'•sov^ "^hbaino^ msmm wavaan-^ ^3»sqv^ BRARYQt ^t-UBRARYO^ ITVDJO^ :aiifo«^ JRI 1 ^0F-CA1IF(% AMEUNIVERS/a I ^3dnw)# ^weuniverv^. >- v^WSANCEl^* o %a3AIN(l-3\^ ^10SANCEI% o ^•UBRARY^ k? 1 f f * ^ ^SfOJITO-JO^ AOf'CAllfO% , ^avaain^ _ o ^lOSANCElfj^ - so IQNVSOV^ %i3AINIH^ ^l-UBRARYQc ^UIBRARYQ?. ^lOSANCEl^ ^Of-CAL!F0«to %OJI1VOJO^ ^OKAUFOR^ ^Aava'aiB^ ^WE-UNIVERS/A & ^UIBRARYj^ ^MAIMIV^ %HITCMtf^ ^OFCALIFO^ ^UftANGOfiTg 00 y3 ^3^5" CONTENTS. Page. Letter of the Secretary of the Interior to the President of the Senate 9 Report of Sheldon Jackson, d. t>., U. S. general agent of education in Alaska, to the Commissioner of Education, on the introduction of domesticated reindeer into Alaska " 11 Eeindeer station 14 Personnel of the station in 1892 16 The herd 17 Experiment station 20 Finances 21 i.) APPENDIX. Report of Miner W. Bruce to Dr. Sheldon Jackson, U. S. general agent of education in Alaska Reindeer 29 Affairs at the Teller reindeer station 53 Recommendations 34 Meteorology at Teller reindeer station, 1892 91 1893 93 Some of the habits and customs of the Eskimo 96 Exhibit A — Liquor seized at Teller reindeer station 117 B — W. T. Lopp on the reindeer herd 118 C. — H. R. Thornton on the reindeer herd 120 D. — John A. Dexter on reindeer herd 120 3 CONTENTS. Agricultural college and experiment stations recommended in Alaska 122 Bequest for the assistance of Capt. M. A. Healy, U. S. Revenue Marine 124 Memorandum concerning the purchase of domesticated reindeer 124 Capt. M. A. Healy authorized to transport reindeer from Siberia 125 Eeport by Messrs. Thornton and Lopp on food supply of Arctic Alaska 127 Dr. Sheldon Jackson commended to the Russian officials in Siberia 129 Transportation for general agent on cutter Bear 130 Revenue-cutter Bear authorized to transport reindeer 130 Letter of instructions to the superintendent of the reindeer herd 131 Report of progress by W. T. Lopp, superintendent 133 Capt. M. A. Healy reports illegal traffic in reindeer 136 Affairs at the Teller reindeer station 136 Memoranda of reindeer in Norway 141 on Lapps and reindeer, by Scandinavians in tbe United States. .. 145 Notes on the Lapps and the reindeer by — Rasmus B. Anderson 147 N. Width 150 Circular letter sent to the Scandinavian newspapers in the United States 155 Notes and memoranda concerning reindeer by — N. Width 156 Regnor Dahl 157 Dr. H. Dahl 158 J. Nyvall 159 P. Einarsen 160 C. Tangen 161 A.N. Stokes 161 Henry J. Redmyer 162 Nils Lust 162 N. Width. , 162 Wilhelm Bergstrom 163 H. Dahl 165 AdolphDahl 166 C. Tangen 167 Lorentz M. Lorson 167 Hans G uldfj eld 168 John Nilson 169 JohnFloht 170 H. Dahl 170 Jull. Samuelsen 171 O. Hippo 171 A. N. Lithnor 172 E. J. Bergstrom 173 Nils Lust 173 H. Knutzon 174 CONTENTS. 5 Notes and memoranda concerning reindeer by — Page. William Almqnist 17G Otto Carlson 177 Fred Solly < 177 Peder Olaffson 178 C. O. Granstrom 179 J. Haqvin Hedstrom 180 Names of the native tribes of Northwest Alaska, their villages and approxi- mate geographical positions 181, 182, 183 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. MAPS. Page. Map of Alaska 23 Map of Bering Straits and vicinity 145 ILLUSTRATIONS. Revenue Marine steamer Bear, moored to a field of ice, Bering Sea, June 15, 1892 11 Capt . Michael A. Healy 15 Taking possession of Teller reindeer station, June 29. 1892 19 Teller reindeer station, Port Clarence, Alaska, 1893 - 25 Landing the first batch of reindeer at Teller station, July 4, 1892 29 Carrying reindeer from beach to the station (Teller reindeer station) July 1, 1892 33 Raising the flag-staff July 5, 1892 (Teller reindeer station) 37 Headquarters building (Teller reindeer station) 41 Drying fish, Teller reindeer station . . . - . 45 Siberian herders, Teller reindeer station 49 The herd at Teller reindeer station . 53 Herd of reindeer lying down 57 Native huts and storage platforms, with platform graves in the distance. — Tel- ler reindeer station 61 Eskimo hunting Caribou (reindeer) in Alaska 65 Eskimo hunting Caribou in Alaska 69 Hunting Caribou in the water 73 Trapping Caribou in Alaska with a noose 77 Carrying the Caribou home 81 Descending a mountain in Alaska with a dog team 85 Climbing a mountain with a dog team 89 Eskimo traveling in Alaska 93 An Eskimo barabara (house), Kaguiah, Kadiak Island, Alaska 97 Inside view of an Eskimo barabara 101 Building used by Methodist Mission, Unalaska, Alaska 105 Pupils at Methodist Mission Home, Unalaska, Alaska, 1892 109 Tchuctchee tent, Siberia 113 Eskimo tent, St. Lawrence Island, Alaska 1 17 7 8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Pago. Group of Eskimo at St. Lawrence Island, Alaska 121 Schoolliouse and group of Eskimo, St. Lawrence Island, Alaska 125 Hoisting a walrus on the deck of steamship Bear 129 Eskimo reception day, U. S. S. Bear 133 An Eskimo school girl taking lesson in cooking, Point Barrow, Alaska 137 Cemetery and native village, St. Michael, Alaska 141 Group of Eskimo men clad in kamilekas (rain-proof coats) 149 Band of reindeer on Amaknak Island, Unalaska Harbor, Alaska 153 Swedish Evangelical Union Mission, Yukutat, Alaska, 1892 157 Presbyterian Industrial Training School, Sitka, Alaska 161 Native teacher, Sitka Industrial School, Alaska 165 A portion of Kadi ak, Alaska 169 Reina, Eskimo child 177 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Department of the Inteeior, Washington, March 20, 1894. Sir : I am in receipt of Senate resolution of even date — That the Secretary of the Interior he directed to transmit to the Senate a copy of the last report of Dr. Sheldon Jackson npon the "Introduction of Domesticated Reindeer into the District of Alaska." In response thereto I have the honor to transmit herewith a coi)y of the report indicated in the foregoing resolution. Very respectfully, Hoke Smith, Secretary. The President of the Senate. 9 INTRODUCTION OF DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Alaska Division, Washington, D. C, March 1, 1894. Sir: I have the honor herewith to transmit to you my third annual report on the introduction of domesticated reindeer into Alaska. In accordance with your instructions, I left Washington on the 13th of May, 1893, reaching Puget Sound six days later. On the 20th of May, by permission of the Secretary of the Treasury, I joined the IT. S. revenue cutter Bear at Port Townsend, which sailed on the 20th. While awaiting the sailing of the vessel, I was able to secure two adult and four young collie dogs, to be used in herding the reindeer. After a stormy passage of twelve days we dropped anchor in the harbor of Unalaska. While at anchor the Alaska Commercial Com- pany's steamer Bertha arrived from San Francisco, with twenty-three missionaries for the Swedish, Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, Church of England, and Moravian stations in northern and central Alaska. At 4 o'clock on the morning of June 12 the steamer Bear got under way for Siberia, and on the 15th reached and entered heavy fields of ice. On Friday, the 16th, having forced its way through the ice, the steamer at noon came to anchor off Eutoxia's Village, at the foot of Bald Mountain, one of the headlands of Plover Bay. Arrangements were made last season with Eutoxia, a native trader, for the purchase of reindeer through the winter and to have them in readiness for ship- ment upon the arrival of the Bear. The whalers, however, had reached the Siberian coast in advance of the Bear, and Eutoxia and other natives, with whom we expected to deal, were found to be intoxicated. The next day the captain steamed over to St. Lawrence Island, where I inspected the school building. Returning again to the coast of Sibe- ria, the ice becoming very heavy, the fog very dense, and the roar of the breakers distinctly audible, the captain concluded to drop anchor. Late in the afternoon, the fog having lifted, the anchor was hove and the ship went a few miles to the westward, coming to anchor 3 miles east of Bald Mountain. Lieut. Jarvis was sent ashore, and on the morning of the 19th returned with ten reindeer, which were taken aboard. Anchor was again hove, and at 6 a. m. the ship got under way 11 12 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF for Cape Aggen, where we were informed that there was a large herd of reindeer close to the shore. Encountering heavy ice, at noon the course was changed and the ship returned eastward and northward, off Indian Point, where we came to anchor at midnight of the 19th in a dense fog. At 7:30 the next morning, the fog having lifted, the Bear got under way for Ahkunee, on the south head of St. Lawrence Bay, Siberia. Forcing the ship through heavy drift ice, we came to anchor off Ahkunee at 6 o'clock in the afternoon. Again we found our native interpreter drunk, and but little progress was made in negotiating with the deer men for reindeer. However, next day Lieut. Jarvis succeeded in securing and bringing aboard twenty-seven reindeer, and at 8 o'clock on the 21st we were under way for North Head, Siberia; but later in the night, finding that the ice was so heavy that the place could not be reached, the course of the ship was changed eastward for King's Island? where we made fast to a large field of ice in front of the village at 10 o'clock on the 22d. At noon the ship was again under way, reaching Port Clarence at 4:25 p. m. Upon arrival at the entrance to the port, we found eight whalers at anchor behind Point Spencer. That same evening, Mr. Miner W. Bruce, superintendent of the reindeer station, came on board the steamer and brought the news of the successful wintering of the herd at the Government station. Port Clarence was still a sheet of unbroken ice remaining from the previous winter. At 11 a. m., June 23, anchor was hove and the steamer started for the reindeer station, some 7 miles up the bay, forcing its way a portion of the distance through ice about 2 feet thick. The station being safely reached, the afternoon was spent in landing the reindeer and supplies for the sta- tion. June 24th was also spent in landing stores and supplies, looking over and inspecting the station, and taking account of the balance of supplies left over from the previous year. In the evening the four herders from Siberia and one Alaskan Eskimo were paid their salaries for the year. At 8 p. m. the steamer got under way again and returned to the mouth of the harbor, to rejoin the whaling fleet, but shortly after starting ran into drift ice, which became so solid and heavy that we were detained all night in the ice, reaching the fleet at 6:30 in the morning of the 25th. At noon on the 27th the steamer again got under w -ay for Cape Prince of Wales, reaching the mission at G p. m. Many of the natives being asleep, it was some time before they came to the ship. Mr. Lopp and Mr. and Mrs. Thornton, teachers, came on board and received a large bundle of mail which the Bear had brought from their friends. About 0 p. in. we again got under way for Whaien, Siberia, encountering much drift ice during the passage, and also freshly formed mush ice. At 4:30 a. m. the ship was fastened to the ice off Whaien, and communication was had with the natives on shore with regard to the purchase of reindeer. Not being able to secure any there at that time, the reindeer from the interior not DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 13 having readied the coast, at 0 a. m. we cast loose from the ice and started southward through Bering Straits for South Head, encounter- ing heavy ice all day. At 7 p. in., the fog lifting a little, land was sighted, and in half an hour we came to anchor in St. Lawrence Bay. Lieut. Jarvis, with the native interpreter, Enker, were sent ashore to communicate with the village at South Head. Upon his return to the ship at 3:15 a. in., we again got under way for the village on the south- ern side of Cape Kiiieugoune, and in about an hour afterwards came to anchor off the village. This being the native village of one of the Siberian herders, whom we were returning home, we landed Enker and his supplies, after which we again sailed for Port Clarence, reaching there at 10 p. in. On the 5th of July, having an opportunity to return to the Aleutian Islands via St. Michael, and thus reach the schools located between Unalaska and Sitka, and also the schools in southeastern Alaska, I availed myself of the opportunity. Upon my deciding to go south, Capt. M. A. Healy, commanding officer of the U. S. steamer Bear, very kindly consented to look after the reindeer station and purchase such additional reindeer during the year as he should have opportunity. In pursuance of this plan, he made a trip on the 8th of July to South Head, Siberia, where he procured thirty reindeer, which were landed at the station. He then started for Eutau and the Arctic shore of Siberia, but owing to heavy ice was unable to get beyond Enchowan. After spending a week battling with the ice and being unable to make any further progress, he concluded to change his course and visit Point Barrow, where, after inspection of the station, he could return south- ward and speud the month of August in procuring reindeer. Keturn- ing from Point Barrow to the Siberian coast he found that Capt. Wagner, of the schooner Berwick, had been over to Siberia to secure reindeer for Mr. Bruce to take to the States for exhibition purposes. It was reported by the natives that Capt. Wagner had represented that he was buying the reindeer for the Government, and had traded for the same, in part, 5 gallons of liquor, which demoralized the trade during the remainder of the season. Wherever Capt. Healy went and tried to trade for reindeer the first demand on the part of the natives was for whisky, and he reports that the unauthorized whisky trading of Capt. Wagner prevented the Government purchasing at least one hundred reindeer, besides increasing the price of those that Avere pur- chased. Beaching Cape Serdze Kainen, August 11, the shore was found fairly char of ice, but during the clear interval the Siberians refused to bar- ter their reindeer, in hope of compelling the captain to sell whisky. Two of the leading reindeer men were »n board four days, refusing to trade. As the ice began to come in and make it dangerous for the ves- sel to lie there any longer, and the natives saw that it was useless to hold out longer for whisky, they began to bargain, and the captain 14 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP was able to secure the promise of one hundred deer, but before they could be brought off from the shore to the vessel the ice compelled the captain to change his anchorage, having only twenty-six reindeer on board. He had already held on so long that he lost his propeller in forcing bis way out. When clear of the ice he started for Koco- dillin. Here he met with the same difficulty, the natives again refus- ing to trade, saying, " No whisky, no deer." While trying to secure the reindeer at this station, again the ice came in shore, seeing which the natives who had been holding out for whisky came to terms and hastened to sell. Lieut. Jarvis was despatched on shore to pro- cure the reindeer as quickly as possible, but before the deer were all caught he was recalled on board on account of the dangerous proximity of the ice. Great fields of ice, owing to a northwestern gale, were crowding into the bay so that in a few hours the vessel was completely hemmed in. Then began the usual ramming and pushing to get the steamer free from the ice. Everybody was on deck and on the alert. It was a hard fight, and with the greatest of difficulty the ship was relieved from the pressure. No sooner was the ship free from the ice than there came a dense fog, with a heavy northerly gale, and the ship was obliged to heave to, with no chance for anchorage, and no food for the deer on board. The captain then determined to sail direct for Port Clarence, in order to land his deer, which place was reached the follow- ing day through wind and fog. Again returning to Siberia, the village at South Head was visited, and twenty-six deer were purchased, making the total number, for the season, landed at the station, one hundred and twenty-seven. REINDEER STATION. On the 29th of June, 1892, I visited the head of Port Clarence, Alaska, in search of a suitable location for the establishment of a rein- deer station. In making a location it was important to take into con- sideration nearness to the coast of Asia, character of harbor, position with reference to future distribution of reindeer, supply of good pas- turage and water. Finding that all these conditions were best met at the watering station of the whaling fleet, on the extreme northeast cor- ner of the bay, near Grantley Harbor, I selected that point for the rein- deer station, and on the same day put up two tents, and landed from the steamer Newport the provisions and supplies for the station. In view of the fact that the Hon. Henry M. Teller, of Colorado, as Secretary of the Interior, in the spring of 1885, authorized the estab- lishment of the common school system of Alaska; and also in view of the fact that since the agitation commenced for the introduction of domesticated reindeer into Alaska, he has taken a leading part in securing the needed Congressional legislation, I have named the station the "Teller Reindeer Station." Port Clarence was known to the Russians as Kaviayak Bay. It was CAPT. MICHAEL A. HEALY U. S. R. M.. COMMANDER OF REVENUE CUTTER BEAR," 1892. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 15 explored by Captain Beecliy of the British Navy in August, 1827, and was named by him after the British King, then Duke of Clarence. The inner harbor, opening into the northeast corner of the bay, was named after Lord Grantley, and the sand-spits at the opening of the bay were named Points Spencer and Jackson, after distinguished officers of the Koyal Navy. Point Spencer, the extremity of the low sand-spit which extends some 10 miles from the coast, forms the south and west sides of the harbor. This sand-spit is low and marshy, with numerous lakes. Between Point Spencer and Point Jackson, a distance of 2 miles, is the entrance of the bay. The north and east shores of the bay arise from the sea to the mountains. Between the mountains and seashore are numerous lagoons and small lakes which in their season are covered with numerous wild fowl. The bay in extent is 12 miles from east to west, and 14 miles from north to south. At the extreme eastern end two narrow sand-spits, extending from the northern and southern shores, inclose an inner harbor called Grantley Harbor, the entrance to which is about one-third of a mile in width. Grantley Harbor is about 9 miles from east to west and 3 miles from north to south. At the extreme eastern end of Grantley Harbor is a second strait, about 300 yards wide, which connects with a third body of water, the inland lake called by the natives " Imourouk." Into this lake empty the Cov- vee-arak and Agheeee-puk rivers. Along this line of water-courses is a native trail to Golovin Bay and Norton Sound. To the north of Grantley Harbor, Muck-a-Charlie Peak rises to the height of 1,G00 feet. At the head of the sand-spit between Port Clarence and Grantley Harbor is a large lagoon, and between the reindeer station and the base of the hills on the north are about a dozen fresh- water ponds or small lakes. The shores of the bay on the spit and reindeer station are formed of shingle or water- worn stones. These shingle beaches are a marked char- acteristic of large sections of the coast in northern Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean. The shores of Port Clarence are lined with driftwood, presumably from the Yukon River. Port Clarence is the best harbor on the American side of Bering Sea, north of the Aleutian Islands, and, being but 40 or 50 miles from Bering Straits, it forms a convenient stopping place for whalers before entering the Arctic Ocean. Of late years it has become the favorite rendezvous of the whaling fleet that gathers here about July 1 to await the arrival of a vessel from San Francisco, with fresh provisions, coal, etc. It also enables the fleet to ship their spring catch of whalebone to San Francisco, before entering the dangerous Arctic. Upon my first visit, July 3, 1890, twenty-five whalers were at anchor off Point Spencer, awaiting the arrival of the annual supply ship. At the extreme northeast corner of Port Clarence, near Grantley Harbor, and upon a small mountain creek, is the place that I selected for the headquarters of the reindeer station. A few miles to the east 16 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF of tlie station on Grantley Harbor was the location of the headquarters, for this region, of the Russo-American Telegraph Expedition of 1865 and 1867. On the bluff above the beach, at the place selected for the reindeer station, stood a log of driftwood upon which had been placed an empty- barrel to indicate the location of a watering station. To the top of this post we hoisted the United States flag. A few days after taking possession, the lumber and building materials for the station having been landed, Capt. Healy very kindly sent his carpenters and a portion of his crew on shore and erected a good, substantial frame house, 20 by 60 feet in size. The supply of lumber, however, gave out before it was fully completed, so that it was not as comfortable for an Arctic winter as was intended. Before the com- pletion of the frame building, Mr. Bruce, the superintendent, had con- structed a "dugout" for himself and assistant and another for the Siberian herders. These " dugouts" were occupied during the severity of the winter weather. During the summer of 1893 additional lumber and material were sent to the station, and Capt. Healy again kindly sent his carpenters and sailors on shore to do the needed work of placing the main station building in complete order for comfortable use. The whole house has double sides and double floor, with tarred paper between. A large "lean-to" was erected in the rear of the house for the use of the herders. PERSONNEL. At the opening of the reindeer station in 1892, Mr. Miner W. Bruce, of Nebraska, was appointed superintendent, and Mr. Bruce Gibson, of California, assistant superintendent. During the season, four Siberians were secured and brought over by Capt. Healy, as the principal herders. With these were placed several Eskimo men, who were to learn the trade of herding reindeer. Upon the 30th of June, 1893, the incumbency of Messrs. Bruce and Gibson having terminated, Mr. W. T. Lopp, of the American Missionary Association station, at Cape Prince of Wales, was appointed superintendent of the reindeer station. As he could not immediately remove from the mission station to the rein- deer station, Capt. Healy very considerately at my request detailed Lieut. C. M. White, U. S. Eevenue Marine, as acting superintendent, until Mr. Lopp could take charge. Being unable to secure an assistant from the States, Mr. John Grubin, quartermaster on the U. S. steamer I?ear was allowed his discharge papers and made assistant superin- tendent of the station. The four Siberian herders during the summer were returned to their homes, and one of them, after a visit, returned for a second year. With him we secured three others who came over for the first time. Last fall nine Eskimo apprentices entered upon a course of instruction. Owing to the murder of Mr. Harrison K. Thornton, missionary at DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 17 Cape Prince of Wales, on the 19th of August, 1893, by two hoodlum Eskimos, the mission station was closed for the year. Under the cir- cumstances, Mr. W. T. Lopp, who had accepted the position of super- intendent at the reindeer station, felt called upon to offer his services to the American Missionary Association of the Congregational Church, and return to Cape Prince of Wales in the summer of 1894, if it was thought desirable. In order to secure some intelligent Norwegian or Swede, accustomed to the methods employed in the care of reindeer in Lapland, on December 15, 1893, I sent a notice to the Scandinavian papers of the United States, that we wished to secure the services of men acquainted with the management of reindeer. The Scandinavian papers entered very heartily into the project and gave their space without compensation. About 250 replies were received. From among this number, largely upon the recommendation of Prof. Rasmus B. Anderson, Mr. William A. Kjelmann, of Madison, Wis., was selected as the next superintendent of the reindeer station. Mr. Kjelmann is a Norwegian, 32 years of age, of robust health and excellent habits. He has a good business education, writes an elegant Norwegian, and speaks the English language fluently. He can also write English fairly well. He was born in Taloik, in Finmarken; and as soon as he was old enough was set at work herding reindeer, at which he con- tinued until he was 22 years of age. He was then taken up by a mer- cantile firm, and for six years had experience in buying and selling reindeer and reindeer products between Alten and Kautetein and Karasjok, in Lapland. For the past three years he has been a resi- dent of Madison, Wis., where he has a family. The 250 replies were from Scandinavians in the United States who in their boyhood had been brought up on the edge of Lapland and had served an apprenticeship in the herding of reindeer. With great unanimity they wrote that there are no full-blooded Lapps in the United States and that it was essential to the success of the movement that a few families of Lapps should be secured to do the herding and also to give instruction to the Eskimo young men. They also, with great unanimity, expressed the opinion that the trained dogs of Lap- land were necessary for herding. They further took the position that the Lapps have methods for the care of reindeer superior to the customs of the Siberians. Upon the selection of Mr. Kjelmann as superintendent of the station, I sent him at once to Lapland for the necessary Lapps and their dogs. The reindeer fund of Congress for 1894 being exhausted, it became necessary to again appeal to private individuals for $1,000, to defray the expenses of sending Mr. Kjelmann to Lapland, and to pay the transportation of the Lapps and their fam- ilies to the United States. HERD. During the summer of 1892 171 reindeer were purchased in Siberia and landed at the station. At the time of landing at Port Clarence S. Ex. 70 2 18 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF 2 were lost by straying away. Twelve were so injured by transporta- tion from Siberia that they either died or had to be killed. During the year 13 others died from injuries received while fighting, slipping upon the ice, etc., making a total loss of 27. On the other hand, there has been a gain of 79 fawns, born in the spring of 1893, leaving, on June 30, 1893, 222 reindeer in the herd. During the summer 127 addi- tional reindeer were purchased in Siberia, of which 124 were safely landed at the station, making a total, in September, 1893, of 346. Dur- ing the winter the superintendent of the station trained 12 deer to draw sleds, and with his two teams of reindeer made a successful trip to the mission station at Cape Prince of Wales, 60 miles distant. For further details concerning the herd and its management during its first winter on the Alaska side, see the very full report, in the appendix, of Mr. Miner W. Bruce, the superintendent of the station. It is proposed to take another step forward, during the summer of 1894, in the progress of the reindeer movement. As the first herd was pur- chased by the Government from private funds, contributed for that purpose, it is proposed to give 100 head of reindeer to each of the follow- ing stations: The Congregationalists, at Cape Prince of Wales; the Swedish Evangelical Church, at Golovin Bay; the Roman Catholic Church, on the Yukon Biver, and the Presbyterian Church, at St. Law- rence Island, thus making four additional herds. With the increase of the herd it is proposed to offer a similar number of reindeer to other Christian denominations at work in that region who may wish to receive and care for them. The presence of the herd attracted very great attention from the natives, and scarcely a day passed during the winter that delegations did not visit and inspect the herd, some of them coming from the inland 300 or 400 miles for that purpose. The herd is an object- lesson which has created a strong desire on the part of the natives for the time when they can have herds of their own. One man, at Cape Prince of Wales, who had some whalebone to sell, offered to sell it to the captain of a whaler on condition that he would go over to Siberia and bring him a certain number of reindeer. The fears that had been freely expressed, that the reindeer would be destroyed by the native dogs, were not realized. The herders were armed and had strict orders to fire upon any dog interfering with the herd, and then to report the same to the superintendent, who hadinstruc- tions to send for the owner of the dog and compensate him for the loss. During the entire year it became necessary to shoot but five dogs that were interfering with the herd. During the sledge trip of the super- intendent to Cape Prince of Wales, two or three times he staked out the deer in the neighborhood of villages with from 100 to 300 native dogs, and in no instance were they molested. Tims the difficulties that were anticipated in the introduction of reindeer into Alaska, have, one by one, been met and solved. CC CO LU Ld < DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 19 It was persistently said at the beginning, that, in the first place, owing to the superstition of the Siberian natives, live deer could not be purchased; in the second place, that the habits of the deer were such that they could not stand transportation; in the third place, that the environments in Alaska would be so different from those of Siberia that they would not thrive; and, in the fourth place, that the Alaskan dogs would scatter and destroy the herd. Each one of these objections has been disproved by actual experience, and now the whole subject resolves itself into a question of time and money. If liberal appropriations can be had from Congress the work of introduction and distribution will go forward with great rapidity. If, however, the appropriations are to continue small the success will be none the less sure, but the progress much slower. The present and ever increasing- scarcity of the food supply of the region would seem to make it impor- tant that the work be pushed as rapidly as is consistent with thorough- ness. As already stated, in July last Capt. Wagner purchased a few rein- deer in Siberia, giving among other articles some whisky. The result was that when the Bear returned to the Siberian coast after more reindeer, the natives refused to trade unless they could be paid partly in whiskey. As Capt. Healy could not concede that to them, the Government lost the purchase of one hundred reindeer that could otherwise have been secured. This incident is a seasonable warning to the friends of the movement to introduce reindeer into Alaska, that regulations and safe-guards must be provided by which no private parties, except the Eskimo, shall be allowed to trade for reindeer, for a term of years, and until the Government undertaking is well established. If private parties are allowed to purchase reindeer, the price will be advanced from three to fourfold beyond their real value; and while the Government, unable to barter with liquor, will be compelled to pay the increased and exhorbitant charges or go without, private parties trad- ing whisky will procure them at a mere nominal price. Again, if white men are allowed to establish herds, they will not get into the hands of the natives, and the main object in the enterprise will be defeated. I would, therefore, recommend that legislation be secured for the pro- tection of the Government in the laudable effort to introduce domesti- cated reindeer as the commencement of civilization among the Eskimo of Alaska. In 1891 small herds of reindeer were turned loose upon the islands of Unalaska and Amaknak, of the Aleutian group ; and it is desirable that in the near future all the larger islands of the Aleutian group should be stocked with reindeer. I would, therefore, further recommend / 20 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF that there should be a Congressional act protecting reindeer for a t^rm of years, and placing them under the control of the Secretary of the Treasury. EXPERIMENT STATION. As bills are before Congress for the extension to Alaska of the pro- visions of the agricultural college and experiment station acts of 1862, 1887, and 1890, I would call attention to the necessities of northern and Arctic Alaska. In the ordinary experiment station investigations are pursued with regard to the best methods of rearing and caring for horses, cattle, hogs, and sheep ; but in Arctic Alaska there are hundreds of thousands of square miles of area that can never be utilized for the raising of cattle, horses, or sheep; but this large area is especially adapted for the support of the reindeer. I would, therefore, respectfully urge that provision be made in the experiment act of 1890 for the estab- lishment of an experiment station at Port Clarence, Alaska, where the principal industry shall be the propagation, management, and care of the reindeer. In southeastern Alaska the natives that are being advanced to civilization and citizenship are taught, for a living, to be carpenters, boot and shoemakers, coopers, blacksmiths, etc., but as none of these are needed in Arctic Alaska, the only pursuit to which the young men of that region can look in their progress towards civili- zation is the care of reindeer. To stock Alaska with reindeer, to reclaim and make valuable millions of acres of moss-covered tundra, to introduce a large, permanent, and wealth- jnoducing industry where none previously existed, to take a barbarian people, on the verge of starvation, and lift them up to comfortable self-support and civiliza- tion, is certainly a work of national importance. As a number of Eskimo young men should be turned out from the proposed experiment station from year to year fully prepared to take charge of and manage herds of reindeer, the industry will naturally increase and the herds become more and more distributed throughout the country until that whole northern region shall be covered with them, as similar regions of Siberia and Lapland are now covered. The question having been raised with regard to the introduction of skilled labor into the United States, the Superintendent of Immigra- tion for the Treasury Department was conferred with, and it was found that the laws and regulations covering immigration did not stand in the way of introduction of the Laps for the j)urpose of taking charge of the reindeer station for the Government. It is hoped that the present colony of Lapps may find such advantages in Alaska lor going into the reindeer business on their own account that they will become permanent citizensof the United States, and will eventually attract to Alaska an emigration from Lapland, where the restrictions thrown around the reindeer industry in some localities are such as to have created great dissatisfaction, and caused the business to be unprofitable.1 1 See letters of N. Width, p. 162, and of W. Bergstrom, p. 163. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 21 FINANCES. When it became apparent that no appropriation could be secured, from the Fifty-first Congress, I made an appeal in the Mail and Express, of New York City, the Boston Transcript, the Philadelphia Ledger, the Chicago Inter-Ocean, and Washington Star, as well as in a number of the leading religious newspapers of the country, for contributions to this object. The response was prompt and generous ; $2,156 were received. As the natives of northern Alaska and Siberia have no knowledge of the value of money, it became necessary to change the above sum into barter goods, which was done. These were expended as follows: 1891. 20 reindeer $180.90 Trip of exploration north of Bering Straits to investigate the character of the pasturage .- 10.70 1892. 171 reindeer 623. 30 Pay of six interpreters 53. 68 Pay of superintendent from Noveniher 1, 1892, to March 1, 1893 558.30 Provisions for herders and employes (ten men, one year) 489. 00 Lamps and kerosene oil 30. 95 House furniture, dishes, etc 5. 80 Carpenter tools 18. 12 27 fur coats 33.75 42 pairs of skin and fur pants 35. 50 24 Kamileka or rain-proof coats 24. 00 39 pairs of hoots 15. 50 32 pairs of fur mittens 7. 40 16 pairs of fur socks 3. 65 51 reindeer skins 38. 25 62 seal skins 27. 20 2. 156. 00 Reindeer account, ISOS-'Od. Appropriation hy Congress $6, 000. 00 Lumher and material for huilding 546. 35 Furniture, stoves, dishes, and supplies for huilding 265. 62 Salary for superintendent 540. 58 Provisions and supplies for employ6s 1, 110. 58 Medicine chest and medicines 127. 54 Coal and incidental expenses for transportation of reindeer 757. 36 Five shepherd dogs for use of herd 152. 50 BARTER GOODS. Guns, ammunition, and traps $1, 385. 35 Hardware. 223.51 Flour and provisions 219.51 . Clothes, cotton goods, and tents 300. 70 Dishes, heads, and trinkets 167. 90 Tohacco 202.50 2,499.47 6, 000. 00 Reindeer purchased, 127. « 22 INTRODUCTION OF DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. It gives me great pleasure to again acknowledge the hearty cooper- ation received from Capt. L. G-. Shepard, acting chief of the revenue- marine division of the Treasury Department; also tbe valuable assist- ance rendered by Capt. M. A. Healy, commanding the U. S. S. Bear, Lieuts. Jarvis and White, and also the officers and crew. The addi- tional duties and responsibilities that have been laid upon them, in being detailed to the transportation of the reindeer from Siberia, have added greatly to their labors, and this without extra compensation. As experience in this line becomes increasingly valuable from year to year, it is greatly desired that when any officers of the Bevenue-Marine Service take a special interest in the enterprise they shall be continued in the service from year to year. I am sure that the officers who have so uncomplainingly and cheerfully cooperated in this movement will feel well repaid for the same when in after years they see the great results that have been attained. I also desire to call attention* to the very valuable monographs on the reindeer in Lapland furnished by the Hon. Easmus B. Anderson and Mr. IsT. Width, which I have incorporated in the appendix to this report. The applications received from various Scandinavians for positions at the reindeer herd have incidentally furnished much information con- cerning the treatment of reindeer in Lapland. As the experience of Lapland will be of great assistance in the commencement of the rein- deer enterprise in Alaska, I have made extracts from the same and thrown them into the form of a symposium, which also is included in the appendix. Thanks are also due to the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for the accurate maps which they have furnished for this report. The illustrations are from photographs taken by Engineer A. L. Broadbent, Surgeon S. J. Call, and Mr. Miner W. Brace. Also as illustrating the native skill in drawing and their methods of travel and hunting the wild reindeer I inclose a few pencilings made by Eskimos at the Eeindeer Station. Very respectfully, yours, Sheldon Jackson, TJ. S. General Agent of Education in Alaska. Hon. W. T. Harris, LL. D., Commissioner of Education, APPENDIX. 23 REPORT OP MINER W. BRUCE. Teller Reindeer Station, Port Clarence, Alaska, June 30, 1803. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, U. 8. General Agent of Education in Alaska. Sir : I have the honor to send herewith for your consideration my report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1893, concerning the affairs of the Reindeer Station, together with other matters that came to my notice, some of which I trust may be interesting to you. My first impression of the selection made by you for the location of the Reindeer Station, as viewed from the entrance to Port Clarence one year ago, was a favorable one, and after a residence here of one year, although within one degree of the arctic circle, I am fully couvinced that a better selection could not have been made. Besides being within a few hours' sail of the point on the Siberian coast from which reindeer are shipped, the natural lay of the country makes it easy of access from all directions. This is a most important feature, should it become necessary for any cause to drive the herd away, or for the distribution of reindeer to different points on the coast and into the interior, as is contemplated in the future. It is located on the only good harbor between Golovin Bay and Kotzebue Sound, and the fact that the whaling fleet rendezvous here causes natives to come annually from the different settlements many miles away, thus affording them an opportunity to see the reindeer and get acquainted with the object contemplated ; and there are other features which another location might not afford. The location of the Reindeer Station is a beautiful one, and when viewed in midsummer is very picturesque. It is situated on the main- land, on the north side of what is known as Clarence Bay or Port Clar- ence, a body of water of about 20 miles east and west, and 5 miles north and south. The water on the south side washes upon a narrow sand spit, taken out from the mainland in a sort of semicircle, the western end of which curves toward the northwest until it approaches within about 2 miles of the coast, thus forming practically a landlocked harbor, within which vessels find a safe and quiet anchorage from the often rough and turbid waters of Bering Sea. Mountains rise abruptly from Cape Prince of Wales, the most west- erly point of this continent and about GO miles east of the station. 25 26 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF The highest of these will not exceed 1,500 feet, and they form a bleak and rocky coast, which gives way to sandy beaches for 4 or 5 miles only, the rest of the coast being rugged for 35 miles east. Here they recede to the north, gradually merging into hills which form a background to a level stretch of country from one-half to 1 mile wide and about 30 miles long, near the center of which stand the reindeer headquarters. The hills immediately north of the station rise to a height of 400 or 500 feet, some of which are nearly barren, caused probably from the severe winds that prevail in the summer, which, taken in connection with the long spells of rain in that season, seem to have destroyed the vegetation that on the sides of the others has taken deep root. Toward the eastern end of the level country the hills gradually diminish in height and recede to the north in graceful waves of rolling uplands for many miles. To the east a range of mountains rises more or less abruptly to a height of 1,000 or 2,000 feet, and from the natives I learn that the same character of rough country extends eastward into the interior 50 or 00 miles. In August last, in accordance with your instructions, I made a trip into the country northeast of the station, and reached a point perhaps 10 miles distant. I traveled by water, in an Eskimo oomiak or skin boat, and our course lay through what is known as Grantley Harbor, a body of water 0 or 8 miles long by about 3 wide. It has depth of water sufficient to float a large ship, and opens out from Clarence Bay by an arm 20 or 30 rods wide. This harbor connects on its eastern side with a channel of water but a few rods wide and 3 or 4 miles long, which winds gracefully through hills a hundred feet or more high on both sides, and, judging from appearances, it has an average depth of 20 feet or more. The channel is remarkable for its gentle curves, and as it winds between the hills with an almost uniform breadth it has more the appearance of a canal carefully cut by the hand of man than being the work of nature. At its northern extremity it opens into a basin of water a mile or so wide, and upon the northwest shore we found an excellent camp for the first night out. Several times during the clay we mads a landing, and, ascending the top of the embankment, found a thick growth of grasses and flowers, among which moss grew in abundance. The contour of the country to the north was a gently undulating plateau, stretching out as far as the eye could reach. The following morning I ascended the hill, at whose base we had camped, for the purpose of obtaining a view from that point. It was about 500 feet to the top, and, although somewhat abrupt, the sides were covered with short willow and alder bushes, grass, and under- growth similar to that found the day before. Flowers were every- DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 27 where abundant, and of many varieties. Birds sang and flitted among the bushes, coveys of ptarmigan sprang out a1 my approach, and the sun, which at times shone through lowering clouds, helped to make the day such an one as is often experienced in summer among New England bills. When the top of the hill was reached a view to the north was had for 20 miles or more. The rolling uplands gradually receded until they reached a low, flat marsh through which the stream known as the Kar avaxarak River was seen wending its way southward. As far north as the eye could reach not a mountain was to be seen, and the bank of the river gradually rose on each side to higher land until it disappeared from view in gentle undulations many miles to the north. From the point from which I made my observations to Kotzebue Sound, 00 or 70 miles north, I am told by natives the country is com- parative^7 level, no mountains being encountered until within a few miles of the sound, and they are not higher than those east of Cape Prince of Wales. To the east and southeast, but G or 8 miles away, lie the mountains visible from the station, and not a particle of snow was to be seen upon their highest tops. Among the grasses were found bunches of redtop and patches of timothy, while on the lower lands soft and nutritious grass, resembling blue joint, was in places abundant. In the whole aspect of the country, its soil and verdure, there was not the remotest appearance of anything that would suggest that we were within less than one degree of the line which defines the arctic circle. After traversing the sides and top of this hill and viewing the coun- try until I became satisfied that deer food was abundant, I took to the oomiak and crossed to the opposite shore. Here the lowlands reach the base of the mountains in from 2 to 3 miles, and the country is lower than upon the wesc side. The same abundance of feed exists, however, and moss perhaps in greater quan- tity. In oue locality it grew to such extent that four of my natives scraped up with their hands in a few moments enough to make a pile 6 or 8 feet high and as many feet through. Moss grows with little depth of root and is easily plucked from the loose soil. I here state that moss is, strictly speaking, a winter food. It seems to acquire its nutritive quality as the cold season advances and possesses it to such an extent that reindeer thrive upon it as well as upon the grass, willow, and other feed for which they abandon it at the first appearance of spring. I will further state in this connection that the surface of the country which I have described, and which has the appearance of being smooth, is an endless succession of broken surfaces or low mounds varying from a few feet to as many yards across, the spaces between being 28 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF filled with water. The ground is loose and spongy, and in stepping upon it one will sometimes sink down several inches. It is what is known as tundra. The character of soil among the tundra is generally a dark, sandy loam, sometimes having sand or gravel for subsoil, but gray or bluish clay is often found. In places where I have drained off the water the soil seems to settle, and iu a short time has the appearance of prairie land with more or less tenacity of sod. While exploring the country to the east on this trip, I dug into the earth several times, and found the soil to be dark, sandy loam. In one place it was over 4 teet deep, having blue clay for subsoil, and not a stone was encountered. The result of my explorations on this trip showed an inexhaustible supply of reindeer food everywhere. I had one of our Siberian herd- ers with me, and he gave me to understand that the advantages of this country for grazing purposes were far in excess of those with which he was familiar in Siberia. The question yet to solve was whether the food was accessible to reindeer in the winter, or whether the snow would cover it to such a depth, and crust form over it so hard as to make it impossible for them to paw through it for food. During the summer, Mr. Gibson, the assistant superintendent of the station, explored the country to the north and northwest of here, reach- ing a point about 25 miles toward Kotzebue Sound. He found the country a little more hilly than I encountered east, but possessing an abundance of grass and moss. He had one of the Siberian herders with him, and he expressed himself as satisfied with the appearance of the country for grazing purposes, and that it possessed far greater abundance of feed than that of the reindeer ranges in Siberia. In March last Mr. Gibson also made a trip south of the station along the coast, reaching a point as far as Golovin Bay, and in his absence of three weeks viewed considerable country aud talked with many natives concerning that back in the iuterior. The result of his observations confirmed my hopes in regard to the country in that direction. During the past winter the station was visited by a Mr. John A. Dexter, who has spent the last two years in mining in the vicinity of Golovin Bay and has explored a considerable part of the country be- tween that point and St. Michaels, and also into the interior towards the Yukon. From him I learn that that section compares favorably with the one already described in its advantages as a grazing country, besides possessing what may prove to be an additional advantage, namely, the existence of several varieties of timber in greater or less quantities. Mr. Thomas Lopp, one of the teachers at Cape Priuce of Wales, who has spent three years in this country, made a trip during last winter as far north as Point Hope. He had visited this station the summer before and was familiar with the objects contemplated in its establish- DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 29 ment. His knowledge of the native language made him especially com- petent to pursue inquiries in regard to the country back from theeoast along which he traveled, and I am glad to be able to state that his report confirmed my hopes in regard to that region as a good reindeer country. Thus, it is fair to presume that the country in which competent and reliable investigation has been made during the past year possesses an abundance of food and is capable of supporting many thousands of reindeer. Taken in connection with what information has heretofore been obtained concerning the country still further north, and also east into the interior, almost without limit, the whole section known as Arctic Alaska is a vast natural reindeer range and capable of supply- ing food for thousands of these valuable animals that are calculated to supply the great needs of the native inhabitants and it is to be hoped in the not far future contribute to their comfort and civilization. During the past year Ave have been thrown consta ^tly in contact with the natives of this country. The inaugurating of an enterprise involv- ing so much importance to these people, and its future depending so much upon the first year's venture, made our association with them at times very close, and afforded us an opportunity to learn many of their customs and much of their history that otherwise might not be obtained in a number of years. Our nearest white neighbors are two teachers and their wives GO miles west and one white man 150 miles south. The only time during the past year that we have heard an English word spoken was on two occasions, when we visited those in the west for a few clays and when our neighbor on the south visited us. One of the great difficulties we have had to contend with has beeu our utter ignorance of the native language, but at this writing I am happy to state we are able to speak and understand it sufficiently for all practical purposes. REINDEER. In this report I will first discuss the reindeer, following which will appear affairs concerning the station and, last, my recommendations. There were 171 reindeer landed at the station, purchased by yourself and brought hither from Siberia on the U. S. revenue steamer Bear, Capt. M. A. Healy, commanding, as follows: July 4, 1892 53 July 10, 1892 14 July 22, 1892 27 July 29, 1892 65 August 10,1892 12 Total 171 30 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF Reindeer lost by death or otherwise during fiscal year ending June SO, 1SDS. How lost. Strayed Lying near station with back injured (killed by dogs) Fatally iiy ared in shipping (died) Do Fatally injured in shipping, from being hobbled (died) Hoof iotted off, from being hobbled (killed) Fatally injured in shipping (died) Do Fatally injured in shipping (killed) Fatally injured in shipping (died) Fatally injured by bull (died) Fatallv injured in shipping (died) Fatally injured in lighting bull (killed) Fatally inj ured in lighting bull (died) Delivered to U. S. revenue steamer Bear, by order of Dr Jackson Injured by bull (died) Died, cause unknown 1 >ied, neck broken accidentally Hip broken in fighting (killed) Slipped on ice while chased by bull and leg broken (killed) . . . Slipped on ice while breaking to sled, leg broken (killed) Neck broken by fall while being chased by bull (died) Leg broken by slipping when chased by bull (killed) Hurt by slipping down on ice (died) Ailing some weeks, probably injured in giving birth (died) . . Ailing some weeks, probably injured in transportation (died) found with four ribs broken Taken from deer (died) Found in deer Stillborn Do Do Do Found in deer Num- ber. Date. July 4 July 6 July 26 July 29 ... do Aug. 8 ...do Aug. 10 ...do.... Aug. 11 Aug. 18 Aug. 19 Sept. 2 ...do.... Sept. 4 Oct. 2 Oct. 27 Nov. 3 Nov. 22 Jan. 2 Feb. 17 Mar. G Mar. 27 May 2 June 2 June 11 Mar. 8 Mar. 27 Apr. 5 Apr. 20 Apr. 22 Apr. 23 May 2 Sex. Male. Female. SUMMAKY. Eeindcer. Sex. Male. Female. Total. Number originally in herd Shipped per H. S. revenue steamer Bear Sept. 4, 1892. Strayed away during quarter ending Sept. 30, 1802. . . Died during quarter ending- Sept. 30, 1892 Dec. 31, 1802 Mar. 31, 1803 June 30, 1803 Total Total number of original deer in herd June 30, 1893 Fawns stillborn and taken from deer during quarter ending June 30, 1893 Fawns born * during i it lis of- April May J uno Total 171 •js 79 * Births all occurred from April 13 to Juno 2, inclusive, Bulls castrated during mouths of May and Juno, 1893: 1 yeai old, G; 2 years old, 7. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. N-umber of each sex and age June SO, 1S93. 31 Reindeer. Fawns. 1 year. 2 years. Total. Bulls 28 8 12 21 2 15 84 38 27 51 79 41 101 In the table given it will be observed that of the total number of thirty-one lost during the year, the deaths of twelve were caused from injuries sustained in transportation. The reindeer were first tied with leather straps around their feet just above the hoofs. In this condition they were lifted by hand into one of the boats belonging to the Bear and hoisted on board that ves- sel by block and tackle, when the hobbles were removed, and they were then turned loose in a pen made on one of the lower decks. The transportation from the point of shipment to the station involved but a few hours, when the reindeer were again hobbled, low- ered into the small boat, rowed ashore, lifted to the beach by hand, and the hobbles removed, when they were finally turned loose. While the greatest care was exercised by the men of the Bear in handling the reindeer, it is reasonable to suppose that, in their strug- gle during the operation of tying them and their efforts to free them- selves when tied, together with the cramped condition they were in while in the small boat, more or less lameness would naturally be caused, and in some instances serious injury. While I might suggest some method of transportation that would involve less chance of injury to the reindeer, such, for instance, as tow- ing them in a large barge across the straits, and, when the station is reached, driving them off it into the water to the shore, Capt. Healy has doubtless reasoned out some plan that would prove more practic- able and one that would fully meet the present objections. In the confusion attendant upon the establishment of the station, together with the scarcity of lumber with which to construct a corral, it was impossible to arrive at anything like a correct account of the num- ber of females in the herd. We were certain of one fact, however, namely, that the proportion of bulls was largely in excess of what it should have been, and to this cause may be ascribed the loss of at least eight reindeer from injuries received, while some of the stillborn may have been from the same cause. The reindeer, I am glad to be able to state, were in splendid condi- tion throughout the long and severe winter. In this connection I will state that although reindeer possess endur- ance to a remarkable extent, notably the withstanding long and severe spells of cold and stormy weather, they are in some respects as tender as a child. Their flesh is easily torn, the bones of their legs break 32 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF almost as easily as pipe- stems, and their spinal columns will not bear the weight of a few pounds, if suddenly placed upon them. Indeed, the favorite manner of throwing a reindeer down is for a man to lean across its back, gradually laying on his whole weight, until it drops to its knees and then to the ground. We have found also that a slight injury to the back is more serious than a broken leg, for in the case of several that we have tried to nurse back to vigor that have been injured in this way, in every instance they have had to be killed. A full grown reindeer — and they may be considered full grown at the age of three years — is about 1J feet high and about 7 feet long from its nose to its tail. One will weigh at this age, when in good condition, about 250 pounds, and will girth about 5i feet. There is little difference in size between a male and female, but a gelding is a trifle heavier. The horns of the reindeer, when full grown, measure about 2£ feet from tip to tip, and there is but little difference between those of the male and female. Those of the male are a little larger around. Some- times there is a fan-shaped horn extending from the inside of one or the other, about a foot in length. If it has any special use, such as digging into the snow for food, we have never been able to witness it, and if used by them when amid dense undergrowth, we are unable to say in what manner, as this country is destitute of anything in the way of trees, except a few scattering alder and willow bushes of stunted growth. The horns of the 1-year old are usually of but one prong on both sides of the head, 18 inches or so long, having a sprout or two on each 2 or 3 inches long. In the 2-years old the horns are more fully devel- oped, and, like other animals, there are cases where full growth occurs in some earlier than in others. It is a very common thing for a reindeer to have a horn broken off, and it is very easily done. Indeed, by the middle of winter nearly every reindeer had lost one or both of its horns, or fragments only were left. In two or three instances where a sled deer had lost one horn, we sawed the other off within a few inches of its head, and it occasioned no pain. The reindeer that had lost its horns commenced to sprout new ones as early as April 7, and within a couple of weeks they were 4 or 5 inches long, of a dark brown color, and well covered with short fuzzy fur. All deer shed their horns soon after spring conies, and by the first of June the new ones are from 1 to 2 feet in length, being yet in the velvet, but rapidly harden as soon as the cold weather approaches. The horns of the reindeer are of very little use to the natives. Their greatest thickness is only about 2 inches at the head, and they gradu- ally taper to a point. The only use we have seen them put to is for bents to a sled. They are cut so as to preserve the curve, the ends resting on the runners, and the middle supporting the strips of wood on the top of the sled. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 33 The color of the fur of the reindeer is varied. Perhaps the most common is the seal-brown, and when free from other shades is decidedly rich in appearance. The fur, for such it may properly be called, after it has taken on its summer coat is soft and glossy and about the length of that of the fur-seal. When taken at this season, if properly dressed, it sheds very little, if any at all. The skin is soft and pliable, and but little thicker than that of the fur-seal of the same size. Of the spotted reindeer, perhaps the next prettiest is that having large white spots among the deep brown, but of course this is a matter of taste. Occasionally one is found almost entirely white, or with white streaks extending lengthwise or around the body, and sometimes with white spots of a uniform size completely covering the skin. Eein- deer commence to shed their coats as soon as the snow begins to thaw in the spring, and in a short time they look ragged, and have much the same slovenly appearance that domestic animals do at that season. The method adopted by the natives in dressing skins is to first rub water all over the surface. Sometimes human urine is used instead of water, but it does not appear to be the common practice. It is said that a skin dressed in this way closes more firmly on the fur, thus pre- venting its shedding; but I have discovered little or no 'difference between skins dressed in this manner and where water is used. After the skin is wet down it is tightly rolled up and tied. In this condition it is allowed to go through a sort of sweating process for a day or two, when it is spread upon a smooth surface, and the native, sitting astride of the skin, scrapes it with a sharp instrument until the thick substance and fat are all scraped off. When the skin is thor- oughly scraped it is rubbed with the hand until it is soft and pliable. Sometimes powdered stone is sprinkled over the skin after being scraped in order to give it a softer and prettier finish. The reindeer skin was at one time the common one used by the natives for their clothing, tents, and everything else, but now the seal and ground-squirrel skins play an important part. From Point Hope on the north to St. Michael's on the south, natives have visited the station during the past year, and among all these, except the natives coming from Cape Prince of Wales, reindeer-skin clothing has been the rare exception. They were clothed generally in squirrel skins and occasionally in rabbit and seal. Eeindeer skins have become a matter of luxury with the natives, and only those who deny themselves other things that they need for their comfort wear reindeer clothing. In the country about Kotzebue Sound occasionally a skin is secured from a wild reindeer, but it so rare that it assumes somewhat the nature of a curiosity. Thus it will be seen that, practically, all the reindeer skins used by the Alaskan Eskimo come from Siberia. When it is understood that the proper clothing for a native to be dressed in consists of two suits, worn at the same time, one with the S. Ex. 70 3 34 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF fur side to the body, the other with the fur outside, a pair of skin socks, a pair of boots, and a pair of mittens, the whole probably requiring ten skins, it will be seen that a small fortune, in the way Eskimo estimate capital, is necessary to procure them. The price demanded by the Siberians for skins makes them a luxury, as they must be paid for in furs, and this will be more readily under- stood after reference to that portion of my report respecting the scarcity of fur-bearing animals in this country. The light or summer skins are used for the under suit, gloves, mittens, legs of boots, and fancy articles 5 the heavy or winter skin for outside clothing and for bedding. Among the most valuable parts of the reindeer skin is that of the legs from the knees to the hoofs. The skin is tough and can be dressed very thin, even if taken in winter. The fur is fine, thick, and short, and, when made up, is impervious to cold. Besides being so very warm, the snow does not adhere to them as to the rest of the skin. The teeth of the reindeer consist of a row on the front of the lower jaw and a row of back teeth on both upper and lower jaws. Those in front are used with the upper lip to pull off feed and the back ones for masticating it and for chewing the cud. They are able to pick off grass and willow sprouts with considerable ease, and moss lies so loosely on the ground that it offers but little resistance. Occasionally a belt is seen worn by a native woman made from the teeth of the reindeer. Bat they were gathered at a time when they were a trophy of the hunt and chase. The hoof of the reindeer seems at a glance to be too large for the animal, in proportion to its body and legs, but when traveling in damp snow, or where the soil is miry, it is seen they were given him for a wise purpose. At the bottom they are as wide as a good-sized steer's, and spread over a surface sufficient to prevent him from settling down to any depth. It is known how useful an ox is in soft ground, and how easily he can pull a load where a horse would give up in despair; and the same good purpose serves the reindeer in what appears to be a clumsy and awkward extremity to the delicately formed legs of this fleet animal. One thing that struck me strangely when the first consignment of reindeer was received at the stntion was the quickness with which a small bunch of them would get back to the main herd after they had become separated, and tins peculiarity, I am glad to say, seems to be intuitive. The reindeer were landed on the beach, their feet tied with straps, and they were either led up to the level land back of the station, or carried there, and then set free. They no sooner found themselves at liberty than they started at a brenkneck speed in whichever direction their dazed condition suggested. After they had run a mile or so they gradually slackened their pace, and, after stopping to take their bear- DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 35 iugs, as it were, in which they sighted the others quietly feeding, they slowly and cautiously approached them. When all together, one of the herders could approach within 50 feet or so without occasioning any alarm or uneasiness. If a part of the herd got separated, as sometimes occurred through fright, after they had dashed off a mile or so with the lieetness of the wind, and it looked as if a chase of several miles would have to be made to bring them back, if, indeed, they were ever found, they would almost as certainly eircle around, and in a short time rejoin the rest. It is from this peculiarity that the herders are able to herd the deer together. Although the four Siberians brought here with the reindeer are all fleet. of foot, they could no more overtake a bnnch of frightened reindeer than a stage horse could a lightning express train; but they keep on running, and gradually get to the other side of them, when, either by shouting or whistling, they get them headed back, when all that is necessary is to quietly saunter along, and the reindeer will find their way back to the herd. The force employed as herders consists of four Siberians and four Alaskan Eskimos. Two of the latter belong to Cape Prince of Wales and two to the village near the station. Up to the 21st of last Novem- ber they were divided into two watches of twenty-four hours each, two of the Siberians being placed with two of our natives. On that date the watches were changed to three, so as to give them twelve hours on and twenty-four hours off. This made their duties less irksome 1 1 1 i •< nigh the long nights of winter, and only placed each watch in the field each third night. As winter approached, an abundance of reindeer clothing was pre- pared for the herders, and when one was fully dressed, he looked double his natural size, and during the severest weather he could stand for hours, almost, in one position, facing the keen wind with the fur trim- ming of his hood drawn over his face, and be as oblivous to the cold as though the mercury were only at freezing point. Besides dressing our herders so they would not suffer from cold while in the field, we wanted to impress the natives who saw them with the fact that the employes at the station were well clothed, and that in this respect at least the position of herder was a desirable one. The same principle was carried out in the matter of their food. Their diet consisted of good, nourishing food, and plenty of it, and one of our herders looked, as he really was, well clothed and well fed. This fact was by no means overlooked by the natives, as was evidenced by the many applications for positions on the force. It may be proper to state here that, in the light of the past year's experience, a force of eight or nine herders is amply sufficient for the safe care of a herd of a thousand or more reindeer. Of course an occasion might arise when an additional number would be necessary, but careful observation of the habits of the reindeer certainly justifies 36 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF the belief that the number given above is amply sufficient. I will even go farther, and say that the same number of herders could safely care for two or three thousand. Indeed, it has appeared to us that the larger the number of reindeer the more easily they were handled in the field. Another point in this connection is that if for any cause a larger force were required, as, for instance, looking for stray deer, or getting them closely bunched together, there are always natives enough about who would cheerfully render any help needed, and in this, like every other kind of work, they are easily paid with a liberal supply of food. While in some respects the employment of Siberians could easily be dispensed with, there are features connected with the business that perhaps make it best to continue the practice for the present. The mere matter of herding reindeer is one that the Alaskan Eskimos are just as competent to discharge as the Siberians and when they have learned to throw the lasso and harness a reindeer they have accomplished the hardest part of the work. The presence of the Siberians made the men in charge feel more secure, and when winter once sets in they are as much separated from Siberia as though they were in another world, for there is absolutely no communication between the two sides for eight months, or until the ice disappears from the straits in the sum- mer. They therefore realize that their only real friends are the white men at the station. If from any cause the Alaskans are disposed to give up the work, the Siberians can care for the deer until other help is secured. In the course of four or five years there ought to be a sufficient num- ber of Alaskans w7ho have gleaned a knowledge of the business to make it possible to dispense with Siberians entirely, and the $75 per year paid each of them could be used for some other purpose. The duties of a herder, except when one or more reindeer are wanted to be broken to the sled, are by no means laborious. The rein- deer are so quiet and cause them so little trouble that they find ample time to sleep, as is shown by the fact that, even after their watch in a long winter night, they return to the station in the morning apparently as fresh as if they had just crawled out of a sleeping bag. In summer they are so clothed that, although it maybe raining, they can sit down and enjoy a comfortable snooze, and in mid winter, unless the wind howls pretty fiercely, they crouch down on the snow, much as an Eskimo dog does, and sleep soundly. The reindeer seldom wander around, and will feed in one locality for days. They eat awhile and then lie down, and Avhen their appetite again moves them they go to eating again, and this may be said to be their only diversion from one year's end to another. The females are a little inclined to rove about toward spring, but this disposition is quieted as soon as the young ones are born. The Siberians tell me that reindeer are more easily herded here than in their country, which is doubtless accounted for by the tact that they DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 37 find food so easily that they do Dot have to travel a long distance before getting enough to satisfy them. In the past year's experience we found that some things in which we anticipated the greatest difficulties were passed over with the least trouble; such, for instance, as the straying off or stampeding of the reindeer in snowstorms. Winter may be said to have set in on September 14, the date on which snow first fell at the station, although it was first seen on the tops of the mountains east on August 28. ]So severe storm occurred, however, until Xovember 8, when we experienced the first blizzard. It was quite severe, although the mercury showed 4° above, and lasted two days. The reindeer stood it splendidly, and when it cleared up it was found that none had strayed away. This may be taken as a fair illustration of the experience with the many storms that occured, until the midnight sun may be said to have made them impossible, with but one exception. On February 12 a severe blizzard commenced about 5 o'clock p. m., with the mercury stand- ing at 5° below zero, and it raged furiously for forty-eight hours. Shortly after the storm commenced the herders could see but a few feet from them and when it finally calmed down a part of the herd were found to be missing. After looking for them a couple of hours, they were seen being driven toward the herd by a native who had found them quietly feeding about 3 miles away. There were thirty-nine of the strayed ones, and it was evident they had not stampeded and traveled with the storm, as cattle do, but had simply wandered away from the main herd, probably without being conscious of it. In a few hours the storm again commenced, and it may be said to have continued until February 26, there being only a few hours now and then when a blizzard wTas not raging. In storms of this character there is nothing the herders can do but pass the time as best they can. They can not leave the herd to return to camp until the relief watch arrives, and sometimes it is several hours before they can find the herd, when those who have been exposed to the storm return to the station as quickly as the state of the weather will permit. I will say in this connection that not a single case of freezing oc- curred among the herders during the winter, while it was a common thing for natives to be seen frost-bitten. Another trouble which we anticipated and which occasioned us con- stant anxiety was that the ground would be covered with snow to such a depth that, should a crust form, the reindeer could not paw through it for teed. From all we are able to learn, perhaps more snow fell last winter than usual. In ravines and gulleys having embankments 15 and 20 feet high, by the 1st of February the}' were filled to the top, and crust formed several inches deep, nearly as hard as ice. On level ground in many places only 3 or 4 inches of snow fell. 38 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF One of the disagreeable features of this country is the severe winds that prevail both summer and winter. In the former season they are mostly from the south, while in the winter the prevailing- wind is from the north. They seem to rise without regard to the time of day, and cease without being influenced by the sun, as usually occurs in most countries. But we have learned to look upon the winds more in the light of a blessing than otherwise. It is seldom that a snowstorm prevails here when the flakes fall quietly; but it is accompanied by more or less wind. It is thus hurled in clouds or rolled across the level country until it finds a resting place in some hollow or is banked against the side of a hill. More or less ground is thus left so nearly bare that the reindeer have no trouble to find the feed. They dig away the snow with one or other of their fore feet, and usually one or two scrapes lay the feed bare. After they have nibbled at this patch, they move on a few feet and attack a new spot. On each occasion when I have gone out to the herd during the past winter, I have found the condition of the snow such that no trouble was experienced by them in getting feed, and this was true not only on the level land, but upon the sides of the hills. Thus it is reasonably safe to conclude that in any part of this country where it is not too rugged or mountainous, and where the wind has full scope, feed for reindeer can be had with little or no trouble. It is so abundant that it is doubtful if the occasion will ever occur when it will become necessary to move the herd to such distance as would furnish them a better supply of feed than the ground they have ranged over. The blinding snow clouds seem to have no effect upon the reindeer other than to completely cover them. When it is driven into their fur and they become too heavily loaded they shake themselves from it as easily as a duck will water. I will say in this connection that, anticipating that it might become necessary to move the herd in search of food, preparations were made early in the winter which put us in condition to move at an hour's notice. Sleds were made and tents constructed out of reindeer skins, and we could have traveled a hundred miles or more with little trouble other than that occasioned in transporting our supplies. The birth of the first fawn occurred on April 1. One of the herders came into the schoolroom during the session and suddenly made known the fact, and the announcement of the arrival of a new baby would not occasion more joy among the children in a white family than was evinced by the little Eskimos. They seemed to lose all interest in their studies, and, when dismissed, a number of them walked out to the herd. My first impression was that it was an " April fool" joke sought to be played on me, and I did inot enthuse much over the news on that account, until the report was verified when the children returned. It proved to be true, and I concluded to christen it April Fool in honor of the day of its birth. DOMESTICATED REINDEEB INTO ALASKA. 39 The wind commenced to blow hard toward dark, and some snow was Oying. I asked the herders it' there was not danger of the young one dying from eold, and thought, if there was, we would have it brought to the house. The idea was scoffed at by the Siberians, and their folly cost us our firstborn. In the morning it was found to have perished from cold. On March 8 a female got injured, probably in trying to escape from a bull. The head of a fawn protruded from her womb, but it was life- less, and she was unable to give birth to it. So it was taken from her. Another fawn was found in a female killed on account of a broken leg. In both instances the fawns would have been born within two months. On April (! a female that was feeding some distance from the herd gave birth to a fawn during the night and it was found dead. The mother had broken one of her hind legs some weeks before^ and after splinting and bandaging it, she was turned loose. The fawn was doubtless a premature birth, as it was very thin. Further reference will be made to this deer in another part of my report. The first birth that occurred naturally that lived was on the night of April 13, and the following day four more were born. Although freezing cold, and the ground was covered with snow, the weather was pleasant, and the youngsters seemed to be doing so nicely that it was thought best to let them remain with the herd. They all survived and gained strength rapidly. Between this date and the 23d of the month twenty- three were born, and at the close of the month the number had increased to sixty, and not a death occurred among them. The weather had moderated, and the sun had shown with so much warmth toward the end of the month that for a few hours each day the snow had thawed. In a number of instances the fawns were dropped where the snow was several inches deep, and they did not seem to chill or suffer any inconvenience. When a few hours old, and it had been suckled by its mother, it would quietly lie down on the snow and sleep as calmly as if its bed had been of down. When a few days old it was a common thing to see one or more of them capering over the snow with a pace its mother could not equal, and they would frolic in this way for some minutes, and then drop down on the snow and quietly sleep off their fatigue. The Siberian herders say that a female does not give birth to her fawn until she has shed her horns. This was not brought to my atten- tion until most of the fawns were born, and I can not say whether it is always the case or not. In a half dozen instances in which I watched for such a result, however, it proved to be true. It seems that the danger of young dying is when exposed to cold wind or snowstorms soon after it is born, or in eold, rainy weather. The dampness penetrates to the flesh and chills them to death. The color of a fawn when born is generally of a dark brown, but they 40 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF are often light colored and have white spots. The natural color is shown at its birth, and does not change as it grows older, as in the case of a colt and some other animals. The legs of the fawn are long and very crooked, and it seems to be ill proportioned. It looks, as it really is for a few days, top-heavy, and either from this cause or that it becomes giddy headed in looking down from what may appear to be a dizzy height, it will suddenly pitch forward and drop all in a heap. It soon gets used to the lay of the land, as it were, and gets up and lies down with perfect ease. Fawns commence to sprout their horns within a month after birth, and by the 1st of September the horns are a foot or so long. Males are old enough to serve as bulls when 1 year old, and a 2- year-old bull can serve about twenty females. Females bear young at the age of two years. A female gives birth to its young from nine to ten months after she has taken the bull. It sometimes happens that a female will give birth to twins, but it is of very rare occurrence. It sometimes happens that a female can not give birth to its fawn, and this has occurred in two cases with us. In both instances they were taken from them dead, but the mothers survived uninjured. In both instances it was the first young the mothers had carried. The cry of the old deer resembles the grunt of the hog, and that of the fawn the same, only not so deep in tone. The care of a fawn after birth is very similar to that of a cow for its calf. The fawn is licked all over until perfectly dry, when it will strug- gle to its feet and finally find its mother's bag. The mother eats every particle of her afterbirth, and in three or four days there are no evi- dences from her appearance that she has recently given birth to a fawn, except a slight swelling of the womb. That slovenly and unsightly appearance which always follows in the cow after calving is entirely absent in the reindeer after the second day. On April 3, I thought it would be a good time to experiment on milking reindeer, and had a doe that had lost her fawn brought to the station with the rest of the herd. Day broke on that morning at 4:15 a. m., and the sun had been up about two hours when the herd arrived. The air was crisp and sharp, and the thermometer registered about zero. Half of the natives from the village were at the station, looking at the herd and assisting the herders in rounding up the deer. The snow was frozen to a crust, and in some places it was as smooth as glass. As the herd ran over it, a sharp metallic sound was emitted, which was really musical. The deer were all in good condition, and, although always quick and active, especially when the herders are trying to lasso one, they seemed more frisky thar usual this morning. Several attempts were made to lasso the female wanted, without suc- cess, but she was finally caught in the rope; but a series of slidings and tumblings was indulged in before the other herders could get to DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 41 the assistance of the one who had caught her. She was finally thrown down and held by one man sitting astride of her neck, and another holding on to one each of her fore and hind feet. In lassoing a reindeer, a seal thong, 50 or 00 feet long, is used. A piece of ivory is attached to one end, with a hole in it large enough to permit the rope to slide through freely. It is then gathered up in much the same manner as is the case in lassoing a steer, and thrown in about the same way. Two or more herders will take a position about 30 feet apart, and the herd is driven so as to pass between them. When the one wanted approaches the lasso is thrown, and one or the other usually succeeds in getting the loop over the horns, but sometimes one or two legs get tangled up in it. A full-grown deer is not able to drag a man holding on to one end of his rope very far before another herder comes to his relief, when, by a series of overhand falls, they quickly get near enough to the head of the deer to hold it until they can throw it by pulling its feet from under it, or, if it will stand still, it is gradually made to drop to the ground by one of them bearing his weight on its back. A reindeer plunges about considerably when caught, and if he is at all vicious will strike with his fore feet, but the rope over his horns is usually sufficient to prevent his striking with any accuracy, for he is quickly thrown off his balance by a quick jerk. A reindeer rarely attempts to use his horns, and the only danger of injury from them is in getting so near as to be struck while he is plunging about. When once a hold is had on the horns by a strong man, he is easily prevented from doing any damage in this way. The only accident that occurred to any of the herders while catching deer was to one of the Siberians, whose nose was struck by one, and a slight scar will always remind him of the occurrence. When a deer is once down, he is entirely con- quered and lies as quietly as a kitten. When the female was thrown down, I was disappointed in the size of her bag, for I found it would not contain probably exceeding a pint of milk. The teats were not more than 1 inch in length, but would doubtless become longer after nursing a fawn for a while, as I after- wards observed was the case in others. I found it impossible to get any milk from her, and was not much surprised at it, for she was doubtless holding it up from fright. After several unsuccessful attempts, I gave it up, and this experience, with one other of a reindeer nature later on in the season, convinced me that successful milking of reindeer could not be accomplished until they had become used to the process in a standing position and had become thoroughly domesticated by feeding and handling. Our poor accommodations and facilities for experimenting in the matter of seeing what can be done with reindeer in this particular did not enable us to give it the attention desired, but we hope to be able to do so more thoroughly another spring. 42 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF When I had concluded my investigations, I ordered the deer turned loose, but the Siberians said they wanted some milk, and forthwith one of them put his face to the bag- of the doe, and lying there fully two minutes, seemed to be extracting a good deal of nourishment. When he got up he spat a mouth full out, and it looked like almost pure cream. Another Siberian quickly took his place, and was at once quaffing it with as much enjoyment as if it had been pure nectar. His place was given to a third Siberian, who gave way to one of our native herders, who announced himself much pleased with the drink, that he now enjoyed for the first time. The Siberians all took another turn at nursing, after which the deer was set at liberty, scampering back to the herd at a pace that showed she felt pleased to be relieved from her strange predicament. As has been before stated, wild reindeer are scarce in this portion of Alaska, and in the past year but three have been seen in the vicinity of the station. Soon after the reindeer were landed, three were seen to approach withiu a mile of the herd, but they fled immediately on the approach of the herders, and, although several of the natives from the village started out in pursuit of them, they fled quickly, and after some hours the natives returned without having obtained a shot at them. Among all the natives that have visited the station from the various sections during the past year, not an instance of seeing wild reindeer has been reported. The captain and officers of the whaling ship Mary D. Hume, that sailed into the harbor on its way to San Francisco last September, reported that they are killed in large numbers by the natives in the vicinity of Herschel Island, but that they are rapidly becoming scarce. The only wild animals that have been seen in the vicinity of the herd at any time were occasional red foxes. If drawn to them from a desire for fresh meat, he was not to be feared, for a single deer could protect itself from this harmless animal very easily. Probably the most serious apprehension felt by us at the station as to the various obstacles we would have to contend with was trouble from dogs. Indeed, from what I had heard concerning their blood- thirsty greed for fresh venison, this fear was made the subject of my thoughts by day and my dreams by night. Perhaps my dread of this animal was made more serious because some who claim to be authority on all matters concerning Alaska have uttered an emphatic protest against the project of domesticating reindeer, because the dogs of the Eskimo would eat them up. I know this fear was shared by you to some extent, although you thought the evil could be avoided by exercising proper care and watch- fulness, and I am glad to be able to state that but one deer was lost from being attacked by dogs, although on many occasions they were exposed to them in their savage state. In the light of a varied experience in this particular, which will appear further on in my report, DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 43 I do not think there is nearly as much to be dreaded from dogs injuring reindeer as there would be from a flock of sheep being injured by dogs in the States. In the former case, nature has provided antlers with which to gore and fore feet with which to strike, besides limbs with the fleetness of the wind to carry him out of harm's way, if free to go at his pleasure, while the latter are weak, innocent things, that only have to be attacked to yield themselves a ready sacrifice. Within a half mile of the station headquarters is a native village of one hundred persons, and on the first impulse, I would say, as many docs. It is safe to fix the number at fifty, however, and only on five or six occasions have the dogs made an attempt to reach the reindeer. On these occasions the dogs were shot by the herders before they reached the reindeer, and at other times they were frightened away by the shouts of the herders. On many occasions the reindeer have grazed so near the village that the whites of their eyes could almost be seen by the dogs lying about untied, and they seemed as oblivious to danger as the herders were unconscious of any harm that could possibly happen to them. I will state here that in a number of instances risks were purposely taken in order to test this matter, and the accidents that did occur might have been averted by simply exercising that caution one would naturally bring into play when in the vicinity of a known danger. Reindeer are afraid of dogs naturally, and upon several occasions, when driving them in the sled, I have gone near enough to a team of dogs to give them a smell of what a feast they might enjoy if they could but fasten their molars into the flesh of the reindeer; when off they would start, and in a race of 2 or 3 miles it would be nip and tuck, but the dogs were first winded and were gradually hauled up. On March 1, I started for Cape Prince of Wales, iu company with a white man who brought some mail from the station from St. Michael's a short time before. Each of us had a pair of deer, and were driving quietly along, when I, who happened to be in the rear, heard my name called and, looking around, saw a native sitting astride of a light sled drawn by four dogs, and they were coming toward us full tilt. The native was pulling on the line by which the sled was drawn, as hard as he could, but was powerless to hold them. The deer suddenly started, and it looked as if it would be a matter of endurance as to whether we would be overtaken by the dogs or not. The dogs were so near us when they were first observed that in a few jumps they were just behind my sled. I thought I would rather risk an encounter with them than be chased 4 or o miles, and then have to fight it out. and perhaps be left with a team too tired to continue the long journey before us. I therefore suddenly wheeled them about and jumped to their heads. As the dogs came up the reindeer struck at them, and I used my whip while the native pulled and tugged at the reins, but 44 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF before we got them separated I had been thrown under the reindeer and did not get to my feet again until three of the dogs had hold of one of the deer between the fore and hind legs. We finally got them separated, however, and upon examination I found the only damage done was a few mouthsfull of hair that had been pulled off from the side of one of the reindeer, and, after straightening out the harness, we again started on our journey, none the worse oft for our little excitement. The reindeer became quiet at once, and trav- eled 20 miles further that day without apparent fatigue. In the various experiences I have had of this character, I have come to the conclusion that the best thing to do at such a time is to get to the heads of the reindeer and hold them by the head-stall with one hand and beat back the dogs with the other. Standing at the heads seems to give the reindeer confidence, and, when closely pressed, they always face the dogs and are of considerable service in keeping them back by striking with their fore feet. Thirty minutes further on our journey we were overtaken by a bliz- zard, and had to remain at a native settlement for three days. There were probably thirty persons here and as many dogs. The reindeer were picketed out within 50 yards of the village during the whole time we remained there, and, although some of the dogs were running loose, not one ventured to disturb the deer. I will here state that, when traveling with reindeer, they are staked out at night at the end of a seal rope about 50 or 60 feet long. One end is securely tied about the neck of the reindeer and the other end around a chunk or mound of earth that has first been chopped with a hatchet so as to leave a head on it, over which the rope will not slip. It is impossible to drive a stake into the ground in this country between the 1st of November and the 1st or middle of May; it is frozen so hard. Keindeer take kindly to the lariat, and several times I fastened reindeer in this manner that had never spent a night away from the herd, and they remained perfectly quiet. As soon as the storm abated, we continued on our journey to Cape Prince of Wales settlement, the largest native settlement on the coast for a distance of several hundred miles. Its inhabitants number about 000 persons, and it is safe to estimate the number of dogs to be 200. They were nearly all ruuning loose on our arrival, and during our stay there for eight days, although the reindeer were staked within a half a mile of the village, which at times seemed alive with dogs, not an instance occurred when they were molested. On a few occasions, one or two started towards the reindeer, but were frightened back by some natives that saw them start. I will state here that the dogs of the Eskimo are, as a rule, very poorly fed, and, as they get little food except such as is given them by their owners, whose constant struggle through the long winter months is to find food sufficient to sustain life, it can be imagined that their dogs would enjoy a feast of venison with a relish. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 45 I will observe further that Eskimo dogs learn easily to obey their masters, and in point of intelligence will certainly compare favorably with others of their species the world over. I have noticed many times that they quickly understand that they are not to molest the reindeer when staked out or roving about near them. This may look like a strange assertion to make about a half-starved Eskimo dog, but it is nc\ ertheless true. On our return trip from Cape Prince of Wales settlement we stopped for an hour to take dinuer at the village where we were detained by the storm on our way up. It was a lovely day, and we started to con- tinue our journey about noon. We were driving leisurely along ahead of our team of eight dogs which accompanied us from the station for the purpose of carrying our luggage, and which I believe I have not referred to before. Suddenly the lead dog got free from his harness and trotted toward the team driven by my companion. He got to the head of his reindeer and easily drove him away, when he came toward my team, but I caught him without any trouble and held him until the native came up and took him back to the sled. In the meantime four of the other dogs in some manner got loose from the sled and started for my companion's team. He seemed to become bewildered, for he did not attempt to get to the heads of the reindeer, and when they saw the dogs coming they started to run back toward the settlement, about 2 miles away. Instead of holding to the lines and beating the dogs back, he slipped his hands out of the loops, and away the reindeer jumped, with the dogs in hot pursuit. I started back with my team and when I arrived at the village found the natives had stopped the reindeer, but could not drive off the dogs before both the deer had been bitten, one of them severely behind the fore leg. The flesh was badly torn, and it became evident he would not be able to resu ue the journey for seveial days, if indeed he woul ever recover the use of his leg. The other one, although lame, could possibly have traveled back to the station, but I concluded to let them rest for a few days, and made arrangements to have them brought in as soon as they were able to travel. In about ten days they arrived, the one that had been so badly hurt having been hauled the entire distance on the sled, and when he was taken off at the station he limped badly. In a few weeks, how- ever, he was apparently as well as ever. I have forgotten to mention that, on continuing our journey back to the station, I drove my team within a few feet of the dogs a number of times, and in occasional halts for rest, and not a start was made for the deer. A sharp word seemed to give them to understand that they were not to trouble them. A short time after we resumed our journey after the accident, I took a view of the deer standing within a few feet of the dogs, some of them lying down as quietly as if they were a hundred miles from them. 46 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF I have related this incident simply to show, first, that Eskimo dogs, after once having tasted reindeer meat, are easily taught to leave it alone, even before the morsel has barely had time to be digested; second, that although a deer may be badly bitten by a dog. he is very liable to recover; and third, that in traveling with reindeer the driver may, by keeping his wits about him, save them from injury if attacked by dogs. The time for castrating bulls is in the spring, when the sun gets high enough to thaw a little and freeze a little at night. We castrated our first balls on May 2, and by the middle of the month had got through with the work, having altered nine two-year olds and nine one-year olds, and all of them got through nicely. I will add that each of our native herders performed the operation on two bulls, thus receiving a practical idea of the work. As soon as the reindeer begins to shed his coat in the spring little ridges appear on the body, more or less thick, and they indicate the location of lice. They are about an inch long, of a grayish or milky white color, with a skin that partakes something of the scaly order, and around a body about one-half inch in diameter are little ridges. They are soft, and unless care is used in pulling them off will burst, and the contents, nearly all liquid, will ooze out. They stick to the skin of the reindeer very much as wood-ticks do to cattle. I am told that in summer they fall off or assume wings and fly away, and that a new crop is deposited by the old females during warm weather, when they fly about the reindeer, and, when near enough, throw the young into the far by striking it with their tail. The Siberians eat the lice with a relish, and seldom catch a deer in the spring without exploring for a few of these repulsive-looking insects that appear to be to them some- thing of a luxury. During the past year we have pretty thoroughly demonstrated the capacity of reindeer, both as draft animals and as travelers. As pack- ers or saddle animals we have not had time to experiment fully enough to ascertain what they are capable of doing in this direction; but, while I feel assured they are valuable for packing, I am afraid they are not suitable for riding. In using them for either purpose, the load must rest on their shoulders, and, while a pack could be made to ride without sliding off, by lashing or holding on while the reindeer is mov- ing, a man must be constantly on the lookout or he will fall off. Besides, an ordinary sized man, sitting astride of a reindeer would nearly touch the ground with his feet, and while the reindeer, would hold him up without any trouble, he could not travel faster than a walk, and ordi- narily he would prefer walking himself. A reindeer is at the right age to break to harness when two years old. He is most tractable for breaking when a gelding, and the argu- ment in favor of horses being better for work after they have been cas- trated will apply to reindeer, although there seems to be no good reason DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO 1LASKA. 47 why bulls could not be effectively broken and about as easily handled The same can doubtless be said of females, bat perhaps the occasion would seldom occur when one of this sex would be required for work; and her best sphere in life is doubtless for breeding purposes. The favorite manner of driving- deer among the Siberians, and the only one used at the station, is singly or two abreast. Driving one ahead of another is something our herders know nothing of. and although such is the fashion, I understand, among the Laplanders, I can see no advantage in it, unless in a heavily timbered country, or where the road traveled is narrow. Indeed, a driver can not use a whip to advantage unless he can reach the reindeer with it at short range, and I apprehend they are more easily controlled when they are abreast of each other. This argument will not hold good for draft purposes, however, for often they can pull better one ahead of another; and when the driver is walking beside his load he can easily get to a contrary deer and make him do his share of the work. The harness used is the same for draft as for driving, and, to say the least, is of a style that an ingenious Yankee could improve on very much. No bit is used, and the animal is controlled by a noose slipped over the nose, resting on the forehead in front of the horns, and another piece is passed back of the horns and confined to the one in front. The rein is attached to the right side of this headgear or headstall, and on the other end is a loop large enough to slip over the hand and rest on the wrist. The sled is drawn by means of a rope attached to a strap which is passed over the neck and rests on the shoulders, very much the same as a breast strap is used on a horse, only one end of the strap passes under the breast and between the forelegs. The ends of this breast-strap come together and hold a single tug which goes back to the sled on the right side of the deer. It will thus be seen that the off or right-hand deer travels on a line between the runners of the sled, and the near or left-hand deer travels entirely to one side. In the case of young deer, or until they have become used to being driven, each wears a sort of girth from one of which is a rope, the other end being tied to the halter of the opposite deer, and the girth rope of the other deer is tied to the girth of his mate. This is for the purpose of tying them together. The harness is made entirely from the skin of the hair seal and is stronger than leather. A com- plete harness will weigh about 2 pounds. No shafts or pole is used, and the sled is close to the heels of the deer, or back when the tugs are drawn taut, according to the nature of the road over which the deer are traveling. The style of sled used with reindeer is very similar to that used with dogs for light loads. It stands about 1 foot nigh, 18 inches wide, and 8 or 10 feet long. The runners are made to turn up in front so as to 48 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF act as fenders if an obstruction is met with, and a back-rest is raised up on the hind end of the sled. The bottom of the runners are 3 inches wide and are shod with bone taken from the whale. The bone has no commercial value, but is a good substitute for iron or steel, and, although heavy and clumsy, it slips over the snow quite smoothly. The braces which support the runners of the sled as well as all the woodwork about it are fastened together with seal thongs. Not a nail is used in its construction, but the thongs are so nicely woven and inter- laced around the underwork that scarcely a joint is loose, and were the wood hickory or some other good quality of timber it would be practi- cally indestructible. But the natives have to depend upon driftwood for everything from which to make their implements, and it is generally water-soaked or partly decayed, and as a result their sleds are con- stantly being broken. The style of whip used with reindeer is a stock or straight piece of wood wound with seal-thong for the purpose of making it stronger. It is about 6 feet long, and on the end is fastened a piece of ivory about 2 inches long, and it is tied on crosswise, both ends being pointed. The whip is carried in the left hand and answers a very good purpose if the deer are inclined to lag. The first thing done with a deer that is to be broken is to teach him to lead with the headstall or halter on. Afterwards he is fully har- nessed and led around in this condition. An old sled-deer is now brought up, and the two are securely tied together by means of ropes extending from the girths as described above. The young deer is placed on the opposite side from that in which the old one is in the habit of working, and when another young one is broken he is usually hitched up with the old one's mate, so that when the two young ones are hitched together they occupy the same position in which they were broken. They are now ready for the first drive, and if the old one is steady he usually has to drag the young one around or else hold him back. If he is inclined to be frisky, however, and they both take it into their heads to run there is generally a parrot and monkey time of it, in which the driver has not only his hands full, but his eyes, ears, and nose, and more or less snow is deposited under his clothing as he is being dragged about, completely at the mercy of his team. It sometimes happens, however, that a young deer will go off on the start as quietly as an old hand at the business; but I have found that, like colts, the best driving team is one that will start off at a rush. When this occurs, if one is fond of excitement, he will find enough to satisfy him before the team has got quieted clown. It is not, however, until the two young ones are considered sufficiently well broken to be driven together that real, downright, fine enjoyment is to be had. It is of a kind that intoxicates one and makes his head grow dizzy; that concentrates all his thoughts, if he can be said to have any at such a time, into the single one if, when the deer finally DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 49 stop, there will be a piece of him left large enough for decent mince- meat. I have always had a weakness for riding behind a lively team, and my experience with bronchos, Indian ponies, and wild steers dashing across a level stretch of country has afforded sufficient excitement to satisfy me on more than one occasion; but they all lade into insignifi- cance when compared with a ride behind a pah- of lively reindeer. In riding a broncho or Indian pony one realizes that all he has to do is to keep his seat in the saddle and he will eventually haul up all right, or, if he is thrown off, he can lie quietly on the ground and think it all over; and in a wagon behind a pair of runaway steers, if killed at all it will probably occur suddenly, and he can take his chances with a broken limb by jumping out. Butin driving reindeer the lines, looped over his wrists, make him a secure prisoner, and he is just as certain to continue a part of the load the team will carry until they stop, as the lines are sure not to break, something that rarely if ever occurs. On the morning of November 6, I experienced my first drive with reindeer. The mercury stood at about zero, and the ground was pretty well covered with snow. In some places a hard crust had formed, and in others lay drifts a foot or so deep, of newly Mien snow, while in spots, where the wind had a little freer scope, mounds or little hil- locks among the tundra were entirely bare. 1 did not announce my intention to drive alone until the team was all ready to start, and when the Siberians learned my intention they seemed horrified and expostulated with me. I did not see anything so dreadful about it and finally slipped the reins over my hands. The proper position to assume before mounting a sled is to have it drawn up on the right side of the off deer, the driver to hold that one by the head stall, and when he is all ready, let go, and by lifting up his right leg and dropping down at the same time he is pretty apt to find a seat on the sled, for no sooner does he let go from the deer he is holding than off they go. I got thus far in the preliminary exercises all right, but in a moment I did not know whether I was on the sled or not, being conscious only of being jerked along at a furious rate, and clouds of snow hurled all about me. For some moments I kept my seat, but suddenly a frozen snowdrift was encountered when over I went, and was dragged through drifts and over frozen heaps until the deer finally stopped from exhaus- tion. As soon as I got upon my feet I took a view of my surroundings. I was completely covered with snow, and just over my right temple .there was a stinging pain, caused by being si ruck with one of the runners of the sled. I looked toward the station to see if anyone was (' tog to my rescue, and saw what appeared to be all the natives from the village watching me, and I thought I could hear them laughing. This settled it, and when the deer were ready I was ready also, and S. Ex. 70 4 50 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP over my leg went and down I dropped, and off* we went again with a jerk. This time the deer made for the direction of the tundra, and when we struck it I felt as if the next moment would be my last. At first the sled ran on one runner; then a slight turn made by the deer threw it over so it ran on the other; then it took a dive forward, the bows striking the feet of the deer, who by this time were as badly fright- ened as myself, and brought every muscle into play, and for a mile I kept on the sled, but we were traveling with the speed of a lightning- express. The deer had by this time changed their course and were going in the direction of the station, and, when within a few rods of it, suddenly made a turn, as I thought, to show the natives how easily they could upset me, and I was again dragged through snowdrifts until they stopped from fatigue. By this time I had got thoroughly worked up, and made up my mind that I would either conquer my team or break something, and started them immediately for another spurt. They appeared as fresh as ever now and took a turn over to the beach, the shores of which were lined with drift logs of all sizes. It was a course of about 3 miles straight away, and as we went, bumping against one log and jumping over another, at a furious gait, I felt that if my neck was not soon broken my legs would be. 1 managed to keep the sled right side up until we had gone about one-half the distance, when the deer gradually slackened their pace, and for the first time answered to my pulling on the lines. It now became my turn to do a little forcing, and I belabored the animals with my lines, my whip having been left somewhere in a drift at the outset, until I saw that they preferred a good honest pace to a rollicking gallop. After allowing them a short breathing spell they started on again like a good sensible pair of reindeer, and for a couple of hours I enjoyed the most pleasant ride I have ever experienced. In due time we reached the station none the worse oft" for ray first ride, except the smarting blow received after my first upset and a little soreness in ray limbs and back. I christened ray team " Thomas and Jeremiah " before I turned them over to the herders, and they became ray favorite deer and the ones I always drove when I went on a long journey. They never got over their habit of running with meat the start, however; but I soon learned that by keeping well astride the sled with the heels of both feet spread well out ahead of me, I could generally keep the sled right side up, and in soft snow could plow them so deep into it that the deer soon preferred to slacken their pace rather than drag so heavy a load. There is much to learn before one can feel at home behind reindeer, but it can only be had from experience. I believe it essential to give the deer to understand that you propose to drive them, and if they upset you twenty times, as I was in one day with another team, stick to them, DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 51 and the bright, intelligent eyes of this useful animal will soon convey to the brain behind them the fact that you are their master 5 and the worst is over. After a great many trials during the past winter, in which the capacity of reindeer for traveling was pretty thoroughly demonstrated, I feel that it is safe to say that, with good roads and the deer in good condition, 25 miles a day for a journey of a couple of hundred miles or so is about what they are capable of doing. I do not think they should be urged on a journey of this distance to a pace exceeding 3 or 4 miles an hour, and this would give them an opportunity to pick their feed and rest. I have heard of reindeer in Lapland making 18 miles an hour and 100 miles a day, but I believe it is an extraordinary statement. They may be able to travel at the rate of 18 miles an hour, or even 30, but it would only be for a short distance, and 1 doubt if, except under excep tionally tine conditions, 100 miles could be made in one day, and the deer even then would be of little value, except for their hide.1 The longest distance I have made in one day was about 30 miles. It was along the northern shore of Bering Sea, where the ice was very rough, obliging us to walk the deer most of the way and pick our way over the rough places. Fully ten hours were consumed in making the distance, and had the roads been good we could have probably made 10 miles farther much easier and in the same time. It was a day fol- lowing one in which they traveled 20 miles, and on that day, before I finally got them turned in the right direction, they ran away several times, and for an hour or more wore themselves out and myself, too, in their efforts to get away from me. I will here state that it is verj^ seldom, in making a start with deer, however well broken they maybe to drive, that they do not start away on a dead run, and for a little while it is next to impossible to control them at such times. The only thing to do is to devote all your energies to keep on the sled, and sooner or later the deer will slacken their pace and respond to your pull on the lines. Undoubtedly the canter or loping gait is the natural one for reindeer, but in driving to the sled they trot as squarely as a pair of thorough- bred horses. They hold their nozes on a straight line with their backs, and the hind feet overreach the fore ones with every stride, thus making better time than they appear to be doing. It is certainly a pretty sight to witness two or three reindeer teams trotting along, one ahead of the other, on a bright, frosty morning. Their gait is so smooth and even that the motion of the sled is hardly felt as it glides over the hard crust, and when the deer obey the pulling ion the lines, as they easily learn to do, a pleasanter team to drive could hardly be desired. 1 Mr. Brace was inexperienced in driving reindeer and did not secure good average results. — Editoii. 52 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF For the first 2 or 3 miles, the deer pant considerably, and if closely pressed loll like cattle when warm, but they soon get their lungs full of air and do not seem to labor afterwards. When traveling aloug they reach down and scoop up snow to quench their thirst, without slackening their pace. One man on a sled, with 50 or 75 pounds, is as much of a load as a team of reindeer should carry for any distance. A single deer will haul a man and make very good time for a short distance, and for 25 or 30 miles would cover the distance in eight or ten hours. There is one advantage in traveling with deer over dogs, namely, with deer no fish or other food has to be carried, while with dogs a native never thinks of starting out on a journey without dried or frozen fish or seal meat, and often this constitutes a considerable portion of the load he carries. In my experience I have found also that a team of two deer will make quite as good time and travel as far in the same length of time as a good team of six or eight dogs. While it is true, perhaps, that dogs will go further for a day or two, they will have to rest long enough to put them in condition for travel- ing again, for the deer to overtake them. Although a dog team can sometimes make 70 or 80 miles in one day; they should not be driven over 25 or 30. Reindeer easily tire when driven in soft snow, and even when driven on a walk, if the snow is 6 or 8 inches deep in an hour or two they will lie down, and when they do this they are as hard to start up as a balky mule. When they have rested, however, they get up and are ready to go on again. On the ice they are as bad as oxen, their hoofs being similarly formed, serving them no better purpose. Wood was used for fuel in the school room and in the house occu- pied by the herders, and during most of the winter it was hauled by our dogs, six or eight constituting a team. On March 19 Mr. Gibson left on a trip south, taking the dog team, and I at once started hauling wood with reindeer. Of the ten sled- deer at the station all but three were 2 years old or younger, and were broken to drive by our herders. The 3-year old deer had evidently been driven to the sled but little, and, it is safe to say, never had done any heavy hauling. On March 22 the first wood was hauled by three deer, each harnessed singly to a sled, and in this condition, each accompanied by a herder, they went 2 miles up the beach, loaded the sleds, and returned to the station in the same time consumed by the dogs in making the trip, and each deer hauled about as much wood as our full team of dogs were in the habit of hauling. We usually sent three men with the dogs, and thus it will be seen that about three times as much was accomplished with the deer. When their work was done they were simply turned loose, when they found DOMESTIC ATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 53 their way back to the herd without further attention. They made these trips on an average about every third day until the middle of April, and in that time had hauled enough wood for present needs, besides a num- ber of logs for building purposes. In hauling wood the herders walked near the first deer, the others being tied to the sled in front and in single hie, trudging along with their loads. The teams were changed about sometimes, four being sent, but there was no occasion to force the work or overload the deer, and they were given oidy such loads as they could walk along with com- fortably. They took to the work as naturally as a duck does to water, and not a single instance of balking occurred. They pulled as steadily, and much resembled an ox in their movements. If for any cause a halt was made, on starting up again each herder went to his sled, pulling it a little to one side, when the deer at once set himself in the traces, and on he went. This experiment was one of the most satisfactory of any trials during the year, and one that the natives looked upon with wonder. They would watch and walk beside them as they trudged along, and doubt- less many of them thought, if they only had a house like the white men, with a stove in it, and deer to haul their wood what comforts they could enjoy. AFFAIRS AT THE STATION. The reindeer station was selected and formally established by your- self on Juue 29, 1892, at 10 o'clock a. in., sun time, by raising the stars and stripes and tiring a salute with rifles as the flag gracefully tilled to the breeze. A few feet from the southeastern corner of the house, known as the headquarters building, as it now stands, was an empty pork barrel, minus head and bottom, and through this protruded a log that had been picked up on the beach and buried in the ground about 2 feet. This log was about 15 feet long, and on the top was originally nailed the empty pork barrel, but it had become loosened and fallen to the ground. It was erected some five or six years before by some men belonging to theU. S. revenue steamer Bear, Capt. M. A. Healy, com- manding, for the purpose of making an object that could be seen from the entrance to the harbor, about 12 miles distant, to designate the spot where whaling vessels could procure an abundance of fresh water. The stores and supplies for the use of the station, brought from San Francisco, were landed on the beach at 2 o'clock p. m. of the same day, a tent being erected in which they were stored, and one also for the accommodation of myself and assistant until other quarters could be provided. In consequence of the arrival of the lumber intended for the building being delayed, we were obliged to occupy the tent for i nearly three weeks. 54 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF The sud set on the cKy on which the station was established at 11 p. m., and rose the following morning at 1.45. On the 3d day of July, feeling some apprehension about the safety of the vessel on which our lumber was shipped, we started a number of natives digging an excavation in the side of the hill for the purpose of building a dugout, to be occupied as a house, in the event of nothing better being available. For several days work was done with a single spade, a broken long- handled miner's shovel belonging to a native, an axe, a clinch bar, at one time belonging to some steam vessel, and a piece of flat iron, the last two being used in the place of crowbars. Pieces of driftwood were cut and their ends sharpened, and with these tools the earth was dug out idid pried off in chunks and lifted out of the excavation with a patience that only an Eskimo can exercise. In less than 2 feet from the surface frost and ice were encountered, but, when exposed a few hours to the air, the ground thawed suf- ficiently for us to continue our work. In a few days the Bear returned from the Siberian side with some reindeer, and left other tools, with which in a day or two the excava- tion was so far completed as to be ready for the logs. The only timber growing in this country are scattering willow and alder bushes, but nature has provided these people with fuel by bring- ing to the beach almost to their very feet, logs of good size and in abundance. It finds its way here by the motion of wind and tide from the mouth of the Yukon River. From this driftwood we obtained logs sufficient to construct a dugout 18 by 24 and when completed we occu- pied it until the frame building was ready, and we moved into it about the last of August. The idea of building a dugout proved to be a most fortunate one, for it became our habitation on the 5th day of October, and we remained in it throughout the long mouths of winter, and not until the snow and ice disappeared in the spring did we go back into the frame building. By some means little if any of the lumber received at the station was of proper dimensions for the plan of the building selected for the station and although an apartment 20 feet square was set aside for living quar- ters there was not enough finishing lumber or ceiling to make it habi- table. Before it froze out in the fall sods were laid up on the three sides exposed to the weather, and on the other side of the living room jnside of the building was also piled sod. The walls were about 5 feet at the base, gradually sloping so as to leave the top layers about 2 feet thick, but they were water-soaked, and when frozen left cracks and seams through which the snow and frost penetrated. The roof consisted of but one layer of matched floor- ing, covered with sail cauvass and painted, and although water-tight, the frost penetrated through it like water through a seive. Toward spring, or when the weather moderated sufficiently to warm the living DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 55 room with a fire, the ceiling and walls sweated so badly that everything on the inside got damp and mouldy. The whole expense of building the dngoat, including lumber and labor, would not exceed $50, and the experience of the past winter has shown that it is the only sensible kind of habitation for this country. At Cape Prince of Wales, in a letter received from one of the teach- ers the last of February, he wrote: "We are cooking, eating, and sleep ing in one room, while in those adjoining the mercury is down to 32 degrees below zero." rfhe other teacher, who, while on a visit to Point Hope during the winter, visited some whalers who were living in a dugout, said it was the right kind of a house for this country, and that he intended to build one for his own use the coming season. Yet the residence of the teachers at the cape is a neat and comfortable frame building of several rooms, well built, of good lumber, and must have cost not less than $3,000. In our own little shanty we have not had a temperature lower than 50 degrees above zero for an instant, and, although somewhat cramped for room, have lived very comfortably. From the result of this experience I have concluded that, unless your orders for the finishing of the frame building are emphatic, it is best to erect the necessary buildings somewhat on the plan of our dugout, and I believe when you are able to inspect it thoroughly you will agree that the conclusion is a sensible one. The only inconvenience experienced in the dugout was in getting in and out. Prom December to February 1st we were obliged to keep a lamp burning most of the time, as the only window in the house was continually covered up with snow. Before winter comes again a win- dow will be put in the roof, and that difficulty will be done away with. The only stoves received at the station were a small-sized cooking stove and a small heating stove. The cookiug stove was designed for either wood or coal and the heating stove for soft coal. There were 12 tons of hard coal received at the station, but it was of large size, and in consequence less convenient, as fires had to be often rebuilt. Fortunately we were able to secure 1J tons of soft coal from the whaling fleet supply, without which the starting of tires in our small stoves would have been a troublesome task, to say the least. On account of the length of the spring and the chilly air that con- tinued until after it was daylight throughout the twenty-four hours, it was necessary to keep our fires going until about the middle of dune, and, notwithstanding the fact that it was necessary to keep them burn- ing on an average of sixteen hours a day from September 1 until June 15, there was an economical use of coal, an advantage of some moment in the dugout for a house. Although there is an abundance of wood on the bead: near the sta- 56 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP tion, and to which reference has been made before, it is all water-soaked, and unless cut and piled up where it is not exj)osed to the rains of summer, it is hard to make burn and gives out little heat. Another trouble we experienced, and it became an almost daily one, was with stovepipes. As no earthen or terra cotta chimneys were received at the station, it became necessary to make stovepipes answer for chimneys. As a consequence, the long spells of rain in summer and the snow beating; in and about them in winter caused them to rust badly, and before winter was half through we were obliged to make stovepipes out of tin oil cans, which served a passably good purpose. In October last I made a trip by canoe to Cape Prince of Wales, and the teachers very kindly let me have an extra large box heating-stove, which I brought to the station and without which we could have car- ried on no school. And even with this large stove in the apartment designed as the living-room in the frame building, there were several weeks during the winter when it could not be made comfortable enough to teach in. It was discovered one day towards spring that the stove had a crack extending the whole length of the bottom, which was doubtless caused by building a fire in it when it was full of frost. On account of being obliged to use stovepipes we were in constant dread of lire. On two occasions the frame building caught fire, and on November 3 would have been burned to the ground, with its entire con- tents, had it not been for the timely arrival on the scene of Mr. Gibson who, with the aid of some natives, succeeded in putting the fire out. Immediately after the building took fire the last time a cache was constructed similar to those used by the natives. A platform was made of plank laid on the tops of logs buried in the ground, on which were placed most of our biscuits, Hour, and such other stores as would not be injured by cold weather. In this condition they kept splendidly all winter, the cache being opened and goods removed as occasion demanded. It is almost a universal custom among the Eskimos to erect caches on the outside of their houses in which most of their goods, furs, and implements arc placed for safekeeping. They are never molested, and a native would as quickly desecrate one of the graves as to disturb the cache of another. This experiment supplied us with another valuable idea for the future, and with a properly constructed cache a storeroom only large enough to hold the perishable goods is all that is necessary. It should be built high enough to admit of free circulation of air under it and with an apartment constructed with a roof that would shed rain, with the sides tight. ^\' i 1 1 1 such a cache it could be used in summer as well as winter. In this connection I will state that in a number of boxes of biscuits, when opened, one fourth of the biscuits were found moldy and unfit to be eaten. In the early pari of the summer they were stored away o ,„ DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 57 in one of the tents, but when the frame building was covered were removed to it. They might have gathered dampness while in the tent, and, if so, removing them to the frame building did not improve them in the least, but doubtless assisted iu the decay that subsequently followed. In August last we also constructed a dugout something after the plan of the one built for ourselves. We had no lumber with which to lay a floor or to make a frame front, so logs were used. This was turned over to the herders, of whom there were eight, and in it all of them ate and all but three slept, including the wife of one of the herders and her two children. The others slept in the living room of the frame build- ing, and it was also used as a sort of loafing place for the herders when off duty and for women and men when repairing, slatting, or working on skins for the use of the station. Fortunately we were able to obtain from the Bear a cook stove, taken from an abandoned vessel in the Arctic, and with this the dugout used by the herders was made comfortable, and upon it their food was prepared. It was the intention at first to have a part of the frame building set aside for the herders to occupy, but there was no lumber for a floor, and nearly all the space was taken up with supplies, stores, etc., and it was neariy as cold as on the outside. Besides, the boxing put in around the eaves was made of rough lumber, leaving cracks through which the wind whistled and the snow blew, sometimes covering the goods stored inside. There was a constant demand by the herders for one thing or another in connection with their clothing. A stitch had to be taken here, or a piece of skin was worn out there; a boot sole had avoiu through here or a mitten torn there. One or two women were occasionally employed to do the mending, but after awhile a woman was kept purposely for this kind of work, and her husband employed on and off, as he was required to for work on skins. It has been our practice at the station to keep regular hours in the matter of meals, of which three were prepared each day; breakfast at 7, dinner at 12, and supper at 6. We seldom retired before 11 or 12 o'clock at night, and were up in time to see that the herders were punc- tual in taking their watch at the herd. Early rising is a common thing with the natives, even in winter. They retire soon after dark at that season, but are awake bright and early. As soon as the days began to lengthen they were up with the first peep of day, and never ceased to annoy us by coining to our door before we were up. In the long days of summer they did not seem to be able to distinguish between the hours of day and those of night, and many times we have been routed out of a sound slumber to answer some trifling call at 2 or 3 o'clock in the morning. It is a common prac- tice for the children to be playing about at the same hour of the night, 58 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF and their shouts and laughter are often heard after we have been abed several hours. We soon found that the natives slept as they ate. namely, when they felt like it, and many of them were snoring in their tents when we were up and at work. I was puzzled for some time to find how the natives knew when it was morning. When sleeping in their houses I have been disturbed by their getting up when it was yet dark, but before long the glow of daybreak appeared through their little skin windows. I soon learned that they depended on the "big dipper" for their timepiece, and knew from its position when it was approaching day. Early last fall we began to be troubled by the Siberians' fears for their safety from harm by the natives. It became known soon after the deer were landed that there was a disposition to ridicule the idea of introducing reindeer on this side on the part of some of the Cape Prince of Wales natives, the largest in number as well as the most viciously inclined of any in this portion of the country. Although very little disposition to quarrel with any of the other tribes has become manifest of late years, their history in former times justifies the reputation they still have of being quarrelsome. They are, moreover, less feared by the natives about the station, and through them all sorts of stories were told, and all sorts of predictions were made to the Sibe- rians. They were given to understand that they would be killed, the white men at the station butchered, and the deer driven away and slaughtered. Such tales as these after awhile became annoying to us, but such was the anxiety among the Siberians that we felt something must be done to reassure them, and the opportunity came in time and in such a manner as to save them many sleepless nights and made them feel we were abundantly able to protect them. We had some natives sawing wood one morning at the station and quite a number were standing by. Suddenly one of our own natives, whom, on account of his appearance and manner, we had dubbed "Thug," came up drunk and in a vicious manner demanded some matches. This man, the fall before, had killed a native belonging to another tribe in cold blood, and was looked upon as a bad character generally. It became evident that we must make a demonstration for our own secur- ity, and, while Mr. Gibson stood by to prevent interference by others, I took hold of him and dragged him to the beach, where a number of natives belonging to the Cape Prince of Wales tribe were eucamped and where we felt certain he had procured his whisky. A plan was quickly agreed upon to search the tents of these natives and sieze any whisky found. We demanded of the natives to deliver up their whisky, but of course they did not have any, and the man had not got any from them. I immediately commenced a search, Mr. Gibson standing by to be ready in case of any hostile demonstration, and after DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 59 awhile I found two bottles of whisky which a woman had concealed under her. The moment I got possession of the whisky there was an uproar, and it looked as if we would have trouble, but our vigorous attitude prob- ably averted it. We returned to the station in possession of the liquor. which will be turned over to the commander of the Bear upon his arrival here. The liquor was found in the tent of a Cape Prince of Wales native, who had brought a letter from one of the teachers, saying, '• he was one of the wealthiest and most influential men of that tribe." We were glad of this, for it showed to him that we would seize liquor distributed among our people by one of their headmen as quickly as if by one of the humblest of the tribe. We afterwards sent word to one of the teachers at the cape that any liquor brought here in the future by their people would be seized at all hazards, and asked them to give notice to the natives to this effect, which they did. We made up our minds that this proceeding would either cause trouble or stop such practice in the future; and I am happy to say that, although many natives from the cape have visited the station at dif- ferent times since, and once during the winter over 80 of them came here at one time, not a drop of liquor has been brought here, and not another case of drunkenness has occurred. I will add further that both Mr. Gibson and myself have been among the Prince of Wales people away from the station at different times, and no spirit of hos- tility has shown itself. I will state further that the "thug," although he still enjoys his unenviable reputation, is one of the most quietly disposed persons who come to the station. This affair at once placed the Siberians, as it were, on a higher plane, and they have since mingled with the natives on more of an equality. No more tears were shed, as before, and no more tales of us all being killed have been told. I have since been told that the whisky seized was bought on the Siberian side last summer, and that several cases of drunkenness have occurred at Cape Prince of Wales during the winter. On the 25th of September last I wrote you, giving a report of this transaction, and sent the letter to Cape Prince of Wales, to be forwarded to you by some vessel, should the teachers be able to intercept one on its passage through the straits en route to San Francisco. For fear the letter did not reach you I send a copy herewith, marked Exhibit A. While we quieted the fears of the Siberians as far as their being molested by the Eskimo was concerned, we were never able to induce them to give up their foolish superstitions. If ailing a little the serv- ices of a doctor were required, and after a dose of " tum-tum," or beat- ing upon a hoop covered with a piece of walrus eutrail, and being blown over and slapped in the region of the affected part, they gener- ally got better and the doctor received the credit of saving them. If 60 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF a deer was sick and had been brought to the station for treatment, especially if taken inside the building, a catastrophe was certain to happen, either to the reindeer, most of which were certain to die, or else to one of the Siberians. On one occasion I returned to the station after going a few miles on my way to Cape Prince of Wales with deer, on account of a storm. I put my team in the frame building, intending to make another start the next morning, if the storm cleared away. It continued to blow furiously for three days, however, when a number of natives came to me, with the Siberians, and asked to have the deer turned out, giving as a reason that the storm would not cease until the deer were out of the house, and there were some natives at the village from a distance who were anxious to return home. The deer were not sent to the herd and the storm cleared off beautifully the following day. Tbe Siberians wear ermine skins suspended from their necks. These skins are regarded as charms against sickness. One of them, in remov- ing his skin coat one day, accidentally dropped it. When he missed it he was in a violent state of despondency for fear he would not be able to find it again, in which event he would die. He never found the skin, and he yet lives. On another occasion we had two deer brought to the station and confined in a pen in order to teach them to eat corn meal. It was a matter that worried the Siberians a great deal, and they insisted that if they were not turned out a great many deer would die. They were kept in the inclosure over two weeks and not one died. These are but a few of the superstitions that worried them and they were always poured into our ears. We found it did no good to ridicule them and finally listened to them without comment. While there is perhaps no marked difference between the Siberians in their features or the color of their skin, they speak a different dialect, and in this there is a wide difference. With the Siberians the use ot the aspirate is frequent, but rarely does it occur among the Alaskans. The Arctic Eskimo wear their hair shaved close to the scalp on the crown of the head, the rest being allowed to grow low down on the forehead and neck, while the Siberians wear the crown closely shaven, and usually two narrow fringes are worn, with rings shaved all around their heads. The Siberians have their ears pierced a little above the tips, from which one or two single strings of beads are allowed to dangle. The practice of wearing beads among the Alaskan natives is confined to the women. The Siberians are of a nervous temperament, or at least they can not sit still any length of time. I have thought it was caused by their having to change their position so much when with the deer, being obliged to move about more or less to keep up the circulation. Soon after the arrival of the deer we found that any innovation we proposed to introduce would be resisted by them vigorously. If a deer DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 61 was sick they wanted it killed at once. If one was injured they thought it should be killed right away, and if ordered fco bring it to the station to be mused they executed the order reluctantly. At first we thought their opposition to caring for sick deer was from a selfish motive, the more deer killed the more fresh meal thee would get, but we made it a practice never to give them much of a deer that had been killed, ami we became convinced that their opposition to nursing a deer was caused by the fact that they had never been in the habit of doing it in their own country: that with them, when a deer was disabled from any cause, it was killed at once. In almost every instance in which they expressed the opinion that the deer would not recover such proved to be the case. In a few instances, however, 1 believe if we had had proper shelter and proper medicines we could have brought them around all right. On the 12th of last March a female,- years old. was reported to have slipped down and broken one of her hind legs. She was ordered to be brought to the station, and, finding she was with fawn, we thought we would try to save her. Mr. Gibson tied her leg up with splints and securely bandaged it. and in this condition she was allowed to lie in the frame building' for about ten days, during which time she was ted on moss. She was finally taken back to the herd, and was able to hobble about and pick her feed until April, when the splints were removed. It was found that the bone had not knitted together, and the lower part swung about as the deer moved, and one of the hunters took his knife and severed it from the rest of the leg. Xo blood came from the stump and the deer got up and hobbled away, and since then she appears to be thriving nicely. A few days later she gave birth to a fawn, but it was puny and did not live. On November -7 two of our best sled deer were put in a pen built for them, for the purpose of ascertaining whether they would learn to eat corn meal and thrive under it. On September 1.") last we had twelve sacks of moss gathered, and proposed to mix meal with it at first, and gradually reduce the quan- tity of moss and increase that of the meal. The Siberians ridiculed the idea of the deer eating moss after it had been packed away in sacks when wet and allowed to freeze, and pooh-poohed the idea of their eating meal at all. For the first three days neither of them would eat the meal and only nibbled at the moss. Warm water was poured over the moss and the meal then mixed with it thoroughly. By the end of the first week they began to eat the mixture with apparent rel- ish. We then commenced to reduce the quantity of moss and increase that of meal from day to day until only a small handful of moss was given with li pounds of meal three times a day to each deer. On the tenth day one of the deer found use for his tongue, and licked the box dry after eating the feed, and two days later the other deer found the same use for his. On the evening of the twelfth day we gave the first 62 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF feed of clear ineal, and each ate his portion greedily. On approaching the pen to feed them they would come toward me and root at the box just as a cow does when she wants her feed. I will here state that it is seldom that a deer offers to use his horns to hook one. I do not believe I have ever seen an instance when they have done so. One of the deer in the pen had a complete set of horns, and I was around among them, holding the box or pulling it away, and in various ways tried to irritate them to see if I could arouse a particle of viciousness, but without success. On the contrary, they were not only docile but affectionate. I could in a few days draw one's head down to my face, and he would stand as quiet as if in blissful response. I have a good illustration showing the tameness of one of these deer, in a view I send you, taken while at the cape, with Mrs. Thornton holding a box contain- ing feed with one hand and the other about its head. On the thirteenth day the deer were turned back to the herd and the experiment was a thorough success. They had not apparently lost a pound of flesh, but, on the contrary, seemed to look better than when first put into the pen. The result was especially gratifying, because it was proof to the Siberians and natives, who were watching it with the keenest interest from the first, that a white man can teach them something in the man- agement and handling of deer which they never knesv before, and that we had confidence in our own judgment Avhen pitted against theirs. The day following the one on which the young deer were turned back into the herd, two of the oldest sled deer were confined in the pen for the purpose of teaching them to eat meal. They seemed to take to the mixed feed a little more readily than the first, but not quite so readily to the plain meal, and it was not until the sixteenth day that they were considered to have learned their lesson. By this time they would turn from the moss to the meal, and would have eaten double the amount given them if allowed to do so. The last day's feed consisted of 1 pound of meal to each deer at three feedings. Another object sought to be gained in teaching the deer to eat meal was to feed them with it when on a long trip. As I have before stated, when traveling with deer, they are lariated out and pick their feed through the snow, at the end of a rope. A sack of 50 pounds of corn meal could be conveniently carried on a sled, when it would be impossi- ble to carry more than a few pounds of moss, on account of its being so loose and bulky. On each trip I made with the deer in winter they were fed meal and thrived under it. I am under the impression that better feed than meal can be had — bran and shorts, for instance, or ground barley, either of which would not be so heating as meal, and would probably furnish as much nutrition. From our experiments with moss gathered in the summer for winter feed, it seems reasonable to suppose that it can be put up in stacks, or DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 63 stowed away under cover, and that deer may be kept up and fed just as domestic stock are cared for. This inclosure for the deer ought not to be a tight one, for they do not require to be kept in a warm place, but there seems to be no reason why deer could not be treated in this way, and be ready for immediate use, instead of putting them out with the herd and lassoed Avhenever they are wanted. This experiment will doubtless be tried next season at the station, unless we are prevented, from press of work, from having moss gathered in the summer. I do not think moss would rot or ever get moldy if stacked up. The twelve sacks gathered last season were brought in when wet and lay in sacks until used, and it seemed as fresh as when gathered. It lay piled up in the frame building and froze during the first cold weather. Before it was fed each sack was thawed out. I think, if anything, freezing would improve it rather than otherwise. Perhaps it is just as well at this time to refer to the fondness of rein- deer for urine. The herders, with each watch, carried a little vessel with them, made of seal skin. It was a very light affair and would hold about a pint, being large enough at the top to allow a deer to get its head far enough in to lap the bottom. The herders made a practice to urinate in this vessel, and when held toward the deer a half dozen would start for it and drink it greedily. Frequently they would make a motion as if urinating in it and they would start toward the herder at once. By this means they were often enabled to catch a deer with- out the trouble of lassoing him, and there were a number in the herd who could be caught in this way at any time. Those who would not come up to the vessel to drink would quickly start for the spot where it was spilled and eat the snow saturated with it eagerly. They would eat snow where dogs had urinated, but not with so much relish. In my experiments in trying to get the deer to eat salt but indiffer- ent success was met with. They did not seem to take to it well, when mixed with their meal, and I discontinued it. For several days immediately preceding Christmas, I took occasion to tell the scholars how it was observed by the whites, and explained such features about the day as my limited knowledge of the language would admit of; so that at the close of school the day before they pretty well knew why it was observed. All through the winter the almost starving condition of the natives had been so impressed upon us that nothing but the knowledge that our supply of food was very limited prevented us from distributing regular rations to them. But I will make furthei reference to this mat- ter in another place in my report. I told the children about Santa Clans, and for them to tie their fur stockings up near their beds, as he was coining to visit them for the first time, and would remember every child. I made up a lot of little bags out of empty iioui sacks, and into each one put eight cubes of white sugar, about a dozen pieces of dried apples, 64 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF aud a dozen raisins, not a very appropriate assortment for a Christmas present for a white child, but it was the best we had, and I found after- wards the selection was much appreciated by the little Eskimo. Although our supplies were very limited I concluded to take enough from such as we had, and give each family the same assortment. It was made up of a tin can filled with flour, eight navy biscuits, one pint of rice, one-half pound of sugar, and one third pound of tea. There are ten houses in the village and about 100 persons all told. The supplies above enumerated were made up into ten packages. I had the herders harness one of our deer-teams to a sled, and at 12 o'clock started with four natives for the village, a half mile west of the station. When we reached the first house, 1 took a flash-light view of the deer standing just by the little skin window, through which a faint gleam of light was thrown from the oil lamp burning below. It occurred to me that perhaps this was the first time in the history of civilization that a live Santa Claus made his midnight visit upon an errand of mercy with a team of reindeer, and that the Eskimo were the first to actually experience what throughout Christendom is only a myth. It became necessary to dig away the frost from one corner of the window, in order to get the packages through, and in nearly every instance the operation alarmed those below, when a package was imme- diately dropped down and they became quiet. While in my stooping position at the first house, I suddenly lifted my eyes to the north and beheld the most gorgeous aurora I witnessed at any time during the winter. The night was a glorious one, cold and crisp, with the stars shining in lustrous splendor from the pale blue canopy above, and not a breath of air was stirring. Across the whole northern horizon floods of wavy light surged and swept from east to west, sending further up into the heavens streams of vapory light dancing up and down in graceful shadows, that easily led me to imagine they were caused by invisible spirits. For a time I forgot the object of my visit, and lay watching the play of the aurora as it shot forwards and backwards, and when I finally came to myself I looked around and found the natives lost in deep and silent awe at the spectacle. The hour I spent in this service was one of supreme delight to me> especially so as the little handful of food I distributed made the bright eyes of a hundred people glisten with happiness and supplied as many stomachs with a feast they enjoyed before they again closed their eyes in sleep. It will take too much space to record all the items I gathered in the short hour, as I peeped through their little skin windows and saw them dancing around in high glee, old and young, and expressing their thankfulness for the many good things received, the like of which they had never before eaten. The few dollars expended in this way will doubtless bring back many fold in deeds of kindness from these poor creatures, in whom there is much to admire and little to blame. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 65 On the 3d of November last we commenced teaching school and con- tinued it until January C, when it was discontinued on account of cold weather and the utter impossibility of making the schoolroom com- fortable. Teaching was again resumed on March 6 and continued until April 20, when school was closed for the summer on account of the natives leaving on their spring hunt for seal and walrus. Every day in the week, excepting Sunday, a session of from one hour and a half to two hours was taught, Mr. Gibson and myself teaching alternately, he one day and I the next. When one or the other was absent from the station, the one remaining taught every day. When it is borne in mind that at the time we commenced teaching Mr. Gibson and myself had but little knowledge of the language, and not a person in the village understood a word of English, some of the difficulties we labored under may perhaps be imagined. Perhaps a better idea of the difficulties we experienced in the start will be had from my experience the first day. The sun set at 3:45 p. in. and we had given notice that school would begin at sundown. By that time every man, woman, and child in the village had gathered about the building and were anxiously waiting for the door to be thrown open. When they swarmed in and squatted on the floor, very much as a tailor does when at work, they were packed into our small room as closely as sardines in a box. it was a strange and interesting sight, and, looking at them under the light of three lamps hung on the walls, I thought that under the heavy fringes of black hair hanging low over the foreheads of the boys and men, and the heavy braids of the same thick and glossy hue of the girls and women, there beamed as much intelligence as could be found among the same number of creatures anywhere in Christendom. The reindeer, squirrel, and rabbit clothing in which they were clothed made strange shadows on the walls, and, taken all together, it would have been an interesting picture for any one to view. I should perhaps have stated that we have only three chairs at the station, and those were needed for our private use. Neither had we a stick of lumber with which to construct benches, and the natives had only the smooth, hard surface of the floor to sit upon. In the four months of our residence among these people, up to this time we had found no leisure for learning the language, and we were hardly able to frame a single sentence that was intelligible to them. What few words we did use brought a smile to their faces, and, as a consequence, our vocabulary consisted in a word now and then, inter- spersed with a half-dozen signs. In the opening exercises the words I had at my tongue's end would not fit, and 1 staggered about among Eskimo verbs and English nouns until I had the whole school laughing at me. I could not keep a straight face myself, and for a while enjoyed my own discomfiture as much as my pupils, but the most distressing part of it was to have my S. Ex. 70 5 QQ REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF assistant stand off to one side enjoying- the sport as much as the Eskimos. The most tantalizing incident of the session was my frantic efforts to get them to repeat after me the letters of the alphabet in concert. 1 bad learned that "Far mart ko" meant "all." I thought, of course, if I said "Far mart ko," they would understand that I wanted them all to respond together, but when I got everything in readiness and said "Far mart ko," they sat as dumb as oysters, and although I brought the stick I used as a pointer down to the floor in very much the same manner a major does his baton when he wants the band to play, it had no more effect on them than if I had asked them in French to repeat the Lord's prayer. When I did finally get them to repeat the letters, they came out with about as much regularity as the shots from an army of infantry firing from their intrenchments. Exercises of this kind were continued for some little time, when by some hook or crook one of the more intelligent of them got an idea of what I wanted, and soon we ran up and down the alphabet in splendid order. I now began to feel encouraged and selected from the chart a word of but three letters, and it spelled "cat." Another word on the same sheet spelled " dog." After I had drilled them on these and pointed to the picture representing each until I thought they must know it by heart, they, when called upon to pronounce each one after spelling it, got so tangled up that I could hardly tell a cat from a dog myself. My patience by this time was well nigh exhausted, and I tried to think of something for a change. Sudddenly I espied hanging on the wall, the sides of which were covered with everything from a mink skin to a woodsaw, a set of boxing gloves which the captain of a ves- sel that had spent the previous winter in the Arctic had left with us, and my first impulse was to put them on and knock some Eskimo out physically, as they had done me figuratively. I concluded, however, this would hardly be in keeping with the dignity I should assume as the superintendent of the Reindeer Station. It was nearly time, how- ever, to close school, and thinking that in "In the sweet by and by" there was a moral for me, selected it as a closing song, which the pupils sang with a spirit that fairly made the rafters ot the building ring. In a few days, however, order came out of chaos, and soon we were drifting along as serenely as many a school of white children Avouldbe. It was a difficult matter to get them to understand that they should observe pro per decorum, and this can not be wondered at,for the Eskimo are more easily provoked to laughter, and among themselves are exceed- ingly talkative. We could not get them to understand that it was not quite in keeping with good etiquette for one to take off his shirt in pres- ence of the opposite sex, and this rule was sometimes permitted to be infringed upon, when the. heat in the room was too oppressive. This DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 6 I practice, however, was never indulged in except by the men and boys, and they were made to occupy places in the rear of the room. The first impression I had formed of the Eskimo in the matter of intelligence was fully confirmed before I had taught many days. They all have large heads, high foreheads, clear, bright eyes, and many of them are keenly intelligent, and I believe they will compare favora- bly in intelligence with any of the white race. As a class, too, they are what may be termed good looking, and among the number many of them are very pretty. For people who use their teeth as much as the Eskimo, who never engage in any kind of work, from sewing a light skin to forming the heavy soles ot their boots, without biting it with their teeth considerably, they have remarkably good ones. They area beautiful white, very even and regular, and many a white woman would get the best of a trade in an exchange of teeth with most of the Eskimo women. The Eskimo are passionately fond of music, especially singing, and could grasp a tune very quickly. They prefer, however, those of a quick and lively character, and enjoy most those having a stirring chorus. The progress made by the scholars was very satisfactory. Special pains were taken in teaching pronunciation rather than to make fast progress in learning to spell and read. I believe, at the close of the school, they had gotten so far towards an idea of the English language that they will enter upon their studies next winter with renewed interest. The following will show something of the work done, but a more com - plete idea will be found in the monthly sheets forwarded to you in the regular reports : Number months taught 4 Number of children from 6 to 14 years of age in community 17 Number of children from 16 to 21 years of ago in community 18 Average daily attendance during term 25. 50 On the 31st of August last a number of natives were started digging a ditch to bring water from a little lake about a half mile north of the station, so as to have fresh running water close at hand, and to carry it down to the beach. It is customary for vessels that come here for water to tow casks ashore with small boats, and, after rolling them up on the beach to carry water from the creek 50 feet or more and empty it into the casks. It is a tedious job, as most of the ships carry from ten to. twenty casks, and it occurred to me that if the water could be brought to the station, through a ditch, it could easily be carried beyond the beach in troughs and thus made to flow into the casks. In about four days a ditch was dug and an excellent flow of water had, but we proposed to increase the quantity by damming up the creek that supplies an outlet for the lake, some distance from the station. The large quantity of water standing in pools all over the level land north of the station prevented the men from digging the ditch more than a foot or so deep, and work was discontinued until cold weather, 68 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF Accordingly, 011 December 3D, a half dozen men were started on the work and continued it until January 27, working each day while it was light enough to see, and during that time the mercury ranged Irom 2-1° above zero to 29° below, the mean temperature being 11° below. During this time they had dug through a slight raise of ground for about 10 rods to a depth of from 2 to 4 feet and 18 inches wide. They were obliged to pick and chop the earth out, it being frozen solid, and sometimes a half dozen strokes would have to be made to get off a small piece. It was most discouraging digging, and in this work I noticed what has impressed me so often, that the Eskimo possesses patience to a remarkable degree. Cutting through this little hill connects the lower land on this side with the lake, so that the rest of the digging to finish the drain was comparatively a little job. After this cut had been made the natives worked at draining the creek above referred to, and when the work was discontinued in the winter all that was necessary to complete the drain was to fill in with brush and dirt. We had only tools enough for G men to work advantageously and it was a hard matter to select those who were to do the work. They would come to the house before daylight, or even before we were up, and stand around in the cold until we had eaten our breakfast., sometimes a dozen crowding in for their rations of three navy biscuits each and a cup of tea, when they knew 6 men were all we could set to work. And they would do this when the mercury was so low that their hair, eyebrows, eye- winkers, and any fuzz or whiskers they happened to have on their faces were made to look like those of old white-haired men. On the morning of January 4 we were aroused just after breakfast by loud knocks at the door, and on opening it found a native who said Darkus, the second youngest of our Siberian herders, was sick and barking like a dog. I went to the frame building where he slept and was startled at the scene that met me. It was not yet daylight, and the dim glow from the lamp showed what proved to be a man, dressed in his fur clothing, crouching down on all fours, and astride of his back Avas one of the Siberians holding the one underneath with a grip of death. The man underneath was Darkus, and he was twisting and writhing about, growl- ing, barking like a dog, and sinking his teeth into the skins and bed- ding. Standing about were half a dozen natives, all looking serious, and all in such a position to the door that they could dart out at au instant's warning. For a moment I was startled, and my first impulse was to get the door between me .mil the sick man as soon as possible, for it looked as if I were standing in the dreadful presence of a genuine case of hydropho- bia, 'this feeling did not last long, however, for I was told that the man was bitten only a few hours before, and it occurred tome that hydrophobia did not develop as rapidly as i.uist have occurred in this DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 69 case, if if were genuine, and I commenced to make an examination of the patient. Ir appeared that, as lie came into the building- the night before, a dog that had sneaked in, probably in search of something to eat, suddenly rushed out and, in passing him, bit him on one of his hands slightly, lie went to bed. and alter a while went to sleep, but awoke some time in the night and began to moan and cry out, arousing the others sleep- ing in the room, and when he commenced to aet like a dog they tied both his hands and feet. Mr. Gibson put in an appearance, and we concluded that nothingbut the bite of a dog in an aggravated condition of rabies would, in a few hoars, bring about such an exhibition of agony, and immediately ordered the thongs on his hands and feet to be cut and told him to stand up. When he did so we saw that his legs were unsteady, but this was nat- ural, for he had been tied for several hours. We had him walk to the house, and he was given a good strong drink of hot whisky, for he had lain so long in the cold that he was chilled through. He soon lapsed into his violent contortions again, throwing his arms wildly about, growling and barking, and occasion- ally making a lunge as if to bite his arm, but on each occasion we noticed he failed to quite reach it. His poise beat as regularly as my own, and his flesh had that cool, moist feeling that a hydrophobic victim would give the world to possess, if he had reason enough to know what it was worth to him. We put some food before him and he ate it ravenously, taking it up with his teeth, and when it was all eaten he tried to make a meal of an iron-handled knife. A candle placed before him was nibbled at, but quickly abandoned, as it was hard to masticate. About this time a native from the village sauntered in, when the sick man espied him, and, making a rush for him, out he dashed pell- mell, and then commenced a mad race over the frozen snow. The native was too badly frightened to be caught, however, and kept on running long after the sick man was brought back to the house. At this time the native doctor of the village came in, and, going immediately up to the man, slapped him violently on the back, at the same time blowing into his face. The man immediately threw himself back as stiff as if dead. His eyes rolled in his head, and, alter a par- oxysm of growling, barking, and gnashing of the teeth, he gradually suc- cumbed to the mysterious power of the doctor and went off into a con- dition of quiet and peace. It did not last long, however, and, becoming tired of his antics, we had him taken to the house, and in the coldest corner tied and gagged him and left him stretched out on his back, with nothing to gaze at but the frost-covered rafters above. In an hour or so he signified his willingness to behave, and we released him. He by this time saw that his foaming frenzy did not frighten us and that a repetition of his performance meant more severe measures than being tied in the cold. 70 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF To this day most of the natives believe that he had a genuine attack of hydrophobia, and no amount of argument will convince them to the contrary. Of course, the doctor believed it a most serious one, and his early recovery was caused from his wonderful healing1 power. Later in the winter we learned that the story of the man's sickness had trav- eled 150 miles south and nearly double that distance north. Many of the natives in the village were so badly frightened that they came to the station continuously for some days, and a number of children stayed away from school for a day or two for fear they would be eaten up by the Siberian. I have related this incident to show the variety of diversions we have had at the station, and that sometimes they are of a character to severely try one's patience. I have referred to the opposition of the Siberians to any change in the management of the deer from that which they had been used to practice, but we encountered their most severe opposition in the matter of getting them to break deer to the sled. I do not wish to be understood as saying that at any time they became unruly or that we had to coax or cajole them when any task was to be performed. On the contrary, they were uniformly obedient, and it seldom became necessary to speak harshly to them, but in matters m which they were supposed to have a thorough knowledge they were inclined to try to argue us out of any new departure or experiment. There were only three deer that had been broken in the entire herd, and the Siberians told us there were no more geldings in the herd. Judging from the appearance of some of the deer, we thought they must be mistaken, and one day ordered them all brought to the station. So strong was their opposition to breaking deer that we began to think it was part of a prearranged plan among themselves not to allow us or the natives on this side to gain a knowledge of this important branch of the business. We thought perhaps they had been so instructed before leaving the Siberian side, or were jealous of the natives here learning the business, for fear they could not obtain a job in the future. The more than half expected possibility of being obliged to move the herd into the interior a hundred miles or more for feed stared us in the face, and, without deer to haul supplies, Ave would be left in a sorry plight indeed, especially as we had no dogs, and up to this time it looked as if we might not be able to procure any. Besides, there were experiments to be made in the matter of driving on long journeys, to test their capacity for traveling, and to teach them to eat domestic food, and we thought the time ripe for vigorous measures, in this par- ticular at least. When the deer came lip we ordered the Siberians to catch a gelding They insisted there were none. They were then ordered to catch a bull. They began an argument in opposition to it, and for a time it DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 71 looked as if they would not obey the order. However, they quickly thought better of it, and soon a fine, large bull was struggling at the end of the rope, but they experienced more trouble than usual in getting to his head, so as to hold him better. We thought this a part of the play, and when it took the four Siberians to hold him, there was no one to catch another deer, so they were ordered to tie him to a post standing near. Against this they solemnly protested, saying he would thrash about until he killed himself, but we as emphatically repeated the order, for it now looked as if it had resolved itself down to a struggle in which either Siberia or the United States must triumph, and the order was again repeated in a manner that meant no trilling. The herders then started for another deer, and in less than five minutes the bull lay on his back dead, having broken his neck in his struggles. The herders came up in a bunch, with an air that looked as if they thought that settled it, but they looked chagrined when they were told in an emphatic manner to bring up another bull, and, too, in language more emphatic than elegant; and in a moment they returned to the herd. In a short time they came up with a fine specimen of a two-year- old, which they had suddenly discovered was a gelding, and in a little while had another to match him. In a few days eight more geldings were sifted out, and by the middle of winter we had twelve good sled deer, all thoroughly broken. This little episode, although it cost us a deer, taught the Siberians a valuable lesson, and in after months, in observing the alacrity with which they obeyed orders, we concluded the sacriiice was a profitable one. We have found the natives, as a rule, very willing to work. While there is occasionally one who would continue at a task without some one near to encourage and tell him just how it should be done, it is generally necessary for one to be about to oversee the job. They of course knew little about the use of tools, and when put at house painting or driving nails into boards or using a hand-saw were not so graceful as an old mechanic, yet they learned readily. While the Eskimos are not inventive, they are good imitators, and although when the station was established few of them knew anything practically of even the use of an ax, yet in a short time they got so they chopped all our wood; and in winter, when the weather was so cold as to almost take the temper out of tools, they did not break more than the average white man would under the same conditions. The native herders, of whom there were four, continued with us the entire year. They took very kindly to the work, and although our patience was severely tried at times, especially by one of those who belonged at Cape Prince of Wales and often importuned us to be allowed to return home, they were as a rule easily managed, as much so as the same number of white men would be. 72 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF They were compelled to observe certain lliscipliue, and it was a pretty hard matter for a man whose life had been spent in going- and coming at will, and working when he liked, or being idle when the notion seized him, to be obligeil to rise at certain hours, to goto school regularly, and to observe certain rules about his dress and house, as they were promulgated to him. In one matter we were very strict, namely, the instruction of the native herders by the Siberians in every branch of the business. The feature of throwing the lariat was particularly enjoined upon them, and every day when the weather permitted they were obliged to practise for an hour or two. This was also encouraged among the boys in the village, and as a substitute for deer one of the boys held a set of deer horns on his head and would run backwards and forwards until he was caught, when another boy would take his place. The result is that there are a number of the youngsters who can throw the lasso very nicely, and two of the four native herders have become very proficient in it. In the early part of the season we began to look around for a suita- ble native for herder who had a wife who could do the cooking for the rest. Men enough could be found, but their wives did not appear to be the right kind for such work. Finally, one was found who answered the purpose, but he did not want to take the ten deer for two years' service, the same paid to the others. It was finally thought best to hire him outright for one year at a salary of 850, and it proved to be a most excellent selection. He was attentive to his duties and industri- ous about the station. His wife did all the cooking, and another year would make her quite proficient in this kind of work, for toward the end of the year she was taught to make both yeast and baking-powder bread. The man became a close student of the deer and seemed to absorb it all, even down to the minutest detail, and the Siberians found it a pleasant task to instruct him. I am in hopes next year he will be will- ing to come under the usual rule of receiving deer for his work, at the end of which time he will be competent, I believe, to take charge of a herd himself. Our force of herders remained intact throughout the year, with two exceptions. Among those first engaged was a native who had a half- breed Kussian wife. She had been among the whites both at St. Michaels and Point Barrow, and knew just enough English to make mis- chief among the natives. She behaved in such a manner that the only thing to do to avert dissatisfaction among the natives was to discharge her husband, which was promptly done. The other case was that of a native belonging to our village who took sick early in the winter and at times was so low that he was thought to be dying. He finally improved in health, but not so as to be able to return to his duties. His wants in the way of food were largely sup- DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 73 plied from the stores at the station, for we felt he had taken side while in our employ and should, in a measure, he eared for. I think, so far as it is possible, the apprenticed herders should be men who have wives and their families should be with them. Our experience in the past year has demonstrated that they are, in the long- run, more apt in learn- ing-, and take more interest in it than the young men. Besides, if the herders do not have their wives with them they easily become discon- tented. The daily rations of the herders, distributed to tlic 8 men and 1 woman, consisted of the following articles of food: 81 navy biscuits, 1 gallon seal oil, 3 pounds dried fish, 1 pounds corn meal, 4 pounds beans, one-half pound tea, 1 plug tobacco, and 200 matches, twiee each week. When it could be had, frozen fish or whale meat was given in plaee of dried fish, and occasionally bread made from Hour was given in lieu of biscuits. Occasionally rice was given, and a little molasses to sweeten their beans. For ten months but 2 white persons visited the station. One of these, Mr. Thomas Lopp, one of the teachers at Cape Prince of Wales, 60 miles west of the station, and the only place where there are any whites between here and Point Hope, 300 miles north of here, made us a visit a few days during April. He came for the purpose of seeing the deer after they had passed through the winter and to see them driven to the sled. He had visited the station in August last in company with his wife, and on his last visit he was afforded an opportunity of seeing the deer work at hauling wood, and took several rides with them. What his impressions were will be seen by a letter written me, a copy of which I send herewith, marked Exhibit B. During the early partof January, Mr. Lopp and his young wife made a remarkable journey with dogs to Point Hope, for the purpose of visit- ing the different settlements, in a sort of missionary pilgrimage. They were gone about two months, and L happened to be at the cape when they returned. Considerable apprehension was felt on account of their long absence, not only by their associates, Mr. and Mrs. Thornton, but by the natives, and it was feared they had either perished from cold or been carried away on the ice in crossing the dreaded Kotzebue Sound. Strange as it may appear, among the 500 or more natives at the cape, there was not one who had ever made the journey in winter, and their trip was all the more remarkable because it was undertaken in the face of opposition by the natives, who are supposed to know the country and its dangers in winter traveling. During their absence natives had visited the station from some of the settlements on Kotzebue Sound, drawn here partly for the purpose of seeing the deer, the particulars of which Mr. Lopp had outlined to them at his different meetings. We are therefore indebted to Mr. Lopp for arousing an interest among the natives of that section in this enter- 74 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF prise, and I am glad to be able to say that they appear to feel anxious to avail themselves of its benefits. I also take pleasure in sending a copy of a letter written by Mr. Thornton at Cape Prince of Wales, giving' his view of this question, which will appear in Exhibit C. The other person who visited the station during the period above referred to was Mr. John A. Dexter, who for the past year has been in charge of the works of the silver mine near Golovin Bay. He is our next nearest neighbor on the south, 160 miles distant. He arrived here January 19, and on account of my being in very poor health at that time, ho was prevailed upon to remain a few days. The weather soon became very stormy, and aside from a couple of short trips he made from here, his departure was delayed until about the middle of March. In the meantime he made several trips with deer, and had an excellent opportunity to learn and observe much about them. I take pleasure in transmitting herewith a copy of a letter written by Mr. Dexter, giving the result of his observations upon the deer question, marked Exhibit U. ( hi the first of March last, I made a trip to Cape Prince of Wales, of which extended notice has been made elsewhere. I am glad to be able to state that the opposition supposed to exist among some of the lead- ing men of that village to the introduction of deer on this side, for the reason that it would interfere with their traffic in skins, has ceased, and they appear now to be anxious for its success. I will observe here that from the early establishment of the station no pains were spared to make the natives feel that the enterprise was one designed for their special benefit, and that it was an institution they should support. Whenever visiting natives arrived, they were made to feel as much at home as the means at our disposal would allow. They were usually given a biscuit or two and some tea on their arrival, and some time during their stay they were shown the deer, and the object expected to be accomplished was explained to them. In many ways they showed that they realized the importance of the undertaking, and were led to a warm advocacy of the project. There are seven different tribes or settlements within a radius of 100 miles of the station, numbering about 1,000 persons, all told, and divided as follows, the first four named lying west of the Station, the others east: Sinarmetes 100 Poolezariuetcs 45 Tarpkarzomotes 35 Kinarmetes 530 Noongmctes GO Synargpmetes 30 Kyazerinetcs 200 Total 1,000 DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 75 There is more or less difference in the dialects of the different tribes, that of one lying within a lew miles of another differing- more or iess, but they are brought so much in contact with each other that a native belonging to one tribe can talk with one of another with little diffi- culty. The different tribes have no chiefs and are not controlled in any way by one particular person ; but there are those who are considered head- men, and they are the ones possessed of the most property. Perhaps the doctors may be said to be the leaders, for in some respects they control the actions of the natives. They are supposed to possess an invisible power, and through their natural tendency toward superstition the natives are often led by them to do many absurd things. Notwithstanding the extreme poverty of the natives all through this region of country, they do not seem to be decreasing in numbers, but, on the contrary, increasing. .Most every family contains from one to half a dozen young children, and during the past year there have been in the tribes above enumerated probably twenty births and but four deaths. The prevailing winds in the summer, or from the 1st of June until the 1st of October, are from the south, and those for the rest of the year are mostly from the north and northeast. The north winds often are accompanied by snow, but storms of this character usually come with an east or northeast wind. A west wind always means fair- weather. While thick or foggy weather is very rare during the warm weather the mountains and hills are often wholly or partly obscured by vapory clouds, and they generally presage rain. During the warm mouths of summer rain is of common occurrence and often for three or four days in steady downfall, but seldom accompanied by wind. An old-fash- ioned down-East rainstorm is very rare. It must be borne in mind that these statements are made from an experience of but one year, but I am told that the weather during that time may be taken as a fair illustration of that which usually prevails here, although the natives tell me that more rain fell here last summer, and more snow last winter, than usual. The longest day occurred on the 22d of June, at which time the sun was out of sight but a short time in the twenty-four hours, just dipping behind the northwestern horizon, only to come up in the northeastern almost immediately. There was only the faintest diminution of day- light; indeed it was barely noticeable. From about the middle of May until the middle of July it was day- light most of the time, but when once the days commenced to shorten they did so very fast, and this was the case when they began to lengthen in the spring. 7G REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION O^ There were no dark days, the shortest, about December 23, when the sun shone nearly two and one-half hours. One peculiarity about the days in this country is the long twilight both before the sun rises and after it sets. For fully two hours before the sun appears, a bright glow spreads over the eastern horizon, just as appears in lower latitudes a few minutes before the sun rises. The same condition exists after the sun disappears in the west. The light thus furnished enables one to see for a long distance, and helps to lessen the monotony of the short days. I will here state that the watches of both myself and assistant became broken in the early part of the winter, and we had to depend for our time on a single eight-day clock, and on two or three occasions when it stopped we had to set it by the sun as it reached the zenith. The coldest day occurred on the 17th of January, when our ther- mometer registered 29° below zero. From the 21st of October until the 8th day of April, a period of five months and sixteen days, there were but two days when the mercury stood above freezing point. This quotation is made from the thermometer readings taken at Cape Prince of Wales, for the reason that our thermometer met with an accident early in the winter, separating the fluid, and although we used it in making our record in the log book, it can not be said to be accurate. The differences between our thermometer and that used at the cape on certain dates show that ours did not register within a few degrees as low, but from other comparisons made it is safe to say that there is little if any difference in the weather between the two places The first fall of snow occurred at the station on September 14, but only about 2 inches covered the ground, and it disappeared again in a few hours. Snow was first seen, however, on the mountains east of the station on September 5, and on the loth of that month they were covered and remained so. The first blizzard occurred on the 8th of November, and afterwards they were of frequent occurrence, but with a few exceptions they did not last longer than two days. Occasionally they lasted for four days, and from the 8th of February to the 25th of that month a blizzard may be said to have raged all the time. Only now and then for a few hours did the wind cease to blow. Perhaps the year in this latitude may best be divided into two sea- sons, namely, that of spring or fall and winter. The summer is so short and there are so few days when the temperature is not chilly that it -an hardly be said to occur at all. Vet there are several weeks dur- ing .July and August that there is not a particle of snow to be seen, the whole surface of the country being covered with a verdure as rich in color as that found anywhere in the States, and wild flowers abound in wonderful profusion. During this time many of the species of birds ~^P <"?? DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 77 found in temperate climates flutter among the grass and bushes, bedecked in beautiful plumage and singing in joyful glee, but they are here only for a brief season, perhaps coming to enjoy a trip to the country, as it were, just to get a breath of fresh air. The only birds found here after the winter sets in are the ptarmigan, or Arctic grouse, and the Arctic owl, both of which change their plumage as the season advances from a dark brown to white, the former having no dark" feathers except a few at the tail, and the latter being white, covered with dark brown spots throughout. The snow drifts so badly that it is hard to give the true depth on a level, but perhaps 2 or 3 inches is about right. Most of the gorges or ravines, or wherever an obstacle offers a good chance for a drift, have snow to a depth of from 10 to 15'feet. There is a peculiarity about the snow of this country that I have never noticed in any other — that is, the moisture seems to freeze entirely out of it. A piece when struck or thrown down emits a sort of metal- lic sound that I did not suppose could come from frozen snow. The thickest ice found in the bay had frozen to a depth of 4 feet 4 inches, and from various observations made this may be said to be the average thickness. Neither in the fall nor spring are large icebergs seen in Bering Sea, but fields of ice many miles across are continually floating about from the 1st of November to the middle of July. The channel between Siberia and Alaska is seldom frozen over, and only very rarely is it possible to cross on the ice from either side to the islands which lie about midway in the channel, and are known as the Little and Big Diomedes. The channel from one continent to the other is about 40 miles wide. The natives hunt seal on the ice, even in the coldest weather, and nearly every year more or less of them are carried away, and nearly perish from starvation before the ice field drifts so as to allow them to leave it and reach the shore. I made the last trip made by any one between the station and the cape this year, by water, before it froze up, reaching the station on my return on October 21, Both in going and returning, we encountered snowstorms, and it made traveling by canoe very disagreeable. From the date of my return until the 1st of December, traveling by canoe was prevented by ice in the sea. The first communication between the sta- tion and cape by sled was on December 9. The effect of the sun shining on the snow in the spring is most severe upon the eyes, the natives being obliged to wear shades or goggles cut from wood, with a very narrow opening, through which they see. The light is most glaring, and did they not take this precaution there would be a good deal of suffering from sore eyes, and even this simple device does not prevent many from becoming blinded, and for several days they can scarcely see at all. 78 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF Rainbows in the summer are of frequent occurrence. During the long' spells of rainy weather there are times when the snn will break through for a few hours, and generally a beautiful rainbow will appear. They are often of gorgeous hues, and the different colors and shades appear to stand out more distinct than I have ever seen in any other country, caused doubtless by the atmosphere being so pure and clear. In winter the northern lights are often seen, and are sometimes startlingly grand. On Christmas eve the most sublime meteoric dis- play I have ever witnessed spanned the northern horizon and rose almost to the North Star, which stands in such a position that were a pendulum suspended from it the lower end would swing almost directly over the station. Whenever the sun shines and there is no wind, the weather is delight- ful both in winter and summer. A slight breeze, however, even in the spring months makes it cold, and although the sun may stand directly over us it does not seem to have much influence. This can hardly be wondered at, for it blows over a vast area of snow and ice. From October 1 until June 1 we dressed in reindeer clothing through- out, entirely abandoning our heavy underclothing, and I must say I have never felt so warm and comfortable as when thus clothed. We wore a suit of light skins, with the fur next to the flesh, and this gave us a suit of buckskin on the outside. It was all the clothing necessary indoors, and would answer for outdoor wear unless the weather were very cold. In severely cold weather we wore another suit of reindeer clothing over the under suit, and when thus dressed could stand the most severe weather. From the day of our arrival here we laid aside our leather shoes and adopted the Eskimo boot, or "kummuk," as it is called. Besides being- warm, it is the most comfortable covering for the feet I have ever worn. Some are made to come just above the ankles, and others to the knees. They are made loose enough to admit of putting grass in the bottom, and in cold weather a pair of sealskin socks are worn. The soles are made of heavy sealskin and turned up about an inch all around. Two straps of thin sealskin are sewed on either side of the sole, crossing the foot sandal fashion, tying over the instep or heel, as the wearer prefers. On the tops of the boots is a piece of seal string, which is drawn around the leg as tightly as desired, and by this means rain or snow is kept from getting inside. In winter reindeer or sealskin boots are generally worn with the fur outside. You know it is said of some people that they are a nation of fighters. It can be truthfully said of the Eskimo that they are a nation of scratchers. Lice are as natural t* an Eskimo as hair is to a dog, and I verily believe if any single one was selected from them all to be thor- oughly renovated a hundred or more lice would be found upon him. They arc so common that every house has what is called a " koom- oon," It is a stick about 18 inches long, on one end of which is a round DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 71) piece of ivory an inch in diameter. This is used whenever a louse is perambulating a part of the back that cannot bo reached by hand, and if a visitor calls at another's house it is considered a breach of Eskimo etiquette not to offer him at once a koom-oon. The artigecs,or coats worn by the natives, are made large enough at the armpits to slip the arm out easily, and he is thus able to get his hag shaped jacket off without help. This enlargement of the sleeves serves also the double purpose of allowing him to draw his arms out and hug his body, if cold, and to give them free scope to scratch, an amusement they all indulge in to a great extent. Our house accommodations have been so limited and our duties ol such a nature as to require the presence of natives in the house more or less. For instance, the herders come home regularly to make their report on the condition of the deer, when returning from the herd. Others come here to trade; others on a thousand different errands; and they doubtless left more or less on each visit, which sooner or later found good quarters on our persons. We enforced the rule strictly, that natives should not come to our house unless for some particular object, and they always managed to find one, though sometimes trivial. Sometimes they would come to our door nearly frozen, and to refuse them admittance would be downright cruelty. Besides the exposures we underwent at the station, when traveling of course we generally had to sleep in their houses, and such occasions were quite frequent. So, until we can get so situated as to be able to have one room at least where natives will not be allowed to enter, we have got to grin and bear it, as white men living in the Arc- tic country must learn to do in many other things. Our bedding consisted entirely of reindeer skins. We adopted the Eskimo habit of stripping entirely naked on retiring, and with the furs of the skins next to the body slept warmly, and in the morning got up feeling refreshed and without experiencing that tired feeling so often felt in cold countries in winter, having slept under a half dozen or more comforters. The natives about the station were given to understand that Ave would take decided grounds in the matter of dogs disturbing the rein- deer, and they knew orders had been given to the herders to shoot any dog seen in the vicinity of the herd. This rule was rigidly observed, and I am glad to say that it became necessary to kill only five dogs during the year, and in each case we settled with the natives by paying them about $1.50 for each dog and they were perfectly satisfied. The visiting natives were especially careful not to allow their dogs to get among the deer, and not one among those that were here was killed. This seems strange, as they were allowed to run about as they pleased. But I have discussed this matter at considerable extent in another part of my report. Puriug the winter we lost five dogs by a peculiar disease that pre- 80 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF vailed to a considerable extent among those of the different villages along the coast. They would suddenly stagger and reel about and showed a disposition to be cross, biting any dog that came near them. Finally they became so weak they could not stand, and they would lie stretched out on the snow, biting themselves occasionally, and bleed at the mouth. One dog that we lost bit his tail near the root so much that the snow for quite a space about where he lay became spattered with blood. In two instances we shot our dogs for fear they would bite others, and they in turn would be attached by the same disease. During my visit to Cape Prince of Wales dining the winter a number of cases occurred similar to those which occurred at the station, and most of the dogs died. I am told that it sometimes rages to such an extent as to kill most of the dogs in the villages. When off duty the herders were set to work either at fishing, haul- ing or cutting wood, or some other task. Most all the wood used at the station both for fuel and for building purposes was hauled and cut by the herders. It often occurred, however, that they could not do anything but attend to the herding, especially at times when the weather required one watch to remain with the herd beyond the usual hours. There was more or less illness among them, which required a change in the watch, but it was never anything more serious than a bad cold, and in a few days they were ready for duty again. In view of the probable continuance of this business and since in a few years the herd will reach such numbers as to make it neces- sary to brand the reindeer, we concluded to adopt a brand for the station, and have selected that of cutting the left ear so as to form the letter a V." This precaution is not necessary at present, since all domestic reindeer in Alaska belong to the station; but the time will doubtless come when other and private herds will exist in Arctic Alaska, and the occasion for branding deer will then become not only proper but necessary. Most of our herd have already been branded, and they will all be before the end of the present month. Of course this year's fawns will not be branded until they are one year old. If the time ever existed when this portion of Alaska was a fir-bear- ing country, that time, judging from our observation of the past year, has passed. The kind of furs found along the coast consists of the white and red fox, the brown and grizzly bear, polar bear, lynx, mink, and squirrel. In another part of my report I have given the names and locations of seven villages, numbering about 1,000 persons. I think it safe to say that in all that number there were not enough fur-bearing animals killed during the past year, outside of the squirrel, to average one for each person. Thus it will bo seen that if all the furs caught in the section of the country covered by those people were purchased by one individual, lie would not do enough business to pay for stocking and keeping a trading post. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 81 There are considerably more furs brought into circulation among the natives above mentioned, but they are bought from the interior natives in exchange for seal and reindeer skins. Among the natives in the village adjoining the station I do not think there were a dozen fur- bearing animals caught altogether, and the past year seems to be a fair sample of the other seasons. Among the animals which abound here are the gray and Arctic rab- bit. The gray rabbits are caught in large numbers south of the sta- tion, and are used by the natives for stockings and blankets. The Arctic rabbit is about the size of the jack rabbit, and is as white as snow. It is a beautiful thing to look at, but has little value, as the fur comes out with the slightest use. The prices paid for furs are not fixed. A native gets for one just as much as the person wanting it will pay, and that depends upon how badly he wants it. When the ships are here in the summer furs bring a better price than at any other time, and after they leave for the Arctic most of the fur falls into the hands of a few men in each village, who are known as traders. The keeping of an accurate account of the goods traded for articles at the station has been almost impossible. Most of it has been in little driblets, such as a few crackers for a lew fresh fish, a little flour for a piece of seal meat, a few biscuit and a little tea for some work done, and it can only be returned in a sort of lump. There has been little or no waste, however, and in the matter of food, if any was left after a meal, and was left in the pantry until it became a little stale, there was always an empty stomach near by that was ready to eat it. Whether gold or silver exists in this section of country or not is yet to be determined. The former has been found north of us in small quantities on streams flowing into Kotzebue Sound, and rich silver deposits had been found about 200 miles south. No prospecting appears to have ever been done in this region. The natives have brought some very fine specimens of pure graphite to the station and some samples of white mica, which were found in the mountains east and in sight of the station. Samples of stone from which a red and also white paint are made have been brought in, and we are told both exist in large quantities. Whether they would have any value* I do not know, but both seem to make colors that stand exposure to weather very well. I have stated before that Port Clarence is the name of the harbor on the north side of which is located the station, and that it is the ren- dezvous of vessels on their way to the Arctic. They arrive here about the last of June and remain until towards the 10th or loth of July. The bay affords the ships a secure harbor, and sometimes as many as twenty lie here at one time, waiting for the ice to clear in the Arctic so as to permit them to sail into its waters in search of whale. Puring their stay they lay in a supply of fur clothing for their men S. Ex. 70 6 82 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF and trade for furs and occasionally whalebone. The ships seldom run in here on their return from the Arctic in the fall, for they usually stay there until driven out by the ice, and when they once get turned toward home they spread all sail and lose no time in getting away from the frigid waters of the northern sea. But one vessel stopped here last year on its way south, the Mary D. Hume, which had spent two winters at Herschel Island, the most northeastern point ever visited by a whaling vessel. She arrived here on September 6, and left on the following day. This ship had met with a most profitable voyage, their catch amounting in value to several hundred thousand dollars. Among the fifty or more vessels that come into Bering Sea each year, the one most welcomed by the few whites and natives as well, is the U. S. revenue steamer Bear, commanded by Capt. M. A. Healy. In the past twelve seasons Capt. Ilealy has spent two or three mouths each year cruising about, visiting the different missionary and trading stations, and his vessel has often been the asylum for unfortunate sea- men, and the only hope and protection afforded the whites scattered along the coast. When he thought a Avhite man, who had been left at some native settlement, was liable to be molested by them when he was completely at their mercy, some of the leading natives were summoned aboard the ship and then told he would hold them responsible for the white man's safety until he returned the following year. This was as good as an insurance policy on his life, and the natives were certain to see that no harm came to him. When the Bear is in" the vicinity of a native village, it swarms with natives, and, although they stand in mortal dread of her guns, they are kindly treated, and given to under- stand harm will only come to them if they molest any of the whites living among them. Besides receiving valuable assistance from the men on the Bear in the erection of the frame building and supplying us with many things that had been overlooked in our stores, both myself and assistant received a number of little kindnesses from Capt. Healy and also fronj his wife, who was aboard the ship last season, that contributed very much to our comfort during the long winter months in which we were left alone. To the officers of the Bear we are also under many obliga- tions for favors received, and of a character that would not admit qf anything in the way of recompense, but in expressions of gratitude. As I concluded the last paragraph I happened to look toward the south and saw a low, oblong-shaped mound rising out of the water, and it marks the location of what is known as King's Island. It stands solitary and alone, and is inhabited by about 200 natives, who are com- pletely isolated from the rest of the world for eight months in the year. The natives depend upon the seal and walrus almost entirely for their living, and, as occurred two years ago, if their catch is small they are left on the verge of starvation. At the time referred to the Bear called DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. in there on its way north and found the natives so reduc that they were killing- and eating their dogs. Oapt. lit started a subscription among the officers of the ship a quickly made up for the purchase of food, and the Bear liinia-u,... steamed for St. Michaels and returned in a few days with the relief so generously donated. I now come to a subject that I wish it were possible to pass over with only a passing reference, but I feel that it deserves to be even more fully discussed than perhaps would be proper in my report. I refer to the poverty of the natives. On the 31st of March the last page in our log book was reached, and a new one had to be taken for the balance of the year's record. Before reaching the bottom of the page the following was written : "This book contains a record of affairs at this station of just nine months. Had we opened the record with the subject that was most prominently brought to our notice, it would have been the deplorably poor condi- tion of the natives. Had we recorded every day the subject that was most prominently brought to our attention, it would have been their continual and harassing poverty, made doubly severe by the rigors of an Arctic winter. The same subject is an appropriate close of our record at the end of this book, only doubly emphasized. On account of the limited supply of our stores, we have had to ignore many appeals that have been made to us for food, and we look forward to the advent of the short summer with many hopes that it will come earlier than usual, for the sake of these poor people. To-night I detected a little boy in the act of stealing a biscuit in our house, and it was a struggle when I reprimanded him. I would rather have given him the box, for, poor soul, his hunger craved it." The natural food of these people in winter is the seal, whale meat, and dried fish. In the summer months it is prepared by trying out the seal, and that season they catch fish for winter use. In another part of this report it is shown that no deer or other fresh meat is now obtained for food, which, a few yifars ago, was so plentiful. Occasionally a grouse or ptarmigan is caught, and sometimes an owl in winter, but they are scarce, and the only other fresh meat to be had is the rabbit, and in this particular section they are by no means plentiful. By the middle of the winter the supply of seal meat and oil put up in the summer is exhausted and the men must then venture out on the treacherous ice to open water for seals, sometimes sleeping there for several nights and subsisting entirely on dried or frozen fish. Often they have their trouble for their pains and return home empty handed. The women and children, in order to get food sufficient to sustain life, stand on the ice in the bay and fish through holes cut through the ice 3 and 4 feet deep. The fish will weigh but a few ounces each, and unless unusually good luck is met with, one person can catch scarcely enough in one day to supply two or three persons. Occasionally they vary it 8J"4 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF by spearing- small flounders which are found a little nearer shore. It does not matter how cold the weather is. They stand on the ice behind blocks of snow piled up to protect them from, the biting winds, some- times for hours at a time, and it has often been a wonder to me how they manage to keep from freezing. These constitute absolutely the oidy food these people have to eat. A more extended reference to this subject would be to reiterate the same dismal conditions and the same dreary routine of labor, trials, and suf- ferings of these people to obtain nourishment sufficient to sustain life. There is one feature, however, that will illustrate better than any- thing I call to mind the scarcity of food with these people. It is the length of time a mother nurses her young. It is no uncommon thing for a woman to nurse her child until it is four or Ave years old, and although its teeth are all completely formed at two years of age, they are permitted to suck at the mother's breast until they are nearly large enough to take a hook and join the other little children in supplying themselves with food. The mother reasons that it is better to let the child nurse her than allow it to cry for food when she has none to give it. And in the face of this distressing condition of affairs, there was food sufficient to supply their families for several months, yet we have scarcely lost the value of a dollar by theft. In plain sight of their vil- lage there were feeding a herd of 150 reindeer, that would not only sup- ply them with food in abundance, but clothing to keep their half naked bodies warm, and not one was molested. The lives of only two white men stood between an abundance and their hungry stomachs, and I often found myself wondering what spot on earth where white men were standing on the verge of starvation would witness tins condition long. Every deer would be killed and every particle of food distributed, and their act would be justified by public opinion. RECOMMENDATIONS. It seems to me that the repeal of the law prohibiting the sale of re- peating arms and fixed ammunition in Alaska would not only be a humane act but one that is urgently demanded. The scarcity of the whale and walrus, and the danger that has to be encountered in pursuit of the seal by the natives, would be much lessened if they could be allowed to purchase them at a fair price. Few of the natives are supplied with anything but muzzle-loading rifles, and many of them hunt the seal and walrus with ivory-pointed spears and harpoons. The opinion that the law should be repealed is shared by every white man who has lived among them, and the force of the argument ought to be much stronger on this account. The object sought to be accom- plished in enacting the law was undoubtedly to put the natives in a position that, in case of a revolt, they would be practically at the mercy of the white men with the repeating rifle. There is practically no dan- DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 85 ger of such a condition of affairs ever arising, and a white man among them, if every one was in possession of one of the latest improved fire- arms, would be just as safe as he is to-day. Occasionally a native is found who lias a repeating rifle, purchased on some whaling vessel or from someone on the Siberian side, where there appears to be no opposition to the traffic. The law is practically a dead letter all through Alaska, and it is so often broken that nothing is thought of it; yet it affords to those who deal in rifles an excuse for charging an exorbitant price for them. It has occurred to me many times, wheu watching the herders chase quite a distance to bring back to the herd a few deer that had wandered off, that shepherd dogs would be valuable among them. I can see no reason why they would not be equally serviceable among reindeer as with sheep. A deer is naturally afraid of a dog. So is a sheep. But the latter will graze within a few feet of one if he is making no demon- stration of attacking him, and feel perfectly secure. I have noticed the same thing with reindeer, and have often driven alongside of a team of dogs and they were perfectly quiet. It might be found neces- sary to breed the shepherd dogs to those of this country in order to make them useful in cold weather, but this could doubtless be doue aud preserve the instinct of herding in the breed. A visit to an Eskimo hut in winter would convince one that they should have something in the way of a stove or fireplace, different from their oil lamp. It answers very well for warming their houses, but it is not sufficient for drying the moisture that accumulates. The Eskimo leave their lints just as soon as the first thaw comes in the spring, and live in tents from that time until snow comes in the fall. Most of the huts have an apartment cut otf from the little passageway that furnishes the means of entrance to their living-room, which is used for cooking. It is a miserable excuse for that purpose, filling with smoke with the least lire, and to breathe at all one must almost lie flat on the ground. There is stone near enough to every settlement with which to build fireplaces, and with the abundance of fuel at hand, they could make their huts comfortable in this way. One or more could be built at the station if some sheet iron, together with iron for log rests, were sent here. As it is the purpose of the Government to relieve these people from their sufferings, a reform should be instituted in the matter of their houses. Lumber could be kept on hand and furnished at cost, with which to build floors and ceiling or roofs for their houses. They could construct them with logs, as now, but it is impossible to make them water-tight without lumber for the roofs. They could pay for it in work or furs, and I have no doubt, if the opportunity were afforded them to procure it in this way, they would all take advantage of it. A large and comfortable house should be constructed at the expense of the Government, built partly underground, for the accommodation 86 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF of visiting natives. Daring the past winter many natives came here from a distance, mainly for the purpose of seeing- the deer, and they were quartered upon the natives of our village, thus becoming a bur- den by crowding into their houses and eating up their food. If a house for this purpose could be built, there would be no excuse for strangers to crowd in on these people. It would serve as a place for them to spend their time while here, and give them no excuse for intruding upon the employes of the station. During last winter the men and women working for us, on account of our limited room, had to work in an apart- ment that was frequently crowded with outsiders, and it very much interfered with their work. One of the most important articles for tlie use of the station would be a portable bellows, anvil, and blacksmith tools. The frost in the ground dulls tools quickly, and shovels, spades, crowbars, and picks often need sharpening. Sled runners of iron or steel could be made and a thousand uses of this character could be found, besides their being a valuable instructor for the natives. There should be a good supply of skins, both reindeer and seal, kept constantly on hand. Repairs are continually needed and for a dozen persons a large number are necessary to last through the winter, which may be said to continue for nine months in the year. Our experience of the past year has demonstrated the importance of this matter. As all reindeer skins come from the Siberian side, and none can be procured except from the Cape Prince of Wales natives, after the summer has closed, the natives at that place have a monopoly of the business. They know very well that the demand for an article always regulates its price and take advantage of it. Last fall, when traveling was really dangerous, [ was obliged to make a trip by canoe to the cape to purchase skins, and had my boat completely smashed to pieces on the trip. Sheds and a corral should also be built for the accommodation of sick or injured deer, and as a shelter for lawns born during severe weather. Next winter it is the intention to have the herd range a few miles from the station and the herders live in tents near the deer, coming to the station only when necessary to obtain supplies. As spring approaches they will be moved gradually toward the station, and about the time the young are born they will be near enough to be cared for, if necessary. If the transportation of deer from the other side should assume such magnitude as to make time valuable, a landing could be made 50 miles west of the station and from there they could be driven in. There is an excellent beach at that point, and in calm weather they could be landed there as easily as at the station. But this is a matter that must be left to the officer in charge of* the ship that does the transporting, who, of course, will better understand what to do in the matter. I have referred to the brand adopted for the use of the station iu another place in my report. Steps should be taken soon to give notice DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 87 by publication of the adoption of such brand and thereby acquire all tli<' protection usual in such matters. I respectfully suggest the immediate discontinuance of the practice of teaching school by the officers of the station. While with us the past year the extent of school to be taught was understood to depend upon the time that could be spared from other duties, yet we felt anx- ious to accomplish as much as possible the first year, and teaching became a diversion that we really and truly enjoyed. But there is a wide difference between the duties devolving- upon an officer of the sta- tion and those of a school-teacher. In one, the teacher is supposed to practice more or less indulgence and patience, and an Eskimo can not understand why the teacher can not be governed by the same princi- ples and the same attitude toward him in requiring him to do his work. We found it hard to harmonize both duties, and I think the best inter- ests of the Government can be subserved by discontinuing the practice altogether. Herders should not, in my judgment, be expected to attend school. For that matter, I think nothing should be imposed upon them but to do odd jobs about the station, such, for instance, as cutting and haul- ing wood, etc. All of our herders, with one exception, were grown men, and their attendance at school the past winter beeame almost com- pulsory. They seem to look upon it as a matter in which their pride suffers, being obliged to study and associate with the children and become subjects of ridicule to a certain extent with the other natives. While the mere matter of herding carries with it no very great labor or physical exertion, yet it is something that severely tries their patience and becomes exceedingly monotonous. During pleasant weather it is not so bad, but in long spells of cold and stormy weather it must be very trying, and for this reason they should be allowed to return to the station when relieved from duty, and enjoy a little recreation that will take their minds into different channels. From the experience of the past year I would respectfully and strongly urge that a physician be employed at the station. We were constantly called niton to prescribe for natives, and in two or three instances they came from considerable distances. All through the winter our herders were ailing more or less, and occasionally one or two had to lie off for a time to be doctored. One of our most valuable men had to cease work entirely, and had a physician been present I have no doubt he would have been restored to health in a short time. In the early part of last summer I was exposed to wet weather a great deal, and contracted a cold which later on caused other complications which for several weeks made me seriously ill. Indeed, I fear, on account of not Inning proper medicines and the services of a. physician, my con- stitution, always very robust, may have become permanently impaired. It seems to me that in a matter involving so much responsibility, and in which so much depends upon the health of those in charge, one of 88 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF the first things to be provided for ought to be the employment of a com- petent physician. During last winter three cases came to our notice of natives being afflicted by venereal disease. One of them appeared to be a serious one, and his reputation for licentiousness was such that we expected sooner or later to hear of other cases of a like character. If they were developed, however, they did not come to our notice. We administered such remedies as we had, and the favorable result was more from acci- dentally stumbling on the proper remedies than from any knowledge of what should have been done. It may be possible that it only served to check the disease, but if this is so it will doubtless be demonstrated before it is too late to procure help from the physician attached to the Bear. The continuance of two men at the station is essential. The duties are so diversified, and the natives are so ignorant in regard to the use of tools and in the execution of all kinds of work, that the supervision of one man is necessary all the time. The watchful care bestowed upon the herd the past year, during which time one or the other of us made frequent visits to the deer when some distance from the station, impressed the natives with the idea that they were of considerable consequence and should be carefully guarded. All sorts of perplexities have arisen during the past year, many of which will appear in different parts of this report, also the record kept in the log book, the latter of which I commend to your special atten- tion. Hence, I do not feel that it is necessary to refer to them in detail here. The work in many instances was of a character that required careful thought in arranging the preliminaries, as well as in their execution. The enterprise was a new one, instituted among a strange people, and a mistake in some matters might seriously interfere with the harmonious discipline in the future. In the light of the experience had with herders during the past year, 1 am of opinion that importing men from a distance is poor policy. Of the eight men we had, two came from CO miles west of here, and, although it was a short distance, they were constantly talking of going home, and nothing but vigorous persuasion kept one of them from leaving. Natives are prone to homesickness, and anyone who has experienced that feel- ing knows that it means an unrest of body and mind that nothing can satisfy. During the last days of April a young man arrived from the mis- sionary station on the Yukon River known as St. James Mission. He brought a letter from that worthy missionary, Mr. Prevost, dated August 12, 1892. Where he had been during all these months I do not know. He was not over 18 years of age, and, although able to speak a few words of English, we could understand but little he said, and he could not speak a word of the language used by the natives. He had been in some way connected with the school of the mission, and evi- DOMESTICATED REINDEEE INTO ALASKA. S(J dently could not adapt himself to the manner of living our herders practiced. He expected to be fed on bread and other articles wo wore not able to give our men, and in a few days he concluded he would not remain here, and started for home. 1 will further state that, from our experience, no native should be employed at the station who speaks a word of English. If they under stand what is said by the white men when speaking to each other they carry gossip to the natives and thus cause dissatisfaction. A fair illustration of this will be seen by reference to that pari of my report which speaks of a herder being discharged on account of trouble made by his half-breed wife. There are three natives among as many tribes in this vicinity who have been among the whites just enough to speak a few words of English, and in each instance they are characters who are of very little account to themselves and a disturbing element in their own com- munity. The white men at the station should learn to speak the native lan- guage, something they can acquire in a few months, and then they are able to take every advantage that is to be acquired in being able to understand what they want, aiul, when thus equipped, they can wield a greater influence among them. It is very early yet to determine what is going to be the best method of disposing of the reindeer, and how to get the natives to adopt the practice of domesticating them. My mind is clearly made up on one point, lnnvever, namely, that the Government should retain absolute control of the reindeer for a number of years. Just how long this should be wTould depend upon how fast they increased and how soon the natives learned to take care of them. The practice inaugurated of paying the herders 10 deer each for two years' service seems to be a very good one, if, at the end of that time, they will let the deer remain in the herd. If they are allowed to take them away or dispose of them as they see fit, in a short time they would be killed for food, or sold to some man who, in a few years, would own all the deer. This would be no serious objection if the deer were as numerous as on the Siberian side, for skins then would be sold at a nominal price; but, until they do exist in large numbers, care should be taken to prevent them from getting into the hands of a few men. It might be well to adopt the practice of giving to each herder 10 deer for two years' service, with the understanding that they shall remain in the herd for five years or longer. At the expiration of this time he will be permitted to take them out, with, say, five or ten or fifteen more. He will then have the nucleus for a good herd, which, if taken care of, will in a few years increase to a large number. To further illustrate: If, for instance, 4 men are employed, belonging to the village near the station, for two years, and each second year 4 new ones are added, at the end of the sixth year 12 men will own 120 90 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF deer. This of itself is a pretty good-sized herd and of sufficient num- bers to encourage them in preserving it; and if to this number are added, for instance, only the increase for the five years they have remained in the herd, they will have sufficient, with good care, to sup- ply themselves with food and clothing, while at the same time the num- ber will increase. From the reasons given elsewhere in my report Por,t Clarence should become the chief station and be made permanent. If this is done I believe that, as soon as two or three hundred deer can be spared for the herd, a new station should be started 50 or 100 miles away, and this should be continued until they are thoroughly distributed through- out the territory that is adapted to their propagation. If this is done, the herders who have served their two years' apprenticeship would be qualified to go with the herd to the new station, and by this means the employment of Siberians could be dispensed with. A few deer should not, in my opinion, be distributed to natives, or even to white men, unless it is pretty well known that they will be cared for. If a few are sent here and there, and through some cause, however unavoidable, the deer should not live, it would be a hard mat- ter to get the natives to believe that they can be made to live and increase, and this prejudice will be difficult to eradicate. The fact that we have brought our deer through the winter successfully has done more to establish confidence among the natives and to enlist their sym- pathy in the enterprise than anything else that could have occurred. This is especially so because they generally predicted that they were not adapted to this country and would all die. It might be a good idea each winter to have a number of deer killed and the food and skins distributed among the natives. This would be an ocular demonstration of what they would have if the enterprise blossomed into an industry; and perhaps the old adage that the best way to reach one's heart is through his stomach would be verified among the natives. In conclusion, I beg to offer my congratulations on the result of the first year's experiment in this enterprise. It is all the more gratifying to me because I know and fully appreciate the difficulties under which its establishment was accomplished. Those friends who have sus- tained you in your ceaseless efforts in behalf of these suffering people have cause now to share in the gratification that must be yours. I trust that future years wili see the boundless area of Arctic Alaska overflowing with these beautiful animals, and that they will always exist as living monuments of your efforts in a most righteous cause. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. METEOROLOGY AT TELLER REINDEER STATION, 91 Date. Tem tu ie ra- re. Wind. Remarks. A.M. P.M. Course. Force. Sept. 1 2 o o S S do Heavy ram. Sunny most of day. Do. 3 s 4 s 5 N Light Sunny most of day; frost. 6 S ...°.do 7 N Fair Do. 8- S Light... Chilly and pleasant. Rainy. 9 s 10 s 11 90 s Light..., 12 13 s Light Clear and pleasant. 14 38 42 34 32 35 40 42 36 35 36 34 35 32 34 36 32 NE do 15 N£ do 1G N 17 NW Light Fair Snowy; froze at night. Light snow and sleet in morning. 18 NW 19 NW do 20 SE do Rain most of day and night. Sunshine most of day. 21 N 22 N Light. 23 Sunny most of day. Clear and pleasant. 24 25 26 31 30 28 28 20 26 26 28 24 24 30 28 28 20 20 32 32 32 32 30 26 35 30 34 20 30 24 26 16 20 27 23 14 15 16 16 10 5 12 11 4 23 10 10 3 32 Cloudy most of day ; light snow. Cloudy. 27 N 28 N 29 N Sunny and cold. Sunny and light snow. 30 Oct. 1 N 2 NW" ' 3 X 4 NE Do. 5 6 20 32 32 36 35 20 28 22 22 30 32 28 32 28 20 21 22 25 26 19 15 20 15 16 13 2 14 6 8 i 3 X 7 S 8 S 9 ing night. 10 N 11 XE 12 E 13 E 14 NE W 15 and pleasant. Snow all day; pleasant evening. Snowing most of day. 16 W w 17 18 X\E 19 E 20 B Blowing hard last night and to-day. 21 E 22 E 23 E Light wind and pleasant day. Cold and sunny. 24 N 25 N K 26 NNE Do. 27 N 28 N 29 N 30 NE Cold and pleasant. 31 NE Nov. 1 NE Cold and pleasant. 2 NNE..NE.... 3 ENE Cold and pleasant. Do 4 NE 5 NE., E 6 E..N 7 ENE 8 N Strongin forenoon ; at 5 p. m., blizzard. Blizzard day and night. Pleasant day; blow in evening. Pleasant and cold. 9 N 10 X 11 NE 92 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF METEOROLOGY AT TELLER REINDEER STATIOX— Continued. 1892— Continued. Tempera- ture. A.M.P.M Wind. Course. Force. Remarks. —6 ~"o 35 4 18 20 14 10 6 2 —3 —13 -15 SEE.... NE SE..NE NNE ... ENE..NNE N N.toS NE. and E . . ENE..NE .. NE..NNE.. NE ENE., E . SW.,N.. N E..EXE... NE SSW..SW. None SSE.,SE.,NE. E.,N jr.... s .... s .... SE... x !•: . . N.... N. ME., N. N. SE SE..E ... S NE NE \ K NE NE NE SE., NE NE N.... NNE Strong last night; mild in forenoon; strong afternoon. Changing ; varying. . Blizzard night and day Blizzard until 1 p. m . Blowing strong, fore- noon. Light Strong; light Fair; light Light do do Changing; strong in afternoon. Blizzard, night and forenoon. Light wind in fore- noon, increasing in afternoon. Light, forenoon; hliz- zard, afternoon. Blizzard, night and day Blizzard in nigh t ; forenoon fair ; wind increasing in after- noon. Light, forenoon ; bliz- zard. Strong Fair Light Very light do. do do Light do do Strong, forenoon; light, afternoon. Light ......do Pleasant and cold. Light snow. Do. Heavy wind in forenoon; pleasant in afternoon. Light wind ; cloudy. Blowing hard in forenoon; light wind in afternoon. Light wind ; pleasant. . Do. Pleasant; dog sun. Cold and hazy. Overcast. Sleet in forenoon ; overcast ; wind strong in afternoon. Snow in night; pleasant day. No sun; wind and hail in afternoon. Snow in night; blowing in afternoon; sun out. Strong wind; snow in night. Cold and windy ; overcast. Light wind. Overcast; pleasant forenoon; light snow in afternoon. Overcast. Overcast; snow. Overcast. Pleasant, afternoon and evening. Overcast; cold. Overcast; light snow, evening. Do. Overcast; sun out a little while. Snow last night; overcast. Sunny. ( ivcrcast ; light snow. Pleasant in forenoon; snow in night and afternoon. Snow; overcast. Snowinj Overcast. Do. Snow Hying. Overcast. Rain. Snow melting; warm. Drizzle, rain. Sunny. Sun set at 2:10 p.m. Fine day ; sunny. Fine day. Do'. Very fine day. Do. Do. DOMESTICATED EEINDKKE INTO ALASKA. 93 METEOUOLOGY AT TELLER REINDEER STATION— Continued. 1893. Date. Jan. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 *8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 10 17 18 10 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Feb. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tempera- ture. A.M. P. M — C —8 -20 —20 —10 —4 —4 —6 —8 —2 —29 —13 —10 —19 —10 —9 24 17 10 22 17 9 2 —9 —10 22 —19 —10 Wind. Course. —9 —11 2 0 —4 — 3 —6 11 —3 —13 -21 -10 —8 — 0 —10 —9 NNK .WW., N .. NNK., NE. NK N K E Changing... N.... ( lhanging. .. N..... N E.,N S N Chaugii g. . N N JN" N.,cbangin£ NE..E nv: NIC E E.... ic... E . . . . E . . . . E.... E., N E . . . . E ssw NE SSW N., SSW.. N\, SE.... NE.. N\V. S.. N Changing. N N X N N N X N N N 10 Changing SE...... NT N SE. ; changing N... X., SE N N Changing. X. ...... . Force. Strong; light Fair do Strong Fair Strong do Very strong do Gale Blizzard Fair Strong in forenoon; lair in afternoon. Fair do do Strong Mild do do Fair Mild do Fair; gale Fair do do do do Strong; fair in after- noon. Very strong Mild Very strong Light do do do Fair do Fair; blizzard Light Strong and gale Very strong; blizzard Blizzard Blizzard still raging . Quitting down.. Gale do Light fair Fair Strong Fair Gale Blizzard Bli/./.ard in Corn n ; light in afternoon. Strong blizzard Light Very light Blizzard Remarks. Overcast and misty; cold. Cold and misty. Cold. i >\ ercasl ; eold. Do. Overcast; little sun. Do. Very cold; sunny. Very cold; overcast. Do. Do. Cold : overcast. Cold ; misty. Fine day. Cold. Do. Very cold; sunny. Fine day; sunny. Do. Do. Fine day. Do'. Light snow. Light snow in night; overcast. Fine day. Do. Do. Cold. Do. Overcast. Snow in night and forenoon. Overcast; thawing. Overcast; snow blowing. Snow falling; overcast. Overcast and sunny ; line aurora. Fine day ; sunny. Do. Cloudy and snowing. Fine in forenoon and afternoon; snow blowing in evening. Sunny and line in forenoon. Very fine. Snow blowing. Overcast. Do. Do. Clear evening. Snow Hying. Do. Overcast; light snow. Light snow. Snow living. Snow flying; Snow flying. Overcast. Snow falling; Overcast. Sunny. Fine day. Overcast. sunny, overcast. * On this date the thermometer received a fall and the spirits separated. Heated it ami got spirits together again. Put a mercury thermometer out that also had had a fall. They register differently, and so we conclude both to be out of order. Although we take the thermometer readings, do not believe them to bo correct. The weather seems colder than thermometers register. 94 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP METEOROLOGY AT TELLER REINDEER STATION-Continued. 1893— Continued. Temperature. A.M. —4 —•JO —12 —11 —11 20 16 16 0 —4 It 20 28 20 21 —3 -4 —2 0 10 16 18 20 10 Cold . . Warm ...do .. ...do.. Cold - 25 27 20 P. M. Pleasant. . Very cold Cold ...do Mild.. ...do Cold Mild ...do Cold Very cold. Cold Mild ...do Warm Mild Cold . . . .do do Cold . Mild. Cold ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do Very cqld . Cold.. Warm Mild - Warm Cold.. Mild. Cold Wind. Course. W.,E.... E.,ENE N N N., NNE NE ENE., E . NE.! SE '. ne: NE.,E... E E.,W.... S NW S NE. NE SE SE NE., SE .... NE.,S.,NE. NE N... NW S .... S .-.. N..., E . . . . N ... SW . ESE . N ... N ... N. N N N W., N SE E.,W., E SW N S.,N.... Force. Very light Light Strong in forenoon ; blizzard, afternoon. Gale Light do Gale Light ...do ...do Strong Very strong Strong Fair Very light Strong in forenoon ; light in afternoon. Gale Very strong in fore- noon; light in af- ternoon. Very light Still Very light ...do ...do Light ...do ...do Strong Light forenoon; strong afternoon. Strong.. Strong; light in af- Doon. Light all day Strong Light do ...do ...do ...do ...do Light ...do Fair Light Fair Blizzard Fair Strong do Very strong Remarks. Fine day. Do? Snow flying. Overcast. Sunny; light fall of snow in af- ternoon. Fine day. Snow flying most of day. Snowing. Snowing in afternoon. Fine and pleasai t. Fine most of day ; some snow. Overcast; snow' flying. Snow flying part of the day. Overcast. Very pleasant. Pleasant. Snow flying. Sunny; pleasant afternoon. Do. Do. Pleasant. Do. Do. Overcast. Do. Light snow; overcast forenoon; sunny afternoon. Snow. Thaw forenoon; cold afternoon. N.... S. E.. S .... S.,N. Mild ...do Very mild ...do Mild in forenoo:i i strong in afternoon Very strong Very mild Mild Mild; fair Strong Very s' ronj Strong do.... Cold. ' Do. Light snow forenoon. Cold. Clear; snow afternoon. Overcast; warm. Mild; light snow all day. Thawing; overcast. Overcast. Overcast; light fall of snow. Overcast; light snow evening. Overcast; pleasant. Pleasant. Pleasant; light snow afternoon. Snowing. Very pleasant. Do. Do. Pleasant forenoon; snow flying afternoon. Very pleasant. Little snow in afternoon; thaw. Overcast; fog on mountains. Very pleasant. Pleasant forenoon; snow blow- ing afternoon. Snow flying. Pleasant; light rain afternoon. Light rain afternoon. Pleasant and thaw; cold in after- noon. Overcast; snow flying afternoon. Clear and pleasant. Do. Do. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. METEOROLOGY AT TELLER REINDEER STATION"— Continual. 1893-Continued. 95 Date. May 1 Temperature. A.M. M. I*. M 26 20 "Wind. Course. Force. N.,SE.,N Strong in fore- noon; mild in afternoon. S..NB -Mild S.,X Mild; fair E., N .Mild None Very light stir. . . Very light S.,N. S.,S"W.,S. S..M..-. n.s... N..S-... S.,N. N.,S. S.,N-.'- NE..E. E E E SW„ NE NE NE E.,N\V\ E SE E., NW. N\V.... W N.. N.. N.. W. do Strong Fair Fair; strom Strong. Fair . . . Very light . Strong Very light . ...do ...do Mild. Fair . .do Very light ...do Light in forenoon ; strong in aft era on Light. Very light ...do .. do Strong . Fair . . . ...do.. Light.. Remarks. < !lear and pleasant. T)o. Pleasant; thawing. Very pleasanl ; sky perfectly clear. 1 itjsa hngh tin: Light snow falling in afternoon; sky clear. Light snow in afternoon; sky cloudy and dark. Cloudy all day and sun obscured. Sunny and warm; thaw must of day. Cloudy; sun in forenoon; simw blow- ing afternoon. Snow flying most of day. Sunny and thaw; snow falling in afternoon. Very pleasant. Cold and sunny. I lloudy ; few drops of rain. Cloudy ; rain most of day till 2 p. m. Cloudy; snow in evening; light rain at times. Light snow most of day and nigbt. Froze last night; cloudy and cold wind. Cold and clear; froze last night; thaw to-day. Pleasant and thaw. Pleasant; rain in forenoon. Pleasant; rain in evening. Pleasant and cloudy. Pleasant; clear most of day. Pleasant. Froze last night; wannest day wo have had. Pleasant; sunny. Light shower and hail in afternoon Froze last night; pleasant dav. Do. 96 EEPOKT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF SOME OF THE HABITS AND CUSTOMS OF THE THE ESKIMO. The Eskimo in this portion of Arctic Alaska do not live, as many suppose, in snow lionses. They live in villages, usually of eight or ten families, in lints built underground; Usually more than one family occupy one hut, and often 10 or 15 persons live for eight months in the year in a single apartment that is barely large enough for 2 persons. Their huts are built by digging a hole in the ground about 6 feet deep, and logs are stood up side by side all around the hole. On the tops of these are laid logs that rest even with the top of the ground. Stringers are then laid across them and other logs are laid on these, when dirt is covered over, leaving an opening about 2 feet square, over which is stretched a piece of walrus entrail that is so transparent that light comes through, answering the purpose of a window in this respect. An entrance into the hut is made through an apartment constructed similar to the hut, in the top of which a hole is left large enough to admit of a person getting through, and by means of a sort of step- ladder he reaches the bottom. From this is a passageway, usually about 2 feet square, through which he must crawl on his hands and knees to reach the living room of the hut, perhaps 15 or 20 feet away. When completed, the evidence seen on the outside of anything that looks like a human habitation is the cache, upon which is lashed a sled and such articles as are not needed during the winter, and the dogs belonging to the natives. The tops of the huts are so nearly on a level with the ground that it is the common practice to walk over them in passing about the village or from one hut to another. It is often the case that one entrance to the passageway from the outside answers for three or four huts, passages diverging from the- main entrance in as many directions. Usually a small apartment is cut off from one side of the passage- way, which is used as a cook room. It is a small affair, with a hole in the top intended for the smoke to escape through, and in this is built a fire of driftwood for cooking purposes. They are miserably incon- venient apartments, and even an Eskimo woman stays in one just long- enough to see that the fire is kept going and the food does not burn, or she would be suffocated by the smoke that completely fills it. Logs are split so as to preserve a smooth surface and laid down for a floor. On one side of the hut is built a sort of platform, about mid- way from the floor to the ceiling, wide enough for a man to lie cross* DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 97 wise, and the space above and below answers for an upper and lower bunk for the occupants to sleep in at night. No tables or chairs are ever used by the Eskimo, and the only article found in the way of furniture is their stove, or, more properly speak- ing, lamp. They are all of one pattern, usually of wood, but some- times of stone, and are shaped the same as a circular board would be if cut in halves. The center of the lamp is hollowed out to the depth of perhaps a half inch, thus leaving a ridge all around. Along the inner circle of this ridge is spread a sort of cotton, gathered from a wild shrub in summer. This answers for a lampwick, and when satu- rated with seal oil will burn a long time before being consumed. The lamp is placed on two wooden pins driven into the logs on one side of the hut, and above the lamp is driven another wooden pin, on which is placed a piece of seal blubber, just far enough from the flame to cause the oil to drip sufficiently to furnish fuel for the lamp. The Eskimo may be truly said to burn the midnight oil, for their lamps are never suffered to go out from the time they are lighted in the fall until they abandon their huts for the tent in summer. They are their only stove, and for heating purposes answer an excellent use. They are their only lamp, for, indeed, they need no other. Their huts in dull weather would be almost dark without them. While the lamp (and sometimes there are three or four) of the hut is a large one, and the occupants can catch enough seal to keep them sup- plied, and furnish heat enough to keep them warm, yet there is so little covering above and the ceiling is so closely exposed to the cold that che huts are always more or less damp. As soon as the first thaw occurs in the spring the occupants and everything in the huts are moved into tents outside, the natives all abandoning them, even while the snow is yet deep on the ground and the wind blows cold. When the warm season commences the huts leak badly and no attempt is made to again occupy them until it freezes up in the fall. They are then again taken possession of and the occupants, old and young, go through a season of coughs and colds that is so prevalent that it assumes somewhat the character of an epidemic. At the end of the passage leading into the hut is a skin which is pushed aside when one enters or goes out. When this is closed over the hole the apartment is practically airtight, and when occupied by a dozen or more persons the air soon becomes so foul that one side of the little skin window has to be pulled up to let it escape. Occasionally a hut is found where the occupants appreciate the value of fresh air and have inserted a wooden spout in the roof through which the impure air is allowed to escape. As has been observed, the Eskimo have no chairs or stools, and know nothing of the comfort to be derived from their use. The attitude usually assumed by the men when in the hut is to sit with their legs S. Ex, 70 7 98 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF folded up, tailor fashion, and the women sit down flat on the floor. It is the common practice for both men and women, when in the hut, to remove their artigas or coats, and they are thus naked from the waist up. This is customary for the boys and girls, but when the latter get to be 8 or 10 years of age they are taught that such conduct is immod- est, and from that time, or until they become wives, they are never seen without some covering, however light, to conceal their busts. Up to within a very few years the tent of the Eskimo was made from the entrails of the seal or walrus, but, while they answered the pur- pose of protecting them from the rain, they were easily torn, and, as the animals became scarcer, harder to get. It took a number of seals to furnish material for even a small tent, and it was only by the utmost care in using them that they would last a single season. With the advent of the whaling vessels came calico and drilling, and at the present time nearly every family possesses a tent made from some kind of cloth goods. They are made circular in form, and are as near the shape of a globe cut in two as they can make it. Poles are stuck into the ground and bent, their ends being tied together with seal- thong, and when the tent is stretched over them, are just high enough in the center to allow one to move about in a stooping position. The bottom of the tent is brought down to the ground and sand and gravel heaped up so as to exclude the air, and, if the material is firm and heavy, are altogether warm and comfortable quarters to occupy, except in very cold weather. The Eskimo are, as a rule, industrious. It is seldom that a lazy per- son is seen among either sex. They early learn that an existence is only to be had by applying themselves to some task, and the older they grow the more they are impressed with the knowledge that they can satisfy the cravings of an empty stomach only by industrious labor. The preparation of skins requires ceaseless exertion, and when they are ready to be made up sinew thread must be braided and twisted, which of itself is an art. This is one of the first things a young girl is taught, and while she is yet almost an infant is capable of preparing thread from deer or whale sinew with all the dexterity of a grown woman. Although the Eskimo women have long since learned the advantage of the needle over the ivory awl used by their greatgrandin others, they find the linen and cotton thread of their white sisters inferior to the sinew thread in working upon skins, and seldom use it. The thim- ble of civilization has found a place by the side of the needle in the work-bag of the Eskimo woman, and it is a great improvement over that formerly used by her, which was made of a piece of sealskin cut so as to slip over the finger. In sewing the Eskimo woman wears the thimble on the first or fore finger, the needle being inserted through the skin and drawn towards DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 99 her. Most women are expert sewers, and their stitches are often as even and regular as could be made by a machine. It is probably from the fact that the Eskimo are obliged to put an endless amount of labor into nearly everything they make, that is to be found the secret of their everlasting patience. They will scrape at a skin a long time before hardly an impression is made upon it, and rub and pull at one when it is hard and stiff. Their delicately formed hands seem poorly adapted to such kind of work; but in the end the skin becomes soft and pliable, and is a thing of beauty. Their hands are, without exception, small and prettily shaped. Even among those women who are tall and slimly built their hands are unusu- ally small and shapely. The same is true of their feet ; and this feature, so prominent among the female sex, is also universal among the men. And so well are they aware of this fact that a white man, weighing perhaps 160 pounds, who would in civilization be considered as possess- ing a good-shaped foot if he could wear a number seven shoe, is an object of ridicule to the Eskimo on account of his big feet. The complexion of the Eskimo is also of a character that one would scarcely expect to find among people who are brought so much in con- tact with the elements. Although the color of their skin borders strongly on the olive order, it seems soft and clear. In eating, the Eskimo all sit around in a circle, and the food is placed on the floor in the center of the group. No meal, whether it be of dried or frozen fish, seal or whale meat, is ready to be eaten until a vessel containing seal oil is at hand. This is placed in a position easily reached by those eating, and, before taking a bite of anything, it is first dipped into the oil, or two or three fingers are thrust into it, and then placed into the mouth and sucked. Such a thing as a spoon is rarely ever used by them, and it is doubtful if many of them would under- stand its use if they had one. It is when a household of Eskimo are gathered about the floor par- taking of their food that their natural disposition to mirth is given full sway, and every meal, whether in their huts or in the tent on the beach, partakes more of the nature of a family reunion than an every- day occurrence. They are naturally given to jest and laughter, and a continual hubbub reigns until the last morsel is eaten. This predisposition toward good nature is always present. A surly Eskimo is rarely to be seen, and whether it raius or shines, or the wind blows a blizzard from the north pole, they are the same happy and apparently contented people. It is the custom among the Eskimo for the women to gather the wood, make the fire, and do the cooking. They are also expected to do the fishing while the men are hunting, and to dress the game when brought in. The men are also industrious, and when at home are constantly work- ing at something. It is in the winter season that they make their nets, 100 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF prepare their harpoons and spears for walrus arid seal hunting in the spring, make aud repair their sleds, and engage in a thousand and one things that an Eskimo has to do to supply himself and family with the necessaries of life. They expend a great deal of labor in the manufac- ture of nearly every article they use. If it is something that has joints, the parts are firmly lashed together with seal thong, and when finished the joint is the last place that would give way. The net and seine made by the Eskimo are articles that display a wonderful amount of mechanical skill, and represent a great many hours of x>atient labor. The seine is used for catching salmon, and is made 30 or 40 fathoms long by 1 or 2 wide. Like everything else used by the Eskimo in which string or rope is used, it is made of sealskin, and the fine lines are cut many fathoms long, as uniform in width as if it were the prod- uct of the best machinery. The Eskimo have but one standard measure, and that is the fathom. It means as much as a man can span by holding his arms out at right angles to his body, and this measures about 0 feet. When buying calico or drilling of the whites, or measuring the dimensions of a boat or log, or for any other purpose, it is always so many fathoms, or " e sung nuk," as it is called by them. The Eskimo woman has very little taste for fancy work, and, with two or three exceptions, confine their work to the making of such arti- cles as are needed for their comfort. They often embellish their arti- gas with different colored fur, and trim them in a manner that makes them very pretty. Sometimes they make boots that are adorned with trimming, but they usually confine themselves to plain work, and it is always substantial. If a woman wants to make a present, the only thing that suggests itself to her, and in fact the only thing she ever gives to a sweetheart, is a tobacco pouch, or " tee rum i ute" as it is called. These they make in various styles, and decorate them with beads or some fancy-colored fur, such as the ermine, either in its delicate yellow tinge of summer or the pure white it assumes in winter. The men are more given to fancy work, and many of their tools and instruments are decorated with ivory. The heads of seal, cut from ivory, are often lashed to their harpoons or strung on the seal thongs stretched over their canoes, and figures of walrus, dogs, wolves, and in fact almost every animal and fish that are found there, are cut on ivory pipes, which some of them make very neatly. Some of the workers on ivory engrave pictures of these animals with an ordinary knife and will decorate a walrus tusk with a ship, which is a good imitation of one of the whaling vessels they have seen. After they have engraved the picture they rub wood ashes mixed with a little oil into the engraving, which leaves a black setting, thus showing the work in the ivory to good advantage. m » E 08 a o ■£ ^ c .^ o C a — DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 101 Many of the implements used by the Eskimo in hunting and trap- ping- display a good deal of ingenuity, and show that they have studied the habits of the wild animals very closely. If they do not succeed in get- ting much game it is not because their implements are not adapted to the purpose intended, but on account of the scarcity of the animals. The improved firearms of civilization are now needed, because the game is scarce and has become so wary that with the old style of imple- ments they can not get near enough to kill them. Yet some of them are still used by the natives who do not possess guns, and especially is this true of the harpoon in hunting seal, walrus, and whale- To one not acquainted with the manner in which these people hunt seal, it would be interesting to watch one, but in doing so his patience would be very likely to give out before he has seen the seal caught, even if he has mustered up courage sufficient to follow the native over the broken fragments of ice which must be crossed in order to reach the open water where the seal is found. When one is seen, the native cautiously crawls toward it, until he gets as near as he can on the ice. He then crouches down, and with a stick, on the end of which is fastened the claws of an eagle, he scratches the ice. A noise is made with this that resembles the cry of the seal, and seeing the native it thinks it is one of its own species, and quickly swims toward him, and when it comes within a few feet of the native he throws the harpoon at it. If the point strikes the seal, which it is pr itty sure to do, as natives seldom make an attack until they are near enough to the seal to be sure of striking it, it quickly succumbs and is hauled out on the ice. A full-grown seal of the species usually found here will weigh proba- bly 300 pounds, and when caught a piece of seal thong is drawn over the nose, and with the line over his shoulders the native drags the seal sometimes 3 and 4 miles over the rough ice before he reaches shore, and if a dog sled does not happen to be near at hand, he continues his tiresome tramp with his heavy load until the village is reached. Among the different varieties of seals caught, the oogasrook is con- siderably the largest, and will weigh probably 500 or 600 pounds. The skin of this variety is mostly used for covering the boats of the Eskimo, but that of the walrus is generally preferred, as it is larger and heavier. When the walrus skin is used for this purpose, however, it is split in two, on account of being too thick to work up well. The oogsrook skin is also used for boot-soles, being the only variety heavy enough for that purpose. The hunting of the walrus is fast becoming a matter in which the natives have little expectation of meeting with much success, as they are rarely seen in large numbers, and as seldom caught. A canoe crew that in a cruise of one or two weeks secures one of these animals is considered to have been very lucky, when a few years ago they slaughtered them in great numbers. Like the seal, they are 102 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF often caught on the ice, but it is not uncommon to shoot and spear them in the water. In hunting- either the seal or walrus on the ice it is customary and far safer to wear snowshoes, as it is necessary to travel more or less across broken ice, and without them, unless great caution is used, one is liable to step between the cakes, and an accident of this character is apt to meet with fatal results. The trap used by the Eskimo in catching foxes is an ingenious con- trivance. It is made of a piece of wood about 8 inches long, with a hole through it lengthwise, and in the middle is a slot cut large enough to inclose a crosspiece or lever, with a point of iron or ivory in the end, intended to be buried in the skull of the fox. Attached to this lever is a piece of seal thong, extending through the wood in both directions, and at either end is a stick made to turn, thus twisting the thong so as to tighten the crossbar to as high a tension as is needed. The bait is tied to a piece of thong, and when nibbled at trips the lever and the fox is trapped. This kind of trap answers an excellent purpose, but is not as compact as that used by the whites, and like most arti- cles of Eskimo manufacture gives way to the most improved ones of civilization as fast as they can procure the necessary means to obtain them. The Eskimo, in hunting ptarmigan in the spring, usually meet with good success, and it is an interesting sight to see them catch them. They use a net made of sinew woven similar to that used in catching seal and fish, but the meshes are about 1£ inches square. It is usually about 20 fathoms long and 18 inches wTide. They take the net to the tundra land, and when a flock of ptarmigan is seen stretch it out, fast- ening a stake at either end. Usually two natives go together in hunt- ing ptarmigan, and after the net is stretched they circle around them and slowly drive them toward the net. When the birds reach it, iustead of flying over they try to get through, and usually all that are within the scope of it get so entangled in the meshes that they are unable to extricate themselves before they are caught. Frequently a single setting of a net will result in a catch of fifteen or twenty ptarmi- gan. The ptarmigan in size and habits resemble the prairie chicken, and in their summer plumage are almost identical in color, but at the approach of winter the feathers generally assume a lighter shade, which eventually becomes pure white. They hatch out their young about the middle of July, and until nearly grown are easily run down. The first hunting for ptarmigan I ever did was in company with three Eskimo. I was the only one in the party who had a gun, and took the natives with me to beat up the ptarmigan, as I had no dog. After my first shot I of course expected to wait until the birds had settled down before proceeding further, and was amused to see the natives all start after the birds on the run. They were soon out of ear- DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 103 shot and I began to feel provoked to think they were chasing them so far that I would not be able to get another shot, when I noticed them scampering among the tundra, jumping up and down, and soon they returned, each bringing three or four nice fat birds about half grown. The ptarmigan, before they are hunted closely, are sluggish in their movements and like the prairie chicken will lie in the grass and hug the ground close in their efforts to prevent being seen, when afew Haps of their wings would carry them safely out of harm's way. This country is their natural home, and in summer and fall they are very numerous. Their flesh is tender, and in flavor is almost identical with that of the prairie chicken. The first approach of spring brings the wild goose and duck in large numbers, and the pool of water which settles about the tundra affords ample scope to use their webbed feet, and the different varieties of grass and flora furnish them with abundant food. The tundra and marshy land make excellent breeding ground, the shallow pools being espe- cially well adapted for the young in their first venture at swimming. Many of the natives still use the primitive method of hunting the ducks and geese, which consists of a dozen or more pieces of sinew thread about 18 inches long, tied together in a large knot at one end, and on the other end of each is fastened a piece of ivory, cut in circular form, about 1 inch in diameter. With this in the right hand they approach the flock, and when they rise, swing it rapidly and throw it among them. The instant it strikes one the strings get tangled about the feet, wings, or neck, and they immediately drop to the ground, prison- ers. This simple device is wonderfully effective, and all that is neces- sary for the Eskimo to secure his game is to get near enough to hurl the sling among them. They still cling to the primitive manner of making fire with flint stone and their little pieces of steel, usually a piece of an old file, and flint is as much a part of one's personal belongings as the coat he wears upon his back. They carry these articles in a little bag, in the bottom of which are little wads of the same fibrous material used for wicks for their oil lamps, and which is gathered from a wild bush in the fall of the year. In making a light, they take a small piece of this cotton, which has previously been rolled in wood ashes, and, holding it between the thumb and flint, strike the steel against the stone, and the sparks emitted ignite the cotton, which is blown into a flame. It is a crude way of getting a fire started, but it is one of the most simple and inter- esting of their customs, for it comes from a period of time when the Eskimo had to depend upon their own resources for obtaining a fire, and before they knew anything about the usefulness of the match of civilization. The advent of the whalers in this country has distributed pretty well among the Eskimo many devices and articles which they use in 104 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF conjunction with, parts of their own tools to very great advantage. For instance, every native man has among his kit of tools an apparatus for drilling holes. This is one of their most useful tools, and as seal thongs are needed in the manufacture of nearly everything they have, a hand drill is essential. Occasionally one is found with a piece of ivory or bone for a drill point, but iron and steel have become so com- mon that nearly every man has them made of one or the other of these materials. This is the only part of this useful article that is of civi- lized origin. A piece of wood is shaped so as to fit in the mouth, in the middle of which is sunk a piece of stone hollowed out so as to present a smooth surface for the end of the drill-stick, around which is a seal thong attached to a bow-shaped piece of wood or ivory. When the mouthpiece and drill are in position a see-saw motion is made, and the point of the drill quickly cuts the holes round and of the proper depth. It is a vast improvement over the gimlet for light work, and the natives, realizing that they can cut a hole more easily and quickly in this way, adhere to their old style. The mouthpiece used for drilling holes is also brought into use in starting a fire when they have no hint. Only two persons are neces- sary to operate the piece of wood that serves as a means of exciting friction. Instead of the bow, a piece of thong is wound around the drill, each native taking hold of an end, and sawing backwards and forwards until the friction ignites the wood, which is done in a few seconds. This method of starting a fire is very rare at the present time, because it is seldom that one is without flint stone, but it sometimes is made use of, and, if one is driven to it, fire can be obtained without much trouble. The Eskimo are complete slaves to tobacco, and it is seldom that one is seen who does not use it in one form or another. All the men and most of the women smoke, while a child, after it reaches the age of 5 or 6 years, appears not to be a true representative of his race it he can not smoke a pipe or chew tobacco. While nearly all the women smoke, they take to chewing more natur- ally, and they do it so quietly that one would not suspect it from their actions. They never spit, and only crunch it occasionally, preferring to suck it or allow it to lie quietly in the mouth, and, as spittle accu- mulates, swallow it. They can not understand why a white man spits when chewing or smoking, for they seem to find pleasure in the habit only from swallowing the juice. If a native is chewing and wants to eat he carefully takes the quid of tobacco from his mouth and puts it behind his ear. From this place it is afterwards taken to be again put in his mouth, and this process is repeated until he has gotten all tlie substance he can from the tobacco. It is then carefully put away in his tobacco pouch, to eventually find DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 105 its way to his pipe, and the end of that tobacco is not reached until it is wafted away in clouds of smoke. An Eskimo who is without tobacco is as wretched as a confirmed drunkard without his whisky, and he will go to as great extremes to secure it as he would to procure food for himself and family. It is the first thing he asks for when a white man approaches him, and the first article he wants to trade for when he has fur to sell. Every Eskimo man carries a pipe, and it is the common property of every member of his family, and freely passed around among his friends. It is of a style peculiar to the Eskimo, but resembles in some respects the pipe used by the Chinese, only the bowl is a trifle longer. It is about 10 inches long, slightly curved, and in the bottom near the end which holds the bowl is a slot cut, with a plug made to fit closely, which is removed when enough nicotine and powdered tobacco has accumu- lated to furnish a pinch or two of snuff. The bowl will only hold tobacco enough for a half dozen whiffs, and the smoke is taken into the lungs and exhaled through the nostrils. It is thus seen that an Eskimo enjoys all the pleasure there is to be found from the use of tobacco, and, when he is through with it, there is nothing left. Yet after all this is said, it is seldom that one is seen suffering from any evil effects from its use. One whose nerves are all unstrung from the habitual use of tobacco is never seen, and a shat- tered constitution or emaciated form resulting therefrom is not to be found. Whether their diet of fish and oil tends to neutralize the effect of tobacco is something yet to be determined, but it is certain that the habit has run a siege of many years, and if first introduced among them by the whites it probably occurred at least a half century ago. They have a substitute for smoking tobacco in a kind of wood or wild shrub found in the country, and it may be that the habit of smoking dates back to a time before they knew of such a thing as tobacco. And for chewing, when one has no tobacco, he finds a fair substitute in a piece of seal skin, which furnishes masticating properties, at least, if not the essence of tobacco. It is a common practice also, when one is out of tobacco, to take a piece of cloth, and, after rubbing it over the inside of his tobacco-pouch, to chew it, and he apparently finds some little comfort from the pro- cess, even if he does not succeed in extracting much of the real flavor. The taking of snuff is also a practice among many of the Eskimo, and is usually made by mixing tobacco that has first been cut fine and afterwards ground to a powder in a little wooden mortar, with pulver ized embers from a wood fire. It makes a good substitute for snuff, giving all the flavor and enough of the exhilarating properties to pro voke as hearty a sneeze as one would wish to enjoy. The snuff is generally carried in little pouches made from seal entrail and to the sealskin string tied around the pouch is a section of a hol- low bone. One end of this is put in the snuff and the other inserted 106 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF in the nostril, and, however careful one is in inhaling, he usually gets a noseful, the effects of which are only lost after it passes away in the floods of water that ooze from both nose and eyes. Occasionally an Eskimo is found who practises this habit to excess, and he usually carries a neatly engraved wooden box which contains his snuff, and which he passes around among his friends on every convenient occasion. That the Eskimo at one time used stone instruments extensively in their work upon wood there can be no doubt, for, although this prac- tice has now become, with few exceptions, obsolete, there are occasion- ally found adzes, hammers, and chisels, made of jade stone, and which they will tell you are a great many years old. Although few natives possess such a thing as an ax or hatchet, yet there are a few in every village, and they answer very well the purposes for which they are used. The only stone tools now used are the knife for cutting skins, and a sort of chisel for scraping hair or fur from them. The former is made in the shape of a chopping knife and is usually of slate-stone, and an edge can be put upon it sufficient for all such purposes. The women use this knife very dexterously, and cut and fit pieces of skins as nicely as though cut with scissors from a pattern. In using the stone, chisel, or scraper, the hair is fiist covered with wood ashes, and these are rubbed in among the roots, and, after being allowed to stand a short time, seems to loosen it so that it is quite easily rubbed off. Sometimes an iron instrument is used for this purpose, but stone is preferred because the proper edge can be had upon it without being sharp enough to cut into aud break the surface of the skin. Among the Eskimo living in the interior baskets aud mats of differ- ent designs are woven from wild grass, which grows in greater or less abundance on the banks of all the streams and among the low lands. They are really fine specimens of this kind of work, and are woven so closely as to become water-tight after being soaked for a short time. Large numbers of the ground squirrel are caught along the coast and also back in the interior, and they make a very fair substitute for the reindeer skin for clothing. These little animals are caught by placing snares over the holes open- ing into their underground houses, and are made of strips of whalebone in the form of a slip-noose. No bait is required, the squirrel, as he comes out of the ground, running his head into the noose, and, in try- ing to extricate himself, is quickly strangled to death. It takes forty of these little animals to make a single artiger, and as most of the inhabitants of some of the villages, often numbering over 100 persons, are clothed nearly throughout with these skins, it is seen that they must exist in large numbers. The oomiak, or skin boat, used by the Eskimo, is peculiar to these people alone, and it is the only kind of boat used by them, with the exception of the kyak, which will only jarry 1 or 2 persons. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 107 The oomiak is a curiously constructed affair, and when standing on the beach looks lumbering- and awkward and as if it would not carry much of a load or ride much of a sea; yet as many as 30 or 40 persons often get in one, and when thus loaded it will ride in rough water with remarkable buoyancy. The usual size of the oomiak is about 35 feet long, 0 feet beam, about 4 feet deep in the middle, and comes almost to a point at both ends. It is built something alter the shape of a dory. The frame work is made of pieces of timber, the heaviest of which is about 3 inches square. These are placed crosswise in the bottom of the boat, and across them are lashed small strips by means of seal thongs, each joint being made to tit closely. It must be remembered that in all this region there is not a stick of growing timber, save the willow and alder, and these seldom reach a height of over 8 or 10 feet and not more than 2 or 3 inches in diameter, and are only useful to the Eskimo for tent poles and for framework for snow shoes. When the timbers are firmly lashed together, they are very firm, and a heavy sea striking the side of the boat will not cause it to yield at a single joint. When the framework is finally ready, walrus or sealskin is stretched over it, the pieces sewed together and pulled as tightly as possible and then lashed to the top rail. When the skin is in place, scarcely a drop of water can penetrate through the seams. Over the top rail about 2 feet of the skin is allowed to hang loosely on the inside, the whole length of the boat, and when sailing in rough weather slats are raised between the skin and frame, the loose skin pulled up, thus giving about 2 feet more of surface above the sea, and if carefully managed scarcely a drop of water can reach the inside in the roughest water. The oomiak has no keel and therefore can not beat or tack against the wind, and the only thing to do, if it blows too hard, is to seek tho first landing that can be made. There is generally but one mast to the oomiak, and this standsabout one- third of the way from the bow to the stern. When there is no wind it is taken down and laid in the boat. Sometimes, when the wind is fair, a second but smaller mast is placed about the same distance from the stern of the boat, but they are only used in the largest oomiaks. The lower end of the mast is inserted in a slot between timbers in the bottom of the boat, and guys extend from near the top to both sides and also to both bow and stern. One not used to the oomiak is in constant dread of moving about, for fear that if he should step between the framework he will make a hole in the skin, for the water is plainly seen through it. The natives pay little attention to where thejr step in going from one part of the boat to another, and although their feet will depress the skin 2 or 3 inches, there is no danger of its giving way, and the very spot they are stand- ing on would doubtless hold up a ton. 108 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF That the oomiak is a curiously and ingeniously constructed boat must be admitted, and that the Eskimo has availed himself of the best mater- ials nature has given him for navigating these waters, is evident. It may truthfully be said that everything used in its construction comes from the water, for the framework is made entirely from driftwood washed upon their shores from hundreds of miles to the south, much of it water-soaked and partly decayed, and not a nail or piece of iron is used in any part of it. In this light boat they often sail 40 or 50 miles from land and are caught in water that would severely try the strength of boats used by the whites. The kyak used by the Eskimo is similar in construction and style to the skin canoe or bidarka found among the natives along the southern coast of Alaska. It is not much used by the coast Eskimo, as they do most of their traveling by water in the oomiak, but those in the inte- rior use them to greater extent in navigating on the rivers and lakes, they being so light that they can carry them about with very little trouble. They are generally the single-hatch kyak, but occasionally one is found with two or three holes and capable of carrying as many per- sons. The principal vocation of the Eskimo may be said to be fishing, for, although it is principally done by the women and children, the men are sometimes obliged to lend a hand, and for six months at least out of the year it has to be done through the ice. Barricades are erected at intervals of a few yards and from 20 to 40 rods from the shore. They are built of cakes of snow cut about 4 inches thick, and 2 or 3 feet square. These are placed on end and made high enough to obscure a man standing up inside. They are usually made round and about 5 feet in diameter, the cracks or spaces between the cakes being filled with wet snow which soon freezes, and makes the inclosure nearly tight. The Eskimo stand or lie down in these snow forts, sometimes several hours at a time, when they are catching few fish. The same sort of protection is built when they spear fish, but is nearer shore and where bottom can be reached at 8 or 10 feet. Holes are cut through the ice by means of a piece of sharpened ivory or iron lashed to a pole 10 feet or more long, and with this the ice is picked off and scooped out until water is reached. The opening thus made is about 1 foot in diameter. An indispensable article used by the Eskimo when making holes in the ice is a scoop-shaped tool attached to the end of a pole. It is about 6 inches in diameter, made of bone bent round with strips of whalebone stretched across the bottom, so as to leave little holes, through which the water drains when the pulverized ice is scooped out of the hole. When spearing fish, the face is held so close to the water that the breath causes a coating or coagulation to form on the surface, and this implement has to be often resorted to in order to clear away the ice so the native can see through to the bottom. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 109 In fishing through the ice a hook is used made from ivory or a piece of steel, when such can be had, and they are seldom baited, the fish being gigged. In other words, they have a number of small colored pieces of bone, usually red, strung along the line just above the hook, which attracts the fish, and by continually raising and lowering the line it is caught. The hook used by the Eskimo has no flange like those used by the whites, but so dexterous are they in hauling tbe fish from the water that one seldom drops off. The fish-line is made of strips of whalebone, each about 8 inches in length, the ends being tied together with the same material, and they are generally 20 or 30 feet long. The rod is about 2 feet long, and in fishing is held in the right hand, while the left holds a stick of about the same length, which is thrust under the line as it is being hauled out, the same motion being made with the rod, and when the fish has reached the surface the line lies in loops on the ice. The fish caught in winter are all small, seldom measuring more than 8 inches long, and it will take 2 persons several hours, with good suc- cess, to catch enough to supply an ordinary family with food for a single day. In spearing fish an ivory-pointed spear is used with little sharp notches cut on both sides. This is fastened to a slender pole 10 or .12 feet long. The Eskimo lies flat on the ice, the spear held in his right hand, the head within a foot or so of the bottom, and the hood of his artiger drawn closely around the hole. When in this position the minutest particle of sand is seen at the bottom, the water being so transparent and the ice serving as an illuminator. As the fish glides quietly along, the spear is quickly thrust down, and it is generally securely impaled on the point of the spear. One can not realize the tediousness of fishing either with a hook or spear until he has watched these people, who frequently lie in one posi- tion an hour or two before a single fish is caught or even seen. The Eskimo believe a hole can be fished dry, for they occasionally change their locations and build another barricade, which they continue to occupy until the fish are all caught or migrate to another locality. Salmon are only caught with the seine, and in some localities are quite numerous. They weigh from 6 to 10 pounds, and the onlyprocess of curing them practiced by the Eskimo in this section is that of dry- ing. Among the natives of the interior they constitute their principal food and serve as an article of traffic with the coast people, exchanging them for fish and oil. Seals are sometimes caught in seines. Both late in the fall and after the ice thaws out in the spring they are set in shallow localities, and occasionally with good results. It is not a common wTay of hunt- ing them, however, and the number caught in this manner is compara- tively small. The only difference in the style of clothing worn by the men and 110 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF women is in the artiger and pants. In the former those worn by the women have a slit cut on both sides from the bottom to the hips, while those worn by the men are the same length all around. The pants worn by the women have the foot gear sewed to them, while those worn by the men are either cut off at the ankle or knee. When a woman is bundled up in cold weather and the hood of her artiger is drawn closely around her face, the only way she can be distinguished is by the shape of her artiger. An article of clothing that is indispensable among the Eskimo is the " kar pee tuk " or skin coat. It is made from the entrails of the seal or walrus, strips about 3 inches wide being sewed together and made so as to slip over the head like an artiger. It is identical in shape and made the same as the " kamalika " worn by the natives along the south- ern coast of the Territory. If carefully sewed, it is water-tight, and will weigh but a few ounces. It is rather a neat and tasteful looking garment when dry, and rustles like silk, but when wet has a slick or slimy appearance strongly suggestive of the part of the animal from which it Avas made. Pants and drawers worn by the whites are much sought after by the Eskimo, and are worn over their skin pants for the purpose of protect- ing them from the snow, which always clings to the fur, getting down among the roots, thus wetting the skin, which becomes hard and soon rots. For the same reason calico and drilling are much worn by them to protect their ar tigers. A mark which serves as a good means of determining the sexes is that worn by the females, which consists of three or five lines about an eighth of an inch wide on the chin, which resembles tattooing made with India ink. Instead of pricking it in, a sharp instrument is drawn over the skin until blood comes, and wood ashes are then rubbed in. This practice is almost universal, and is usually put on when a girl reaches about the age of 8 years. Among the men the practice of wearing labrets is common, though not so universally adopted as tattooing among the women. The most popular style is about a half-inch in diameter, but sometimes they reach the enormous size of an inch and a half. They are usually made of highly polished ivory with a colored bead in the center, and are occa- sionally worn on both sides of the chin. Glass stoppers are much sought after for this purpose, but not much worn on account of being difficult to obtain. The tattooing by the women and wearing of labrets by the men have no significance other than being considered an adornment for the face. Some of the women have the middle latch of the nose pierced, from which beads are suspended, but they are considered troublesome and are rapidly going out of style. The favorite manner of having the ears pierced by the women is just above the end, from which two or three strings of beads are suspended, DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. Ill passing from one ear to the other under the chin. The younger women wear beads wound around their hair, which is first braided on both sides, and occasionally bracelets and necklaces of beads are worn. Tbe men seldom tattoo their arms or hands, and their only peculiarity of dress is wearing the labret as above and shaving the crowns of their heads. The Eskimo woman's ambition for jewelry extends no further than a ring or two, and a brass or copper one is valued as highly by them as a gold one would be. They do not take kindly to jewelry for the ears or neck, and if one is seen with a bracelet of any kind it is either brass or copper. The snowshoe of the Eskimo is similar to that used in all cold coun- tries, but with these people real thongs are used instead of strings made from deerskins. They are always carried on the sled when traveling, and are much needed when the snow is thawing in the spring. They are especially useful when hunting seal on the ice; for the wear- ers are thus enabled to cross over broken cakes, when without them it would be dangerous traveling. Many natives when traveling carry with them a stick having a cir cular-formed piece of whalebone at the bottom about 6 inches in diam- eter, and pieces of the same material stretched across it in a little net- work. On the end of the stick is a pointed piece of ivory, and it is used as one would use a cane, the point piercing the snow or ice and the cir- cular piece preventing it from settling into the snow. It is a very use- ful thing, especially if it is slippery or the snow is soft, and a native carrying one of these is enabled to walk or run over the smooth crust, while without it he would find progress very slow with his smooth-soled boots. The Eskimos are decidedly domestic in their habits and tastes. A family is always together, whether in the village or traveling about. The men are usually kind and considerate toward their wives, and the affection of the parents for their children is very marked, and they often indulge them to a fault. The children are seldom punished, and, if so, very lightly, and they are made to come under obedience by force of moral suasion. Yet they are very obedient to a parent and usually respond quickly to a command. If one is sick, he receives all the care and attention that the parent can bestow, and this is true among the older ones. An invalid is an object of deep solicitation by friends and relatives alike, and will often receive contributions in the way of food when it comes from one whose supply will not justify giving anything away. The observation of strict marital relations appears to be the rule among the Eskimos, and it is seldom that a woman is untrue to her hus- band or a husband consorts with another woman. The indiscriminate discussion of lewd topics is often indulged in, and one, to observe the manner in which they live, would expect to find them loose in their 112 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF morals; but this is not the case. Neither among the young women is there a large proportion of immoral characters. There are in every vil- lage women who are known to be immoral, but they are the exception. Occasionally a man will whip his wife for some real or fancied wrong, and when he does so his conduct is generally approved by the woman's relatives and the public generally, who seem to regard the cause suffi- cient without inquiring into the particulars of it. This curious practice appears to be a sort of generally established right that the husband is entitled to indulge in, and it seems that the woman thinks more of her husband after her chastisement. While it is true that a white man may secure an Eskimo girl from almost any family as a wife, it is not true that one can prostitute his wife or daughter at pleasure. They are very sensitive on this point, and only in view of securing a better home and plenty of food and clothing than her parents are able to provide her with is she induced to live with him or to secure the consent of her parents to the arrange- ment. Plurality of wives is a x>ractice also that is by no means common, and when it does occur it is among men who, by virtue of their possess- ing more property than their neighbors, are able to support more than one wife. When the custom prevails, there appears to be no disturb- ing or quarrelsome disposition, and if there is any the aggrieved woman bottles her wrath, doubtless from fear that she will be turned out to shift for herself, which is more to be dreaded than any pang of envy or jealously she might experience. When a man and woman separate, it is the practice for the man to take possession of all her personal belongings, even stripping her of any part of her clothing that could be made useful for another wife. The practice of human sacrifice or inhuman treatment of any char- acter among the Eskimos is never indulged in, and if it ever was the custom to kill one who had become too old to be able to take care of himself, it has been abandoned, as the large number of aged and de- crepit persons now living among these people will bear witness. Neither is it the present practice in this neighborhood to put a woman about to be confined in a tent or hut by herself, unprovided with food, for any length of time, or fuel by which she can keep warm. In the large number of confinements that have occurred during the past year among the Eskimo along the coast and in the interior, not an instance has occurred where a child has been born outside of the mother's reg- ular abode, and where she has not had the benefit of the care and atten- tion a woman in her condition should receive. In the matter of courtship, it seems that when two persons meet who think they are adapted to each other, all that has to be done is to obtain the consent of the parents of the girl. If the youth possesses the means to give his wife a comfortable home, and his reputation as a hunter or fisherman justifies the parents in placing her in his keeping, DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 113 all formalities are dispensed with, and they enter at once into the rela- tion of man and wife. Long- courtships are of rare occurrence, and they do not seem to be attended with any great degree of romance. It a young man has an elaborately trimmed artiger which he wishes to present to a girl, he seldom offers it until he is pretty certain that she will accept it. The idea that seems to prevail is that this article is secured by a young man and sent to the object of his affections as a proffer of marriage, and that his heart ceases to beat from that time until it is returned to him or he sees it upon her back, the former as a notice that she has refused him, and the latter that she accepts his pro- posal ; but this idea seems to be a thing of the past and a part of Eskimo etiquette concerning courtship that lives only in memory. A gift of an artiger seems to be a popular one when a couple are about to live together, and is a symbol of actual engagement. The practice of manufacturing liquor, so prevalent among the coast natives throughout southern Alaska, seems not to be indulged in among the Eskimo of this region to any extent. There are isolated cases where rudely constructed stills are made to produce a vile decoc- tion called " tarny uk," from molasses and flour, but they are very rare. Neither is liquor sold to the people by whaling vessels to any extent, if at all. While it is a fact that some of the whaling vessels carry more or less on board, it is disposed of on the Siberian side, and comparatively little is brought across Bering Strait and distributed to the natives on this side. Indeed, there is little inducement for the vessels to carry on this traffic with the Alaska natives, for none of them ever possess furs or whalebone of sufficient value to warrant the whalers in trading it, when by so doing they run the almost certain risk of being seized and having all their property confiscated. Even if there were a disposi- tion to trade liquor among the Eskimo ou this side, the presence of the revenue steamer Bear patroling these waters from the time the navi- gation first opens until it is closed by seas of ice in the fall acts as a standing menace against such a project. The Arctic Alaska Eskimo is physically a tine specimen of the human race. While as a rule they will not average over 5 feet 6 or 8 inches in height, occasionally a G-footer is found, but he is a very rare exception. They are not by any means dwarfish in stature or slow and sluggish in their movements; neither are they dull and stupid intellectually. The casual observer might think them so, for they appear subdued and reserved when among the whites; but when away from them and left to act freely, they are bright, cheerful, and intelligent. A stout or corpulent Eskimo is never seen. Their whole life is one which calls into play every muscle of the body, and they are distinctly an athletic race. Not a pound of superfluous flesh is on their closely knitted frames, and, while their hands, lower limbs, and feet are very S. Ex. 70 8 114 • REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF small, their chests and shoulders are grandly developed, and their arms are muscular and sinewy. They are very fond of athletic sports, and football and jumping are indulged in by them to a considerable extent. They indulge in many exercises that test their strength, such as pulling each others arms when locked together, wrestling, lifting each other or heavy weights, and many such exercises that will bring into play every muscle. Many of them excel in jumping and kicking, and occasionally one is found who can kick with both feet higher than his own head, a performance that few white athletes can accomplish. The principal amusement of the Eskimo is dancing, and they indulge in it upon the slightest provocation. While the women take part in this pastime, it is with moderation, and as a sort of embellishment to the fatiguing and wearisome jumping about so ceaselessly practiced by the men. They seem to find the most enjoyment in blending their voices with those of the men in song. Although they do not possess the accomplishment to a very great extent, nor is the number of tunes very large, yet there is a harmony in them all that becomes the more pleasing to the ear the oftener they are heard. When dancing, one or more of the men beat upon a drum formed by stretching a piece of walrus entrail over a hoop, and this serves as a time-marker for the participants in the dance, to which the grotesque throwing about of the arms and twisting of their bodies are made to add a pantomimic accompaniment. During all this time they jump and whirl about in the most violent manner, and only stop from sheer exhaustion. This amusement often assumes the proportion of a festival lasting several days, and whole villages often go long distances to visit those of another. On such occasions the men bedeck themselves in all sorts of grotesque costumes, wearing upon their heads feathers of birds, their faces concealed behind hideous-looking wooden masks, and their bodies bare to the waist. Each village possesses a large hut known as " kas gee," a place set apart for festive occasions, and it is the scene of great excitement and demonstrative joy when natives from abroad are present, and they all return home, possessing many, to the Eskimo, costly presents. The Eskimo dog is a creature of great sagacity, in his way, and does not possess many of the generally worthless traits of the cur usually found in villages of natives in more temperate climates. He is often cared for with the indulgence of a child, and while the nature of the Eskimo is to be brutal to all creatures not human, his dog is fed regu- larly, and his last fish is shared with the animal when on a journey. While the Eskimo prizes his dog highly, it is not because he is actuated by feelings of affection, for he is not looked upon at all in the light of a companion, and is never caressed and petted. His care of the brute is purely from selfish motives, for he realizes that the loss of DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 115 his dog means many a weary tramp in which he himself must become the beast of burden. The Eskimo dogs are comparatively small, seldom weighing over 35 pounds, and their hair is of every shade and color. There is one peculiarity in their hair that is common to them all, and that is its length and thickness. It is always fine and soft, and close to the skin is as thick as it can grow, thus enabling them to withstand successfully the rigors of the Arctic winter. An Eskimo never thinks of sheltering his dog, and pays no more attention to his comfort than if he did not possess such an animal. In fact, he does not need any protection but that which nature has given him. Neither does he seek for some sheltering nook or cover when the wind is blowing its keenest, but lies down on the snow or ice, exposed to the full fury of the storm, curled up like a ball, and sleeps as soundly as he would if on a bed of furs. A dog with a frozen ear or tail is never seen, and, although they will lie in one position for hours at a time, are never known to shiver or in any way show that they are experiencing any bad effects from the cold. It often occurs that a search has to be made for a dog, for he will lie so still that the snow completely covers him, and if not completely covered, and his hair happens to be light colored, it is hard to distinguish him from the drift piled up about him. But few females are allowed in each village, and these are kept only for breeding purposes and are seldom used in the sled. The pups, when large enough to run about, are made to wear a harness continu- ally, and a great deal of the time are kept tied to heavy logs or stones. This is to accustom them to the harness from their infancy, and in their struggles to get loose will pull and haul about, thus developing muscle and strength, which makes them valuable draft animals after they are full grown. Six or eight dogs make a good team, and it is wonderful what loads they can haul. If the traveling is good, a team of six dogs will haul as many hundred pounds and go along 25 or 30 miles a day without experi- encing very much fatigue. If the snow is soft or the ice is rough, it is sometimes necessary to pull to one side a little, or push it ahead a trifle, if they should become stalled, when they will immediately take up the slack and start on again. They are very persistent when unable to move a heavy load, and will jump up and down and in a broken chorus of barks and howls manifest their impatience to go, and when they start settle down to an earnest pull, only to give it up after they have exhausted all their strength. The favorite way of driving dogs among these people is one ahead of the other, each tied to a long rope, and they are placed so that half of them are on one side and half on the other. The harness is a simple device, slipped over the head and passing under the forelegs, coming up on the side, where a backhand is tied, thus bringiug the draft on both shoulders and back. 116 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF The Eskimo seeui to understand how to break a dog to haul a load and keep his place in the team, but they have yet to learn the art of guiding a dog bj motioning to him from behind. If only one native is with a team he must run ahead, and they will follow, but if he drops behind the dogs do not seem to understand that they are to keep on. When there are two or more natives with a team, they can take turns running ahead and riding on the sled, and in this way the dogs are kept going. When traveling by boat the dogs are usually carried along, and when there is no wind, and a beach is near by, the dogs are put ashore, a line is fastened to the oomiak, the dogs being hitched to the other end, and the boat is pulled along at a lively rate of speed, and the occupants settle back to enjoy a sleep, eat, or sing, and pass the time as they see fit. When the Eskimo doctor has exhausted all his resources in his efforts to cure a sick person without success, the patient is taken out of the hut and put into a tent to die. This is done only when all hopes for his recovery are given up, and he lies on his bed of furs, surrounded by weeping relatives and sympathetic neighbors, who often carry their grief so far that their lamentations are heard throughout the village. When death relieves the sufferer from his pain, which has doubtless been hastened by the show of grief all about him, there is no ceremony over the body. It is wrapped up in seal or walrus skin and taken either to the village burying ground or to a spot some distance removed from the other graves, and either placed upon a frame of logs or on the top of some ridge of ground, and logs and stones are piled about him. If a man, it is customary to bury him with some of his personal belong- ings, such as his tobacco pouch, pipe, spears, or other articles, and sometimes his rifle, but this is very rarely done. If a woman dies, her thimble, earrings, knife, and other little trinkets are placed by her side. After the burial is completed no member of the family ever visits the grave, and other natives never go near. The grave ot an Eskimo is shunned completely, and with the burial all association on this earth with the deceased is at an end, and rarely is any reference ever made to him, unless to recall to memory some of his virtues, which soon appear to be forgotten, and his loss ceases to be mourned for. Very respectfully, y< urs. Miner W. Bruce. Swpt. Teller Reindeer Station. DOMESTICATED REINDEEK INTO ALASKA. 117 Exhiiut A. LIQUOR SEIZED AT REINDEER STATION. Teller Reindeer Station, Port Clarence, Alaska, September 25, ISO.?. Sir: Early yesterday morning a Port Clarence native, known by ns at the station as "The Thug," came to the house very drunk and insolently demanded some matches. I was standing near some natives who were at work sawing wood at the time, and 20 or 30 more natives stood around, some of whom were evidently frightened at the sudden appearance of this man in such a condition. He is the bully of this camp, and is in the habit of running things about as he wants to, and for sometime it has been evident that he would try to run this station. Last winter he killed a native at this place in cold blood, and he evidently considers himself a better man on that account and entitled to the privilege of running over everyone in whose contact he is thrown. This position is made more emphatic because it is known he carries a big revolver about him all the time. In view of all the circumstances, we made up our minds that this was the time for a little heroic treatment, and I at once took hold of " The Thug" and dragged him to the beach. I then went to a tent occupied by some Cape Prince of Wales natives who had arrived the day before, and from whom "The Thug," as we concluded, had obtained his whisky. They all protested that he got it from some Diomede natives that had left that morning, and I finally returned to the station. Here I found two natives who declared he obtained the whisky from the strangers, and after consultation with Mr. Gibson we concluded to search the tent. On our way there we saw a native start away in a suspicious manner, and when we arrived there they were anxious we should not make a search. As previously arranged, Mr. Gibson stood near to be ready in case of any hostile action, and I went into an adjoining tent, where I found two quart bottles of whisky, which I still hold. For a while it looked as if we might have trouble, as some of the natives were a little demonstrative, and "The Thug" had joined them, but they evidently thought better of it, and we returned to the station. The natives soon went on to Grantley Harbor, but will return in a few days on their way home. Some of the natives about here, either through a spirit of fun or because they really contemplate making trouble, have told the herders that the herd of reindeer will be raided this winter and all of us killed. We do not apprehend any trouble on this score, but the herders are evidently fear- ful that something will happen. We realize that if our Siberian herders are molested it will be a very difficult matter to save the deer. What effect our action in seizing the whisky will have remains to be seen. It will either effectually stop the sale of it at this place or cause trouble. We feel now as if we will be obliged to carry out the policy of seizing all the whisky brought here at whatever cost, and have served notice on the natives to this effect. We have also notified the teachers at Cape Prince of Wales of our determination, and asked them to take pains to notify their people that we will not tolerate it here. I believe you are aware that besides your instructions to seize all the whisky brought here, Capt. Healy made the same order, and told us to tell them he would settle with them when he returned next season. 118 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP There is evidently a system of whisky traffic among these natives after the depar- ture of the Bear, and it is the cause of all the trouble among them. Only last week Mr. Lopp sent word that one of the Cape Prince of Wales natives had just been killed by another in a drunken brawl, and there are three or four murderers running around who have killed their men. The entire freedom of these men from punishment seems to make them conspicuous examples for others to follow, and it seems to me that steps ought to be taken at once to show these people that such conduct will not be tolerated. I believe if Capt. Healy would take a few of these people to Sitka next season and have them punished as they deserve it would prove a wholesome lesson. Nothing would be worse punishment to them than to be confined to jail at Sitka or sent to prison for a term of years, and I believe the authorities at Washington can be induced to take steps looking to this end. It seems to me that, in view of the reindeer project and the objects sought to be attained by the establishment, of this herd, the natives should be made early to understand that any infraction of the peace, or interference with the herd or employ6s, will be severely dealt with. If the Government does not take the matter in hand the whites will have to do so for themselves sooner or later. I presume the marshal of Alaska could appoint a deputy at this place who would be authorized to make arrests, but without being so directed by tbe authorities at Washington it is doubtful if compensation would be allowed. If nothing better could be arranged, I suppose the deputy marshal at Uualaska could be ordered to proceed here and make the arrests. My only chance to send this letter to you this year is to send it to Cape Prince of Wales and ask the teachers there to send it out to some passing whaling vessel bound south. Will send a copy of this letter to Capt. Healy. Will it be a good idea for you to communicate with Marshal Porter at Sitka and ascertain his views on the subject? Will add that we have the testimony of two witnesses as to the manner and quan- tity of whisky obtained by "The Thug," and testimony that he paid for it in calico; also witnesses can be had of his killing the native last winter. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, Miner W. Bruce, Teacher and Superintendent. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, United States General Agent of Education in Alaska. Exhibit B. W. T. LOPP ON THE REINDEER HERD. Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, May IS, 1S9S. Kind Sir : Thanks for yours of the 1st instant. I am glad to have an opportunity to express myself on the reindeer question. After three years' study of the habits and peculiarities of the Eskimo on this coast, I feelsafe in saying that I think it both practicable and possible, if proper allowances be made at first, to make herders of a sufficient number of our Eskimo hunters and fishers to care for all the deer that may be brought across the Straits. As to food, the natives all along the coast are at the mercy of the winds, and for deerskin clothing they are dependent upon exacting "oo mal-git " (traders) of this place and the Diomedes Islands, who monopolize the Siberian deerskins traffic. Their dependent condition leads me to think that mission herding and training DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 119 schools would be the best and quickest means of Christianizing and civilizing them. When Mrs. Lopp and I visited your station last August and viewed the acres of horns, we could hardly believe our eyes. It seemed as if we had suddenly stepped into the fairy land of Santa Clans, although, when seen in the distance, the deer resembled a herd of cattle quietly grazing on a gentle hill slope in the States. Again, when I visited you in April last, and rode out to the herd behind two fleet- footed deer, saw the fawns gamboling over the snow, and the big herd feeding in almost the same place where we had 6een them in August, witnessed four deer drawing lour sleds loaded with driftwood, which would have required twenty dogs, I realized more fully than ever before how completely and admirably the domesti- cated deer arc adapted to the wants of the inhabitants of these frozen waste lands. The exhilarating excitement which I experienced in taking my first ride behind reindeer is a pleasure which I shall always remember with pride. On our recent missionary trip. Mrs. Lopp and I had a good opportunity to study the habits and adaptability of the Eskimo dog. We traveled from here to Point Hope, more than 300 miles, in twenty-three days, sixteen days of actual traveling. The other seven days we were laid up on account of bad weather or to rest our dogs. With deer I think we could have reached Point Hope in half the time, especially had herds of deer been available at two or three settlements along the route, so that we could have changed our team occasionally. At times we were compelled to haul dog food 100 miles, while with deer they could have picked their food, as there is au abundance of moss all the way. It may be of iuterest to note that while on this midwinter journey we were clothed in deerskins, carried a deerskin tent (seven winter shins sewed together) and sleeping bag of the same, and escaped without a frostbite, although there were days when the thermometer registered 33° below zero, and we camped out when it was as low as 22° below. We explained Dr. Jackson's and Capt. Healy's philanthropic scheme to natives of twenty-two settlements, and they were all delighted with the idea. Some looked as though they thought it too good to be true, but their doubts soon vanished when I told how nice they were doing at your place. They would often say, " Hurry up," " Bring the deer next year," " Plenty moss," etc. The farther north we went the more poorly clad we found the people. Most of their artigers were made of squirrel or rabbit skins. At Point Hope only a few wore clothing made of Siberian (summer) deerskins. Most of them were clothed in wild (winter) deerskins, which, on account of their weight and long hair, are only adapted to tents and sleeping blankets. Our chiefs here at the cape, who visited the station last winter and saw the herd, seem very highly pleased, and are anxious to invest in small herds of their own. In conclusion, let me congratulate you in bringing the herd safely through the first winter, thus forever closing the mouths of those who have prophesied failure. With many thanks for your kindness during the winter, and for the trouble you have taken to eulist in the cause our people who have visited the station I am, very truly yours, W. T. Lopp. Mixer W. Bruce, Superintendent Teller Reindeer Station, Fort Clarence, Alaska. 120 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF Exhibit C. H. R. THORNTON ON THE REINDEER HERD- Cape Prince op Wales, Alaska, May 22, 1S93. Dear Sir : It affords me pleasure to express my sense of the successful result of the experiment of introducing domesticated Siberian reindeer into this section of Alaska. American whalers have made millions out of the whales of these waters — the nat- ural support and property of the Eskimo — it is only just that our Government should ward off the starvation not improbably produced by killing off the whales, by giviug the Eskimo an opportunity of cultivating an equivalent food supply in reindeer. The skins of the reindeer are indispensable for winter clothing and bedding, and the pleasant drive Mrs. Thornton and I took behind your pair of deer in March con- vinces me of their great value to these people as draft animals. They were here six clays, I believe, unmolested by our 150 dogs; so there seems to be no great difficulty on that score. Very truly yours, H. R. Thornton. Mr. M. W. Bruce, Superintendent Teller Beindeer Station, Fort Clarence, Alaska. Exhibit D. JOHN A. DEXTER ON REINDEER HERD. Golovin Bay Silver Mine, Alaska, June 14, 1S93. My Dear Sir: During my visit to the reindeer station last winter, which was extended much beyond the time I had expected it would be before I left home, I had an opportunity to get an insight into the reindeer question, and learn many things about this useful animal that were not only a surprise but a sort of gratification to me. Since my return home I have had time to think it all over, and the more I think of it the more firmly I am impressed with the importance of the movement, not only to the natives, who, the Lord knows, need something to relieve them from their destitute and suffering condition; but it seems to me it can be made a matter of pecuniary profit to civilization, and convert the boundless wastes of Arctic Alaska into the field of a valuable industry. During the past two winters I have spent in this country I have traveled over a large extent of territory, and my means of traveling has been by dogs. They have always been the best I could procure, aud until I saw what a deer was capable of doing, I thought them a superior animal for Arctic traveling and the only one that could be used for that purpose. While I am still of the opinion that dogs are not only valuable, but perhaps essential for certain purposes, and will always be used by the Eskimo to a greater or less extent, I see many ways in which the reindeer are superior, and can be made to take their place as a valuable substitute. In the number of trips I made with reindeer while at the station, and especially the one to Cape Prince of Wales, their capacity for traveling was fully and satisfac- torily demonstrated. On that trip our teams traveled right along with the dogs, apparently with little fatigue, and you and I rode all the way and were comfortable, while the natives with the dogs were obliged to walk or run most of the time. The pleasure I experienced on this trip was greater than any I have ever enjoyed before in my frequent journeys in Alaska, but I shall always regret that part of it DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 121 on our return Lome when, by some means, I allowed my team to be attacked by dogs. Subsequent experience showed that I was wholly to blame for the accident, but I find some little satisfaction in realizing that no permanent injury resulted to the deer. I need not speak of the great need of some means by which the natives can secure proper clothing to enable them to withstand the severe winter of this latitude, in place of the light squirrel and rotten rabbit skins now used almost entirely by them all through this section, for you are fully apprised of that fact. Neither is it necessary to discuss the importance of some other food supply than that had now only by patient and continual labor in all sorts of weather by the natives, for you have had experience enough with your own people to know what trials and dangers they undergo to get sufficient to preserve life. But if the propa- gation of reindeer throughout this region is hastened, it will place these people in a position that will make their lives worth living, and raise them from an existence where toil is accompanied with the ever-present shadow of starvation. My hopes that you would bring the reindeer through the balance of the winter after I left the station, all right, 1 am happy to learn are realized, and I also learn that you have a large number of young deer. The native I took with me to your place has set the natives here wild on the rein- deer question, and he wants me to ask you to give him a place on the herd. I know you have many applications for such positions, but I can recommend him as a good man, and believe it would be a good idea to let these people have one of their men represent them at the station. If this can not be done, I wish you would urge the authorities to either start a station here or send a small herd somewhere in this sec- tion of the country. The most exaggerated accounts of the number of deer at the station are in circu- lation among the natives, many of them thinking you have several thousand. As you prophesied, I am unable to find a single native now who predicted last summer that the deer would all die. It is like everything else in this world. Nothing suc- ceeds like success, and the natives who knew the venture would prove a failure are now the first ones to say that they knew the deer w-ould come through all right. I outlined the character of the country down this way to you while at the station, and I have seen no reason since my return to change my opinion that it is as well adapted to raising deer as in your section. Moss is everywhere abundant, and there are large tracts of grass that afford an unlimited supply of summer ft. M. A. Healy iu regard to the most important steps I have taken this summer. I have purchased some arms, ammunition, and supplies of Mrs. Thornton; also from the American Missionary Association. We have found that cement, lime, and clay make very good mortar for log houses We have just completed one for Charley (12 by 15). We hope to build several more. We want to make some seines and nets next year. So we hope you will have an opportunity to investigate and send us the proper kind of twine. I think it would be well to send up more lumber for storehouses, flooring, and lining of log houses. As for building a new dwelling house next year, I don't think it necessary unless you can afford to put more people here. I have furnished the Bear's surgeon with a copy of our drug bill, and he says if you will write to him he will tell you what drugs will be needed for next year. Part of our mail this last year was lost on the Jennie, so we would like if the Bear would bring most of it. If you would write me per steam whalers in February and March, I might be able to hear from you a few days before the Bear arrives. Grubin is doing very well. Very truly, yours, W. T. Lopp. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, U. S. General Agent of Education in Alaska. . P. S. — If you can get lumber shipped up here as reasonably as you did last, I think it would be well to send up about t'lie same amount of lumber which you sent last year, with the exception of the 1 by 4 stuff, and instead of 4-inch flooring send 6- inch, I have bought some clothing of Mrs. Thornton for Mr. Grubin and have given her an order on you. Teller Reindeer Station, Port Clarence, Alaska, August 31, 1893. Dear Sir : Now that Mr. Thornton has been murdered at the instigation of a bad boy — hoodlum — and pilfering thief, it seems evident that we need, too, a rude native police force organized by the U. S. revenue-marine cutter at all these Eskimo settle- ments. These police should be liberally paid and be appointed by and responsible to the cutter. Hoodlum characters like Ti talk should be punished by these police or held prisoner until the cutter arrives. And the cutter should have authority dele- gated to try and punish all offenders. I hope you can influence the Interior Depart- ment to ask the Treasury Department to confer such power and authority on its cutter in these waters. If Capt. Healy were instructed accordingly I am sure he would take pleasure in providing and organizing such a police force, as he has had so much experience with these natives that with the help of the teachers he would make a success of it. I hope you will do everything in your power to bring about such a state of affairs. Nan oo gok, the man who was put in irons and was shipped on the Silver Wave, is here, and is reported to have made threats against the station. The natires have promised to send him to King's Island. If the native police had been employed, as they were the year previous, I think Mr. Thornton would not have been murdered by the pilferers. We have appointed four police here. I write you hastily. Very truly, yours, W. T. Lopp. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, U. S. General Agent of Education in Alaska. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 135 Teixek Reindeer Station, Port Clarence, Alaska, September 2, 1S93. Dear Sir: I have been so rushed with the work this summer thai I have not given the deer, their management, distribution, etc., as much thought as I had expected' I herded, however, one night with Jack, one of the shepherd dogs you left us. There are about 345 in the herd now, and I suppose next year we will have about 500 with the increase. I think it would be a good plan to give or loan Charley and three or lour more herders about 20 deer each, so that they could put them together and have a herd of about 75 or 100 deer. They could keep them south or north of here, and at the end of two or three years could pay back to the station here the number of deer which tbey had received. I think it important to do something like this next year. One real example of a man like Charley at the head of a herd of deer would do much towards educating the people up to the advantages of becoming deermen. I hope you will consider this matter. I have often thought that if you were removed from office by this administration, the success of the reindeer scheme might be imperiled, and I hope, if such a thing should happen, you could have the management of the station turned over to Capt. Healy. He is very much interested in the deer and people, has spent a great deal of time and labor trying to further the scheme, and, I suppose, has had such an exten- sive experience that he could give the station a thorough overhauling every year. Capt. Wagner traded 5 gallons of liquor on the other side this year for deer. Tliose who herded here last year and have two deer in the herd have offered to sell them to Charley (who is now a herder) for four deerskins each. If they have trouble in finding a man for the cape, and you can get a good man for the station here, Mrs. Lopp and I will go back to the cape. But, of course, since we are settled here, we would prefer to stay here another year. I sincerely hope a good conscientious minister can be found to come up to the cape next year. Probably I have not made clear to you our proposed plan of distribution. I think while natives are learning to herd they should be clothed and fed and paid a small salary, from $1 to $4 per month, according to age, efficiency, etc. ; and at tin- end of one year, in some cases two, loan four or rive of your best herders 20 or 30 deers each. Let them put them together and keep them on a new range of pasture 10 or 20 miles from here, the superintendent of this station giving them general direc- tion as to the management, slaughtering, etc. At the end of two or three years their herd will have increased so much that they can pay back to the Government what they have borrowed, and will have become so thoroughly acquainted with the 1m st methods of breeding, managing, restrictions in slaughtering, etc., that they can be trusted to assume the whole management of their herd. By this method fifteen or twenty herders could be trained here every year and could be sent out with two or three new herds of deer, which the Government would loan them until they could pay them back, on condition, of com-se, that the Government superintend and regu- late the management of the herd as long as they have deer in it. Of course the original policy may be the best, but at this writing it occurs to me that it is easier for the Government to control what it owns than what Eskimos own. I write you this so that you can consider it and it will not be new to you next year. Very truly, yours, W. T. Lopp. Rev. Sheldon Jackson, D. D., General Agent for Education in Alaska. 136 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP CAPT. M. A. HEALY, U. S. REVENUE MARINE, REPORTS ILLEGAL TRAFFIC IN REINDEER. Revenue-Marine Steamer Bear, Port Clarence, Alaska, July 5, 1S9S. Dear Doctor : You had no sooner left than I learned some facts that I would like you to know. Mr. Bruce's indecision seems to have heen for a purpose, for all the time he has been telling the whaling captains that he would not remain at the sta- tion another year. I learn to-night that after we left here he bought from Capt. Newth, for 150 mink skins, about $125 worth of trade goods, among which were four breech-loadiug rifles and ammunition. He put these on board the schooner Berwick and chartered her for $200 to goto the other side and bring over twelve deer for him. He has no right to trade arms there for his private account under the consent of the Russian Government, for this vessel to trade them for reindeer, and from his position as superintendent of the station only brings the project into disrepute. As a pri vate individual he has a right to trade legitimately, but the presence of competition only enhances the price for us, and for him to engage in such trade while holding his position, without saying anything about it, is underhanded and dishonorable. I do not tell you these things to worry you, but that you will have a better regula- tion and hold on these people in the future. Very respectfully, M. A. Healy, Captain, U. S. Revenue Marine. Rev. Sheldon Jackson, D. D., Unalasla, Alaska. AFFAIRS AT THE TELLER REINDEER STATION. Steamer Bear, East Cape, Siberia, August 25, 1S9S. My Dear Doctor: To keep good my promise to write you of our cruise, I take it up where I left off, at Port Clarence. As I wrote you, the captain was very much put out that Mr. Bruce should have sent Capt. Wagner for deer without speaking of it. He did not like his underhand way or his assumption. Consequently, he left orders with Mr. White not to permit the deer to be landed. Mr. Bruce had scarcely left the harbor when Capt. Haynes arrived with the deer, and you can imagine his surprise when informed that the deer could not be lauded without passing through the custom-house. They were like so many elephants on his hands. He could not return them to Siberia, on account of the ice, and could not land them on our shore. They were eating him out of house and home. So he made application to land them on St. Lawrence Island. The captain, not wishing to appear unduly severe, per- mitted him to do so, provided he would enter them at the custom-house at Unalaska or Kadiak. He heartily wished he had never seen Mr. Bruce or the deer. The cap- tain's disgust and expressions I leave you to imagine when he learned upon arrival at Enchowau that whisky had been part of the barter paid; and the Indians Avere told the deer were purchased for him, and that the schooner was Capt. Healy'salso. He could not make the Indians believe to the contrary. The result was, when he talked deer the Indians talked whisky, and so it was all the way along the coast. They would say, " You like deer, me like whisky. No whisky me, no deer you." After AN ESKIMO SCHOOLGIRL POINT BARROW, ALASKA. TAKING LESSONS IN COOKING Photograph by J. W. Kelly. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 137 running a week or more without being able to get near the shore, on account of the ice, we left for Point Barrow, stopping at the different places along the coast up to that point. At Point Hope Dr. Driggs came on board. He looked much better in person than the previous years; he impressed us favorably. He remained on board with as until late at night. The captain was much pleased with him and his conversation. Arriving at Point Barrow we found things at the Refuge House in a better condi- tion than last year. The 75,000 feet of lumber were landed all along the beach at Point Barrow. They could not land it at one place on account of ice, which was quite heavy on the beach. But the captain doubts if there will be much of it there next year, as no one seemed to take the trouble to pile it up during the two weeks Ave were there. The captain allowed Dr. Beaupre to live for this year in the sta- tion, but gave him the little house, in which Mary lived, to hold the school in. Mr. Kelley was well and very much improved in looks from last year. You remember he looked quite miserable. Although the ice was in large cakes around us, yet we were quite safe so long as the wind lasted in the northeasterly direction. The pack was not far from us. As you can imagine, we had to keep constant watch of its move- ments. They told us the northeast wind had been blowing constantly for thirty- three days, and was still the same when we left. The Jennie Wand went ashore, and the captain got her off without any damage. This is the vessel that took up Mr. Browers supplies. After his lumber was landed Mr. Brower had two stone houses built for his goods, while we were there. He had ouly the natives to help him. He and Mr. Kelley employ nearly all (if not all) the natives between them. Hearing there were four vessels in a critical condi- tion in the ice, we remained some ten days longer to render them assistance if neces- sary. At the end of that time the ice opened a little, and they came out. Every- body thought they were doomed. Seeing them safely out, we left and returned to the Siberian coast. Meantime, whisky-trading for deer had reached Cape Serdze, and with exactly the same results. The captain calculates tbat Mr. Bruce's action has lost him a hundred deer or more, besides augmenting the expense. We went to Cape Serdze, as it was pretty clear of ice. During this clear interval on the north side the Indians held off in hopes of compelling the captain to sell whisky. As the ice began to come in and they saw it useless to wait for whisky, they began to bar- gaiu. Tourassie offered 100 deer, which the captain accepted, but before they could be taken off, the ice drove the vessel out to sea. The old fellow was on board for four days before he made a move to trade. Milka was the same, holding off to the last. However, wegot 26 deer from him. The captain held on so long, notwithstanding the ice comiug in, that we lost our propeller in forcing our way out of the ice. Once out of the ice, we steered for Kocodillin's place. Here was the same, "No whisky, no deer." Here the ice came in, as last year, only much heavier. Still we hung on and procured 19 deer. More were beyond. So Mr. Jarvis was dispatched to get them as quickly as possible, but before the deer were caught he was hurried on board. Great fields of ice, owing to a northwest gale, began to crowd into the bay. We were in a few hours completely hemmed in. Then began the ramming and pushing to get out. I thought a dozen times we would lose another propeller. But every- body was on deck with ice poles to keep it clear, if possible, of the propeller. It was indeed a hard fight, and we were all relieved when we reached clear water. In all the trips you have made, you never saw such beavy ice and never saw such a struggle to get out of it. We were no sooner out than there came a dense fog. During the night a heavy northerly gale came up and we were obliged to heave to, with no chance to land anywhere, and no food for the deer. Tbe captain decided to go to Port Clarence, which we reached safely through wind and fog the next day. They were all glad to see us. Our long absence made them begin to fear we were lost, for when we left we told them we should return in a week, and we did not return for six weeks. We found everybody well. Mr. Mayo died a month previous, 138 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF and is buried across the creek, opposite the dugout, -which, by the way, caved in before he died and nearly caught him. The carpenter and two men we left hero during the six weeks made great improvement in and about the station. I will try to describe the house. The room made for Mr. Bruce last year is the same, only with double floor and walls. The hall is the width, taking in the outside door. They filled in with earth under the entire flooring of the house, even with the rafters. A double floor has been laid, with tar paper between, throughout tho entire length and width of the house, from the hall to the other end of the house. The two front rooms are used by Mrs. Lopp, her private room and a kitchen off it. By the side of this is the assistant's room and a dark room used for immediate stores. From this a ladder runs up to the attic. This, too, has a double floor, aud the whole house has double sides, with tar paper between. They are sadly in want of double windows. They built a "lean-to" the whole length of the house. On one end is a very large storeroo n, with double water-closets off that. The rest is one long room for the herders. They have a stove, a table, knives, forks, every- thing to make their table look nice and civilized. There are two benches for seats around it. I saw them at supper and they seemed pei'fectly happy and contented. Along the side of the wall are built some eight or ten bunks. With these they are par- ticularly happy. The news of this improvemeut had reached the Siberian side by the time we went back, and the old herders wanted to return. The new herder is so pleased he says next year he will bring his wife and deer over and take up his resi- dence at Port Clarence. Charley and Mary are to work for the Lopps. Charley has built a lo»- house near the Lopps. I wish you could see it. It is fine. Mr. Lopp, in fixing the attic of the house, fouud 27 pairs of deer horns. The baby is doing well, and is very cute. Mary adopted a little baby boy 5 months old whose mother was going to kill it. She carries it on her back, and takes the best of care of the little thing. It is the third she has saved from death. She is truly a Christian soul, and a good example for others to follow. She says there were several killed last winter. This would, indeed, be a truly Christian missionary work, to save these little ones from death at the hands of their mothers and others. We have had a most disagree- able summer, such dense and heavy fogs to conteud with, and the cold intense. Truly your good angel called you home in time to escape the most disagreeble part of the cruise, for, up to the present time, August 25, we have had but one pleasant day. Do you remember the crazy man we took on board at Port Clarence? Well, he went to Mr. Wadsworth the other day and said, "Mr. Tineye, will you give me a glass of whisky 1" We have still another on board whom they are obliged to keep watch of, aud at night he is chained to his bed, for he is bent on self-destructiou. The doctor had him on deck the other day for an airing. Crazy No. 1 came up aud said, "Hello, pard. You work this racket better than me, for I have to work and you don't. How do you manage it? You know you are no more crazy than I am. You are only lazy. Go to work, and you will get $30 per month." The man to whom he was talking was perfectly oblivious of what he was saying, but it amused us much. On August 27 we stopped at Cape Prince of Wales to take Mr. and Mrs. Thornton down, should they have concluded to leave. We were surprised to find no one came oil' to meet us, and the village seemed deserted of Indians. We remained all night, the captain giving orders that Mr. .Jarvis and Mr. White should go ashore early in the morning and lind out where Mr. and Mrs. Thornton were. They came off in a short time with two notes from Mrs. Thornton, and told the captain that Mr. Thorn- ton was killed on the 19th of August by three of their scholars, and that his body still lay in the house unburied. The natives took his wife to Port Clarence. So the captain had a coffin made and sent Mr. Jarvis ashore to bury him, with Mr. Jacobs, who read prayers over him. They killed him in the darkest part of the night with a whale gun. They knocked at the door aud he stepped from his bedroom into the DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 139 hall, and asked what they wanted, and received the shot through the door. He "walked into his room, shut the door, and said " I am shot," and fell to the floor dead. His poor wife jumped from the hed frantic, afraid to go out and call anyhody. The next morning, when the Indians heard of it, the one living in the house nearest to her came up to the house with others and said they would protect her and take her to Port Clarence. The Indians then turned out and got two of the Indians, marched them up to the house, shot them and threw their hodies out near the flagstaff for the dogs to eat. The third man had gone up the coast, hut he is doomed, tor they will kill him, and they told Mr. Lopp they would hring his hody so as to let him see that they had killed him, thereby testifying that they had no part iu killing Mr. Thornton and did not sanction it. Mrs. Thornton is now on hoard, on her way to .her father's home in Maine. She tells us the Indians were very kind to her; yet she did not feel secure until she was with the Lopps. She passed the night alone after it happened, and the native: all fled to the hills when they saw the cutter. She said, on her way to Port Clarence the natives saw the vessel and she had hard work to keep them in the canoe. She promised them she would tell the captain how good they were to her, and would ask him to spare them and their families. She said they would not take a thing from her, not even matches, which they so much prize, to show her that they did not give her protection for pay. They would not come on hoard. After hurying Mr. Thornton we went to Port Clarence, took on hoard Mrs. Thorn- ton and Mr. Lopp, and returned to Cape Prince of Wales to let her pack up her things. While they were packing, the captain had made a large cross for a headhoard and a footboard and placed them at the head and foot of the grave. It took Mrs. Thorn- ton until 8 o'clock to get the things packed and placed on hoard. Mr. Lopp suggested that, as the Indians were afraid to come on hoard, the captain go ashore for a talk with the natives. He sent runners to inform the people he wished them to assemble on the hcach, and they came as fast as their legs could carry them. The captain then spoke of Mr. Thornton's death, and told them Mrs. Thornton and Mr. Lopp had asked him to spare them, and, as they had taken the law in their own hands and killed the murderers and had befriended Mrs. Thornton, he felt satisfied they knew nothing of the murderous intent, etc. Had they not avenged Mr. Thornton's death, he said he would have done so, and would not have left a single one of their people alive, and that he would have followed them north and south, over mountains and sea until everyone of them was killed or afraid to say they wrere of Cape Prince of Wales. Mr. Lopp says it is the first time in his experience with them that he ever noticed any demonstration. They were more than eager to please the captain, and exclaimed frequently and vehemently that they would hunt for and kill the man who, although not active in Mr. Thornton's death, had fled. The captain did not wish to second this death-hunt, but, as Mr. Lopp thought otherwise, he said nothing. The fear of the cutter's reeking revenge on the village caused the swift and sure killing of the murderers. The Indians had not slept from the time of the murder. The captain told them he would place the houses in their care until some one came up to take possession of them in the spring, and that he would then see if they were sincere. They all gladly assumed the charge and were very grateful that they and their families were spared. Mrs. Thornton will write you when she returns to her home. She hears up bravely. I find her a very nice, sensible woman, and I like her much. Poor soul! I cannot tell the dreadful agony she went through until she found herself in the hands of friends. We are now at St. Michael, on our way to Unalaska (September 7). We have taken on board from here 37 miners, one of the Catholic brothers, and Mr. Wilson, so that you see in the cabin we are full. The miners say that Mr. Healy is a fine man and will do well. He has labored under many difficulties, but is coming out all right. The captain had a talk with Mr. Lopp about the distribution of deer to 140 EEPOET ON THE INTRODUCTION OF the natives. He does not think it feasible to deal out one or two to the different natives, and told Mr. Lopp he thought it much better to give 10 of the best and most reliable natives 10 deer apiece and let them form a little colony by themselves and herd them. In a few years, he thought, it would prove flourishing. He told Mr. Lopp to write you about the matter, and if you can not understand Mr. Lopp, the captain will be in San Francisco the middle of November, and you can write him for what information you want. I will leave this open until we leave Unalaska, so if anything of interest happens I can add it. I trust you found your good family are well, and everything moving to your entire satisfaction. Sincerely yours, Mary J. Healy. Rev. Sheldon Jackson, D. D. Steamer Bear, Unalaska, Alaska, September 21, 1S93. Dear Doctor : I inclose you a reindeer account, Avkich explains all the transac- tions for reindeer, etc., since you left the vessel. The number secured represents a fair season's work, and as they are nearly all bear- ing females it is an especially good lot for breeding. The ice bothered us considerably. Fifty-one more deer "were actually bargained for at Cape Serdze, but the ice drove us out before they could be secured. During the latter part of August the ice was down to East Cape and nothing could be done there. Mr. Bruce's trading expedition and its whisky also interfered greatly with our trade. Every man we bought from asked for whisky and delayed trading until we convinced them that they would get none from the vessel. In the time spent at Cape Serdze we might have secured at least 100 deer before the ice came down but for the delay caused by the whisky. A number of the natives along the coast wanted me to fit them out to trade for me during the winter, and I selected "Peter," at South Head, as the most likely man. He is a deer man, having a herd of his own, which he drives back every year. If he is. successful anil has the deer at St. Lawrence Bay it will be great saving in time and coal. Two more Siberian herders were taken to Port Clarence, one from South Head and one from Cape Serdze. The carpenter and a man I left at the station completely remodeled and fixed the buildings, so now they have a comfortable, warm house. An addition was put on the back, and the natives given very good quarters, with bunks, tables, etc. They now take an interest in the place, and it is more popular than ever before. I talked over with Mr. Lopp the sclieme to distribute deer among the people, and let him write it to you as superintendent of the station. In three years the normal increase from the herd that is already here will be more than can be handled, and something will have to be done to distribute them. I have a proposition from an interpreter, who was so well pleased with the coun- try as a grazing country that he moved his family and herd over to the vicinity of Port Clarence and settled there. If a few of the Tchuktchis could be settled in this way in the country they would do much to popularize the deer. You have heard of Mr. Thornton's death by this time. Mr. Lopp was to have writ- ten you of it. Comments by me are unnecessary, as the situation must be so well understood by you. I have on board a boy from East Cape for an interpreter in the future. 5 =>' < 2 DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 141 Mrs. He.ily sends her regards. We arc all well. The fleet is about to depart, and, so far as I understand, I am to remain hei'e alone. I hope you arc well and that I shall have a letter from you on your arrival in San Francisco. Very truly yours, M. A. Hkaly, Captain, U. S. Revenue Marine. Rev. Sheldon Jackson, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. MEMORANDA OF REINDEER IN NORWAY. Paris, France, January 26, 1S94. Dear Dr. Jackson: I meant to have a letter awaiting you on your return to Washington in October, but a number of circumstances (one of them la grippe) has prevented me from writing. I remained almost four months in Norway, but for only a small portion of that time was I where I could see the reindeer. I stayed for live weeks at a small hotel on the borders of the Hardanger Vidda, the great mountain plateau above the Hardanger Fjord in Norway. The Norwegian with whom I boarded was a third owner of a herd of 1,000 reindeer, but the deer ranged over the Vidda and were a two days' difficult journey (on foot or iu the saddle) from the house. I was therefore unable to see much of the deer or make measurements and sketches which 1 had planned to make. While at this place, however, I took one day's excursion almost to the center of the Vidda, and at that time I saw 800 of the deer for a short time. I also collected some interesting facts about the deer from the Garm (the man at whose house I stayed), and from others who were familiar with the habits of the deer. I hope this winter to write a short article (illustrated) upon my trip across the Vidda. This will contain some facts about the semidomesticated reindeer, and other animals on the Vidda. As this article, however, may never see type it seems best to write you some of the main facts which I have collected about the deer. I am sorry they must reach you at such a late date. These deer (or rather their ancestors) were first brought down from Lapland by a Norwegian farmer living near Thelemarken, on the southern side of the Vidda, more than twelve years ago. But at that time there were many wolves in that dis- trict, and the herds suffered much from their depredations, so much so that thero was little profit in the keeping of the deer. Now the wolves have almost disap- peared, and many farmers are beginning to keep small herds, which find pasturage all the year round on the Vidda. Usually 3 or 4 farmers combine, and own the herds together, each man sending some one to tend the herd for a week at a time. In this way, much time and labor is saved, as a herd of 500 deer can be cared for almost as easily as one of 50. Grass or hay is scarce in Norway, from the comparatively limited area of land suitable for its cultivation. The raising of deer, therefore, is growing in favor with the Norwegians whose land is situated near the mountain uplands, for the deer require no winter feeding, but live all the year round on the lichens, moss, and short alpine grasses which grow upon the Arctic lands which are too barren for some sheep pasturage. The Hardanger Vidda I found most interesting. It slopes gradually from the borders to the center. At the border nearest to the Fjord the elevation is perhaps 2,500 feet. At that latitude, of course, the altitude implies almost an Arctic, cer- tainly a " Boreale" growth of vegetation. Here, for a long day's journey, one finds the "saeter" country, the land where the saeters or summer dairies of the Fjord farmers are situated. The cows come up from the valley about the 20th of June, and in favorable seasons remain until the middle of September. At long distances apart one finds the wretched little huts of turf and stones where the saeter girls 142 , REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF live and work all summer long. Here the grass is short, but very sweet and good; the cattle thrive, and the milk is of a far better quality than that of the valley. The sheep, too, range in the same district, but usually they penetrate farther into the Vidda and feed on higher, rougher ground. Then comes the interior of the Vidda, a most desolate, wild region, too far for the location of saeters, and where only the reindeer find good pasturage. The deer will feed wherever the cattle do. They like the same grasses, and there is no antagonism between the herds, but on the whole the deer prefer the higher ranges, where the moss and lichens and a little alpine plant, called in Norsk " rens- dyblakke" or "reindeer-leaf," grows profusely. There are about 3,000 wild reindeer still upon the Vidda. The presence of these wild bands causes some confusion and loss to the owners of the tame animals. Often the tame deer are killed by mistake by hunters, and sometimes members of the tame herd stray away and join the wild deer. When only a few deer are seen at a time it is difficult to discern the difference between the two herds; but if a large herd is seen, one can tell at a glance whether it is tame or wild. The wild deer present a uniformly brown appearance, while in a herd of tame deer there are many whitish or piebald animals. The tame deer all have ear marks, also, but these can be dis- tinguished only at short range. The "open season" for hunting the wild deer is now only from August 15 to September 15. There are about 34,000 tame deer in southern Norway. Most of these are scattered throughout the mountains of the Saeterdal district, but about 7,000 live on the plateaus of the Viddas and surrounding districts of Hallingdal, Thele- marken, Numedal, and Sogne. The deer of these districts are not milked as are those of Finland and Lapland. The profit comes from the sale of meat and skins, and occasionally the horns to tour- ists. Much of the meat is sent to Bergen, Christiana, and Christiansand and exported to France, Holland, aud Germany, and some to England. France affords a ready market for the skins, which are much used for gloves, and there is always a home demand for the skins. Winter clothes and sleeping bags are also made from the skins, with the hair left on, and any peasant who hunts or trav- els on the Vidda has his Arctic outfit. Later, when I crossed the entire length of the Vidda, with a guide and pony, I slept at night in an Arctic sleeping bag, and found it most comfortable. The farmers who live in the Fjords near usually own a certain amount of saeter or dairy land, but the tracts of land where their reindeer herds feed are taxed annually, according to the district occupied and the size of the herd. The herders usually have some little rough shelter, where they stay, but often they are obliged to sleep in the "open." The deer are restless creatures and often wander too far from the hut for him to return at night. The herder does not try to keep his flock together as closely as one would do with sheep. If he keeps them within his land, and sees that no strays join the wild herds, he is satisfied. He is aided by a small dog, which is called a reindeer dog, and which tends the sheep also. I saw a good many dogs on and near the Vidda, and they all looked much alike. It seems that a Laplander introduced, some years ago, a true Laplander dog from the North, and from him are descended the Vidda deer dogs. They look much like a small Huskey dog, small, rather short, dark in color, with erect ears, long hair, and wolf-like faces. I do not think the Herdanger an especially good place for the purchase of dogs. There are not enough of them, and the prices would probably be high. I think that Trondjhem, Norway, might be a better place. Though not in Lapland, tbere are herds of deer not far away, and the connection with Tromsoe, where there are many herds, is easily made by steamer. Probably the U. S. consul there could supply desired information. J found that one had to pay about $10 apiece (perhaps $12) in the Herdanger district for reindeer dogs. I see no reason why they would not bear the ocean trip well, and thrive in Alaska. I doubt if the true Eskimo dogs could be trained as deer dogs, DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 143 though they might be, if taken as puppies and reared with the true deer dogs. I should think any hardy western sheep dog would serve quite well in Alaska. I think they could bear the climate. I know that an English mastiff dog thrived well at Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie, where the cold is quite as severe as in Alaska, much severer than in southern and western Alaska,. One of the enemies, or, one might say, the only enemy of the deer on the Vidda is •the wolverine or "glutton," which kills the little fawns often. It sometimes will spring upon a doe from behind a rock as she passes, but as a rule it does not attack the grown deer. The sheep, being more defenseless, suffer more. The deer are not very tame. I called them up to me by offering them salt and singing the little tune by which their herdsmen call them, but they were very timid. I took some measurements of one deer, a rather small doe, but found it out of the ques- tion to try it with the larger bucks. It required all the strength of two strong men to hold the doe a few moments, and four men would have been necessary to subdue the largest animals. So I made no sketch, as I had hoped to do. The doe measured 46| inches from the ground to the shoulder. A girth of 40 inches. A little more than 63 inches from the tip of the tail to the base of the horns. A good-sized deer weighs about 240 pounds, but the largest bucks sometimes attain the weight of 600 pounds. I think the largest Siberian deer can hardly exceed this. The wild deer, on the whole, are not such fine animals. In two years a tame deer will attain a . C, December U, I To the Editor: As you have access to the Scandinavian and Lapland population in the United States and Canada you will confer a favor by publishing the following- notice, in your journal. Very respectfully, yours, Sheldon Jackson, U. S. General Agent of Education in Alaska. HEX W A XT ED TO TAKE CHARGE <>F REINDEER IX ALASKA. Iu the introduction of domesticated reindeer into northern Alaska a few men are wanted who have had practical experience in the herding and management of rein- deer. If any reader knows of a Laplander iu the United States or Canada who has been brought up to the care of reiudeer, and who would like to go to Alaska to take charge of reindeer, please communicate his name anil address to Dr. Sheldon Jack- son, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Also state condition of health, age, experience with reindeer, and wages asked. No. 1205 Pine Street, Des Moines, Iowa, December 18, 1S9S. Dear Sir: Your favor of the 13th addressed to Chicago came into my hands only to-day. I am very sorry I have not been able to do anything for you. In Chicago I tried to see the Norwegian manager of the Laplanders' exhibition at the Fair, but I never succeeded. I wrote him then a letter, and mentioned this in a letter to you at Washington, presuming you would visit Chicago on your return from Alaska. For reasons earlier mentioned the Laplanders are afraid of going to America, and they do not like to part with their trained dogs. You may, however, write direct to Consul Conrad Holmboe, o' Langes Gr, Chris- tiania. When we met in Philadelphia last June he promised to use his influence, but wrote me later from Tromsoe that he had not succeeded there. A steerage trip to New York from a Norway port costs probably some $25, and from Lapland to such port from $6 to $10, thus, making the cost from Lapland to New York about $31 to $35. I have no opinion about the wages a Laplander would eventually demand; perhaps $8 to $10 a week. If anything would tempt him it would be the prospect of saving some money with which he might return to his mountains. The Laplanders at the Fair have probably returned long ago. I believe I read something about their doing so in a Chicago paper some four or five weelia since. 156 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP It would scarcely be of any use to advertise in Scandinavian papers. You might, however, write to the U. S. consuls in Bergen and C'hristiania, Norway ; Stockholm, Swedeu ; also Helsingfors, Finland. They would give you information and good advice. Write also to Mr. Axel J. Schwabe, Drantheim, Norway. There are many Lap- lander families living east of that town, and he may be able to do something through his business friends up in the country. Perhaps the best thing would be to make an arrangement with some party about going to Norway and making contract with some Laplanders, taking them and their dogs with him to New York. Northern Sweden and Finland can not be visited in the winter before May or June, owing to the ice, but the Norway coast is open all the year round. It would, however, be rather an expensive trip, costing about $300. I would like very much to see your new report on reindeer in Alaska. Yours, truly, N. Width. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Washington, D. C. Everett, Wash., Deccmler JB4, 1893. Your Honor: I am informed that men are wanted as overseers for imported rein- deer in Alaska, am therefor so free as to offer you my service. I am 44 years of age and have a family; have been in the United States twelve years. By birth I am a Norwegian, born in the northern part of Norway, 70° north, and used to a cold climate. At my birthplace there are hundreds of thousands of reindeer, and I am very well acquainted with the Lapps and their language, as well as Russian, used in Alaska among Eskimo and natives. From a child I have been used to training and driving reindeer, of which my father had a good many, and I myself had some for several years in the old country. If you wish to have any Lapps for the service I can easily get them or go to Norway for them, my brother, Johau Dahl Vadso, Norway, being a merchant and having a large trade with the Lapps there. Dogs I can get enough of in Alaska from the natives. It is necessary to have 4 men at least to watch the reindeer, 2 in daytime and 2 in the night, as the deer are very easily frightened and scattered if they are not closely watched, the wolves being their worst enemies and after them especially in the nighttime. The men ought to have good Winchester rifles, as the wolves sometimes will attack men when hungry. In summer time (July), when the calves are born, they have to be taken care of more than usual the first three months after the birth. The rein- deer grow rather slowly, as they are not full grown before 5 years of age. They live until 14 to 16-years of age. The training for driving commences when they are 2 to 3 years old, but they are never put to hard labor before they are 5 years old, as they can very easily be spoiled by careless treatment, being of such a tender and slender construction. The females are seldom trained. A reindeer when trained can travel with 200 pounds burden on the sleigh on unbroken snow without any road 50 to 70 miles a day. Sometimes I have traveled 100 miles, when in a hurry, and with good, trained deer, but they need to be fed every four hours. In summer time there is a kind of mosquitoes that lay their worms or eggs in the hide or skin of the deer. This bothers the reindeer a good deal and makes the skin of less value. To avoid this trouble we always drove the deer to the seashore, as the fresh, salt-water breeze would keep the flies away. It is necessary also to change the feeding place for the reindeer every year (for large herds of 7,000 to 10,000 deer), as the moss which grows on dry land or high plateaus and mountains grows very slowly, so slowly that it takes several years to grow again after being eaten off by the reindeer. The moss eaten by deer grows up to 7 to 8 inches high. The top DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 157 of that moss is of a nice, yellow color, and the deer, heing very particular, eats only the top of this moss. I shall he glad to undertake the position as overseer for reindeer in Alaska, having heen used to their habits and wants, and am interested in reindeer and animals in general. I think I can obtain 3 or 4 Lapps from my brother in Norway for about $40 to $50 a month, without board; but am afraid I would have to go and bring them over, as the mountain Lapps, or reindeer Lapps, understand only their own language, and will never be able to learn the English language before they have been years here, and hardly then. Of course you would have to pay their fare from Norway to Alaska. I shall be glad to give you any information regarding this subject, so far as my knowledge goes, whether you accept my proposition or not. So far as I am concerned I am in good health, do not use liquor or tobacco, am a sailor, having my papers as pilot and engineer, and am willing to undertake the position for $1,200 a year, with free transportation of baggage, provisions, person, and family to destination. I refer to the Norwegian minister of this place, Rev. Carl Hael ; also to Mr. Swarthout, president of First National Bank of Everett. Wash. With my best respects, I am, Your humble servant, Regnor Dahl. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Washington, D. C: Seattle, Wash., December 24, 1S93. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C: In reply to your advertisement in various journals concerning reindeer-keepers in Alaska I take the liberty to give you the following information: I am born in Fin- inn rken, Norway, and have lived in Vadsoe, and along or about the Varanger-Fiord (rivers) for circa forty years; have owned, kept, and traveled with reindeer over the mountains to Haparanda and Trana-elven (small river), over Karasjak to Altin, and through the Russian Lapmarken, etc., for about thirty to forty winters. I speak Laplandish, Finnish, and the Russian language, besides German, and I have been in America for about eight years. In this city I have resided for four years as profes- sional druggist and doctor (physician). I am 63 years of age and was recently mar- ried here (three years ago). I am married the second time and am in perfect health, and would like to take the position at $1,200, or $100 per month, if things are arranged as they should be in order to accomplish the great object on hand. I have often thought how it could be possible to propagate the reindeer without the proper supervision by night and day with men and trained dogs, as reindeer always attract wolves. From the end of the Varanger River over to the Tana River there has been erected a fence of circa 20 English miles in length and 12 feet in height for the purpose of protecting the reindeer from the month of May to October; thus all the herds have to be gathered together upon the Varanger fields, which are 200 miles in length and 100 miles in breadth, and then and there the animals are cared for by the owners. and the calves are marked. The fence I had reconstructed some fifteen to sixteen years ago at the expense of the Government, it costing about $800. In the care of reindeer one has also to be on the outlook for sickness and death, and nothing should be done halfways. The young calves have to be looked after in respect to their teeth (they have to be crushed, in a particular way, by biting stones, etc.), other- wise the animals will be too wild. My advice therefore is, if I should be appointed, that a few genuine Fjeldlinner (Laplanders), perhaps 4, should be secured from among my acquaintances from Finmark (Sweden). It would be best to have some who are married, and they 158 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF must bring some dogs along. These men can be bad. for $200 a year; accordingly $800 for i Laplanders, besides traveling expenses for them and family and for the dogs. There ought to be 6 dogs of both sexes, since the reindeer have to be closely watched by night and day with dogs and rifles. Hereto must be added winter tents and cooking utensils, skies (skates), pulkhas (a Laplander's traveling sleighs), and traveling implements and tools, which they can manufacture themselves. The State ought to provide for shooting utensils, food, and clothing to begin with. I have a son in Finmark, 26 years of age, who is married and the father of 6 children, with a strong physique like I, who perhaps would like to take the place if you think that I am too old, which I hardly think is the case. In Everett I have a brother, 18 years younger than I, who perhaps also will write to you in this matter. I do not consider it necessary to cross the ocean in order to make arrangements for the undertaking. I have relations and friends who can attend to the affairs. However, if you, in order to save time, wish me to go I will undertake the journey, with the conditions that my salary be paid from the date of my departure, besides the traveling expenses. I take a great interest in the matter, as it is so highly important a question for Alaska, and whether you engage me or not as superintendent or director I shall always be at your service with good and practical advice, if you desire so. Very respectfully, yours, H. Dahl, Dr. Red Wing, Minn., December 28, 1893. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Bureau of Education: In the Swedish Minneapolis Weckoblad I read the following advertisement: From the pure standpoint of civilization and in the interest of our Swedish mis- sion in Alaska I have with special attention observed this announcement of the Department of the Interior in Washington. Prompted by the same and for the sake of the object itself I take the liberty to very respectfully address my views on the subject to you. Through repeated travels in the northern provinces of Sweden I have come in constant contact witli the Laplanders aud had the opportunity to study not only the customs of these people but also their breeding of reindeer, which is the most impor- tant source of livelihood for the Laplanders. I thus learned to understand that this occupation is a very difficult one, requiring great physical strength and endurance. On account of the nature and instincts of the reindeer the life of their owner is subjected to all the dangers and toils of a nomad. Experience shows that the rein- deer can not, with advantage to the owners, be forced, like a horse or cattle, to remain upon one and the same place; he must, led by natural instincts, roain about from place to place and forces the owner to a continual change of abode. Facts show that resident families never, with auy advantage, could bring up or keep reindeer, and the resident reindeer owners therefore always give them over to the care of nomad, or so-called "rein-Laplanders," who, for a small compensation, take charge of them. In the true interest for the introduction of reindeer in Alaska I therefore set forth my views and experience, and wish to say that, for the sake of obtaining satisfactory results, it is desirable in the under- taking that only Laplanders should be engaged for the execution of the work in question. It is also a common fact that Laplanders who become used to the life of resident inhabitants refuse to or are unwilling to continue the ways of living of the true reindeer herdsmen; indeed, they seem to lose their faculties for the toilsome labors .ind life of the tribes who are accustomed to it. In the real interests of the aim in view and from an economical standpoint therefore it would bo advisable to DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 159 engage a few Laplander families who, from their earliest childhood, have led a nomad life and prefer it to a resident? life. It can not be difficult to accomplish this. The women of the Laplanders are extremely useful in the management of reindeer, and in physical strength and endurance they can sontend with any man. In case 4 such young, strong, and hearty families could ue transported to and naturalized in Alaska, bringing with them some of their reindeer, principally "cow reindeer," and sleighs, these families would, with a small support ami encouragement from the Government as a start, soon and to their personal advantage be able to take care of themselves without any cost to the Government. There are in Sweden ••rein-Laplanders" who have been brought up in the Chris- tian faith, and I entertain such lively interest in the matter that I would like tu serve the Government, and at its cost procure such families, and as their leader go to Alaska with them. Having lived a short time in this country only and finding difficulties in express- ing myself in the English language, I have taken the freedom to address yon in Swedish. With the highest consideration, I sign, Respectfully, J. Ntvall, Pastor of tin Stvedish Mission Church, Bed Wing, Minn. Sax F«ANClSCO, Januai'y 1, 1S94. Dr. Sheldon Jackson: To-day I heard of your advertisement in the Danish paper Bien and, desiring to secure a position as reindeer overseer in Alaska. I will try to convey to you some idea of my practical enperience in that occupation. I come from Bergen, Norway. I am 25 years old. and am 5 feet. 9 inches in height, of strong build and hearty and healthy. When quite young I went to Finmark, in the north of Norway, and had the best opportunities to study the characteristics of reindeer and what care they need. But I must inform you that the tameness of the reindeer and their vital- ity do not depend on the competency of the herdsmen only, hut greatly on the con- ditions of the country in regard to its physical structure and to food. It is of importance to have asufficiont number of watchful dogs. If the country is covered with mountains and valleys, steep slopes and tracts, then the reindeer are much more difficult to handle than those reared on plains and prairies, where it is easier to tame thetn and keep them in flocks and herds. Well-trained dogs can much easier bring scattered herds together than any men can possibly do. The dogs follow t he command of the herdsmen, and these should be competent enough to secure good dogs. In Finmark we used snowshoes during the winter, which enabled us to surround the reindeer and drive them in the direction desired. 1 .ears and wolves often scat- tered the herds in all directions and then the herdsmen had to follow them upon his •'skis" and the does would bring them together. Of 1,000 to 1,500 reindeer there were at snch occasions sometimes from :'.<) to 40 found dead upon the rocks. The increase and welfare of a reindeer herd depend greatly upon the watchfulness and painstaking of the overseer, who has to lie awake at almost any hour of the day or night. One has to bo kind-hearted toward them and search for the best pas- tures, and the reindeer grow quite tame if treated well. I am a good ski-runner and marksman and have used rifles both in self-defense and in orders to defend the herd. Besides, I am skilled in skinning animals that have perished in one or the other manner. Two years ago I hunted kangaroos in Australia, and had the l.est opportunity to handle rifles and strip off the skin of the killed animals, and I am used to roaming about upon the prairies. In Finmark we had, of course, big bags of reindeer skin 160 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF to sleep in, which we buried deep in the snow to keep warm. This was all the house we needed, and our provisions we procured from the reindeer. It is impossi- ble to state wages. In the first place I have not lived long enough in America to know the conditions and circumstances, and in the second place I ought to know the number of animals in charge of each man, and if the position is permanent. If you count on my services please inform me at au early date regarding particu- lars, and I should like to start as soon as possible. The company, however, must pay traveling expenses and other expenditures for equipment. I expect only a rea- sonable remuneration for services. I know the English language thoroughly in regard to speaking it, but I am less versed iu writing. Very respectfully, P. ElNARSEN, 507 Marion Street. McNeils Island, Wash., January 2, 1894. Dear Sir: In the newspaper Skandinaven, of Chicago, I noticed an advertise- ment from you about men wanted to go to Alaska to take care of reindeer. As I am from that part of Norway, where they keep the reindeer in flocks of a hundred to thousands, and as I have some knowledge about herding and taking care of rein- deer I mi^ht give you a few points on the subject matter. In the first place, I do not think there is a Laplander in the United States or Canada, as that race very sel- dom emigrate. They are a people that cling to their forefathers' customs and tradi- tions like the Mongols of Asia. In Norway and Sweden tley live as nomads in the mountains with their reindeer, and associate A'ery little with the farmers and other inhabitants of those countries, and they have their own language, though the most of them speak and understand the Scandinavian languages. They are a true, honest, and faithful people, and, if once induced to accept a position they will give up their lives at the post before neglecting their duties. And if you can not find Laplanders in the United States or Canada, I would advise you to send to Norway for them, by the aid of the American consuls at either the city of Christiania, or Throneblyin. They could be hired in the neighboring country. And I can also give you the address of a friend of mine from boyhood, who is the proprietor of a big estate a few miles from the city of Throne- blyin, and his estate is surrounded by mountains, where Laplanders roam with their reindeer, and, as he is a man of cosmopolitan habits, he would gladly aid you in an enterprise like this, and free of charge, and you can correspond with him in the English language as he is an educated man. His name and address is Jacob S. Gram, Stenkjeer post-office, Norway. Another important matter is to secure good, trained dogs to help herd the reindeer* In case they are chased by savage beasts, like bears and wolves, the reindeer will spread out, and they can not be brought together without the help of good dogs, no matter how many herders there are, and the dogs will also, by their fine scent, notify the herders of the approach of any enemy, aud the herders will be on their watch, and I do not think this kind of dogs can be found in this country, either. In case you have to write to Norway for Laplanders to go to Alaska, you know they are igno- rant of the English language, and it may be they would not be willing to go to a foreign country, unless they could have a guide that understands their language, and, in that case, I would be glad to accept a position, and go to Alaska with them and take care of the reindeer. When about the age of 20 years I traveled among them in the old country, and know their customs and habits, and take interest in their care of the reindeer. I am 38 years of age, have good health, am used to fish- ing and hunting, and at present live on my ranch in the State of Washington. As to what wages I would ask, I will say $75 a month, with board, and, without board, so much more as the board would amount to. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 161 As to my character and responsibility, I will refer you to Congressman II. E. Boen, from Minnesota, now in Washington, D. C, or State Senator Louis Foss, of Tacoma, State of Washington. They have known me for years. Hoping for au answer at an early date, I remain, yours, truly, C. TANGEN, Stcilacoom Post-Office, Fierce County, Wash. Sheldon Jackson, Esq., Washington, D. C. Richmond, Wash., January G, 1S94. Dear Sin: Have seen in my newspaper that you want a few Laplanders to go to Alaska to take care of some reindeer. I am a Laplander, have lived in this country 6ince 1880, am able to talk English better than I can write. I am 36 years old. I can't say anything about wages before I hear how it is with board and the necessary outfit. I will say this much: you ought to have some of the Laplander dogs; without them one can't do much. If you should wish to get some of those valuable dogs I am ready to give you all the information possible. To take care of reindeer and to train the reindeer you ought to have one or two Laplanders fresh from Lapland, with their dogs, and other things. Yours, truly, A. N. Stokes, Richmond Post-Office, King County, Wash. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Redmyer, Cook County, Minn., January 9, 1894. Honorarle Sir: I wrote a letter to you the 5th instant, in which I applied for a position as foreman to take care of reindeer; but as I did not show my ability for such a duty, I thought I would tell you more about myself. If this position should be placed in my hands, I shall call your attention to the selection of two Laplanders and four dogs. The dogs must be of the kiud used by Laplanders, which I think I can recommend or furnish from Norway. In the summer the reindeer have to be kept close to the seacoast or on au island near by, as they like the salt water, and on this island is generally to be found fine grass, which is saturated with sea air. Also they will be protected from the wolves and flies. They are easily overcome with heat, and the sea air will protect them from that also. There must be two men night and day watching them in order to make them as tame as possible. In the summer the reindeer is made to pack all the provisions to the place where the men may be located. I understand how to do it, also how much each reindeer can carry. In the fall, before the snow comes, they must be taken back in the valley behind mountains, or to a valley where there are high ridges around, and there has to be lots of food or moss for them to live on over the winter, which place should be located in the summer, thereby saving lots of trouble. The provisions can be hauled up by reindeer on toboggans or cherist (Lapland name). It takes two good men to handle twelve reindeer, a raidy, with toboggnns, when they are game or "hilhass." The dark gray reindeer arc, more game ai: 1 can protect themselves better against the wolf than white reindeer. If I knew how many reindeer there were I could tell you what you needed for the whol*e outfit. I think it would be well to go up to Alaska and find a good place for the reindeer before taking them up there. As to the salary or wages, I could not say, as I do not g, Ex. 79 \\ 162 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP know Low expensive the provisions are up there. I suppose it is very high, hut £s there is lots of game, and fish, it is not necessary to buy much of that kind. I told you in my first letter that I was over 50 years old, hut I am a man in good health and can stand lots of hardships, and such a life would agree with me. I hope that I may get this position. Please let me know soon. Yours, respectfully, Henry J. Redmyer, Palisade, Lake County, Minn. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. G. Audubon, January 12, 1S94. Dear Sir: In reply to your, request in an advertisement concerning reindeer herdsmen wanted for Alaska, I address these lines to you with an inquiry if you have already been supplied with men who are experienced in this pursuit. Iu a negative case, I should like to accept such a position, as I have had a practical experience of six years in Lapmarken, Sweden. The reindeer prefer the mountainous, wooded regions, and live principally on moss, especially on specimens growing upon fir and pine trees; during the summer they will feed on leaves and grass. They do not like warm weather, and prefer the colder climates. When in search for food the Laplanders use snow-skates in traversing the wood-overgrown tracts as well as when they try to bring together the scattered herds. For the latter purpose it is necessary to have well-trained dogs. For transportation purposes the Laplanders use sleighs, so-called "akjas," that are dragged by means of a rope, one end of which is fastened to the "akja" and the other around the neck of the reindeer; a second rope, for guiding, is fastened to the head of the animal. A Laplander's habi- tation consists of a tent which has an opening at the top to let the smoke escape; a chain descends from this opening, and a cooking-pot is fastened to it, in which the daily meals are prepared. May and .June are the season when the reindeer have calves, and then inclosures are erected by the Laplanders, within which the cows arc milked. I am 26 years old, and have never been sick as long as I remember. I leave it to you, sir, to determine about the wages, as you have a better judgment of the conditions in Alaska. Please let me know if you wish the reindeer to be herded in the manner of the Laplanders; if board is provided or not, and I would ask traveling expenses to be paid. I have only been one year in this country and am not able to speak English. Nils Lust, Audubon, Becker County, Minn. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Washington, D. C. 12C5 Pine St., Des Moines, Iowa. January IS, 1SD4. Dear Sir: I see from the papers that the Laplanders in Jemtland (in Sweden, nearest town is 06tersuud) are very discontented with certain restrictions made by .the Government, and that reindeer culture under the present conditions is almost impossible, so that the Laplanders, although unwillingly, have commenced fanning, for which they are not all fitted. This mighl perhaps make Laplanders inclined to emigrate. Von should correspond with the U. S. minister in Stockholm (or the U. S. consul-general). Yours, truly, N. Width. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Washington, D. C. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 1G3 Chicago, III., January 18t 1894. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C: Having recovered from an illness (a cold), which lasted six weeks, I herewith, in reference to your letter of January 5, forward the following information: 1 was born and educated in the northern province of Sweden, Norrhotten (Lapland), and resided there until the year 1889. I am 39 years of age, an unmarried man, and a total abstainer from alcoholic drinks. I am a member of the Evangelical Lutheran Church and do not belong to any other sect. I am hearty ami strung in body and have been sick only twice within the last twenty years. As mentioned in my former letter, I am fully acquainted with reindeex breeding and management, partly because I grew up among people used to that occupation and partly because I, for ten years, performed the functions of a Crown liegeman of some of Sweden's largest Lapland districts, and thus was in constant intercourse with Lap- landers. I naturally became acquainted with the principal occupation and resources of the inhabitants. In regard to my ability in the line as a superintendent (overseer) I can refer yon to two Swedish Government officials, namely: The director-general, Lars Berg, in Stockholm, and the lord-lieutenant, (Landshofdhigen) K. S. Husberg, Lulea, Norr- botten, who both will be pleased to recommend me for the position if inquiries should be made. For the furtherance and interests of reindeer introduction into Alaska it would be advisable to engage true Nomades, i. e., Laplanders, and of these from 1 to 8 persons for each 500 reindeer, until the whole enterprise has been established satisfactorily. ( »ne overseer would be necessary to supervise and examine the different herds and posts, to keep account of the number of animals, their marking, if such a thing is required, and to keep the books, accounts, and carry on the correspondence, etc. The supervisor ought to have $100 per month as salary. There being dissatisfaction and depression among the Laplanders in "Sweden at present, it would no doubt be an easy matter to persuade some to come to Alaska and take charge of the reindeer as herdsmen. WlLHELM BeUGSTKOM. (161 Randolph street, (room 54) Chicago, 111.) Seattle, Wash., January ID, 1S94. HONORED Sir: Your valuable report to Congress I have read and take this occa- sion to very respectfully advance a few remarks and hints on this subject, demon Btrating how the reindeer raising and traffic is carried on in the most northern regions of Norway and Russia. Every mountaineer Laplander is at the same time a fisherman, i. e., from the springtime aft. r the reindeer are driven to the seacoasl until the fall when they are gathered iuto herds for marking, shearing, assorting, etc., and then again driven back upon the mountainous moss-fields, they have boats and fishing imple- ments of their own. The fish they catch are principally cod-fish, salmons, halibuts, etc. In the spring and fall they dry the fish which later on are sold to merchants who ship them to Italy, Spain, and China, partly America and Russia. Luring the summer these fish are sold in an unprepared condition to the Russians who salt them on board their vessels and transport them to cities lying along t he shores of the White Sea. In the fall before the fisheries are closed, they salt ami dry fish enough for domestic necessaries until the next spring, and store them in the houses »■■■■■ ^ i ■ ■ «___ . — . — -■■■ ■- ■ ■ ■ ■ — — — "■.■■■■■■ *On account of a new law, 164 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF of people that live near the seacoast. During the run of the winter, the Laplanders call for these fishes, by means of reindeer transportation, whenever they are in want of a new supply. The livers and the oil of the fall fishes are collected, like- wise, for domestic uses and kept in large fish bladders which are blown up for that purpose and are easily transportable. The oil and liver will keep in this manner until the next season. The oil is used in the preparation of food, as a sauce to the fish, and for moistening the bread with it. It is further used for lighting purposes, vehicles, and for preparing skins. My advice is to supply every family with from one to two nets for catching salmons, cords and hooks for lines, and from two to three tubs of salt, besides boards from one-half to three-fourths inches in thickness; the boards should be of cedar- wood. This arrangement will insure greater rest to the reindeer and an increase in their number. (Mr. Dahl means, of course, they will not kill the reindeer for food, etc., but leave them browsing and resting at leisure instead of keeping them on the go at all times. ) With so small a number as from 200 to 300 reindeer, of which one-third probably are bucks, you easily uuderstaurl that their increase would not be very rapid. Even if there were 1,030 auimals, I would advise strict protection of the flock during the next three or four years. In Scandinavia we count from 500 to 600 reindeer to each family of eight membars, servants and children included, and then these people pursue fishing besides in order to make all ends meet and provide themselves with the general necessaries of life. Even in so large a number as 1,000 animals, the increase is small, provided they are spared by diseases and wolves. I have myself been a fisherman, have owned many reindeer, etc., and I should be truly pleased if I could go and live among those poor, forsaken people. I could teach them many occupations, how to catch fish, dry and salt them, make boats and cords, how to spin, and to preserve the oil, besides many other things. I would train the young people so that they in future years could work independently. However, I should not like to accept such a post for a longer term than from two to three years, if God permits me to pursue my duties that length of time; and during that period I could promote the welfare of the people and the country to a consid- erable extent. I am a huntsman and have also, for many years, been active in the possession of a doctor (nonexamined), and I am in possession of a license as druggist, which may be of advantage- in Alaska. As I said before, I take the greatest interest in the whole undertaking, which opens such a wide, rich field for the future. You must kindly excuse, sir, that I correspond in my mother-tongue (Norwegian'), but I am lacking a sufficient fluency to express myself satisfactorily on this subject in the English language. Both my wife and my son know the English perfectly. No doubt you will still have many subjects to write on before everything is settled, and I am always at your service. I hope that you will soon recover from your attack of " la grippe," and be enabled to reopen the correspondence; in the mean- time I thought it well to send you word. If the funds permit I advise you to engage some civilized, clever young Lap- landers from the old country, who easily and more quickly can train the Eskimos. The coasts of Alaska abound in fish, and all that is necessary to utilize them would be implements and a knowledge of how to catch, prepare, and sell them. Also, in the old country you will encounter the same difficulties in buying up reindeer in larger numbers, even from rich mountaineer Laplanders, and the same maneuvers as those in Siberia have to be observed. Yet, during the summer, when all the reindeer are near the seacoast, if one leaves orders at the first reindeer station to have ready a certain number of animals at one's return from the last station, it will be easier to gather a larger number of animals on the homeward route. One should never leave out of sight the great importance of obtaining a larger number of cows than bucks. f IRS. TILLIE PAUL AND CHILDREN. NATIVE TEACHER, SITKA INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 165 When I consider the advantage ii will lead to, in case a sufficient number of rein- deer for transportation purposes arc obtained, and pulkahs (sleighs), to be drawn by a single reindeer, with the necessary outfits and implements, such as we use in Norway, and with which we drive through deep snow, carrying along a load of 200 pounds, besides mail and passengers, driving hundreds and hundreds of miles (the reindeer are changed every hundred miles), traveling over uncultivated tracts of land, where no roads can be maintained, then it will be understood what Alaska can be some day, with its rich fisheries and future large reindeer herds, and that these rich lands will soon be peopled. Now, I will close, or my imagination may carry me too far, yet it is a fact that I have been an eye-witness of the great progress in Norway, Finland, and Russia. The greatest and most difficult step you have conquered, sir. but there yon can not stop without everything being lost. Indeed, you-have accomplished a great and good work, but much is left to be done before you can harvest. In my last letter I did not mention my sou who lives here in Seattle. He is 32 years old, is courageous and manly, and graduated from the most superior schools. He speaks and writes well the English, Russian, Laplaudish, Finnish, and German languages, besides the Scandinavian. For seven years he has lived here, performing the functions of a land agent, but three years ago he had the misfortune to lose his foot just below the knee, and he walks on a cork foot, which, however, does, not interfere with his work. My son has lived in Alaska oue year, and he is much inter- ested in this affair. If I should be chosen for the position, I would take him along, and perhaps later he might step into my place, as he is well versed iu all concerning reindeer. There are more persons in this neighborhood who are anxious to go along. I lived circa forty years in the most northern part of Finmark, which, about sixty years ago was a place of exile for Norwegian criminals, like Siberia for Russia. At present it is a most important country in Norway, with its rich reindeer herds, fisheries, and extensive exports by sea. With the kindest regards for you, sir, aud your heroic work, I am, Very respectfully, yours, H. Dahl. Dr. Sheldox Jackson, Washington, D. C. Seattle, Wash.. January 27, 1SD4. Dear Sir: Through my father, Dr. H. Dahl. of this city. I have had opportunity to read your report to the Senate on introduction of domestic reindeer into Alaska, and it is with great interest I have read your report ; so much more so as I have had ample opportunities, both in Finmark among the Lapps, and also during a two years' stay iu Northern Russia, where I was frequently brought in contact with the Saino'ides, to study the animal and its ways, and also the people herding them. In fact, I was for several years employed in trading with the Lapps, buying live stock as well as hides, etc., and giviug them different supplies for it. I was sent to Rus- sia when 18 years old to study the language, and as I had then already studied sev- eral languages my father thought it best to send me as far as possible away from cities and civilization, so that I should have no opportunity to speak with anybody but Russians and thereby learn the language quicker and to perfection. So after nine months' stay in the district of Mecen (city of same name), adjoining the district of Petchora, I left and traveled south to Petersburg, visiting England and Germany before I went to my home in Finmark, Norway. I stayed at home ten months and again took up quarters in the same district of Mecen, this time, more than anything to look into a business enterprise in sealing. During these two years" stay in Rus- sia I had every opportunity possible to study the Samoi'des and their reiudeer. 166 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF The reason I have to go into details in relating this is to show you that I am per- fectly familiar with the subject I am going to touch. In looking at the pictures in your report of Eskimo, I am thoroughly convinced that this people are of the same origin as tlie Russian Samoides that you find under different names and in different tribes all along the Siberian coast, from Bering Straits to Canin Nose on the White Sea in Russia. Eskimo, as you find them in Greenland, and this people that you introduce under the same name along Bering Straits, must be two different peoples entirely. There are many things in your report that confirm me in my beliet that this people are Samoides and not Eskimo. For instance, their way of driving with two or more deers before the sledge; the same kind of sledge; the long stick used by them to steer and drive the deers; all these customs you will find to be exactly the same with the Samoides at the White Sea in Russia, thousands of miles away. But more than anything, in their physiognomies they are to perfection the same. This people I speak of is perfectly harmless and good-natured. I have stayed with them in their tents many a night out on the tundras when traveling in those parts of Russia. I have read through your "Instructions for Guidance at Reinde'er Station," and find there many valuable points, but there is much that could be added under the heads of winter grazing and shelter; but this not being forme to pass on I only mention it. I understand the Government is looking for a good man, who understands some- thing about reindeer and the taking care of them, as superintendent of the station. Well, the selection of such a man should be made very carefully, as the success of the whole trial will largely depend on him. Being a single man, I should have nothing against undertaking it myself, provided there is sufficient pay in it. Under all cir- cumstances I feel greatly interested in the enterprise, and wish you every success, considering it a good step in the right direction. If you will favor me with a few words you will oblige, Yours, respectfully, Adolph Dahl. Dr. Shkldon Jackson, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. McNeils Island, January 29, 1S94. Dear Sir: Yours of January 17 is at hand, and I am very thankful for the inter- esting reading matter you send me; and according to those reports I have to say the introduction of domestic reindeer into Alaska is a success from the very beginning. Concerning what Du Chaillu says in the Appendix about the increase of reindeer in Norway and Sweden I will give a few reasons why there is not so large an increase. In the first place, the pasturage both in Norway and Sweden is limited, as the Lapps have the right to pasture their herds only on Government land. If they come on private owners' territory they are subject to heavy fines. And, in the second place, they kill some of the fawns every year to use their skins for certain pieces of clothes, and to have the mother deer furnish milk for family use and also for cheese-making. The cheese from reindeer milk surpasses any kind made from cows' milk in nutri- tive value. So the value of reindeer for people in Alaska can hardly be overestimated. First, they are an excellent article for food, as well as useful for transportation. Certain newspapers in Tacoma and Seattle, Wash., have for the past three years agitated the question of forming a colony of Scandinavian fishermen for permanent settling in Alaska, but men with families are somewhat afraid of the winter in that region through the lack of a domesticated house animal; but what a help would not a few reindeer be ! The cost of Ins feeding would be but a tritle, as the moss is found in abundance almost everywhere. Since I wrote my first letter I have asked many DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 167 Scandinavians if they have ever met a Laplander in the United States, bnt the answer so far has been, "No." As I said in my previous letter, I think you will bav< to bring them from Norway and Sweden; and I will say they might be hired foi about 40 crowns (] crown equals 27 cents) a month if hired direct from the oh country; hut, as I have said before, they are a funny, suspicious people, and there may be some difficulty in inducing them to emigrate to a foreign country, but they would be a good example for the Eskimo they would come in contact with, as they arc t nisi worthy, and combine a greal deal of reaped for religion with high morality. Hoping soon to hear from Dr. Jackson, I remain, Yours, truly, C. Tangkx. W. Hamilton, Esq., Washington, D. C. Ortonville, Minx.. February l .', 1894. DEAR Sir: In my last letter I promised to write you something about how the Laplanders take care id' the reindeer and make them useful. The reindeer generally travel twice a year, spring and fall. In the spring they come down from Lapland to the seacoast of Northern Norway. When the weather is warm they always go up in the highest mountains, and when it is rainy and cloudy they come down in the valley and lowland. Toward fall they start to travel back to Lapland, where they live in the heavy-timbered valleys in the wintertime, and they live on moss. When the deer are traveling the Laplanders have to follow them and keep them together in Hocks. They have to be watched by night as well as by day to keep the wolves away from them. They also have them marked on the ears. In the summer time they have big yards, where they drive them into, where they catch and milk them, and where they also catch the calves and castrate them. They have a peculiar way of doing this. They never use a knife. They use some other remedies. The deer are very easy to break for driving and for pack animals. A Laplander never strikes or pounds his animal. He simply throws him to the ground, jumps on him with bauds and knees, and punches him around till be gets up. The Laplanders are very saving people. They make use of every part of the ani- mal, even the horns. The skin they nse for bedding and coats; the skin of the fore- head is used for moccasins; the skin of the legs is used for leggins and pants, as well as many other articles, mittens, and soon. All the tools a Laplander needs wherewith to take care of the flock are a good lasso, a good dog. and a good, strong walking stick, and any man that takes care of reindeer must have the same three things — dog. lasso, and cane ; the dog for helping keep tin; Hock together and driving them where be wants them, the lasso to catch an animal when it is necessary, and the cane when one is traveling in the mountains. I think I have told you the principal things, except as to feeding places in the winter time. They must be herded in places where there is moss, because in the wintertime they are fattest, the meat is best, and the hide is best for butchering. Hoping to hear from you as soon as possible, 1 am, Yours, truly, LORENTZ M. LORSON. Mr. Sheldon Jackson. New London, Minn.. Februaw .?. tS94. Mr. Sheldon Jackson: Your last letter, of February L'T. 1894, lias been received, and [observe thai you do not need my services, the Government having engaged the men necessary for Alaska. You request me to give you some particulars concerning reindeer in Lapland, and it affords me great pleasure to be able to do so. However, 1 must call your attention 168 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP to the fact that I, in a letter, can hardly give you so complete and wide-ranging details as I could do if speaking to you in person. The Laplanders in Norway usually remain during the summer on the Norwegian mountain ranges (fjelde) and in the winter they move over to the northern parts of Swe- den, the so-called Swedish Lapmarken, because there is better food for the animals. The reasons forthese conditions may be found in the extensive forests which moderate the climate in Sweden, while the mountainous ranges in Norway are bare of woods ; fur- ther, in the fact that in the large forests, consisting of fir and pine trees, there is a great quantity of what we call " lav" (lichen), a certain kind of moss that the reindeerare fond of and which grows upon these trees. Thus, when the snow lies deep and the animals have a hard time in finding food, then the Laplander travels about on hisskees and gathers such food, felling trees in order to obtain this kind of moss. And, whenever the snow is very deep, the Laplander must find water for the reindeer and drive them to the watering place, observing that they have plenty to drink. It frequently happens that these forests harbor a great many wolves, in which case the Lapland- ers suffer great losses among their herds and are actually forced to keep watch by night and day. During the season when the cows have calves (in the latter end of April and beginning of May) it is likewise necessary to watch by day and night and see to the calves. The reindeer generally go for the mountainous tracts as soon as the spring sets in, on account of the numerous insects that infest the swampy forest tracts and because the climate is so much colder on the mountain ranges where the best reindeer mosses are found during the warm season of the summer. Many Laplanders move far beyond the Norwegian boundaries where there are no wolves nor other carnivorous animals, and then they go only once a day, at the most, to gather the herds together and examine if any reindeer have been hurt or to milk them, while during the night no watch is kept. A comparatively small number of Laplanders liveon the Norwegian seashores, toward the Norwegian Sea(Vederhavet) ; during the summer they remain upon the highest mountain ranges and in winter they move away and swim their reindeer over wide stretches of water, sometimes 1 Norwe- gian mile in width, toward the outmost islands, because there is little snow during the winter. They do not keep strict watch over them, except in the spring season, on account of the calves. These Laplanders rarely or never carry tents along, as they live with the settlers along the seashore. At this very moment I do not remember any further details of consequence; however, I will say that this mode of treatment of Lapland reindeer, as mentioned above, may not be of practical use for reindeer in Alaska. The climate and the geographical conditions of the country have to be taken into con- sideration. Reindeer that are introduced from western and northern parts of Nor- way do not thrive and can net live under like conditions as the reindeer living in the Swedish Lapmarken. Not having any accurate knowledge of the physical condi- tions of regions in Alaska, I would not dare to recommend my own practical experi- ence. But I hope that the Government has chosen efficient and reliable men who can judge what is best to do. In case you should desire any other information on this subject I shall be at your service, and if in future there should be an opportunity for me to go to Alaska as reindeer herder, I trust that you will kindly remember me. Very respectfully, yours, Hans Guldfjeld, New London, Kandiyohi County, Minn. Pentwater, Minn., February 27, 1S94. Mr. Sheldon Jackson: Having received your favor of the 22d instant, and seeing that you wish to obtain some information regarding reindeer breeding and training in Lapland, I will, with pleasure, communicate to you all I know about the matter. First, I will mention DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 169 that I have not liveil in Lapland but in the northern part of Norway, where I met a great number of Laplanders, besides the Norwegian Laplanders, who possessed large herds of reindeer, which they partly cared for themselves and partly hired men to take charge of them. During the first part of May one has to be very careful and painstaking with the animals on account of the cows, which then have calves. One has to keep them sep- arated from the bucks for about one to two weeks, because the bucks are always angry with the young calves, and 10 out of 30 arc frequently killed by the bucks. After the calves are three to four weeks old the grown-up animals will Buffer them very well. I know that the Laplanders used to watch by turns — some at daytime and others at night. The small calves must be looked after and gathered together every day by tho herders, in case they survive twenty-four hours after their birth, but the bucks should always be kept out of sight or they may kill the herders, especially if these have lost their dogs and are by themselves. During the milking of the cows the herders should be very gentle and good to them; if not, the animals will kick them in revenge, and the man who receives a well-aimed kick may be crippled for lifetime. The reindeer are by nature good-natured; nevertheless they do not favor men very much, especially if they are treated with stubbornness. For milking one must be provided with a lasso, or a rope about 20 yards in length, to the cud of which is fastened a wooden hoop; this is thrown with skillful hand over the horns of the animal to be milked, which maneuver has to be repeated Avith all cows. However, one is obliged to have reindeer dogs for assistance; they are, indeed, indispensable, and 4 men Avith 4 to 6 dogs can easily take care of a flock of reindeer from 500 to 600 in number. The details mentioned above I have myself experienced. I could tell you much more, but fearing that you do not understand my writing sufficiently perhaps, I Avill refrain at present. I should feel greatly obliged to you in case you could procure me some kind of a position; if not in Alaska, somewhere else. You may belie\re that it is no easy mat- ter to take charge of reindeer. Very respectfully, I am, John Nilsox. Braxdox, Minx., February 2S, 1S94. Dr. Sheldox Jacksox: Your letter has been receiA'ed and considered. I see that the GoArernment has engaged the reindeer herders for Alaska, but ne\rertheless you Avish to knoAV hoAV reindeer are managed in Lapland, and I will give you a brief description in the fol- lowing: In the first instance the reindeer superintendent ought to be a good man; secondly, the reindeer pasture should be a good mountainous tract with sufficient wild grow- ing moss and fine grass, a certain species on which the reindeer feed. The reindeer prefer the cold regions during the summer, aud then it is necessary to haA'e good herders, but more so during the spring season when the cows calve ; these have to be Avatched by night and day during that period. Good dogs are indispensable, but they are not used A'ery much as Ion;; as the calves are young. The bucks must be separated from the cows and calves, and careful watch should be kept from April 15 to the end of May. If the herd is a small one, they may be driA'en into an inclo- sure for the night. The reindeer are Arery restless during the pairing season, harvest time, and they separate into many flocks. The month of August is the best for shearing the animals which need it, and all the calves should then be marked. The Wolves are the Avorst enemies of the Laplanders, and also the lynx is very dangerous, 170 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP and watch must be kept by night and clay if they roam about near the reindeer sta- tion. A good marksman will usually drive them away alter having killed from nine to ten out of their number, but the huntsman has to be outdoors a great deal, aud must mind neither cold nor strong winds. In order to make the reindeer tame to the touch of one's hand, one should feed them twice a week with salt. In winter there should be special tracts kept for them. Please inform me in case you desire any further information. Truly, yours, John Floht. Brandon, Minn. Seattle, Wash., February 28, ISO 4. Sheldon Jackson, Esq. : In an earlier letter I told you that I speak Russian, but I have, moreover, a knowledge of the merchandise and articles mostly needed by the Russian Samoides or Eskimos, and I can easily arrange it thus, that the reindeer, as many as you want, can during the winter be brought over the ice alive, in exchange for mer- chandise. The stations can soon be erected, in fact already for the winter, between Port Clarence and Nulato (Yukon River) with stopping places at Golovin Pay. Moss should be gathered and accumulated in right time for shipping in the fall to the stopping places where no such food can be found. In case you find my request regarding salary too high, you may reduce the sum for the first year, until you find out about my intelligence and what I am able to accomplish. I hope, in meantime, to hear from you, and remain, Very respectfully, yours, II. Datil. Stella, Oneida County, Wis., February 28, 1S04. Dr. Sheldon Jackson: I received your favor of February 22, and see from your letter that you wish to be informed of the manner of treatment of reindeer in Lapland, and I shall try to comply with your request as well as it is within my power. I could give a much better account if I could make use of the Lapland language and terms. However, my wife is not familiar with this language and does not know how to spell Lapland words, for which reason I will try to explain myself in the Norwegian. (My wife is writing this. I myself write badly, having acquired writing only after I was grown up.) I will first mention that it is impossible for us Laplanders to live on the mountainous ranges without reindeer, who provide us with everything we eat and dress ourselves with. I was brought up by a comparatively poor Laplander, and I do not remember him to have owned ever more than 63 reindeer at a time, and for 7 reindeer he kept 1 dog, while for (30 he had 3 dogs. The summer was our busiest season, and we did not move about much while the reindeer were giving milk, of which mother pre- pared cheese, etc. We built huts of staffs (timber raised on end, not horizontally), that were connected by means of birch-tree bast at the upper ends, leaving a hole for the smoke to escape. The reindeer cows were milked twice a day, but only those whose calves had been killed during the spring. The bucks (oxen, they call them) we used for driving, but only at times when we moved from place to place, whenever the food had given out for the reindeer and no more moss or reindeer grass could be found. The reindeer can not be milked during the winter on account of their calving in the spring, and besides they must work too hard in order to obtain food from under- neath the snow. During the harvest time and part of the winter, after the reindeer DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 171 have grown strong and their horns have developed sufficiently, they prove to be very capricious, and especially the bucks fire as a rule ferocious. Only grown-up people can then take charge of them, and many a time it happened to me that I was forced to turn the sleigh over me for protection against the angry animal until he had finished butting. During the winter we were moving about all the time, and tin instinct of the reindeer will tell him where to find food. The reindeer have fat- tened n]p at the harvest season, anil then we used to kill those whose meat we intended to sell, smoke, or carry along lor our own food. The skins were likew ise sold or we made garments lor ourselves, or shoes, sleighs, anil sleeping hags, besides other things. The horns were carefully collected and various articles made of them, as handles for spoons, knives, etc. The horns that the animals lose in the spring are not worth anything and are not collected ; besides they are usually butted off and can not be found. Honored sir, I hardly know if the above includes the desired information, I hav- ing at the same time mentioned the mode of living of the Laplanders, which was perhaps superfluous, yet I hope that you will excuse my inefficient ways of describ- ing the desired details, and I wish to say that it is indeed much easier for me to handle the reindeer than to picture their characteristics or management. Should you in future find a place for me and my services be of use to you. I will say that I shall be very willing to go to Alaska. I am not able to remain here longer Can up to .May, when the work will give out here, and I do not know where lam going then; in any ease to nearest place where I can find work. Very respectfully, yours, JULL. SAMOELSEN. Chicago, March 4, 1S94. Mr. Sheldon Jackson: In your letter of February 22 you request information concerning the manage- ment of reindeer in Lapland, with which request I shall partly comply, although it probably may lie useless, since you, no doubt, have engaged men who are well posted in the business. Vou will have to suffer severely under it if an inefficient person has accepted the position. One of the conditions is that the herder must be a good ski-runner, so as to follow the animals wherever they wish to go. The next thing of importance is that one is familiar with the characteristics of the reindeer, and accordingly can judge what direction they wish to choose. All male animals, with the exception of those destined for propagation, must be cantrated in the spring when the weather is good. How this is done is not worth mentioning here, since only experienced persons can perform this work; however, it must be attended to, as otherwise the bucks would be too savage and unruly and not worth killing for domestic purposes. The persons who milk the cows must he supplied with pick or trap ropes, with which the reindeer is caught and held until after come time it becomes tame, like other cows. The reindeer are very fond of salt, which may be strewn upon flat stones for t hem to eat. 1 1! format ion with regard to the killing of reindeer for domestic use you can obtain at a later time if you desire so. 0. Hippe. Ely, March 5. 1S94. Dr. Sheldon Jackson: Your letter of February 22 is at hand and I thank you for your politeness. I see that the positions at the reindeer stations have been filled with men who probably shall be drilled to watch the herds there. I do not know the physical conditions of Alaska nor where the stations are situated, but iu my fatherland it is utterly impos- 172 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF eible to remain at one place with the reindeer, who, in fact, are moving constantly from place to place in search for food, while the herdsmen have to follow them with their tents, made of strong material, that can be taken down and folded up when- ever the reindeer commence their wanderings. They must be watched very care- fully at all times, both summer and winter. During the latter season it is frequently necessary to shovel the snow away that covers the moss, and this is done principally in the woods. During the spring especial care is taken with the cows who calve, it beino- important and desirable that the herds increase in number. The young bucks, if needed, must be castrated, and all unruly animals of the herds must be looked after and tamed, so that they do no harm to others in the flock. There is, indeed, so much constant watching required and so many things to be done that one could write a whole book on the subject. But of what use is this to me, since the places have been filled, for which I am truly sorry, as I anxiously wished to obtain a posi- tion in that line? The milk and cheese of the reindeer are most excellent and splendid for all lung diseases and other ailments. It is, indeed, the best food obtain- able from any domesticated animals, and drives away many diseases from the body, for which reason the Laplanders, who livo on it entirely, are so strong and robust, although they live a very hard life and are subjected to the cold climate of the far north, which we natives nevertheless dearly love. At any time in the future I shall be happy to accept a place as herdsman, because I understand the profession so thoroughly and have been used to it. Very respectfully, yours, A. N. Lithner. Sturgeon Lake, Minn., March 2, 1894. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, General Agent: Your honored letter is on hand and has been considered. In reference to your question on reindeer breeding and management in the Swedish Lapmarken, I wish to say that on one side, if I touch upon all the minute details, much can be mentioned, and on the other side I may say that the reindeer take care of themselves if they are led to places where there is a sufficient amount of food. For the winter season the Laplander moves, as a rule, from the highlands to the vicinity of wooded regions and the reindeer roam about in scattered flocks without any special supervision; but the herdsmen must keep track of the whereabouts of the herds. It is harder to keep them in order after the bucks have been separated from the cows, as the former are at times very unruly. In the spring the herds are brought back to the highlands, and after the cows have had calves and the calves are advanced the herds should he driven together once a day, best into stables, to be milked; this can easily be done with the assistance of some well-trained dogs. Without these clever animals it would be impossible to keep the herds together for any length of time, especially when they are attacked by wolves and become separated. The wolves have been much more ravenous and savage; they are partly an unknown breed and believed to bo Siberian wolves, which may be the case, but I doubt it. Furthermore, the reindeer have to be castrated, which is not without danger. The principal point to be observed is to find tracts that answer for the feeding places of the reindeer and that produce food enough to last the whole winter, namely, lichen and white moss, besides not being infested with carnivorous animals. The herdsman should have a soundhead and be trustworthy and quick on his feet; he often has to go along i inn' without food, if on hunting expeditions, and be satisfied with uncomfortable quarters for the night, etc. It does not belong to the question, yet I can not help mentioning that it is a won- derful sight to see, especially in summer time, when the reindeer herds climb up the highland tracts by the thousands; there is one jingling aud creaking sound in the air and the whole mouutain seems to be moving. One reindeer field after the othei DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 173 has been turned over to the Swedes by the Laplanders. It seems as If this race must perish in the near future. However, at present t hey are more protected by the state than formerly, and it is indeed high time that the Government should see to the wel- fare of these nomads before it is too late. Finding that in this country everything is carried on in a different manner from that in the old country, I also think that reindeer management is varying very much in its smaller details from that in Sweden. In the more important points, however, I should think that it necessarily QUght to be the same. With the highest consideration, I am, E. J. Bergstrom. Audubon, Minx., January 12, 1S94. Dear Sir: In conformity to your request for information in regard to how rein- deer are treated in Lapland, I forward following instructions, although it will be of little value, since you have already engaged the men who will take charge of the reindeer in Alaska. The reindeer prefer to live on wood-overgrown, mountainous tracts, and their food consists, during the winter, of moss and lichen. The Laplanders are, during that season, obliged to follow them, and watch that there is sufficient food for the herds, and drive them from one place to another, because otherwise the herds easily separate and go in different directions in order to find food for themselves, and the herders are apt to lose several of their number. During the summer the reindeer are kept near the mountains, in the lowland tracts, and they feed then on grass, foliage, and fungus, and are less restless than during the winter, or approaching the time when the cows calve. At that time great care has to be taken, and the cowrs have to be constantly watched; these prefer to separate from the herd and hide themselves away, preferably in thickets of underwood and bushes. The calves are apt to bo killed by the bucks, who follow the cows if net prevented, and for milking purposes it is necessary to build a stable (house) of brushwood into which the reindeer are driven by the Laplanders when they want to milk them. It is necessary to throw a rope around the horns of the cows while they are milked. I could give you a full description of the Laplanders and their customs, but that would doubtless be useless to you, wherefore I will close my letter. Nils Lust. Dr. Sheldon Jackson. Bowdle, S. Dak., March 6, 1SD4. Dear Sir: I hereby have the honor to comply with your request of February 22, 1894, to give a few hints in regard to the management of reindeer in Norway or Lapland. Norway, in its general contour, is very rocky and mountainous. It has a moun- tain range that reaches from the north pole of Norway almost as far south as to the capital city,Christiania. The wild reindeer was to be found numberless, but scattered all over ou these mountains, except in the fall, when a man could see herds, guessed to be about 10,000 in number. But after the invention of the breech-loading fire- arms they have been rapidly killed out, until, a few years ago hunting of reindeer was prohibited in Norway. These mountains are more or less covered with white moss, reindeer moss — named so because it is the only feed that suffices for the rein- deer in the winter season. They dig it up through the snow with their forefeet. It is quite amusing to watch them ; for, while the big deer are digging for feed, the smallest ones take advantage of the opportunity to eat, and are consequently the 174 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF fattest in the spring. Nowadays, speculators have found it to be a profitable busi- ness trade to go up to Lapland, bny a few hundred tame reindeer, and drive them south over on the mountains, oftentimes as far as what is named the "Fhedaugen" and " Nuniedals" Fields. These reindeer feed themselves exactly as the wild ones do. They rustle for their living by digging up moss in winter time, and eat grass in the summer season. They are distinctly the same kind of animal as the wild reindeer. The only good method of handling and herding tame reindeer successfully is to be always steady with them. Follow them up wherever they go or are to be kept. Have some good and well-trained dogs to assist and to chase them back, provided any or all of them want to run away. If thoy do escape, follow them up if you can and urge the dogs on to drive them back speedily. Should it be discovered that the leader or chief among them is of a wild nature, as these leaders are inclined to be, take him away and kill him. When the butchering time comes, take those that are to be butchered so far away from the herd that it can not be noticed what is going on. If this precaution is not taken they are liable to be frightened and to cause dis- turbances that may end in their running away. Another good method is to have the butchering houses in places so far away from the pasture as to prevent the herd from passing by it or give the reindeer any chance to smell blood or see dissevered heads, feet, etc. It will be necessary for an outfit of herders and reindeer to have a certain rendez- vous to return to every evening and stay at over night. Keep a place as long as possible, and every evening give salt and milk. Never fail to handle the deer carefully, as they will return the kindness. Some reindeer herders have a disposition to use force in breaking them and taming them, whipping and cutting them as though they were pieces of wood, with no pang of remorse. This is certainly all wrong, and any reindeer herder doing so should be discharged immediately. The reindeer are fond of music and if a man plays or sings for them, they will stand and listen as children would with a music teacher. 1 will freely admit that it is not an easy job to make a good reindeer herder. To be such requires study and involves hard labor. Please send me a few of your books. Yours, truly, II. Knutzon. Hon. Shki.don Jackson, U. S. General Agent of Education for Alaska, Washington, D. C. MOLINK, ILL., March 12, 1SD4. Dear Sir: Your favor of the 22d ultimo is received, and confirms what I before have read in the paper that the position of chief herdsman of reindeer in Alaska is engaged. If I bail been tendered the position I should with great pleasure have done my duty with certainty of success, having a perfect knowledge of the business of caring for reindeer; and believe that I am adapted to it on several other grounds, being in possession of good health and more than common strength, and 1 am a good hunter of that worst of enemies of the reindeer, the wolf. I will with the greatest willingness servo you in telling how the Lapps take caro of their reindeer, as well as about the commercial value of reindeer to them. All people who study history know that in Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Siberia there dwells, among other nations, a tribe (nomadic) known as Laplanders, wholive in the mountains and own and bring up reindeer, from which they get all their livelihood. Hunting and fishing they also do, but it is more for pleasure and the destruction of the wolf thau as a direct means of living. And not many know that DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 175 the reindeer business, if engaged in in the right manner, gives to the Lapps large profits, especially if the market for meat and skins is not distant. Some Laplanders arc t<> be found in Sweden owning as many as l.ono reindeer, worth from $35,000 to $36,000, which give to their owners 20 per ceni clear profit. Of course there are not many so wealthy, bui most of the Laplanders own several hundred and upwards. In late years many farmers in the northern part of Sweden have purchased small herds of reindeer, which herds remain in care of the Lapps for 25 cents a head per year, and the result has generally been profitable. Every owner of reindeer chooses or buys one or more brands and sends them in, with his application, to the nearest court-house for approval, and if no brand like them has been registered before, the application will be granted. The brands are then cut on the car of the reindeer, and thereafter the reindeer are protected as his by the law of the country. The Government employs some man as chief, who has to look after the rights of everyone; and to lighten his work it is forbidden by law to soil or buy any reindeer skin unless the ear remains on the skin. In the summer the reindeer can not thrive in any other place than the mountains, above the forest, but below the snow-line. The Lapp with his family builds bis cabin ("kata") iu this region, especially near some lake, and busies himself with fishing. The reindeer, spreading in many small herds, pasture within a district of from 25 to 30 miles, and need no attention, provided the Lapp knows where the largest docks are. For this purpose the Lapp moves around now and then. Once a year, in the month of June, the calves have to be branded, in the presence of the above- mentioned chief. For this reason the whole country has to be searched, with the aid of dogs, in order to gather the reindeer close together. When this is done, the dogs keep guard around the herd; the Lapp catches all female reindeer which have any calves (the calves always accompany their mothers the first year) and then cuts the mark upon the ear. Four Lapps are sufficient to take care of 2,000 reindeer. Two of the tamest female reindeer are kept, in the neighborhood of the camping place to furnish the Lapp family with milk, but little of the milk is used because it has a bitter taste. During the winter it is necessary to care for the reindeer well, because the wolf is importunate and the Lapps have to drive the wolves aw ay from the reindeer. They will have to run on snow-shoes, sometimes 40 or 50 miles duiing stormy and inclem- ent weather, before they can overtake and kill the wolves. This is not an easy undertaking. The month of December is the Lapps' slaughter time, whei, the yearly killing of the reindeer takes place. At that time they change their camping place down to the forest in order to come nearer a road (usually near the mountains), where they can meet the speculators in meat and skins. As soon as any of them arrive, two or more Lapps go to the mountains early the next morning, and by the aid of dogs gather as many reindeer as they can in a hurry into a herd, aud bring them by force down the mountains to the butchering place, where the deer crowd cl se together on some open ground, and the dogs arc commanded to keep guard all aiound. The Lapp, as butcher, with a line and a knife, whose blade is not more than 4 inches long, walks in amid the herd to select the victims, principally the males and the more intractable females, and, using the line as a lasso, throws this on the victim, and as soon be gets bold of the deer's head, stabs the animal in the hollow of the neck. The victim falls suddenly to the ground, and the Lapp immediately thrusts his knife three inches behind the shoulder right into the heart. The blood runs into the cavity of the chest, where it is taken care of. About two or three hours after noon the reindeer can not be kept any longer in herds. They want food, and, becoming uneasy, run up into the mountains. Next 176 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF day the reindeer are gathered together in the same manner as hefore, and the slaughter continues as many days as the Lapp wishes to kill reindeer. Many a time I have heen a spectator, and even taken part, in the killing of more than 200 reindeer, which was accomplished in less than four hours. When the snow becomes deep and hard in the mountains the Lapp gathers all his reindeer in a herd and removes them down into the forest, where the snow is not so deep and hard, in order to make it more easy for the reindeer to get tlieir food. On occasion of these removals the Lapp, with his reindeer herd, sometimes goes as far as 200 miles from the mountains, to the shore of the Botensea and out on the islands, carrying his household goods and children upon sledges drawn by male rein- deer, which are trained for this purpose. They can drive very fast, oftentimes from 50 to 60 miles a day, if the sledging is good. The shape of the sledge is that of a little skiff, so that it can be drawn when there is no road. When the spring comes again, the Lapp, with his reindeer, goes back to the moun- tains. They have to make this same round of travel every year. In education the Lapp, on an average, is well advanced, as the Government has established schools everywhere among them, in which not only their own language but the Swedish also is taught, because they are constantly brought into contact with the country people, and their territory borders on that of the farmers. This last is not the case in Norway, Finland, or Siberia. What I have above described about the Lapps' commercial interest in the reindeer shows that none of them can be persuaded to go to Alaska. They live as prosper- ously as possible in their own country and do not need any thing better. But there is another class of Lapps that will willingly go anywhere in the world that you wish, provided you pay their fare and expenses. These are commonly called the "lochen" Lapps (country Lapps). They were born in the mountains. Through drinking brandy they have become good for nothing, and it is of no use to take them to Alaska. They live now in the country among the farmers, and make their living by begging. The best recruits you can get for taking care of reindeer in Alaska are certainly the servants among the Lapps who own reindeer. Two or three strong and healthy men, about 25 years of age, with as many women, are all that you need for the care of a large herd of reindeer. I am always at your service if you wish to know anything further about the care of reindeer. Yours, sincerely, William Almquist. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Chicago, March 11, 1SD4. Dr. Sheldon Jackson: I herewith will try to meet your wishes and give yon some information in regard to the usefulness and management of reindeer in Lapland. The reindeer are raised and kept on account of their meat and skin principally, and are used for carrying loads and for driving. They will drag 12 lispnnd (18 pounds 12 ounces each lispund) upon a certain kind of sleighs called alcija (pulkhas) and if a person owns from 8 to 10 reindeer these are fastened in a row, one behind the other, with ropes and another sleigh, and in that manner one can transport from two to three times as big a load, at one time. I will mention that the Laplander or reindeer owner has his reindeer marked by a cut in the ear, and, in order to prevent similarities in marking, the persons con- cerned have to be on the lookout and invent some mark that differs from all the others, etc. Reindeer are not killed during the summer. I have little more to say, except that the herders have to be careful in finding pastures or tracts with a suffi- cient amount of food for the herds, and in summer that the same have access \o REINA, ESKIMO CHILD. DOMESTICATED REINDEER* INTO ALASKA. 177 watering places. The reindeer herders in Lapland are no resident dwellers any- where, but move about constantly and live in tents like nomads, wherever they find good pastures for their herds. I suppose that the men who were engaged as herdsmen are quite familiar with the raising and handling of reindeer, and asking you to excuse my poor writing, I remain, Very respectfully, Otto Carlson. February 3, 1894. Dr. Shkldox Jackuon: I see from your letter that I have not been taken in consideration in your selection of herdsmen. I guess I was not thought efficient for the service, yet I would have done all in my power to fulfill my duties. You wish to learn some facts concerning reindeer breeding in Lapland, and I shall with pleasure comply with your request and give you some points. The Laplanders lead a nomad life and move from place to place in search of pas- ture for their herds. In the spring they move from the interior highland tracts down toward the tracts along the coast and remain there during the summer. Upon the highland tracts, in the interior of the country, there grows a certain kind of moss which is the only food that is fit for reindeer. Before moving, one should select a number of the strongest bucks (oxen) that can be found in the flock, and these are tied together, one behind the other, and are then used for carrying loads. The loads are usually fastened across (over) the back of the animals. The reindeer heading the expedition is led by a Laplander, and the whole herd then follows after them. The dogs are on this occasion of the greatest use and indispensable to the Laplander. They keep the reindeer together and take care that none remain behind. The Laplanders milk the cows during the summer season and this milk is extremely nourishing. The cows must be driven into some inclosure before being milked. The herds are not driven from place to place during the winter, but go as they choose; however, it is necessary that the herders keep watch over them. The reindeer arc by nature social and like to live in flocks. In case you wisli to learn any other facts on this subject, I shall be pleased to com municate them to you, if I am able to do so. Respectfully, yours, Fred. Solly, Box 6, Barron P. 0., Ban-on County, Wis. Paradise, March S, 1894. Dr. Sheldon Jackson: Your honored letter has been received and its contents noted. I will try to answer your question to the extent of my knowledge. Lapland, as we Norwegians call it, includes the northern counties of Sweden and adjoins the boundaries of the northern Norland and southern Finuiark of the Kingdom of Norway. The Laplander moves with his reindeer to the Norwegian highlands for the sum- mer season and for the winter to the Swedish highlands. I come from Norland, Norway, and have lived with the Laplanders and worked together with them. In the spring, when the cows have calves, one must watch them in order to prevent them from forsaking their offspring, who would be starved to death without their care. The calves must be castrated when they are 3 years old, because the older oxen are very dangerous about harvest time, which is the pairing season. The cas- trated oxen, when they are botweou 4 and 5 years old, should be taught to drag S. Ex. 70 12 178 REPORT ON, THE INTRODUCTION OF small sleighs or so-called pulkhas. The reindeer can run on the surface of deep snow where no horse could travel, and he drags the sleigh with a speed that far surpasses that of the horse. I can manufacture pulkhas; these are almost of the shape of small jolly boats; the reindeer can carry a load of 200 pounds during summer excursions. I am also able to make the fixtures adjusted to the reindeer for supporting the loads they carry. The cows are not used for work; they have enough to do with bringing up the young calves, and besides, their milk is used for domestic purposes. The milk is like sweet cream and tastes like cream. The cheese prepared of this milk is excellent as food, and is used as medicine for colds, gan- grene, and colics. It is important to have well-trained reindeer or Lapland dogs. It is indeed impossible to get along without their assistance, but they must be trained not to bite the reindeer. The herds should be watched by day and night and protected against the wolves and thieves, or wild reindeer that are roaming about on their tracts; the latter would make the herds unmanageable. To prevent the domesticated reindeer from mixing with the wild reindeer, one should fasten small and large bells on collars that fit the neck of the animals. The collars are made of either wood, copper, or brass. This is an excellent means of keeping the wild and domesticated reindeer apart, as the latter are afraid of the bells. In the Avinter the herding is connected with greater difficulties, on account of the wolves that are more greedy, and perhaps the thieves are likewise more greedy. In order to be sure of a sufficient amount of food for the reindeer during the winter season, one should 'explore the regions during the summer and find out where the largest amount of moss is growing, and where the most frequent f> eding places are located. The reindeer shovel the snow away with their horns to get to the food, but some- times the snow is covered with a hard crust of ice which they are unable to break, and the herdsmen are obliged to drive the herds into thick forests and find trees that are overgrown with moss; these are cut down for the animals to feed on. The herdsmen at times shovel the deepest layers of snow away when they are sure of finding sufficient and suitable food underneath. The sick reindeer must be attended to and doctored. The herdsmen should make their clothes of reindeer skins for the winter sea-on, even their shoes and gloves; clothes made of reindeer skin are both warm and light. Skees and staffs with large rings at the lower end of the staffs are likewise requisite. I understand how to make skees and staffs and how to prepare the skins. I can help myself in all directions and understand how to throw the lassoes and catch the reindeer. I do not mean to say that the Government should engage men with my experience ; however that my experience would be of the greatest importance in the service of reindeer management. I add to say that I can build log houses and make the har- ness for the reindeer, reins, etc. I remain, very respectfully, yours, Peder Olaifson, Paradise Post-Office, Cache County, Utah. Calumet, Mich., March 14, 1S94. Honored Sir: In reply to your letter of February 22, I send you following infor- mation on the breeding and management of tamed reindeer in our country; that is to say, of reindeer whose ears have been marked. The marks are not burned into the ears, hut they are cut and each mark is entered into a book and checks are given to the respective owners. The herders mark the calves when they are 1 to 2 years old, preferably when 1 year old. The calves follow the mother cows until they are about 2 years old. The herds are driven together once a year and counted, and in case there are found some animals without a mark they are picked out to be sold; i.e., if the herdsman is uncertain about their right owners. The counting is done DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 179 in the middle of the winter in some inclosure, into which the herds must be driven or decoyed by one of the tamed driving reindeer, or a reindeer trained for driving with sleighs. Whenever the herders remove their herds in the summer or winter, these tamed reindeer are also used as leaders; one of the herders leads the first rein- deer and all the others follow by themselves, while some dogs and a herder remain in the rear of the Hock. In the summer the reindeer are kept in inclosures during the night, and during the day these inclosures have to be fumigated to keep off the gnats and gadtlies which persecute the reindeer, who jump into the smoke all by themselves. v\ henever they are attacked by these insects. The cows can be milked, and their milk, which is most excellent, is used as cream for coffee, or cheese is prepared of it. The milk can be preserved quite fresh for the winter season if kept in cold cellars. The reindeer are substitutes with us for horses and cows, and furnish with their skins material for clothing and other articles. Their horns are collected and glue is boiled. It is best to castrate the reindeer when they are 3, 4, or 5 years old, and then they are called oxen, and are trained to pull pulkhas (sleighs). They cover with ease a distance of about 10 miles (Swedish) per day, but they can make 20 miles if neces- sary; however, this is too great a strain for them; they are in fact ruined, and unlit to be killed for the sake of their meat as food. I beg you to excuse me, if this letter is too lengthy, and sign myself, Very respectfully, yours, C. O. Gran st rom, Calumet Post-Office, Box 634, Haugliton County, Mick. Dr. Sheldon Jackson. Winnipeg, Canada. Dear Sir: Those who occupy themselves almost exclusively with reindeer rear- ing in Sweden and Norway are in most cases Laplanders who own or are in charge of herds counting from 600 to 1,000 heads, and as they generally are married they are assisted by their wives in takiug care of the herds, besides by 1 boy and 1 girl, or 4 persons in all, for a medium number of reindeer. There are, of course, Lap- landers who own larger herds, and then they have a larger number of herders. If the Laplander is a fine skee runner (the women are just as skillful as the men, and one hardly ever sees a Laplander or a Lapland woman on foot, i. e., walking, during the snowfalls) and moves quickly over the loose snow, then he finds his well-trained dogs to he of the greatest help to him ; he could, indeed, not get along without them, especially when he undertakes his annual migrations towards the seacoast, which usually takes place at harvest time, partly because those regions are safer from wolves aud lynxes, that cause much destruction among reindeer during the winter; partly because they are anxious to sell their meats which they stored for the year, and partly in order to buy up provisions aud other necessities, e. g., coffee, salt, gun- powder, etc., which the Laplander can easily carry back with him in the spring, while yet the lakes and marsh lands are covered with ice. Large full-grown bucks can drag a load of 80 to 90 kegs, besides the sleighs, which are constructed thus that they may easily glide over the snow and swim on the water without the articles stored therein being spoiled, and if they lose their balance they soon straighten themselves up again on their keel. The reindeer are satisfied with a comparatively small amount and meager food, consisting principally of island lichen or rein moss, i. e., a species of white moss that grows upon high mountains in cool places, and a certain kind of grass that grows in marsh lands and shallow lakes in the northern part of Sweden. The reindeer feed on this during the harvest season and in the winter, luting off the upper ends of the grass that are above the ice. There grows, moreover, a certain kind of a capillaceous moss upon the steins and branches of fir and pine trees which the reindeer likes. 180 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OP The Laplander remains in one place only as long as there is plenty of food for his herds. For dwellings these nomads use tents of felting or homespun; some may build so-called Lap-tents of wood, hut in the shape of a tent, i. e., round and pointed with a hole at the top for the escape of the smoke. The fireplace is huilt of stone in ring form, and a fire is kept up by night and day during the severe spells of cold weather. The meals are prepared upon this hearth, and consist generally of reindeer meat and cotfee, besides cheese that has been prepared of reindeer milk. The Laplander's clothes are made of homespun for the summer season and of rein- deer skins for the winter season. These skins resist the severity of the winter, and the herders, whenever they are overtaken by a heavy snowstorm upon the moun- tains, bury themselves in the snow until the storm has subsided and then they con- tinue their route upon their snow skates. The Laplanders leave their herds near the coast frequently without any special supervision, if there are good pastures; but on the mountain or highland tracts they are obliged to watch the herds constantly, and do this by turns, on account of the wolves that roam about in those regions and make great ravages among the reindeer. The watchfulness and skill of the herders is on such occasions put to a hard test, and they sometimes are forced for several days in succession to travel on their skates through the mountains in order to gather their separated herds. Thanks to the excellent dogs and the perseverance of the Laplanders, their efforts are as a rule crowned with success. It would require a great many more men to hold the herds together if the Lap- lander were not such an expert snow skater; but he can within a few hours cover long distances on his skates, and the wolves can not easily escape him for any length of time when they are hunted down and pursued with guns. A reindeer will drive about 20 kilometers per day over hard frozen snow. The reindeer meat is considered a great luxury, and demands a high price in the market of the cities along the coast. This trade, besides the selling of skius and horns, constitutes the principal source of income for the Laplanders; they also occupy themselves with hunting and fishing, etc., but they never cultivate the soil in con- nection with reindeer raising. These nomads lead a very laborious life ou account of their constant travels, nevertheless they are always hearty and active, although they many a time are exposed to both cold and heat (perspiration) when they are out upon the mountains during several days of heavy show-storms. It is anything but comfort to follow the reindeer that seek shelter behind the rocks or in the val- ley, and nothing can keep them back from their flight when their instinct informs them of an approaching storm; they seem to observe it coming several hours in advance. It is astonishing that not more children perish at their birth, as no midwives attend the mothers who seldom are sick for more than a few days, when the little citizeu is laid into the "klubben" (a kind of cradle made of wood and covered with skin in such a manner that the child rests upon the reindeer hair) which the Laplander carries upon his (or her) back until the child is old enough to ride in the sleigh (okjan). The reindeer do not thrive in the lowlands and valleys during the summer; those who experimented and tried to retain them there have had the unpleasant experi- ence to see them taken sick, and they frequently die if they can not return to the mountain ranges; they always find their way back to the tracts where they found food the preceding summer. Each reindeer owner has a mark of his own which is cut into the ear of the rein- deer belonging to him, so that they may be recognized in case they should be mixed up with other herds from which 1,he,r are returned as soon as found out. Very truly, yours, J. Haqvin Hkdstrob|. Dr. SiiixDoN Jackson, Washington, D. C, DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 181 NAMES OF THE NATIVE TRIBES OF NORTHWEST ALASKA, THEIR VIL- LAGES, AND APPROXIMATE GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. By Henry D. Woolfe. ["Habitations in winter. tUninhabited and deserted.] Uotises. * 1. Point Barrow. No wok. No wok a mates 12 * 2. Cape Smy the. Otgliavie. Ot gli avie mutes 27 * 3. Refuge Inlet. Sing racb 1 1 4. Franklin Point. Ping i shu racb i 5. At point off Sea Horses Island. At nacb *6. Point Belcher. She rah racb. She rah racb a mutes 5 t7. Point, south 1 mile. Nana rayab *8. Point Collie. Koog mute. Koog mute 7 *9. Wain wright Inlet. Kelumak tow rook. Roliunak tow rach ainute 5 * 10. Icy Cape. Ray ak sow rah wick 1 * 11. Rakalik, on (beach lagoon) North Point Lay 2 * 12. Point Lay (up river 25 miles). Rook pow rook 4 * 13. North of Cape Beaufort. Ratz e gay lee go 3 *14. Cape Lisburne, North. Ouivak. Ouivak a mutes 4 * 15. Marryat's Inlet 1 * 16. Point Hope. Tig e rach. Tig e rach amutes * 17. South Cape Thomson. On vak 1 * 18. Cape Seppings. Re she mall low 1 Six deserted bouses on beach between Cape Seppings and Cape Kruseustern, occupied in the winter and spring by travelers and hunters. * 19. At vicinity east of Cape Kruseustern. Attilich 2 * 20* I On beach of lagoon, back of She sho alik . . \ Anl^van * *2lJ ° ' Ukpiyahrook 1 * 22. At mouth of Nou ah tak River. Napach took toak 4 * 23. Shag ah low moot, between above river and Koowak 2 *24. On Hotbam Inlet 4 *25. Selawig River. Tooch loo mabrook 1 * 26. Selawig River. Pootoo ge rach 1 * 27. Selawig River. Ry yook toat 2 *28. On valley, south. Ah cha wich ah nacb ' 1 * 29. Buckland River. Rangich 2 * 30. Junction of Buckland and Ryack rivers. Kyack 2 i Villages on tributaries of Buck- ( Mahkachrak 1 * 31-33. < land, Una leh chok and Itb e'took \ Rai yow rook 1 ( Rivers ^ Toopkich 3 * 34, I On beach from mouth of Buckland River. . \ Ko° gah rook 2 * 35. S (Roo gah lick 2 *36. About 6 bouses on west side Rotzebue Sound, towards Schick mar eff Inlet. *37. Schich mar eff Inlet 3 (34-37. The name of the people inhabiting these houses is "Tap Rach a mutes," from "tap kach," a sand beach, and "mute," dweller.) * 38. Cape Prince of Wales. King e gaw. Ring ich mutes 1 182 REPORT ON THE INTRODUCTION OF Houses. * 39. Port Clarence. Nook \ i 1 * 40. Port Clarence. Singrak ... \ Kaviar rach alimutes . . 1 *41. Grautley Harbor. Kaviak. ) ( 4 * 42. Kings Island, Odkivok, Oiikivok amutes 4 * 43. Little Diomede. Ig nee shook. Iniaeh lieh amutes 4 * 44. Sledge Island. All ye iak. Ah y6ach amutes 4 *45.1 *46. * 47. } Coast between Point. Spencer and west cape of Golovin Bay — 5 villages. *48. *49.J * 50. West cape Golovin Bay. Igno'skuk 3 * 51. Golovin Bay, west side ■. 6 *52. Golovin Bay, head 2 * 53. Norton Bay, on west cape 4 * 54. Norton Bay, west shore. Neviaksah ah look 3 * 55. Norton Bay, head. Owing nah roch 1 *56. Norton Bay. Iglutahlik 2 *57. Norton Bay. U nak toa lik 3 *58. Norton Bay. K oo ynk 2 * 59. On spit dividing Norton Bay from Sound. Shak toa lik 6 * 60. On Norton Sound, west shore. Ig a ni k 4 * 61. On Norton Sound. Una lach leete 4 * 62. On Norton Sound. Gol so via 2 * 63. On Norton Sound. Kig ich towak 4 * 64. St. Michaeis Island. Tachik 4 TRIBAL NAMES. Coast from Point Barrow to Wainright Inlet: Noowook. Noowook ah mutes. Point Barrow. Ot gliavie. Ot gli avie mutes. Cape Srnythe. She rah rach. She rah rach amutes. Point Belcher. Koogmute. Koogmutes. Point Collie. Kelumaktowrook. Kelumak tow rach a mutes. Wainright Inlet. In the district from the western end of Camden Bay to the West bank of the Colville River, to the mountains where the Nounatak River rises, and along its course to Kotzehue Sound, the people are known as Nouna fcach a mutes. On the Koo wak River, Koo wach a mutes. From the Colville River to within 30 miles of a line drawn from Point Belcher to the rise of the Ik pik pun River, in an ESE. direction to a north line from Belcher to Point Barrow, 30 miles inland, the people are known as Kang ay ah uach a mutes. The tribe, however, is nothing more than a mixture of Nanatach a mutes, and the descendants of a semi littoral race of the region above named. From Point Lay south to Icy Cape north, and the riverine districts, Colville and Ikpikpun, to the eastward, there is a nomadic tribe composed of a mixture of coast natives and Nounatak people, styling themselves Otoo kach :ih mutes. Their original homes were along the seacoast from Wainright Inlet to Point Lay, but disease and mortality reducing their numbers, by process of intermarriage they have become closely allied and assimilated in language and customs with the inland people. Numerous remains of houses along the coast testify as to the former number of the people. On the Kook pow rook River, 25 miles from the sea, is another small band calling themselves Kook pow rach amutes, a mixture of Point Hope and Otoo kach natives. At Point Hope, Bome twenty years ago, was a very populous village. From Point DOMESTICATED REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 183 Lay north to Cape Seppings in the south, the Tig erach ah mutes occupied all the villages, their eastern <>r inland summer villages being, however, con lined to a dis- tance of bO miles inland. The tribe, Tig erach amutes, now confine themselves to Point Hope and Ouivak (Cape Lisburne) villages in the winter. From Cape Seppings to (ape Krusenstern, and inland to the Nouua tak River, tlnie still remain about 40 people, the remnant of a tribe called Key wall ling nach ah mutes. Deaths by violence and disease have decimated the ranks of* these people. They will in a few years entirely disappear as a distinctive tribe. Inhabiting the winter houses, from Cape Krusenstern to the month of the Nounatak river, there is no distinctive tribal coguomen known, the residents being amixed lot of Kewalingmuh ahnmtes and Xounatacbamutcs, with a few Point Hope people. Similar conditions prevail at the island upon which Cape Blossom is situated, the villages being composed of Kaug 'ich ainutcs, Buckland River. Nouna tach amutes, Selawig amutes, and Cape Prince of Wales natives, a hybrid race known as Kig ich towak mutes. Selawig ah mutes. Sclav, ig River. Kaug ich amutes. These pcoplo, having their cradle on the Buckland River, have spread over the country as far south as Golovin and Norton Bay and to Saint Mich- aels. Known to the Russians as Mahlo' mutes. From Buckland River to Cape Prince of Wales reside perhaps 200 people, known as Tap kach ah mutes, a mixture of Kaug ich amutes and King ich ah mutes (Cape Prince of Wales). King egan. Cape Prince of Wales King ich a mutes. Ig nedshook. Little Diomedc Imach lich a mutes. These people by their lan- guage indicate that their early origin was from Cape Prince of Wales, intermarriages with natives of the Big Diomedo Island (Tchuk chees) having been prevalent. Port Clarence and Grantley Harbor to Golovin Bay is inhabited by a tribe known as the Kav o ah rach a mutes. Kings Islands. Onkivak ah mutes. Sledge Island. Ah yach a mutes. In the five villages from oft' Sledge Island to Golovin Bay the Sledge Island natives are intermingled with the Kangich amutes. From Unalachleet, Norton Sound, to the confines of the delta of the Yukon, the entire inhabitants of the district are known as Mach ach amutes. It must be borne in mind that these people call themselves, if asked, " Where do you belong?" by the name of their village; and only by a knowledge of the dialectical differences can their tribal origin be discovered. INDEX. Agricultural college and experiment stations recommended in Alaska, 20, 122. Alaska, agricultural college and experiment stations recommended, 20, 122 j illegal traffic of whisky, 58,59,117,118,137; introduction of domesticated reindeer, 11; law prohibiting sale of repeating arms and fixed ammunition, 84, 85; names of native tribes of northwest, their villages and approximate geo- graphical positions, 181, 182, 183; report ou food supply, by Messrs. Thornton aud Lopp, 127, 128, 129. Almquist, William, on treatment of reindeer, 174, 175, 176. Anderson, Rasmus B., notes on the Lapps aud the reindeer. 1 17. 148, 149. Animals, fur-bearing, 80, 81, 82. Appendix to report ou reindeer in Alaska, 25. Arms and fixed ammunition, Law prohibiting sale of repeating, in Alaska, 84, 85. Bear, U. S. revenue cutter, 11, 12, 13, 29, 53, 54, 82, 124, 130. Bergstrom, E. J., on treatment of reindeer, 172. Bergstrom, Wilhelm, ou treatment of reindeer, 163. Boats, Eskimo, 106, 107, 108. -Branding of reindeer, 175, 176. Bruce, Miner W., recommends repeal of law prohibiting sale of repeating arms and fixed ammunition in Alaska, 84, 85; report to Dr. Sheldon Jackson, concerning a Hairs of reindeer station, 25-116. Care of reindeer, 156, 161, 167, 171, 174, 176. Carlson, Otto, on treatment of reindeer, 174. Christmas among the Eskimos, 63, 64, 65. Circular letter sent to Scandinavian newspapers iu the United States, 155. Dahl, Adolph, on treatment of reindeer, 165, 166. Dahl, H., on treatment of reindeer, 157, 158, 163, 164, 165. Dahl, Regnor, on treatment of reindeer, 156, 157. Dexter, Jno. A., on reindeer herd, 120, 121. Disease among the natives, 87, 88. Doctors, Eskimo, 116. Dogs, c©st of trained Lapp, 153; Eskimo. 114, 115, 116; herding reindeer with aid of, 151, 159, 160, 161, 162, 167, 169, 172. 17 i. 179, 180. Drinking and smoking among Laplanders, 150, 176. Driving reindeer, 47-52, 151, 156, 162. Einarsen, P., on treatment of reindeer, 159, 160. Eskimos, boats, 106,107, 108; Christmas among, 63,64, 65; disease among, 87,88; doctors, 116; dogs, 114,.115, 116; food of, 83,84; habits and customs of the, 60, 63,71,72,74,75,77,78,79,96-116; lions *, 96,97,98; instructing in the English language, 65; police recommended, 131 ; tobacco among, 101. 105; women, 112, 113. Experiment stations and agricultural college recommended in Alaska, 20, 122. Fawns, reindeer, 149, 151, 169. Finances, 21, 22. Floht, John, on treatment of reindeer, 169, 170. 185 186 INDEX. Food, of natives, 83, 84; reindeer, 63, 149, 151, 153, 162, 172, 173, 17fc suppl\ of Arctic Alaska, 127, 128, 129. Fur-bearing animals, 80, 81, 82. General agent of education in Alaska, transportation on cutter Bear, 130. Government control of reindeer urged, 89. Granstrom, C. O., on treatment of reindeer, 178, 179. Gulfjeld, Hans, on treatment of reindeer, 167, 168. Habits of reindeer, 32, 33, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 62, 63. See also memoranda on Lapps and reindeer, 145 et seq. Habits and customs of the Eskimos, 60, 63, 71, 72. 71, 75. 77, 78, 79, 96-116. Healy, Capt. M. A., authorized to transport reindeer from Siberia, 125; reports ille- gal traffic in reindeer, 136; request for assistance of, 124. Hedstrom, J. H., on treatment of reindeer, 179, 180. Herd of reindeer lauded at station, 17, 18, 29, 30, 31, 34. Herders, pay of, 131, 135. Herding reindeer, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 72, 73 ; with aid of dogs, 151, 159, 1C0, Id, 162, 167, 169, 172, 174, 179, 180. Hippe, O., on treatment of reindeer, 171. Houses, Eskimo, 86, 97, 98. Hunting and trapping implements, 101, 102. Illegal traffic in reindeer, 19, 136. Illegal traffic of whisky in Alaska, 58, 59, 117. 118, 137. Instructing Eskimo in English language, 65, 66, 67. Introduction of domesticated reindeer into Alaska, 11. Jackson, Dr. Sheldon; report to Commissioner of Education, 11-22; report of MiDer W. Bruce to, 25-116; commended to Russian officials in Siberia, 129. Killing of Mr. Thornton, 138, 139. Kielmann, Mr., superintendent of reindeer station, 17. Knutzon, H., on treatment of reindeer, 173, 171. Letter of instructions to superintendent of reindeer herd, 131, 132. Letter of transmittal of Secretary of the Interior to President of Senate, 9. Laplanders and their reindeer. Notes by R. B. Anderson and N. Width, 147,148, 149, 150, 151, 152. Laplanders, smoking and drinking among, 150. Litlmer, A. N., on treatment of reindeer, 171, 172. Lopp, W. T., appointed superintendent of reindeer station, 131,132; article on rein- deer herd, 118,119; report of progress at reindeer station, 133, 134, 135; sledge journey to Point Hope, 73, 74. Lorsou, Lorentz M., on treatment of reindeer, 167. Lust, Nils, on treatment of reindeer, 162, 173. Meteorology at Reindeer station, 75-78, 91-95. Milking reindeer, 149, 151. 152, 169-173, 177, 178. Moss, reindeer, 149, 151. 153, 172, 177. Native tribes of northwest Alaska, their villages, and approximate geographical positions, 181-183. Nilson. John, on treatment of reindeer, 168,169. Nomadic habits of reindeer, 156. Norway, reindeer in, 141-143, 152. 153. Nyvall, J., on treatment of reindeer. 158, 159. Olatlson, I'eder. on treatment of reindeer, 177, 178. Parasites of reindeer, 152, 153, 156. Pay of herders, 131,135. Personnel of reindeer station at Port Clarence, 16, 17. Police, native, recommended, 134. Port Clarence, reindeer station at, 14, 15, 16, 25 et scq., 118, 119. INDEX. 187 Purchase of reindeer, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 124. Reindeer station, affairs, 53-57, 130-110; established at Port Clarence, 1 1-17. 25, 118, 119; meteorology, 75-78, 91-95; named alter Hon. Henry M. Teller, 14; progress, byW. T. Lopp, SUpt., 133-135; whisky seized, 117, 118. Reindeer, branding. 175, 176; care of, 156, 161, 167, 168, 171, 171, 176; dressing skins, 33, 34; driving. 47-52; lawns, 149, 151. 169; food. 63, 149, 151, 153, 162, 172, 173. 176; Government control over advocated, 89; habits, 32,33,39-44,46,62,63, 156; see aho lei ters from Scandinavians in the United States, 155 et xeq.; herd at station, observations by W. T. Lopp, Jno. A-^Dexter, and H.T. Thornton, 118-121 ; herd landed at station, 17, 18,29-31,34; herding, 35-39,72,73; herding with aid of dogs, 151, 159-162, 167, 171, 179, 180; illegal traffic, 19, 136; introduction into Alaska, 11; in Norway, 141-143, 152, 153; Laplanders and reindeer, by N. Width and R. B. Anderson, 147-149, 150-152; milking, 149, 151, 152, 169-171, 173, 177,178; moss, 149, 151,153, 172, 177; purchase, 11-13,17,18,124; parasites, 152, 153, 156; raking season, 152; slaughtering, 175; teaching to eat meal, 61-63; transporting on revenue cutter Bear, 31, 130, 131; treatment, by Regnor Dahl, 156, 157; H. Dahl, 157, 158, 163, 164, 165, 170; J. Ny vail, 158, 159; P. Einarsen, 159, 160; C. Tangen, 160, 161, 166, 167; A. N. Stokes, 161; Henry J. Redmyer, 161, 162; Nils Lust, 162, 173; N. Width, 162; Wilhelm Bergstrom, 163; Adolph Dahl, 165, 166; Lorentz M. Lorson, 167; Hans Guldfjeld, 167, 168; Jno. Nilson, 168, 169; Jno. Floht, 169, 170; .lull. Samuelsen, 170, 171; O. Hippe, 171; A. N. Lituner, 171, 172; E.. J. Bergstrom, 172, 173; H. Kuutzon, 173, 174; Win. Alinquist, 174, 175, 176; Otto Carlson, 176, 177; Fred Solly, 177; Peder OlarTson, 177, 178; C. O. Granstrom, 178, 179; J. H. Hedstrom, 179, 180. Raking season among reindeer, 152. Redmyer, Henry J., on treatment of reindeer, 161, 162. Russian officials in Siberia, Dr. Sheldon Jackson commended to, 129. Sanmelson, Jull., on treatment of reindeer, 170, 171. Scandinavian newspapers in the United States, circular letter sent to, 155. School, teaching, 87. Secretary of Interior, letter of transmittal to President of Senate, 9. Senate, letter of transmittal of Secretary of Interior to President of, 9. Skins of reindeer, dressing, 33, 34. Siberian herders, superstitions, 59-61, 68-71. Siberia, visit of cutter Bear, 11, 12, 13; whisky traffic, 13, 14, 19. Slaughtering reindeer, 175. Sledge journey of Mr. W. T. Lopp and wife to Point Hope, 73, 74. Smoking and drinking among Laplanders, 150, 176. Sotly, Fred., on treatment of reindeer, 177. Stokes, A. N., on treatment of reindeer, 161. Superstitions of Siberian herders, 59-61, 68-71. Superintendent of reindeer station, W. T. Lopp appointed, 131, 132. Superintendent of reindeer herd, instructions, 131, 132. Taugeu, C, on treatment of reindeer, 160, 161, 166, 167. Teaching school among Eskimos, 87. Teaching reindeer to eat meal, 61-63. Teller, Hon. Henry M., reindeer station named after, 14. Thornton, H. T., on reindeer herd, 120. Tobacco habit among the Eskimos, 104, 105. Thornton, Mr., killing of, 138,139. Width, N., on Laplanders and reindeer, 150-152; on reindeer, 162. Whisky, illegal traffic in Alaska, 58,59, 117, 118, 137; traffic in Siberia, 13, 14, 19. Women, Eskimo, 112, 113. 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