while swift is not pro-
longed. On two occasions we have noted the female of this species
ovipositing in the somewhat compact earth at the mouth of a gopher
hole. We have taken this insect at Pipestone, Worthington, Redwood
Falls, Granite Falls, New Ulm, Mankato, Fergus Falls, and Mahto-
medi, and it doubtless occurs throughout the southern and western
part of the State.

CAMNULA Stal.

Size rather small for an Oedipodid, somewhat stouter than the
preceding, the head more distinctly compressed; vertex with the disk
subtriangular, with rounded angles in the male and almost ovate in
the female; median carina visible posteriorly from the disk in both
sexes. Blatchley (The Orthoptera of Indiana, p. 261) says the median
carina of the vertex is absent in the male, but in a series of 80 before
us, we find the median carina distinct in 66, weak in 6, and absent in
but. 8 males. Lateral carinae of vertex strong and more or less in-
curved posteriorly. Antennae short, not exceeding the head and pro-
notum, filiform. Pronotum with disk narrowed anteriorly and grad-
ually widened to the posterior margin, which is bluntly angulate; sur-
face of the disk flat, more or less rugulose or tuberculate on the meta-
zona, but never strongly so as in Hippiscus; median carina distinctly
elevated throughout, distinctly though faintly notched before the
middle; lateral carinae distinct on both prozona and metazona, in the
female broken or obsolescent at the principal sulcus; lateral lobes of
pronotum vertical, deeper than long, both margins nearly straight and
lower angles not much rounded. Tegmina rather narrow, surpassing
the abdomen, the apical third somewhat reticulate. Hind femora equal-
ing or surpassing the abdomen, not stout. A single species occurs
throughout Canada and the northern part of the United States, from
the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Camnula pellucida Scudd.

The color of Camnula pellucida is somewhat variable (Plate I,
5) but in general is a light brown, sometimes ferruginous; an-
tennae yellow at base and darker apically. A pallid area is usually
visible below the eyes; postocular band narrow at the eye, widened
behind on the lateral lobe of the prozona, extending downward over
much of the surface and usually more or less indistinctly connected
with the area on the opposite lobe of the prozona by a brownish bar

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 43

across the disk; lobes and disk of metazona commonly much lighter
in coloration, giving sometimes a distinctly “collared” form. Tegmina
with a longitudinal, humeral, light stripe, and variably maculate with
rather large, rounded, dark spots; hind femora yellowish with two

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or three oblique dark bars and sometimes a pregenicular dark annula-
tion; hind tibiae yellowish, sometimes reddish toward apex, and often
marked with a narrow, faintly defined annulation of brown near the
base. .
“Tn the markings of tegmina, form and color, pellucida looks like

44 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

a diminutive Hippiscus. It varies much in size and tegminal mark-
ings.”” According to Hancock this species is mature in I[llinois by
June 20. We have taken it in considerable numbers at Crookston, by
June 25, when many were freshly moulted. Various writers, referring
to the habits of this species in western states, have stated that it appar-
ently dislikes or avoids alfalfa, but in our cages it has eaten this plant
without any hesitation and observations in the field have convinced us
that it will attack fields of alfalfa as readily as any of our other species.
During the season of 1912 we found this insect abundant throughout
the north part of the State and particularly in the relatively unculti-
vated areas of the iron ranges, where it was generally the dominant
species. From its abundance at these points and from the fact that
it is a species capable of rather extended migrations, it is of consider-
able economic interest, since a series of dry and favorable seasons may
result in serious damage to crops from this insect.

One fact worthy of notice regarding this species is that in the
field it is apparently more free from the attacks of Trombidium and
other parasites and less susceptible to fungous diseases than the Melan-
oplt, although confined in our cages it died off largely from fungous
troubles. Normally it is found on high, dry soil, and at times in
some abundance even in the more open parts of forests. Its flight is
swift and direct without marked aerial stridulation. From the two
light lines on the tegmina it may be confused with Melanoplus bivi-
tattus, and in one case we noted a trained entomologist confuse it with
M. atlanis, from the narrow and sometimes faintly notched subgenital
of the male. In the field this species oviposits during the latter part
of August, the pods being rather short, stout, considerably curved, and
not firmly cemented. These pods are deposited just below the surface
of the soil, among the roots of grasses or in some cases even above the
surface amid the dead grass. Pods examined by us contained from 20
to 30 eggs each. During the season of 1911 we found this insect
rather rare, except in the north part of the State, taking it only at
Brown Valley and Pipestone and at points north of Crookston, while
during 1912 it was found in some numbers at Fergus Falls, Granite
Falls, Redwood Falls, Mankato, St. Cloud, Mahtomedi, Gray Cloud
Island, and at every point visited by us north of a line drawn from
Duluth to Crookston.

HiLPPISCUS Sauss.
The genus Hippiscus includes the largest and some of the most

common of our Oedipodinae. ‘The species are usually of robust form,
the head large and subglobose, the vertex usually more or less decli-

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 45

vent, broadly triangular, with the apex obtuse; lateral carinae distinct,
median usually present at least in the basal portion; foveolae present,
though not deep or prominent and usually triangular in form; the
antennae are not longer than the head and pronotum, filiform and in
some forms with the joints somewhat flattened, especially in the apical
half. The pronotum has the disk flat or nearly so and the surface
distinctly tuberculate or rugose ; the median carina distinct and in most
of our species cut by but one sulcus, although in H. zapotecus and
H. tigrinus it is cut by two sulci; the lateral carinae pass the principal
sulcus without being noticeably cut by it in most species, but are often
strongly rugose or cristulate at that point. Tegmina exceeding the
abdomen and usually with at least the apical third quadrately reticulate ;
the basal area of the wing, in all our species, red or yellow, though blue
in certain western species, this area usually bounded externally by a
curved black or fuscous bar of varying width. The hind femora are
stout, usually considerably dilated at the base, often with the inner
face more or less marked with bright colors.

These insects are very similar in general appearance and many
are dimorphic as to color of wings, thus leading rather easily to con-
fusion in specific identity. The following key will serve to distinguish
the species found within our area:

Rugosities of the metazona arranged in series more or less definitely parallel
with the hind margin
Antennae of males not especially attenuate; median carina of pronotum inter-

sected by only one sulcus haldemani
Antennae of males attenuate; median carina of pronotum intersected by two
sulci, the anterior one usually weak tigrinus

Rugosities of the metazona not definitely arranged into series parallel with the
hind margin
Median carina of pronotum intersected by but one sulcus
Anterior extremity of vertical scutellum not prolonged, narrowing rapidly

in front YUZOSUS
Anterior extremity of vertical scutellum prolonged and narrowing very
gradually in front tuberculatus
Median carina of pronotum intersected by two sulci; inner face of hind femora
bright red in whole or in large part sapotecus

Hippiscus haldemani Scudd.

Hippiscus haldemani has been much confused with others of the
genus but may be separated by the arrangement of the rugae of the
metazona into series more or less definitely parallel with the oblique
sides of the hind margin. The hind margin of the metazona is right-
angled in males and obtuse-angled in females. The general color is
usually a grayish brown variously maculate with dark brown spots.
The wings are yellow, in all specimens yet taken in this State, and the
hind tibiae usually yellow, more or less tinged with dull orange. The

46 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

tegmina are long and surpass the abdomen, often as much as one
fourth of their length. We have noted this species only at Fergus
Falls, Granite Falls, and St. Paul Park. It is notably more solitary
in habit than most of the members of this genus and in all cases men-
tioned above but one specimen was taken, always amid the low scat-
tered grasses of very dry soils.

Hippiscus tigrinus Scudd.

Dark brownish fuscous, of robust form and medium size. Head
narrowed above and rugulose; fastigium of vertex distinct, with rather
sharp, though not high bounding, walls, closed behind by a distinct,
though slight, transverse, arcuate carina; lateral foveolae not deeply
impressed, triangular; the median foveola, between their tips, slightly
impressed ; frontal costa moderately broad, narrowed at the summit
much more than below the ocellus, deeply sulcate at the ocellus, and
plane at the considerably expanded base. Pronotum expanding con-
siderably on the metazona, which is a little tumid centrally, the rugos-
ities of the latter, which are considerable, ranged more or less dis-
tinctly into series parallel to the sides of the process; median carina
subobsolete or at least depressed between the sulci, distinctly arched
on the metazona; lateral canthi distinct and sharp in the middle of the
pronotum, a faint, rather ashen band next their inner side; posterior
process of the metazona rectangulate. Tegmina ashen gray, brownish
at the base, vitreous on the apical third or more, the transverse bars
dark brownish fuscous, mostly crossing the wing, those of the apical
half not at all rounded, with rare exceptions with ill-defined irregular
margins, and extending, though fainter, to the tip of the wing; sutural
line testaceous. Wing very pallid citrine at base, pellucid at tip, occa-
sionally with one or two fuliginous cellular spots at tip, the veins and
cross-veins blackish on apical portion, yellowish on basal, with a broad,
subequal, arcuate, dark, fusco-fuliginous, median, scarcely tapering
band, leaving four or five lobes free, separated by a yellow line from
the humeral vitta, which extends from very nearly as far out to the
base of the wing, the costal margin fusco-testaceous. Hind femora
externally brownish fuscous with only obscure, if any darker, very
oblique bars, dirty clay-yellow below, the under surface, like the tibiae
and tarsi, luteous, the spines black-tipped. Length, female, 39 mm.,
tegmina 37 mm.

The species is here included upon Lugger’s record (Third Ann.
Rept. of Entomologist, Minn. Exp. Sta., 1897, p. 152) where he men-
tions “two specimens” but gives no definite locality. We have seen
but one specimen of this species, taken in northwestern Iowa by Ball

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 47

and now in the collection of Iowa State College at Ames. It has been
taken from Nebraska to Arizona and the few specimens taken in Iowa
and Minnesota probably represent merely the stragglers along its east-
ern range.

Hippiscus rugosus Scudd.

Hippiscus rugosus is a well-known species, which while not com-
mon, has been taken at several points within the State and when more
extensive collections have been made, will doubtless be found nearly
as common here as in Iowa. The following is taken from notes made
upon this species while in lowa: ‘‘From the latter part of July until
late in the fall, this is the most abundant member of this genus and
appears to be very generally distributed throughout the State, although
somewhat less abundant in the northern counties. It is found in dry
places, especially along the margins of woods or thickets. It is gen-
erally darker than other members of the genus and the disk of the
pronotum is very uniformly marked with a light-colored X-mark.
The wings vary from yellow to a reddish orange. We have found
males as late as October 24, and females a week or more later.” In
Minnesota the species matures late in August and we have taken it at
Redwood Falls, Pipestone, Mankato, Albert Lea, Mahtomedi, and
Fergus Falls.

Hippiscus tuberculatus Pal. de Beauv.

There is considerable variation in color in Hippiscus tuberculatus,
although the following, taken from Scudder, will give a good idea of
its normal form here: “Prevailing color a light ashy plumbeous,
slightly darker above, specked with dark plumbeous, tinged slightly
beneath with reddish; eyes dark brown speckled with yellowish brown,
and with a narrow, slightly curved median streak slightly upturned
behind. Antennae dirty yellowish at base, beyond of the color of the
head. The pronotum with a longitudinal dark brown streak with in-
distinct edges along the middle of the lateral lobes, and from the
middle of this a descending vertical streak scarcely paler than the
ground; posterior edge of the pronotum a yellowish brown, of the
color of boxwood. Tegmina of the body color or blotched with fuscous
and blackish and with the axillary fold yellowish brown. Wings coral-
red at base, the arcuate band fuscous, deepening to black, the humeral
line pale yellow and the apex nearly hyaline. Legs of the body color,
the inside of the hind femora having the basal half a Prussian blue,
the distal half very dull lemon-yellow, with a transverse streak of deep
blue at one third the distance from the middle; hind tibiae dull lemon-
yellow ; hind tarsi tinged with reddish.”

48 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

This large and well-marked species is among the earliest of our
Orthoptera and has been noted in Minnesota as early as the latter part
of April, while in Iowa we have taken it fully matured by March 12,
although this was, of course, exceptional. The dark markings of the
tegmina, especially toward the base, have a tendency to become broadly
triangular in form rather than rounded or transverse as in most of the
species of this genus. The wings are quite uniform in their coral, or
sometimes pinkish, red, although rarely yellow-winged forms are taken.
The species can not easily be confused with others because of its quite
distinct specific characters and also because of its occurrence at a time
when very few other species of this genus, within our area, are mature,
since nearly all have disappeared by the first of July. The species is
to be found in nearly all parts of the State but appears quite local and
colonies may be found in the same locality year after year. The young
appear in July or August. The species frequents dry places, sandy
spots along the edge of streams being especially favored. Both sexes
have a strong and swift flight, although the female often relies upon
concealment for escape. The male has an aerial stridulation much like
that of Arphia, although when startled it often flies noiselessly. We
have taken it in most parts of the State, although it is apparently less
abundant in the Red River Valley.

Hippiscus zapotecus Scudd.

Hippiscus zapotecus, which has hitherto been reported almost en-
tirely from the West and Southwest, has been found in considerable
numbers in Ottertail County and other parts of the Red River Valley.
Since it has the median carina of the pronotum cut by two sulci, it is
readily set apart from most species of this genus. It was found in
early spring, considerable numbers being taken by May 1, having
doubtless been mature for some time even at that date. It was taken
in every case upon high gravelly hills and associated with a dwarf
sage (Artemisia cana Pursh.).

The following description taken from specimens before us may be
of interest, since descriptions of this species are not readily obtainable:
General color a light grayish brown, more or less suffused with pink
on the pronotum and face, maculate with dark fuscous; tegmina as
long as (female), or surpassing (male), the abdomen, light grayish
brown, heavily marked with rather small squarish spots of dark brown
or fuscous, the spots not much coalesced into large areas as in most
species of the genus; a well-marked light stripe along the axillary
fold, broadening, and the two stripes meeting at a point but little be-
hind the base of posterior femora; abdomen more or less maculate with

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 49

dark spots, frequently coalescing into indistinctly defined bands. The
hind femora stout and depressed, the lower carina very strong, color
about as in body, with three broad, oblique, dark bands in the superior
field and with small dark spots along the extended inferior carina; the
inner face commonly all, rarely nearly all, dark. coral-red, very bright
in life; hind tibiae bright coral-red, the outer face with a variable pale

52

AANGCE 2 PUIPPISCUS ZAP OTECUS

. Fig. 6. Range of Hippiscus sapotecus

or whitish area at base; hind tarsi red above and yellow below. Disk
of the vertex declivent, roughly pentagonal and anteriorly extended
but blunt at apex; lateral carina distinct but not strong; median carina
beginning at a point opposite the anterior edge of the eyes, with some-
times tuberculations anterior to this, and extending back to front of
pronotum, in some with faintly indicated supplementary carina parallel
to it behind the disk; eyes maculate, brownish with yellowish streaks ;
frontal costa strong, sulcate between the antennae, and not widely
separated below ; antennae long, considerably longer than the head and

*
50 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

pronotum together in the male, filiform, dark smoky brownish. Pro-
notum broadly angulate at anterior margin and rectangulate or some-
times obtusely angulate at posterior margin; its median carina not
much elevated, distinctly cut by two sulci, in the female sometimes al-
most obsolete between them; lateral canthi distinct though broken and
somewhat irregular on the metazona. The whole disk is covered with
heavy tubercules not coalescent save at the sulci and there variably
so; a row of these black-tipped tubercules follows the anterior margin
of the pronotum. On the anterior portion of the disk is a rather large
dark spot, triangular in form, broadest behind, bounded by lighter,
narrow bands giving a faintly defined X-mark. The lateral lobes of
the pronotum are deeper than broad, concave by the constriction at the
sulcus and bearing anteriorly below the middle an irregular dark spot.
Fore and middle legs plumbeous, the middle femora with three ill-
defined dark transverse bars. Measurements from specimens before
us are as follows: male, length 27.5 mm., tegmina 25 to 28 mm.,
hind femora 15.5 to 16.5 mm., antennae 16 mm.; female, length 40 mm.,
tegmina 31 mm., hind femora 16 to 18 mm., antennae 12.5 mm.

The following notes are from observations made during the past
two years in Ottertail County: May 15,1911. Noted many specimens
of this species, adult males and females and the immature forms or
nymphs. The males in particular are quite active, although not easily
aroused. They frequently crouch amid the sparse vegetation and rely
upon concealment. To-day the males were far more numerous or the
females unusually well concealed, as I saw but few of them, while the
males were quite plenty.

The male is very active and alert, flying with a sharp, crackling,
aerial stridulation, and near the end of the flight invariably makes an
abrupt turn or zigzag and immediately upon alighting runs rapidly a
few inches from the spot. In bright weather they are extremely wary
and difficult to capture; even when in the net they frequently crouch
close to the ground, perfectly motionless, and their coloration, despite
its striking colors, blends so perfectly with the lights and shadows
among the dead vegetation as to render them almost invisible. They
are as quick to seize an opportunity and escape, when the net is moved
incautiously in searching for them, as some of the Cicindelidae. The
females, although large and bulky, can fly well when alarmed. We
noted one arise and fly a distance of eighty feet or more at a height
of about ten feet, crossing a small hillock and alighting on the oppo-
site side, where we were unable to locate her again.

June 6. While driving with Mr. Metzger, we noted from the road-
side a dense growth of Artemisia cana on a high dry hillside and, re-
calling the close association of this plant with H. zapotecus, I made

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE Gal
-the statement that I would get out and collect some specimens of this
Hippiscus. Upon making a search, we found several specimens, much
to Mr. Metzger’s astonishment. The almost invariable rule in this lo-
cality is that where we find this dwarf sage on gravelly hillsides, we
have taken this insect.

The only record of this species in this part of the country was
based upon a single specimen taken by Dr. J. A. Allen, at Denison,
Iowa, July 15, 1867. Walker has twice reported taking it in Canada,
while all other records are from Colorado and westward. We have
taken it in abundance throughout Ottertail and Wilkin counties and
at Halstad, Fertile, and Hallock.

DISSOSTEIRA Scudd.

The body of the Dissosteira is slender and somewhat compressed,
with the head prominent; the vertex more or less tumid, declivent, the
disk subpentagonal or nearly ovate, the lateral foveolae trigonal ; lat-
eral carina low and the median present but very weak. The pronotum
is tectate on the prozona and flattened on the metazona; the median
carina strong and sharp, strongly arched on the metazona; deeply but
narrowly notched before the middle; lateral lobes deeper than broad,
anterior and posterior margins nearly straight, the anterior vertical
and the posterior more or less oblique; inferior margin posteriorly
rounded and anteriorly ascending; tegmina long and quite broad, the
apical third membranceous; wings long and broad, in our species,
blackish with a light outer margin. But one species is known to occur
in this State.

Dissosteira carolina L.

Dissosteira carolina is one of the most common of our Orthop-
tera (Plate II, 2 and 3) and possibly the one most generally noticed
by the great mass of persons not particularly interested in this group,
as it may be seen almost everywhere during midsummer. It is an
insect primarily of dusty places and may be found wherever bare
earth, sand, or clay is exposed. It is moreover equally at home in the
busy streets of a city or the deserted roadways of the country. We
may find it also in meadows, on railway embankments, or along the
margins of lakes or streams. Wherever we find this versatile species
we may note that its coloration fits perfectly the background of its
habitation. There appears to be a rather definite adaptation of colora-
tion to environment, since in a large series taken upon open sandbars,
there is usually a predominance of light-colored forms, more or less
closely simulating the coloration of the sandbar, while in a series taken

THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

on
bo

upon dark soils, the darker forms, approaching the coloration of the
soils, predominate. Hancock (Nature Sketches in Temperate Amer-
ica, pp. 346, 347) has described a series of experiments made to deter-
mine the effect of environment, and more especially of soil back-
ground, upon these insects. His conclusions may be quoted here. “In
these experiments, together with others that I have made, the evidence
indicates that the Carolina locust does not change abruptly at the
critical period during the last ecdysis, or moult, from one color to an-
other but a change takes place in the adult gradually after the last
moult. Whether this 1s in sympathy with the surroundings is not
definitely proven. But the indication is that the hypodermal cells lvine

Fig. 7. Normal Habitat of Dissosteira carolina C. W. Howard

in the integument of the newly moulted adult are very sensitive to
light and humidity and are capable, under the effects of these stimult,
of responding by changing color in accordance with that of the habitat.”
When in flight the broad expanse of wing and the contrasting colors
of the largely black surface and the light outer margin make it a very
conspicuous object, but immediately upon alighting the insect nor-
mally blends so perfectly into the color scheme of the background as to
be almost indistinguishable.

The males of this species frequently exhibit a very interesting per-
formance in midsummer. They will rise into the air a few feet and
poise there, the wings being vibrated rapidly with a whirring sound

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE

un
we

for a time until the insect, tiring, drops again to the earth. From a
distance this performance resembles the hovering of the “Mourning
Cloak” butterfly, Euvanessa antiopa, more than the actions of a grass-
hopper. This habit is occasionally seen in a few other related insects,
such as some of the Arphias, Camnula pellucida, and Circotettix ver-
ruculatus. It has been thought by some to be in some way attractive
to the opposite sex, but as Hancock has noted, we often find this dem-
onstration occurring when only males are near, and on the whole it ap-
pears more likely a form of play, possibly akin to the jumping contests
of small boys. The insect is very social in its habits and individuals
meeting will sometimes pause and wave the antennae with every ap-
pearance of an informal conversation. The males are very ardent in
their courtship and on one occasion we found four unsuccessful males
clinging to a mating pair so closely as to form a compact mass of lo-
custs, not even releasing this hold when we rolled them gently down
an incline. In Minnesota the species matures early in June and may be
found until severe frosts in the fall. We have found the immature
forms along the roadsides of Redwood County early in May, squat-
ting among low and sparse vegetation, apparently enjoying the warmth
of the sun.

Like many others of our locusts this species is very subject to the
attack of a fungous disease, Empusa grylli, and late in summer the dead
and partly bleached bodies may be seen attached to the tops of weeds.
This locust is one of those which are of economic importance within
our area, since it often does considerable damage to growing crops.
This damage is usually confined to the edges of fields along roadsides,
although in fields of corn, potatoes, and of certain other cultivated
crops which present dusty surfaces, the insect may be found far out in
the fields. The females begin to oviposit early in August or even late
in July, and may often be noted drilling into soil so firmly packed as
to appear hopeless. We have seen them drilling in the hard-packed
roadbed of a well-traveled clay road and on one occasion at Crookston
we watched one drilling in a hard cinder path in a park. A small boy
who accompanied us sagely remarked that he guessed they “might
even try a cement walk.” We have seen this species at nearly every
point visited within the State, although in the extreme north it is rela-
tively scarce, its place being taken by Circotettix verruculatus, an insect
of very similar general appearance and habits.

SPHARAGEMON Scudd.

The body of Spharagemon is rather slender and somewhat
compressed, with the head more or less swollen; vertex rather broadly

54 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

triangular, though more or less rounded behind by the incurving of the
lateral carinae, in some forms suggesting that of Dissosteira. The
lateral carinae are weak and the median, although very faint, is indi-
cated especially in the male; foveolae rather large, shallow, triangular ;
the frontal costa sulcate, at least below the ocellus; antennae rather
long, usually attaining the tip of the hind femora, the basal joints
somewhat flattened. Pronotum tectate on the prozona and flattened
on the metazona, the median carina strong and high, cut before the
middle by a deep, sometimes oblique, notch; lateral canthi, in males,
distinct on the metazona, cut by the sulcus and less distinct on the
prozona; in the female they are rounded upon the metazona. The
tegmina are always well developed but shorter and relatively somewhat
narrower than in Dissosteira, exceeding the tip of hind femora in both
sexes ; wings with colored basal area yellow, with a dark arcuate band
near the middle. Hind femora stout, more or less depressed, exceed-
ing the tip of the abdomen; hind tibiae variable in color, in ours with
at least the apical portion red. The species belonging to this genus are
extremely alike and difficult to separate. Although certain of the
species found within our State have been reduced to subspecies or
varieties by recent authors, we prefer, for the purposes of this paper,
to consider all of equal rank. The following key will aid in separating
our species:

Posterior tibiae tricolored, basally whitish, a broad median black or fuscous
annulation, and the apical half red; size rather large; tegmina with two more
or less distinct transverse fuscous bars bollt

Posterior tibiae normally red, sometimes paler at the base but never with a median
fuscous annulation
Median carina of pronotum high and not sinuate on the prozona

Large species; head rather narrawed above ; _ _ collare
Small species; head quadrate above; tegmina widest at costal dilation and
arcuate toward apex wyomimgianum

Median carina of pronotum lower and usually sinuate on prozona; width of
vertex between the eyes distinctly more than width of one eye aequale

Spharagemon bolli Scudd.

Spharagemon bolli is preéminently a lover of dry soil and wooded
places and has been noted through a large portion of the State, espe-
cially in the eastern half. It is a large and well-marked species, the
somewhat conspicuous tricolored hind tibiae readily serving to identify
it in the field. The body colors are quite variable but normally a dark
or grayish brown, the tegmina marked with minute blackish spots,
which, especially in the male, are aggregated into more or less distinct’
transverse bars. In males the median carina of the pronotum is more
elevated than in the female. Both sexes have a strong, swift flight
with a distinct rustling of the wings, which, however, is under control
of the insect. The same dry, somewhat open woods that abounds in

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 5)

Arphia sulphurea in the spring, will often be found fully as well
stocked with this species late in summer and fall and the general ap-
pearance of the two insects being somewhat alike may lead the casual
observer to think it one form continuous throughout the season. Like
Hippiscus tuberculatus, this species appears to have a distinct liking
for certain localities and may be taken at these spots year after year,
while absent at others in the vicinity apparently equally favorable.
This species has been taken at Red Wing, Mahtomedi, Mankato, St.
Cloud, Duluth, Tower, Cass Lake, Bena, Blackduck, and Greenbush.
For some unexplained reason we have not seen this species at any
point in the Red River Valley. |

Spharagemon collare Scudd.

Spharagemon collare and the two following species are so closely
related that in some forms specific separation is almost impossible, and
is in any case a purely arbitrary matter. In its typical form this
species is distinguishable in the field by the light “collar” which is
really due to the much lighter coloration of the metazona and a por-
tion of the lateral lobes. In these forms the face and the base of the
posterior femora are usually also of a lighter color. In the western
parts of the State and especially in the Red River Valley, this is an
abundant species along roadsides and in dry places, even in open woods.
At Crookston a certain sandy hillside along Red Lake River has yielded
this form at any time during the summers of 1911 and 1912. The
species matures in Minnesota about the middle of June and may be
taken until late in the fall. Through the eastern and southern parts
of the State this “collared” form appears less common than in the
western part of Minnesota, but we have taken specimens near Duluth
and Hinckley. The form without a distinct “collar,” most of which
belongs to what has been classed as variety scudderi, is the common
form in the eastern part of the State and has been taken at White
Bear, Winona, and Albert Lea. [It is similar in habits and habitat to
the typical form.

Spharagemon wyomingianum Thom.

Spharagemon wyomingianum is considerably smaller than the
preceding although very similar, and while distinguishable by the
characters given in the key, in typical forms, yet intergrades with it in
most confusing fashion. Morse has classed it as a variety of S. collare,
but, as previously stated, we prefer, for the purposes of this paper, to
consider it as of specific rank. It is very similar in habits to the fol-
lowing, which in some respects it appears to resemble even more closely

5

eS See tS i oP

Normal Habitat of Spharagemon collare and S. aequale

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 57

than it does S. collare. It is of lighter coloration and more uniformly
maculate with small brownish spots, and in our specimens has usually
a distinctly pink tinge. We have, as yet, found this species only in the
southeastern portion of the State, usually on the sandy margins of the
Mississippi and its tributaries. Upon the almost clear sand which it
frequents, its light color and faintly marked pattern blend beautifully
with the lights and shadows, rendering it almost invisible until it
moves. Its flight is swift and strong, though not usually prolonged,
and it rises with almost the swiftness of a Cicindela.

Spharagemon aequale Say.

Spharagemon aequale is larger than the preceding species and in
our specimens very uniformly darker in color but very similar in
structure to both that and S. collare. The carina of the pronotum is
lower than in the preceding group and upon the prozona normally
sinuate; the vertex is also somewhat broader. In all of our material
the inner face of the hind femora is quite strongly suffused with red,
especially in the basal portion, and the longitudinal dark bar is strong
and distinct. We have found this species only on sandy soil in open
places and usually with such scattered plant formations as the Oeno-
theras, Chenopodii, and tufted grasses. It is very active and alert and
has a strong flight, more prolonged than in most of this genus and has
also the habit of running for some distance immediately upon alight-
ing, frequently at an angle with the direction of flight, thus making it
quite difficult to capture. In early morning, while the dew is still upon
the vegetation, and late in the evening, it perches upon tall weeds and
is generally rather sluggish. We have at times picked them from these
resting places by hand in early morning, when in bright midday at
the same spot it was difficult to take them even with a net. The
species matures at Fergus Falls by early July. We have taken this
insect at Mahtomedi, Mankato, Redwood Falls, Granite Falls, and
Fergus Falls. We have also taken nymphs of what appear to be this
species at Hibbing and Vermillion Lake in the northern part of the
State.

MESTOBREGMA Scudd.

Mestobregma is a genus containing insects varying from small to
medium size. The body is slender and compressed ; the head promi-
nent, considerably elevated above the plane of the pronotum; disk of
vertex with the posterior portion short and broad, tumid, the anterior
portion narrowing rapidly and very strongly declivent; lateral carinae
strong and high, extending from a point opposite the middle of the

58 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

eyes forward into the facial costa; median carina wanting or some-
times indicated by very faint tubercles in the disk; the lateral foveolae
rather strongly marked, in our species triangular, the ocellus at the
lower outer angle. Antennae about the length of the hind femora,
flattened more strongly on one side than on the other so as to form
one sharp edge. Pronotum moderately constricted before the middle,
the front margin truncate, the hind margin rectangulate. Tegmina
surpassing the hind femora, narrow, the tip broadly rounded, the
apical half membranaceous. Posterior femora rather slender, reaching
the tip of the abdomen in the females and considerably surpassing it in
the males. But one species has been taken in Minnesota.

Fig. 9. Normal Habitat of Mestobregma cinctum and Arphia pseudonietana
C. W. Howard

Mestobregma cinctum Thom.

Mestobregma cinctum is a very alert and active little insect, found
in various parts of the State and apparently rather generally distrib-
uted within our area. In size, general coloration, and flight it strongly
resembles Psinidia fenestralis, although much more common, but may
readily be distinguished from that species by the shorter antennae,
which, while basally somewhat flattened, are not so strongly depressed
as in Psinidia. The posterior tibiae also differ in the two; in Mesto-
bregma the tibiae are pale blue with a whitish ring usually present

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 59

near the base, while in Psinidia they are whitish with a dark ring near
each end and usually a broad one near the middle. There is also a
difference in the maculation of the tegmina, which in Mestobregma
have in the costal field two squarish areas separated by an oblong light-
colored spot, while in Psinidia the area is marked with numerous small
spots. We have found that in the field the wings of Mestobregma are
subject to considerable variation in coloration, ranging from the typical
form with the basal third lemon-yellow and a narrow, curved, fuscous,
median band, to forms in which the basal third is whitish or trans-
parent and with no trace of a curved fuscous band. This variation
appears to be entirely individual and in no way influenced by the age
of the insects, as we have found the different forms in specimens still
soft from the final moulting and in ragged and worn specimens late
in the season; neither does environment appear to influence the colora-
tion as we have noted them alike on clear sand, with such plant forma-
tions as Grindelia, Froelichia, and Croton, and also in open woodlands
undergrown by grasses. In Minnesota we have taken this species at
Fergus Falls, Granite Falls, Redwood Falls, Pipestone, Ada, Hawley,
Bemidji, Hibbing, Vermillion Lake, Duluth, Hinckley, and Mahtomeds.

PSINIDIA Stal.

Small and slender insects with the head large and prominent and
the occiput strongly elevated; disk of the vertex broad posteriorly,
narrowing rapidly anteriorly, quite strongly declivent; lateral carinae
sharp, nearly converging in front; foveolae rather small and sub-
circular; the frontal costa sulcate throughout, very narrow above and
gradually expanded below. Antennae long, especially in the males,
the joints of the basal half strongly flattened and with the edges rising
somewhat above the center. Pronotum with the disk nearly flat, granu-
late, the median carina distinct and twice cut by the sulci; front margin
of the pronotal disk truncate, hind margin acute-angled: lateral ca-
rinae distinct on the metazona and weaker on the prozona; lateral
lobes deeper than broad, front margin straight and posterior margin
somewhat concave, inferior margin arcuate and quite strongly ascend-
ing anteriorly. Tegmina rather narrow, exceeding the abdomen in
both sexes and strongly coriaceous in the basal half. Inner wings
red at base, the arcuate dark band submedian and considerably ex-
panded posteriorly. Hind femora reaching or surpassing the tip of
the abdomen; hind tibiae annulate. This genus is represented by one
species, which is found throughout eastern Canada and the United

States.

60 THE: ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

Psinidia fenestralis Serv.

Psinidia fenestralis is primarily an insect of sandy places and is
commonly found only on sandy margins of streams or sandy fields,
associated with the sand bur, Cenchrus carolinianus. The wing colora-
tion varies from orange to light shades of coral-red and rarely speci-
mens are taken with the colored area yellow. The flight differs from
that of Trimerotropis in being low and direct, but is not as swift as in
Mestobregma. The male has a faint aerial stridulation. The colora-
tion of this insect is such that when on its normal habitat of almost
clear sand, with scattered vegetation and a background of broken
lights and shadows, its detection is almost impossible. We have often
been unable to see the insects even when within a few inches of them,
except by the movements or by the shadows they cast. The species oc-
curs throughout eastern Iowa in sandy localities, but has as yet been
taken only in the southeastern part of Minnesota, along the Mississippi
River at Red Wing, Lake City, and Winona.

TRIMEROTROPIS Stal.

Trimerotropis is medium or large in size; the body compressed.
The pronotum compressed before the middle and narrower anteriorly
than behind, its median carina low, especially on the metazona and
broken before the middle by two wide notches; lateral carinae rounded
and indistinct. Head slightly exceeding the prozona in width; vertex
longer than broad with lateral carinae distinct, gradually converging,
and continuous with the sides of the frontal costa, which is strongly
sulcate, at least below ; median carinae of vertex faint or obsolescent ;
foveolae small and shallow but distinct and triangular. Tegmina
longer than the abdomen in both sexes; wings with the basal area yel-
low, outwardly bounded by a curved black or fuscous band. The
genus reaches its greatest development in the West and we have within
our borders but two species, which may be separated by the following
characters:

Tegmina minutely maculate, the spots not aggregated into groups or bands extend-
ing across the surface; frontal costa sulcate as strongly below as above the
ocellus; hind tibiae yellow maritima

Tegmina fasciate usually with solid and well-defined bands; frontal costa sulcate

above the ocellus for a short distance only; hind tibiae red or orange
citrina

Trimerotropis maritima Harr.
Trimerotropis maritima is very distinctly a lover of open, sandy

areas and occurs in some abundance on the sandy flats of the Mis-
sissippi and other streams in the southeastern part of the State. It is

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 61

an especially well-marked example of protective coloration, matching
almost exactly the varied background which it frequents. This, to-
gether with its alertness and activity, renders it very difficult to cap-
ture. The only way in which we have commonly been able to take it
was to “mark down” as it alighted and then rush it once or twice,
relying upon catching it by sweeping it up as it arose. It delights in
the open sunshine and we have watched it walking aimlessly about
upon the sand for long periods without any attempt at feeding, ap-
parently merely enjoying the warmth. When we approached unduly
near, it would crouch close to the sand prepared for flight but seem-
ingly aware of its protecting coloration and not arising until some un-
usual or rapid movement alarmed it. Its flight is very strong and it
can, and does at times, cover unusual distances for an Oedipod.

Trimerotropis citrina Scudd.

Trimerotropis citrina is closely related to the preceding species but
distinguishable by the sulcation of the frontal costa and the red pos-
terior tibiae. This species is found through the same area within our
borders as the preceding, though doubtless both are more widely
spread through the State. We have repeatedly observed females of
this species ovipositing in loose sand along streams. The female selects
a suitable location, using the greatest deliberation, frequently begin-
ning the hole only to abandon it shortly for another, more acceptable
site. The spots finally chosen are usually at the base of some plant,
such as a tuft of Triodia purpurea, Sporobolus longifolia, or other
grass. After the hole has been completed, the female usually with-
draws the abdomen and pauses a short time, apparently resting. She
then backs down into the hole and working the abdomen to the bottom
begins oviposition, which continues for some time with considerable
evidence of muscular exertion. In one case we watched the preliminary
stages and remained for about ten minutes after oviposition had ap-
parently begun. We then marked the spot intending to dig up the
mass later but upon our return over half an hour later the female
was still engaged in oviposition. Upon digging up the mass we found
an incomplete pod with 17 eggs. In many cases the females oviposit
far out on open sand bars during the low water of late summer and
these eggs must of necessity be swept away by the moving of the sand
during spring floods. It appears evident that there must be great loss
of eggs through such faulty selection of locations. From field obser-
vations, partly confirmed by caged specimens, it is probable that the
females sometimes, possibly often, oviposit more than once during the
season. We have seen specimens of this insect from Winona, Gray
Cloud Island, and Mahtomedi.

62 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA
CIRCOTETTEX«Scudd:

Circotettix varies from medium to rather large in size, with the
body somewhat compressed and the eyes prominent; disk of vertex
much longer than broad, abruptly narrowed before the eyes, thence
continued without further narrowing into the frontal costa. Pronotum
relatively short, truncate at anterior margin and rectangulate at pos-
terior margin; its median carina distinct and twice cut before the
middle; lateral lobes deeper than broad, the front margin straight,
the posterior more or less concave. Tegmina rather broad and longer
than the abdomen in both sexes; wings pale yellow in basal area, out-
wardly bounded by a dark curved band beyond which at the apical
angles they are nebulous or transparent; three or more of the radial
veins incrassate. Coloration and form suggest Dissosteira rather than
Spharagemon as has been stated by some authors. We have but one
species which is, however, rather variable in coloration.

Circotettix verruculatus Kirby

Circotettix verruculatus is a rather common insect through the
northern and eastern parts of the State. While it often much re-
sembles Dissosteira, not only in appearance but in habits, it may read-
ily be separated from this by the yellow coloration of the wings and
the flat dorsum of the pronotum. Its resemblance to dark forms of
Spharagemon has also been noted but here another character readily
serves to distinguish it, since in Spharagemon the median carina of the
pronotum is cut by but one sulcus, while in Circotettix there are two
well-marked notches. It is primarily an insect of dry or even dusty
places and is somewhat saxicolous, loving rocky exposures. On the
granite hills about Lake Vermillion it occurs in countless numbers and
on a bright day the stridulation of the males in flight fills the air. The
flight of this species is the strongest and longest of all our Oedipods,
possibly excepting Trimerotropis, and is very indirect in its course,
often completely circling about the observer and ending near the
point from which it started.

While, as stated, this insect is fond of dry places, it may also be
taken amid the blackened logs of burnt-over areas in the forest or even
in the dense tangle of a tamarack swamp. It has been stated that the
forms from such burnt-over areas are dark, while those of more
open places are lighter, but examination of material in the field at Ten
Strike, Vermillion Lake, and other points does not support this so
far as Minnesota is concerned. For instance, from an open, rocky
place we took twenty specimens ; twelve of these were blackish, five
brownish, and three neutral in tint. From an area in the woods,

SUBFAMILY OEDIPODINAE 63

burnt over and covered with a tangle of blackened logs and stumps,
we took twenty more; of these fifteen were blackish, three brownish,
and two neutral, thus showing practically the same relative propor-
tions. We have noted the same intermingling of forms along the
shore of Lake Superior, near Duluth, but in our area the black ap-
parently always outnumbers the others.

The aerial stridulation of the males is a sharp crackling, very
like that of the Arplias but much louder and more continuous. We
once noted an interesting performance by three males at Biwabik.
Out in the center of the railway switch yards, these three were grouped
closely together and so intent were they that we were able to approach
within a few feet without alarming them. First one would raise both
hind femora high up and with a quick jerky movement rub them vig-
orously against the sides of the tegmina; after a time he would pause
‘and stand at attention while one of his mates took up the performance.
To our ear no “music” was audible save a faint grating noise, far
from melodious. This performance was repeated time after time and
we do not know how long it might have continued had they not been
interrupted by a heavily loaded ore train. As to the object of such
demonstration, we have no explanation to offer since there were no
females within a rod or more.

In Tower and some of the other northern towns, this usually shy
insect takes the place of Dissosteira in the streets and appears as thor-
oughly at home there as the “Carolina locust”’ in the southern cities.
At Tower we have noted that while it is abundant on the streets during
the warmer part of the day, it disappears by about five o’clock in the
afternoon and upon search we found it on weeds, posts, and other
somewhat elevated places, apparently having retired for the night. It
remained thus until rather late in the morning, not becoming active
until nearly nine o’clock. While thus at rest, the insect is very slug-
gish and does not start readily, making it easy to take such as may be
desired. In the habit of poising motionless in the air, this insect also
resembles Dissosteira and may be seen at times suspending itself in
the air, much more like a butterfly in appearance than a locust. In
northern Minnesota, this species matures about the first of July and
may be found until killing frosts. We have taken it at Bemidji, Black-
duck, Hibbing, Biwabik, Virginia, Vermillion Lake, Duluth, Taylor’s
Falls, and Hinckley. It will probably be found throughout the area of
the coniferous forests of our State.

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE

The members of the subfamily Acridinae may be readily distin-
guished by the presence of a distinct spine, usually conical or cylindri-

64 ‘ THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

cal, projecting from the prosternum between the front legs. The face
is vertical or nearly so in all save the first genus. The head is rela-
tively smaller and less swollen than in either the Tryxalinae or the
Oedipodinae. The disk of the vertex is not sunken or concave, its lat-
eral carinae are low and rounded or often obsolete; foveolae are com-
monly wanting or indistinct. The disk of the pronotum is normally
flat or nearly so and is never strongly tuberculate or rugose; its pos-
terior margin is never acute-angled but usually rounded or subangulate.
The antennae are relatively short and composed of from twelve to
twenty-five joints. Tegmina may or may not be present and, when
present, vary from the length of the pronotum or less to forms longer
than the abdomen. The inner wings, when present, are transparent,
usually vitreous, and never brightly colored. The posterior femora are
well developed and the members of this group are in general strongly
saltatorial.

This subfamily includes most of the species which are of economic
importance within our area and indeed throughout the world, the truly
destructive locusts, save for certain Tryxalinae. It includes nearly all
of the truly migratory species together with a very large number of
species which, while non-migratory, are at times extremely destructive
to growing crops. The enormous damage resulting from the invasions
of the Rocky Mountain locust, Melanoplus spretus, causing losses at
one time placed at over $200,000,000 in the Middle West, is an ex-
ample of the economic importance of one of the migratory species,
while the annual loss from our non-migratory species, although it can
not be accurately estimated, since, being yearly, our crop returns are
adjusted to it, would be equally startling if it could be expressed in
dollars. It is safe to say that if we could but eliminate these estab-
lished and unnoticed pests for one year, the crop returns would be
enormously increased. In this group the “music” or stridulation of
the males appears to be confined to the one method of rubbing the
hind femora against the edge of the tegmina. This is, of course, weak
“music” as compared with the loud calls of some of the Locustidae,
but even in the case of certain brachypterous forms, the males have
been seen to go through the.motions although no sound was audible
to the listener. Some of the species of Schistocerca produce a faint
rustling sound with the wings when in flight but there is nothing ap-
proaching the definite and controlled aerial stridulation of some of the
members of the Oedipodinae. In general the coloration of the mem-
bers of the subfamily is of varying shades of dull brown, although a
few are rather strongly colored. Classification of this group is based
in large part upon the ventral sclerites and the genitalia of the males.
The following key will serve to separate the genera of this subfamily
which are represented in Minnesota :

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 65

Face very oblique with fastigium of vertex acute Pseudopomala
Face vertical or nearly so, the fastigium of vertex never acute
Mesosternal lobes longer than broad, the inner margin straight; insects of

large size Schistocerca
Mesosternal lobes transverse, or length equal to breadth; the inner margin
rounded
Melanopli

Lateral margin of subgenital plate of male, viewed laterally, straight through-
out or but slightly convex, never ampliate at base; furcula of male com-
posed of projecting cylindrical fingers Hypochlora

Lateral margin of subgenital plate of male, viewed laterally, convex or
sinuate, decidedly ampliate at base
Subgenital plate of male with a distinct subapical tubercle, but not other-

wise tumescent ; body relatively slender and compressed Hesperotettix
Subgenital of male with no distinct subapical tubercle but often apically
prolonged or tumescent
Interval between mesosternal lobes of male distinctly transverse;
metasternal lobes of male generally distant or sometimes almost
approximate; face slightly oblique Podisma
Interval between mesosternal lobes of male generally longer or much
longer than broad; metasternal lobes of male generally attingent or
subattingent
Head not enlarged or prominent and but little longer than the prozona,
save when the latter is transverse; intercalary veins relatively numer-
ous; cerci of male (in our species) never styliform Melanoplus
Head large in proportion to pronotum and nearly half as long again
as the long prozona; intercalary veins few and not well marked;
cerci of male styliform; subgenital very narrow Phoetaliotes

PSEUDOPOMALA Morse

Vertex horizontal, longer than broad, semi-elliptical, convex, and
with a very distinct median carina, laterally sulcate in female, or ex-
tended into laminae in the male, with the margins limited by the lat-
eral carinae. Lateral foveolae are wanting, frontal costa sulcate
throughout with heavy, slightly divergent, lateral carinae except at
the apex, where it is much constricted. The face is nearly straight
and very declivent. The antennae are slightly triquetrous and much
flattened and expanded basally, where they about equal in breadth the
short diameter of the eye. In the female they are as long as the head
and pronotum and in the male considerably longer than this. Pro-
notum slightly longer than the head; the disk nearly plain though
slightly elevated toward the median carina which is distinct and cut
once, far behind the middle, by the principal sulcus, which is visible,
although faint on the disk. The lateral carinae are distinct, parallel,
or slightly narrowed posteriorly, and normally cut by the principal
sulcus only, though sometimes in males the first sulcus, though faint,
cuts the carinae. The posterior margin of the metazona is straight in
females and very broadly rounded or nearly straight in males. The
lateral lobes of the pronotum are vertical, slightly convex above, with
the anterior and posterior margins strongly oblique, the anterior
straight and the posterior sinuate just above the lower angle, which

60 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

is sharp and subrectangular. The inferior margin is straight and
nearly horizontal. The mesosternal lobes are separated by a space
somewhat longer than broad in the female and about as long as broad
in the male. Wings are abortive in both sexes and the tegmina may
be short or well developed. The posterior femora are slender and
not distinctly banded; posterior tibiae have the inner apical spurs not
very unequal. The last ventral segment of the male is horizontal,
elongate, conical, and about four times as long as the penultimate.
The ovipositor is moderately to strongly exserted. We have but one
species in this genus, which from its peculiar structure has been va-
riously placed in the Tryxalinae and the Acridinae.

Pseudopomala brachyptera Scudd.

Pseudopomala brachyptera is an odd-looking insect. As stated
previously it presents characters of both the Tryxalinae and the Acri-
dinae. ‘The prosternal spine is distinctly and sharply conical, although
small, but the general aspect is that of a Tryxalid. In color the species
is brown, minutely dotted with black and obscurely striped with some-
what lighter shades. The female is more uniformly brown than the
male. In general aspect this insect has much the appearance of a small
brachypterous form of Mermeria. In lowa adults have been taken
from June 6 to late September, while immature forms (pupa or nymph)
have been taken as late as July 10, thus suggesting a somewhat ir-
regular breeding period. So far as our field experience goes, this
species appears to be associated with certain tall grasses, notably An-
dropogon scoparius Michx. In Minnesota it has been taken at Pipe-
stone, Brown Valley, and Gray Cloud Island, and careful collecting
will doubtless discover it at other points in the southern part of the
State.

SCHISTOCERCA: Stal:

Size relatively large. Vertex with the front deflexed; fastigium
not prolonged and apically obtuse; lateral foveolae minute or wanting;
lateral carinae low and faint; median carina absent; face nearly ver-
tical. Pronotum with the disk convex on the prozona and flattened on
the metazona; the lateral carinae absent, the median low but distinct;
posterior margin of the metazona rounded or subangulate. Lobes of
the mesosternum longer than broad, with the inner margin straight,
and strongly angulate at tip. Tegmina always well developed and
longer than the abdomen in both sexes; wings vitreous. Hind tibiae
having smooth margins with numerous spines regularly disposed on
both sides but with no apical spine on the outer margin. Second joint

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 67

of posterior tarsi only about half as long as the first. Male cerci oblong
and of nearly equal breadth throughout; subgenital plate strongly re-
curved in male and with its apex deeply notched. Our species are all
large or medium-sized insects of reddish coloration and are all capable
of strong and well-sustained flight. They are in general more or less
arboreal and for this reason are not commonly noted, although in some
parts of the State two species at least are relatively numerous. Since
these insects are at times more or less migratory, their exact range or
area of distribution varies, and species, while plenty at a certain lo-
cality at a given time, may not appear there again for long periods.
The following characteristics will serve to distinguish our species:

Antennae of males nearly or quite one- third (often one-half) longer than the
head and pronotum together.
Pronotum not tectate, or but feebly so in females; no light-colored dorsal
stripe; metazona rugulose rubiginosa
Pronotum always more or less distinctly tectate; a light-colored dorsal stripe
always present; dorsum of metazona plane or nearly so in both sexes; hind
tibiae not red alutacea
Antennae of males hardly more (often less) than one and one-fourth times as
long as the head and pronotum together ; large species, with male cerci tapering
from base to apex americana

Schistocerca rubiginosa Harris

Schistocerca rubiginosa is closely similar in habits and structures
to S. alutacea Harris and in fact, from our observations of this species
in the field we are inclined to consider it rather a form of the latter
than a true species. This belief is strengthened by the fact that there
is, in the field, every possible intergradation between the two. The
typical form with the flattened dorsum and with no light-colored dorsal
stripe has been taken with S. alutacea at St. Paul Park, Mahtomedi,
and Northfield, while Lugger (Third Ann. Rept. of Entomologist
Minn. Exp. Sta. p. 174) has reported it indefinitely “from the wooded
bluffs of the Mississippi River in the southeastern part of the State.”’

Schistocerca alutacea Harris

Schistocerca alutacea is the largest of our Orthoptera, except only
its congener, S. americana, and is to be found in areas of dry soil, ap-
parently most abundantly where there are scattered trees, as along the
banks of streams. At Gray Cloud Jsland, Winona, and other points
in southeastern Minnesota it was very abundant during the fall of
1912. It doubtless occurs throughout the southern part of the State in
places offering its favored habitat. It is very active and easily
alarmed and usually rises for rather long flights, frequently alighting
amid the branches of trees or shrubs rather than on the ground.
When in flight it makes a rustling sound, possibly comparable to the

68 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

aerial stridulation of some of the Oedipods, but much less audible.
The species matures during July and is present until severe weather in
the fall. In the southern states this species, together with the follow-
ing, may be seen active throughout the winter. We have seen both in
the woodlands of South Carolina, feeding and flying when alarmed
even during January.

Schistocerca americana Dru.

We have not taken Schistocerca americana within our area as yet,
although we have taken it at Rock Rapids, Estherville, and other
points in the extreme northern part of Iowa and feel no doubt that it
will be found at least occasionally in southern Minnesota. It is a fine
large insect, more reddish in tint and more heavily maculate than either
of the foregoing. It is very difficult to capture during the bright warm
days of summer but in late autumn it becomes sluggish, feeding little
and hanging motionless to the sides of buildings or other elevated
places, evidently enjoying the warmth of the sun’s rays and awaiting
the end, although as just stated it and others of the genus remain
active throughout the winter in the southern states. We have heard
the children call this insect the “bird grasshopper” and truly, when
seen in flight, its great expanse of wing makes this name very fitting.
Scarcely less apt is the name “‘clickety bug” given it by the negroes in
South Carolina, referring to the rustling of its wings in flight.

HY POCHLORAY Brann.

Body rather slender, compressed, and sparingly pilose. Head not
prominent, the summit gently arched, the fastigium moderately dec-
livent; interspace between the eyes broad, frontal costa rather nar-
row, sulcate, percurrent, and subequal. Eyes not very prominent,
similar in both sexes; antennae moderately stout and about as long as
the head and pronotum. Pronotum subequal, very feebly and grad-
ually enlarged posteriorly, with a distinct percurrent median carina;
the disk very broadly subtectate with the lateral carinae not well
marked. Lateral lobes of pronotum vertical. Front margin of prozona
subtruncate, hind margin of metazona very obtusely angulate; the very
coarsely, feebly, and sparsely punctate prozona half as long again as
the very finely and suddenly punctate metazona, its posterior margin
faintly angularly emarginate; one transverse sulcus dividing the disk
into equal halves, and straight, the other a third of the distance behind
this and sinuate. Prosternal spine erect, moderately slender, and coni-
cal. Mesosternal interspace much longer than broad in both sexes,

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 69

clepsydral in shape; metasternal lobes subattingent, especially in the
male. Tegmina abbreviate, acuminate, attingent, or overlapping and
about as long as the pronotum. Hind femora slender, somewhat com-
pressed. Abdomen of male neither clavate nor curved upward apically ;
lateral margins of the subgenital straight from the base; subgenital
acute-angulate at tip, with a slight, blunt, apical tubercle; cerci very
simple, slender and apically incurved; furcula consisting of a pair of
slight, cylindrical, slender fingers, parallel, subparallel, or somewhat
approaching one another posteriorly. This western genus is, as now
defined, monotypic.

Hypochlora alba Dodge

Hypochlora alba is a small, rather pale green insect having con-
siderable general resemblance to Melanoplus gracilis. We have taken
this species at several points in western Minnesota, notably at Pipe-
stone, Granite Falls, and Fergus Falls, in all of which cases it was as-
sociated with the wild sage (Artemisia cana Pursh. and A. ludoviciana
Nutt.), an association which has been previously noted by Bruner.
Speaking of this insect he says, “Here in Nebraska it is one of the
commonest species . . ~~ it is most commonly found on Artemisia
ludoviciana.’ In Iowa and doubtless in the southeastern part of Min-
nesota, it finds equally good concealment on [*roelichia and the hoary
species of Oenothera. It matures late in July.

ESPERO PED DEXe Seudd:

The sides of the body of Hesperotettix are almost parallel and are
somewhat compressed and not much enlarged at the metathorax. Head
not very prominent; vertex usually very narrow between the eyes;
frontal costa generally as broad as, if not broader than, this interval
between the eyes and sulcate throughout. Front straight, somewhat
oblique; antennae longer than the head and pronotum together; eyes
slightly prominent, more distinctly so in the male. Pronotum long and
slender, the dorsum fully half as long again as broad; the prozona con-
siderably longer than the metazona, sometimes half as long again, and
with less distinction in surface and sculpture between them than usual,
both broadly tectiform; the median carina slight but distinct and alike
or nearly so throughout. Posterior margin of the disk with a very
obtusely angulate tip and the border delicately margined. Prosternal
spine rather long and bluntly conical ; mesosternal interspace generally
twice as long as broad in male, and nearly subquadrate in the female ;
metasternal lobes subattingent in both sexes. Tegmina and wings

70) THE ACRIDIIDAE OF, MINNESOTA

present and in our species wel] developed and at least as long as the
abdomen. Hind femora long and slender, somewhat compressed, gen-
erally surpassing the abdomen, the superior carina slight and un-
armed; first joint of hind tarsi scarcely longer than the third.

The species are, in general, very closely allied and at times forms
are taken which are not readily placed. The genus is closely related
to Hypochlora, but may be distinguished by the ampliation of the base
of the subgenital of the males. The species are small, trim insects, of
green color and having much the aspect of Melanoplus. Two species
are known in Minnesota and a third, which has been doubtfully re-
ported from our State, may yet be definitely established and is here
included to aid in identification.

Metazona never rugulose, sometimes feebly punctulate

Transverse sulci of pronotum marked in black viridis
Transverse sulci of pronotum not marked in black or contrasting colors;
dorsum tectiform pratensis
Metazona distinctly rugulose; dorsum tectiform Speciosus

Hesperotettix viridis Thom.

Hesperotettix viridis appears to have been frequently confused
with others of the genus. It has been reported from Minnesota by
Bruner, but Scudder (Revision of American Melanopli, Proc. U. S.
Natl. Museum, Vol. XX, p. 58) considers this doubtful. Since it does
occur in Nebraska and in Jowa, it may yet be positively fixed as a mem-
ber of our fauna and is here included to aid in recognition.

Hesperotettix pratensis Scudd.

Hesperotettix pratensis, which is possibly the most beautiful of
our Acridinae, deserves a complete description, although the illustra-
tion (Plate I, 7) is as nearly perfect as may be desired. The head
is green, tingeing to vellowish green in some specimens, punctate
with fuscous in front, the lower portion of the face more or less
purplish; a short fuscous bar descends from the eye in both sexes;
vertex with a rather narrow fuscous stripe, sometimes blackish an-
teriorly, extending back, ordinarily with a median thread of yellow;
the fastigium generally discolored and, especially in case of the females,
reddish. The pronotum slightly increasing in breadth posteriorly and
with no angle at the middle, yellowish green in some specimens (Min-
nesota) with a very faintly defined, light-colored line along the lateral
carinae and extended upon the head, where it follows the upper pos-
terior margin of the eyes; above the middle of the lateral lobes of the
prozona is a more or less distinct fuscous, often irregular bar, gener-
ally darker below and somewhat margined above and below with whit-

a

a

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 71

ish; usually a distinct and sometimes conspicuous stripe along the
median carina, frequently, especially in males, bordered by a reddish
area widening posteriorly. Tegmina well developed in both sexes,
being as long as, or slightly longer than, the abdomen, light green,
often more or less suffused with reddish pink. Legs green, the fore
and middle femora with a more or less distinct annulation of pink
above the geniculation; posterior femora slender, somewhat fuscous,
most noticeably so in females, and with a more or less distinct reddish
annulation before the tip. Hind tibiae pale bluish green, sometimes
yellowish apically, the spines bluish at base and blackish at tip. Supra-
anal plate triangular, obtuse at tip, length about equal to breadth, the
margins nearly straight; furcula minute, rounded lobes rather widely
separated; cerci considerably shorter than the supra-anal plate, simple
and regularly conical on basal half, the apical half subequal, bluntly
pointed, feebly curved downward; last dorsal plate broadly rounded
and rather deeply emarginate. The following measurements are from
specimens now before us: male, length 18.5 mm., tegmina 13 mm.,
hind femur 11.5 mm.; female, length 24.5 mm., tegmina 19.5 mm.,
hind femur 15.5 mm.

We have taken this insect at Pipestone, Redwood Falls, Fergus
Falls, and Albert Lea. It is usually found on dry prairies more or
less rolling and of sandy or gravelly soil. In most cases it has been
found associated with Melanoplus angustipennis. At Fergus Falls,
where we noted adults of both sexes on July 14, it was not commonly
found in the weeds or low grasses but in tufts of Symphoricarpus or
amid tall Compositae.

Hesperotettix speciosus Scudd.

Hesperotettix speciosus is somewhat larger than H. pratensis, with
the disk of the pronotum usually distinctly rugulose, the rugae usually
yellowish and having a more or less transverse, never longitudinal
direction on the prozona, while upon the metazona they usually extend
longitudinally ; tegmina more yellowish than in the preceding and with
the veins yellow, shorter: than in H. pratensis, and often rather abbre-
. viate, especially in the male. Hind femora green more or less suf-
fused with roseate. Supra-anal plate of male triangular and usually
- acute or subacute at tip; furcula of short triangular lobes; cerci deli-
cate, slender, conical, with the outer half distinctly incurved. The
records of this species in Minnesota are based upon a pair taken by
us in coitu at Mahtomedi, July 29, 1909. They were found in dry
open woodland with sandy soil. In lowa we have taken it in some
numbers on dry sandy soil in Muscatine County, associated with such
plants as Cenchrus carolina, Paspalum ciliatifolium, and Helianthus

6

THE ACRIDITDAE OF MINNESOTA

“SI
bo

occidentalis. The measurements here given are from the Minnesota
specimens above cited. Male, length 22 mm., tegmina 11 mm., hind
femur 14 mm.; female, length 32.5 mm., tegmina 17.5 mm., hind
femur 19 mm.

P@DESMA Eat

General form of head and body very similar to Melanoplus; an-
tennae usually rather short; pronotum variable but always short and
usually subcylindrical, though sometimes, especially in the females,
expanded posteriorly, never contracted at the middle, generally with
very feeble transverse sulci; front margin truncate, hind margin trun-
cate, subtruncate, or even emarginate; prozona generally considerably
longer than, sometimes twice as long as, the metazona, very faintly
punctate; metazona generally densely punctate; median carina gen-
erally present though slight on the metazona and often more feeble
or obsolete on the prozona. Prosternal spine always distinct, usually
prominent, generally conical and blunt. Mesosternal interlobes of
the male distinctly transverse, usually even more strongly so in the
females; metasternal interlobes of male usually distant, rarely approxi-
mate, never attingent; in the female they are usually even more widely
separated. Tegmina wanting, in our species, or short and lateral.
Hind femora rather long and slender; spines of hind tibiae 9 to 11
(rarely 8) in outer series. Abdomen more or less distinctly com-
pressed, in the male more or less clavate and recurved; cerci variable,
often styliform; furcula feebly developed, if present at all; ovipositor
of female variable, typically it is exserted, sometimes exceptionally
extended, or sometimes partially withdrawn in the then obtusely ter-
minating abdomen; cerci of female rather strongly developed and
styliform.

The limitations between this genus and some of the genus
Melanoplus are not great and while in typical forms the distinction
can be readily made, yet in some forms they approach very closely.
The genus is more widely, though sparsely, distributed than any other
genus of the Melanofpli, and is of a distinctly boreal type encircling
the globe in its range. In America they have heretofore been known
only from two widely separated regions, the Rocky Mountains in the
West and from Ontario to New York and Maine in the East. We
have recently found one species in St. Louis County, in the northeast-
ern part of this State.

Podisma variegata Scudd.

The males of Podisma variegata are pallid-testaceous with an

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 73

olivaceous tinge, variegated with dark fuscous or brown, pilose; the
females more distinctly olive or in life a lighter tone of green. Post-
ocular band strong and broad, extending the whole length of the
lateral lobes of the pronotum; median carina slight but distinct in both
sexes. Pronotum distinctly compressed in male and cylindric-sub-
sellate in the female. Tegmina are entirely wanting in both sexes.
Hind femora flavo-testaceous, distinctly trifasciate; hind tibiae green-
ish. Abdomen distinctly compressed in both sexes and with a distinct
dorsal carina, in the male clavate and somewhat recurved; sub-
genital small with apex tumid; supra-anal triangular with a subrectan-
eular apex ; furcula consisting of a pair of approximate, short, tapering,
black spines, hardly longer than the last dorsal segment; cerci cas-
taneous, black-tipped, suberect, long, slender, tapering in the basal
half and subequal beyond, the apical portion less than’ half as wide as
the extreme base. Our specimens include immature males and one
mature female. The measurements of the female are: length 23.5 mm.,
hind femora 11.25 mm., antennae 10.5 mm. As stated above we have
taken this only in St. Louis County, where we found it on such shrubs
as Cornus and Rubus, July 29, 1912.

MELANOPLUS Stal.

Melanoplus includes insects of medium or large size, some species,
however, quite small, moderately stout, generally somewhat com-
pressed, more or less, but generally feebly pilose. Head moderately
or not at all prominent, generally little if any longer than the prozona,
unless the latter, as rarely, is transverse; face almost vertical or in
some cases slightly oblique. The vertex is gently tumid; eyes rounded
and oval but not markedly elongate; fastigium more or less declivent,
passing almost insensibly into the frontal costa, always more or less
sulcate, with elevated lateral margins, generally more strongly so in
the male than in the female; the antennae slender or moderately stout,
variable in length but never very short, never longer than the hind
femora, and rarely, if ever, more than twice as long as the pronotum.
Pronotum generally compressed to a greater or less degree, length
rarely or never twice as great as average breadth; metazona generally
more or less flaring, its disk plane and densely punctured, while that
of the prozona is generally slightly convex and rarely flaring anteriorly,
or if so but slightly, at most slightly punctate, and generally longer
than the metazona; hind margin of pronotum obtuse-angulate or some-
times truncate; median carina generally faint or obsolescent on pro-
zona and always distinct on metazona; lateral carinae are normally
obsolete although often indicated by a distinct, though rounded, shoul-

74 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

der. Lateral lobes vertical or nearly so, often feebly tumid on the
prozona, especially above, and marked with a piceous post-ocular band,
crossing the prozona or the whole pronotum, frequently broken or
maculate. Prosternal spine variable but always prominent ; mesosternal
interspace generally much longer than broad; rarely transverse, but
never broader than long; metasternal lobes generally attingent or sub-
attingent. Tegmina always present but variable. When abbreviate
they may be lateral, attingent, or overlapping, Sometimes shorter or
longer than the pronotum, but usually about the length of the prono-
tum and apically more or less acuminate. They may also be fully
developed, when they equal, surpass, or fall a little short of the tips
of the hind femora, and taper more or less, but very gradually, and
are apically rounded. Hind femora moderately long and slender;
hind tibiae with a variable number of spines (9 to 14) in the outer
series, rare exceptions have but eight. Abdomen generally more or
less compressed, the extremity in the male more or less, sometimes
strongly, clavate, usually considerably recurved; subgenital plate of
variable form but always with the lateral margins ampliate at base
and with no distinct apical tubercle, though frequently apically pro-
duced or subtuberculate and frequently tumescent; the cerci exceed-
ingly variable in form, often enlarged apically, nearly always lamellate,
never styliform, generally incurved, and of about the length of the
supra-anal plate; furcula usually developed, though quite variable in
extent and form; ovipositor of female generally fully exserted.

This comprises the largest genus in the Acridinae and the one
most widely distributed in North America, although it is apparently
confined to this continent, where it is represented by approximately
150 species. These species are usually very similar in size and color
and the differentiating characters are based largely upon the cerci, sub-
genital, supra-anal plates, and furcula of the males. In a few instances
differentials have been worked out for the females but in general their
classification can be best made upon comparison with accurately named
material. Many species occur in both long-winged and short-winged
forms and as there is in most species considerable variation of the
cerci and furcula the classification of any large series of this genus
presents an extremely difficult problem. Possibly because of this fact
“new species” have multiplied and the records of many species have
been so confused that the range of species is in some cases almost
hopelessly clouded. To the writer, from observations in the field, it
appears clear that in some cases species have been based upon too
scant material or upon a few specimens from the extreme forms of
variant species. The following key, which is based upon Scudder’s
Revision of the Melanopli (Proc. U. S. Natl. Museum, Vol. XX),
modified somewhat in order to separate more easily Minnesota speci-

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 75

mens, will serve to distinguish the species occurring within our area:

a Tegmina conspicuously shorter than the abdomen, often no longer than the
pronotum; furcula usually feebly developed.

b Cerci of male, beyond the middle, tapering or subequal, not expanded at tip
and never styliform

c Subgenital of male short and broad, its apical breadth equaling or even

surpassing the length of its lateral margin; prozona longer than broad;

furcula feebly developed scudderi
ce Subgenital of male narrower than long, subpyramidal, broadly and roundly
elevated at apex; furcula well developed dawsont

bb Cerci of male expanded apically, the tip at least broader than the middle,
spatulate or subspatulate
c Mesosternal interval of male quadrate or subquadrate; subgenital of male
distinctly narrower than long; cerci of male stout fasciatus
cc Mesosternal interval of male nearly (or sometimes more than) twice as
long as broad
d Subgenital plate of male short and broad, the apical breadth equaling
or surpassing the length of the lateral margin; lobes of furcula longer
than broad blatchleyi
dd Subgenital plate of male distinctly narrower than long, often narrowing
apically; furcula a pair of short, approximate, rounded lobules;
posterior margin of pronotum distinctly emarginate in middle
gracilis
aa ‘Tegmina nearly or quite as long as the abdomen, or even exceeding this; the
furcula usually well developed
b Cerci of male rapidly expanding from base to middle, short and not expanded

apically; furcula of minute, triangular denticles occidentalis
bb Cerci of male tapering from base toward middle, generally long and
slender

c Cerci of male, beyond the middle, either slender or tapering, never
bifurcate at tip
d Subgenital of male as broad as the marginal length or nearly so; its
apical margin notched; cerci relatively broad, nearly equally so
throughout; mesosternum of male with a central swelling anterior to
the lobes
e Tegmina extending behind the posterior femora by not more than the
length of the pronotum; prozona of male quadrate or subquadrate;
cerci of male usually nearly twice as long as broad atlantis
ce Tegmina extending behind the posterior femora by the length of the
pronotum or more; prozona of male strongly transverse; cerci of
male not more than half as long again as broad _ Spretus
dd Subgenital of male variable but usually narrower than long, its apical
margin entire; cerci usually long
e Subgenital of male as broad, or nearly as broad, at apex as at base,
generally elevated apically
f Interval between mesosternal lobes of male longer than broad,
much narrower than the lobes
g Cerci of male very feebly incurved apically; subgenital of male

relatively broad; hind tibiae red : dawsont
gg Cerci of male strongly and abruptly incurved apically; subgenital
of male relatively narrow, though short gladstont

ff Interval between the mesosternal lobes of male quadrate or even’
transverse and but little narrower than the lobes; cerci scarcely
or not at all narrowed on apical half, far surpassing supra-anal
plate; furcula minute fasciatus
ce Subgenital of male conspicuously narrower at apex than at base,
rarely elevated apically above lateral margins ; never notched; cerci

of male narrowed distally .

f Distal half of male cerci much less than half as broad as extreme
base: mesosternal interval of male twice as long as broad;
tegmina usually well developed femur-rubrum

f Distal half of male cerci distinctly more than half as broad as
the extreme base; mesosternal interval of male scarcely, if at all,
longer than broad; tegmina usually not attaining the tip of the

76 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

hind femora extremus
cc Cerci of male more or less expanded apically, broader at some point
beyond the middle, spatulate, subspatulate, apically angulate or bifurcate
d Cerci of male spatulate or subspatulate but neither angulate nor bifurcate
e Furcula of male moderately developed
f Hind tibiae red; furcula of male with straight subparallel forks
comptus
f# Hind tibiae glaucous
g Furcula of male not more than one-third as long as supra-anal
plate; cerci about three times as long as basal breadth; tegmina
lightly maculate or immaculate angustipennis
gg Furcula of male more than one-third as long as supra-anal plate;
cerci shorter and stouter than in the preceding; tegmina usually
heavily maculate impiger
ee Furcula of male slight, the projecting portion not longer, or but
slightly longer, than the last dorsal segment, upon which it rests
f Forks of furcula conspicuously divergent; relatively large species
g Prozona ordinarily with a dark median stripe, made more con-
spicuous by the much lighter color on either side, rarely plain
light brownish testaceous; hind tibiae, in ours, usually blue

packard

gg Prozona with uniform dingy coloration on the disk; the hind
tibiae red foedus

ff Forks of furcula nearly parallel; relatively small species, the
tegmina maculate with fuscous spots conspersa

dd Cerci of male apically bifurcate or with an inferior process or angula-
tion, or else so expanded as to be much broader apically than at
extreme base

e Small species
f Lower fork of bifurcation of male cerci much longer than the upper
imfantilrs
ff Lower fork of male cerci much shorter than the upper, sometimes
only an inferior process or angulation
g Furcula of male distinct
h Furcula consisting of slender spines, longer than last dorsal
segment; cerci inferiorly angulate but not bifurcate minor
hh Furcula consisting of short triangular lobes; cerci strongly
bifurcate luridus
gg Furcula of male absent; cerci strongly bifurcate collinus
ee Large, or at least moderately large, species
f Interval between mesosternal lobes of male twice, or more than
twice, as long as broad; in female longer than broad; prosternal
spine long
g Furcula of male absent; cerci of male boot-shaped; hind tibiae
yellow diff erentialis
gg Furcula of male present, though small; cerci of male expanded
at the upper margin but not boot-shaped; pronotum with two
distinct light-colored lateral stripes on the disk, which extend
back along the humeri of tegmina
h Hind tibiae dark purplish basally, yellow or reddish apically
bivitattus
hh Hind tibiae clear red throughout femoratus
ff Interval between mesosternal lobes of male subquadrate; of
female transverse; prosternal spine short; insects of medium
size, the tegmina maculate with rounded fuscous spots
punctulatus

Melanoplus scudderi Uhl.

Melanoplus scudderi is a short-winged or brachypterous species,
the tegmina being about as long as the pronotum, broad, ovate, and
slightly overlapping. The general coloration is nearly uniform, dull,
and brownish, often with a reddish tinge. The postocular dark bar

SUBFAMILY ARCIDINAE 77

is not usually distinct or well marked. Riley has stated that the
species attains maturity by September 1, at St. Louis, Missouri, but in
Iowa we have taken adults in some numbers early in August and here
in Minnesota by August 20, and have noted oviposition in the field by
September 9. The species is fond of dry soil and in Minnesota, as
also in Iowa, is most common in open woodlands. We have taken it
at Albert Lea, Mahtomedi, Mankato, Redwood Falls, Florence, and
Granite Falls.

Melanoplus dawsoni Scudd.

Melanoplus dawsoni is brighter in coloration but quite similar
superficially to the preceding, although readily distinguished by the
characters given in the key. This insect appears to have an irregular
breeding period, since we have taken adults at Fergus Falls on June 21,
while as late as July 25 nymphs and newly moulted adults were taken
at the same locality. It is a much more common and widely distrib-
uted species within our area than MW. scudderi, and appears to adapt
itself to more varied conditions of habitat than any other of our
brachypterous forms. In this State, as in lowa, the short-winged
form is the common one and the long-winged form rare. We have
before us a specimen of the latter form, taken in August, at Fergus
Falls, in which the tegmina are longer than the abdomen. It was
taken in company with MW. luridus, on gravelly hillsides along the Otter-
tail River. This long-winged form has been given the varietal name
M. d. completus Brun. As stated, this species is at home in widely ~
varying habitats, but appears to be most abundant amid such brushy
growths as Symphoricarpos, Corylus, and Taxus. It has been found
throughout Minnesota and the following are but a few of the records
that might be given: Pipestone, Albert Lea, Redwood Falls, St. Paul,
Mahtomedi, Fergus Falls, Crookston, Bemidji, Blackduck, Lake Win-
' nibigoshish, Grand Rapids, Vermillion Lake, Duluth, and Hinckley.
The following from Mr. Howard’s notes will be of interest here: “On
July 15, nymphs in stages III, [V, and V, were taken near Fergus
Falls, which moulted to adults by July 22. At Fergus Falls, adults
were taken July 13, nymphs were also taken, and on July 25 nymphs
in stages IV and V, were still numerous at Foxhome. By August 10
copulation was taking place in the breeding cages, and oviposition be-
gan by the middle of the month. Egg pods were of the usual Melano-
plus type, and about three quarters of an inch long. Adults of this
species were very abundant until September 1, at Fergus Falls, after
which date they became more and more scarce until September 10,
when they had practically disappeared, and after that date no further
observations were made.”

°

78 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

Melanoplus fasciatus Barnst. Walk.

Melanoplus fasciatus, like the preceding, is dimorphic, but so far
as our records go the short-winged form, sometimes designated as
M. f. curtus, is the only form as yet taken in Minnesota. In general
coloration, this insect is of a dull grayish brown, tingeing to yellowish
below. The postocular band is well marked and extends across the
lateral lobes of the prozona. The tegmina, which are one and a half
to two and a half times as long as the pronotum, are reddish or brown-
ish, often somewhat maculate with darkish spots. Hind femora are
dull yellowish with two rather well-marked, oblique, dark bars on the
outer face, more distinct on the superior field; hind tibiae red, green-
ish, or bluish, with a rather distinct pale annulation near the base. In
Minnesota this insect matures early in July and frequents rather low
areas, either wooded, as tamarack swamps, cut-over areas covered with
Vaccinium, or open prairie among Carices. The male, which is darker
in coloration than the female, is rather active when alarmed and leaps
vigorously and erratically among the brushy growth, making capture
very difficult. The species is in general northern in distribution. We
have taken it at Fergus Falls, Warroad (Lake of the Woods), Be-
midji, Lake Winnibigoshish, Hibbing, Vermillion Lake, Duluth, and
St. Anthony Park. Since we have previously taken it in Iowa, it
doubtless also occurs in the southern part of the State.

Melanoplus blatchleyi Scudd.

Melanoplus blatchleyi is the largest of our brachypterous forms
and is of rather more than medium size. The general coloration is
grayish brown above, shading to clay or yellowish below. Postocular
bar usually present and distinct, though narrow in males, and fre-
quently obscure or wanting in females. The pronotum is dark, though
variably so; tegmina abbreviate, being a little longer than the pro-
notum, more or less overlapping, sublanceolate in form and sometimes
obscurely maculate. Hind femora testaceous, usually heavily and
broadly fasciate with dark bars, often, especially in females, marked
with two or three light spots near the base; hind tibiae red, more or
less blackish at base, followed by an indistinct, pale annulus. On July
29, at Fort Dodge, Iowa, we observed a female of this species drilling
in a piece of dead wood in very much the same way as Chloealtis con-
spersa. At our approach she became alarmed and, attempting to
escape, was secured as a specimen. Upon examination of the stick,
it was found that there were two fresh holes drilled within a space
of three inches. One of these was 8 mm. and the other 15 mm. deep.
It would appear from this that some of our sylvan Melanopli may

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 79

acquire habits differing from the normal habits of the group. This
species is in many ways the most adapted to woodland conditions of
any of our Acridinae, except possibly Chloealtis conspersa. It is com-
monly found in woodlands of high and dry soil, where it is usually
associated with Spharagemon bolli. As Lugger has stated, it is espe-
cially fond of the wild grape, Vitis, of various species, upon which it
commonly feeds. We have taken it, fully matured, at White Bear
Lake as early as June 12.

Although doubtless common throughout the southern part of the
State, we have records only of the following places for this species:
Albert Lea, Worthington, Redwood Falls, St. Anthony Park, White
Bear Lake, Gray Cloud Island, Hinckley, Detroit, Bemidji, Duluth,
and Tower. We have not as yet taken it in the Red River Valley,
although in some places the conditions appear right for this species
and the forms commonly associated with it are to be found.

Melanoplus gracilis Brun.

Melanoplus gracilis is a rather small insect of greenish colora-
tion, though sometimes brownish above; the hind legs bright green;
postocular band broad, extending back across the lobes of the pronotum
and percurrent, though sometimes slightly enfeebled on the metazona,
bordered below by a light band. This is a sylvan species and appar-
ently prefers such tangles of shrubby plants as a thicket of elder
(Sambucus) undergrown with blackberry. From one such spot we
took twelve of these pretty little insects within less than half an hour.
The species matures about the middle of July or slightly earlier and
continues until cold weather. We have often found it associated with
the preceding species and with Spharagemon bolli but more commonly
in the lower parts of woodlands, as along the margins of streams. We
have taken this insect only at Red Wing, Mahtomedi, and Redwood
Falls, but this scanty record does not, in all probability, represent, its
range within the State and it is probable that it will be found at many
other points in the south and central parts of the State.

Melanoplus occidentalis Thom.

‘Melanoplus occidentalis is rather small, reddish brown, lighter
below and at least dorsally rather strongly mottled with dark spots;
postocular band rather brownish in color, continuous along the sides
of the head but much fainter or absent on the lateral lobes of the
pronotum, although there is frequently a more or less broken blackish
patch on the upper portion of at least the prozona. The tegmina are
brown with a slender, median, yellow stripe, and frequently maculate

80 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

with squarish dark spots. Hind femora variable in color; hind tibiae
glaucous. The peculiarly expanded cerci, together with the minute
furcula, should readily serve to distinguish this species, which has, as
yet, been taken only from Ottertail County.

Melanoplus atlanis Riley

Melanoplus atlanis is extremely closely related to M. spretus Uhl,
the formerly dreaded Rocky Mountain locust. It is one of the few
species which ever become serious pests within our area. In size and
general coloration (Plate II, 7), it 1s also very ‘similar’ toqous
common or red-legged locust, M. femur-rubrum, from which species,
however, it may be easily distinguished by the distinct apical notch in
the subgenital of the male, while in M. femur-rubrum the subgenital is
relatively broad with no notch at the apex. The differences which
serve to separate this from M. spretus, however, are less distinct. The
accompanying table will serve to show the close relationship of these
three species.

From this table it may be seen that while it is easy to sep-
arate the males of M. femur-rubrum from the two related species by
the differences in the cerci and subgenital plate, yet between MW. atlanis
and M. spretus the only structural differences which may be noted are
extremely small and, in fact, easily within the limits of variation of a
single species. Indeed the real differences are even less than the table
would indicate, when local variations are considered, as the table is
based upon descriptions from Scudder’s Revision of the Melanopli
(Proc. U. S. Natl. Museum, Vol. XX) and the measurements there
given for M. atlanis are all admittedly of material in large part east-
ern, while in M. spretus all are western. Another fact worthy of no-
tice is that in certain specimens taken in Minnesota and Iowa the char-
acters blend. For instance, in certain specimens which we have exam-
ined, the measurements and the apical notch of the subgenital would
indicate MV. atlanis, but the tegmina surpass the hind femora by the
length of the head and pronotum combined. In fact the real basis for
separation seems to lie mainly in the extended migrations of one form,
while in the other the migrations although occurring are of but local
extent. For some years it has seemed to the writer that these two
insects, M. atlanis Riley, and M. spretus Uhl., may be considered pos-
sibly as widely separated forms of a single variant species, the one
being limited to the arid soils of the Rocky Mountains and their foot-
hills, while the other is generally distributed throughout a large part
of North America. Within this State M. atlanis, as already men-
tioned, has proved a pest of really serious importance at various times.
It hatches normally about the middle or latter part of May and with

81

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE

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82 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

any series of favorable seasons becomes abundant, especially in the
more open parts of the State. Large areas of wild hay land and other
uncultivated tracts give sufficient undisturbed breeding-grounds to
supply a source from which this pest must surely appear year after
year until conditions shall be changed. The outlook in this as in sev-
eral adjoining states is that so long as this and allied forms are allowed
favorable conditions, there will continue to be danger of more or less
serious outbreaks, meaning in every case great loss to the farmers of
the area. Without entering into details of methods by which these
insects may be controlled, we may say that a thorough system of culti-
vation of the land, with a rotation system in which a thoroughly culti-
vated crop shall always follow cereals, presents the real cure for these
pests. Temporary means of relief and of reduction of numbers are
to be found in the system of spraying with sodium arsenite, and in
the use of hopper-dozers, when of proper design. These economic
phases are more fully treated in the Fourteenth Report of the Minne-
sota State Entomologist for 1911 and 1912, to which reference should
be made. The species is somewhat variable in the color of the hind
tibiae and although these are commonly of varying shades of red, yet
we have taken specimens with the hind tibiae yellowish, greenish, or
rarely deep blue in color. Since the insect is generally and uniformly
distributed over this and surrounding states no locality records are
here included.

Melanoplus spretus Uhl.

Melanoplus spretus has been more widely and more carefully
studied and has been the subject of more entomological thought and
literature than any other Orthopteron. As the much-dreaded Rocky
Mountain locust it has become known, by name at least, over a large
part of the northern United States. It has been fully described and
discussed in numerous publications, and since it is today apparently
extinct, or practically so, no detailed description will be given here.
We may say that this insect was never truly a native of our State and
never persisted for any long period within our borders. It came at
times, in countless millions, in its migrations from its breeding-grounds
farther west, and the story of these grasshopper scourges of the early
days, while now but a matter of historv to many of us, are still vividly
recalled by the older people, who suffered under those veritable plagues
of locusts. It is hard today to realize the enormous numbers in which
these voracious pests appeared and it is, perhaps, harder to grasp the
full significance of what such an invasion meant to the scattered fam-
ilies of those early days, with their small fields and their woeful lack
of means of communication and transportation.

SUBFAMILY ARCIDINAE 83

When these great flights of “Colorado hoppers’’ as they were
termed, first appeared the scattered populace was dazed and awed,
while repeated visitations left them discouraged and actually destitute.
The problem was too great for individuals or for states and the Fed-
eral Government appointed a special commission to study the pest and
devise means of relief. Their work was carefully carried out and
their reports are filled with data as to the life of the pest, its natural
enemies, and the means by which man may control its abnormal in-
crease, but the real solution of the problem came with the advance of
civilization, more thorough and ever-increasing cultivation of large
tracts in and near the natural breeding-grounds of the species, together

Fig. 10. Normal Habitat of Melanoplus gladstoni C. W. Howard

with climatic changes and changes of soil conditions which must fol-
low the zone of cultivation. As stated above the species is now appar-
ently extinct although specimens are sometimes taken which may be
referred to this species by certain characters, but all which we have
examined appear to be merely more or less aberrant forms of
M. atlanis. There appears to be a rather general idea, frequently
expressed by the older people, and especially by some of those who
were settlers here when the Rocky Mountain locust swept this and
adjoining states, that the pest so widely dreaded was of much larger
size than, and of different appearance from, M. atlanis, which has
proved a serious pest at various times within recent years. This opin-
ion is, however, erroneous and to the student who wishes an idea as

84 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

to the appearance of the Rocky Mountain locust, we may say that,
with a rather large and somewhat light-colored specimen of M. atlanis
in hand, by extending the tegmina and wings somewhat in imagina-
tion, he may have a very good idea of the pest of the early days.

Melanoplus gladstont Brun.

Melanoplus gladstoni (Plate I, 4) is of medium size and dark
coloration; postocular band well marked and in ours continued
back across the prozona on the lateral lobes of the pronotum. The
tegmina are as long as the abdomen or slightly longer, and are rather
slender, brownish, and distinctly, though not strongly, maculate. Hind
femora are yellowish testaceous and marked by two distinct, oblique,
dark bands and a basal blackish patch. Sometimes these markings are
confluent, covering the whole lower field. Posterior tibiae red with an
inconspicuous fuscous patellar spot. This insect matures about the
middle of August, or somewhat earlier in favorable seasons and has
commonly been taken on areas of dry or gravelly soil. At Fergus
Falls in late summer it is one of the most common species on the hills
along the Ottertail and Pelican rivers, in company with M. luridus. In
life its bright coloration makes it especially attractive. We have taken
it at Fergus Falls, Granite Falls, Brown Valley, and Pipestone. The
following is taken from Mr. Howard’s notes on this species: “‘Oviposi-
tion began August 29, in breeding-cages. The pods were placed in the
moister parts of the rather clayey soil which was in the cages. The
pods are not as solidly and compactly constructed as is usual with
Melanoplus, otherwise it is about the same shape as is usual with this
genus.

Melanoplus femur-rubrum DeG.

Melanoplus femur-rubrum is the common red-legged or garden
locust and may be found practically anvwhere within our borders. It
is of medium size, though varying considerably; reddish brown, the
pronotum usually lighter colored on the disk than on the lower parts
of the lateral lobes; tegmina brownish to fuscous, more or less macu-
late; posterior femora olivaceous testaceous, variably infuscated, the
lower field sometimes more or less reddish; posterior tibiae normally
red, sometimes yellowish, or rarely greenish. Extremity of male
abdomen strongly clavate, well recurved; furcula well developed, con-
sisting of a pair of subparallel or sometimes slightly divergent fingers,
tapering and subacuminate at tip; cerci roughly subfalciform, com-
pressed and tapering rather rapidly from the base to middle and
thence subequal to apex, where they are obliquely subtruncate, usually

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 85

somewhat incurved. Subgenital of male very short apically, the apical
margin not elevated, strongly rounded, entire, broad.

This insect we have always with us and the fact that it has adapted
itself to conditions in regions of the most careful and improved sys-
tems of cultivation makes it a form of real economic importance.
While ordinarily no account is taken of the damage done by this
species, because of the fact that it is always present, yet if we could
but tabulate the damage it does the result would be truly startling.
It prefers lowlands and at times may be seen by thousands on low
fields, while on the hills near by it may be scarce or missing. It has a
swift and well-sustained flight when alarmed. Fortunately this, like
most species of this genus, is largely a creature of conditions and even
when climatic conditions are favorable it is attacked by so many
enemies and parasites that the naturally rapid increase is commonly
kept within bounds. Like most of its near relatives, it oviposits late
in summer and autumn and the eggs hatch in spring, usually during
May. During a study of this species in the field for several years, con-
siderable variation in most of the characteristic structures has been
noted. In any large series, it will be noted that the cerci, furcula, and
length of the tegmina vary considerably in development. After exam-
ining many thousands of this species within the past eight years, it
appears that in abnormally dry seasons the tegmina are uniformly
longer. Indeed, during the dry summers of 1910 and 1911, in the
majority of specimens taken, it was noted that the tegmina exceeded
the tip of the posterior femora considerably (Plate II, 8), and
in many cases were fully as long, relatively, as in M. atlanis. Further,
this tendency appears to be accompanied by an instinctive inclination
for more extended flight and in such seasons this species, together
with M. atlanis, makes more or less lengthy flights late in summer.
The question arises, would a more prolonged series of dry seasons
give a truly migratory form of these two species? If so, at least in
the form M. atlanis, we should have an insect almost identical with the
Rocky Mountain locust, M. spretus.

Melanoplus extremus Walker

Melanoplus extremus is of rather small or medium size, varying
in coloration from dark brown to ferruginous, sometimes also of a
greenish yellow tint; postocular bar extended back upon the lateral
lobes of the prozona, which are usually lighter than the disk. The
species is dimorphic in length of tegmina, but so far as known we
have only the form M. e. junius, in which the tegmina do not attain
the tip of the posterior femora. The long-winged form, I. e. scandens,
may yet be taken in the extreme northeastern part of the State, since

86 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF'MINNESOTA

there conditions of habitat are somewhat similar to those of localities
where this form has been taken. While 1/7. extremus was not noted as
abundant during 1911, yet during the summer of 1912 its numbers
were possibly equal to those of M. femur-rubrum, especially in the
western part of the State. In our collecting throughout Iowa, we have
taken this insect only in low areas, with plant forms such as Eleocharis,
Junci, and Typha, but here in Minnesota we have found it in habitats
varying from flat open prairie, with Astragali and Koeleria, to dry
eravelly hills covered with such grasses as Bouteloua and Sporobolus,
and at times even in the tamarack growths of the north. It is one of
our earliest species and closely follows M. mimor. At Fergus Falls
it was taken June 14, and was observed in coitu, in the field, on June
24. We have taken this species at Redwood Falls, Hanley Falls, Wil-
kin County, Fergus Falls, Ada, Crookston, Warroad, Lake Winnibi-
goshish, and Karlstad.

Melanoplus comptus Scudd.

Since Melanoplus comptus was named upon material taken, in
part, from our State, it is included here, although we have no other
records of its occurrence. It is of small size, and brownish fuscous
color. Head dull brown, somewhat luteous, more or less smoky and
very faintly mottled.’ Vertex feebly tumid, only slightly elevated above
the level of the pronotum; interspace between the eyes as broad as
first antennal joint; fastigium strongly declivent, rather deeply sul-
cate throughout; frontal costa equal, as broad as the interspace be-
tween the eyes, shallowly sulcate at and below the ocellus, biseriately
punctured; eyes rather large and prominent, much longer than the
infra-ocular portion of the genae; antennae fulvous, more than three
fourths as long as the hind femora. Pronotum brownish-fuscous
above, luteous-testaceous on lateral lobes, the latter marked above on
the prozona by a dull, broad, piceous stripe, sometimes tinged with
smoky olivaceous; disk scarcely expanding on the metazona, very
broadly convex, and passing on to the inferiorly vertical lobes by a
well-rounded shoulder, nowhere forming distinct lateral carinae; me-
dian carinae obsolete on the prozona; front margin transverse, almost
imperceptibly emarginate in the middle, hind margin obtuse-angulate,
the angle rounded; prozona subquadrate or feebly longitudinal, dis-
tinctly longer than the closely punctate metazona. The prosternal
spine short conico-cylindrical, compressed, erect, very blunt; inter-
space between mesosternal lobes of male at least three times as long
as broad, the metasternal lobes attingent for some distance. Tegmina
brownish fuscous, immaculate or very feebly and obscurely maculate
in the discoidal area, slender, subequal, scarcely expanded on the costa,

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 87

surpassing a little the hind femora; wings rather narrow, pellucid,
glistening, the veins pale blue on the lower, fuscous or blackish on the
upper half. Fore and middle femora but little tumid, luteo-testaceous,
blotched with fuscous; hind femora luteo-ferruginous, obscured with
fuscous above, and on the outer face above, interruptedly, so as to
cause feeble signs of dusky fasciation, beneath chrome yellow, the
genicular arc dull luteous, edged only with fuscous; hind tibiae red,
narrowly pallid at extreme base, the spines black. on apical half, ten
to eleven in number in the outer series. Extremity of male abdomen
a little clavate, somewhat upturned, the supra-anal plate long and
triangular, the basal three-fifths with well-rounded, uptilted sides, be-
yond which the plate is laterally notched and contracted, the apex
produced and very acute-angulate, the tip blunt, the median sulcus
broad and not very deep, terminating with the basal portion; furcula
consisting of a pair of depressed, uniformly tapering, acuminate,
slightly divergent fingers less than a third as long as the supra-anal
plate; cerci rather short and not very broad, regularly spatulate by
the regular, slight, and gradual mesial contraction, the apical half
‘rather strongly incurved, externally hollowed, the apex well rounded,
not nearly reaching the tip of the supra-anal plate; infracercal plates
well developed, laterally twice as broad as the cerci, well rounded, dis-
tinctly shorter than the supra-anal plate ; subgenital plate scoop-shaped,
but slightly angulate behind laterally, the apical margin scarcely ele-
vated and most feebly notched. Length of body, male, 19 mm., teg-
mina 15.75 mm., antennae 9 mm., hind femora 11.25 mm. Described
(Scudder, Revision of American Melanopli, Proc. U. S. Natl. Museum,
Vol. XX, p. 302) from two males, one of which came from northern
Minnesota and the other from Sydney, Nebraska. The species goes
in the group with the following and doubtless will be found as rare
and local.

Melanoplus angustipennis Dodge

Melanoplus angustipennis is an insect of medium size and rather
dark coloration; the pronotum is dark fuscous but lighter on the lat-
eral lobes with a subluteous median streak, bordering a broad piceous
postocular band on the prozona; metazona with the hind margin dis-
tinctly obtuse-angulate. The hind tibiae vary from glaucous to bluish,
apically feebly lutescent. Extremity of male abdomen somewhat
clavate but scarcely recurved; cerci short and distinctly spatulate at
tip; furcula consisting of a pair of slender, cylindric, rather strongly
divergent, arcuate, regularly tapering, acuminate fingers not a third
as long as the supra-anal plate. This insect is apparently almost en-
tirely confined to areas of sandy soil and has, in most cases, been taken

-
‘

88 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

upon beds of almost clear sand, among such tall grasses as Sporobolus
asper (Mx.) Kunth, Andropogon, and Chrysopogon. Bruner states
that the species feeds upon Artemisia and prefers to jump from plant
to plant rather than to alight upon the ground. In Minnesota, as in
Iowa, we have not found the species associated with the sage. There
is in this species a slight superficial resemblance to M. atlanis, from
the notched subgenital plate of the male, but the notch is here much
weaker and the cerci and furcula entirely different from atlanis. We
have taken this species at Mahtomedi and at Pipestone.

Melanoplus impiger Scudd.

Melanoplus impiger is very similar in appearance to VM. angusti-
pennis, although in ours usually rather smaller and more ferruginous
in coloration and with the furcula longer and less divergent, the cerci
smaller and less distinctly narrowed at the middle. The hind tibiae
are glaucous to distinctly bluish and the subgenital plate of male very
feebly or not at all notched at apex. Both species mature late in
summer and are fond of sandy areas. This insect has, as yet, been
taken only on sandy areas in the southeastern part of the State along
the Mississippi River. It is in general southern in range and must
be considered as having entered our State from that direction. It is,
however, almost as rare in Iowa as within our State. Our records

Fig. 11. Normal Habitat of Melanoplus packardi C. W. Howard

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 89

show that this species has been found at Red Wing, Gray Cloud
Island, and Fort Snelling.

Melanoplus packardi Scudd.

Melanoplus packardi is very similar in general appearance and
closely related to both M. angustipennis and M. impiger when in its
typical form, though it is one of the most variable of the genus as to
coloration and markings. The very short furcula and the short cerci
which are but slightly narrowed at middle and are truncate at tip,
together with the longitudinally barred pronotum will usually serve
to distinguish this species. It is usually somewhat larger than either
of the preceding and in some forms has a slight resemblance to M.
bivittatus, from which, however, it can be readily distinguished by
the different cerci and furcula. We have found it sparingly in dry
sandy fields and along roadsides at Granite Falls, Foxhome, Fergus
Falls, Hibbing, and Duluth.

Melanoplus fedus Scudd.

Melanoplus fadus is closely similar in structure to M. packardi,
but has the hind tibiae red. It is about the size of M. angustipennis
but is darker in color, and in general structure is apparently more
closely related to M. packardi. We have taken this as vet only in
marshes and lowlands in the northern part of the State. At Lake of
the Woods we found it in considerable numbers and at Allen Junc-
tion, where we found it rather scarcer, we noted that when alarmed
the insect dived from the tops of weeds where it was feeding and
burrowed into the soft sphagnum.

Melanoplus conspersus Scudd.

One specimen taken at Mahtomedi is classed as Melanoplus con-
spersus with some doubt. It is rather below medium size and of
brownish coloration, paler below. Postocular band is faintly indicated
upon the head but does not extend back upon the lateral lobes of the
pronotum, which are rich brown, somewhat paler at the bottom. The
median carina of the pronotum is distinct, broken at the sulcus and
strongly elevated, almost subcristiform on the metazona. The tegmina
are as long as the abdomen but not quite attaining the tip of the hind
femora, brownish and heavily maculate with small, squarish spots ;
hind femora are stout, griseo-fuscous, and with two rather broad,
oblique, dark bars. The furcula is short and the forks are widely sep-
arated at base and shorter than the last dorsal plate; cerci rather short,
subequal, slightly narrowed at the middle, the tips spatulate and dis-

90 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

tinctly incurved, apically rounded. This specimen (male) has the fol-
lowing measurements: length 21 mm., tegmina 14.5 mm., and hind
femora 11.5 mm. It very closely resembles a specimen in the collec-
tion of the Iowa State College, at Ames, which was taken in north-
western Iowa and identified by Dr. Scudder.

Melanoplus infantilis Scudd.

Melanoplus infantilis is easily the smallest of our Melanophi, and
possibly excepting M. puer of the extreme southeastern states, the
smallest of this group in America. It is of griseous coloration vary-
ing from the typical dark form to quite light ; the head brownish, more
or less maculate with dark spots; postocular band often rather obscure
on the head but distinct on the lateral lobes of the prozona, often edged
with yellow above. Tegmina exceeding the abdomen and in most cases
exceeding the tip of posterior femora in both sexes, cinereous in color
and distinctly maculate with fuscous; posterior femora straw-yellow
below, dark brown above, often ferruginous, with a pair of conspicu-
ous oblique pale bars at the middle and next the base; posterior tibiae
glaucous, often with a pale area at base and sometimes with an obscure
straw-yellow space near the tip. The following measurements are
from a pair taken at Fergus Falls: Male, length 15 mm., tegmina 11.5
mm., hind femur 8 mm.; female, length 17.5 mm., tegmina 13 mm.,
hind femur 10 mm. Adults occur by July 15 at Fergus Falls. It
occurs commonly on dry gravelly soil and amid the somewhat scat-
tered and pale vegetation of such soils; its grayish color renders it
very inconspicuous. Indeed, at both localities where we found it, it
was discovered only by accident in “sweeping” the low plants. It
appears to be fond of climbing tall weeds such as Verbena stricta Vent.
and the Oenotheras. We have taken it only at Fergus Falls and
Detroit.

Melanoplus minor Scudd.

Melanoplus minor is a small or medium-sized insect (Plate lI,
10), readily distinguished from others of our area by the pecu-
liarly angulate cerci of the male and the relatively small size. It is
normally the earliest of our Melanopli to appear in spring, and as far
north as Fergus Falls has been found mature in some numbers by June
8. The females are dimorphic in coloration of the hind tibiae, being
found with these glaucous or of a pale red tint, then normally with a
pale yellowish area basally ; the males, however, are, in our specimens,
nearly all of the “red-legged’”’ type. Mating has been observed in the
field as early as June 20 and the young appear in August, passing
the winter in an advanced stage of development. In general appear-

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 9]

ance this insect somewhat resembles M. angustipennis and related
forms and is often found associated with those species. Blatchley
speaks of the close resemblance of Indiana specimens to M. atlanis and
M. femur-rubrum, doubtless referring to the red-legged form, but in
any case it should be readily distinguished from these by the slender
spinelike fingers of the furcula and the angulate cerci. In this
State we have found it under varying conditions of habitat but always
on dry soils; in Iowa, where it occurs throughout the state, its habits
appear to vary locally. In eastern and southeastern Iowa it is found
in sandy areas with such associates as M. angustipennis and Arphia
carinata, while in western Iowa, at Onawa, Denison, and Council
Bluffs, it was taken only in meadows and grassy areas, while one wa’
taken at Cherokee, on the swampy margin of a small stream, asso-
ciated with small Locustids. In Minnesota we have taken it through-
out the valley of the Red River and at Pipestone, Redwood Falls,
and Mahtomedi.

Melanoplus luridus Dodge

Rather small, brownish fuscous, often more or less ferruginous ;
postocular band rather narrow and usually brownish, darker on the
prozona and not extended on the metazona. The cerci of the male
are distinctly forked apically, the upper fork larger than the lower.
This species is well shown on Plate III, 8, and as will be noted, is very
similar in appearance to M. femur-rubrum, though averaging smaller.
It occurs commonly in dry upland fields, frequently in high, open woods.
It matures late in summer and we have taken it im coitu September 9.
It appears to be rather local in occurrence and frequently, while in
favored spots many could be taken, it was apparently absent from other
similar spots in the neighborhood. We have taken this insect at Albert
Lea, Pipestone, Redwood Falls, Fergus Falls, Detroit, St. Cloud, Mah-
tomedi, St. Anthony Park, and Red Wing.

While the species here mentioned is classed as M. luridus, we
have intermingled with it specimens which should apparently come
instead under M. collinus Scudd. The two species were separated by
Scudder upon difference in the development of the furcula and a
slight difference in the form of the forks of the cerci. We have before
us specimens showing both of these forms, taken on the same date
from high, sparsely wooded hills along Ottertail River at Fergus
Falls. Details of both are shown in the plate above referred to and
we can but consider both as forms of one species.

Melanoplus differentialis Uhl.

Melanoplus differentialis is the largest of our Melanopli, a heavy-

92 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

bodied insect, nearly uniformly testaceous or, as with us, more com-
monly a distinct yellowish, sometimes varying to greenish. No well-
defined postocular band on the head and but faintly marked on the
lateral lobes of the prozona by a series of black or brown spots
and by the darkening of the sulci in that field. Tegmina are well
developed, reaching the tip of the hind femora or in the male surpass-
ing this. Hind femora stout, heavily marked with “fish-bone” pattern
in black. Cerci of male very stout, laminate, boot-shaped with the toe
usually darker in color. This large and clumsy insect is known
throughout a large part of its range as the “lubberly locust,’ a name
which is in places shared by the still more lubberly Brachystola magna,
In distribution, we have taken this insect, as yet, only in the southern
part of the State, its northern limit being apparently the valley of
the Minnesota River. Wherever found it is usually one of the most
abundant species and of considerable economic importance. It appears
to prefer low grounds and especially such rank growth as ragweed
(Ambrosia), bur marigold (Bidens), and the like, having, however,
no serious prejudice against cultivated crops of all kinds. This
species, together with M. bivittatus, a closely related species, seem to
be the only locusts found far in from the margins of thoroughly worked
lands such as corn fields. The eggs are deposited in loose soil or even
sand, often in cultivated fields. In September we have noted great
numbers, literally thousands, of the females drilling and ovipositing
in an abandoned melon patch where the soil was a soft and very
sandy loam. They were not under the vines, for the most part, but
every spot of bare soil was occupied by one or more of the females.

This species is said to deposit the eggs under the bark of logs
sometimes, but this certainly must be an abnormal place for oviposi-
tion, since repeated tests in the breeding-cages failed to get such
results. A series of females apparently ready for oviposition was
collected. Part of these were placed in cages with sandy soil and
these deposited abundant egg pods, while the remainder which were
placed in cages under exactly similar conditions save that the bottoms
were of wood, did not make use of, or attempt to use, logs with vari-
ously loosened bark, which we had included, and all died within a few
days without oviposition. Scudder has stated that the northern
limitation of this species is latitude 43° north, but we have found it in
great mumbers at 45°.

Melanoplus bivittatus Say
Melanoplus bivitattus is nearly as large as the preceding and is
perhaps the most serious grasshopper pest, economically considered,

that now occurs within our borders. When a series of favorable
years permits of rapid increase, it becomes very abundant and causes

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 93

great loss, especially in those parts of the State where the culture
of cereals is the rule. It is too generally known as the two-striped
locust to demand much description, but we may say briefly that it is a
large locust with two light-colored dorsal stripes and a general
coloration of fusco-testaceous, or occasionally a dark brownish or even
drab tone. The furcula of the male is present though very short and its
forks are indicated as broad triangular teeth projecting from the last
dorsal segment and rather widely separated at the base; the cerci
are very stout, large and broad, laminate, externally more or less
convex, the basal half narrowing gently; beyond the middle rather
abruptly expanding into two lobes, the upper much larger and nearly
the length of the basal half of the cercus, while the lower is brief
and triangular ; subgenital rather narrow, subequal and at apex slightly
elevated and somewhat prolonged. This species is common in all
parts of the State and at times abnormally so. In Lowa this insect
matures about June 10, and in Minnesota about a week later. Mating
occurs here early in July and the earliest oviposition we have noted
in the field was August 8. The female of this species, as in others of
this genus, deposits egg masses more than once during the season. In
cages we have taken three egg masses from the same female. The
insect does not appear at all particular as to the kind of soil in which
the eggs are placed, since it has been observed drilling and ovi-
positing in such varied places as hard packed roadbeds, sod, gravel,
railway embankments, sandbars, stubble fields and soft soil far out in
fields of corn or potatoes. The number of eggs per pod varies greatly
as pods have been taken which contained from 39 to 82 eggs. The
freshly moulted insects are often of a beautiful light green tint, with
the light dorsal lines faintly indicated but the color soon darkens to
normal. The nymphs are to be found in varying colors and, in fact,
at times the individual nymphs vary in different instars.

Like most species of this genus this insect is subject to attacks
from a large number of enemies, including not only insects and fungus
diseases but also birds, mammals, reptiles, and even batrachians and
these varied natural controls serve to reduce its numbers greatly.
M. femoratus Burm. is identical with M. bivittatus in size, general
appearance and form of cerci and furcula, but differs mainly in the
fact that the posterior tibiae are red (Plate II, 5,6, and 7). It
can: but be considered as a mere color form of this species by one
observing the two in the field. It has no more basis for specific
distinction than have two other color forms which we have occasionally
taken—one in which the hind tibiae are clear yellow throughout, and
the other having the hind tibiae entirely and almost uniformly dark
rose purple. All of these color forms, including the one termed

94 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

femoratus, occur together through the northern part of the State, with
typical bivittatus, and we have on many occasions observed specimens
in coitu, in which the sexes had differently colored hind tibiae. The
mere fact of sexual union, however, is not conclusive, since we have
taken such differentiated forms as Camnula pellucida (male) and
PDissosteira carolina (female), and also Stenobothrus curtipennis
(male) and Gomphocerus clepsydra (female) im coitu. The typical or
dark-legged form is more common in the southern and western parts
of the State, while at points in the extreme northern part the red-
legged is easily the dominant form.

As has been previously mentioned this species breeds in a variety
of habitats, but the source of such great swarms as have sometimes
afflicted the farmers of the western part of the State, lies in large
tracts of uncultivated soil and especially in such areas as the so-called
“reverted lands” of the Red River Valley, great tracts, once under
cultivation but now and for a number of years past lying idle, the old
stubble densely grown with weeds—a veritable locust paradise and a
constant source of danger.

Melanoplus punctulatus Uhl.

Dark gray, much mottled with fuscous; head and face lighter, and
similarly mottled; postocular bar commonly broken and _ indistinct,
especially upon the lateral lobes of the pronotum, which are quite dark
in coloration. Pronotum subequal, somewhat widened at the metazona,
somewhat flaring in front to receive the head, varying from luteous-
testaceous to brownish fuscous. The disk and sides of the metazona
and the tegmina are heavily maculate with fuscous. Fore and middle
-femora flecked with fuscous, showing usually a tendency to form a
triple belting; hind femora similarly marked, with the belts more
distinctly and uniformly marked, the lower and inner field often
red; hind tibiae dull red, with a postbasal, obscure, flavous annulus.
Extremity of male abdomen scarcely clavate and but little upturned;
the furcula wanting; cerci large and broad, the basal half oblong, the
apical half expanded to double the width of the base, the upper part
usually considerably more than the lower. The tegmina are well devel-
oped and usually surpass the hind femora. The only undoubted
Minnesota specimens of this insect we have seen are those mentioned
by Lugger as having come from Gray Cloud Island. We have taken it
in Iowa, almost on the Minnesota line, in low thickets of willow,
Salix amygdaloides, while in Nebraska, Bruner has found it in oak
groves, and in Indiana, Blatchley says of it; . . . in low wooded
tracts along streams, where it may be noted resting on the trunks of

SUBFAMILY ACRIDINAE 95

trees, three or four feet above the ground.’ Scudder is inclined to
consider coniferous trees as its most normal habitation.
'

PHORTALIO PES: Scudd:

Body rather elongate, slender, slightly compressed, very teebly
pilose, including faintly the tegmina and legs. Head large, full, prom-
inent, relatively elongate, nearly half as long again as the long prozona,
the space behind the eyes fully half as long as the breadth of the eyes,
the genae a little tumescent, the head, apart from the eyes, slightly
broader than the pronotum; vertex prominent and well-arched, both
longitudinally and transversely; face a little oblique; eyes rounded,
broad, oval, moderately prominent, subtruncate anteriorly, moderately
distant, somewhat farther apart than the greatest width of frontal
costa; fastigium very faintly sulcate, almost plane; frontal costa prom-
inent, markedly narrower above than below the ocellus; antennz slen-
der, moderately long, but shorter than the hind femora, though fully
twice as long as the pronotum. Pronotum of moderate length, faintly
subsellate but otherwise equal, feebly flaring in front to receive the
head; disk rounded, subtectate, with broadly rounded, very indistinct
lateral carinae and a sharp, equal, and percurrent, median carina;
prozona longitudinal, nearly half as long again as the metazona, with
indistinct transverse sulci; front margin subtruncate, hind margin
extremely obtuse-angulate. Prosternal spine rather large, erect, con-
ical, and blunt. Mesosternal interspace much (male) or slightly
(female) longer than broad; metasternal lobes attingent (male) or
approximate (female). Tegmina either abbreviate, broad, lanceolate,
attingent, slightly longer than the pronotum, or fully developed, sur-
passing the hind femora, rather broad and equal with well-rounded
tip. Hind femora long and slender, the genicular lobes pallid, with a
transverse, dusky basal stripe; hind tibiae glaucous or sometimes yel-
lowish, with 11 to 13 spines in the outer series. Abdomen compressed,
mesially carinate, apically clavate and recurved in the male, subgenital
plate narrow and long, with the lateral margins ampliate at base, apical
margin mesially pinched but not elevated, no subapical tubercle ; furcula
consisting of a pair of short, slender, widely separated teeth, nearly
parallel; cerci compressed, styliform, and rather small. A monotypic,
though dimorphic, genus, very similar and closely related to Melano-
plus.

Phoetaliotes nebrascensis Thom.

Phoetaliotes nebrascensis has, as vet, been taken in Minnesota
only in the short-winged form, P. 1. nebrascensis. The long-winged

96 THE ACRIDIIDAE OF MINNESOTA

form, to which the varietal name P. n. volucris has been applied, may
yet be found within our borders since it occurs in Nebraska. The
species may readily be recognized by the generic characters and by
reference to Plate I, 9. It is an active insect and has been found
under widely varying ecological conditions. The following notes,
made in Iowa, are of interest in this connection. “It appears at first
glance very much like some of the brachypterous forms of Melanoplus,
but the compressed body and prominent head serve to separate it
even in the field. We first took it at Fort Dodge in sweeping tall
grasses, in an upland meadow; a more careful examination of the
vegetation resulted in the discovery of numerous specimens, crouching
among the stems and dead leaves at the bases of the plants. At
Eddyville and Bayfield it was found among Carices and Junci along
streams, while at Onawa it was taken among the Saggitariae in the
margin of a pond.’ Exactly similar conditions and variations have
been noted in Minnesota, and we have taken it here in low marshes,
along lakes, and at the tops of high gravelly hills sparsely covered
with grasses and weeds. We have taken this species at Pipestone,
Mankato, Fergus Falls, Detroit, Wadena, and Mahtomedi.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following list is intended to include merely a few of those
works of interest to the student in Minnesota, which are readily
obtainable, which summarize within themselves ample information
from the various monographs now for the most part almost unobtain-
able, and which cover recent information of value within our area.
Those desiring a more extended bibliography and synonomy are
referred to Scudder’s Catalogue of the Described Orthoptera of the
United States and Canada, listed below.

BLatcHuLey, W. S. The Orthoptera of Indiana. An Illustrated De-
scriptive Catalogue of the Species Known to Occur in the State,
with Bibliography, Synonomy, and Descriptions of New Species.

‘app. 471. 1902.

Bruner, L. A List of the Nebraska Orthoptera. Publications of
the Neb. Academy of Science, III, pp. 19-33.

Hancock, JosepH L. The Tettigidea of North America. Chicago,
1902.

Luccer, Orro. The Orthoptera of Minnesota. Third Ann. Rept. of
the Entomologist of the State Experiment Station of the Univer-
sity of Minnesota. 1897, pp. 1-296.

McNett, JeRoME. Revision of the Tryxalinae of North America.
Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, VI,
pp. 179-274.

OsporNE, HERBERT. On the Orthopterous Fauna of Iowa. Proceed-
ings of the Iowa Academy of Sciences, for 1890-91.

Scupper, SAamuEL H. Guide to the Genera and Classification of the
North American Orthoptera Found North of Mexico. Cam-
bridge, 1897.

——The Orthopteran Genus Hippiscus, Psyche, VI, pp. 265-74,
285-88, 301-4, 317, 20, 333-6, 347-50, 359-63.

Revision of the Orthopteran Group Melanopli (Acridide),
with Special Reference to North American Forms. Proceedings
U. S. Natl. Museum XX, Washington, 1897. pp. 1-421.

——The Orthopteran Genus Schistocerca. Proceedings of the

American Academy of Arts and Sciences, XXXIV, pp. 441-76.

Catalogue of the Described Orthoptera of the United States

and Canada. Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural

Sciences, VIII, pp. 1-101.

Tuomas, Cyrus. Notes on the Saltatorial Orthoptera of the Rocky
Mountain Regions. Preliminary Report of U. S. Geological Sur-
vey of Montana and Portions of Adjacent Territories. 1871.

97

98 BIBLIOGRAPHY

——Synopsis of the Acrididee of North America. Hayden's Report of
the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, V, pp. 1-258.
UnitED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL CoMmIssIoNn, First Annual Report,
for the Year 1877, Relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust. pp.

477.

Second Report, for the Years 1878 and 1879, Relating to the

Rocky Mountain Locust and the Western Cricket. pp. 322, Apr.

1880.

——Third Report, Relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, the
Western Cricket, the Army Worm, Canker Worms, and the Hes-
sian Fly. pp. 347, Apr. 1884.

WasuHBurn, F. L. Grasshoppers and Other Injurious Insects of
1911 and 1912. Fourteenth Report of the State Entomologist of
Minnesota. 1911 and 1912. pp. 114.

INDEX

IN CIRCE DUUUD AUS; 58 neki Eo Inne meee 8
ACRIDINAE . Bree ei ariet: HOS
ARISNEOWAUDS = ooo oes se oapoomen OU)
SCM Meter wn aeeeen eecre ae o
/ANSEIDIOUEETN Se Boece scale sae Se ene 34
anctal Spa 37
Galatia tagu aes eso terse cl os 35
OMS METS Amp erry ree censdrar cc 37
DSEUG Onietaiiameewe sere cei 36
Gull pinhead sca ces wes 38
SAVMPAC PIS 6 oie Saale oo OOe 35
BIADRAGHMDEAR picetets chew leievsle-cens' oie 14
Gio ealtisuartecwew et. on eos 20
abdominalis ate
CONS WEESAM ence acea ee er ZO
Chonkopmarae < soer eereen. 39
WORN), = Soddnoouauns6 40
Geirmantileres sere ae neh 42
ellen ead chaise sorte 42
(GRE Oe Lexa ieee ela am eine 62
WCEMICDUENMIS “BS bc becoeoosase (4
Dichromorpha . ..... 5 4
Rig! Ca Spatee emis senict ane Sasleeonlenh 23
Dissosteira . StL CE TOL
CAIMOITITEIN = bebe coon de pationsionee alll
Bicoptolopliusyan sees oes ne
Soyetabyal (ce gate his Sewn suse 41
EE TIEE REDS: ota nal oo ro heesto ere Ghent 18
(HIGHAM, 6 Gee Re oo omace oe 19
Gomplhocentismeeseeee once soo
Glepsydirayeses sae: 30
PUES PEFOLCELI Rg irda es orchete, cuasenetel 69
pratensis Be eee secon 240)
ENECIOSUSH sa ethic tot FAL
VIRECIISE Minar ervarciter sa tncrsa.cie 70
END PISCUSiasen eer oe ce eis aie 44
haldemani . . 45
EMO SUSt ope ence sac le ee tne sisis 66 47
GheaTNNnDISUA: Mica ateene Side ere bre 46
iISROAMIENUIS Ss daosanceonecs 2
ZAM OLE CUSe A) Rates a tiseinae 4
Ely pochlonamaeeroem see eee 68
AUD AAW ee ee aebeie cee 69
MieCOStEthUStas see emcee mide iets 26
Stra Cilliswrebe te Ra eerste ate 27
lineatus . : . 26
IER DIS THS Gab dae Ob coMarooS 28
IMielano pltisice-t scree saison sie) 73
AuIB A hecogeeougee 87
SYP RNAIIG) GA Aes een eat aa ea 80
Divatatlitishrmeeccto etna ta 92
Inlakelwleyine letras ce oes oes 78
COlLMUSM EE Mey Ale cis teeNome a ae
COMPLUSE re ee teh hele iscose aees oe 86
COMSMERSUSmemiert hie sioetone. hs 89
PASO eects ie ee
GHGhEHETICTADLIS: suena cls crethcecye oie 91
EREGCMIUS esto eda hae wrehese ess 85
MaASCIACIStetE seh e ele ds sc 78
HEMOLALISH MER Te iesaeicts Mes nO

femur-rubrum

foedus .
gladstoni .

STACIIMS am sees ea eee aa
UM PTE TS |S etapa ois ears 8&8
Uren CULT Seenee Fe eeette es eet 90
luiidtiseviase eee ee 91
Taal gVON PN Gee a Ay AeA an lr sbee 90)
occidentalis . 79
WACK ids wesee cee Sern 89
DunctilanuS men te coer ee eee OF
SCUCEeTIUR cr ae nen: 76
SDRELUSE 7 iota ee tees 82
Nenmenians = tees ee eee eel
WIGSioordeeimMe — GWacdon opened wan ous
CINICtUITNe wd a oe ee oe 58
Nomotettix 9
parvus NER ie eset eo)
OHDIZO DUANE ee renee OL
Opeia . ARSE W
obscura a ee tay aa mE OY) Its)
Oxrphulellacs hereon 24
pelidriay Spaeth aso n yee 24
SPECIOSA» iow peieetetsoe ie eee ees 25
PRatatettioc: wen aac eee 13
PHOCOUIMENEIONS. Mo bo Sees sances oe
ehoctaltotest: see eee eo)
HEHLASCENSIS aeleeee eee oe
IPOdisiiaye See see Le
Vatiegatar ss \errisyaconieoe 72
Psendopomalay ww cuseeratae te OD
brachyptera wre eesee eees 66
SiG’ ee ee PSS OD
fenestralis . . 60
Schistocerca ae ere mene 66
aU hitaaVele he Pra Bign! aio he woe DOT 67
shoikomaKeahoe Ly gu ahaceqpeuoaan 68
EUDIPINOSAu elie ec ccee Bene OL
Spharaeemonm sees lS
ACO Mal Ctr eerie ese certeie oy
Hollive reece eae ee ee 54
COllancituene Os ee OD
WY OMIN Gianna). as tk. Ap 55
Stenobothrus . 28
curtipennis . 28
SIG DIeREG WAY et ceeee mea vet st aeeerais) toitiows 9
Metticidea es. saee seen tea: Lo
DEVAS A\e5o56d005 q4eme 15
AP VAR AD CEI VAN Shek a ls a a a 8
TIERED en LN ia ly oe vie MG ee 10
ACACICUS ene is See cote yonenerpeeeens 12
apavimlERNb 6 Woe boo eogeoo ous it
MAM COCK aaa ee acto ceteetor antares 12
JE EFS is Rome en ae ol care ree
COPD ENADICY | a/MisAiaaee aby Coro c 13
OLMACUISMEE yee teehee 12
PIR SVEXOA TIO TENTANUED Pan eer ee nie ela leretede 16
WiehanROWOpYS Gs Ghidwelsoadae a 60
CAETITIA ee a eealieeye seth ns Bae relate 61
maritima . 60

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

Plate I. Some Minnesota Grasshoppers. 1. Orphulella speciosa. 2. The dif-
ferential locust, Melanoplus differentialis. 3. The sprinkled locust, Chloealtis
conspersa. 4. Melanoplus gladstoni. 5. The clear-winged locust, Camnula
pellucida. 6. The short-winged locust, Stenobothrus curtipennis. 7. The
pale-green locust, Hesperotettix pratensis. 8. The clouded locust, Encop-
tolophus sordidus. 9. Phoetaliotes nebrascensis. 10. Melanoplus minor.

Plate II. Some Minnesota Grasshoppers. 1. Arphia pseudonietana. 2. The
Carolina locust, Dissosteira carolina. 3. Dissosteira carolina, young stage.
4. Dissosteira carolina, showing color variation. 5. The two-striped locust,
Melanoplus bivittatus and red tibia from Melanoplus femoratus. 6 and 7.
Melanoplus bivittatus, three immature forms. 8. The red-legged locust,
Melanoplus femur-rubrum.

Plate III. Some Minnesota Grasshoppers and_ Crickets. 1. Spharagemon
aequale. 2. The slender meadow grasshopper, Xiphidium fasciatum. 3. The
small, striped ground cricket, Nemobius fasciatus. 4. A cricket-like grass-
hopper, Ceutophilus sp. 5. Xiphidium nigropleurum. 6. The clouded
locust, Encoptolophus sordidus, female. 7. The lesser migratory locust,
Melanoplus atlanis, and sectional view of last segment of male. 8. Melan-
oplus collinus, with dorsal view of male genital plates of M. luridus on
reader’s left and M. collinus on right.

Plate IV. Some Minnesota Grasshoppers. 1. A. Chloealtis conspersa. B. Di-
chromorpha, gray form, F. L. Washburn. 2. Egg pod of Chloealtis con-
spersa, C. W. Howard. 3. Mecostethus platypterus, F. L. Washburn. 4. Ar-
phia sulphurea, F. L. Washburn. 5. Hippiscus zapotecus, F. L. Washburn.
6. Mestobregma cinctum, F. L. Washburn. 7. Melanoplus dawsoni, F. L.
Washburn. 8. Eggs of Melanoplus bivittatus, about August 1, C. W.
Howard.

100

PLATE |

A.HOEN &CO.BALTIMORE

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