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at FIRST ANNUAL REPORT
ON

. Y

| THE NOXIOUS INSECTS

i} OF THE

t STATE. OF ILLINOIS

|

|

it

1

BY

i BEN]. D. WALSH, M.A.

1 Acting State Entomologist

\

I |

ers . FROM

ie : THE APPENDIX TO THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE
ILLINOIS STATE HORTICULTURAL

H SOCIETY FOR 1867

}

i SECOND EDITION.

PANTAGRAPH me
oF : PRINTING AND STATIONERY COMPANY
| Se Ree : BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS

; a Siac De reas 1903

FIRST ANNUAL REPORT

ON

THE NOXIOUS INSECTS

OF THE

SPATE OF ILLINOIS,

BY
BEN]. D. WALSH, M.A.

Acting State Entomologist

FROM
THE APPENDIX TO THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE
ILLINOIS STATE HORTICULTURAL
SOCIETY FOR 1867

| ~~" SECOND, EDITION
© Ses

a

The Report of Benjamin Dane Walsh as Acting State
Entomologist of [llinois was made under peculiar circum-
stances, described on pages 4 to 8 of this reprint. Atthe 26th
session of the State Legislature, an act was passed (approved
March 25, 1869) ‘‘for the relief of the State Entomologist,”
which had the virtual effect to legalize his acts as a state
officer during the period of nearly two years between his
nomination by the Governor and his confirmation by the
Senate; and his report, made to the State Horticultural
Society and not to the Governor, thus became actually,
although not nominally, the first report of the office. It
was published in 1868, in the Proceedings of the State
Horticultural Society (Volume I.) for 1867, and a separate
pamphlet edition was printed by the Prairie Farmer Com-
pany of Chicago. In both these forms it has long been out
of print and has become very scarce. I am pleased to have
the opportunity to issue-a second edition of this useful and
interesting document, to the number of 1,000 copies, and
Ido not doubt that its republication at state expense is
amply warranted by the intrinsic value of its contents, and
by its importance as the first of a long series of reports of
the official entomologists of this state.

The original edition has been closely followed in this
reprint, and no changes whatever have been made except in
the correction of a few obvious typographical errors.

S. A. FORBES.
State Laboratory of Natural History,
September 30, 1908.

ira POF CON LENS.

UU TFS CODD TOR Werte riers oy cre ate care ioe acca ipicl ov aera Sale nt Senlcia ac nicieteialen iaiol hee nye’ si Sislalovetsrs’s: aie sien, crews eiaiare datetete 5

CHAPTER IST—THE GRAPE CURCULIO.
Its History—Guest-insects, Parasites and Cannibals--Remedy................. 2-2 000- 13

CHAPTER 2ND--THE GRAPE-LEAF GALL-LOUSE.

Peculiar tothe Clinton and other cultivated varieties of the Frost Grape—Practical
inference therefrom... se. ----- EFererotclessic\ tip wetavelsterois ace retel evele(elccmmeiereto ce ote ota) elav otate martha rete 24

CHAPTER 3RD--THE ROSE-BUG.
DEVICe TOR CESULO Yin Sule ONG iAP) C=VLIN CS race ticle ciajieie\aic(0/a = alvleielalele elavelels a) eleialsis(eln/<la)alets leleierat<ialete al 28

CHAPTER 4TH—THE GRAPE-ROOT BORER.
Tis Historny-—Its scienting nomenclature——Remieales in... es clsacicis <cisiejesienl ciniaeipieise slelels ete 29

CHAPTER 5TH--THt APPLE-WORM OR CODLING MOTH.
Double-brooded--Practical inference therefrom--Remedies. ............ 2.20002 cee 33

CHAPTER 6TH—THE APPLE-MAGGOT FLy.

Occurs at present, onlyin certain Eastern States on the apple, though it was found
longago im Llinoision the Crap--[ts DIStOxy ot)... cas sone slsicinisielsinisia: «1 ste slaicinaielersiceie 36

CHAPTER 7TH—THE RASCAL LEAF-CRUMPLER.

A peculiarly north-western species, not found either east or south-- Easily de-
Simonet lee Gacqbuonooboda doe Guoatencondbanen eave boo doon.neduee OcoHaebe dee ubbes bpnbscoaudec 42

CHAPTER 8TH—THE OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE

Its History--Loses almost all its organs when only a few days old, and becomes
thenceforth as stationary as a cabbage--How it spreads from tree to tree—
Mites and their Natural Histcry—Plant-feeding Mites, Parasitic Mites and
Cannibal Mites—The Bark Louse largely preyed on by a minute Cannibal

Mite—Useless and useful remedies. .. 43
CHAPTER 9TH—HARRIS’S BARK-LOUSE.
How itediffers from the preceding—The geographical distribution................... 70
CHAPTER JOTH—THE APPLE-ROOT PLANT-LOUSE.

Often confounded in Illinois with the true ‘Woolly Plant-louse’’—The differences—
Its history—Causes a form of ‘‘Rotten-Root’’- Its supposed Cannibal foe—
CIN COWGS prayer mamas Catstaaciiem mises aire sate canais slestelcieicshe aeiciere sare: anletavelela ataleteiettersters epee Ch

CHAPTER 11TH—THE PLUM CURCULIO.

Its History—Its peculiar crescent-cut explained— Double-brooded -Its supposed
enemies, the so-called ‘‘Curculio Parasite’ and the Baltimore Oriole--Rem-
UV Sars otesstered wre reve aerate) Svs late a aim wen ie taera a cistal create Bisa sisistou suave o:snjaibie wravia. cle avelote epaccielwijoisate’ atte tamrevaiale 85

CHAPTER 12TH--THE PLUM GOUGER.

Bores a round hole in the Plum, instead of a crescent cut—How and why it does

this--Differs in many other respects from the Curcculio..... 2.0... cece wees nae en 97
CHAPTER 13TH—THE PLUM MOTH.
Its History--Probably a Guest-moth, and therefore not injurious..................... 105

CHAPTER 14TH—THE HATEFUL GRASSHOPPER.

The Rocky Mountains its natural home -Invades in certain years certain neighbor-
ing districts, such as Texas, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska and Inwa —Lays there
millions of eggs, which develop into barren Grasshoppers only- Invasion of
1866--Damage done by the young Grasshoppers in the spring of 1867- In Kansas
about %th of the field-crops and %ths of the garden-crops destroyed by them--
Grasshopper invasions of A. D. 1820, 1856, 1857, 1864, and 1867 Probable results
in 1868 of the invasion ot 1867 -Has never yetcome within 115 miles of Illinois -
Cannot spread into Illinois as the Colorado Potato-bug has done - Reasons why,
in all human probability, it can never reach Illinois atall........ 0... cece ee eee 111

INTRODUCTORY.

To Executive Committee of the Illinois State Horticultural Society:

GENTLEMEN :—I present herewith, for publication in your Trans-
actions, my first Annual Report as Acting State Entomologist.

What business I have to assume that title, may be allowed briefly
to explain to the people of Illinois, before I proceed to the discussion
of subjects more immediately connected with the Report itself.

The Legislature of Illinois, as you are aware, at the close of the
Regular Session in the winter of 1866—7, passed a law which enacts
that a State Entomologist shall, by and with the consent of the Senate,
be appointed by the Governor, with a salary of $2,000 per annum, and
for a period of two years and until his successor is appointed and
qualified. Owing probably to the late day at which this Act was
passed by the Legislature, (Feb. 27th, 1867,) the Governor made no
appointment at this session. —

On May 21, 1867—having in a previous resolution requested the
Governor to appoint me State Entomologist in order that.I might
immediately enter upon the duties of that office—you passed the fol-
lowing resolution :

“That the President of the Society be authorized to engage Benj. D.
Walsh to immediately commence entomological investigations in relation to
horticulture; and be empowered to pay out for that purpose a sum not ex-
ceeding $500 from the Legislative appropriation. This action is taken in case
of a failure to appoint.”

Having been duly notified on May 23d, by the President of your
Society, of this most gratifying action on your part, and tendered the
full amount of $500 in case I performed the duties specified in the
Resoiution, I accepted with thanks the offer so liberally made me, in a
letter addressed to your President and bearing date May 25th, 1867.

In the meantime the Governor had called a Special Session of the
Legislature to meet June 11th, 1867. During this Session he pre-
sented my name to the Senate as his appointee for State Entomologist,
along with the names of several gentlemen as his appointees on cer-
tain political Commissions. In all these cases the Senate took the
ground, that they had no constitutional right to act upon such ap-
pointments at a Special Session, called for certain specified objects of
which such appointments formed no part; and they therefore post-
poned all further consideration of all these appointments till the next
Regular Biennia! Session to be held in the winter of 1868—9.

6

Both you and myself were now manifestly placed in a false posi-
tion. When the five hundred dollars was voted by you on May 21st,
it was known that a Special Session would have to be called some time
that year, and it was confidently anticipated by every one, that either
myself or some one else would be duly appointed, and confirmed by
the Senate as State Entomologist at that Special Session, whenever it
met. As the matter actually stood at the close of that Session, neither
myself nor any body else had any legal claim either to the title or to
the emoluments of State Entomologist; and in the ordinary course of
events no one could have such claim for a year and a half thereafter.
It was manifestly absurd to suppose, that I could for the sum of $500
perform for two whole years duties, for which the Legislature had
thought $4,000 to be a suitable compensation ; and the impression on
my mind was strong, that the whole movement in this direction had
proved a failure and fallen to the ground. All men saw and felt that
the Political Commissioners, who had been in the same boat as my-
self, were politically killed. I supposed therefore that the State
Entomologist was entomologically killed.

Feeling as I have stated above, I wrote on June 19th, 1867, to
your President, offering to release the Society entirely from any pecu-
niary claim that I might have on them, and, if they declined such
offer, proposing to continue my researches and investigations in the
matter of those insects that are peculiarly injurious to fruit, not for
the entire period of two years, but for a fair and reasonable time.
Your President in his reply, dated July 3d, 1867, declined the former
alternative and accepted the latter, generously leaving the amount of
labor to be done by me on account of the $500 entirely to my discre-
tion. And here the matter rested for the present; and I went ahead —
with those investigations, which I had commenced at the end of May
and continued up to the receipt of President Baldwin’s last letter.

It was my earnest wish to have attended the Meeting of your
Society held at South Pass, Sept. 3—5, 1867; but, as will be seen
from the following report, several insects—and in particular a very
delicate small moth preying on the plum, which was an entirely new
discovery of mine, and which will be found figured and described in
the Report as “the Plum Moth”’—would persist in coming out at
that very period; and if I had then left home, almost all my speci-
mens of this moth would have been ruined for want of immediate
attention, and the discovery thrown over to be completed in some
subsequent year. I had also other investigations in progress which
required daily care; and I ventured to flatter myself, that I could do
the fruit-growers of Illinois more service by staying at home and

4

minding my business, than by laying before them in person discov-
eries only half finished and theories based upon too slender a founda-
tion of facts.

A month later, when the entomological season was nearly closed,
I attended the Fair of the State Agricultural Society; and on con-
versing there with many of our leading Agriculturists and Horticul-
turists, I found—much to my surprise—that it was the universal]
opinion among them, that if I went on, fairly and honestly and to the
best of my ability discharging the duties of State Entomologist till the
next Biennial Session of the Legislature, the Senate would then un-
doubtedly confirm my appointment by the Governor; and I was
strongly urged and advised to take this course by all these gentlemen.
I may add that the officers of the State Agricultural Society proposed
to me in private, to have the same sum appropriated in my behalf on
the part of their Society, which your Society had already appropriated
for a similar object. This offer, however, I respectfully but thank-
fully declined ; for I had already made up my mind to go on and dis-
charge the duties of State Entomologist for the whole period of two
years for which the appointment was tenable, and to trust to the future
liberality of the Legislature to reimburse me for my work. -

I therefore, shortly after returning home from the State Fair,
took care that the people of Illinois should be informed unofficially
through the Public Press of the course that I had determined on;
and I further, by the advice of friends, notified the Governor officially
of what I proposed to do. I also informed your President, both by
letter and personally, that I did not ask any pecuniary assistance what-
ever for the present from your Society; but that, if the Senate failed
to confirm my appointment in the Regular Session of 1868—9, then,
and then only, I purposed to call upon your Society for the payment
of the sum, which had been so liberally appropriated in the first in-
stance to meet a temporary necessity.

This whole matter is so complicated, and the misunderstandings
respecting it have been so general, that I hope that I shall be excused
for the publication of all these egotistical details. In justice to the
Society, and in justice to myself, I could not well say less; and I have
felt throughout, and still feel, a repugnance to thrusting myself for-
wards—without explanation or apology—to undertuke functions, te
the performance of which I am not legally and officially called. Time
will show whether the people of this great State will endorse and ap-
prove what I am doing; or whether I am to be treated as an impudent
pretender, who has been assuming a title to which he has no legiti-
mate claim whatever.

‘

8

_ The law authorizing the appointment of a State Entomologist
makes it one of his duties to prepare an Annual Report of his re-
searches and discoveries, for publication by the State. Under existing
circumstances, I have thought that the most appropriate mode of
carrying out the spirit, though not the letter, of the law upon this
point was to offer this my First Annual Report for Publication in the
Transactions of your Society.

In preparing this document, I have sla to use only such lan-
guage, as will be intelligible to any one who has had a good Common
School education, with one single exception. I have throughout, after
giving the English names of insects,- added the scientific names,
printed in ifalics and enclosed in a parenthesis ( ). The general
reader will find the sense always complete without the parenthesis in
italics; and therefore all that he has to do, in order to avoid those
technical names which are so distasteful to many, is to skip over en-
tirely, as he reads on, every parenthesis (printed in italics). To the
scientific reader the scientific names are absolutely essential, because
they are part and parcel of the peculiar language in which he writes
and speaks and thinks; and because, while the scientific names are
intelligible to every man of science, no matter whether he resides in
America, in England, in France, or in Germany, and are the same
everywhere throughout the whole civilized world, the English names
of insects are often local, and differently employed by different writers
and different States. For example:—-a minute, two-winged Fly, the
orange-colored larva of which infests the ears of wheat in the field
a little before harvest, and which is called in English throughout New
York ant New England “the Wheat Midge” (Cecidommya tritict,
Kirby), is called pretty generally out West “the Red Weevil” and of-
ten simply “the Weevil,” and in Pennsylvania and Maryland is pop-
ularly known as “the Milk Weevil.” Now, if I have occasion to talk
of this insect, and call it, after the fashion of most of our Illinois
farmers, “the Red Weevil” or simply “the Weevil,” every foreign
entomologist, being entirely unacquainted with our local terms, will
suppose that I am speaking of some kind of Snout beetle, and probably
of that particular little black species (Sitophilus granarius, Linneus),
which infests such wheat as is stored in granaries both in this country
and in Europe, and is popularly known in England as “the Weevil.”
But if, on the other hand, I give our popular Illinois name, or the
English name used in Pennsylvania, or that used in New York and
New England, and add in innocent little parenthesis—]3=" (printed
in italics) —the three words that form its complete scientific designa-
tion, then every entomologist, from one end of the world to the other,

9

knows at a glance exactly what particular species I am speaking of,
without the possibility of doubt, misconception, or confusion. An-
other instance :-—I find that an insect, which will be fully treated of
hereafter as the “Apple-root Plant-louse’ (Pemphigus pyri, Fitch),
and which, as I have ascertained, is doing an enormous amount of
damage throughout our State, destroying apple-trees by what is popu-
larly known as “rotten-roots,’ is commonly called almost everywhere
in Illinois “the Woolly Aphis.” Now, if I speak of this insect solely
under this name, without adding its scientific name, every foreign
entomologist, and a good many American ones besides, will suppose
that I am referring to an entirely different kind of Plant-louse which
is properly called, both in America and Europe, “the Woolly Aphis”
(Hriosoma langera, Hausmann), and which is as different from the
species misnamed “Woolly Aphis” in Illinois, as a sheepis from a goat.
Whereas, if I give the scientific name, as well as the English name,
every entomologist from San Francisco, in California, to Vienna, in
Germany, will know exactly what insect I refer to. Moreover there
are already many purely scientific names, which pass current in the
mouths of every fruit-grower and even of every farmer. The very
name “Aphis,” which I have just been referring to as current every-
where in Illinois, is a purely scientific name, and for that reason I
have preferred to avoid it throughout in the body of my Report, and
to use instead the good old homely Anglo-Saxon word “plant-louse.”
“Cureulio”—which is upon everybody’s tongue in Illinois, and alas!
also upon everybody’s plums and peaches and apples—is another ~
purely scientific word, which has been popularized throughout the
length and breadth of the United States, though in scientific lan-
guage it has a much wider signification than in popular parlance and
is equivalent to the pure old English term “Snout-beetle.” A third
scientific name which has been engrafted into our tongue is “Cantha-
rides,” and it is always applied exclusively to a foreign species of the
same genus of Blister-beetles, to which belong the old-fashioned Po-
tato-bugs found for time immemorial in Illinois—not the new-fash-
ioned Colorado Potato-bug (Doryphora 10-lineata, Say), which only
invaded our State a few years ago, for that belongs to an entirely dif-
ferent group. Now, if the general reader can, without the least diffi-
culty, open his mouth wide enough almost every day of his life to say
“Aphis” and “Curculio” and “Cantharides,’ why should he be scan-
dalized, offended and annoyed by other scientific names? always pro-
vided that they are printed in italics by way of a finger-post to warn
him off, as we stick up a board with “DANGEROUS?” on it, where
the ice is likely to break through in a skating-park; and provided fur-

10

ther that these vicious scientific names are properly fenced in by a
parenthesis ( ), so that the incautious traveler may not stumble in
upon them unawares, and get his brains kicked out by them before he
knows what he is about.

I am well aware that it is impossible to please everybody, and
that many men are of a very different opinion from those who take
fright at every scientific term, actually holding that nothing can be
worth reading, which, as a general] rule, is written in such plain and
popular language that it can be easily understood. But, because one
author writes in a clear and intelligible style, it does not follow that
he lacks depth of research and profundity of conception. Because an-
other author indulges in muddy and obscure phraseology, it does not
follow that he is a learned man and an original thinker. A puddle
is not necessarily deep, because one is unable to see the bottom of it;
neither is a lake necessarily shallow because the eye can catch at a
single glance every object that exists beneath its pellucid waters. In
printed books, we often see ignorant blockheads cover up their lack
of knowledge by a string of misapplied long words, as uncalled for as
they are distasteful and unintelligible; while the really learned man,
instead of going out of his way to lug in technicalities head-and-shoul-
ders, uses them only when they are absolutely necessary to give pre-
cision and accuracy to his statements. As a general rule, when an
author thinks clearly, he writes clearly; and when an author's ideas
are confused, his expressions partake of the disorder of his mental
faculties.

In a Memoir intended for publication in the Proceedings of some
grave Scientific Society, it would, of course, be highly indecorous to
break the dreary monotony of scientific hair-splitting by a single re-
mark, which had the slightest tendency towards exciting that con-
vulsive movement of the midriff, which the vulgar herd of mankind
call “laughter.” But as this Report is intended chiefly for the use
of common folks, who do not think it beneath their dignity to indulge
occasionally in a hearty laugh, I hope that I shall be pardoned, if I in-
advertently here and there should drop a word, which may cause the
cheek of the reader to mantle with a smile. Four hundred years ago
Martin Luther said, that “he could see no reason why the Devil
should run away with all the good tunes.” I can see no reason, in
the year of 1867, why the pestilent yellow-covered literature of the
day should monopolize all the wit and humor. If there is one thing
which I have at heart more than another, it is to popularize Science—
to bring her down from the awkward high stilts on which she is or-
dinarily paraded before the world—to show how sweet and attractive

11

she is when the frozen crust, in which she is usually enveloped, is
thawed away by the warm breath of Nature—and more especially to
demonstrate how delightful that particular branch of science, to
which I have devoted half a life-time, may be made to any-one, who
will keep his eyes wide open as he walks through his garden or his
orchard. If I merely succeed in enticing away a single young woman
from her mawkish novelettes and romances into the flowery paths of
Entomology, or if I can only induce a single young man, instead of
haunting saloons and lounging away his time at street-corners, to de-
vote his leisure to studying the wonderful works of the Creator, as
exemplified in these tiny miracles of perfection which the people of
the United States call ‘“‘bugs,” I shall think that I have not written
altogether in vain.

I have felt, of course, that the main object of this Report is, and
ought to be, the investigation of the history and habits of such Nox-
ious Insects, as are peculiarly troublesome in the Garden and in the
Orchard, and the suggestion of such modes of fighting these foes as
will be found to be practically most successful. I know that my
principal duty is to add in this manner to the profits of the Gardener
and the Fruit-grower, and thereby incidentally to add to the sum
total of the wealth of this great and growing State. But “man does
not live by bread alone ;” and there are other pursuits, besides dollars
and cents, which are worthy the notice of every one. It is an excel-
lent thing to have plenty to eat and to drink and to wear, and to have
a good warm house over one’s head—especially in the winter time in
Northern Illinois. These wants of the body are of primary import-
ance, and must be, and ought to be, attended to by every man—-
whether he be a day laborer, or whether he be a philosopher. But, be-
sides the body, every man has a mind, which requires food, just as
much as does the body; and if we starve the mind and feed the body
fat, we are simply dwarfing and stunting that intellectual part of us,
by which alone we are distinguished from the beasts of the field. I hope
I shall be pardoned, therefore, if I occasionally indulge in short di-
gressions, which, though of no immediate bearing upon the main sub-
ject of the Report, seem to be calculated to arouse an inquiring spirit
in the mind of the reader, and gradually to introduce him to the
higher and more attractive and more intellectual departments of
Natural History.

Several discoveries in Economic Entomology, made by myself
since I became connected with your Society through the action taken
by its Executive Board on the 21st of May last, were published at the
time in the columns of the now defunct Practical Entomologist, of

12

which I was for the first year of its existence Associate Editor, and
for the second year sole editor. These I have not thought it neces-
sary or advisable to reproduce in the following pages, because I have
aimed as far as possible to insert nothing here but what is original
and hitherto unpublished. On the other hand, certain other subjects
have been entirely omitted, because my investigations on those sub-
jects are as yet uncompleted; and others again, because they have ref-
erence to insects which are injurious, not to the Gardener and the
Fruit-grower, but solely, or almost entirely, to the Farmer.

At some future day—and, if it be possible, by the time that the
next Biennial Session of the Legislature takes place—I hope to pre-
pare a General Manual of the chief Noxious Insects of Illinois, com-
prising all the known facts respecting them that ought to become
familiar to the intelligent Farmers and Gardeners and Fruit-growers
of this State, no matter whether those facts be already published, or
whether they be original. Such a Manual, to be of the greatest prac-
tical utility, would require to be very copiously illustrated; but a
State, that is wealthy enough to spend three million dollars on a
new State-house, ought to be able to afford a few thousand dollars
for the publication of a work of primary necessity for nearly nine-
tenths of its population.

A few purely scientific descriptions, which it has been requisite
to insert in this Report, are printed in smaller type, because they are
intended chiefly for the use of the few persons, who may desire to
identify scientifically the species therein described. But even these,
I have couched, so far as possible, in popular language, occasionally —
adding the corresponding scientific terms in a parenthis, where
perspicuity and precision required it. For instance, if we talk
simply of the ‘‘jaws” of an insect, an entomologist may be uncertain
as to our meaning; for in the typical insect there are two pairs of
jaws, placed one above the other and called respectively in technical
language “the mandibles” and “the maxils.” But if we write “jaws”
(mandibles) ,” then everybody will know what we refer to, with just
as much accuracy as his peculiar wants may require.

The illustrations furnished herewith have been drawn by myself
and engraved by Mr. Wm. Mackwitz, of St. Louis. Whatever defects
there may be in them must be laid to my door; for, like everything
else which that artist has hitherto executed for me, they are exact and
faithful reproductions on wood of the original sketches on paper.

All which is respectfully submitted.

Beng. D. WatsH, M. A.,
Rock Istanp, Iniinots, Dec. 18, 1867. Acting State Entomologist.

INSECTS IN/URIOUS: “TO ' THE: GARDENER
AND THE FRUIT-GROWER.

INSECTS INFHSTING THE GRAPHE.— On the Fruit.

CHAPTER I-—THE Grape CurcuLio. (Cealiodes inaqualis, Say.) See
plate, fig. 1.

THis species of snout beetle was described in the perfect. beetle
state 36 years ago by the great American entomologist, Thomas Say ;
but up to this date it has never been recognized scientifically in the
larva state, and consequently its habits in that state have remained a
sealed book to the great world of science. Yet the destructive opera-
tions of the larva upon the cultivated grape have been known to vine-
yardists for several years back, and the insect appears to be very gen-
erally distributed through the valley of the Mississippi; as may be
seen at once from the following statements :—

So long ago as 1853, Dr. Warder, the distinguished pomologist,
said that “at Cincinnati they have insects that work on the grape—-
a species of Curculio.” (Z'ransactions Illinois State Agricultural So-
ciety, I. p. 340.) Mr. Spaulding, of Cobden, South Illinois, tells me
that he has noticed it on his grapes for four years; and that one par-
ticular vine has been nearly ruined by it for three consecutive years.
Mr. T. J. Prickett, of the same neighborhood, says that it has infested
his grapes for the last three years. One of these years it took, as he in-
forms me, three-fifths of the fruit upon one Isabella and one Concord
vine, so as to render the crop almost entirely worthless. Col. H. C.
Forbes, of Cobden, finds the Grape Curculio worse than the rot upon
his grapes. Mr. 8S. W. Beckwith, who resides not far from Cobden,
discovered five or six individuals of the perfect beetle, which he iden-
tified from specimens, shown to him by me, upon his grapes, in the
forepart of August, 1867. Professor Turner, of Jacksonville, Centra!
Illinois, and Mr. McPike of Alton, South Illinois, both of them told
me that their grapes were badly stung in 1867 by what, from their
description, must be the same insect. Mr. J. R. Switzer, of Carroll
Co. and Mr. W. Olds, of Whiteside Co., both in North Illinois, inform
me that they have each of them noticed in their grapes, though only
in small numbers, borings which in all probability are nothing else

}

14

but those of this Curculio. Mr. C. H. Murray,, of Clay City, South
Illinois, writes in the New York Tribune of October 29, 1867, that
“last year nearly all of the wild grapes of that region were stung by
some kind of a fly, and at the time of ripening.contained a small
worm.” “This year,” he adds, “there are no wild grapes, but the tame
grapes have been stung. Some fell off, others remained until the
time of ripening, and contained a bluish white worm, about one-
fourth of an inch long. Whole bunches of the grapes were thus de-
stroyed, and often every bunch on a vine.” Mr. Christ. S. Jackson,
of Danville, Kentucky, sent me on July 31, 1867, a large bottle of
grapes punctured by this same larva, and some of them still contain-
ing the defunct body of the offender. As, however, these grapes were
preserved in alcohol, they only enabled me to identify the species, and
were useless for the purpose of rearing the perfect beetle. The grapes
forwarded by this gentleman were Catawbas, obtained from vineyards
at Big Hill, Kentucky,“where,”’as he adds, “riERE ARE SIXTEEN ACRES
IN ONE PLACE ENTIRELY RUINED BY THIS INSECT.” Mr. M. C. Read,
of Hudson, Ohio, has manifestly, as is proved by a letter of his to me,
had his grapes infested for the last three years by this very same larva,
though in endeavoring to trace out its Natural History, he has ap-
parently—by a very pardonable oversight in one who is not a profes-
sional entomologist—confounded it with one of the leaf-rolling cater-
pillars of the grape-vine; which last produce, in the perfect state, not
a Beetle, but a Moth or “Miller,” as it is popularly called. ‘When
my grapes are ripe,” so he tells me, “I am compelled to carefully look
over every bunch, and pick out the infested berries, before sending
them to the table; and out of the eighteen or twenty insects that |
have found on the grape, this one gives me the most anxiety. For a
slight increase in its numbers would render our grape crop worthless.”
Finally, my esteemed correspondent, Mr. Joseph Wood, of Marietta,
Ohio, informed me last summer that he had “every year hundreds of
thousands of grapes punctured by some insect, and afterwards found
the larva eating the grape.” He subsequently sent me on July 27th,
1867, a box containing a few punctured grapes, two of which had
respectively a living and a dead larva in them. Upon examining these
larve, I was satisfied that they were those of some species or other of
Snout-bettle, but that they were decidedly distinct from those of either
of the two species—the Plum Curculio and the Plum gouger*—known
to infest the plum, with which Mr. Wood had in the first instance
confounded them. I therefore wrote at once to him, stating the

*Respecting these two, see below, Chapters XI. and XII.

15

above facts, and requesting a copious supply of infested grapes. These
he obligingly forwarded me in excellent order, and by this means I
have been enabled to trace the progress of our newly discovered Grape
Curculio from the larva to the perfect beetle state. In the following
paragraphs i have, partly from my own observations, partly from
the statements of the above-named gentlemen, and partly from certain
general laws known to apply to the whole of this pernicious group ot
insects—the Snout-beetles—drawn up as full a history as possible of
-this seemingly insignificant, but really very important foe of the
grape-grower.

Late in June, or early in July,or a little earlier or later, according
to the latitude, berries may be observed coloring very slightly upon
one side, as if prematurely ripening. Not long afterwards a dark
circular dot may be noticed in the middle of the colored spot, as if a
common pin had been thrust red-hot into the berry. The infested
berry does not rot or decay, but, with the exception of the puncture
and the slight discoloration, remains to the last perfectly sound and
plump, so far as external appearance goes. Hence the work of the
Grape Curculio may be always readily distinguished from the so-called
and very appropriately named “Rot,” which is caused, not by any
insect, but by a microscopically minute fungus. Towards the end
‘of July, if one of these infested berries is cut into, the larva may be
generally found burrowing in the flesh and surrounded—as is always
the case with the larve of Snout-beetles and of Moths—by what is
technically termed “frass;” that is to say, solid, hard pellets of ex-
crement, of a round, oval, or short-cylindrical shape, and looking at
first sight, like so many grain of gunpowder, their size varying, ac-
cording to the size of the insect, from that of the finest Sporting Pow-
der to that of the coarsest Cannon Powder. Usually, but not always,
the larva gnaws away a part of one of the pips of the grape. As soon
as it has got its growth, it drops out of the berry, where up to this
time it has kept itself carefully secluded from view, on to the ground,
unless, which happens sometimes, the berry has previously fallen to
the ground off the bunch—burrows a little distance under the surface
—scoops out for itself a small cell in the moist earth by wriggling its
body round and round—and there transforms into the pupa state.
The pupa I have not seen, but from analogy it must be a whitish or
blackish creature, intermediate in robustness between the perfect
beetle(fig. 1) and the larva(fig. 1b) ,incapable of either walking, eating
or discharging feces, with rudimentary wings pressed tightly against
the side of its body, and with legs and antenne regularly arranged in
a backward direction along its lower surface. The above operations take

16

place from about the last of July to the fore part of August. About
the beginning of September the pupa-shell splits open in front,and the
perfect beetle works its way out of the ground, and flies abroad to take
its pleasure and enjoy this beautiful green world—which, be it remem-
bered, was made for the benefit of my little friends, the small six-leg-
ged Bugs, as well as for that of their more consequential brethren, the
Big Bugs with two legs. The sexes then probably couple, and likely
enough the males perish, as is known to be the case in several analo-
gous instances; but the females must undoubtedly survive the winter
in some snug retreat, sought out by them for this especial purpose.
Otherwise it is impossible to account satisfactorily for grapes being
punctured by this species of Snout-beetle in the June of the following
year. At all events I have repeatedly found dozens of different species
of Snout-beetles, very closely allied to the Grape Curculio, snugly en-
sconced in moss and other such matters in the early spring months,
before the universal World of Insects wakes up from its wintry sleep,
to hymn the praises of their Great Creator through all the joyous
months of summer.

According to Colonel Forbes, of Cobden, Illinois, grapes stung
by the Curculio mostly drop from the vine. According to Mr. Mur-
ray, of Clay City, South Illinois, as quoted above, some fall off and
some remain until the time of ripening. According to Mr. Read, of
Hudson, Ohio, large numbers of them hang on the bunch, as we have
seen above, until they are ripe. According to Mr. Wood, of Marietta,
Ohio, the berry “after awhile drops from the stem, before it is ripe
enough to cut, sometimes showing a premature reddening.” These
slight discrepancies may be readily accounted for by differences either
in soil, in climate, in season, or in the variety of grape especially re-
ferred to in each of the above cases.

THE LARVA of the Grape Curculio (fig. 1b) is an elongate, legless grub,
four or five times as long as wide, nearly cylindrical behind, but tapered in
front towards the head. When fully extended, its length is about two-tenths
of an inch. The head is large, horny, and of a pale brownish yellow; the
jaws (mandibles) are chestnut brown, robust, acutely pointed, and gradually
eurved inwards; and their general direction in repose is parallel with the
axis of the body. Along the upper surface of the skull is a very distinct
longitudinal groove or suture. The color of the body is a semi-transparent,
yellowish white, with a darker stomach. Each segment of the body bears
upon each side a large, fleshy, acutely-pointed tubercle, directed sideways;
by which character this larva may be distinguished at once from those either
of the Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Herbst) or of the Plum Gouger

(Anthonomus prunicida, Walsh); and in addition the last or anal segment’
bears at each of its hind angles a similar tubercle, directed backward.

This Jarva, though legless, walks readily, and; like those of all
other beetles known to me, never uses its head by way of foot to assist
its progress, as those of almost all two-winged Midges and Gnats
(Diptera nemocera) commonly do. Neither does it curl up, belly
inwards, in a semicircle, as do the larve of many other Snout-beetles,
and as does more especially the common White Grub (Lachnosternu
quercina, Knoch) and its numerous allies. All the specimens seen
by me, whether from Ohio or Kentucky, were in green grapes and of
a pale color; but Mr. Spaulding, of Cobden, has assured me, that the
darker the grape is, the darker the larva becomes.

THE GRAPE CurcUuLIo. (Ccliodes inequalis, Say.) Fig. 1. Black, with
minute, short, scale-like, appressed white hairs, so as to give the black a gray-
ish tint. Mead, including the beak, punctured almost as coarsely as the
thorax; beak reaching a little beyond the base of the middle pair of legs,
nearly cylindrical, curved inwards in a circular are of about 60 degrees, and
sometimes tinged with brick-red. Thorax with rather large confluent pune-
tures, its sides converging in a convex quadrant for 74 of the way from
base to tip, thence to the tip converging very gradually in a straight line. Tip
of thorax about one-half as wide as.its base, and squarely docked with a
slight central excavation (emargination) ; its anterior edge always more or
less tinged with brick-red. A transverse impressed line for %4 of the
way from the scutel to the tip of the thorax; and a deeply impressed dorsal
longitudinal line, which after crossing the transverse line becomes much
fainter. On each side of the deeply impressed part of the dorsal line is a
very large rounded tubercle, and outside this, but rather nearer the base, and
almost on the lateral edge of the thorax, is a smaller subacute tubercle. Re-
gion of the scutei impressed. The wing-cases (elytra) are slightly freckled
with small gray spots caused by the greater denseness there of the scale-like
white hairs; their grooves (striw) are punctate with large, widely separated
punctures; and the respective interstices between the 2d and 3d, the 4th and
5th; the 6th and 7th, and the 8th and 9th grooves are wider and, especially
the first two, more highly elevated and rounded in front than the others.
The lower surface of the body is punctured like the thorax, but much more
sparsely. The legs are of a more or less dull brick-red, the thighs unarmed,
the four front shanks with a large rectangular tooth near their outer base,
the hind shanks unarmed. Near the outer tip of each shank a few stiff,
short bristles. Length of the body 0.09-—0.11 inch.

Described from eleven species, bred September 2d—6th from infested
grapes of the same year’s growth. Two specimens, captured at large many
years ago in Illinois and now in my cabinet, agree in all respects with the
others. I had originally referred this species to Ceuthorhynchus (caliodes)
curtus, Say, as it agrees pretty well with Say’s description of that insect,
after inserting a phrase which has apparently, through some clerical or typo-
graphical error, been omitted in the printed editions; for otherwise the word
“SMALLER” in Say’s description is unmeaning and unintelligible. After in-
serting the omitted phrase in brackets, Say’s description would read as fol-
lows: “Each side [of which line is a LARGE rounded tubercle, and outside of
this tuberclejrather behind the middle is a SMALLER subacute tubercle.” But

18

Dr. J. L. LeConte, to whom I have forwarded specimens of this insect, has
kindly shown me that this species disagrees in several characters with
Schoenherr’s more full and elaborate description of the curtus of Say, which
was probably based upon specimens furnished by Say himself. And as, hay-
ing in his cabinet a species which he considers as the true curtus of Say, he
prefers referring our species to the Ceuthorhynchus inequalis of Say, I will-
ingly bow to his authority; though there is the great objection that ine-
qualis is described as “brown” by oe and this species is most decidedly not
brown but black. The size given by Say for tnequalis (over 0.10 inch) cer-
tainly agrees much better with the average size of this species, than the size
which he assigns to curtus (under 0.10 inch) . But, as I have one specimen
of this species only 0.09 inch long, and as Say, like‘too many other entomolo-
gists. scarcely ever gives the number of specimens used by him in describing,
it is nmpossible to be certain that he did not describe from a single unusually
small specimen. After all, both of these two descriptions of Say’s, like the
great majority of those that we have to work on in entomology, are so brief
and defective, that to determine to which of the two species the Grape Cur-
culio belongs, or whether it really belongs to either of them, is a mere scien-
tifie conundrum.

In such a case, the best way is to allow the leading Coleopterist of the
country io decide the question, and abide by his decision, so as to avoid con-
fusion and the multiplication of synonyms—that curse of descriptive ento-
mology. At ail events, I think that the Grape Curculio is now so fully and
precisely described that—no matter what scientific name we may decide to
give it—it can never hereafter be mistaken for any other species. So much
for this entomological riddle, to solve which with certainty would require a
Guessing-nachine of 1,000 Yankee power.

In the perfect Beetle state the Grape Curculio will not be easily
identified by the inexperienced in such matters, owing to the obscure-
ness of its coloring, the absence of any conspicuous markings, and the
fact that many perfectly distinct species—several of which, however,
have a characteristic white scutel—resemble it strongly at first sight.
But almost all of these last, though they have the same general ap-
pearance as the Grape Curculio, yet belong to different genera, the
described North American species of the genus (Celiodes) being
very few in number. Hence our species may be recognized with tol-
erable certainty by a remarkable character, peculiar to the genus (Celi-
odes) and not found in the allied genera (Phytobius, Ceuthorhynchus,
Mononychus, Copturus, etc.) ; namely, the rectangular thorn or tooth
on the upper and outer edge of the four front shanks (tibiw). For
convenience’ sake, a greatly magnified figure of the front leg is given
in figure la, where the reader will see at a glance the nature of this
distinctive character. The bristles near the tip of the shank are in
nature sometimes obliquely erected, as shown in the engraving, some-
times depressed so as to be almost invisible except under a lens of
very high power; some of the legs in one and the same specimen often

19

having the bristles erect, and others having them depressed. At first
sight I supposed that these bristles were a sexual character.

I have shown at great length, in my Papers on Willow-gall In-
sects, published in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of
Philadelphia, that, in the case of many larve dwelling in the interior
of vegetable substances, and deriving their food from such substances,
there are what may be called “‘Guest-larve,”’ belonging to distinct
Species, and often to distinct Genera, to distinct Families, and even
to distinct Orders of Insects. These last take advantage of the tene-
ment prepared for them by the original inhabitant, who thus becomes
their Host, and feed conjointly with him upon the same vegetable
food. Technically, such insects are called “Inquilines;” but until I
published on the subject, entomologists were not aware how ex-
tensively this system prevails throughout the world of insects. From
the “Parasites,” properly so called, these “Inquilines,” or “Guests,” as
we may call them in English, differ very widely, in that they are
normally vegetable feeders, and only occasionally or incidentally de-
stroy the life of their unfortunate Hosts; whereas the true “Para-
sites” feed exclusively upon the living bodies of their insect victims,
and with a few exceptions live inside those living bodies, devouring
the flesh piecemeal, although some few of them attach themselves ex-
ternally to their prey, and gradually suck its life away like so many
miniature leeches.* These last, by the way, must not be confounded
with what I have called “Cannibal” insects; for each of these exter-
nally-feeding Parasitical larve attaches itself to a single victim, which —
it never quits till it has attained its full growth, whereas the true Can-
nibal larva roams hither and thither, and before it attains its fuli
growth will probably have devoured dozens of victims. Hence, by a
beautiful provision of nature, all the Parasitical larve, whether in-
ternal or external feeders, are legless, because they have no occasion
for locomotion; whereas all Cannibal larve, inasmuch as they require
to move from place to place, are furnished with legs, and are usually
pretty strong on the leg besides. In two words—to return to our
new friends, the Guest-larve—the difference between the Guest-
larve on the one hand and the Parasitical larve and Cannibal larve:
on the other hand, is pretty nearly that between an American burglar
on the one hand and a Polynesian cannibal on the other hand. The
insect Guest and the human burglar desire the goods of their victims
and do not usually take their lives, unless, for the object that they

*J have ascertained that a number of larvee belonging to the Chalcis fam-
ily have this peculiar habit, and among the Ichnewmon flies the genus Ophion
has long been known to feed externally in the larva state.

20

have in view, it is necessary or convenient to do so. On the other hand
the insect Parasite, and the insect Cannibal and the human cannibal
desire the bodies of their victims as food for themselves, and are’
necessarily obliged to slay, because it is only by inflicting death upon
others that they can satiate their own carnivorous appetites.

In the case of the Grape Curculio, as in many other such cases,
there is more than one species of Guests sponging upon a single Host.
I find that two very distinct larvee-—one of them belonging to the same
Order as the Curculio, (the Coleoptera or beetles,) but to a very widely
distinct Family, the other to an entirely different Order (the Dip-
tera or T'wo-winged Flies)—occupy the grapes after they have been
tenanted by the Cureulio, and derive their subsistence therefrom.
Whether these spongers upon the fruits of other Bugs’ labors dweil
as co-tenants with them in the larva state, I do not know. Perhaps
they do not; at all events they do not do so for any considerable time.
But most certainly the eggs, from which the intruding guests spring,
must be deposited in the infested grape by the mother-insect before
the larva of the Curculio leaves it; for my infested grapes contained
the Curculio larvee when I received them from Ohio, and were there-
after isolated in a closed vase, to which the mother of the Guest-
larvee could gain no possible access. As one species of these guests
arrived at the perfect state about six weeks, and the other about eleven
weeks after the Host, it is likely enough that the eggs of both of them
were deposited in the wounded grape, not very long before the larva
of the Grape Curculio was ready to descend to the earth and leave a
clear stage for the operations of his successors; and that consequently
these eggs did not hatch out till about the time that the spoiled
grape was vacated by its original tenant. —

The former of the two Guests just now referred to is the Twin-
spotted Nitidula (Stelidota geminata, Say)—a flattish, oval beetle, of
an obscure brown color with dull yellow markings, and rather less than
one-tenth of an inch long. It belongs to a somewhat extensive group
(the Nitidula family), all of which feed in the larva state upon de-
caying animal or vegetable substances, and several of which may
be often met with in decaying cheese, oldhalf-picked bones, old sheep-
pelts, ete. Of this insect, from some fifty infested grapes, I bred
October 12th—20th no less than thirty-three specimens. So that
manifestly their occurring in such grapes was not a mere casual
phenomenon, but part of the regularly pre-ordained system of Nas
ture. Nature, indeed, in whatever direction we turn our eyes, is al-
ways economizing and utilizing what would otherwise be uselessly
expended, and she cries aloud everywhere to those who know how to

21

interpret her sacred mysteries, that nothing shall go to waste, nothing
be lost, nothing be created in vain, whether in the animal or in the
vegetable kingdom; and that even death and decay and corruption
shall, by her holy alchemy be transmuted everywhere, in the most
bountiful profusion, into life and health and happiness.

The second of the two Guests is a species of Midge, belonging to
the genus Sciara and to the same group of Two-winged Flies as the
notorious Wheat Midge, commonly known in Illinois as “the Red
Weevil,” (Cecidomyia tritici, Kirby), and the equally notorious Hes-
sian Fly (Cecidomyia destructor, Say). We may call it in Englsh
“the Grape Midge.” It is a small, slender, long-legged, blackish Fly,
measuring to the tips of its wings about one-tenth of an inch, and with
no conspicuous markings whatever. The genus to which it belongs is a
rather extensive one, no less than seven U.S. species (not three as in-
correctly stated by Dr. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. I. p. 255) having been de-
scribed by a single author, Thos. Say; and moreover the species are
difficult to distinguish from one another, owing to the monotonous
uniformity of their coloration.* I think that my grape-inhabiting
species is probably identical with the Fickle Midge (Sciara [ molobrus |
imconstans) of Dr. Fitch, which is described by him as making its
appearance at the same unseasonable time of the year—the latter part
of December—and as running about in the same fickle, rapid, rest-
less manner as I have observed mine to do. Of this Guest-fly, from
the same lot of about fifty infested grapes from which I had previ-
ously bred the Grape Cureulio and the Guest-beetle, I obtained No-
vember 19th—29th, no less than thirty-five specimens; and probably,

*Having found the descriptions of Say’s seven species and Fitch’s five
specics of this genus very unsatisfactory, and being unable to separate into
distinct species scores of specimens which I had captured at different times,
though, by way of guide, I had, besides the “Grape Midge,” considerable num-
bers of two distinct species which I had formerly bred from larve found in
decaying wood, I sent specimens of the “Grape Midge” to our great N. A,
Dipterist, Baron Osten-Sacken, with a request that he would, if possible,
determine the species to which it rightfully belonged. For the benefit of
young entomologists, I give his reply in this note, without making any alter-
ation in my text. He had previously expressed to me the same opinions with
regard to the allied genus Ceratopogon, and I have myself published nearly
the same views with reference to another allied genus, Cecidomyia.

“Your fly is certainly Sciara, but the species is indeterminable. I
would not give anything for the determination even of a European Sciara.
It is a difficult genus which has never been satisfactorily studied. The num-
ber of species seems to be very large, their coloring uniform, and their char-
acteristic marks unknown. One does not know what to take hold of in de-
scribing such a species.”

22

owing to their lively movements, about as many more escaped out of
the breeding vase, when from time to time I opened it in order to
catch them. As to their habitually living in these infested grapes,
the observations already made with regard to the Guest-beetle apply
with two-fold force, inasmuch as they were about twice as numerous
as the Guest-beetle.

It is worthy of remark, as illustrating what I have called the
“Unity of Habits” in the same genus of insects, that another species
of the same genus, the Apple Midge (Sciara [molobrus| mali, Fitch)
was found by Dr. Fitch to be a Guest in apples infested by the com-
mon Apple-worm (Carpocapsa pomonella, Linneeus), and to appear in
the winged state at the same inclement period of the year as my
Grape Midge, namely in February.

Fruit-growers must observe carefully the important practical
point, that NONE OF THESE GUESTS DO THEM ANY HARM. It is the
Grape Curculio, for example, that in the first instance attacks the
berry; and after the berry for all practical uses is ruined, the Guests
merely pick up the stray crumbs that fall from the Curculio’s table,
and clear away from off the face of the earth decaying vegetable mat-
ter, that would otherwise become putrid, unwholesome and offensive.
To make war upon the Guests would therefore be as irrational, as for a
sheep-grower to shoot the turkey-buzzards that are feeding upon the
dead carcasses of his sheep, and overlook the blood-thirsty curs that
in the darkness of night had carried death and destruction among
his flocks.

Nothing is more common among young entomologists than te
jump to the conclusion that, merely because they breed a certain in-
sect from some vegetable organism which has manifestly been de-
stroyed by insects, therefore the bred insect is the author of the mis-
chief. No mode of reasoning can be more unsafe and unsound. The
bred insect may be, and very frequently is, a Guest; and the Host,
who is the real guilty party, may be entirely unknown to them. Or,
what is still more common, the bred insect may be a Parasite, feeding
upon the body of some unknown species that had originated the dam-
age, and consequently not our foe but our friend. To solve satisfac-
torily such questions as these, requires careful and long-continued
observation and experiment, and an extensive familiarity with the
habits and peculiarities of insects. And even then the very best and
most careful entomologists will sometimes be led into error. For,
although it is a very general rule that species belonging to the same
Family of Insects have the same general habits, yet every now and
then certain remarkable exceptions to the rule are brought to light.

23

For example, I have myself bred almost a hundred different species
belonging to the great Chalcis family (Order Hymenoptera), which 1
know to be parasites; and hundreds of others peculiar to Europe have
been ascertained by European entomologists to be also parasitical 1
their habits. Hence it was supposed formerly that all Chalcis flies
without exception were parasites. But there is now no doubt that,
as Dr. Fitch asserted long ago, the true author’ of what is known as
“joint-worm” in Virginia wheat and in Massachusetts and New York
barley is a veritable Chalcis fly. So that in reality, although the
great Chalcis family is almost universally carnivorous in its habits,
it yet contains at least one species which feeds exclusively upon living
vegetable matter.

To return to the Grape Cureulio. The practical question still
remains to be discussed, “How are we to get rid of it?” I think that,
beyond all question, the mother-beetle, if carefully looked for, will be
found laying her eggs in the young grapes some time in June. From
the accurate figure given herewith, and from what has been already
said, the species may, I think, be recognized with ease by the vine-
yardist ; though, after it has fallen to the ground, it will hide its beak
in the groove along its breast expressly provided by nature to receive
that very organ, and fold up its legs so close to its body, that it looks
exactly like a round, black seed. In this position, as it “plays *pos-
sum” and shams dead for a minute or two after it has fallen, it would
never be suspected of being a living animal by the unwarned and in-
experienced. The Grape Curculio should therefore, in localities where
its evil works have been already noticed in preceding years, be watchea
for in June; and as soon as it appears, shaken off the vines upon a
white cloth, or—what will be found perhaps still more convenient—
into something like an inverted umbrella, lined with white cloth, but
modified in shape so as to suit the mode of training the vines which
may in each case be practised. The least touch will fetch them off
the vines; for this whole group of roundish Snout-beetles (genus
Ceuthorhynchus and its allies) drop to the earth when alarmed more
readily even than the Plum Curculio. Indeed, I have repeatedly ob-
served that they will often drop as soon as they see you looking at
them, although the plant on which they are sitting be not touched
at all.

The Grape-grower w ill perhaps exclaim that the woods must be
full of this Grape Curculio, and that it will be no use killing a few
scores of them off his grapevines, because myriads of others will fly in
upon him from the forest. I can assure him that this is not so. ‘The
Grape Curculio is comparatively a rare insect, though, like many other

24

rare insects, nature occasionally concentrates it in considerable num-
bers for a particular object upon a particular point, i. e., the fruit-
bearing grapevine. For ten years I have been collecting insects in
various parts of Illinois, I have in that time beaten into my net
thousands of wild grapevines, to say nothing of forest trees growing
in their immediate neighborhood. Yet in all those ten years I never
captured but two poor solitary specimens of my newly-discovered
little friend, the Grape Curculio. Moreover, Dr. J. L. LeConte tells
me that, until I supplied him with some additional specimens, he had
but two representatives of this species in his whole collection of N. A.
Beetles, which, so far as regards the number of species, is well known
to be the most extensive of any in the country.

It is, indeed, undoubtedly true that, if a vineyardist is sur-
rounded by other grape-growers and all their vines are infested by
this Curculio, it will be comparatively but little use for him to destroy
the Curculio upon his own vines, unless he can also persuade his
neighbors to do the same. For his little black enemy has got good
long black wings of his own, and can fly with ease from one vineyard
to another, although undoubtedly he is not by any means as strong
on the wing and as fond of flying as a Bee or a Butterfly. Still, this
only proves the absolute necessity of fruit-growers becoming familiar
with the habits of their insect foes, and of their making war upon
them systematically and generally. For attaining these two objects,
nothing can be more practically useful, than those organized Asso-
ciations of practical and intelligent fruit-growers, which are now
happily becoming so common in all the great fruit-growing regions
of the United States.

INSECTS INFESTING THE GRAPE—On the Leaf.

CHAPTER II.—Tue Grapre-LeaF GALL-LoUSE. (Dactylosphera* vitifolie,
F jtch.)

This is the insect which Dr. Fitch described long ago under the
above specific name, though it most certainly does not belong to the
genus of Plant-lice (Pemphigus) to which he referred it, nor even,
in my opinion, to the Plant-louse Family, but rather to the Bark-lice.
It causes on the lower surface of the leaves of the grapevine immense

_ “The genus, Dactylosphera was proposed by Dr. H. Shimer, of Mt. Car-
roll, Illinois, in a short Paper, published in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc., Jan., 1867,
pp. 1—9. I adopt this generic name, simply because the group of insects to
which this species belongs, forms, in my opinion, a very distinct and a very
anomalous genus of the Bark-louse (Coceus) Family, and there is no other
name for it extant. Whythis genus of Insects ought to be referred to the Bark-

25

numbers of green, fleshy excrescences, about the size of a small pea.
I was the first to observe, in the columns of the Practical Entomolo-
gist, that it does not attack indiscriminately all our native and culti-
vated grapevines, but is peculiar to the Frost Grape (Vitis cordifolia)
and to asmall number of our cultivated varieties, namely, the Clinton,
the Delaware, and, according to Mr. George Husmann, of Missouri,
the Taylor. Dr. Morse, of Missouri, who has had great experience
with the grape, confirms the truth of the above assertion, and informs
me that in Missouri the Delawares are sometimes covered with these
galls so as to injure them greatly, and that he has occasionally seen a
few of these galls even on the Iona vine, which, according to Mr. Wil-
lam Saunders, is a variety of the Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labrus::
ca.) One of my correspondents has informed me that a whole vineyard
of Clintons near Bloomington, in Central Illinois, was destroyed bv
this insect in 1866; and it is undoubtedly this variety of the cultivated
grape that is the most subject of any to its attacks. Jiven at such a
remote point as Clinton County, in the Northwest corner of Missouri,
the Clintons are reported as “not doing well” on account of their
leaves being covered with these galls. (Agricultural Report Missouri,
Appendix, p. 1385—6.) What is very remarkable, and well illustrates
how certain species of insects swarm periodically and then are not

louse (Coccus) Family, rather than to the Plant-louse (Aphis) Family, I long
ago explained. (See Pract. Eniom. II., p. 19, and Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. VI.,
pp. 283—4, notes.)

To this new genus of his, Dr. Shimer refers, not only the insect which
forms the subject of this chapter, but also a mythical and entirely imaginary
species—Dact. globosa, Shimer— which he has concocted by taking the wing-
less individuals of the Bark-louse of a very small Hickory-gall (Carye semen,
Walsh MS., Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil., VI., p. 283,) and the winged individuals
of the Plant-louse of a much larger and very distinct Hickory-gall (Carye-
globuli, Walsh, abid. L., p. 309,) and assuming, without a particle of proof,
that the latter are the winged males of the species to which the wingless
females of the former appertain. And yet, even according to his own ac-
count, (p. 2,) the galls containing these so-called males are “0.25 inch, and
even more, in diameter,” while the galls containing the wingless females are
according to him, only “0.09—0.14 inch” in diameter, and, in reality, are still
smalier than he represents them to be, ranging from 0.06 to 0.10 inch in
diameter; and, moreover, as will be shown below, the two galls differ by a
very remarkable structural character. It is-a very suggestive fact, too, that
the large galls, containing the so-called males, occur abundantly and com-
monly on the Shellbark Hickory and but in small numbers and rarely on the
Pignut Hickory; while the galls containing the so-called females of what
is supposed to be the same species occur exclusively on the Pignut Hickory,
and in the most exuberant profusion. Whereas, if these two galls apper-
tained to the same species of insect, on whatever species of Hickory one of

?

26

heard of for years:—Although in 1866 these leaf-galls covered the
leaves of the wild Frost Grape and of the cultivated Clinton near
Rock Island, Illinois, and, so far as I could hear, throughout the State,
yet in 1867 on the most diligent search not a single one was to be
found, even on vines which had swarmed with them in the preceding
year.

Previous to what I published on the subject, authors had always
supposed that this Gall-louse attacked indiscriminately all kinds of
grape-vines. I was led to remark that it was not so, because I had
discovered it to be a general, though by no means a universal rule,
both with Plant-lice (Aphis family) and with Bark-lice (Coccus
family,) that the same species of insect is confined to the same species
of plant. Even when a species, belonging to one of these two fan-
ilies of insects, inhabits promiscuously two or more species of plants,
these plants will usually be found to belong to the same botanical
Genus, and invariably to the same botanical Family. We shall meet
with another illustration of the practical importance of attending to
this law of nature, when we discuss the history and habits of the
Apple-root Plant-louse in chapter 10.

them was found, the other one would be found there also, and, in all proba-
bility, always in the same relative proportion.

If any one doubts the validity of the above statement, he has but to
refer to the figure of the wings of the so-called male Dact. vitifoliw, in Dr.
Shimer’s Paper (fig. D, page 1); and he will see at once that it displays the
unmistakable wing-neuration of the genus of Plant-lice which Dr. Fitch con-
sidered as probably identical with the European genus Phylloxera, (see my
fig. of it, Proc. Ent. Soc., Phil., I., p. 297, fig. 8)—which I have since pro-
posed to name Xerophylla (ibid. VI., pp. 282—3, note) and to which the
Plant-louse of my Carye@ globuli gall belongs. This figure of Dr. Shimer’s,
it may be added, is totally unlike a drawing of the wings of the veritable male
Dact. vitifoliw, which was kindly executed for me by Mr. Cresson, from speci-
mens presented to the Entomological Society of Philadelphia by Dr. Shimer
himself, and which drawing I sometime ago communicated to Baron Osten-
Sacken. For, in this last, the neuration of the front wing is almost exactly
identical with that of a male Bark-louse (see Westw. Introd., II., p. 443,
fig. 7), and the hind wing lacks.entirely on its front margin the character-
istic hook to fasten on to the hind edge of the front wing, which is found
in all the genera of Plant-lice with which I am acquainted. Dr. Shimer, in-
deed, lays great stress upon the absolute necessity of such drawings being
executed from the living or recent insect. (Page 5, note.) So far as re-
gards the body of the insect, this is true enough; but every entomologist
knows, that the wings of any insect can be drawn just as accurately from the
dried as from the recent specimen.

With similarly unfortunate results, this same author has recently re-
described and re-named, as Hamamelistes cornu, a gall-making Plant-louse
(Hormaphis hamamelidis, Fitch), which had been already named and de-

27

Mr. William Saunders, in an excellent article on the Mildew of
the Grape, has asserted that the Delaware is a hybrid between the
Northern Fox Grape and the Summer Grape (Vitis estivalis.)* — If
a bug-man may venture to dispute the opinion of a plant-man, [
should infer that as neither of the above two wild grapes are subject
to these leaf-galls, so far as I know andas the Frost Grape notoriously
is, the Delaware, which I have found to bear these leaf-galls only to
a limited extent, is a hybrid between the Northern Fox Grape and the
Frost Grape. Certainly its botanical characters seem to me to be
intermediate between these two species.

The practical lesson to be drawn from the above theory is, that
where two varieties of cultivated grape are in other respects equally
desirable, and equally suited to the soil and climate of the vineyara-
ist—say, for instance, the Clinton and the Concord—the Concord
should be preferred, because, being a variety of the Northern Fox

scribed twice over many years before he wrote—namely, once in 1851 by
Fitch, and once in 1861 by Osten-Sacken—and to receive which. Osten-Sacken

had very properly founded the genus Hormaphis, of which Dr. Shimer’s so-
called new genus Humamelistes is a mere synonym. It is very true that we
are all of us liable to such oversights, when the book in which a supposed
new species has been already described is out of print, or very rare, or only
to be met with in foreign countries. But. in this particular case, all the de-
tails, which prove the above facts, were collected together and published by
myself eleven months before Dr. Shimer himself published, and in the very
work in which he himself published, which can be procured. by any one, with
the greatest ease, by paying the very moderate price demanded for it. (Com-
pare my Paper, Proc. Ent. Soc., Phil., VI., p. 281 and Dr. Shimer’s Paper,
Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., I., pp. 283—4.)

In order to clear away as much as possible the mystery in which Dr.
Shimer has enveloped this very interesting subject, I annex, from my Jour-
nal, a full account of the Bark-louse Hickory-gall, which I had referred to,
as quoted above, under the MS. name of Cary@ semen. I am now acquainted
in all, besides the Grape-leaf gall Vitifoliv, Fitch, with three very distinct
galls on the Hickory, all apparently formed by this same genus of Bark-lice
(Dactylosphera) ; namely, Carye semen, new species on the Pignut Hickory,
(Carya glabra;) Caryevene, Fitch, on the Shellbark Hickory, (Carya alba; )
and an undescribed species, Cary fallax, Walsh MS., with a strong external
resemblance to the Plant-louse Hickory-gall, Carywfoliw, Fitch, but open-
ing, not above, as is always the case with that gall, but invariably below.
This last gall I found June 17th—29th, 1867, absolutely swarming on the
leaves of a bush of the Shellbark Hickory. In none of these three Hickory-
galls, though I have opened hundreds of each of them, have I ever yet met
with the winged males; and in the Grape-leaf gall the males are equally
scarce.

*Mr. Saunders’ article may be found in the Monthly Report of the Agri-
cultural Department, 1867, p. 333.

28

Grape, it never bears these leaf-galls, any more than the wild species
from which it took its origin; while the Clinton, being a variety of
the Frost Grape, is often grievously afflicted with them, like the
source from which it sprang.

CHAPTER III.—Tur Rost-suce. (Macrodactylus subspinosus, Linneus.)

In particular seasons, as is well known, and in particular locali-
ties, this insect occurs in prodigious swarms, and gathers upon grape-
vines so as to strip them almost entirely of their leaves. The only
known remedy that is practically available, is to jar them off the vines
and kill them; and of course, if we can induce them to concentrate
their forces upon one particular vine and leave the rest alone, the
labor of destroying them will be very greatly diminished.

Luckily for the grape-grower, this can be done. There is con-
current evidence from a great number of different sources, that the
Rose-bug prefers the Clinton to all other cultivated varieties, and

Gall CARYAE SEMEN, new species, made by Dactylosphera carye-semen,
new species. On the general surface of the leaflets of the Pignut Hickory
(Carya glabra,) in prodigious abundance, a subglobular, smooth, seed-like,
hollow, sessile gall, 0.06—0.10 inch in its widest diameter, sub-hemispherical
above, rather fiatter below, with a nipple-like opening in the middle. Walls
of the gall rather stout, fleshy and not woody. The external color is green-
ish yellow above, and pale green below, with the open central nipple whitish.
There are frequently as many as one hundred of these galls on a single
leaflet. Inside may often be found as many as three or four mother bark-lice,
similarly shaped, and of the same yellow color as those of the Vitifolie
gall, but, on the average, rather smaller, and accompanied in the same man-
ner by eggs or very young larve, or both. As with the mother bark-lice of
the galls Vitifolie Fitch, Caryevene Fitch, and Caryefallaz Walsh MS.,
the antenne of this mother bark-louse are three-jointed, joints one and two
short and sub-equal, and joint three longer than one and two put together.
The young larve are about 0.01 inch long, and of the usual shape. Almost
as soon as hatched—as is also the case with the larve of all the allied galls
—these larve stray away to found new galls. The galls themselves are very
abundant about July 24th, but by August 12th they were almost all empty
and gaping open below. Out of twenty or twenty-five examined at this last
date, all but one were empty, and that one contained only a single bark-louse
egg. The gall-insect is infested by a Mite (Acarus family) and also by a
Chalcis fly.

This Bark-louse gull may be readily distinguished from the Plant-louse
gall, Carye globuli, Walsh, with which Dr. Shimer has unaccountably con-
founded it, not only by its being only one-third or one-fourth as wide across,
but by opening below with a roundish,nipple-like hole,whereas the latter opens
below with an elongated slit. (See Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. VI. p. 275.) More-
over, the former almost always contains eggs, the latter never; because the
Bark-louse is oviparous, and the Plant-louse, at all events, so long as it re-
mains in the gall, is invariably viviparous.

29

will gather upon that and leave the others unmolested. In proof of
this assertion, I quote the two following passages from among a num-
ber of similar ones, the first from the Report of the Winter Meeting
of the Fruit-growers’ Association of Western New York, Jan. 23,
1867, the second from the American Journal of Horticulture, Sept.,
L8G, ps tba"

“F.C. Brehm thinks the Clinton the best vine to draw rose-bugs
from other vines, and keeps one in his garden for that purpose.”

“When I saw a paragraph in a Horticultural Paper, advising
grape-growers to keep one vine of the Clinton in the garden for the
use of the rose-bugs, I thought it merely a feeble joke; but experience
teaches me that it is no joke at all. I have a Clinton vine at a little
distance from a dozen other kinds, and its leaves are entirely riddled
by the Rose-bugs; while I have not found six bugs on the other va-
rieties, and none at all on the roses. I pity the want of taste dis-
played by the bugs, but am glad to find that the Clinton is good for
something ——Since writing the above, I have found bugs in abun-
dance on the Franklin: but that only strengthens the case; for the
Franklin is much like the Clinton and just as worthless.”

J. M. M., June.

INSECTS INFESTING THE GRAPE.—On the Root.
CHAPTER 1V.—TueE Grapr-roor Borer. (dgeria polistiformis, Harris.)

This insect, which strikingly resembles the common Peach Borer,
(Ageria exitiosa, Say,) in all its stages, both in size, in shape, and
in the general style of its coloration, was observed fifteen years ago
by Dr. F. J. Kron, of Albemarle in North Carolina, to be very
destructive to the cultivated grape-vines there. I see from the
Monthly Reports of the Agricultural Department for 1867 (pp 3829—
330,) that Mr. H. J. Krone, of the same place—who may probably be
a relative of Dr. Kron’s, though his name is printed with an E at the
end of it—“gives discouraging reports about the destruction of grape-
vines in that region” by this same Borer in 1867. In the same
Monthly Report it is stated that “a correspondent in Cincinnati writes
that a new enemy has attacked the grape-vines in that vicinity, and
describes its work as similar to that of the North Carolina A¥geria
polistiformis.” Lastly, in the summer of 1867, Mr. C. 8. Jackson,
of Danville, Kentucky, sent me specimens of the larva of this very
same insect, along with pieces of the grape-vine roots on which it was
operating. “Here in Central Kentucky,” he says, “I have noticed,
for a year or two past, spots throughout the vineyards suffering from

30

decay; and where the vines are taken up and examined, this worm is
found on almost every root.”

Now, Danville in Kentucky lies about a hundred miles to the
south of Cincinnati, Ohio, but it actually lies about ten miles to the
north of Cobden, in Illinois, where grape-vines are beginning to be
grown pretty extensively. Consequently, even if it should turn out
that the Cincinnati correspondent of the Agricultural Department
has raised a false alarm, yet as this pernicious borer indubitably exists
in large numbers at Danville, there is a reasonable probability that it
may within a few years, now that grapes are being grown so exten-
sively, spread from that point into Southern and Central Illinois. It
may perhaps have even done so already. Hence it appears to be a
useful precaution to describe the insect and its operations in such a
manner, that it may be recognized at once, wherever and whenever it
may occur, by our Illinois grape-growers; more particularly as, being
hitherto considered an exclusively Southern insect, it is entirely un-
noticed in Dr. Harris’s excellent book on Jnjurious Insects, and only
receives a passing notice of eight lines in Dr. Fitch’s very useful
Reports on the Noxious Insects of New York.

Unlike the common Peach Borer, this larva lives exclusively
underground, the mother-moth depositing her eggs on the collar of the
grape-vine close to the earth, and the young larve, as soon as they
hatch out, immediately descending on to the roots. They seem to
confine themselves entirely to the bark and sap-wood of the roots,
leaving the heart-wood untouched, which of course renders their op-
erations much more destructive to the life of the vine. The roots that
I received from Kentucky were internally sound and solid, but ex-
ternally they looked all of them as if a drunken carpenter had been
diligently scooping away the sap-wood with a quarter-inch gouge,
almost their entire surface being furrowed by crooked and irregular
channels, semicircular in their outline if a cross-section of them was
made, inside some of which lay the larvee, with their naked backs
touching the surrounding earth. According to Mr. Krone, however,
“the larva working underground mines and destroys the vine-roots,
and being shielded by the bark defies the action of remedies for its
extermination.” When full-grown these larvae measure from 1 inch
to 1% inch in length; and are whitish, elongate, 16-legged grubs,
scarcely distinguishable from those of the Peach Borer. Like that
insect, they form an oval, pod-like cocoon of a gummy substance cov-
ered with little bits of wood and dirt, inside which they pass into the
pupa state. These cocoons may be met with at various times through
the summer near the roots of the infested vme; and, as is also the case

31

with the Peach Borer, the Perfect Moths make their appearance above
ground at various times through the summer. According to Dr.
Kron, they are found about the vines and on the wing in North
Carolina from the middle of June to the middle of September, during
which time they couple and lay their eggs. The following descrip-
tion of the Moth, which I have not yet succeeded in rearing, is copied
from Harris, (Rep. Am. Pom. Soc., 1854, p. 10.)

“The moth of the Grape-vine Borer has a body of a dark brown color,
more or less tinged with a tawny orange on the sides, and banded with bright
yellow upon the edge of the second ring of the hind-body. The thorax and
shoulder-covers, and the fourth ring of the hind-body, are more faintly edged
with yellow, or with tawny orange. The feelers, antenne beneath, and legs
are also orange-colored; the fore-wings are dusky; the hind-wings transpar-
ent,but varied and edged with black. The female has a little orange-col-
ored tuft on each side of the tail, and the males have two tufts on each side,
the middle pair longer than the others. The males are more numerous, more
active. and smaller than the females; they measure from 0.50 to 0.60 inch in
length, and their wings expand from 1 inch to 1.15 inch. The body of the
female varies from 0.60 to 0.90 inch in length, and her wings expand from
1 inch to 1.50 inch.”

The curious reader, who has noticed just now that I said that the
Grape-root Borer was briefly referred to by. Dr. Fitch, will perhaps be
astonished, on referring to that gentleman’s New York Reports, to
find that no such insect as A¥geria polistiformis is to be met with, in
any of the three indexes attached to the three volumes of those Re-
ports. It may perhaps be worth while to explain this little scientific
mystery. After the term ‘““A%geria” had been applied by the Huro-
pean entomologist Fabricius in the year 1807 to the genus of insects
to which both the Peach Borer, the Squash-vine Borer, and the Grape-
root Borer belong, and had been universally current in the scientific
world for half a century thereafter, some indefatigable genius, rum-
maging among old books, discovered that another European entomolo-
gist, Scopoli, had given the name of “Trochilium” to the same group
of insects in the year 1777, or 30 years before Fabricius’s name was
published. Hence, according to what is called “the law of priority,”
the name “Trochilium” has now very generally taken the place of the
name “Aigeria;” and the very same insect which in 1854 Dr. Harris
designated as A/geria polistitornis was in 1856 designated by Dr.
Fitch as T'rochilium polistiforme. If the rules of nomenclature, pro-
mulgated long ago by the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, had been regarded in this case, the term “/Bgeria,” having
been once universally adopted, would never have been changed. But
unfortunately these rules have been too generally neglected, and the
“law of priority” has been for many years back enforced with the ut-

32

most rigor in the scientific world. Hence scientific phraseology is in
a perpetual state of flux, chopping and changing about from year to
year, as often as some obscure writer, whose writings perhaps are not
worth one cent, but who had the good fortune to be born before his
betters, is discovered to have named a genus or a species before the
author of the current name published that name in the scientific world.
The inevitable consequence is, that a great deal of valuable time, that
might be usefully expended in studying out scientific facts, is frit-
tered away in studying out scientific phrases; and an entomologist,
who would keep up with the age, has to be perpetually altering the
names in his cabinet, without himself gaining thereby one single new
idea, or adding one iota to the general fund of scientific knowledge.
To my mind, the naturalist who rakes up out of the dust of old libra-
ries some long-forgotten name, and demands that it shall take the
place of a name of universal acceptance, ought to be indicted before
the High Court of Science as a public nuisance, and on conviction
sent to a Scientific Penitentiary, and fed there for the whole remain-
ing term of his scientific hfe upon a diet of chinch bugs and formic
acid.*

~All underground insects are peculiarly difficult to combat, Ist,
because the mischief done by them is generally discovered too late for
any remedy to be applied, and 2nd, because entomologists know less of
the Natural History of this group of insects than of that of almost
any other group, owing to their being so secluded from observation
and experiment within the bowels of the earth. In the case of this
Grape-root Borer the only direct remedies that Science can at present
indicate are, to dig up all the roots of vines known or suspected to
be infested by it, destroying carefully all the larvee and cocoons found
thereon, and to catch and destroy all the winged moths noticed round
the vines, so as to check the farther multiplication of the species.
There is a preventive remedy, however, which, in the event of this

“On this vexed question Dr. Schaum has the following excellent remarks:
—“T am much opposed to the adoption of these obsolete names, which Mr.
Dawson has substituted for the well-known and generally adopted appella-
tions, in right of priority. * * If we cultivate Entomology for the sake
of knowledge, and not for the sake of nomenclature, I can see no benefit aris-
ing from an enquiry into the data of the synonyms compiled (and very often
erroneously compiled) by Schcenherr, but on the contrary a waste of time
which can be better employed in exact observations. What we want for the
sake of knowledge is stability and uniformity of nomenclature, not an upset-
ting of it by the substitution of old forgotten and very doubtful names, pub-
lished in works without, or with but little, scientific merit.” Stainton’s
Ent. Ann., 1860, pp. 121—2.

33

insect ever becoming unbearably numerous in Illinois, can be resorted
to with the fullest confidence in its success. Both Dr. Kron and Mr.
Krone have ascertained by long observation and experiment, that the
Scuppernong grape-vine—which is a cultivated variety, according to
Dr. Asa Gray, of the wild Southern Fox Grape (Vitis vulpina)— is
entirely exempt from the operations of this Borer; and the former:
gentleman has been successful in grafting both the European Grape
(Vitis vinifera) and many of our cultivated North American varieties
upon Scuppernong stocks, and has found that he thereby entirely es-
capes the ravages of the Borer. I do not find that this Southern va-
riety of grape has hitherto ever been grown in Illinois; but there can
be little doubt that it would stand the climate, at all events of South-
ern Illinois, as a stock; and, if the worst comes to the worst, rather
than give up growing grapes, we shall have to fall back, as our last
resource, upon Scuppernong and Southern Fox Grape stocks for all
our cultivated varieties of the grape.

Since the above was written, Mr. Geo. Husmann, the Missouri King
of the Grapes, has obigingly informed me that he “has had the Seup-
pernong on his grounds at Hermann, Missouri,” which lies over 100
miles to the north of the latitude of Cairo, Illinois, “for 15 years;
that it has fruited there several times, but that the fruit is entirely
worthless.” He adds further that this Grape-root Borer “has been fa-
miliar to him for the last 15 or 20 years, and that it now and then de-
stroys a vine in the vineyards in his vicinity, but does not seem to
increase.”

INSECTS INFESTING THE APPLE.—On the Fruit.

CHAPTER V.—Tur ApPPLE-worm or CopLING-wormM Morn. (Carpocapsa po-
monella, Linnzus. )

Both Harris and Fitch seem to doubt the fact of there being two
distinct broods of this insect every year, the one generated by the
other, although Kollar and otner Kuropean writers assert that it is so
in Kurope. Possibly Harris & Fitch may be right, as regards the
more northern latitudes in the United States; but in the latitude of
Rock Island, Illinois, (41 degrees, 30 minutes,) I am satisfied that
there really are two distinct broods, for the following reasons :—

Ist. On July 18th and 21st, I cut into 70 windfall apples bored
by this insect, and found larve in but three of the 70. Subsequently
about the middle of August I cut into a large number, and found
larvee in almost every one. ; K

2d. On August 22d I cut into an apple, that was very exten-
sively bored and had manifestly raised a larva to maturity. Yet it

34

contained a very small larva, only three-sixteenths of an inch long,
and altogether too young to have devoured so much of the core and
pulp of the apple. Hence it is plain that, after the first larva had
made its exit, an egg was deposited on this apple, from which pro-
ceeded a second larva.

3d. Ihave repeatedly, from apples, pears, and even crab-apples,
of the same year’s growth, raised the winged moth in the latter end
of July and the forepart of August. Now, if such moths generate at
all, where can they lay their eggs, except in the fruit of the same
year’s growth, which presupposes a true second brood? Unless in-
deed we assume that they live in the moth state from the latter end
of July and the forepart of August all through the winter and until
the following June, which can scarcely be believed. If, on the other
hand, they do not generate at all, then nature has made them in vain,
which is incredible.

4th. On October 23d, I found seven or eight cocoons of this
insect, in the crotches of a badly infested tree, among the loose scales.
On being broken open, they were found to contain the larva still un-
changed into pupa. Consequently, these were evidently destined to
pass the winter in the cocoon, and come out in the moth state in the
following June, in time to lay their eggs in next year’s crop of apples.

On the whole, although the two broods run into one another by
scattering individuals generated unusually late or unusually early—
as is often the case with species proved to be really double-brooded,
for example, with the imported Gooseberry Sawfly (Nematus ventri-
cosus, Klug)—yet the great bulk of the later individuals must be gen-
erated by the earlier individuals, and the earlier individuals must be
generated by those that had passed the preceding winter in the cocoon,
and did not assume the winged state till some time in June. In
other words, the species is “double-brooded,” as 3 is called.

The practical inference to be drawn from the above is, that a
fruit-grower must not believe, because a certain tree is entirely free
from apple-worms till the end of July, that therefore it will be safe
from them for the rest of the year Such a tree may be, and often
is, attacked by the second brood of this insect in the latter part of the
summer, when the apples are quite large; and it is these infested
apples that often hang on the trees to the last and ripen, whereas those
infested by the earlier brood are, as a rule, too small and puny to with-
stand so extensive an erosion, and mostly fall to the ground. I have
observed that where early and late apple-trees grow on the same spot
of ground, the early brood chiefly attacks the early fruit, and the late
brood the late apples. A shoemaker or a tailor or a blacksmith would

35

probably not be able to distinguish one kind of apple from another
when they are both immature ; but the mother Codling moth, as it ap-
pears, distinguishes them with ease. And yet almost any mechanic
would tell you, that one of these despised “bugs” is as much a mere
unthinking machine, as the awl or the needle or the anvil that he
himself works with!

Almost universally, there is but a single larva in a single apple
at one and the same time. But on August 15th, I found a windfall
which contained two larve, one of which had evidently entered at the
calyx or blossom end, and the other at the foot stalk. I have noticed
a few specimens where the egg had been attached to the cheek of the
“ apple, and the young larva that hatched out from it had made its
entry there. And I have also observed that, where two apples hang
so as to touch one another, the larva bred in one of them will some-
times be depraved enough, in the mere wantonness of power, to bore
out of it into the adjoining fruit, though there is an abundance of
food remaining for it in its original home. Probably, on careful
search, similar cases of wanton destructiveness might be met with in
the human species.

Others as well as myself—Dr. James Weed, for example, of Mus-
catine, [owa—have observed that the larva of this insect often leaves
the apple, before that apple falls to the ground. Consequently the
gathering up and destroying windfalls, either by man-power or hog-
power, though an excellent prescription so far as it goes, is not an
infallible panacea.

After all, the best and most reliable remedy, so far as my limited
experience goes, when we have palliated the evil by destroying the
wormy windfalls day after day, is Dr. Trimble’s hay-band system ;
which should be commenced about July 15th and continued till about
September 15th, looking under the hay-bands every day or two for the
cocoons. The cocoons themselves may be readily recognized by their
being composed of a gossamer-like, filmy, white silk, inside which the
larva or pupa will be found. On this important subject, I append
the following passage, which I find in the Western Rural of Noy. 9,
1867.

“A correspondent of the Country Gentleman states that, in the
orchard of Dr. Trimble, of New Jersey; he had an opportunity of wit-
nessing the efficacy of what he calls ‘Dr. Trimble’s remedy for the
apple-worm.’ Hay-ropes had been wound around the trunks of the
trees, and large numbers of insects had been caught, some of which
had attained the pupa state, while others having only just reached
their hiding-place were still larve. The whole number of insects

eS

36

caught on one tree during the season amounted to a thousand. Trees,
which formerly had nearly all their fruit destroyed, were, under this
treatment, bearing very fair crops. A complete: extermination could
not be expected, while the neighboring fruit-growers took no precau-
tion against the insect. Dr. Trimble applies two belts or bandages,
one of them two or three feet high and the other higher. He thinks
that the worms under the higher belt descend the tree before the fruit
drops, and those under the lower crawl up from the fallen fruit on ~
the ground.”

It must not be supposed that, because this insect has swarmed so
prodigiously in 1867, therefore it will necessarily be as numerous, or
even still more numerous, in 1868. In 1865 it abounded near Rock
Island and elsewhere; yet in 1866, in the same localities, it was very
scarce and did no appreciable damage. In 1867, on the contrary, I
can hear of but two States—Kansas and West Virginia—in the north-
ern half of the Union, where it has not been more ruinously eas
tive than was ever known betore.

The Pear, being so closely allied to the Apple, has, as we should
naturally anticipate, been extensively attacked by the Apple-worm in
1867. Harris merely observes that “the worms, often found in sum-
mer pears, appear to be the same as those that infest apples.” But,
from a lot of infested pears sent me from Philadelphia, under the
idea that they contained a peculiar species, I have myself bred the
veritable Codling Moth; and before I had bred it, I assured my cor-
respondent that the larva was identical with that of the Codling Moth.
Mr. Parker Earle, President of the Fruit-growers’ Association of
Southern Illinois, informs us in his Annual Address to that Society
in 1867, that “in many sections of country nine-tenths of the pears
are reported as ruined by the Codling Moth in 1867.”

CHAPTER VI.—Tue Apete Magoor Fry. (Trypeta pomonella, Walsh.)
Fig. 2.

In Illinois the fruit of the apple-tree is at present bored up only
by the Apple-worm, in the Natural History of which we have just
been investigating some few points. In Massachusetts, in Con-
necticut, in New York, and probably in Vermont also, it has for the
last few years been troubled, in addition, by a still more destructive
pest, popularly known as “the Apple-maggot.” The Apple-worm is
an imported species, probably introduced into the Eastern States from
Europe about the commencement of the present century, and has only
penetrated into Illinois within the last ten or fifteen years. The
Apple-maggot, on the contrary, is a native-American species, which

37

naturally feeds upon our native haws or thorn-apples and probably
upon our native crabs also, and which I know to have existed in the
State of Illinois for.at least five or six years.* In the Hastern States,
from unexplained causes, it has within the last few years acquired the
habit of attacking the cultivated apple, as well as the wild haw, and
has, by the laws of inheritance, transmitted that habit to its descend-
ants, who have reveled in the foreign delicacy, and increased and mul-
tiplied at a prodigious rate, till they have become almost an unbear-
able nuisance. In Illinois, on the contrary, so far as I can learn, the
species has never yet acquired this peculiar habit, and perhaps may
never do so. But there can be little doubt that the descendants of
the improved and highly-civilized apple-maggots in the East will, in
process of time and by slow degrees, spread gradually to the West;
or they may be suddenly introduced in a barrel of Hastern apples into
some point at the West, and thence radiate in all directions and col-
onize the country. What is very remarkable, the species is new to
science, and was briefly described by myself for the first time in the
American Journal of Horticulture for December, 1867 (pp. 338—843. )
How I obtained the requisite facilities for investigating its history,
and what is its peculiar mode of operating upon the apple-crop in the
Kast, I will now proceed to explain.

The following paragraph appeared in the Circular of the Oneida
Community (November 12, 1866,) published at Wallingford, Connec-
ticut; and shortly afterwards, at my request, the Editor was kind
enough to send me several specimens of the larve.

“Two months ago we were congratulating ourselves on a fair crop
of winter apples. ‘To all appearance they were freer from worms than
we had known them in this section for years. But alas! our hopes
are again blasted. Although the apple-worm (the larva of the Cod-
ling Moth, Carpocapsa pomonella) is not so numerous as in some sea-
sons, the apple-maggot seems to be as prolific as ever. Two weeks ago
we overhauled two hundred and fifty bushels of apples, that we had
gathered and placed in store for winter use, and of that number we
threw out fifty bushels, most of which had been rendered worthless,
EXCEPT FOR CIDER or hogs, by one or the other of the above-named in-
sects; and still the work of destruction goes on. Zhe apple-worm
by this time has ceased his work, or nearly so, but the depredations of

*The scientific reader will, perhaps, like to know that, after I had pub-
lished in the Journal of Horticulture the fact, that the species bred by my-
self tive or six years ago, from Illinois haws, was identical with that bred in
1866—7 from apples received from the East, I sent a specimen of the former
to Baron Osten-Sacken, and he found it be undistinguishable from a speci-
men of the latter which I had previously sent him.

38

the apple-maggot continue up to the present time, converting the pulp
of the apple into a mere honeycomb, and rendering another over-haul-
ing soon indispensable.” :

I hope cider-drinkers will make a note of the fact that maggoty
apples can be converted into excellent cider. They would probably
not like to eat the maggots bodily; but they smack their lips after
drinking the expressed juice of millions of these tender young larve.
Yet, as the old saying is, “One may as well eat the devil as drink his
broth.”

On December 28th, 1866, Mr. W. C. Fish, of East Falmouth,
Massachusetts, sent me a further supply of these same apple-maggots,
with the following account of their operations in his vicinity:

“This sect is very numerous in this section of country, being
much more abundant in the thin-skinned summer and fall apples than
in the later varieties. It seems to increase every year. Within a few
rods of the house in which I am writing, stand five or six trees of the
old-fashioned variety called Hightop or Summer Sweets. On these
trees the crop of apples is annually rendered worthless by this insect,
which tunnels the fruit in all directions. Apples which, when taken
from the tree, appeared sound, would in the course of a few weeks,
as soon as they became mellow, be found to be alive with these pests,
sometimes to the number of six or more in each apple, although not
commonly as many as that. I have found that, in most cases, the
fruit had been previously perforated by the larva of the Codling
Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella), before becoming inhabited by this
insect.” y

During the same winter I also received pupe of this same insect
from my intelligent correspondent, Isaac Hicks, of North Hempstead,
Long Island, New York, who finds it a great pest there. According
to Dr. Trimble, the State Entomologist of New Jersey, “this new and
formidable enemy of the apple prevails generally throughout the Hud-
son River country, but has not yet reached New Jersey.” (N.Y. Sem.
Tribune, July 17, 1867.) Mr. Calvin Ward, of Vermont, complains
of a larva, which is probably identical with the Apple-maggot, boring
his apples for the last few years in all directions. and adds that “this
insect does more injury to him than all other insects combined,” and
that “in 1865 it injured his apples to the extent of one-half their
value, though it is not the only one that preys on them; but in 1866 it
has not been so bad.” (Prac. Entom. Il. pp. 20—21.) Certainly,
from Mr. Ward’s description, the larva which he complains of could
not have been the common Apple-worm, though it may possibly have
been Dr. Fitch’s Apple-midge, respecting which see above, p. 22.

|

39

In July, 1867, from larve and pupe received from Connecticut,
Massachusetts and New York in the preceding winter, I bred several
specimens of the perfect fly, a magnified figure of which is given here-
with. (Fig. 2.) It will be seen at once that it has no resemblance
whatever to the Codling Moth or moth of the Apple-worm, which is
a four-winged insect with easily removed scales on its wings, like all
other moths or “millers,’ and belongs to the Order Lepidoptera;
whereas the perfect insect of the Apple-maggot is a two-winged fly,
with no scales whatever on its wings, and belongs to the same Order
(Diptera) as mosquitoes, gnats, midges, horse-flies, house-flies, etc.,
and to the same great group as our common house-fly. The larve also
of the two insects are notably unlike. The Apple-worm (fig. 2b) is a
cylindrical, 16-legged caterpillar with a large, dark, horny head and a
dark horny patch behind its head; the Apple-maggot (fig. 2a) is a
legless maggot, tapered to a point in front and not very unlike the
larve of the different blow-flies that lay their eggs, or “fly-blows” as
they are commonly called, on meat. Even the pupe are quite dis-
similar. For that of the Apple-worm shows the wings of the future
moth, soldered indeed to the side of the body, but still plainly visible,
while that of the Apple-maggot is what is technically termed a “coarc-
tate” pupa; that is to say, instead of the larva moulting its skin to
assume the pupa state, the larval skin is retained whole and unbroken,
although greatly contracted in length, by the pupa, so that the true
pupa can only be seen by dissecting away the shrunken skin of the
larva. The little elongate-oval, mahogany-brown bodies that we often
see in cheese infested by the common Cheese-fly (Piophila casei, Lin-
neus) afford a familiar example of this kind of pupa; and any one
may easily satisfy himself that they are really the pupe of the cheese-
fly, by enclosing a few of them for a few days in a vial, till the per-
fect fly comes out from them. Again, the Apple-worm, as we have
already seen, is double-brooded, the first brood of Moths appearing in
June and laying its eggs in the blossom end of the apples when they
are no bigger than hazel-nuts, and the second brood of Moths appear-
ing about the beginning of August to work on the more fully matured
fruits. The Apple-maggot, on the other hand, is single-brooded, the
perfect flies not making their appearance till July, and the maggots,
produced from the eggs inserted by the ovipositors of these flies into
the flesh of the apple, not changing back again into flies till the fol-
lowing July. Furthermore, the Apple-worm spins a slight silken
cocoon above-ground ; while the Apple-maggot spins no cocoon at all,
and burrows under-ground to pass into the pupa state, remaining un-
der the surface of the earth, without eating anything, all through the

40

winter and until the middle of the following summer. Even the
modes in which the two larve operate upon the apple are perceptibly
different. The Apple-worm burrows chiefly in the core of the
apple and the part immediately around the core, though it occasionally
makes an inroad upon the pulp, and often bores its way out through
the cheek of the apple. The Apple-maggot, on the contrary, so far
as I can find out from the statements of my correspondents and from
the specimens of infested apples sent me, never penetrates into the
core, but tunnels exclusively the flesh or pulp of the apple, making
therein little, rough, roundish, irregular and discolored excavations
about the size of peas; which, when several larvee are at work on the
same fruit, often run together, so as to render the whole a mere mass
of useless and disgusting corruption.

This Apple-maggot Fly must be carefully distinguished from Dr.
| Fitch’s Apple Midge (Sciara mali,) previously referred to in connec-
tion with the Grape Midge. (See above, p. 22.) The whole Order
of 'Two-winged Flies (Diptera)—with the exception of the small and
very anomalous group comprising the Bird-flies (Ornithomyia) and
the Sheep-tick—is divided into two grand groups, one of which (Nem-
ocera) comprising the Musquitoes, Buffalo-gnats, Midges, Crane-flies,
| etc., has long, many-jointed antennz in the Fly State; while the other
} group (Brachycera,) comprising the Horse-flies, the Syrphus flies,
| many of which are cannibals, the parasitical 7’achina flies, and several

| families containing the House-flies, Onion-flies, Cabbage-flies, etc.,
| has short antennze aparently composed of only three joints, and usu-

1 ally with a slender bristle growing out of the last. It is to the former
| - of these two great groups that Dr. Fitch’s Apple Midge belongs. It
i is to the latter of these two great groups that my Apple-maggot Fly
| belongs. ‘They are therefore radically and fundamentally distinct.
It only remains, in order to complete the History of this very
| beautiful, but destructive species, that I should annex descriptions of
it in all its stages, so that for the future it may be scientifically recog-
1 nizable. A species of the same genus, not very unlike it in the Fly
| state, (T’rypeta solidaginis, Fitch,) produces a round gall or swelling
about the size of a hickory nut on the stem of a species of Golden-rod
(Solidago) inside which, any time in the winter and early spring, its
li fat white larva may be easily discovered reposing calmly in a little
central cell surrounded by white pithy matter. By placing some of
i these galls, which are very common both in the East and in the West,
in any convenient vessel, the Fly may be easily obtained from them
as the spring opens. According to my friend Baron Osten-Sacken,
who has paid special attention to the Order Diptera,there is a Kuro-

—— =
—————S

a

SS Se

41

pean species of the same genus (T'rypeta signata, Meigen, otherwise
called cerasi,) which infests the cherry, the barberry, and several other
fruits.

Tue AppLe MaAccor Fiy. (Z'rypeta pomonella, Walsh.) Head rust-red;
eyes and all the bristles black; front edge of the face and hind orbit of the
eye, more or less tinged with white. Thorax, shining black; a humeral fil-
let, (vitta) ,and all but the extreme base of the scutel, white; on each side
of the thorax, above, a gray fillet, opaque, with short, dense, gray pubescence.
Abdomen, black, pubescent, with dusky hairs; the tip edge of the four basal
segments white above, the white terminal edge of the first of these segments
with short, white hairs: beneath, except the tip and a more or less distinct
medial fillet, dull rust-red. Oviduct, short. Legs, pale rust-red; the four
high thighs, except the knees, black; the tips of the four hind paws (tarsi),
and sometimes the frout thighs, tinged with dusky. Wings, whitish-glassy,
banded with dusky somewhat in the form of the letters I .F—the I placed
next the base of the wing, and the lower end uniting rather indistinctly with
the lower end of the F; the base and the extreme tip of the wing being always
glassy. The anterior end of the I commences on the transverse shoulder-
vein and extends over the basal two-thirds of the second basal cell, and the
whole of the third basal cell, beyond which it unites in a faint cloud with
the foot of the F. The main leg of the F extends nearly in a transverse
direction across the middle of the wing, straddling the middle transverse
vein und the tip of the first longitudinal vein; from which last proceeds the
anterior branch of the F,skirting, but not quite attaining the costa and the
apex of the wing, and terminating on the tip of the fourth longitudinal vein.
The posterior branch of the F commences opposite to the middle transverse
vein, straddles the hind transverse vein, and terminates on the tip of the fifth
longitudinal vein. Length of body, 0.15—0.20 inch; expanse of wings 0.30—
0.43 inch.

Described from six males bred from Eastern apples, July 15th—23rd; two
males and one female bred from Illinois haws July 23d—28th. I am informed
by Mr. Sanborn, of the Boston Society of Natural History, that the species
is quite commonly taken in Massachusetts, although nobody had hitherto
recognized it as the Apple Maggot Fly. According to Osten-Sacken, “this
species seems to belong to the same group of Trypeta as the European sig-
nata, living in fruits, and not in the heads of plants belonging to the botan-
ical family Composite, as the majority do.” ‘There are forty-two species of
Trypeta exclusive of asteris Harris, which Osten-Sacken has since proved to
be a mere synonym of solidaginis Fitch, described in Loew’s and Osten-Sack-
en’s work on N. A. Dipteru, and from all of these it differs essentially,
though it comes pretty near to cingulata Loew. After I had satisfied myself
upon this point, and forwarded a specimen to Baron Osten-Sacken, this gen-
tleman was kind enough to inform me that, since the publication of the
work on WN. A. Diptera, Loew had described in certain foreign publications,
not accessible to me, several additional N. A. species belonging to this genus.
Subsequently, at my request, he examined the descriptions of all these addi-
tional species, and ascertained that not a single species of them agreed spe-
cifically with my pomonella. So that now there can be no reasonable doubt
that the latter has hitherto been undescribed as a North American insect,

.

42

though there is still a possibility that it may prove to be identical with
some Trypeta found in the Old World.* :

THE LARVA (fig. 2a) is of a greenish-white color, 0.15—0.20 inch long and
about four and one-half times as long as wide, cylindrical behind, with the
tail-end squarely docked, tapering in front from the middle of the body to the
head. Head pointed, but narrowly excavated (emarginate) in front; its
inferior surface with two slender, bluntish, coal-black hooks projecting in
front, when the mouth is protruded, at the base of which there is a smaller
pair connected with the base of the others, like the antlers on a buck’s horn.
At the base of the first segment behind the head, a dorso-lateral, transverse,
pale-brown, flattish, rough tubercle. Last segment below, with two pale-
brown, horny, rough tubercles, each composed of three minute thorns longi-
tudinally arranged; and above, with two whitish, retractile ones, each pair of
tubercles transversely arranged.

Tig PUPARIUM scarcely differs from the larva, except in being of a pale
yellowish-brown color, and contracted in length, so as to approximate to
an ova! form and be only two and one-half instead of four and one-half times
as long as wide.

INSECTS INFESTING THE APPLE.—On the Leaf.
CHAPTER VII.—Tue RaAscat Lear-cruMPLER. (Phycita nebulo, Walsh.)

I figured and described this small moth, and the curious house
in which its larva lives, for the first time in the Prairie Farmer for
May, 1860, (p. 308) and the description was subsequently reprinted
in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, (Vol.
IX. pp. 312—3.) It infests in the northern part of Illinois both apple,
crab and plum trees, the larva traveling about in a little crooked horn
or case, and tying together with silken threads the terminal leaves of
young twigs, inside which it feeds at its leisure. Frequently, in pass-
ing from twig to twig, it anchors its case by strong silken cables to
the naked side of a limb, and in this situation it has very much the
appearance of a piece of dry bird’s dung. It remains in this case in
the larva state all through the winter and until the forepart of the-
following June; shortly after which date it changes into the pupa
state, from which the winged moth emerges about the middle of July.
I formerly conjectured that there were two or more broods of this
species every year, but I am satisfied now that there is but one. It
is not preyed on by any Jchneuwmon fly, so far as I have discovered ;
but I have bred from it a species of the parasitic T’achina family, so
closely resembling, both in size and coloration, the common House-fly,
that almost any ordinary ébserver would be sure to mistake the one
for the other.

*Loew has since informed Osten-Sacken that “Tryp. pomonella is a new
species, and not identical with any European species.”

|

43

When this insect does not occur in extraordinary numbers, it is
probably rather beneficial than otherwise on large trees, by operating
as a summer pruning and thereby checking the exuberant growth of
wood and throwing the tree to fruit. But in 1859 I found them
so abundant on one of my apple-trees, that if I had not destroyed
them, I believe they would have greatly injured it; and in June, 1867,
I received specimens of it from “J. M. K.,” of Clarence, lowa, with
the statement that “it had destroyed his apple-crop for the last three
years.” When the trees are bare in the dead of the year it is a very
easy thing to find the little bunches of dry leaves—tied to the twig by
silken bands—in which the larva has hidden its case, to protect itself
from the cold blasts of winter; and it may then be readily picked off
the tree, and destroyed by forcibly crumpling up the whole establish-
ment, leaves and all, between the fingers. Comparatively a very
slight pressure will effect this ; for we are dealing here not with a hard
shelly beetle, but with a soft delicate caterpillar. Although this insect
is so common in Northern Illinois, and I have noticed plenty of them
annually for the last ten years near Rock Island, and they are equally
abundant, as I am assured by Mr. C. V. Riley, near Chicago, yet, on
the most careful search, I could not discover a single specimen, even
in the dead of the year, in the apple orchards near Cobden in South
Illinois; and Mr. Riley tells me that he also has failed to find it
there. Neither, so far as I can ascertain, does it occur in the Eastern
States; and most certainly it is not mentioned either by Dr. Harris
or by Dr. Fitch. We may set it down, therefore, for the present, as
and exclusively north-western species.

INSECTS INFESTING THE APPLE.—On the Bark.

CHAPTER VIi).—Tue Oyster-siert, BARK-LOUSE. (Aspidiotus conchiformis,
Gmelin. )

‘There is no noxious insect existing throughout the length and
breadth of the United States, about which more nonsense has been
written and talked—concerning the Natural History of which more
erroneous ideas prevail—and against which a greater number of ridic-
ulous and useless panaceas have been recommended—than the Oyster-
shell Bark-louse. The reasons are many. In the first place, except
for a very brief period of the year, all we can see of it is a small,
motionless and apparently lifeless scale, closely appressed to the bark,
of precisely the same color as the bark itself, and so totally unlike the
popular idea of a “bug,” or even the scientific idea of an animal, that
it is sure not to be noticed by the unpractised eye, except when it has

44

increased so prodigiously as to overspread almost completely a whole
limb. So closely indeed at this period does it resemble a mere vege-
table growth, that when, as often happens, it is located round the base
of a young apple-twig or apple-spur, scarcely any but the acute eye
of a field-entomologist can distinguish it from the natural wrinkles
and creases of the bark. Again: these scales, after the eggs under-
neath them have hatched out, and the young larve have dispersed them-
selves in various directions, still adhere to the bark for years, and
even 12 or 18 months after the eggs have hatched, present exactly the
same external appearance as they did in the first instance. Hence
nothing is more natural than for an inexperienced person to suppose,
that these old dead last year’s scales, with no eggs whatever under
them, are scales which were alive but yesterday, and which have been
killed, eggs and all, by some ridiculous and useless wash, which he
has been recommended, on what he supposes to be the highest au-
thority, to appiv to them. Moreover, as I shall afterwards explain,
there is a minute and almost microscopic Mite (Acarus), that preys
most extensively upon the eggs under the scales during the autumnal
and early spring months, not only in the West, but also in the East;
and this opens another door for error and delusion. Some quack
nostrum is applied—a few dozen scales are lifted, and the eggs under
almost all of them are found to be shriveled up to nothing—and then
hey presto! the conclusion is jumped to, that it was the quack nos-
trum, not the Cannibal Mite, that had killed the eggs, and the wonder-
ful discovery is paraded immediately in the nearest Agricultural Jour-
nal. Lastly, at one particular time of the year, as I shall afterwards
show, a very slight degree of friction with a stiff brush will destroy
these Bark-lice—horse, foot and dragoons. Now see what follows from
this fact. Some worthless Patent Wash is applied to the infested limbs
with such a brush at this particular period—it is in reality the brush,
and not the wash, that destroys the Bark-lice—and yet the cozened
fruit-grower firmly believes, that it is the GranD INFALLIBLE NEVER-
FAILING ANTI-BARK-LOUSE SpeciFic that has done the business for
them, and the papers ring with certificates of the great reliability of
the newly-discovered nostrum, sold by all Druggists and Patent Medi-
cine Venders at the low price of $5 per pint.

It would be easy to fill a volume with the history of the different
remedies that have been published against this miserable Bark-louse.
Lime-washes, soda-washes, tobacco-water, dry ashes, tar, fish-brine,
potash-washes, sulphur-washes, common brine, solutions of soap, solu-
tions of quassia, solutions of aloes, the ammoniacal fumes of sheep-
manure, and combinations of two, three and four of the above ingre-

45

dients in every conceivable proportion that the wit of.man could de-
vise—have all been strongly recommended in print on what seemed to
be the very best authority. Yet, with the exception of two or three
of these articles—and these only if they be applied at a particular
period of the year—I believe them all to be equally useless and in-
efficacious. Indeed, after filling one volume with certificates from
the most respectable sources highly recommending, one after another,
every one of the above panaceas, it would be easy to fill another volume
with the doleful lamentations of men, who have tried them and found
them worthless. I know several orchardists troubled by this vile
pest, who have arrived at the conclusion, after experimenting in vain
with a dozen different remedies, that it is no use trying to fight it,
and that their apple-trees are irretrievably ruined and “gone up.”

As with all other Noxious Insects, before we can fight this Bark-
louse understandingly, it is necessary to know who and what she is,
how she is propagated from year to year, how she spreads from one
tree to another, and what are her peculiar habits and mode of life. [
put her in the feminine gender, because, without a single exception,
all the scales that come under the notice of the fruit-grower contain
eggs under them, and are consequently all of them females. And
here. at the very outset, the inexperienced observer is often involved in
error and confusion. There are two perfectly distinct Bark-lice, with
different habits and modes of life, commonly found in Illinois on the
apple-tree, which are popularly confounded together—by a very in-
definite application of the Definite Article—under the appellation of
“THE Bark-louse.” The first—which is the one with which we are
now more immediately concerned-—is a species introduced into the
Eastern States more than seventy years ago from Europe, but which
only penetrated into Illinois about fifteen years ago ; occupying at first
the districts bordering upon Lake Michigan, where it committed ter-
rible ravages, and thence spreading gradually Westward and South-
ward, till only a few years ago it touched the Mississippi River. The
second—which we will call “Harris’s Bark-louse,” and which will be
referred to more fully in the following Chapter—is a native-American
species, and has existed for time immemorial both in the East and in
the West, its original home being our native crab-trees, upon which [
observed it many years ago. he first cannot thrive except in com-
paratively northern latitudes; for even in Champaign .Co., in Central
Illinois, as I am informed by Mr. M. LL. Dunlap (“Rural”), although
it has been long known there, yet it does not increase so as to be at all

‘formidable; and, as I was told in Southern Illinois, it actually dies,

when it is introduced there upon young apple-trees brought from the

46

north.* — Harris’s Bark-louse, on the contrary, flourishes vigorously,
to my certain knowledge, so as to be a great pest in the latitude of
Philadelphia, which is somewhat south of Champaign; and in Mis-
souri it probably extends to a point at least 180 miles further south,
where it does a great amount of damage. It occurs also in consid-
erable numbers throughout the whole State of Illinois, but is no-
where anything like so destructive as the Imported Species. Indeed
almost all our worst Noxious Insects have been imported from the
Old World, and are far more destructive than the corresponding spe-
cies indigenous to North America—a curious fact which I have
explained and illustrated at some length in the Practical Entomolo-
gist, (Vol. I., No. 12.)

“But,” the reader will ask, “how am I to distinguish these two
Bark-lice, the one from the other?” ‘The answer is short and simple.
The scale of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse is the shape of a very
elongate pear, considerably hunched, and of the exact color of the bark.
That of Harris’s Bark-louse is usually the shape of an egg, almost
entirely flat, and of a pure milk-white color. Lift up the former
with the point of a penknife any time between the middle of Sep-
tember and the middle of May, and you will see underneath it a score
or two of very minute milk-white eggs, many of which will often drop
out and on any dark surface look like so many grains of corn-meal.
Lift up the latter in the same manner and at the same period, and
you will find that the eggs, though of the same size and shape as those
of the other species, are not milk-white, but blood-red. If these dis-
tinetive characters are not sufficient—and they certainly ought to be
sufficient in all conscience—the reader can refer, in addition, to the
figures of the two kinds of scales given in the Practical Entomologist,

“Since the above was written, I have received the Oyster-shell Bark-louse
from Mr. J. Huggins, of Macoupin county, Central Illinois, with a statement
that it swarms at Shipman, in that county, on two trees that were imported
eight years ago from New York, though “the other trees in the orchard are
not yet seriously affected.” On examining the infested twigs sent by Mr.
Huggins, I found*that about 19-20ths of the eggs under the scales had been
destroyed by the same Cannibal Mite that, as will be afterwards shown,
operates upon them in Northern Illinois. Now, in North Illinois, the lar-
gest proportion of eggs, that I ever found to be destroyed by this Mite, was
only two-thirds. Hence, I infer that the Mite is a far more efficient check
upon the multiplication of this Bark-louse in Southern than in Northern lat-
itudes. Certainly if this Bark-louse had been introduced into any county
in North Illinois eight years ago, it would have been all over the county
long before now; whereas, in, Macoupin county it seems to have scarcely
spread beyond the two trees on which it was originally imported eight years
ago.

47

(Vol. IL, p. 31.) Both seales are alike in being about one-eighth or
one-tenth inch long.

The OyYsTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE is not double-brooded, as Dr.
Harris erroneously supposed, but single-brooded. ‘That point is now
conclusively settled by the unanimous testimony of many recent ob-
servers; and, if necessary, I could confirm the fact. In the latitude
of Rock Island, the eggs hatched out about the 4th of June in 1867,
the spring of that year being unusually backward. In McHenry
county in 1854 Dr. E. G. Mygatt—who published an admirable Paper
on the habits of this insect in the T’ransactions of the Illinois State
Agricultural Society (1. pp. 514—7)—found them to hatch out about
May 23d; at Batavia, Kane county, about May 17th; and at Oswego,
Kendall county, on May 18th. “But,’ as he adds, “in no case were
they found till after the apple-blossoms had fallen, and the young
fruit commenced growing—it is vain to look for them before.” Of
course, the time of hatching will vary somewhat with the season and
the latitude; but Dr. Mygatt’s rule will probably be found sufficiently
accurate for all practical purposes. According to my Journal, my
apple-trees were in full blossom on the 26th of May in the year 1867;
so that by June 4th, the date when most of the young bark-lice were
hatched, the young fruit must have been just about set. I noticed
that on May 31st, or four days before the general hatch, although not
a single egg had then hatched, some few of them—perhaps one out of
every 40 or 50—instead of remaining milk-white had turned yellow.
Changes of this kind are quite usual with the eggs of different kinds
of Bark-lice shortly before hatching-time ; for I have myself observed
in the case of several distinct species, that the color of the future larva
often shows through the translucent shell of the egg a few days before
it hatches out. The young larve on June 4th, when observed under
the lens, were nearly of the same oval shape as the eggs, that is to say
about 1} times as long as wide; but they were considerably larger
than the eggs, of a yellowish color, with distinct beak and antenne,
and with their three pairs of legs equidistant at their origin from
each other. ‘This last character I have found to be universal in the
larvee of all the numerous kinds of Bark-lice with which I am ac-
quainted, and, as we shall see afterwards, it is an important one both
theoretically and practically. At this date the young larve were
scattered so densely over the bark, that it looked as if it had been
sprinkled with fine corn-meal; and at a casual glance no one would
suppose them to be living animals, were it not for the fact that many
of them might be seen, even with the naked eye, to crawl slowly
along, having the appearance of little moving pale dots. Seven days

4a

subsequently, and probably sooner, these larve had all become sta-
tionary, and never moved afterwards from the point in the bark to
which they had attached themselves. At this date, they presented
under the lens the appearance of conspicuous, flat, white scales, oval
and one-third longer than broad, their long diameter being now about
equal to one-third of the extreme transverse diameter of the old
scales. The white appearance of these larvee I found to be due to a
white powdery secretion from the general surface of their bodies;
which being removed by a moist camei’s-hair pencil, their bodies re-
assumed their original pale yellow color. As with the larve of many
other Bark-lice and some Plant-lice, there were, in addition to this
powdery secretion, threads of exceedingly fine, hair-lke, cottony floss
irregularly attached to them, and evidently secreted from the gen-
eral surface of their bodies. At this period they could without much
difficulty be detached from the bark by a moist camel’s-hair pencil;
but already they had lost almost all appearance of organization. Their
legs, which only seven days before were distinctly articulated and as
large comparatively as in ordinary insects, and which then discharged
all the functions of locomotion with ease, were now almost entirely
obsolete ; so that even on holding the insect up to the light, under the
most powerful Stanhope and Coddington lenses, but the faintest traces
of legs could be perceived. Their antenne had now disappeared alto-
gether. As to any organized beak, I could discover nothing of the
kind; but not improbably it might. have been inserted in the bark
and broken off short by detaching the insect from that bark. Motion
in this creature there was none whatever; and but for having seen
them crawl about with ease only seven days before, and knowing that
in the course of two or three months almost every one of these appar-
ently inanimate scales would generate scores of living white eggs, I

should never have supposed them to be living animals. On the pre- .

ceding day, i. e., only six days after the general hatch, I had closely
examined dozens of them, and could not perceive that a single one
moved in any way. According to Dr. Mygatt, who says that his
trees were watched closely by the members of his family, the first-
bark-louse seen to hatch out was on the 23d of May; and after the
27th not one was seen to move. So that the process of degradation,
bye which the animal loses all its locomotive and sensorial organs.
probably commences about three days after the hatch, and is almost
completely consummated in the space of four days.

Agassiz lays it down as a universal rule, that “the earliest con-
dition of an animal cannot be its highest condition—it does not pass
from a more perfect to a less perfect state of existence.” (Methods

49

of Study, p. 75.) But here—as also in the case of the common Bar-
nacle, which begins life as a highly-organized locomotive crab, and
ends life by becoming permanently attached like a plant to a ship’s
bottom, and by having many of its former organs either aborted or
degraded—we clearly find an exception to what is undoubtedly a gen-
eral, though not a universal rule. Nor is the exception confined to
this one species of Bark-lice. So far as I have ascertained, it pre-
vails universally throughout two of the commonest genera of the
great Family of Bark-lice (Aspidiotus and Lecanium.)

After this most anomalous .and wonderful transformation, the :
body of the original insect grows scarcely at all, the total increase in
its length or breadth being only about one-sixth. But now com-
mences another most strange and anomalous process. From the tail
end of the limbless and apparently lifeless scale, which is all that re-
mains of the once highly-organized larva, there gradually in the
course of a few days protrudes backwards a thin membranous sack,
closely appressed to the bark like the original scale, and so far as out-
line goes forming an elongated continuation of it, but differing from
it very obviously in color and texture. In 14 days’ time this elon-
gated sack has become in many specimens as long as the original
body; and it grows and increases backwards at a prodigious rate
thereafter, till by the middle of August the whole has assumed its
permanent shape; and what remains now of the original body of the
larva forms merely a minute, yellowish-brown, oval plate, pressed
down obliquely upon the forward end of the so-called scale-insect, just
as one of these stylish modern trencher-caps is pressed down upon the
forehead of a fashionably dressed young lady in the year of our Lord
1867. Examine the Oyster-shell Bark-louse when you will, from
the middle of August to the middle of the following May, and. you ~
will find it is externally always the same. In front there is what is
left of the originally perfect, but now degraded and defunctionate
larva, being an oval scale, of a somewhat shining yellowish brown
color, and with one longitudinal ridge running from end to end, on
each side of which are several indistinct transverse grooves, being all
that remains to indicate that this was once a highly-organized animal,
divided by the usual transverse sutures into the normal 13 segments
found in the larva of almost every insect. Behind this yellowish-
brown scale—which I shall for convenience’ sake call “the larval
scale’—may be seen a rather longer and wider one—which I shall
call “the medial scale’—without any ridges or grooves and of the
same opaque greenish-brown color as the bark, but often, especially
at its hind end, tinged more or less with yellowish; and
behind this again, and closely connected with it, the rest of the enor-

50

mous elongated sack protruded in the space of about two months from
the tail end of the larva, which is always of the same greenish-brown
color as the bark. This posterior sack, which I shall call the “anal
sack,” is in its widest part about twice as broad as the “larval scale”
is long, and, together with the “medial scale,’ is from 4 to 10 times
as long as the “larval scale,” but most commonly about 8 or 10 times
as long. If the whole scale-insect is lifted up by the point of a pen-
knife about the middle of August, the white eggs previously referred
to may be found underneath it, the delicate part of the protruded
sack that adheres to the bark being usually more or less torn open by
the operation; and the eggs remain under the scale, without further
development, all through the winter and until the middle of the foi-
lowing May. In the course of the winter they doubtless freeze and
thaw, and thaw and freeze, scores of times; but, as with almost all
insects when they are hibernating, this produces not the slightest
effect upon their vitality.

Authors, who have never traced a Bark-louse day after day
through all these astonishing transformations, have erroneously
hinted that the “larval scale’ represents the head, that the “mediai
scale” represents the thorax, and the large “anal sack” behind the
whole represents the abdomen of a normal insect. (See Fitch, New
York Reports, 1. p. 257.) But no such thing can possibly be; for
there is externally no perceptible change in the “larval scale,” except
a very slight one in size, from the days when the first rudiments of
the “medial scale” and of the “anal sack” are protruded from behind
it, to the day when both are fully developed. Consequently, as the
“larval scale” represented originally both head, thorax and abdomen
of a normal insect, and as it ever afterwards remains unchanged, it
cannot afterwards represent the head alone of a normal insect.

What may be the precise nature of this singular “medial scale”
and “anal sack,” is hard to tell with absolute certainty. They are
not, however, peculiar to the Oyster-shell Bark-louse, but are charac-
teristic of the whole genus (Aspidiotus,) to which both this species
and Harris’s Bark-louse belong. In a very elongated and narrow
species of the same genus, the Pine-leaf Scale-insect, (Aspidiotus pini-
folie, Fitch,) found on the leayes of the White Pine (Pinus stro-
bus)—which, by the way, I have ascertained to contain in Novem-
ber eggs of the same blood-red color, as those of Harris’s Bark-louse
—the “anal sack” is of a pure milk-white color, and the “larval and
medial scales” are very distinct from each other and from the “anal
sack,” and are both of them of a yellowish-brown color. In an un-
described species, which may be called the “Black-willow Bark-louse”

d1

(Aspidvotus salicis-nigre, new species,) and which I find on the bark
of the Black willow (Salix nigra,) the perfected scale-insect is of ex-
actly the same size and shape as the perfected Oyster-shell Bari-
louse ; but, instead of being of the same color as the bark, it is milk-
white, with the “larval and medial scales” pale yellowish-brown, pre-
cisely as in the Pine-leaf species, and in Harris’s Bark-louse; and
moreover the eggs under the scale, instead of being milk-white, are
blood-red, as in the above-named two-species. I incline to believe
that, throughout this genus, what I have called the “medial scale”’and
the “anal sack” is formed by the anal surface of the original young
larva being at two successive periods abnormally dilated and ex-
tended backwards, in the form of a sack closed at tip; and that, after
this process is accomplished, the insect always moults or sloughs off
the whole of the external scale, including both “larval scale,” “medial
seale” and “anal sack,” which has been formed in the manner detailed
above; and the eggs are then developed inside the scale and at the
tail end of the moulted insect, and afterwards laid in the ordinary
manner under the protecting scale. In confirmation of this theory,
it may be observed here that on August 15th, I found, under numer-
_ ous scales of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse that I then lifted, a white
fleshy, juicy mass still enveloping some of the eggs, and that, under
many others that I dissected in the autumn, I found towards the
small or head end of the scale a dried-up mass, (which was appar-
ently the legless body of the mother Bark-louse,) perfectly separated
from the enclosing scale. In the case of Harris’s Bark-louse, as will
be shown hereafter, I found under the scale in the autumn, before
any of the eggs were developed, the living and moving body of the
mother Bark-louse, perfectly separated from the scale. And in a
closely allied species found in Sweden, the description of which is
quoted from Dalman by Harris, the very same thing is stated to
occur. . (Injurious Insects, p. 255.) So that, in these two cases at
all events, it is impossible to believe, as most authors have hitherto
done, that, at the time when the eggs are developed the outer scale is
part and parcel of the living Bark-louse. Neither is it reasonable
or consistent to hold with Dr. Harris that, in the case of the Oyster-
shell Bark-louse, the scale is composed of the dried-up body of the
insect, while in the case of Harris’s Bark-louse it is a mere cocoon.
For in both of these two cases the scale consists of precisely the same
three parts, arranged in precisely the same manner, namely the “lar-
val scale,’ the “medial scale,” and the “anal sack;’’ and if it is a co-
coon in one case, it must be a cocoon in both. But, after all, these
matters though of the highest scientific interest, are of no manner
of practical importance.

52

Hitherto we have spoken only of the mother Bark-louse. I have
not actually bred the males of the Oyster-shell species; but there is
good reason to believe that a smal] percentage of the larvaea—consid-
erably less than five per cent. on a rough estimate—which never, like
the egg-bearing females, have any long “anal sack” grow out of their
tails, subsequently develop into males, and again acquire the power
of locomotion. Even in the winter time, the empty shells of these
individuals may be seen still adhering to the bark. Throughout the
Bark-louse Family, it is the males only that ever acquire any wings,
or even any rudiments of wings; and in comparison with the females
of this species, the males, judging from the minute size of the scales
out of which they, in all probability, come, must be very small and
insignificant fellows indeed. The same law obtains throughout the
whole Family.

It is a curious question how a species of insect, which, like the
female of this Oyster-shell Bark-louse, never acquires any wings at
all, and which loses even its legs when it is only a few days old, and
becomes as stationary as_a cabbage for the remaining period of its
existence, can pass from tree to tree in the manner that we know it
to do. Dr. Fitch, indeed, talks very glibly and fluently about the
Bark-lice on some trees, that were “perishing” with their enormous
numbers in the month of September, “preferring starvation at home”
to being “poisoned by invading” some neighboring trees that had
been dosed with one of the thousand-and-one Anti-Bark-louse Spe-
cifics. (WN. Y. Rep. I., p. 38.) He might as well talk about the
apple trees, in a badly-cultivated orchard, “preferring starvation at
home” to emigrating into some well-kept and well-tended orchard.
For, in September and, indeed, during the entire year, with the ex-
ception of three or four days in the spring, the female Bark-louse is as
incapable of emigrating as an apple tree; and, as to the males, they,
of course, could do no harm to a tree, even if they covered its entire
surface; for, like all male insects belonging to this family, they have
no beaks or mouths of any kind, and of course they lay no eggs. In my
opinion, the only way in which, as a general rule, Bark-lice can
spread from tree to tree, when the boughs of those trees do not inter-
lock, is by a few of the very young larvee, when they are first hatched,
and are scattered over the limbs of a tree in such prodigious numbers,
crawling accidentally on to the legs of some bird, that chances to light
upon that tree and afterwards flies off to another. I have long ob-
served that, when a tree first begins to be attacked by Bark-lice, it is
only particular limbs and branches that are at first infected, and that
these will be swarming while the rest of the tree will be free from

53

lice. And I have further observed, that it is the lower horizontal
limbs and branches, or such as birds, with the exception of Wood-
peckers and Nut-hatches, would most naturally perch on, that are
first attacked. The process of transmission, however, is by no means
so sure and speedy as in the case of winged insects—for example, the
Plant-lice (Aphis family.) For every one must have often noticed
trees standing not far from one another, some of which were swarm-
ing with Bark-lice while others were not in the least infected. If all
the birds in the world were killed off, I believe that these Bark-lice,
in a very few years, would cease to exist. They would first of all
destroy the trees of which they had already got possession; and then
they would all of them die of starvation themselves. As to the pop-
ular idea that all Bark-lice crawl along the ground from one tree to
another, that is altogether out of the question. ‘They only possess
the power of crawling for a few days, and they crawl so exceedingly
slow, that I do not believe that in that whole time they could make
more than a few yards, even on a perfectly smooth surface. Is it
likely, then, that they can ever crawl down the trunk of their own
tree, make their way over many yards of ground which is always
more or less rough, and then crawl up the trunk of another tree and
pass along on to its branches ?

Mites (Acarus family) are not true Insects, but belong to the
same Class (Arachnida) as the Spiders and the true Ticks, as dis-
tinguished from the so-called Sheep-tick, which is a wingless true In-
sect and—if the hibernicism may be pardoned—a wingless T'wo-
winged Fly (Order Diptera). In common with the rest of the Class
to which they appertain, Mites differ essentially from all the true In-
sects in having the head and thorax all in one piece, without any free
joint or even any suture between them. ‘They differ further, almost
al! of them, in having eight legs in the perfect state; whereas all
true insects without a single exception have in the perfect state exactly
six legs, never more and never less. In very many genera of Mites,how-
ever, as in certain genera of Insects, the first pair of legs are not used
in walking, but are constantly vibrated up and down as they progress,
after the fashion of antenne. Now in Insects, where the head and
thorax are always distinct, as the antenne always grow out of the
head and the legs out of the thorax, there can be no possible confu-
sion between the leg and antenna, no matter what the function of the
leg may be; because, if the organ in question grows out of the thorax,
it is to be considered as a leg, even if it discharges the duties of an
antenna. But in Mites, where the head and thorax are confounded
together, just as they are in a Crab, or a Lobster, or a Crawfish, the

54

inexperienced observer, although none of the great Class to which
the Mites belong have any antenne at all, is yet very apt to consider
the front pair of legs as antennee, whenever he sees them used as
antenne. Consequently, as a general rule, the easiest mode for be-
ginners to distinguish a Mite from a true Insect is, to see whether
the animal under examination has a distinct head or not. If it has,
it cannot be a Mite. If it has not, it cannot be a true Insect.

So far we have been talking about the structural peculiarities of
the perfect Mite and the perfect Insect. In the larva or imperfect
state the case is somewhat different. Just as, in the larva state,
many Insects have legs so minute that they are scarcely distinguish-
able, others again have no legs at all, others again, in addition to the
six normal jointed legs, have at their tails a sham leg (or “pro-leg’’)
or fleshy excrescence not divided into joints like the true legs, but
still performing the same functions as they do, and others again have
from four to sixteen of such sham legs strung along the hinder part
of their bodies, besides having the normal six true legs in front; so,
in the larva state, many Mites have only six legs, although, when
fully grown, they acquire an additional pair. In this case, as these
Mite-larvee are always exceedingly minute in size, it is sometimes
not very easy to distinguish them from the similarly minute larve of
certain Bark-lice and Plant-lice, to which they bear a strong general
resemblance. There is, however, one distinctive character by which,
so far as a pretty extensive observation goes, I believe that the very
young six-legged oval larve of the Mites may be always readily dis-
tinguished from the very young six-legged oval larve of the Bark-lice
and the Plant-lice. In the two latter groups the three pairs of legs
are always equidistant, or nearly so, from each other, at their origin
on the lower surface of the body. In the former group the two front
pairs of legs are placed close to one another on the lower surface of
the body and not very far from the front end, while the hind pair of
legs are placed wide apart from the others and not very far from the
hind end. In a somewhat: wide experience with these creatures, I
have met with no intermediate grades whatever in these very remark-
able characters.

Of course, as the larve of all Bark-lice and Plant-lice have an-
tennz, and those of Mites have none, if you can make out the anten-
ne clearly in the larve that you have under examination,
they cannot be Mite-larve. But as the larve of Bark-lice
and Plant-lice very frequently do not raise up their antenne as
they crawl along, and as the legs can generally be made out pretty

a5

distinctly whenever larve of any kind are crawling along, characters
drawn from the legs are evidently the most generally available.

The number of distinct species of Mites to be found in the
United States is rather large, but still very greatly inferior to the
number of distinct species of Insects found within the same limits.
Unlike the true Insects, they are all of them quite small in size, the
largest Mite known to me being much less than one-tenth inch in
length. ‘They swarm everywhere; but their Natural History is so far
almost entirely a sealed book to the scientific world, because no one
hitherto has devoted his exclusive attention to them. I am myself
acquainted with no less than twenty distinct species, that form curious
“galls,” or unnatural growths, upon the leaves of various trees. One
of these causes the singular pod-like growths, about one-eighth inch
long,. upon the upper surface of the leaf of the wild plum-tree
(Prunus americana) ,* which often swarm so prodigiously, that I
calculate that the number of young Mites, in one small clump of
Plum-trees, frequently exceeds the number of human beings now liv.
ing and breathing upon the face of this earth. This will perhaps
be considered a wild exaggeration; but see what the figures them-
selves will say. I have often counted as many as sixty of these galls
on a single leaf, and each gall contains towards the end of July sev-
eral scores of microscopically minute young Mites. Such a leaf will
therefore contain about 3,000 young Mites, and putting the human
population of the whole globe even at the enormous number of
900,000,000, it will only take 300,000 such leaves to verify my esti-
mate. Now, Dr. Fitch has caleulated (New York Reports I. p. 127)
that there are about 17,000 leaves on a young cherry-tree only ten

*For the benefit of the scientific reader, I copy from my Journal the de-
scription of this one gall. The general reader will be thankful that I omit
the descriptions of the other nineteen galls:

Gall PRUNI CRUMENA, new species. On Prunus americana. A fleshy,
smooth, elongate, blunt-tipped, fusiform, opaque, hollow gall, constricted at
its base, and with a few erect hairs, 0.10—0.16 inch long, and about four or
five times as long as its extreme breadth. Walls of the gall thin. Color
outside a very pale green often tinged with rosy; inside, rough and of a
rosy color. Always grows upon the upper surface of the leaf, whole trees
frequently swarming with it, the number of galls on a single leaf varying
from one to sixty. Ten galls opened July 27th all contained Acarus larve,
scores of them in each gall. These larve are exceedingly minute, of a hya-
line-whitish color, of the usual elongate-oval form, thrice as long as wide,
six-legged, with their legs arranged as usual. They are very sluggish. Some
of a yellow color were crawlingeon the leaves outside the galls. A similar
but distinct gall (Cerasi crumena, Walsh MS.) is almost equally abundant
on the leaf of the Wild Black Cherry (Cerasus serotina.)

56

feet high; and I presume that there would be fully as many on a
plum-tree of the same size. Let us suppose that in a particular group
of such plum-trees there are, on the average, only 3,000 leaves on
each tree fully stocked with young Mites, as calculated above; or, if
any leaves are less fully stocked, as many leaves in all as would be
equivalent to 3,000 fully-stocked leaves. Then it follows that there
need only be 100 plum-trees, each about ten feet high, in the group,
to make up the whole number of 300,000 fully-stocked leaves, which,
according to the calculation, are required in order to sustain a pop-
ulation of young Mites, equal to the very highest estimate that has
ever been published of the entire human population of the earth!

Now pluck one of the gall-bearing leaves from such a group of
J00 plum-trees, which might easily grow upon a piece of ground
much smaller than a common-sized village lot. Open one of the galls
on it. Examine its inhabitants with a powerful magnifier. You
will see at once, that all this infinite multitude of infinitesimally
minute beings are as perfect in every limb, and in every joint of
every limb, and probably in every nerve and muscle of their tiny
bodies, as the gigantic animal that is watching their operations
through a piece of glass. They are all busy. They are all evidently
healthy, and happy, and in the full enjoyment of their existence.
They contribute in no wise to our pleasures or to our necessities ;
neither do they molest or trouble us in any way whatever. We are
separated from them by as wide a gulf, as if they were denizens of
the far-away planet Neptune. And yet we fondly dream, in our
vainglorious hallucination, that all this vast world of life and hap-
piness—so minute in size, but so inconceivably large in numbers—
was created for our sole benefit, and has no right to exist but by our
sovereign permission and at our good will and pleasure !

All the Mites, however, do not feed upon living vegetable sub-
stances, like these gall-makers that I have just been picturing to the
mind of the reader. As with the true Insects, many groups of them
feed unon decaying substances, either of animal or vegetable origin,
many are Parasites, and many others are Cannibals. For example,
the common Cheese-mite, an imported European species, feeds upon
decaying cheese, where, when it is once established, it soon multiplies
with the most astonishing rapidity. Again: the common Itch, in
that two-legged animal that Linneus designated as Homo sapiens,
is caused by a microscopically minute Mite (Acarus scabier, Linnzeus )
burrowing under his skin, and there carrying out-the great Law of
Nature, “Increase and multiply and replenish the earth.” This
species, therefore, is a true Parasite. Again: I have noticed many

o7

species of Mites that are what I have called “Cannibals,” haunting
leaf-galls constructed by certain Plant-lice and Bark-lice, and feed-
ing apparently upon the tender bodies of the unfortunate young lice.
Galls made by other groups of insects they do not usually enter, be-
cause these last are invariably closed, till the gall-maker gnaws his
way out. But galls made by Plant-lice and Bark-lice—which insects
have no jaws at all to gnaw with, but only a beak to suck with—always
burst open towards the latter part of their existence, so as to allow the
young Lice a free exit into the external world. Hence into these the
wandering Cannibal Mites, who are always remarkably fleet-footed in
the mature state, find a ready entrance, and often carry death and
desolation into what was before the happy home of a flourishing
colony of Lice. “Eat and be eaten; kill and be killed.” Everywhere
this is the great universal Law of Nature.

Of these Cannibal Mites, I have discovered that there is at least
one species, and perhaps more than one, that preys most extensively
upon the eggs of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse; insomuch that upon a
particular apple-twig infested by these Bark-lice I have found, on
lifting and carefully examining six hundred scales about the last of
October, that at least two-thirds of the whole number were either
already gutted, or were undergoing the process of being gutted, by
the minute larve of a Mite.* What I believe, though I am not
absolutely certain, to be the eggs of this Mite are deposited here and
there upon the bark among the scales, in little patches of six or eight,
and are exceedingly minute, smooth, shining, perfectly globular
bodies, rather less in diameter than the transverse diameter of the
egg of the oyster-shell Bark-louse. Most of them are blood-red, but
some, which appear to be the empty shells of such as have already
hatched out, are transparent and colorless. Repeatedly, on raising the
Bark-louse scales both in the autumn and in the early spring months,
I have found from one to eight of the larve of some kind of Mite—
whether hatched out or not from the above-mentioned eggs is not per-
fectly clear—interspersed among the eggs of the Bark-louse. In

*During my attendance at the inauguration of the Horticultural Society
of Northern Illinois, at Mt. Carroll, December 18th—20th, 1867, and before I
had said a word there about these Cannibal Mites, but after the whole of
this chapter was in the hands of the printer, I was much gratified by hearing
Dr. H. Shimer, of Mt. Carroll, inform the meeting that he had himself dis-
covered that tle imported Bark-louse was preyed on quite extensively by a
species of Mite (Acarws.) Thus, as often happens, the same discovery has
been made at the same time, by two independent observers. Of course, Dr.
Shimer’s evidence is cumulative proof, if any be needed by any one, of the
reality of the discovery.—December 21, 1867.

————- -— —+#

38

some of these cases the eggs of the Bark-louse were sound and un-
touched; in others there were only a few of them sucked dry and
shriveled up; in others again, at one end of the scale the eggs would
be sucked dry and at the other end perfectly plump and sound, the
young Mites being stationed in the middle, as a mower stations him-
self between the standing grass and the swath that he has already cut;
finally, in still other cases, nothing but the empty shells of the eggs
remained, and occasionally the hungry young Mites might still be dis-
covered among those empty shells, kicking and struggling in the snug
retreat that they had so ruthlessly desolated, as dogs sometimes fight
over a bone that has been already picked clean.

Towards the spring, or late in the autumn, many of the scales,
some of them still containing a few eggs, may be observed to have
rather large, irregular, ragged holes in their external surface, quite
unlike the smaller, regularly-rounded holes, bored by Parasitic in-
sects when they make their escape from the shell of an insect of this
size that they have preyed on. Early in the autumn scarcely any
such holes are to be met with in the recently-formed scales. I sus-
pect that these ragged holes are the work of the Mites, and that, after
having sucked all the eggs dry, they feed upon the dry scale, until
hunger compels them to vacate the tenement and search out a scale
that has not as yet been preyed upon by their brethren. Dr. Fitch
mentions that he found a small Parasitic larva—which as usual bored
a small round hole to escape by—to be very common under these
scales. I have never met with any such larva; but I have occasion-
ally seen scales, both of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse and of Harris’s
Bark-louse, perforated by just such a small round hole as Dr. Fitch
describes ; and I should judge them to have been made by a parasitic
four-winged Fly (Chalcis family or Proctotrupes family.)

Some of these Mite-larve that were discovered in May, are de-
scribed in my Journal as being of a glassy-white color, six-legged, and
with the hind pair of legs placed as usual far backwards; their bodies
oval, 24 times as long as wide, and not at all hairy, and of about
the same length as the egg of the Bark-louse. Others, noticed about
the last of October, agreed pretty accurately with the above descrip-
tion. Others, again, found about the same time, differed in being
rather larger and more elongate—+hrice, instead of 24 times as
long as wide—and in having 8 distinct legs, the two hindmost pairs
separated by a very wide interval from the two foremost pairs. These
were probably the pupa form of the others. All of them had the
thorax separated from the abdomen by a transverse suture; and, as
is universally the case, so far as I have observed, with immature

59

Mites, were sluggish in their movements. On the other hand, all
Cannibal Mites that I am acquainted with, are, in the adult state,
exceedingly active, and run with astonishing rapidity for creatures of
their minute size.

I think it not improbable that there are several distinct species
of Mites that prey upon these Bark-louse eggs. I have descriptions
in my journal of adult Mites, belonging to what seem to be four
distinct species, two of which were merely found running about
among the scales, one was found under a scale where one-third of the
eggs were white and plump and the rest yellowish and shrunken, and
the other one under a scale in company with two Mite-larve, that
were undoubtedly preying upon the eggs of the Bark-louse. As is
usual with Mites arrived at maturity, there was no distinct trans-
verse suture, dividing the head-thorax from the abdomen, in any of
these four. I have not been able to succeed in rearing any of the
Mite-larvee found under the scales to the adult state; so that I will
mercifully forbear for the present inflicting upon the general reader
long descriptions of adult Mites, which, although they were certainly
some of them found under very suspicious circumstances, yet cannot
be positively proved to, prey upon Bark-louse eggs, and in any case
cannot be identified with the larve that I know to prey upon these
eggs. Not improbably, some of what I have supposed to be distinct
species of adult Mites, may be merely the two sexes or two different
stages of one and the same species; or very possibly, as is common in
several families of insects, species of Mites, which are perfectly dis-
tinct in the adult state, may be undistinguishable in the larva state.

I have only to add, by way of caution to the reader who may
desire to verify the above new and very curious facts, that these young
Mites, being so nearly of the same size, shape and color as the eggs
of the Bark-louse among which they are found, and being also exceed-
ingly dull and inactive in their movements, are not very easily
recognizable. By long and attentive watching, however, and by try-
ing several scales one after the other, a leg or two will at last be
perceived, even under a common pocket magnifier, lazily flopping
about; and even when the legs cannot be seen, a good lens will often
discover the transverse suture across the body of the young Mite,
which of course is not to be seen in the unhatched egg of the Bark-
louse. It will be found that the shrunken eggs recently preyed upon
by the Mite are of a yellowish color; while the empty egg-shells
(from which the young lice have hatched out,) that are constantly
met with under old last year’s scales, are at first, not of a yellowish,
but of a transparent white color. It is therefore among such

60

shrunken eggs as are yellowish, not among such as are white, that
these Cannibal Mites are to be looked for. So strongly, again, do
these young Mites resemble the young Bark-lice when the latter are
first hatched out, that even so practised an observer as Dr. Fitch evi-
dently mistook the one for the other. For he says that the young
Bark-lice of this species mostly hatch out about May 26th, but that
so early as May 12th he found some still under the scale with “three
pairs of legs, two placed anteriorly, the other posteriorly and distant.”

(New York Reports, I. pp. 36—-7.) As the legs of all young Bark-

lice are equidistant or very nearly so, and those of all young six-
legged Mites, so far as I know, precisely in accordance with the above
description, these must clearly have been, not young Bark-lice, as
the Doctor supposed, but young Mites. But even out of the errors,
to which we are all of us subject, we may sometimes deduce useful
and important truths. For Dr. Fitch’s error proves to us, that Mites
must prey upon Bark-louse eggs, not only in Illinois, but also in New
York.

And now, after this protracted and tedious description of the
Natural History of this mischievous insect, which has been made
necessary by the prevalent errors and misconceptions on the subject—
let us approach the great practical question, “How are we to get rid
of this pest?’ It is with considerable reluctance that I enter upon
this question, because I have in operation a long train of experiments
upon this important poimt, which are not yet finally concluded. IL
should much prefer, therefore, to wait till I can treat the matter as
a whole at some future day, instead of taking it up piecemeal now.
Still, as the conclusions at which I have already arrived seem to be
of great practical moment, imperfect and fragmentary as they may
be, I will lay them before the reader. They may be briefly stated
thus :—

Ist. Strong tobacco-water has no effect whatever upon these
Bark-lice, no matter at what time of the year it may be applied.

2d. Strong alkaline washes have no effect whatever upon these
Bark-lice, no matter at what time of year they may be applied.

3d. A strong solution of soap will kill almost every one of these
Bark-lice that it touches shortly after they hatch out; but has no effect
whatever upon the perfected scale.

4th. Petroleum, or kerosene, or probably any oily or fatty sub-
stance, will kill every Bark-louse, eggs and all, that it actually touches
at any time of the year. And there is pretty good evidence, that such
substances, if spread thinly over a great part of the surface of a tree,
and eyen if spread over its entire surface, are not perceptibly injuri-
ous to it, or at all events not invariably so.

61

5th. Scrubbing the limbs of a tree with a stiff brush, shortly
after the Bark-lice have hatched out, will destroy them and remove
them from the infected surface; but no such mechanical appliance
can remove or otherwise affect the perfected scale, simply because it
sticks too tight, and is of too hard and solid a texture.

6th. By scraping the bark with the edge of a knife or other such
tool, even the perfected scale may at any time of the year be removed
and destroyed.

To give all the details of all the experiments that I have made,
bearing upon the above general rules, would occupy entirely too much
space and only weary the reader. But I may be pardoned, perhaps,
for giving the details of a few of them, and for particularizing several
facts obtained from other sources, in order that it may be seen upon
what kind of evidence my general conclusions are based. Each
statement is numbered, so as to correspond with the six general laws
already laid down.

STATEMENT Ist.—On June 12th, 1867, being eight days after
the Bark-lice had hatched, and probably about four or five days after
they had become permanently stationary, I prepared some tobacco-
water, by boiling for three hours one part, by measure, of common
smoking-tobacco and seven parts of water, renewing the water as it
boiled away. This fluid I squeezed with a sponge over a badly in-
fested branch, so as to wet the whole of it thoroughly both above and
below, using no brush or swab of any kind, so as absolutely to elim-
inate the effects of mechanical friction upon the young Bark-lice.
I had previously pruned the branch so as to cut off all communication
with neighboring branches, except at its origin ; and of course I labeled
it and registered it in my Journal. From time to time through the
summer I examined it, and found the young Bark-lice apparently
growing as vigorously as on the rest of the tree. On October 30th
I cut off a portion of it, one foot in length and averaging one-third
of an inch in diameter, and examined the scales one by one under
a lens. This piece, be it observed, was so distant from the origin of
the branch which I had washed with the tobacco-water, that it was
very improbable that any amount of young Bark-lice could afterwards
have crawled out on to it from the other parts of the tree, even sup-
posing them to have retained their original powers of locomotion. I
found, on examining it, at least 200 scales containing good, plump,
healthy eggs, and about 400 that had either been completely gutted
by the Mites, or were undergoing that process. There were about
seven or eight scales from which no “anal sack” had developed ; these
might possibly have been larve killed by the tobacco-water, but I

62

took them for scales from which males had developed; for this is
about the proportion of such scales usually met with in branches that
have not been medicated in any way. The old dead last year’s scales
upon this piece of a branch, I did not think it necessary to count.
Hence, I infer that strong tobacco-water cannot kill the Bark-louse
at any period of its existence; for if it has no effect upon it when it is
in the tender larva state, a fortiori it will have no effect upon the ma-
tured or partly matured scale.

That most accurate observer, Dr. Mygatt, arrived at similar re-

sults. “When I had ascertained,” he says, “the hatching season, I
fondly hoped that the decoctions of quassia and tobacco, which I have
for several years used on the Plant-lice, (Aphides,) would also de-
stroy the young Bark-lice (Coccids;) but in that I was doomed to
be sadly disappointed on trial.” (rans. Ill. State Agr. Soc. I., p.
516.)

STATEMENT 2d.—On June 12th, 1867, I prepared a solution of
common saleratus, which, as soda has been very much cheaper than
potash ever since the mode of obtaining it from common salt was dis-
covered, was, in all probability, nothing but purified soda. It was
mixed in the proportion of one part, by measurement, of saleratus to
fifty parts of water. This I applied, precisely in the same way as
the tobacco-water in the preceding statement, to another branch,
prepared and labeled in a similar manner. Repeatedly, as the sum-
mer progressed, I examined this branch, and the young Bark-lice on
it seemed to be growing as nicely as on the rest of the tree. The
results, on cutting off, October 30th, a piece of the same size and
length, and similarly situated, as compared with that used in the
preceding experiment, were almost precisely the same. For J found
201 matured scales containing plump, healthy eggs, and nine that 1
took to be male scales, though possibly some or all of them might have
been young larve killed by the soda-wash. I did not count the old,
dead last year’s scales, or those of the current year which were in-
fested or gutted by Mites; but I estimated that they were in all about
200 in number. From this experiment JI concluded that a solution
of soda will not kill the Bark-lice even in the larva state; and I draw
the same inference as to the effect of alkaline solutions upon the
matured Bark-louse, that I have already drawn in the tobacco-water
experiment.

The proportion of soda used was nearly that recommended in the
Horticulturist of March, 1867, namely, “one pound of potash to six
gallons of water ;” for, as every druggist knows, a pint of such sub-
stances as soda is nearly the equivalent of a pound. All accounts

—

63

seemed to agree that stronger solutions were injurious to vegetable
life. But from the following statement, made by Wm. Mead, Jun.,
of Taunton, Massachusetts, it appears that even the very strongest
alkaline solutions have no effect upon Bark-lice. “To kill the scale-
insect,” he says, “upon my pear trees, I have tried potash—one pound
to a gallon of water—which has no effect upon the insect, except to
make it brighter.” (New York Sem. Tribune, March 16, 1866.)
Judging from the date of publication, Mr. Mead must have operated
in the dead of the year, and therefore upon the perfected scale. Dr.
Houghton, of Philadelphia, used in the summer time a wash of the
same unusual strength, as he has informed me—one pound of “con-
centrated lye” to one gallon of water—upon the other species (Har-
ris’s Bark-louse) that were infesting his pear trees in prodigious
numbers, without its producing the least perceptible effect in dimin-
ishing their ravages, though he was of opinion that it injured the trees
to a considerable extent.

SraremEeNnt 3d.—On June 12th, 1867, I prepared a solution of
good, home-made soft soap, manufactured from soap-grease and what
is sold under the name of “concentrated lye,” and is probably nothing
but impure soda. I took one part, by measurement, of soap to six
parts of water, and stirred the mixture over a fire till it got warm
and had about the consistence of thin paint. This I applied, in the
same way as the tobacco-water in the first experiment, to a branch
prepared and labeled in the same manner, except that I had unfortu-
nately omitted to trim off a few of the small, terminal twigs, and
neglected to apply the soapy solution to those twigs. On examining
this branch, from time to time through the months of June and July,
it was quite plain that the great bulk of the young Bark-lice on it had
ceased growing and were dead, though they still adhered firmly in
their original form to the bark. On October 27th, I cut off a portion
of this branch, of the same size and length as in the other two experi-
ments, and carefully lifted and examined, under the lens, all the
matured scales upon it, whether of this year’s or last year’s growth.
I found but seven scales containing plump, healthy eggs; the number
of last year’s scales, and of those that had been operated on by Mites,
I did not count, nor did I estimate them separately from each other ;
for, up to this day, I had not become aware of the nice distinction
between last year’s scales, containing white egg-shells, and scales re-
cently gutted by Mites, which contain yellowish egg-shells. But I
estimated the whole number of matured scales, containing no living
and plump eggs, at several hundreds. After the above process had
been gone through with, which necessarily obliterated or removed

64

many of the young Bark-lice killed by the soap, I counted 422 dead
Bark-louse larve still adhering to the bark, with the “anal sack” not
at all developed, and most of them without even a “medial scale,”
the great bulk of which must therefore have been killed by the soap
while still in the larva state. If we assume that 22 of these were
males—which is a rather large estimate—and deduct these from the
total, we get 400 female bark-lice killed by the soap, to 7 that sur-
vived the operation of the soap; or, which is the same thing, out of
the whole number of females 98; per cent. killed. It is possible
however, though not at all probable, that the seven female Bark-lice
that survived might have been Jate-hatched individuals, that crawled
down, before they became stationary and after the soap was applied.
from the small, terminal twigs that I neglected to soap. In this, as well
as in the other three experiments already detailed, the portion of the
branch examined under the lens was altogether too far removed from
the main limb which was not soaped, to allow of any considerable num-
ber of Bark-lice crawling on to it from the main limb; and besides,
when all these experiments were tried, the great bulk of the Bark-lice
had certainly become stationary.

Dr. Mygatt tried the same experiment about the same time of
the year, but used a much weaker solution of soap, which seems not
to have been quite so effectual. “One tree,’ he informs us, “was
treated with soap-suds, two tea-cupfuls of soft soap to a pail of water.
Every part was wetted by immersing the ends of the branches and
using a syringe. The leaves and young growth became yellow, but
were not destroyed. A part of the lice were killed, probably half or
more.” (Z'ransactions Illinois State Agricultural Society, I. p. 516.)

On November 7th, 1867, the scales being now of course fully
matured, I made a still stronger solution of the same soap, namely
one part by measure of soap to four parts of water, and applied it
when warm with a very soft shaving brush to a branch prepared and
labeled as in the other experiments. On December 5th, I cut off a
portion of this limb and examined the scales under the lens. From
some cause or other, upon this limb, which was upon a different part
of the same tree and not so badly infested, the Mites had not oper-
ated at all, so far as I could discover. After lifting and examining
several scores of scales, and finding that every one of them without
exception contained good plump, healthy eggs, I became fully satis-
fied that the soap had not in anywise affected the vitality of the eggs,
and did not think it worth while to continue the examination. The
weather during the whole of November had been remarkably mild and

genial and dry; and, from my experience with the eggs of this and ‘

65

other insects, I am sure that, if these eggs had been killed by the soap,
they would have shriveled up to nothing in much less than a month
of such weather. But be this as it may, I shall be able to ascertain
in the spring of 1868, from the portion of the branch that remains on
the tree, whether these eggs that were soaped in November will hatch
out as usual in the following spring, or whether some or all of them
were killed by the soap.

From the above facts, I infer that soap will kill Bark-lce when
they are very young, but has no effect whatever upon the matured
scale.*

It is proper to add that, in all the above experiments that were
tried in June, there was no rain for at least 6 days afterwards; and that
in the November experiment there was no rain for several weeks after-
wards. So that the various articles applied had a sufficient time for
operating, before the rain washed them off.

STATEMENT 4th.—In April, 1866, I had an apple-tree, the lower
limbs of which were infested, some of them pretty badly, by the Oys-
ter-shell Bark-louse. I pruned them all quite closely, removing all
wood under one-half inch in diameter, and then with a common
painter’s “sash-brush” painted them all over as thinly as possible with
kerosene. Not many weeks afterwards I examined scores of the
scales on these limbs, and found the eggs under all of them dead and
dried up; and not a single Bark-louse, so far as I could discover, sub-
sequently hatched out on them. Out of the whole number of limbs,
but a single one died, and that was so completely covered with scales,
that it would probably have died anyhow. The remainder put out fresh

*Since the above was written, Dr. Mygatt has informed me that pure,
undiluted soft soap is largely applied in his neighborhood to the matured
scale, under the erroneous idea that it destroys the eggs. He has been kind
enough to send me (February 29th) an infested twig soaped in this manner,
and another twig cut off the very same limb which had not been soaped at
all. On lifting and examining under the lens 100 scales upon each of these
twigs, 1 found that on the soaped twig there were 381 scales containing plump,
healthy eggs, and 69 scales, mostly gutted by the Mites, which contained no
such eggs; while on the wrsoaped twigs the numbers were respectively 30 and
70; showing that, where the soap had been applied, the number of healthy
normal scales was actually one per cent. greater than where nature was left
to her own devices. In this case the soap had been applied only 12 days
before I lifted the scales; but in a specimen sent at the same time, to which
the soap had been applied for considerably more than a month, there was a
still larger proportion of healthy normal scales, namely, 374% per cent. in-
stead of 31 per cent. Hence, it may be inferred that even pure undiluted
soft soap produces no effect upon the matured scale; although, as Dr. Mygatt
informed me, “it kills all the foliage, fruit or young growththat it touches.”

66

shoots, and are now alive and healthy. The tree was about 6 or 7 inches
in diameter at the butt, and probably about one-tenth part of it was
operated upon in this manner. In several other trees that I treated on
the same system, the results were similar, it being uniformly only such
branches as were completely coated over with scales, that subsequently
perished.

Dr. Mygatt in 1854 gives the following testimony: “Lard was
used on three bearing trees soon after the eggs hatched out; every
insect touched with the lard perished; the limbs are now clear, except
the spots missed. The trees grew finely, with no apparent injury to
them. * * * JT applied lard to several bearing trees in August;
those scales are all dry and apparently dead, and no insects to be seen.
* * * One tree, thickly covered with the white variety,” | Har-
ris’s Bark-louse; see chap. 9] “was oiled over from the ground to the
minutest branch. This was done in April; not an egg hatched. The
new growth was luxuriant; and the tree is now clear of lice, and does
not appear to be injured by the oil.”—(T'ransactions Illinois State
Agricultural Society, I. p. 516.)

In 1856, Dr. Fitch writes as follows: “Now at last it is pretty
well ascertained, that anointing the trees with grease or oil is an
effectual remedy [against the Oyster-shell Bark-louse.] I am assured
of this by Dr. Hoy, of Racine, Wisconsin, and other correspondents,
and by several communications in the Prairie Farmer, and other ag-
ricultural periodicals.” (New York Reports, II. § 15).

Mr. Sherman, of Waukegan, Lake Co., Illinois, is reported in
1861 as using a mixture of equal quantities of linseed oil and tar, to
destroy the Bark-louse in the perfect scale state. “These articles,”
it is stated, ‘are mixed over the fire by a gentle heat to dissolve the
tar. The mixture is put on with a brush at any time during the win-
ter or early spring, and has the appearance of a varnish. It has the
advantage over the alkaline washes, used on the young insects, that it
can be applied to all parts of the tree without the least injury to the
shoots or buds, while it is death to the insect. His trees are nearly
free of the insect, and have becomes vigorous and fruitful.” (Z'rans-
actions Illinois State Agriculiural Society, V. p. 190.) The tar is
probably inert here, except so far as it dilutes the oil, and it is in
reality the linseed oil that kills the eggs.

In 1866 Mr. Cavanach, a market-gardener residing at Brooklyn,
New York, said that he “had succeeded in destroying the scale-insect
by the use of kerosene, without injury to the trees.” (New York
Sem. Tribune, March 16, 1866.) And subsequently he states as fol-
lows :—“We use kerosene regularly every year to kill the scale-insect

67

‘and other parasites upon our plants and trees without injury to them ;
and it has frequently been stated that crude petroleum has been used
for the same purpose with good effects. Gas tar has proved injuri-
ous.” (Ibid. March 30, 1866.) Two years afterwards the same man
speaks in the following manner of petroleum:—“If any one wants
to kill his trees, let him use petroleum ; yet it is beneficial in a diluted
state when applied to shrubs and plants to keep off insects, but it is
death when applied to the roots.” (bid. January 10, 1868.)
Whether these observations are intended to apply to kerosene as well
as to petroleum, is more than I can say.

At the Meeting of the Iowa State Horticultural Society, Octo-
ber 19, 1867, Mr. J. L. Budd, a-fruit-grower residing at Shellsburg,
Benton Co., Iowa, stated that he “had found 10 parts of benzine and
4 of soap the best remedy against Bark-lice.” The benzine would
in all probability be effectual at any time of the year; but, as I think
I have shown, the soap would be useless, except early in the summer
and except also by its diluting the strength of the benzine.

Finally, Dr. Pennington, of Sterling, Whiteside Co., Illinois,
told me in 1867, that he had apphed pure petroleum to the trunks
of about 100 apple-trees infested by the Oyster-shell Bark-louse, and
to about one-half of such of their limbs as were 14 inches and over
in diameter; and that he can perceive no injurious effects. Before
applying the petroleum, he pruned the trees well.

I think that there can be no doubt whatever, that petroleum,
kerosene, benzine, lard, and generally any kind of animal or vegetable
oil, will kill Bark-lice at any time of the year, though all kinds of
watery infusions fail to have any effect upon the matured scale. The
reason is obvious. The eggs under the scale can only be killed by
some substance capable of reaching them through the protecting scale,
which is glued too firmly and closely to the bark to allow of anything
penetrating underneath it. Now, nature has made the scales rain-
tight; but, as we have no showers of oil, she has not thought it neces-
sary to make them oil-tight. Hence, oily substances will soak through
the scale, and reach the culprit eggs; but watery infusions are in-
capable of doing this.

Whether some or all of these oily applications may not be more
or less injurious to vegetable life, is a much more doubtful and dis-
putable question. I saw an account in the New York Tribune several
years ago, of a whole orchard being killed by applying “tanners’ oil”
to it, whatever that kind of oil may be. Perhaps it might have been
applied in exorbitant quantities. Again: I have known a plum-tree
killed by saturating a large cloth with kerosene, and wrapping it

68

round the butt, under the ridiculous idea that the Curculio could thus’

be prevented from getting at the plums. Again: Mr. Mitchell, of
Pennsylvania, writes to the New York Farmers’ Club, that having
been advised in the Proceedings of that Club to apply kerosene with
a feather to young cabbage plants, in order to keep off flea-beetles
(Haltica,) he had tried it, and thereby killed 200 plants. (New York
Sem. Tribune, June 26, 1866.) On the other hand, G. Goodsill, of
McHenry Co., in North Illinois, asserts that he applied coal oil with
a feather to young cabbage plants, in order to keep off flea-beetles,
Diabrotica vittata, FKabr.,) without any injurious effects. (Prairie
Farmer, April 1, 1865, p. 234.) Again: “W. T. W.,” of Belleview,
Towa. says that he “lost one set of trees, some fifteen years since, by
greasing them to keep off the rabbits, and would no more think
of greasing fruit-trees than of chopping them down.” (bid. Janu-
ary 6, 1866, p. 5.) And Mr. J. C. Plumb, of Madison, Wisconsin,
asserts that he “has seen thousands of trees, from the nursery graft
to the bearing size, ruined by greasy applications ;” that if the trees
are greased in winter, “the grease should be washed off by lye or soft
soap in the spring,” and that “the worst possible time to apply grease
is in the winter; and the same amount which would cause death, if
applied then, would be harmless if apphed during the flow of sap in
the growing season.” On the other hand, “Young Sprout,” of San
Jose, says: “I have greased my trees for the last three winters with
equal parts of lard and coal oil, and in the spring washed off with
strong lye, and I have good thrifty trees.” (lbid, March 10, 1866,
p- 151.) Lastly, which is the most important consideration of all,
I find that there is a very general prejudice, both among practical and
among theoretical men, against the application of oily substances to
vegetable organisms. The subject is certainly a most difficult and
important one, and the evidence rather contradictory; and it will
require a series of carefully conducted experiments, which I hope to
complete during the ensuing year, in order to arrive at any conclu-
sive and satisfactory results. Probably benzine, as it evaporates more
quickly and completely than kerosene (and, by the way, it is also
much cheaper,) may be the least injurious of any of the oily apph-
cations; and perhaps all these oily substances may bear to be consid-
erably diluted without losing their efficacy. Nothing but actual ex-
periments, however, on an extensive scale can solve satisfactorily these
and similar problems.

SrateMENT 5th.—In June, 1867, I used an old painter’s brush,
which had been worn to a stump, to scrub off the young newly-hatched
Bark-lice from the: larger limbs of an infested tree; and found it per-

ee a

69

fectly effectual. .The lice fell before it as the grain falls before a
| reaping-machine.

STATEMENT 6th.—‘An ounce of prevention is better than a
pound of cure.” When young apple-trees are purchased from the
nursery, it will always pay well, in the northern parts of Illinois, to
look them carefully over, and scrape off with a knife any scales of the
Oyster-shell species that may be found on them. In the extreme
southern parts of the State, this need not be done; for, as already
shown, the Oyster-shell Bark-louse does not like the climate of that
region and perishes if it is imported there. Recollect that every full-
grown scale is a female full of eggs, and that the eggs average over
50 in number. There are absolutely no males in this crowd, to lessen
the number of fruitful individuals. ‘Always plant a clean tree,” is
Dr. Mygatt’s advice; and this advice of his is indisputably excellent.
But unfortunately fruit-growers often wait till it is too late to fight
the foe to advantage, and in the hurry and press of business the homely
old adage is apt to be forgotten, that “a stitch in time saves nine.”

Dr. James Weed, of Muscatine, Iowa, believes that this Bark-
louse was almost entirely extirpated in his neighborhood by the in-
tense cold—27 degrees below zero—of the winter of 1855—6. From
the fact already twice stated, that it is a northern species, intolerant
of a high summer temperature, I strongly incline to believe that there
must be some mistake here. In the Prairie Farmer for October 29,
1864, J. C. Plumb, of Madison, Wisconsin, writes that the cold win-
ter of 1863—4 had effected no diminution of the numbers of the Bark-
lice, even in that high latitude.

As to what is a very current opinion amongst many of our most
intelligent fruit-growers, namely, that it is only diseased, unhealthy,
and badly-cultivated trees that suffer materially from Bark-lce, I am
satisfied that this is an error. My own trees grow in garden soil, dug
originally two spit deep, with a porous gravelly subsoil two or three
feet below the surface, manured moderately every year with old thor-
oughly rotten cow manure, and cultivated through the summer; and
the chief difficulty that I have with them is, that they grow too ex-
uberantly and run too much to wood. Yet in spite of palliatives
applied from time to time, and in spite of my little friends the Mites,
the Bark-lice are steadily gaining on me; and unless I make a vigor-
ous onslaught on them before long, they will probably in the end
overrun all my trees. The truth seems to be, that, after a certain
number of years, the Mites and Insects that prey upon the Bark-lice
become so numerous as to check them up permanently. And thus we
can account for the notorious fact that in those northern regions,

70

where only the Oyster-shell Bark-louse can thrive—as for example
in Northern Illinois and Wisconsin—it is death upon apple-trees, for
6 or 8 years after it is introduced, but afterwards sobers down, and
though still a grievous pest, becomes comparatively speaking, in-
- nocuous.

Before concluding this long chapter, I ought to caution the reader
against a very prevalent, but a very delusive idea. People are per-
petually reasoning upon the assumption, that any fluid substance, that
they may apply to the limbs of a tree, is taken up by the sap and
carried to the remotest twig; as if plants, like the higher animals,
had a complete circulatory system of veins and arteries; whereas every
botanist knows that it is no such thing. Whatever you apply to your
tree to kill the Bark-lice, whether soapy solution or oily fluid, can
only kill those insects that it actually touches, and will not be ab-
sorbed by the sap and carried unchanged to other parts, so as to kill
the Bark-lice upon those parts. If it were otherwise, the apples on
a tree that had been soaped would taste of soap, and those on a tree
that had been treated with kerosene, would taste of kerosene. But
that this is not so, every one may satisfy himself by an easy experi-
ment, if he does not, as I do, know the fact already. Possibly, to a
very limited extent, such substances as those referred to above may
be absorbed by the cellular system of the tree; but even in that case
they will undergo chemical changes which will totally unfit them for
destroying insect life. To believe that pure kerosene, or pure soap,
applied to one end of a tree, will pass in the very same chemical form
to the other end of it, is as absurd as to believe that liquid manure
can be taken up by the roots of a tomato-plant, and pass in that form
and without any chemical change into the ripe tomatoes.

CHAPTER IX.—Harris’s BarxK-Louse. (Aspidiotus Harrisiz, Walsh.)

I have discussed the Natural History of the Oyster-shell Bark-
louse at such exorbitant length, that it will not be either necessary or
advisable to dilate upon that of this species, further than to point out
the very remarkable characters in which it differs from the other.

Ist. The difference in the shape and color of the scales, and in
the color of the eggs, has been already explained. (See above, page
46.) The eggs hatch out at almost exactly the same date, (June Sth,
1867,) but, instead of the young larve being yellowish white, and
soon afterwards becoming covered with a white powdery bloom, so
as to form conspicuous although very minute white objects on the
bark, they are blood-red at first and afterwards blood-brown, without
any powdery bloom; and consequently, from their extreme minuteness

71

and from their being very sluggish in their movements, they can
scarcely be seen on the bark with the naked eye. On June 12th, I
observed some—which I identified as belonging to this species because
they were still under the parent scale—to be of a pale blood-brown
color, without any powdery bloom; they had the same longitudinal
ridge and transverse grooves as the other species. The inexperienced
eye, if it noticed them at all at this date on the bark, would be almost
sure to confound them with the natural pores of the bark, which at
first sight they greatly resemble.

2d. I have been unable to trace satisfactorily the history of
Harris's Bark-louse from June to September, because the Oyster-
shell species had invaded every one of my trees, that had been orig-
inally occupied exclusively by the native species; so that it was diffi-
cult to distinguish one kind of larva from the other kind. I could
only ascertain one point clearly, namely, that the matured scale of
the female, which is milk-white, is not formed till about the middle of
September,and that the eggs are not developed under that scale till the
end of September or some time in October ; whereas, as we have seen, in
the other species the matured female scale, which is the color of the
bark, is formed, and the eggs fully developed, by the middle of August.
Certainly, from the middle of June to about the middle of September,
the females must remain of the same dark inconspicuous color as be-
fore; for the white scales, which are so conspicuous, appear all of a
sudden on the bark in the middle of September. Dr. Houghton, of
Philadelphia, as well as myself, noticed this fact. He has 20,000
pear-trees badly afflicted by this pest. “Up to September 15th,” he
says, “I flattered myself that there was not a living insect of this
- description in my orchard. J thought that the winter of 1865—6 had
been so cold, that it had killed them all. But lo! on the 20th of
September there were millions upon millions of Bark-lice on my pear-
trees.” (Practical Entomologist, I1., p. 30.)

3d. On September 17th, or some weeks before any eggs were de-
veloped, I lifted up over 10 perfected female scales. Under each of
them, and entirely separated from the scale itself, I found a legless,
beakless, fleshy, elongate-oval Bark-louse, about 24 times as long as
wide, with its body divided into pretty distinct segments, the 3 first
of which, and in a less degree the 2 next, were very much hunched
laterally. The color was yellow, blood-red, or pink, and the length
about 0.03 inch. One of these I saw move very distinctly, showing
that it was really alive. .

4th. The scale of this species is of a much more delicate consist-
ence than that of the Imported Bark-louse, and it rarely remains un-

72

broken on the bark after the eggs hatch out, but is generally either
more or less mutilated or entirely removed by the weather. The
empty egg-shells are white, as in the other species.

5th. The empty scales, which are supposed by Harris to have
produced males, may be found in considerable numbers in the autumn
loosely attached to the bark or some of them scarcely attached at all.
Towards the spring they are generally most of them washed off by the
weather. As these never occur on trees infested exclusively by the Oys-
ter-shell species, they cannot belong to that species ; and I therefore, by
the method of exhaustion, infer them to belong to Harris’s Bark-louse.
They are oblong-oval in shape, of a pure white color, with the usual
yellowish “larval scale” attached at one end, the remaining portion
having its sides perfectly parallel, and being as wide as the “larval
scale” is long, and in length from 2 to 24 times as long as the “larval
scale.” There is no “medial scale,” behind the “larval scale,’ as there
always is in the matured female scale of every species of this genus
known to me. I have never actually bred the males from this type of
scale, neither, as it seems, did Harris; but I have now little doubt that
Harris’s opinion is the correct one, and that I was entirely mistaken
when I formerly imagined, that these empty scales were the cast skins
of the immature females. (Practical Entomologist, I. p. 32.)

As to the geographical distribution of Harris’s Bark-louse, Harris
found it, but apparently only in small numbers, in Massachusetts.

Dr. Houghton is pestered with it awfully in Pennsylvania, and Dr.

A. Chandler, Montgomery Co., Maryland, must also have it in abun-
dance; for he says that his pear-trees “have stopped growing and are
covered with white lice, which when mashed with the point of a knife,
discharge a red fluid.” (New York Sem. Tribune, March 26, 1867.)
I have myself seen specimens near Cobden, South Illinois, some of
which occurred on the European Mountain Ash (Sorbus aucuparia,)
a tree which Dr. Asa Gray places in the same genus as the Pear and
the Apple. I have likewise received specimens from the orchard of
W. C. Flagg, near Alton, in South Illinois. And it must occur in
St. Clair Co., also, in South Illinois; for at a Meeting of the Alton
Horticultural Society, May 2, 1867, President Pearson reported that
he had found “upon trees purchased in St. Clair County, Bark-lice or
Scale-insects containing eggs,which when broken gave out a red-colored
juice.” Dr. Mygatt mentions it, under the appellation of the “white
variety” of the Oyster-shell species, as common in Kane and McHenry
Counties in North Illinois, and I have long found it pretty abundantly
in Rock Island County, both on apple-trees and on the crab. Lastly
Bark-lice, which, as it would seem, can only belong to this species, are
reported from Hartville, Wright Co., Missouri, which is nearly in the

_

73

latitude of the extreme southern point of Illinois, as “utterly destroy-
ing the best apple-orchards in that county, starting on the trunks of
the trees, spreading rapidly on the branches, and then on the apples—
killing large trees in two years.” (Rural World, October 15, 1866.)
I heard no complaints of this insect being at present at all trouble-
some near Cobden, South Illinois; but at some future day it may
hkely enough make an irruption upon the pear orchards of Southern
Illinois in full force.

I observe that on all my apple-trees, which were infested a year
or two ago by Harris’s Bark-louse, this native species is being gradu-
ally supplanted by the improved and highly-developed species from
the other side of the Atlantic; just as the White Man is supplanting
the Red Man in America, or as in New Zealand the European House-
fly (Musca domestica, Linneus) and the Brown Norway Rat (Mus
decumanus, Linneus) are driving out the Native Fly and the Native
Rat. (See Spencer’s Principles of Biology, I, p. 389.) It is preyed
on by the same Mites as the other kind, and, being so closely allied to
it, must be attacked on the same principles and with the same weapons.

INSECTS INFESTING THE APPLE.—On the Root.

CHAPTER X.—THE ApPLE-ROOT PLANT-LOUSE, (Pemphigus pyri, Fitch,) com-
monly but incorrectly called in Illinois “The Woolly Aphis.”

This insect has been very generally confounded with the true
“Woolly Plant-louse” or “Woolly Aphis” (Hriesoma lanigera, Haus-
mann), which, so far as is known at present, occurs only on the At-
lantic seaboard, though it may perhaps eventually work its way West-
ward into the Northern parts of the Valley of the Mississippi. It is
very true that both insects are “woolly,” inasmuch as they both secrete
a woolly or cottony substance from the general surface of their bodies,
and both are “Plant-lice,’ inasmuch as they both belong to the Aphis
family; but they differ in their native country, they differ in the
structure of their wing-veins and consequently in the genus to which
they are referable, and they differ very widely in their habits.

The true “Woolly Plant-louse” is an imported insect, having been
in reality introduced into America from Europe though, singularly
enough, it was.misnamed in England “the American Blight,’ when
it was first noticed in that country towards the close of the last cen-
tury, and was erroneously supposed to have been introduced there from
America. It is now, however, pretty clearly ascertained to have ex-
isted on the continent of Europe for time immemorial, and it probably

74

emigrated thence into England on imported apple-trees.* The Apple-
root Plant-louse, on the contrary, is a native American species, and in
all probability infested our wild Crabs and Thorns in the olden time,
and, when apple-trees were introduced here, saw fit to attack them also.

In the typical or normal Plant-louse there are in the front wing
three branch-veins, springing successively out of the main or rib-vein
which coasts along the outer or anterior edge of the front wing. In
the genus to which the Apple-root Plant-louse belongs (Pemphigus),
the 3d of these branch-veins is perfectly simple; in the genus to
which the true “Woolly Plant-louse’ belongs (Hriosoma, otherwise
known as Schizoneura or Myzoxylus), the 3d of these branch-veins is
once-forked ; in the genus to which the common Apple-tree Plant-louse
belongs, (Aphis,) the 3d of these branch-veins is twice-forked. Thus,
on the very same Apple-tree, may be found examples of all these three
genera—namely, the Apple-root Plant-louse, the true Woolly Plant-
louse and the common Apple-tree Plant-louse—all distinct from each
other bya very obvious character, and only in very rare and exceptional
individuals of any of them running together by intermediate grades.

Harris indeed, on the authority of Hausmann and Knapp, asserts
that the true “Woolly Plant-louse” never has any wings at all.t But
Amyot and Serville describe the male as winged ,(Hemipt. p. 612);
Westwood describes both sexes as winged, though he confounds the
genera (Pemphigus and Friosoma) together , (Introd. II. p. 440 and
Synops. p. 118); and lastly Mr. A. FE. Verrill discovered in Connecti-
cut in October numerous winged specimens, both of the males and ot
the remales. (Practical Entomologist, I. p. 21.)

The true “Woolly Plant-louse” is a northern species, and accord-
ing to the European entomologist, Blot, cannot stand a hot climate
even in its native country, Europe, being confined to Belgium, the
north of France, Germany and England. Hence, so far, it has oc-
curred in this country almost exclusively in New England. The Ap-
ple-root Plant-louse, on the other hand, seems to be far more destruc-
tive in a hot southern climate than it is towards the north. Again:
the true “Woolly Plant-louse” never burrows underground to get at
the roots, but inhabits exclusively the trunk and limbs of the Apple-
tree, where it secretes large masses of cottony down. The Apple-
root Plant-louse, on the contrary, lives habitually underground, sucik-
ing the sap from the roots and causing thereon large excrescences and
swellings, among which it secretes a bluish-white downy substance,

*See Harris’s Injurious Insects, p. 242, and Amyot and Serville’s Hemip-
tera, p. 606.
+See Harris’s Injurious Insects, p. 243.

——

75

which, at first sight, has much the appearance of mouldiness. It is,
doubtless, true that, according to Dr. E. S. Hull, of Alton, South
Illinois, “it crawls upon the branches of the trees, during the sum-
mer, and is distributed broadcast through the orchard by the force
of the winds, retirimg underground and congregating about the roots
on the approach of cold weather ;” (Agr. Rep. Mo., Append., p. 4513)
and that, as Wm. Carpenter, of Cobden, South Illinois, informed me,
“it occurs in young trees in the nursery, two or three feet from the
ground, but only,” as he thought, “in damp weather.” But I my-
self saw three or four wingless specimens, subsequently taken by Mr.
Carpenter off the trunk of a good-sized apple-tree during the long
drought of the autumn of 1857, which I carefully compared with
similar specimens captured by myself on the roots, and found to be
identical. Moreover, in December of the same year, Mr. W. C. Flagg,
of Alton, South Jilinois, sent me, alive and in excellent order, quite
a number of specimens, gathered at that unseasonable period off the
trunks of good-sized apple-trees, which, on the most careful compari-
son, differed in no respect from the root-feeding individuals. Mr.
Flagg, however, informed me that “it is found more generally on
the surface of the ground, where there has been straw or some such
substance heaped around the tree.” Still, all such cases as these
are evidently the exception, and not the rule; and there can be little
doubt that the great bulk of this species live underground, and that
it is on the roots that they are to be dreaded, and on the roots that they
are to be fought. |

As long ago as 1848, Mr. Fulton, of Chester Co., Pennsylvania,
found this insect and the knotty swellings produced by it to be so
abundant on nursery trees in his neighborhood, that thousands of
young trees had to be thrown away, and it became difficult to sup-
ply the market. (Downing’s Horticulturist, I11., p. 394.) M. L.
Dunlap (“Rural”), in a letter to the Chicago Tribune, (in August
1858,) writes nearly as follows :—‘“In the orchard of Dr. Long, near
AJton, the ‘Woolly Aphis’ infests the roots in immense numbers, and
by sucking up the sap destroys the trees, which in its effect has much
the appearance of dry rot. Dr. Long erroneously attributes the death
of his trees to water standing about the roots.” Mr. Jordan, one of
the St. Louis nurserymen, informs me that at this present day he is
greatly troubled with it on his land, so that he finds it difficult to get
enough of clean roots to graft with. According to Dr. Hull, “it is
one of the worst enemies against which our apple-trees have to con-
tend, and is much more common in our region than is generally sup-
posed.” (Agr. Rep. Mo. Append. p. 451.) In the summer of 1867

76

Mr. O. B. Galusha, as one of the ad interim committee of the Illinois
State Horticultural Society, visited Cobden, South Illinois, and col-
jected large quantities of the roots infested by this Plant-louse, which
he transmitted to Mr. C. V. Riley for examination, expressing the
opinion, at the same time, that “the destruction of the apple-orchards,
in this vicinity, by this insect, or by the fungus that accompanies its
operations, seems inevitable, unless a remedy is soon discovered.”
(Prairie Farmer, June, 1867, p. 3897.) When I was at Cobden my-
self, in November, 1867, I personally examined the orchard of Mr.
Paul Wright, and found that small groups of apple-trees had been
killed by this Plant-louse in several directions, some of them having
perished with the half-matured fruit still hanging on their boughs.
In one spot of ground no less than nine trees, all in one square patch,
had been killed by it; and separated therefrom by only a single row
of living trees, there were two or three more dead trees. Digging down
to the roots of the live trees, that intervened between these two gaps in
the orchard, I found at once great numbers of the enemy—none of
them, however, in the winged state—and also abundance of roots,
clubbed, knotted and distorted, in almost every imaginable form, by
their punctures. On examining the trees, that had been killed, sev-
eral months previously in the summer, I found that their roots were
now completely rotted, so that nothing remained of them but a few
short snags attached to the butt, and the first high wind that came
would necessarily blow the tree over. On the dead and decayed roots
of such trees, I found, of course, no Root-lice; but Mr. Wright assured
me that they were to be met with on the roots in great numbers in the
summer, when the trees first began to droop and wither. Among the
living roots on which I had found living Root-lice, there were a few
roots as completely dead and rotten as those of the dead trees.

At first I imagined that every tree must have been infected, when
it was originally received from the nursery. But Mr. Carpenter sub-
sequently informed me, that he had found the insect in abundance on
the roots of seedling apple-trees, in the autumn following the spring
when the seed was sown; and another fruit-grower told me, that he
had seen it on the roots of seedling apple-trees, when no other apple-
trees were within 200 yards, and on land lately reclaimed from the
forest. Clearly, therefore, the insect must pass from tree to tree,
either in the winged form which Dr. Fitch found it to assume in
October, in the State of New York, or by some of the wingless indi-
viduals, that inhabit the trunk or limbs, being blown to and fro by
the winds through the instrumentality of the light, feathery down,
which exudes from their bodies. Probably the species has always

77

existed on the roots of certain forest-trees in this whole region of
country; and when apple-orchards began to be planted, it emigrated
on to the apple-trees.

This rotting away of the roots, which, as it appears, had been
noticed as long ago as 1858 by Mr. Dunlap, and attributed to its true
cause, is popularly known in South Illinois as “rotten-root,” and was,
at one time, considered as a mere natural decay, superinduced by the
system of root-grafting now so very generally adopted in the West;
while, as we have seen, Dr. Long, of Alton, attributed it to the oper-
ation of stagnant water on the roots.* The “Early Harvest” apple
is said to be peculiarly subject to this mortal malady. Similar cases,
where insects give the preference to one particular variety, or avoid one
particular variety of a cultivated plant, are common in Economic
Entomology. For example, the Colorado Potato-bug (Doryphora
10-lineata, Say) is known to avoid the Peach-blow Potato, and, as
has been already shown, (above, page 28), the Rose-bug prefers the
Clinton to all other grape-vines.

But although the more southern parts of Illinois are far worse
afflicted by this insect than the northern counties, yet it exists and does
considerable damage even in North Illinois. Mr. Kinney, the Rock
Island nurseryman, informs me that he has often noticed a woolly
louse, which can be nothing else but this species, on the roots of his
young apple-trees, along with just such knots and swellings as it
usually produces elsewhere, and he has himself lost four or five bear-
ing apple-trees, and knows of 20 or 25 others that have been lost by
his neighbors, through what, from his description, must be the same
“rotten-root” that prevails so extensively in South Illinois. Mr. L.
Woodard, nurseryman, of McHenry Co., North Illinois, also told me,
that he had occasionally noticed a few woolly lice on the roots of his

*Mr. Riley infurms me that apple-trees, and more especially those that .-
are young, sometimes die in South Illinois “with their roots ENTIRE and dis-
colored throughout from the surface-mark downwards,’ but with “no trace
of any insect whatever ;” and that this very distinct disease is “known in the
West and by Warder, Flagg and others as ‘Rotten-root.’” I am quite con-
fident that the dead trees, with their roots almost entirely rotten, in Mr.
Wright’s orchard were killed by the Root-louse; and the peculiar appearance
which they presented has been already described, so that it can be recognized
with facility. But I by no means wish to be understood as asserting, that
every apple-tree that dies in South Illinois dies of the Root-louse. Perhaps,
under the popular name of ‘“Rotten-root,” two very distinct affections of the
roots of the Apple-tree have been confounded together, the one caused by the
Root-louse. and the other arising from unknown causes. I hope to investigate
this question more fully during the coming season.

78

young apple-trees accompanied by the usual deformation of the root.
Mr. Ira L. Bailey, President of the Carroll County Horticultural So-
ciety, North Illinois, likewise informed me that he had himself lost
three large apple-trees by the same universal “rotten-root.” And fin-
ally I heard that Dr. Pennington, the extensive fruit-grower of
Whiteside Co., North Illinois, had sometimes noticed “woolly plant-
lice” on the limbs of his apple-trees, but not in any considerable num-
bers. Hence there is pretty satisfactory evidence that this insect
exists, though apparently in greatly reduced numbers, up to the most
northerly parts of the State.

I found it to be a very general notion at Cobden, that the soil
there was full of this Root-louse—that it existed in earth that con-
tained no roots at all and in old rotten stumps—and that it was
abundant on the roots of almost all forest-trees, especially on those of
the Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). No plant-louse, however,
can possibly live, except on the sap of some living and growing plant;
and therefore, if any of these Root-lce are found in old dead stumps,
ete., they must, for purposes which will be afterwards explained, have
been carried there by the ants; as I have ascertained to be actually
the case with certain other species of the very same genus. That there
is a Plant-louse infesting the roots of the Persimmon in that neigh-
borhood, I fully believe; because, on digging down among the roots
of that tree, Mr. Riley and myself discovered the peculiar bluish-
white mould, which is characteristic of Root-lice, though we failed to
find the insect itself. But it is impossible that this can be the same
species as infests the Apple-tree, because the Persimmon and the Ap-
ple-tree, belong to widely distinct botanical families; and it is a rule
to which there is not one solitary exception, that, when a particular
species of Plant-lice infests more than one species of plants, those
species of plants always belong to the same botanical family, and
usually to the same botanical genus. For the same reason, if any
Root Plant-lice are found on Oak, Beech, Ash, Mulberry, Sassafras,
Tulip-tree (Poplar,) Cucumber-tree, Elm, Hickory, Walnut, Birch,
Poplar (Cottonwood, etc.,) Hackberry, Sumac, Dogwood, Grape-vine,
Sycamore (Plane-tree,) Hazel, Basswood, Maple, etc., they cannot
possibly belong to the same species as infests the Apple-tree, and, if
transferred to the roots of the Apple-tree, they would soon starve to
death and perish. On the other hand, it is highly probable, that
the very same species, that infests the roots of the Apple-tree, infests
also the roots of the Crab and the Thorn; and it may possibly occur
on those of the Plum, the Cherry and the Peach, and even on those
of the Blackberry and the Raspberry; for all these last named plants

79

belong to the same botanical family as the Apple-tree. It is obsery-
able, however, that although Apple-trees and Peach-trees are com-
monly grown in the same orchard near Cobden, yet I did not hear
of a single case, where the roots or bark of the Peach-tree had been
found to be infested by this insect, or any other at all resembling it.

Persons, who are not familiar with the habits and classification
of Insects, are apt to think that all Plant-lice—different as some of
them are in shape, color, size and habits—are mere varieties of one
and the same species; just as all dogs, however much they may differ
from one another in such respects, yet belong to one and the same
species. But it is by no means so. Whatever food one variety of
Dog will live on, another variety of Dog will live on equally well.
But shift the Apple-tree Plant-louse on to a Cherry-tree, or the
Cherry-tree Plant-louse on to a Plum-tree, or the Plum-tree Plant-
louse on to a Peach-tree, and it will before many days die of starva-
tion. Yet these trees all belong to the same botanical Family. Dr.
Fitch has remarked that the imported species of Plant-louse, that
inhabits the tame Cherry-tree, cannot live even upon any of our
wild Cherry-trees, and that even the wild Black Cherry (Cerasus
serotina) and the Choke-cherry (Cerasus virginiana), closely related
as they are, are inhabited by distinct species. (NV. Y. Rep. I. p. 131.)
Again: the Currant and the Gooseberry belong to the same genus.
The Currant is notoriously infested by a Plant-louse (Aphis ribis,
Linneus) which has been imported along with that shrub from
Europe. Yet, although these two plants are often grown in gardens
side by side, nobody ever saw any plant-lice of any kind on the
Gooseberry, much less the true Currant Plant-louse. Yet, if the
same species of Plant-louse can feed almost indiscriminately upon
any kind of plant, why does not the Currant Plant-louse emigrate
on to the Gooseberry? I have myself observed that different species
of Plant-lce (Apis) inhabit different species of Oak; for example,
the Handsome Plant-louse (Aphis bella, Walsh) is peculiar to the
Black Oak, (Quercus tinctoria,) where, since I described the species,
I have found it in abundance in company with its larva; and an un-
described species of the same genus, with remarkably stout branch-
veins to its front wings, is peculiar to the Swamp White Oak, (Quer-
cus prinus, var. discolor.)

As regards the Root Plant-lice, we know but very little of the
species found in this country, because, like other underground insects,
they are hidden from our observation in the bowels of the earth.
Indeed, besides the species now under discussion, the only other de-
scribed North American species are two, which I myself was the first

&0

to discover and describe in the winged state, and which I found to be
carried home by certain Ants to the nests inhabited by the young
larve of these Ants, for the sake of the sweet, woolly matter secreted
by them, and thence carried back again to the roots on which they
fed—just as a dairyman drives his cows up to be milked and then
drives them back again to pasture.* Both these species are quite dis-
tinct from the Apple-root Plant-louse; and I am acquainted with
several others, but only in the wingless state, which are also quite
distinct from that insect. As to the true “Woolly Plant-louse” of
the Apple-tree, the European entomologist Blot says, that “it can only
live upon the Apple-tree, and if transplanted upon any other tree,
it very soon perishes. (Amyot and Serv., Hemipt., p. 610.)

What is probably THE WINGLESS FEMALE FORM of this APPLE-ROOT PLANT-
LOUSE measures, when fully grown, about 0.07 inch long, at which time, after
removing the white down, it is of a dull lead color, The antennz are indis-
tinetly 6-jointed, with the length of the joints proportioned nearly as 2, 2, 4,
2, 2, 3, the last joint including a short terminal seta (unguiculus). The
beak extends to the base of the middle legs.

The color of THE YOUNG LARVA is dull yellowish, as described by Fitch.
The antenne are indistinctly 5-jointed, the joints nearly equal, joint 3 a little
the longest, and 5 with a minute terminal seta. When the larva is very young
indeed, the beak is longer than the body, and projects behind so as to re-
semble at first sight, the honey-tube of the genus Aphis and its allies. When
older, the beak is about two-thirds as long as the body.

[ have not yet obtained THE WINGED FORM OF THE FEMALE; but a full
description of it is given by Fitch. It occurred in New York on October 29th.
(Ne Youitep: I pp. 9—101)

After a group of these lice has been stationed on a root in the
open air for two or three days, they become completely enveloped in
a white cottony mass, the filaments of which are five or six times as
long as the insects themselves, and, though somewhat crinkled and
irregular, radiate in general from the body of the insect as from a
centre. Attached to this mass may almost always be seen one or
two globules of sap, such as we often meet with rolling about among
the powdery matter secreted by the plant-lice that inhabit “‘Galls.”
Dr. Fitch figures and describes the cottony matter as protruding only
from the tip of the abdomen of the larva; (NV. Y. Rep. I. p. 9;) but
in reality it proceeds in an infinity of very fine filaments from the
general upper surface of the insect, though perhaps, as stated by Mr.
Riley, it is secreted rather more densely on the hinder portion of the
back. Most certainly it is not secreted exclusively either from the

*See Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. I. pp. 307—8; and Trans. Ill. State Agr. Soc.
V. pp. 493—4.

=

81

mouth or from the tail; for I have had hundreds of these lice sucking
away at apple-roots in a glass vase for a month, and have thus been
enabled carefully to study the mode in which the cottony matter is
produced. So far as regards the winged insect, Dr. Fitch expressly
says that “the head and the abdomen on its back are covered with a
dense mass of flocculent down ;” (ibid.;) and Dr. Harris, speaking of
the larva of the true Woolly Plant-louse, says that the cottony down
“seems to issue from all the pores of the skin of the abdomen.” (Jnj.
Ins. p. 243.)

Dr. A. 8. Packard, junr., of Maine, has’ published some very
amusing and sprightly banter, in ridicule of my theory, that the co-
coon of all Gall-gnats (Cecidomyia) is exuded from the general sur-
face of their bodies, not, as in the case of Caterpillars, etc., spun from
the mouth, which this author maintains to be the true theory in the
case of Gall-gnats. If he had given himself the trouble to read the
paragraphs which he undertakes to criticise, he would have seen that,
in the ease of two distinct species of Gall-gnats, the fact of the cocoon
being exuded and not spun has been proved by actual observation by
Winnertz and by Osten-Sacken.* And as to his disbelief in the pos-
sibility of any cocoon being exuded from the general surface of the
body, if he had ever examined with his own eyes any of these Woolly
root-feeding Plant-lice, he would have seen at once that the woolly
matter is not secreted from the mouth, nor even from the tail, but
from the general surface of the body. Many other larve do the same
thing. On May 25th I found in a nest of Yellow Ants (Formica
aphidicola, Walsh,) situated in the decayed stump of a Honey-locust
several remarkable woolly larvae, which a month afterwards produced
a species of Ladybird (Hyperaspis punctata, Melsh.) These larvee
were covered on the back with dense white cottony down, precisely like
that of root-lice; on removing some of which lightly with a moist
camel's hair pencil, little globules of a yellowish fluid started out
from the skin of the larva, evidently from the same pores from which
the cottony down had previously exuded. This is the only genus of
Ladybirds (Coccinella family) known to me, the larvae of which
exude matter of this precise description from their bodies; but it was
long ago discovered that in another genus (Scymmnus) the larvee have
their bodies garnished with whitish cottony tufts; and on examination
it will be found that these tufts also are mere secretions from the
pores of the body, and not organized appendages like the hairs of a
caterpillar or the scales on the wings of a butterfly. The bluish white

*Compare my Paper Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. III. pp. 560, 562 and Dr. Pack-
ard’s paper ibid. VI. pp. 214—5.

82

powdery matter, which is well known to form gradually on the out-
side of the bodies of certain male Dragon-flies (Libellula and Agrion
families) as they approach maturity, and also on those of several other
insects belonging to other Families and Orders, for instance the so-
called Locusts (Cicada family,) must manifestly be produced on simi-
lar principles. And, as we have seen in the case of the larva of the
common Oyster-shell Bark-louse, the powdery bloom and the cottony
floss, spoken of above, are met with at the very same time and in the
very same insect; both of them proceeding, not from the mouth nor
even from the tail, but from the general surface of the body.

It is scarcely worth while, however, to argue such points as these
with a writer, who is actually so ill-informed as to assert that “every-
body knows that the silk spun by insects is exuded through the mouth.”
(Dr. Packard’s Paper, p. 214.) It is very true that it is so in the
case of caterpillars, etc.; but in the case of the Ant-lions (Myrme-
leon,) the Caddice-ilies (ryganea,) the Lacewing-flies (Chrysopa,)
and probably of all true Neuroptera, as distinguished from the Pseudo-
neuroptera, everybody knows, or ought to know, that it is “exuded,”
not from the mouth, but from the tail.* Moreover, all the spiders
without exception—which group of Articulate Animals Dr. Packard,
in common with the school to which he belongs, classifies as Insects
—also spin from spinnerets placed, not in their mouths, but in their
tails. Yet, because this writer had happened perhaps, one or twice
in his life, to see a caterpillar spin from its mouth, he jumps to the
conclusion—with the same propensity for sweeping generalizations
that characterizes everything that he has published—that all insects
without exception spin from the mouth! ! !

From the enormous rate at which all Plant-lice multiply, it is
plain that, if there were no check upon the increase of this species, it
would, in a few years’ time, destroy every apple-tree in South Illinois.
But, in all probability, there does exist one such check, at all events.
Right in the middle of a little colony of these Root-lice I discovered
in November the pupa of what I am pretty sure is a Syrphus Fly;
and Mr. Riley, to whom I showed the specimen, told me that he had
formerly found great numbers of the larva of the same species among
the infested roots—that he had reared it to the pupa state—but that
he could never succeed in breeding it to the winged state. Apparently,
this is the same insect, which, in the Prairie Farmer of June 15th,
1867, that gentleman mentions as, “having been always found by him

*See Kirby & Spence’s /ntroduction, letter 13th, end; letter 21st, near
the end; Fitch, N. Y. Rep. I. p. 79; Shimer Proc. Ent. Sor. Phil. IV. p. 210.

83

in conjunction with this Root-louse, though he had failed to breed
it,’ and which he there describes as “a footless maggot five or six
times as large as the Root-louse, and of a dirty yellow color, attenuated —
at both ends, the head being quite retractile;” and which he after-
wards pronounces to be “doubtless the larva of a Cecidomyia, the same
Family to which the Hessian Fly belongs,” and to “take some part,
probably, in inducing the deformities of the roots.” But certainly
the insect that I showed to Mr. Riley does not even belong to the
same great group of the Two-winged Flies as the Gall-gnats (Cecid-
omyia,) inasmuch as it has what is called a “coarctate’” pupa; (see
above p. 39;) and I feel pretty confident that it will prove to be
the Cannibal appointed by Nature to prey upon these unruly root-
feeders, and keep them within reasonable bounds. The Syrphus
* family, however, to which it apparently belongs, includes many genera,
which, in the preparatory states, can scarcely be distinguished from
each other, and some of which feed upon decaying animal and vege-
table substances, (Xylola, etc.,) while others (Syrphus, Scava, Volu
cella, etc.,) are Cannibals and feed upon other insects. In any
case I hope before next summer is over, to solve the mystery
definitively, by rearimg the winged Fly from the pupa which I found.
If, as I confidently anticipate, it should prove to belong to one of the
‘Cannibal genera of the Syrphus family, the reason why Mr. Riley
failed to breed it becomes manifest at once. He supposed it to feed
upon vegetable matter, and therefore his specimens, being, in all prob-
ability, not supplied with a due allowance of their natural diet—the
Root-lice—perished of starvation. Such accidents often happen to
the most experienced breeders of larvae; and, moreover, almost all
Cannibal larvee are much harder to breed than plant-feeding larvee.
In quoting what I believe to be a mistake made by Mr. Riley in
regard to the above larva, I intend no disrespect whatever to that in-
dustrious and intelligent entomologist. There is not an entomologist,
living or dead, in any country of the known world, who has not, at
one time or another, made such mistakes; and I am not ashamed to
confess, that I have repeatedly myself blundered in the same manner.
For example, I once took the dead and dried-up larva of a small Galk
gnat (Cecidomyia) for the larva of a Gall-Fly (Cynips;) but, as soon
as I discovered my error, | embraced the earliest opportunity of
acknowledging it in print. And here lies the difference between the
men that write for victory and the men that write for truth. The lat-
ter frankly confess their errors as soon as they become aware of them ;
the former claim to be infallible, and never will allow that they have
been in the wrong. I could name an entomologist of deservedly high

84

standing in America, who has published, within the last twenty-five
years, several volumes about insects, and has therefore, of course, made
several mistakes in the course of his scientific career which have been
from time to time corrected by other entomologists in print. Yet,
from one end to the other of his works, no man can point out a single
passage, where he has ever acknowledged himself to have been in the
wrong. Like the horse-jockey in the old story, having once said that
the horse was 16 feet, not 16 hands high, he will never go back on his
word.

As to remedies against this insidious little pest, I believe that
the cheapest and best one will be to drench the roots of infested trees
with boiling water. Mr. C. T. Farrell, of Cobden, informed me that
he had tried this prescription—which was originally recommended by
Mr. Riley—and that he had found it effectual. Ashes, which have
been advised to be used by Dr. Fitch, he found of no use; but a strong
wash of soap and water proved to be generally, though not always,
effectual. Other gentlemen had found the free application of un-
leached ashes injurious to their trees. There need be no apprehen-
sion that hot water, when applied to the roots, will kill or injure the
tree; for it has been extensively used without any ill effects to kill the
borer in peach-trees, and to kill the maggots in young growing onions.
Indeed, it is a very general law that vegetable organisms will, for a
short time, stand a much higher temperature than animal organisms,
without any injury to their tissues; and, in certain cases, boiling
water seems actually to stimulate the vitality of seeds, instead of im-
pairing it. For it is well known that neither Locust seeds (Robinia)
nor Honey-locust seeds (Gleditschia) will grow the first year, unless
they are scalded, and that, if they are scalded, they germinate as
freely as Maize. As regards Honey-locust seeds, J am assured of the
truth of this fact by Mr. Whitney, of Lee Co., in North Illinois.

Before young apple-trees, especially those raised in the Southern
part of the State, are planted, the roots should always be soaked a
considerable time, either in a strong solution of soap, or in strong
tobacco-water—the latter would probably be the more effectual of the
two. ‘Thus, if the insect is not already in the vicinity, it may be pre-
vented, perhaps, for a long series of years, from getting there; for
whatever root-lice may exist on the roots of the young trees, will, by
this means, be effectually destroyed before these young trees go into
the ground.

~~

‘ 85

INSECTS INFESTING THE PLUM.—On the Fruit.
CHAPTER XI.—TxHE Pium CurcuLio. (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Herbst.)

In the Practical Entomologist (Vol. II. pp. 75—79)T have dilated
so fully on the Natural History of this pestilent: little Snout-beetle,
and on the most approved methods of fighting it, that it will only be
necessary to add a few items here on these two subjects, and to cor-
rect such errors as I have fallen into.

Although the Curculio now infests the cultivated species of Plum
: (Prunus domestica, Linneus,) to fully as great an extent as our com-
mon wild species (Prunus americana,) yet it is only at a compara-
tively recent date that it attacked our cultivated Plums, and since
that epoch it has-been growing every year worse and worse, and
making onslaughts upon other fruits such as the Peach, the Cherry,
‘and even the Apple. ‘“Curculios,” said the Hon. D. J. Baker, in
1855, “were unknown and never made their incursion into this re-
gion, until some years after the organization of our State Govern-
ment,” A. D. 1818. (Transactions Illinois State Agricultural So-
ciety, II. p. 48.) There can be little doubt, however, that Curculios
have existed for time immemorial in our State, breeding in wild
.plums; because, before tame plums and peaches and apricots were
imported into this country from Europe, the insect must necessarily
have bred in the wild plum, and wild plums are very abundant in
Illinois, and moreover we know, from our present experience, that the
climate of Illinois is quite congenial to the constitution of this insect.
It would certainly, therefore, seem to follow that, in this as in so
many other cases, when an insect has incidentally acquired a habit of
feeding indiscriminately upon a different species of plants, to that
upon which alone it naturally fed in the first instance, it transmits
that habit by the laws of inheritance to its immediate descendants.
When a race has once been formed, having such a habit, nothing seems
more natural than that, under certain peculiar circumstances, such
for instance as the absence of the original food-plant, another race
should be very slowly and gradually formed, which exclusively attacks
the new food-plant. If we suppose this second race to interbreed ex-
clusively with itself, and to have thereby acquired, in a long series of
ages, either a moral indisposition or a physical incapacity to interbreed
with individuals belonging to the original race, then it becomes almost
as effectually isolated from the original race, as if it were separated
therefrom by the Atlantic Ocean, or by such an insurmountable bar-
rier as the Rocky Mountains. Now, we know that races of insects,
and indeed of other animals as well, when separated from each other

86

by such physical barriers, often run into what are technically termed
“geographical races;” that is, come to differ constantly from each
other in more or less slight peculiarities of size, form, or color. Hence
it is but reasonable to suppose, that distinct races of some particular
insect, inhabiting the same geographical area, but feeding upon dis-
tinct plants and never interbreeding with each other, should also, in
a long series of ages, come to differ from one another in size, form, or
color. Such distinct races I have proved to have an actual existence
in numerous cases, and have given them the name of “Phytophagic
Species.”*

I by no means infer that, in the case of the Snout-beetle that in-
fests our Plums, our Peaches, our Cherries and our Apricots, such a
phenomenon has as yet occurred, and that the plum-feeding form is
a different species from the cherry-feeding form, and that again from
the peach-feeding form, and so on. ‘There is no reason whatever to
think so. But there actually, in my opinion, does exist a “Phyto-
phagiec species” of the common Curculio, which is uniformly one-half
larger and which in the larva state feeds, not upon stone-fruit or pip-
fruit, but upon green Butternuts and Walnuts (Juglans,) from the
former of which I bred two individuals August 13th. Of this peculiar
type of Curculio I sent specimens 6 years ago to our great North
American authority in the Order of Beetles, Dr. J. L. LeConte; and
he pronounced them to be mere varieties of the Plum Curculio. They
scarcely differ from that insect in any other perfectly constant char-
acter than size;+ and at first sight we might suppose, that the in-
creased size was caused merely by the Butternuts and Walnuts being
more nourishing and stimulating food than Plums and Peaches; and

*See my Papers on this subject in the Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Philadelphia, Vol. II1. pp. 403—430 and Vol. V. pp. 194—216.

+There is, I believe, a slight, but perfectly constant colorational charac-
ter by which these two forms are distinguishable. The broad band behind the
polished black“ humps on the wing-cases is, in the large-sized nut-inhabiting
form, of a dingy white color with a few milk-white spots. In the small plum-
inhabiting form, this same band is of a bright ochre-vellow color, with more
or less milk-white spots, which last, however, never occupy more than one-
half of the ochre-yellow band. Moreover, I am informed by Dr. Hull, that
the larva of the large-sized form—with which he has long been familiar—oc-
curs with him in hickory-nuts having their shucks marked by the character-
istic crescent-slit. and that this larva “penetrates to the kernel of the nut.”
Whereas, as is well known, the larva of the small-sized form that frequents
the plum, never under any circuinstances penetrates to the kernel of that
fruit. This difference in the habits of the two forms, is certainly very re-
markable.

a

87

that a Curculio bred in a Butternut would be just as likely as not to
lay its eggs in a Plum, and the reverse ; thus showing that here no dis-
tinct “‘Phytophagic species” has yet been formed. This was the opin-
ion of Dr. Fitch; for he says that “the specimens found on Butter-
nut trees are always larger in size than those found on cultivated
fruit-trees, indicating that they have been better fed during the larva
or growing period of their lives.” (Address on Curculio, 1860, p.
17.) But there is a remarkable fact, which proves satisfactorily to my
mind that this cannot be so, and that the two races are perfectly dis-
tinct and do not interbreed, each confining itself strictly to its peculiar
food-plants. The fact is simply this:—I have beaten hundreds and
hundreds of Curculios of the small-sized type off fruiting wild Plum-
trees, but I never yet beat a single specimen of the large-sized type,
which inhabits Butternuts and Walnuts, off a Plum-tree of any spe-
cies or in any state. Of course, if that large-sized type had acquired
no hereditary indisposition or incapacity to breed in Plums, it would
be just as likely to occur on the Plum as on the Butternut or Walnut.
But if, as the facts indicate, it really has acquired such a hereditary
indisposition or incapacity, and if it interbreeds only with its own
race, then—according to what I consider to be the essence of the term
“species” —it is a distinct species. You may, if you please, for the
sake of precision, give it a distinctive appellation, and call it, for ex-
ample, a “Phytophagic species; but still it is, in my acceptation of
the term, a true species.

In the recent much enlarged and improved edition of the “Origin
of Species,” Mr. Darwin has quoted with general approbation my
views upon this very interesting subject, but has incidentally re-
marked that I am “forced to assume that those forms which have lost,
the capacity for intercrossing should be called species.” (Hourth
English edition, pp. 55—6.) This, I think, can scarcely be called an
assumption. It is a definition. Naturalists have been puzzled for
ages to designate satisfactorily what they mean by the term “species,”
and all kinds of loose and shadowy and intangible explanations of the
term have been given; the latest discovery being that of an American
refuter of Darwinism, flourishing in the great city of New York, who
defines a “species” as a “specific form ;” which is much like explain-
ing the term “yellow” by saying that it means “that which possesses
yellowness.” Darwin himself maintains that species are not essen-
tially different from mere varieties. In their origin, I allow that they
are the same; for I believe with Darwin that every species originated
from a variety of some pre-existing species. And I further allow
that there is a transition period, during which it is impossible to say

88

\

whether a particular form is a variety or a species. But that does not
prove that varieties and species are essentially undistinguishable.
Every man was originally a boy; and there is a certain period during
which it is difficult to say whether a particular individual is man or
boy; but that does not prove that manhood is undistinguishable from
boyhood. For myself, more than a year before I published on the
subject of “Phytophagic species,” I announced it as my opinion
that the meaning of the term “distinct species” was simply
“those that do not now in general mix sexually together, or, if geo-
graphically separated, would not do so, supposing them to be placed
in juxtaposition ;” and that “the only valid practical criterion of spe-
cific distinctness is the general non-existence, either actually ascer-
tained or analogically inferred, of intermediate grades in the dis-
tinctive characters, whence we may reasonably infer that the two sup-
posed species are distinct.” (Proceedings Entomological Society
Philadelphia, 1863, I1., p. 220.) It is in this sense, and in this
sense only, that I have ever used the term “species ;” and to call such
a definition an “assumption” seems to me much the same thing as
saying that Euclid assumes a fact, when he defines a circle as a plane
figure having all its external points equidistant from a given internal
point.

But to return from this tedious digression :—It has long been a
puzzle to Naturalists, why the Plum Cureulio should cut the well-
known crescent-shaped slit in the fruit, and why a round hole would
not answer its purpose equally well. Harris and Fitch and other
authors tell us, that “it first makes a small, crescent-shaped incision
with its snout in the skin of the plum, and then, turning round, in-
serts an egg in the wound.”* Misled by these authorities, and never
having personally examined into the point, I copied their statements
in my Paper on the Cureulio. But Mr. F. C. Hill, of Ohio, has since
shown, that we have all of us been in the wrong, and that the Cur-
culio first of all bores a round hole with her snout, “not straight in,
but slanting backwards, so that the cavity is just below the skin, then
deposits her egg in the hole, and then cuts the usual crescent-slit in
front of it, so as to undermine the egg and leave it in a kind of flap,
formed by the little piece of the flesh of the fruit which she has un-
dermined.” (Prac. Entomol. II. p. 115.) Mr. Hill very acutely
suggests, that the object of this complicated process is, “to wilt the
piece around the egg and prevent the growing fruit from crushing it ;”

-

*See Harris’s Injurious Insects, p. 76, and Fitch’s Address on the Cur-
culio, p. 18.

89

and I have no doubt at all that this is the true explanation of the
phenomenon. The same end is attained, as we shall see hereafter,
but by a very different process, in the case of the Plum Gouger
(Anthonomus prunicida, Walsh), an insect belonging to a widely
distinct group of Snout-beetles. It may be added here, that the
“nhytophagic species” of Curculio, that I bred from the green Butter-
nut, makes just the same crescent-cut in the green shuck of that
fruit, as does the Plum Curculio in the flesh of the Plum.

In the Paper already referred to I gave my reasons for the be-
lief, that the Curculio passed the winter in the perfect state. Mr.
Holcomb, of Cobden, South Illinois, has since assured me, that he
also has found the insect under the bark of his trees in the winter.
Still, it was difficult to believe, that beetles coming out in the middle
of July could live all through the winter, and until the middle of the
following June, so as to be able to sting the plums at that period. This
difficulty is now, I think, almost entirely done away with. I find
that there are two distinct broods of the Plum Curculio every year,
the first of which comes out in the beetle state, in the latitude of Rock
Island, from about July 19th to August 4th, and the second from
about August 23d to September 28th. The first brood of beetles,
which is generated by females that have passed the winter in the
beetle state, and have attacked the early fruit, lays in the more ma-
tured fruit the eggs from which proceed the second brood. The sec-
and brood of beetles comes out late in the same season, and the females,
at all events, if not the males, live through the winter, and repeat in
the succeeding season the process detailed above. Thus, as will be
seen at once, the Curculio differs from the Apple-worm or Codling
Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella, Linneus), which, as has been already
shown, is also double-brooded, in this, that the former passes the
winter in the perfect state, and the latter in the larva and pupa states.

After I had made the above discovery, but before I had an-
nounced it to any one, Mr. Holcomb, of South Illinois, at a meeting
of the American Pomological Society at St. Louis, September 12th,
1867, in opposition to the contrary opinion of Dr. Trimble, the State
Entomologist of New Jersey, asserted his belhef that in his neighbor-
hood there were two distinct broods of Curculio. And for this belief
he gave as a reason, that, in jarring his trees for Curculios, he had
observed that there was a particular period in the middle of the sum-
mer, during which no Curculios, or, at all events, but very few, were
to be met with, while both before and after this period they swarmed.
I found, in November, 1867, that many of the other fruit-growers
near Cobden, and perhaps all of them, agreed with Mr. Holcomb upon

90

this matter. I also remark in the Prairie Farmer for July 27th,
1867, (p. 55,) the following from Cobden, signed by “V,” and evi-
dently written shortly after July 20th, 1867. ‘There were scarcely
any Curculios to be found before the recent rains, since which time
they have been coming out of the ground in numbers, and when
caught their wing-cases are usually quite fresh and soft—a fact which
proves that there are exceptions to the rule that this insect is one-
brooded ; for, while it may invariably be so in the North, it is more
frequently two-brooded. in this region.”

Still, it must be evident that all these facts are perfectly consist-
ent with my old hypothesis, namely, that the Curculio is only one-
brooded, and that those that come out of the ground with soft wing-
cases in July, live through the winter and are the same individuals
that sting the plums in the June of the following year, shortly after
which they die, and a more or less brief interval ensues before the
July brood makes its appearance.

Inasmuch as my bare assertion, that there are annually two dis-
tinct broods of Curculios, would very probably be disbelieved or dis-
puted by authors, who have hitherto held the contrary doctrine, it
may be as well—at the risk of being tedious—to give the details of
the experiments upon which my conclusions were based. Those who
have no taste for such dry things as facts and figures, can skip the
two following paragraphs.

EXPERIMENT 1st.—On June 24th, I placed in a large glass vase,
with moist sand at the bottom of it, a quantity of wild plums, every
one of which I had previously ascertained to bear the crescent symbol
of the “little Turk.” During the three following weeks I added from
day to day a number of plums, all of them bearing the same symbol,
that had fallen from a tame plum-tree in my garden. The whole
number of plums, as I subsequently ascertained, was 183, and the
tame fruit probably formed about a fourth part of the whole. The
first Curculio came out July 19th, and with the exception of July 21st
and August Ist, there were more or less came out every day till Aug-
ust 4th, inclusive; after which day no more came out. ‘The numbers
coming out on each successive day were as follows, the very large num-
ber on July 25th having been probably caused by my wetting the
sand on that morning rather copiously: 1, 18, 0, 3, 4, 2, 55, 8, 4,
3,1, 2,1, 0, 5, 4, 2. Total, 113. On examining the contents of
the vase, November 29th, I found five dead and dried-up Curculios
among the plums, and among the sand sixteen dead and immature
specimens, which had obviously failed to make their way up to the
light of day, besides the remains of a good many individuals which

91

had perished in the sand in the larva or pupa state, and were not
counted. The Grand Total from 183 infested plums was, therefore,
134 Curculios in the beetle state, and an unknown number of larve
and pupe.

EXPERIMENT 2d.—On July 27th, or eight days before the Cur-
culios in the preceding experiment had ceased coming out, I placed
in a vase, similar to the above, 243 plums, gathered promiscuously off
some badly-infested wild plum-trees. From this lot no Curculios
whatever came out till August 23d, and from that day until Sep-
tember 14th more or less came out daily, with the exception of five
out of the 23 days, the numbers on the respective days being as fol-
lows oe 12. 28s 29 oF re eR. 8.8) (Oy O.10n' Ly) Og lel
Subsequently, on September 18th, there came out 3, on September
24th, 1, and on September 28th, 1; after which no more made their
appearance. Total, 50 Curculios from 243 plums, some stung and
some not. On examining the contents of this vase on November 29th,
I found a single dead Curculio among the plums, making a Grand
Total of 51 Curculios bred from these plums. There were no speci-
mens, either in larva, pupa or beetle state, to be found among the
sand in the vase on November 29th; which was, perhaps, due to the
contents having kept much moister than those of the first vase, though
on July 25th I had, as I thought, moistened the sand in the first vase
quite sufficiently.

The vases, in both the above two experiments, were examined
daily, and the results noted down in my Journal, except during a
three-days’ absence trom home, August 11th—13th, at the end of
which time, however, not a single Curculio had come out. Since,
therefore, it appears that in large lots of plums, gathered or picked
up at various times from June 24th to July 27th, the Curculio ceased
coming out for a period of no less than nineteen days, before and af-
ter which period it continued to come out for a long while as regu-
larly as we could reasonably anticipate, the inference is unavoidable,
that there must have been some cause for the long intermission in its
coming out. But I do not see that it is possible to account for this
intermission on any other hypothesis, than that of there being two dis-
tinct broods. Therefore I infer that there are two distinct broods,
the second of which is, of course, generated by the first.

The Curculos, bred from Black-knot in New England, by Prof.
Peck, in 1818, are said to have come out July 30th, and a little later
(Harris nj. Ins., p. 79.) Those bred in Canada West, from the same
substance, by Mr. Beadle, in 1860, are said to have come out frora
the beginning of July to August 10th. (Fitch Address on Curculio,

92

p. 25.) According to Dr. Fitch, who lives about 110 miles further
north than I do—where, consequently, as also in the two cases just
quoted, the seasons would be a little later than with me—most of the
Curculios that breed in the plum “leave the fruit and enter the
ground in the early part of July, some not leaving for probably two
or three weeks afterwards.” “They remain,” he continues, “in the
ground about three weeks. Hence, it is during the latter part of July
that the most of them come out in the perfect state.” (Jbid., p. 20.)
This last writer was evidently not aware, that Curculios may be bred
both from Plum and from Black-knot to as late a period as the latter
end of September and hence, believing that the species must necessa-
rily be double-brooded, he mistook for young Curculio-larve certain
minute bodies, that he found in the autumn embedded in a slit
in a pear-twig. But these were very probably, I think, not Jarve, at

all, hut the eggs of some smali Leaf-hopper (Tettigonia family,) and

perhaps those of my Culprit Leaf-hopper (Chloroneura malefica,
Walsn), which agree precisely with his description, and which I have
described as common both on apple-twigs and pear-twigs.* Be this as
it may, with no further proof than a general resemblance between the
crescent-slit made in plums by the Curculio, and the slit containing
minute elongate bodies which he once found in a pear-twig, and with-
out any attempt to breed the perfect insect from these minute bodies,
Dr. Fitch has jumped to the astounding conclusion, that the Curculio
passes the winter in the larva state inside the twigs of trees. t

Making due allowance for the difference of latitude, it is plain
that, in the above-quoted three cases, where Curculios were bred by
three different individuals, in New England, in Canada West, and in
New York respectively, all that were bred coincided in the time of
their appearance with the first brood that I bred at Rock Island, be-
tween the 19th of July and the 4th of August, 1867. I myself in
1865 bred seven Curculios from’ Black-knot, as I have recorded in the
Practical Entomologist (Vol. I. p. 50,) the first of which came out
July 22d and the last September 24th; but unfortunately I have
since destroyed the record of the dates at which the remaining five
made their appearance, with the exception of an entry on my Jour-
nal, that the second specimen of the seven came out as late as August
dist, and must therefore, as well as the four following specimens,
have belonged to the second brood.

*See my Articles Prairie Farmer, Sept. 6, 1862, and April 4, 1863, p. 212,
in which last there is given a figure of anapple-twig containing these egg-slits.

+See Address on Curculio, pp. 23—4, and N.Y. Rep., II.,§ 52.

_

a

93

The practical inference to be drawn from the above discovery 1s
this:—I said in my Paper on Curculios that, “by destroying the
wormy fruit you do not diminish the crop of Curculios for the current
year, but only that for the ensuing year.” This was stated on the
hypothesis of the species being single-brooded. Now that we know
that it is double-brooded, it must be evident that, by destroying in
June and early in July, before the larve have left the fruit and gone
underground, the wormy fruit that produces the first brood of beetles,
you prevent that first brood of beetles from puncturing the fruit so
as to generate the second brood, and consequently you do “diminish
the crop of Curculios for the current year.”

It is a mistake to suppose that no plum contains more than one
Cureulio egg. I counted no less than five plums, that had fallen off
my tame Plum-tree, every one of which bore on its surface five Cur-
culio crescents; and in a wild Plum I once (July 28th) counted as
many as nine. It must not be imagined, either, that the Curculio
ever cuts these crescent-slits by way of food for itself. It does really
feed, in the perfect beetle state, on the flesh of the unripe plum, as I
ascertained by putting a number of Curculios into a bottle along with
some unripe plums that were unwounded by any insect. But, instead
of cutting a curved slit for this purpose, it gouges out with its beak
a gaping, hemispherical hole, varying in size from that of a radish-
seed to that of a small pea. I formerly supposed that it was the
Plum-gouger that gouged these holes; but-—as will be shown below—
that species taps the Plum for food on an entirely different system.

Holes in the plum, very similar to those made for the sake of
food by the Curculio, are likewise made by the external-feeding larva

of a small brown Butterfly (probably Thecla falacer, Bdv. and Lec.,).

of which I bred two damaged specimens on June 15th, 1865, from
larvee that fed in this manner on the plum, and had been sent me by
Mr. James Ferrel of Muscatine, Lowa, as “quite numerous” on certain
plum-trees.

THE Larva of the Plum Curculio (Fig. 3c), when 0.07 inch long, is 4 or 5
times as long as wide, and of a glassy-white color with a rust-red stomach
occupying the middle one-half of its body, and a few pale hairs towards its
tail. The head is large and horny, and tinged with yellow, and the mouth
is rust-red, with the jaws (mandibles) large and often opening and shutting
in a vicious-looking manner, as with many other larve belonging to this
family. ;

I do not believe that there is any parasitic insect whatever that
preys upon the Curculio. If there had been, so many Curculios as I
have bred, I think that I should have met with it. Dr. Fitch, indeed,
has figured and described a small chnewmon-fly under the name of

94

“the Curculio Parasite” (Sigalphus curculionis) of which he asserts
that “‘each one of these Flies punctures and destroys probably more
than a hundred Cureulio worms.” (Addr. Curcul. p. 26.) But the
only proof that he gives of such parasitism is, that he received the
Parasites from a Canadian correspondent, who had bred it from
Black-knot from which he bred at the same time a certain number of
Curculios. Now it so happens that my Plum Moth (Semasia pruniv-
ora, Walsh,) of which I shall have more to say in Chapter 13th, also
breeds in Black-knot as well as in Plums; and it belongs to a group
of sinall Moths, (L’ortricide,) which I know to be infested by Ich-
neumon-flies very closely allied to the so-called “Curculio Parasite.”

Nay, farther. From the lot of plums gathered July 27th, from which |

I bred 51 Curculios, I also bred about the same time no less than 13
specimens of this Plum Moth, and, on August 23d, 1 specimen of the
identical “Curculio Parasite” described by Dr. Fitch. But from the
lot of plums gathered June 24th and subsequently, which produced
the very large number of 134 Curculios, besides a number that died
in the larva and pupa state, I bred no Plum Moths at all and no
Parasites at all. "Taking all these facts into consideration, I have
every reason to believe, that this so-called “Curculio Parasite” preys
upon the Plum Moth, and not upon the Plum Curculio. And if we
are to subdue the Curculio by the aid of either Cannibal or Parasitic
insects, we must probably look in some other direction than that to
which Dr. Fitch has called our attention.

Dr. Trimble, in the first volume of his work on “Fruit Insects,”
(pp. 77 and 85,) asserts that the Baltimore Oriole or Hanging-bird
(Icterus Baltimorensis, Linnzus)—an animal very obnoxious to some
most intelligent Illinois fruit-growers—preys upon the Curculio. I be-
lieve that this is a mistake. Dr. Trimble has an unfortunate crotchet
in his head, that every true Plum Curculio has got exactly 147 facets
or lenses in each of its compound eyes, never more and never less; and
a veritable Curculio which I once sent him he would not allow to be
a true Plum Curculio at all, because it happened to have either a
greater humber or a smaller number—I forget which—of facets to
its eyes, than the orthodox number of 147 prescribed in the Gospel!
according to St. Trimble. To what species it did really belong, he
did not undertake to say; but perhaps he would like to grind out of
his Scientific Mill a new and hitherto undescribed and unnamed
species, for every deficient or additional facet in the eyes of a large
lot of veritable Curculios. Be this as it may, his only reason for
thinking that this wicked, cherry-stealing, grape-devouring bird, the
Baltimore Oriole, does really feed upon the true Plum Curculio is,

ee
=

95

that he once found in the craw of one of them the head of some kind
or other of Snout-beetle, the eye of which contained exactly 147 facets.
Therefore, according to the Doctor’s peculiar crotchet, it was a true
Plum Curculio. Therefore the Baltimore Oriole habitually eats
Curculios. Therefore, we must not kill the Baltimore Oriole, no
matter how many grapes and cherries it may steal or spoil. There-
fore the Illinois Legislature has done right, in fining every man $5
for every Baltimore Oriole, otherwise called Hanging-bird, that he
may be forced to kill, not in self-defense, but in cherry-defense and
grape-defense. Which was the thing to be proved.

If closely analyzed, it would be found that a large proportion of
the so-called facts, on the strength of which we are commanded to pro-
tect all manner of fruit-destroying birds, are based upon foundations
as flimsy and as unreliable, as those upon which Dr. Trimble erected
his Baltimore castle-in-the-air.

I dilated so fully in the Practical Entomologist on the best
methods of fighting the Curculio, that nothing remains to be said on
that subject.* Volumes might be filled with accounts of the different
quack remedies, that have been strongly recommended for this pur-
pose; but the reader will probably be satisfied with the following, with
which I shall beg leave to conclude the subject.

CurcULIO AND Gas-Tar. “The remedies for the Curculio the
present season are more numerous than usual. There is seldom any
of them worthy attention. The last one appears in a Williamsport
paper, from a gardener, who says it is a SURE PREVENTIVE. It is this:
“Take a quantity of corn-cobs, with a wire around, terminating in a
hook at the end of the cobs; then dip them into gas-tar until they are
well saturated. Hang a dozen or more on the tree in different parts,
and no Curculio will disturb the tree. We heard of this remedy 6

*I cannot resist the temptation of quoting here from the Transactions of
the Alton Horticultural Society, February 7, 1868, some very valuable re-
marks by Dr. E. 8. Huii, on the employment of lime to quell the curculio:

“A few years since, the Jime remedy was quite generally received, as a
sure protection to the plum. At the time of its appearance in print, we were
operating with our Curculio-Catcher, and at once discontinued its use on
several of our trees, and made a most thorough trial of the lime, which at
first promised to be a success. It did not seem to deter the Curculio from
depositing its eggs in the plums, but they did not hatch. Later, the weather
becoming dry, the succeeding deposits did hatch, and the larve penetrated
the plums as freely as in those not limed. Further experiments with the
lime proved that, so long as the weather was wet, the lime, or the caustic
properties of the lime, was imparted to the water, and entered the perforation
in which the eggs were deposited and destroyed them, but was of no value in ~
dry weather.”

96

or 8 years ago, tried it thoroughly, and it had about as much effect
upon the Curculio as if the cobs had been dipped in molasses. We
mounted one of the trees, and saw the insect at work upon a plum
within 3 inches of the tar. We do not believe that a single one was
disturbed by it. Not a single plum escaped.”—Germantown (Pa.)
Telegraph, quoted in Farmers’ Advertiser, Sept. 16, 1867.

CURCULIO AND Gas-TAr.—‘T tried, the past season, gas-tar thor-
oughly, to keep my plums from being stung by the Cureulio. I
steeped corn-cobs in the tar and hung them all through the trees. It
did no good whatever. I often caught the little rascal working over
and all around the plums, close to the cobs. They paid it no atten-
tion, though you could smell it for rods. A neighbor tried it with
utter failure. It is a humbug.”—Z. S. F., Rolling Prairie, Wis., in
Western Rural, Dec. 7, 1867.

CuRCULIO AND CoaL-Tar.— Having read a statement some time
since, that corn-cobs saturated with coal-tar, and suspended from the
branches of plum-trees, would keep the little Turk away from the
plums, I resolved to try the experiment. I procured a keg of coal-
tar and a quantity of cobs, and, after tying a string around each, put
them into the tar, and repaired to a favorite plum-tree, prepared to
carry the war directly into the enemy’s dominions. I first spread
sheets under the tree, hammered and shook the rascals out, and gave
them the most affectionate treatment. Then, after much tribulation,
arising from the fact that the vile stuff would keep dripping from the
cobs, and would get upon the strings, reducing my hands and person
to much the condition of the cobs, I got them suspended; I mean the
cobs, not the hands or the person. I also tied a newspaper loosely
around the body of the tree, and smeared it also with tar; then set
the keg at the foot of the tree, to heighten as far as possible the effect
of the performance, and retired from the field, feeling in several re-
spects as though I had been and done it. After some hours I con-
cluded to again visit the scene of operations, and found the whole
region suggestive to the olfactories of as vile an odor as it was ever the
lot of man to inhale. While noticing the artistic effect of the drip-
ping tar upon the leaves and fruit, I observed a queer-looking gray
excrescence upon one of the half-grown plums. A nearer view re-
vealed the appalling fact that it was a CurcULIOo ‘pegging‘away’ at
his favorite pursuit, as much at home in the vile atmosphere around
him, as if it were the spicy breezes wafted from ‘Araby the Blest.’
Need I say that I left the scene in disgust, feeling that coal-tar as a
remedy against Curculios was a failure.”—Geo. W. Campbell, Dela-
ware, Ohio, in American Journal Horticulture, August, 1867.

97

CHAPTER XII.—TuHE PiLuM GovucER. (Anthonomus prunicida, Walsh.)

I have but little to add to what I stated respecting this insect in
the Practical Entomologist; (Vol. II. pp. 79-80); and I may say
likewise, that I have but very little to correct or modify in that ar-
ticle.

These insects take wing quite readily, almost as readily indeed
as a Tiger-beetle (Cicindela) ; so that even in my office, where the
sun was not shining, on removing some of them out of a bottle, in or-
der to bring a lens to bear on them to watch their operations as they
were sitting on a plum, they would generally open their wing-cases
almost immediately, and fly off a short distance. In this respect they
differ very remarkably from the Plum Curculio, which is a shy flier.

The mode in which the Plum Gouger deposits her egg in the
plum, differs radically from that adopted by the Plum Curculio and
explained in the preceding chapter. With the minute but powerful
jaws placed at the tip of her long and slender snout, the snout itself
being held at right angles to the surface on which she stands, she
first of all eats through the skin of the plum to a short depth, so as
to form a shallow cylindrical hole of precisely the same diameter as
her snout, and directed perpendicularly downwards. She then alters
from time to time the position of her snout, sloping it first in one
direction, and then in another, and then in another still, and all the
while working away with her jaws at the flesh of the fruit. By this
means she gradually gouges out a gourd-shaped hole, bellying inside
and quite small outside, till she has made an opening about four-fifths
as deep as her snout is long. The excavated matter is not thrown
out of the hole, as is done by a well-digger when he digs a well; but
the ingenious workwoman eats her own chips as she works, and thus
contrives to gratify her appetite for food, while she is at the same
time obeying that wonderful instinct of providing for her future
offspring, which Nature has implanted in all female insects without
exception. The hole being now sufficiently deep, and sufficiently
gouged out internally, the creature withdraws her snout leisurely and
gradually, and, pausing for a few seconds, seems to smack her lips
at the idea, that she has at one and the same time discharged her
duty towards society, and likewise tickled her own liquorish palate.
Alas! that we poor human beings can so seldom enjoy that double
gratification! And now her maternal feelings tell her that an egg
is ready to be born into this world. But she is standing with her
snout poised in the air over the excavation, which is intended to re-
ceive the egg. The egg-laying apparatus is at the other end of her
body. Do you suppose that she is going to drop an egg upon the

98

smooth, slippery surface of the plum, and then trust to blind chance
to dispose of it whether for weal or for woe? No such thing! Insects
are not the miserable, thoughtless, careless, improvident machines
that most people suppose them to be. They look before they leap.
They understand their business. ‘They know as well as the most skill-
ful human mechanic, what would be the consequences of a clumsy
movement or an untoward arrangement; and they govern themselves
accordingly. Hvery mother insect has about a hundred, and often
several hundreds of eggs to provide for; and although it may, and
often does, take weeks or months of the hardest and most unremitting
toil, to find or furnish suitable nests or cells or other depositaries for
all those eggs, yet, before she dies, her task is almost always accom-
plished down to the minutest detail. In the Insect World there are
no Foundhng Hospitals, no Jails, no Penitentiaries. Yet, without
hope of reward for well-doing and without fear of punishment for

evil-doing, the mother-insects invariably do their duty towards that.

future progeny, which in the great majority of cases, they are des-
tined never to behold. Do those proud beings, that are foolish enough
to fancy that all this beautiful green world—swarming as it is with
life and joy upon every inch of its surface—was made for their sole
and exclusive benefit, always do the same? Let us blush for our
species, when we reflect that the horrible crimes of fceticide and in-
fanticide have prevailed, in every age, to a hideous extent among every
nation of mankind; while among my little friends, the Insects, whom
we are facetiously pleased to classify among the “lower animals,”
they are, in the true and correct sense of the terms, utterly unknown.
It is undoubtedly the case that the Social Wasps, when at the ap-
proach of winter, (with the single exception of the young Queen
Wasps, which are destined to pass the winter in a torpid state and to
originate new colonies in the following spring,) inevitable starvation
stares the whole colony in the face, do, under the stern pressure of
necessity, mercifully despatch their young larve with their stings, to
save them from a painful and lingering death. But how different
is this from the conduct of the human mother, who destroys the help-
less being that is bone of her bone and flesh of her flesh, not out of
any love for that being, but to cover up her own shame from the eye
of the world, or even out of the insane ambition of prolonging the
period of her youthful charms, or the mere selfish desire to escape

from the troubles and responsibilities of motherhood! With a single -

snap of her jaws the mother Plum Gouger can easily destroy that help-
less germ of future life and happiness, which is struggling within her
to pass into this outer world. She can do it with perfect impunity.

«-

99

There are no Courts to convict her of the dreadful deed. She stands
in no awe of fine, or imprisonment, or capital punishment. Yet never
was such an unnatural act witnessed by the eye of mortal entomolo-
gist. With grave and solemn deliberation she turns her body slowly
round, deposits the egg as well as may be in the excavation already
prepared for it, and finally, turning round once more, re-adjusts it
with her snout, till it is completely embedded in its destined recep-
tacle, with its outer surface slightly below the general level of the
skin of the plum, and its inner surface overhanging a cavity twice or
thrice as large as itself.

“But,” the reader may perhaps, ask, “what is the use of this
cavity? Why not bore a hole just about the size of the egg, and then
at once slip the egg into it?” My friend! the mother Plum Gouger
knows better than that! Providence has taught her that the plum,
in which she is about to lay her egg, is a growing and living organism,
and she has learned as thoroughly as the most experienced human
botanist, that any wound that she may produce in it will be speedily
healed and filled up by the reparative powers of nature. Providence
-taught her, too, long before human physiologists discovered this won-
derful process of “endosmosis,” as it is called, that an egg, full of
thick, viscid matter and with a delicate membranous shell, when im-
mersed among the thin sap of the green plum, will necessarily absoro
a good deal of that sap, and thus increase considerably in size. She
therefore allows full scope and to spare, both for the natural growth
of the egg and for the natural growth of the plum. For she is well
aware that the slightest pressure will rupture the delicate membrane,
within which sleeps the microscopically minute embryo of the future
Plum Gouger. And she is well aware, too, that it will be several
days, at the least, before the seemingly inanimate egg will disclose
the little larva, that will thereafter be abundantly able to fight
the rest of his way, with his own good, strong jaws, through
this sublunary world.—With all his acquired experience, and all his
theoretical knowledge, and all his boasted reasoning powers, could a
human workman have provided with more exquisite simplicity for
the important object which was to be attained ?

Whenever either a male or a female Plum Gouger desires to feed
on the flesh of the Plum, they proceed precisely in the same way as the
female does, when she excavates in the manner already described a
receptacle for an egg. A plum, studded all over with these tiny holes,
looks just as if somebody had been puncturing it with a common pin
heated red hot. About the latter end of June, I shut up two Plum
Gougers, which I had captured at large, in a glass vessel, along with

100

about a dozen green plums, which I had previously examined and
ascertained to be entirely free from punctures or cuts of any kind.
In a week’s time, these plums were covered with just such punctures
as those already spoken of, some exhibiting as many as twenty of
them. None of these punctures contained any egg, so far as I could
discover; and I repeatedly watched the insects through the glass as
they completed one hole, and then immediatly passed on and com-
menced another, without making any attempt to deposit an egg in the
first. Possibly, however, these two Gougers might have been males,
or, if females, they might have already exhausted their stock of eggs,
or they might have refused to lay eggs except in such plums as were
actually growing on the tree. In not a single case, had either of
them made the large, open hemispherical excavation peculiar to the
Plum Curculio. Holes of the usual character, but bored simply for
food, occur also in very large numbers in the plums as they hang on
the trees. I have often, in the earlier part of the season, cut into
eighteen or twenty of them, before I could find either egg or larva,
or the boring-work of a larva; and I have counted as many as nine of
them in a single plum, four only of which contained an egg. Later
in the season, scarcely one hole out of fifty contains either egg or larva
or any signs of a larva. Almost universally from all these holes, for
whatever purpose they have been bored, there exudes a copious supply
of gum, as is also the case with the crescent-slit of the Plum Curculio.

As I have already shown in the Practical Entomologist, the new-
ly-hatched larva of the Plum Gouger, instead of burrowing, like that
of the Curculio, solely in the flesh of the plum, makes almost a straight
course for the kernel, through the shell of which, being as yet soft,
a passage is readily opened by it. Here it remains, feeding exclu-
sively upon the kernel, till it has acquired its full larval growth, when
it cuts the same smooth, round hole through the now quite hard shell
of the plum-stone that almost all boring-larve make, in order to af-
ford a ready exit for the perfect insect. It then changes into the
pupa state inside the plum-stone; the plum itself not dropping in a
green state from the tree, as is almost invariably the case with plums
stung by the Curculio, but hanging on the tree and ripening prema-
turely. Subsequently, the pupa develops into the perfect Plum
Gouger, and the latter emerges through the hole already prepared for
it by the provident care of the larva.

I suspect that I have rather over-estimated the destructive powers »

of the Gouger, as compared with those of the Curculio. The punc-
tures, indeed, of the former are enormously abundant, out-numbering,
certainly, fourfold the crescent-slits and the gouging-work of the

ee

101

latter ; but only a very small percentage of these seem to contain eggs.

No doubt such punctures greatly injure and disfigure the fruit, and
the gum that exudes from them exhausts, to no purpose, the vital en-
ergies of the tree. Still, a plum that is simply punctured, without
any egg being deposited in it, is not totally destroyed ; for the wound
is but temporary, and nature can generally repair the damage. But
whenever an egg is inserted in the wounded part, then, unless that
egg fails to hatch out, or the young larva dies of disease, the unhappy
plum is doomed; for soon the resistless energies of the larva are,
day after day, eating into its vitals. It is immaterial whether the
larva, after hatching out, burrows exclusively in the flesh of the plum,
as in the case of the Curculio; or whether, passing through the flesh
as rapidly as possible, it strikes a bee-line for the kernel, as in the case
of the Gouger. In either case, the fate of that plum is premature
death ; the only difference being, that the plum stung by the Curculio
perishes in its infancy, while that which is stung by the Gouger
attains a sickly and stunted manhood before it finally perishes.

In illustration of the wide difference between the respective hab-
its of the Curculio and the Gouger, I will give a few statistics: 1st.
On June 24th I placed 165 wild plums, all of them more or less
copiously punctured by the Gouger, and none of them, so far as [
could perceive, with any crescent-slits, in a similar glass vase to those
already described in preceding experiments. (Above, -pp. 90—1.)
From this vase, which was treated in the same manner as the others,

- I expected to have bred several Gougers. I did not breed a solitary —

one; and all the insects that I obtained from this whole lot of plums,
were two Curculios that came out, respectively, July 30th and Au-
gust Ist. Neither, on examining the sand at the bottom of the vase on
November 29th, could I discover the remains of either larva, pupa
or perfect insect, that had perished there prematurely. As two verit-
able Plum Curculios were bred from this lot of 165 plums, I presume
that there must have been’at least two crescent-slits on them, which
I inadvertently overlooked. 2d. From the vase of wild plums, gath-
ered July 27th, the details of which have been already given, (above,
p. 91), I bred, as I showed before, no less than 51 Curculios; and
yet, from this same lot—which, be it remembered, was gathered off
the tree promiscuously and without any selection—I obtained only
two Gougers, which came out, respectively, August 24th and 26th.
The reason of all this is pretty plain. A plum inhabited by the
Gouger larva would naturally hang on the tree, so that the kernel
would become fully developed; and by plucking all these plums more
or less prematurely from the tree, I caused the premature death of a

——— ee eee = —
ee

102

great many Gouger larve. On the other hand, a plum inhabited by
the Curculio larva naturally falls from the tree, and thus my arrange-
ments, so far as regards this species, interfered in no wise with the
laws of nature.

-

THE LARVA of the Plum Gouger, when found burrowing in the kernel on
July 20th, by which time the shell of the kernel was quite hard, was 0.12
inch jong when partially straightened out, and 0.10 inch long when curled up
in the usual semicircular forni. The color was milk-white, not whitish-glassy
as in the Curculio larva, and there was no rust-red stomach as in the Cureulio
larva. The head was large, horny, and of a yellowish-white color, the jaws
(mandibles) being tipped with brown. The plum in which this larva oc-
curred had only been gathered four or five days previously. Another larva,
that had already bored into the kernel and was met with July 28th, in a plum
gathered the day before, differed only in the head not being tinged with
yellow, and in the jaws being almost entirely brown.

Whether there be one or two broods of this insect every year, [
cannot say with certainty, but I strongly suspect that there is but one.
The perfect beetles appear on the plums.early in June and deposit
their eggs therein, precisely as does the Curculio at that date, though,
as has been shown, on an entirely different system. According to
Mr. L. C. Francis, of Springfield, Central Illinois, (who is a very
successful plum-grower and follows the plan of jarring his trees reg-
ularly during the summer,) after June 7th, although he had previ-
ously found “about equal numbers of the Gouger and Curculio,” the
Gougers entirely disappeared, Curculios being still met with up to
the last of July. (Prairie Farmer, March 19, 1864.) This certainly
seems to indicate, that there is no such early brood of Gougers com-
ing out in July as there is of Curculios. From a large lot of plums
that I gathered myself off the tree June 24th, and that must have
contained many of the eggs of the Gouger—for I found several eggs
in the few that I cut open—TI failed, as already said, to breed a single
Gouger; but I attribute this to the fact, that these plums would
naturally have hung on the tree till the kernel would have been more
fully developed. On July 20th and 28th, as I stated just now, I
found in plums but recently gathered larvee that could not have been
much more than half-grown; so that the probability is, that the plum
infested by this larva must naturally hang on the tree till the kernel
is nearly perfected—that this larva requires a much longer time to
mature than that of the Curculio—and that eggs deposited early in
June do not develop into the beetle state till the end of August or
perhaps the early part of September. The two Gougers actually bred
by me this year came out, as will be recollected, August 24th and
26th. And there is nothing at all improbable or anomalous in a

103

Snout-beetle, which comes out so late in the year, living all through
the winter and until the following spring. At any rate, as all the
other species of the genus (Anthonomus), whose transformations are
known to me, are only single-brooded, the presumption is that this
species is the same; and if any one holds the contrary opinion, the
burden of proof rests upon his shoulders.

Whether the Plum Gouger is confined to the Valley of the Mis-
sissippi, or whether it occurs also in the Atlantic States, is not quite
clear. None of my Hastern correspondents have met with it at the
East, and neither Fitch nor Harris describe the species. Indeed,
common as it is with us upon Plums, it was unknown to Science,
until I described it in 1863 in the Prairie Farmer, with a brief account
of its habits, which description was subsequently reproduced in the
Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. (1X., p. 309.)
From some observations, however, let fall by Dr. Fitch, I infer that
fruit is infested in New York either by this or by some allied species ;
for in the Address which has been already so often quoted, (p. 18,)
he says that “in addition to the crescent-shaped slit, the Curculio
wounds the fruit by drilling holes therein with its beak, resembling
punctures made by a coarse pin or needle ;” and he adds that “one or
more of these punctures may be seen upon almost every fruit which
it invades,” and that “it is probably for feeding upon the juicy pulp
of the fruit that the insect bores these small holes in it.” Now, as
already stated, I have had 8 or 10 Curculios shut up in a glass vessel
for a month, along with a lot of plums that I had previously ascer-
tained to be free from punctures or wounds of any kind. These Cur-
culios fed freely upon the flesh of the plums. But all their excava-
tions were of the open, hemispherical type already described, and
there was not a single puncture to be met with, such as the Gouger
makes and such as Dr. Fitch asserts to be made by Curculios. I can-
not think it at all probable, therefore, that the Curculio, as Dr. Fitch
asserts, commonly causes such punctures. Possibly, as this writer

‘appears to be speaking here with more especial reference to the apple,

the punctures he mentions may have been made by the Four-humped
Curculio (Anthonomus quadrigibbus, Say,) which species I was the
first to publish as infesting the apple in this manner in Illinois, and
which causes nearly the same kind of puncture in the Apple, as the
Gouger causes in the Plum. But neither has this species been enu-
merated as among those, that are injurious to cultivated fruit in the
East, either by Dr. Harris or by Dr. Fitch, though I presume that it
occurs there, as Say asserts that it is found generally in the United
States.

104

Such are some of the many difficulties which the Student of
Economic Entomology encounters, owing to the custom, too prevalent
among closet-naturalists, of despising the habits of animal as un-
worthy of their notice, and devoting their exclusive attention to its
coloration, its structure, and its classification. “And yet,’ as Agassiz
has so truthfully remarked, “without a thorough knowledge of the
habits of animals, it will never be possible to ascertain with any
degree of precision the true limits of all those species, which descrip-
tive zoologists have of late admitted with so much confidence in their
works. And, after all, what does it matter to Science, that thousands
of species, more or less, should be described and entered in our systems,
IF WE KNOW NOTHING ABOUT THEM?” (Contributions, etc., I. p. 57.)

Since, as has been shown above, plums infested by the Gouger do
not fall prematurely from the tree like those which are infested by the
Curculio, it is plain that picking up and destroying the fallen fruit,
though an excellent mode of counterworking the latter insect, will
be of no avail against the former. Both species, however, can be
jarred off the trees and destroyed; and when this process is per-
formed, a sharp look-out should be kept for both. It will also be a
useful precaution, whenever a few stunted plums are observed to
ripen prematurely on any tree, to pluck them off and destroy them.
In most cases, they will be found to contain, either the perfect
Gouger, or the larva that is destined subsequently to develop into the
Gouger, suugly ensconced in the kernel, and often with the hole al-
ready bored through the stone for the escape of the matured insect.

The wide differerices between the Curculio and the Gouger may
be thus briefly stated:—The Curculio is beautifully streaked and
spotted with black and white and has two shining black humps, like
black sealing-wax, on its back; the Gouger is clay yellow in front and
of a dull lead-color behind, without any humps at all. The Curculio
cuts a crescent slit in every fruit in which it lays an egg; the Gouger
bores a small round hole for this purpose. The Curculio larva bores
exclusively in the flesh of the fruit; the Gouger larva always strikes
a bee-line for the kernel. The Curculio larva leaves the fruit and
goes underground to pass into the beetle state; the Gouger larva re-
mains throughout in the infested fruit. Of the Curculio there are
two broods every year; of the Gouger there is apparently but a single
brood. Finally, every stone-fruit except Cherry that is stung by the
Curculio falls, as a general rule, prematurely to the ground; while the
plums stung by the Gouger hang on the tree and ripen prematurely.

105

CHAPTER XIII.—Tue Pium Morn, (Semasia prunivera, Walsh.) Fig. 3.

On July 28, 1867, I was cutting into a number of plums infested

by the Plum Curculio and the Plum Gouger, when to my great surprise

I discovered in one of them what was evidently the larva (fig. 3b) of
some small moth. On comparing this figure with that of the larva
of the Plum Curculio (fig. 3¢)—-which scarcely differs in outline from
that of the Plum Gouger—the difference will be seen at a single
glance. The plum in which it occurred bore the crescent slit of the
Curculio; but what had been the history of the egg deposited by the
mother Curculio—whether it had failed to hatch out—or whether it
had hatched out and shortly afterwards perished—or whether it had
hatched out and reached maturity in the plum, and then gone under-
ground—lI did not ascertain. In the year 1868 I hope to clear up all
such points as these; upon which depend a variety of - interesting
questions in the history of the moth-larva that accompanied the egg-
slit of the Curculio.

About a month afterwards, from a lot of infested plums gathered
July 27th, the details of which have been given above (p. 91,) there
commenced coming out the small moth figured and described herewith
as the Plum Moth (fig. 3;) and specimens continued to come out
from time to time until the middle of September, amounting in all
to 13. Evidently all these moths must have proceeded from larve,
such as that which I had found in the plum at the end of July.

In the preceding year, and at the same period of the year, from
the well-known Black-knot—a fungoid excrescence on the branches
and twigs of the Plum-tree, which is infested by the larve of the
Curculo to nearly as great an extent as the Plum itself—I bred sev-
eral specimens of this same moth; and in this same Black-knct
I had previously met with many of its larve burrowing in the sub-
stance of the Black-knot. I bred two other specimens of the same
moth nearly a month earlier in the season from a cockscomb-like
hollow gall (uwlmicola, Fitch) on the leaf of an elm, which is pro-
duced and inhabited by Plant-lice, having previously found its larva
inside the gall and among the Plant-lice. And lastly, I had bred on
September 2d, 1866, a single specimen of this very same moth from
a sessile; hollow gall about the size and shape of a large pea or a small
cherry, on the leaf of the Red Oak (Quercus rubra,) which has been
named and described by Mr. Bassett, (Quercus singularis, Bassett.*)

*I formerly supposed that this gall was the nubilipennis of Harris. It
is clearly the nubilipennis of Fitch. But I rather believe that the Quercus-
sculpla of Bassett—a fleshy, juicy, subacid, grape-like, eatable gall growing
indifferently on the Black Oak (Quercus tinctoria) and the Red Oak—is the

106

In both these two cases, the galls were of the same year’s growth, and
inhabited by the gall-making larve at or shortly before the time that
the Moth made its appearance. Thus we see that the very same
moth inhabits in the larva state plums that are infested by Curculio,
Black-knot that is infested by Curculio, an Elm-gall that is generated
and inhabited by Plant-lice, and an Oak-gall that is generated and in-
habited by a Gall-fly.*

In the two latter cases my Plum Moth is clearly a Guest-moth;
but whether it confines itself to feeding on the substance of the gall,
or whether it also destroys the gall-makers, and whether, if it de-
stroys them, it feeds on them, and, in the case of the Plant-louse gall,
whether it may not feed partly on the sugary dust secreted from the
body of the insect, are all of them points that remain to be investi-
gated and-explained. Most authors state that the larve of this entire
Order (Lepidoptera) are almost exclusively vegetable-feeders ;+ and
some have even gone so far as to say, that they feed entirely on vege-

one that Harris had in view, when he spoke of his nubilipennis. For the
mature female, fly produced from Quercus-sculpta has a very distinct dark
cloud on the terminal % of its front wing, as Harris describes his gall-fly
(Cynips nubilipennis) ; while both the male and the female Gall-fly of the
other Oak-gall (Q. singuluris) have no such cloud. Immature specimens,
indeed, of the female Cynips q. sculpta, cut out of the gall, do not show this
cloud; and it was probably from such that Mr. Bassett drew up his descrip-
tion, which says nothing of any such cloud. The male fly of Cynips q.
sculpta I have never yet met with. In any case, Harris’s description (of his
nubilipennis) is so brief and indefinite, that not being sufficient to identify
either the gall or the insect satisfactorily, it should be entirely neglected and
thrown on one side, and we should adopt Mr. Bassett’s two names. To fol-
low any other rule in such cases as these, is simply holding out a premium to
slipslop, slovenly describers, who are the curse of Science-——See Osten-Sacken
in Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. IV. pp. 355—6.

*Similarly, I have bred the small moth Gelechia galle@genitella, Clemens,
from a Willow-gail made by a Gall-gnat, and likewise from two distinct kinds
of Oak-galls made by Gall-flies. Also Batrachedra salicipomonella, Clemens,
another small moth, from a Willow-gall made by a Gall-gnat, and from two
very distinct Willow-galls made by two distinct species of saw-flies. (See
Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil VI. p. 273.) I may add here the hitherto unpublished
facts that 1 bred on June 26th from the Oak-gall Quercus inanis O. S.,
which is made by a Gall-fly (Cynips), the Anorthosia punctipennella of Clem-
ens; and three other distinct species of small moths, respectively, from three
other distinct Oak-galls, two of which are made by Gall-flies and one by a
Gall-gnat (Cecidomyia). In all these cases, and in many others which I have
published, the moths are clearly guests in galls made by other insects.

+Westwood Introd. II. p. 381; Harris Injur. Insects p. 258; &e, &e.

107

table food.* But, as Harris has well observed in the passage referred
to in the note, there are certain species that feed in the larva state on
our woollens and furs, and even on leather, meat and lard—all five
of which are, not vegetable, but animal substances; and it is well
known that certain other species infest in the larva state collections of
dried insects. Moreover, I have long been inclined to suspect, that
the larve of particular moths feed habitually, not only on dead ani-
mal substances, as in the instances quoted above, but even on the liv-
ing bodies of other insects. The Rev. Mr. Green, of England, in his
admirable little work on Pupa-digging, has stated some facts, which
certainly seem to prove that there are Cannibal Caterpillars, as well
as Cannibal Beetles and Cannibal Flies. For he says that the larve
of a small moth had swarmed for years in his breeding-cages, in spite
of all that he could do, devouring by wholesale the pup, from which
he was endeavoring to rear various kinds of moths.t

If, therefore, we allow that this Plum Moth of mine is a Guest
in the case of the two galls, which, as I have shown, it inhabits, it
would seem to be most probable that it is also a Guest whenever it
inhabits the Black-knot and the Plum. In other words, it does not
attack sound Black-knot and sound Plums, but only such as have been
already preyed on and bored by the Curculio, and where consequently
an opening has already been made for its operations. Practically, this
question is of considerable importance. For, if the Plum Moth does
really attack perfectly sound plums, then it is as much to be dreaded
as the Curculio. If, on the contrary, it only gathers up the crumbs
that fall from the table of the Curculio, then it is absolutely harmless.
For no fruit-grower would give one cent for a whole orchard of plums,
every one of which was stung by the Curculio. The general subject
of Guest-flies and Guest-moths, has been already treated of at some
considerable length. (Above, pp.19—20.

I have bred another species of small moth, very closely allied to
the Plum Moth, from Black-knot; and Harris long ago noticed Lepi-

*Latreille Gen. Crustac. Insect. 1V. p. 185; Wallace Malayan Papilion.
in Transaci, Linn. Soc. XXV. p. 2.

+Since the above was written I have received the following valuable
information from H. T. Stainton, the distinguished English Lepidopterist:
“You are quite right in saying that several lepidopterous larve are carniv-
orous. Amongst the Noctua, Scopelesoma satellitia and Cosmia trapezina,
_and amongst the Geometride, Crocallis elinguaria are larve to be carefully
avoided by those intent on rearing other larve. The larva of M@cophoru
pseudosprelella is the mortal foe to the choice pupx of the collector, and
Diplodonia marginepunctella is evidently addicted to carnivorous appetites,
and adorns his case with the mutilated bodies of his victims.”

108

dopterous larve in Black-knot, which he originally mistook for those
of the Peach Borer (dgeria exitiosa, Say;) though he subsequently
corrected this error, and stated them to be “the naked caterpillars of
a minute moth.”* In all probability, these caterpillars, which Harris
found in Black-knot, would have produced some one or both of the
two species of Moths which I have bred therefrom, namely, the Plum
Moth and an undescribed species. Although these larve had long
been noticed by entomologists in Black-knot, yet nobody, as it seems,
had ever raised them to the mature state, until I succeeded in doing so.

As I have already shown (p. 93—-4,) the so-called ‘*‘Curculio Para-
site’ of Dr. Fitch preys, in all probability, not upon the larva of the
Curculio, as Dr. Fitch erroneously supposed, but upon that of the
Plum Moth. I bred a single female specimen of this pretty little
Ichneumon-fly on the 23d of August, from the same vase of plums
from which I bred all my Plum Moths.

Tue Perum Motu; Fig. 3. (Semasia prunivora, new species.) Ground-
color of front-wing, black. The basal 14 irregwarly covered with rust red,
so as to ieave only a few black markings. On the costa and rather more than
+g of the way to the apex of the wing, a pair of streaks obliquely directed
toward the posterior angle of the wing: the inner streak of the pair is on
its extreme costal end clear white, elsewhere pale steel-blue, and extends
nearly to the disk of the wing, where it almost unites with a sub-quad-
rangular pale steel-blue blotch, which is usually seen there without difficulty,
though it is occasionally subobsolete; the outer streak of the pair is only half
as long as the inner one, towards which it converges very slightly
withont actually uniting with it, and is colored in the same manner. Fur-
ther along on the costa, and not quite 2, of the way to the apex of the wing,
there is another such pair of streaks, parallel with the first pair and simi-
larly colored, the inner one of which, when it has become as long as the
inner one of the other pair, sweeps in a gradual curve round the disk of the
wing, till it almost attains the inner margin a little way from its tip; while
the outer streak of the two is so very short, that the steel-blue part of it is
subobsolete anu can only be seen in certain lights. Beyond this second pair
of streaks, and rather more than 34 of the way along the costa to the apex
of the wing, is another streak, parallel with all the others and similarly
colored, which strikes the outer margin about 14 of the way from the apical
to the posterior angle, where it terminates in a .pale streak in the fringe.

* Compare Harris’s /njur. Insects first edition, p. 352, and last edition, p. 80.

A writer in the Amer. Journ. Horticulture (Vol. I. p.34) has reiterated Harris’s ”

original error.

+ In the figure this pair of streaks is erroneously engraved as being rather
closer to the second pair of streaks, and rather further apart from each other,
than is the case in the natural wing. And the same observation applies to the
second pair of streaks as regards its distance from the third group of streaks
which consists, not of 2, but of 3.

109

And beyond this again, and equidistant from it, from each other, and
from the apex of the wing, there is on the costa a pair of short white
streaks, the inner one much the shorter of the two. ‘Thus along the costa we
have a series of seven very conspicuons short white streaks, arranged 2, 2 and
3. The terminal 4 of the front wing is mostly rust-red, with a series of
abbreviated, black, longitudinal lines,springing from the outer edge of the
curved prolongation of the inner one of the 2d pair of streaks on the costa;
and beyond these short black lines are two very oblique, short, pale steel-blue
streaks, one springing from the posterior angle and the other a little above it
from the outer margin. Disk of the front wing rust-red, with many indis-
tinct, short, black, longitudinal lines. and on its centre the pale steel-blue
blotch already referred to. On the middle of the inner margin, a large,
elongate-triangular, rust-red patch, the apex of the triangle directed towards
the apex of the wing and attaining the disk, the base of the triangle occupy-
ing nearly %4 of the inner margin. This triangular patch is bisected length-
ways by a very elongate and slender black triangle, the apex of which attains
its apex; and the rust-red space on each side of this last triangle is again
indistinctly bisected lengthways by a still more elongate triangle composed
of confluent black atoms. Fringe dusky, with a black basal line all along it.
Hind wing dusky-gray at base, shading into black at tip. On the middle of
the outer margin, in the male hut not in the female, an elongate semi-oval
patch (fig. 3a) of metallic-brassy scales, brighter in certain lights. Fringe
of the male (fig. 3a) long, sparse and grayish-white on its anal %,
short, dense and dusky with a basal black line for its remaining 1%. Fringe
of the female (fig. 3) nearly of uniform length, coarse and dusky throughout
on the 4% next the wing, then suddenly fine and grayish-white on its outer
1%. Body brown black. Face and palpi grayish-white. Shoulder-covers
largely tipped with dull rust-red. Tips of the abdominal joints pale fuscous
above. Legs dusky. All beneath, including the legs, with a more or less
obvious silvery-white reflection.

Described from 13 specimens, (4 males, 9 females) bred from infested
plums August 23d—September 15th. The males were readily distinguished
by the exserted anal forceps. Three specimens bred from Black-knot, Aug.
31—Sept. 7th, three others bred from the Elm-Gall (Ulmicola, Fitch) July
26th—Aug. 5th, and a single one bred from the Oak-Gall (Q. singularis, Bas-
sett) on Sept. 2d, none of them differed from the plum-fed specimens in any
important point. I sent a single specimen, bred from the Black-knot, to the
late Dr. B. Clemens, about a year before his lamented death; but he never, so
far as I know, investigated its classification. For the satisfaction of the in-
credulous, I may add that I sent specimens, bred respectively from the Plum
and the Elm-gall, te the distinguished English Entomologist, H. T. Stainton,
who is well known to have made the smaller moths his special study for
years; and that he agrees with me that they are “perfectly identical.” It
is to the kindness of this gentleman that I am indebted for the generic deter-
mination of this species, and for the following very valuable comparison of it
with the European species (S. janthinana) which, as he informs me, is the
most closely allied to it. The small European moth (Opadia funebrana,
Treitschke), which I quoted in the Practical Entomologist (II. p. 79) as occa-
sionally boring into plums in England, has been referred, as Mr. Stainton
informs me, both by himself and by Wilkinson to the same genus to which

Se eg ee

110

the Codling-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella, Linneus) belongs; and is conse-
quently widely distinct from my Plum moth. Mr. Stainton further tells me
that, just as I anticipated in the Practical Entomologist, “in some years this
insect is injurious to the Plum-crop in England, but the moth is entomolog-
ically searce, and few collections are well supplied with it.” “I have not,” he
adds, ‘obtained a single specimen for more than 20 years.”

“Semasia prunivora is allied to 8. janthinana, Duponchel—which, if I
remember rightly, has been bred from gall-like growths on hawthorn twigs,
though V. Hernemann, who gives no habitat for the larva, says that the
imago frequents sloe-bushes [the English wild plum]—but with the anterior
wings narrower, the pale mark from the middle of the inner margin more
obliquely placed, and with four distinct’ transverse leaden-blue streaks from
the costa. In Janthinana there are no leaden-blue streaks. In the centre of
the pale dorsal [discal?] blotch is a distinct darker line, rather more de-
fined than in Janthinana. On the surface of the anterior wings are numer-
ous short longitudinal pale orange streaks, which give the insect a much
brighter appearance than we see in Janthinana. Lastly, the posterior wings
are, towards the hind margin, blackish, and therefore much darker than in
Jantiinana.”

Tue Larva, when 0.11 inch long, is about 6 times as long as wide, of
a dingy white color, with some fine short dusky hairs. Head, a horny
obsemicircular plate on the Ist segment behind the head, and a horny semi-
circular plate on the anal segment, all black and polished. Legs and pro-
legs, dingy white. When 0.18 inch long, the body is of a pale brownish
yellow color, and the two horny plates on the body are brown, not black,
but the head remains black.

Described from one specimen found’ in a plum July 28th, and one (of
the larger size) found in Black-knot July 22d. The former was wounded ;
the latter I isolated in a separate bottle, and subsequently bred the moth
from it.

THE COCOON spun by the larva is formed above ground, among the plums
from which the full-fed larve have made their exit, or is sometimes attached
to neighboring substances. It is composed of dark-colored silk arranged
in the usual elongate-oval form.

THE Pupa I have not seen.

Mr. © V. Riley informs me, that according to H. N. Hum-
phreys, (Genera of British Moths,) the larva of a European species is
the same genus to which the Plum Moth belongs (Semasia waber-
ana,) 1s supposed to feed on the inner tegument of the bark of plum-
trees, cherry-trees, apple-trees and occasionally laurels. This is only
another illustration of the law of “Phytophagic Unity,” as I have
called it, which has long been known to prevail to a considerable ex-
tent among the larve of the Butterflies and the Moths, namely, that
the same group of Insects affects the same group of Plants.* I have
shown that this law also holds good among almost all the groups of

*See Westwood Introd. II. pp. 321—2, ete., ete.

aT

gall-making insects, the gall-makers belonging to the Order of Two-
winged Flies (Diptera) forming about the only exception.*

Of course it would be premature to talk of any remedy against
the depredations of this elegant little jewel of a moth, until we know
for certain whether as I suppose she is a Guest in the Plum, and con-
sequently a neutral; or whether she burrows into the Plum on her
own account, and is therefore to be treated as an enemy. I hope that
—as will sometimes happen both with Eastern and with Western
juries—the beauty of the fair defendant has not warped my judg-
ment, and induced me to bring in a verdict of “Not guilty,” when, in
reality, she richly deserved to be sent to the Penitentiary.

INSECTS INFESTING GARDEN-CROPS GENERALLY.
CHAPTER XIV.—TuHE HATEFUL GRASSHOPPER, (Caloptenus spretus, Walsh.)

This insect, as will be seen hereafter, is about seven times as de-
structive to garden crops, as it is to field crops; and it, therefore, falls
legitimately within the purview of this Report. It has never yet,
so far as is known, invaded this State; and I do not believe that it
ever will or can. Still, as many of our farmers and gardeners in IIh-
nois have an idea, that it may not improbably, at some future time,
pass from Missouri and Iowa into Illinois—just as the notorious
Colorado Potato-bug (Doryphora 10-lineata, Say) has done—it may
be worth while to investigate its Natural History, and to demonstrate
the improbability of its ever crossing the Mississippi in the course of
its Hastward progress. It is the province of Economic Entomology,
not only to forewarn the Agriculturist of the approaching insect foe,
but also to dissipate any groundless fears of such a foe that may
prevail, when it can be proved that such fears are really groundless.

In the Practical Entomologist for October, 1866, (II., pp. 1—5,)
I investigated the migration of this Hateful Grasshopper, from the
canons (kanyons) of the Rocky Mountains, into the lowlands of Kan-
sas, Nebraska and Western Missouri, which had just then taken place.
I further stated my belief that the eggs, which had been that autumn
deposited by the females in the ground throughout the infested region
in countless myriads, would not generally hatch out that autumn and
be destroyed by the frosts—as many fondly anticipated—but that the
great bulk of them would lie safely in the ground through the winter,
and hatch out as the spring of 1867 opened; when, in all likelihood,

*See my Papers Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil., I. pp. 461—2; III., p. 635; VLI.,
Ns PAG

112

the larvee that proceeded from them would do a vast amount of dam-
age to the young crops. But, at the same time, I distinctly foretold,
that the grasshoppers developed from these eggs, in 1867, although
their general health would, perhaps, not be materially injured, would
- yet have their generative systems so impaired by the difference in
food-plants, climate, density of the air, temperature, moisture, etc.,
(or what Naturalists call the “Conditions of Life’) which they met
with in the lowland country, that they would become incapable of
propagating their species any further; and consequently that that
entire brood of grasshoppers would “then and there die out.” Whence
I deduced the corollary, that they could never cross the Mississippi
and gradually spread eastward, as the Colorado Potato-bug has noto-
riously done, and as I prophesied before-hand that it would do. (See
my Paper on that insect in the Practical Entomologist for October,
1865.)

Now let us see how far the facts have verified my predictions ;
and if it appear that I have been a true prophet, both in the case of
the Colorado Potato-bug and of the Hateful Grasshopper, then I have
a right to ask that, for the future, some little more attention should
be paid to my opinions on such subjects, than to the wild fancies of
men, who know no more about insects and their habits and peculiari-
ties than a newly-born baby does of the multiplication-table. But
first, let us examine a few additional details as to the operations of
the Hateful Grasshopper in the autumn of 1866, in Texas and in Mis-
sourl, through which States I had not previously mapped out its
course.

THE HATEFUL GRASSHOPPER IN TEXAS IN 1866. .

“Collins Co., North-east Texas, Ocl., 1866.—Grasshoppers ap-
peared in the north-west part of this county about September Ist,
and destroyed all the wheat that had come up, and then passed on
to the south-west. They have nearly disappeared. They fly very
high, and in some places were so thick, that we estimated them at
one to the square inch.”—Monthly Report Agricultural Department,
1866, p. 441.

THE HATEFUL GRASSHOPPER IN MISSOURI IN 1866.

“Leavenworth, North-east Kansas, Oct. 18, 1866.—Our eastern
mail a few days ago was late, because the train was stopped by Grass-
hoppers. he track became so slippery by the crushing of their bodies,
that the wheels would not turn.”—Private letter from C. H. Cushing.

‘Atchison, North-east Kansas, Feb., 1867.—In September, 1866,
the Grasshoppers spread over the whole of Kansas, and before cold
weather they advanced about 50 miles into Missouri. They devoured

113

all our buckwheat, turnips, tobacco and most of the green fodder, and
all the young wheat that had been sown.”—L. A. Alderson, in the
American Agriculturist, March, 1867.

“Jackson Co., Missouri, March, 1867.—The Grasshoppers did
not make their appearance in this county until about the 1st of Octo-
ber, which was too late for them to do the amount of injury here
that was done further west. Fall wheat, young timothy, and other
kinds of tender grass were completely eaten off, and their eggs depos-
ited in multiplied millions.”“—‘B.,” in Country Gentleman, March
28, 1867. ‘

“Cass Co., Missouri, October 21, 1866.—We are overrun with
Grasshoppers, which apparently came here from Kansas. They are
destroying everything that remains green. They have completely
swept off our newly-sown wheat. They destroy all remaining vege-
tables, such as cabbage, turnips, etc. ‘They even stopped our neigh-
bor across Grand River from boiling molasses; for the old gentleman
said that they would persist all the time in jumping into his pan.
They made their first appearance about October 8th or 10th. After
they had been here some days, they commenced coupling and deposit-
ing their eggs in the ground. The eggs are encased in a small bag
composed of some gummy substance.”—Private letter from J. M. App.

“Savanna, Andrew Co., Missouri, December, 1866.—The people
of this county are greatly troubled to know, what the big lot of Grass-
hoppers will do next year. They did not do very much harm this
year, though their name was legion and they darkened the sky in
their passage.”—Private letter from A. Kennicott, kindly communi-
cated by Dr. W. Stimpson, of the Chicago Academy of Science.

“Clinton Co., Mo., November, 1866.—Grasshoppers have eaten
down into the ground every blade of green wheat that was sown this
autumn, so far as they have extended over the country. They came
from the west and are moving east as fast as they can, eating up all
vegetation. They are as numerous as chinch-bugs ever were in [Ili-
nois, laying the ground full of eggs as they go. Cold nights seem to
affect them but little. They rise and fly the same as a bird, and
take very long flights.”—“B. S.,”’ in Prairie Farmer, November 24,
1866.

“Stewartsviile, Clinton Co., Missouri, November 15, 1866.—The
Grasshoppers have completely overrun north-western Missouri this
autumn. ‘They began to cross the Missouri River in September, com-
ing from Kansas and the far West. They came too late for this year’s
crops, save the autumn-sown wheat and rye, which have been entirely
swept away by them, except in some partial spots. They seem to be

114

pressing on due Hast, depositing their eggs in the ground and literally
filling the whole surface of the earth with them.”—Private letter from
A. Kilgore, obligingly sent to me by Mr. 8. S. Rathvon, of Pennsyl-
vania. :

With the exception of Jackson and Cass counties, which lie on
the middle of the extreme western border of Missouri, all the other
districts referred to above lie in the north-west corner of the State.
St. Joseph, Buchanan county, which will be subsequently referred to
as a point where grasshopper-eggs hatched out in the spring of 1867,
also lies in the north-west corner of the State. Kansas City and
Oregon, which are referred to in the same series of extracts, lie re-
spectively in Jackson Co. and Andrew Co. The whole of these dis-
tricts, therefore, are separated, by a very wide interval, from Illinois.

WHAT THE HATEFUL GRASSHOPPER DID, WHEN IT HATCHED
OUT, IN THE SPRING OF 1867, IN THE LOWLANDS
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

I have inserted here all the facts that I could find bearing upon
the above subject, omitting, for the most part, what is evidently mere
speculation and opinion. Some few of the following reports are
plainly colored by the same local feeling, that prompts almost every
Western man to deny that there is any fever and ague, or any mos-
quitoes of any consequence, in his own settlement; although “in
such a place,” as he will invariably tell you, “the people are shaking
the teeth out of their heads; and as to the mosquitoes there, they will
absolutely eat a fellow up alive.” So far as possible, I have reduced
these extracts to their proper chronological order.

“Texas, about May 6, 1867.—A cold snap has killed off all the
grasshoppers that threatened to overrun Texas.”—V. Y. Sem. T'rib-
une, May 14, 1867.

“Padonia, Kansas, May 13, 1867.—Farmers are through sowing
their wheat, but, to judge from the look of things, the Grasshoppers
will harvest it for us. They are hatching daily, and cabbage, lettuce
and onions are being devoured by them.”—“J. F'.” in Prairie Farmer,
May 25,1867. _

“Nebraska, May 14, 1867.—Wheat, oats, etc., are coming up and
are looking quite fresh and green, but the Grasshoppers hatched out
from the eggs deposited last autumn have already commenced feast-
ing on the green grain.”—S. C. Maxima, in Rock Island (Ill.) Union.

“Omaha, Nebraska, May 18, 1867.—The eggs of the Grasshop-
pers are now hatching by the million. They are deposited over the
whole face of the country, from the lower part of Cass county, clear

115

through to the southern part of Kansas. We learn that they are at
work upon the wheat in Kansas already, and are making their appear-
ance in vast numbers in the southern part of this State, and as far
north as Weeping Water.”—Omaha Republican.

“Kansas, about May 24, 1867—The Grasshoppers are already
hatching out in vast numbers, and are devouring the winter wheat.”
—Iowa Homestead, May 20, 1867.

“Leavenworth, Kansas, about May 25, 1867.—The Grasshoppers
are hatching throughout the country in myriads, and the same ac-
counts come from other portions of the State. Within a mile of
town considerable damage to spring wheat has been sustained, and
below us, on the Delaware Reserve lands, their ravages are becoming
serious. The leaves of the White Willow they seem particularly par-
tial to, as they have stripped the young trees bare. ‘They are not yet
able to fly, but it is evident that they are good eaters.”—Leavenworth
Conservative. —

“Manhattan, Kansas, about May 25, 1867.—The Grasshoppers,
which have been the terror of our farmers for weeks, proving them-
selves impervious to water, fire and frost, are now finding an enemy
we make haste to welcome as an ally. We refer to the beautiful black-
birds, immense fiocks of which are luxuriating upon the hoppers, and
returning thanks in exultant notes, and from throats almost splitting
with joy.”.—Manhattan Independent.

“Kansas and Missouri, about June 6, 1867.—As regards Grass-
hoppers in Kansas and Missouri, of which innumerable eggs were
deposited last autumn, and which greatly discouraged farmers, we
learn that these eggs hatch out, and that in two or three days the
Grasshoppers disappear.”—V. Y. Sem. Tribune, June 11, 1867.

“Nebraska, about June 6, 1867.—Papers south of the Platte,
where the Grasshopper plague was threatened, announce that the re-
cent storm has cleaned the pest out wherever it prevailed. The Ne-
maha (Nebraska) Courier states, that great numbers of black-birds,
plovers and other varieties of birds are gulping down the young
Grasshoppers by wholesale quantities.”—Ilbid.

“St. Joseph, Missouri, June 8, 1867.—The [wingless] Grasshop-
pers, after doing serious damage to crops in this vicinity, are leaving
—going west and southwest.”—Prairie Farmer, July 13, 1867.

“Jackson Oo., Kansas, about June 10, 1867.—The Grasshoppers
threaten the crops; saw wheat-crops entirely ruined. Spring back-
ward. Small grains look well where the Grasshoppers have not made
their appearance.” —‘“W. I.,” in Prairie Farmer, June 15, 1867.

“Ottawa, Kansas, about June 10, 1867.—When the Grasshoppers

116

first hatched out, they did a little damage to the young wheat and
garden vegetables, but did no harm worth naming. Soon after hatch-
ing, they left the cultivated fields, and seem to have been disappearing
ever since. I have a 25-acre field planted in young trees, which they
are fond of, but they are all growing finely, and have not been in-
jured, though millions of the ‘varmints’ hatched right among them.
Moreover, I have cut within twenty feet of a park, where immense
numbers of Grasshoppers hatched, a handful (?) of orchard grass
two and one-half feet high, with no mark of a locust [grasshopper |
tooth on it. The reports from other sections, so far as I can hear,
are that they are disappearing without harming the crops, and nearly
everybody is now satisfied that they will not injure us. What becomes
of them all I can’t tell. There are immense numbers of birds de-
vouring them, and the general opinion is, that they are dying off from
some unknown cause. The season has been rather cool and backward,
as in other sections.”—S. 7. Kelsey, in Prairie Farmer, June 15,
1867.

“Atchison, Kansas, June 11, 1867.—We saw and conversed with
a prominent citizen of Brown county this morning, and in conver-
sation about the Grasshoppers he assured us, that on his farm one day
this week he noticed thousands of young ones that had just hatched
out, and in a very short time he noticed a large flock of blackbirds in
the same place, which he discovered had effectually cleared out all
the Grasshoppers, not one being left. He assures us that the prairie
chickens and quails are eating them, nearly as fast as they hatch out
on the prairie.’—Atchison Free Press.

“West Kansas, about June 13, 1867.—With us Grasshoppers have
at no time been so abundant, as in the more eastern portions of the
State, and their advent was followed by great numbers of birds
(mostly blackbirds), which have taken nearly all of the little pests,
and, at the same time, many fields of the late-sown wheat. [When
was it ever known that blackbirds devoured whole fields of young
wheat ?—sB. D. w.] The blackbirds having done their work, have
betaken themselves to other counties, and we find that new swarms
of Grasshoppers are being hatched. So far as my observation ex-
tends, the wet, cold weather does not affect them either for good or
evil, and we can only hope to be freed from them through their nat-
ural enemies, the birds. They are already so reduced in number, that
we apprehend little or no trouble from them, unless they swarm from
the east or west.”—-NV. Y. Sem. Tribune, June 18, 1867.

“Oskaloosa, Jefferson Co., Kansas, June 14, 1867.—We have had
a very backward spring. The grasshoppers hatched early in large

TES

quantities, and are lively, industrious, and persevering. I think they
will take all the wheat, oats and corn, if they do not leave soon.
Farmers are very much discouraged.—“W. A. C.,” in Prairie Farmer,
June 22, 1867.

“Leavenworth, Kansas, about June 15, 1867.—The Grasshoppers
are doing great damage on both sides of the Missouri River for a dis-
tance of 100 miles. Gardens and corn-fields are being devastated.”—
Rock Island (Ill.) Union, June 30, 1867.

“Missouri, about June 15, 1867.—The Grasshoppers have greatly
injured the crops in Missouri.” —Corresp. of Chicago Tribune.

“Nebraska City, Nebraska, about June 16, 1867.—The Grasshop-
pers, although hatching in countless millions, seem to scatter and
disappear.”—NV. Y. Sem. Tribune, June 21, 1867.

“Leavenworth, Kansas, about June 16, 1867.—Something more
than a week ago a farmer of this county informed us that the wing-
less Grasshoppers were gradually moving in a southerly or south-
western direction, and were averaging from a tenth to an eighth of
a mile per day. We thought he might be mistaken, and mentioned
it to one or two others, who, to decide it, determined to closely ob-
serve them for a week. They informed us yesterday that there is no
mistake about it, and that all the young ones that are large enough
gather in large bodies and steadily proceed south. One gentleman
closely observed a particular body, and in a week’s time they had
progressed over two miles, which is doing pretty well, considering it
was done by short hops. It does not seem to be for the purpose of pro-
curing food, as they pass through a field of spring grain or other good
pasture, as speedily as over naked plowed land. A field will be full
of them one day, and the next not one can be found in it, except per-
haps an occasional couple or stray. It is a curious movement, and
worthy the attention of persons who are fond of investigating the
mysteries of nature.’”—Leavenworth Tribune.

“Leavenworth, Kansas, June 25, 1867.—The Grasshoppers are
making a clean sweep of every green thing in the gardens, throughout
the southern and western portions of the city, and on the country
farms beyond, so far as we have been able to hear. Millions filled the
air yesterday, from 11 a. m. to sundown, without any apparent dim-
inution of the numbers on the ground. As fast as their wings are
developed, they take flight; and their course is steadily south-east.
It will require a couple of weeks for all of them to become fully
fledged, as those now here vary in growth from the size of a very
small fly to that of the matured hopper. In the meantime, in this
vicinity, the devastation of crops and vegetables is general and com-
plete.”’—Leavenworth Bulletin.

118

“Kansas City, Missouri, June 26, 1867.—The Grasshoppers have

_taken up their line of march. Yesterday afternoon they were pass-

ing over the city in such millions, that it looked like a furious snow-
storm raging in the heavens. They appeared to be at various heights
—some seemed only like white masses against the blue sky, and others

low down were lighting on the house-tops. They were going north-

east.”—Kansas City Advertiser.

“Peru, Nebraska, about June 30, 1867.—In October last the
Grasshoppers came from the north-west, and covered this country and
deposited their eggs. In the spring they began to hatch, and they
have done much damage to the crops. Wheat and oats are mostly
destroyed, and they are now working on the corn. At the end of the
month they began to take wing, and soon the air became so filled with
them that they appeared like fleecy clouds.”—Monthly Rep. Agr. Dep.,
1867, p. 270.

“Holton, Kansas, June 30, 1867.—June 5th, Grasshoppers de-
stroying the gardens in town; June 10th, [wingless individuals] pass-
ing by the million south-east; June 28th, on the wing, going north-
north-east with the wind by the million; June 30th, getting scarce;
supposed to be done here, or nearly so, unless they come from some
other place. Some fields of wheat are eaten up, while others are not
hurt.”—Jbid., pp. 269—270.

“J efferson-Co., Kansas, July 1, 1867.—A great deal has been said
in the papers of this and other States of the devastation by Grasshop-
pers, but I have had good opportunity of noticing through this County
and State, and consider the injury to wheat and rye to be not more
than 1-20th of the crop. They are now flying, and ten days will re-
lieve us of them in a great measure; and the injury by them has not
been 1-100th part of what was anticipated three months ago.’”’ | Then,
sir, your folks must have expected to lose 1-20th of their wheat and
rye multiplied by 100, or 500 per cent. of the entire crop ! ! !
B. D. W.|—N. Y. Sem. Trib. July 16, 1867.

“Oregon, Missouri, July 1, 1867.—Farm and garden produce
much injured by Grasshoppers.”—Monthly Rep. Agr. Dep., 1867, p.
305.

“Omaha, Nebraska, about July 3, 1867.—Grasshoppers are said
to be very destructive to wheat and cereals south of the Platte River
as far as St. Joseph, Missouri.” —Chicago Tribune, July 6, 1867.

“Leavenworth, Kansas, about July 4, 1867.—In many parts of
this State no Grasshoppers are reported, and the general testimony is
that the crops never were better. 'They are having a high old time with
Grasshoppers in Atchison Co., and fears for the onion crop are enter-

EEO.

tained. The Press says that a full-grown Grasshopper was lately seen
marching off with a good-sized onion under each wing, another lying
across his horns, and with the tears streaming down his face, either
because he was not strong enough to carry more, or because the onions
he did carry were too strong for him.”—. Y. Sem. Tribune, July 9,
1867.

“Jackson Co., Kansas, July 8, 1867.—Such crops as have escaped
the ravages of the Grasshoppers look well. The Grasshopper panic
seems at an end. The most of them have taken flight to the north
or north-west.” —“Bani” in Prairie Farmer, July 30, 1867.

“Padonia, Kansas, July 8, 1867.—The prospects for crops here
in north Kansas are very good now, notwithstanding the armies of
Grasshoppers that were hatched here. Winter wheat that was not
eaten up last fall is ready to cut. Spring wheat looks well; the
Grasshoppers have injured it but little here. Corn also looks well,
and, if the ‘varmints’ will only leave soon, will come out all right.
Some think the Grasshoppers are leaving the country; there are not
nearly as many now, as were hatched out last spring.”—‘“Young
Farmer” in Prairie Farmer, July 20, 1867.

“Missouri, about July 14, 1867—Near St. Joseph the Grass-
hoppers have done some damage to the wheat, still the breadth sown
was large and there will be an average crop. In the Phille Purchase,
on the Western Border, the Grasshoppers have done great damage to
everything but hemp.”—N. Y. Sem. Tribune, July 19, 1867.

“Nebraska City, Nebraska, about July 14, 1867.*—In some lo-
calities the Grasshoppers have destroyed wheat, corn and garden vege-
tables clean. They have now finally left the State; gardens have been
replanted and are doing well. Only the sandy portions of Kansas
have been visited by this insect. In Otoe Co., Nebraska, the Grass-
hoppers have commenced their ravages on wheat, and it is suffering.
Many fields will not be worth cutting, while corn is badly thinned.
In some places potatoes are completely stripped. Sorghum has suf-
fered much. Our gardens are eaten through and through. South of
us we hear much complaint, while a few miles west there is little
damage done, and in Cass Co., Nebraska the crops are very heavy.”—
N.Y. Sem. Tribune, July 19, 1867.

“Omaha, Nebraska, July 16, 1867—The Grasshoppers have not
done as much damage in this State as was expected. Their ravages

*In the original this item is not locally dated, further than as being
intelligence from Kansas and Nebraska; but as it manifestly proceeds from
the same pen as the third item which follows it here, I have given it the
same local date. Without that local date, it is measurably unintelligible.

~ 120

are most extensive along the Huerlano and Arkansas.”—Prairie
Farmer, July 20th, 1867.

“Ottawa, Kansas, July 22, 1867—The Grasshoppers, what was
left of them—perhaps one for every fifty that we had last autumn—
staid here till their wings attained full size, and then got up and left.
The damage they have done to this part of the country amounts to
nothing. I am told that in some of the counties north of us they de-
stroyed a little grain before they left.”—--“S. T. K.,” in Prairie Farmer
August 3, 1867.

“Nebraska City, Nebraska, July, 1867.—The season has been cold
and backward, yet favorable for small grains, until the Grasshoppers
hatched and commenced depredations upon our wheat, which has suf-
fered tremendously. Many fields will not be worth cutting. Some
fields of corn are badly thinned. Potatoes in some places are com-
pletely stripped, and our gardens are eaten through and through.”—
Monthly Kep. Agr. Dep., 1867, pp. 244—5.

“Richardson Co., Nebraska, July, 1867.—The Grasshoppers have
destroyed nearly all the crops in this county and are still at work.’’—
Ibid., p. 245.

“Douglas Co., Kansas, July, 1867.—The Grasshoppers have been
doing much damage in this vicinity, to all kinds of vegetation.” —Ibid.,
p. 245.

“Cass Co., Nebraska, August 5, 1867—The Grasshoppers have
done no damage of any account.”-—“A. G: B.,”
August 10, 1867.

The migratory propensity is developed, from time to time, in the
mature or winged Hateful Grasshopper in its native alpine home,
whenever it has increased in numbers so greatly as to become in-
stinctively aware that, if it deposits its eggs in the same district in
which it was itself raised, its future offspring will starve. In the im-
mature or wingless Hateful Grasshopper, so long as it remains in a
healthy state and finds plenty of suitable food at hand, no such pro-
pensity would, I think, ever be developed, because it has not yet ar-
rived at the time of life when the feelings connected with the repro-
duction of the species are called into play. Hence the fact, so often
set forth in the preceding extracts, as well as elsewhere, namely, that
the larve of those Grasshoppers, which had hatched out in the low-
lands, in the spring of 1867, had already shown a premature propen-
sity for migration, though they had plenty of good food at hand, seems
to prove that they were in a diseased and unnatural condition. I feel
confident, at all events, that no healthy grasshopper-larve would ever
pass straight through a field of green grain, without stopping some

in Prairie Farmer,

121

considerable time to take toll of it, as is reported above by the Leaven-
worth Tribune. (Page 117.) Hence, I infer that the whole brood
of Hateful Grasshoppers, both young and old, throughout Kansas,
Nebraska and Missouri, were, in the spring and summer of 1867, in a
more or less diseased and abnormal state in consequence of the great
change in the “Conditions of Life” previously referred to. (Page
112.) This accounts for the fact that, comparatively, so little dam-
age was done by them, when we take into consideration the enormous
numbers that hatched out. Likely enough, a very large proportion of
them died a natural death, before they arrived at years of discretion, as
indicated in some of the above reports, and in others that will be
given hereafter.

The following excellent history of this pernicious insect appears
to have been written about the middle of July, 1867, and is from the
pen of Mr. W. F. Goble, of Pleasant Ridge, Kansas. It first appeared
in the Monthiy Reports of the Agricultural Department for 1867, (pp.
290-—1.)

“These Grasshoppers, or Mountain Locusts as many call them,
made their appearance in the western part of Kansas late in August,
or about the beginning of September, 1866. ‘The first intimation
had here of their approach was the delay of the eastward-bound train,
from Fort Riley and Manhattan, on account of the immense numbers
of insects crushed on the track, thereby destroying the friction of the
driving-wheels. About the 27th of the same month they made their
appearance in Eastern Kansas, progressing at the rate of from 5 to 10
miles a day, or according to the velocity of the wind in the direction
they travel. Their general course seemed to be from the north-west to
the south-east. A contrary wind greatly impeded their progress, and
when a strong breeze had to be overcome, they could not make any
progress at all in their favorite direction, but generally remained on
the ground rather than attempt to proceed, and spent their time in
consuming everything accessible in the vegetable line.

“They travel in the air like bees, some flying at an immense
height, as can be seen on a clear day by looking toward the sun. When
first appearing in any particular locality it is in the manner of a
cloud, the insects descending to the earth like dropping rain. They
commence at once devouring all vegetable substances in their way,
showing, of course, a preference at first. Vegetables possessing the
property of sweetness in any degree, as green corn, sorghum, etc., es-
cape till all others in the vicinity are consumed. But everything of
an acid or sour taste, as cabbage, [ ?] or rhubarb, (pie-plant,) as well
as bitter and even hot substances, such as tobacco and red or Cayenne

122

papper, are especial favorites. The tenderest vegetation is always de-
stroyed first. Our fine crops of autumn wheat were completely eaten
up in the space of two hours. ‘They are known to eat nearly every-
thing of the vegetable kind, even to the dry bark on trees, and dry
lint of seasoned fencing plank, as well as dry leaves and paper and all
kinds of cotton goods and woollen clothing; and I have even seen a
jicck of sheep literally covered with them devouring the wool.

“Soon after these insects came upon the ground, they concen-
trated along the roads and upon any bare earth they could find, pre-
ferring the short vegetation common in such places to the hard prairie
grass. In such situations and'in cultivated fields, the most of their
myriads of eggs were deposited. They continued laying till the se-
vere winter weather killed them. The eggs were deposited to the
depth, generally, of one inch; although, in loose earth where vegetable
roots were found, some were placed as far down as ten or twelve inches,
according to the length of the root which was followed down and
devoured, the Grasshopper emerging after having laid its eggs.

“On north hill-slopes the process of hatching was much retarded.
It was supposed by the people generally, that the severe winter would
utterly destroy the posterity of these creaures in this vicinity; but it
did not, as the developments of spring fully testified, though perhaps
not more than one-fourth of the eggs withstood the weather and pro-
duced Grasshoppers. Some of them commenced hatching as early as
the last of February, when there were a few warm days, which brought

forth those lying on the top of the ground. In March the weather
was so severe, that a large proportion of the remaining eggs perished,
the thermometer frequently indicating 18 degrees below zero. Judg-
ing from the voraciousness of those that did appear, [ doubt not Kan-
sas would have been made a perfect desert if all had lwed.

“About the 10th of April the young grasshoppers began to ap-
pear in myriads, and farmers grew alarmed. In Salt Creek Valley,
where the best farms of the State are located, not only are the
ordinary grains devoured, but the finest timothy and blue-grass mead-
oOWs are ENTIRELY KILLED ouT. Farms, however, lying next to timber
and brush, fairly escaped, owing to the supply of vegetation thus
afforded, and the constant fright given to the insects by workmen.
When once driven from a place, they scarcely ever voluntarily return,
as I demonstrated this spring in saving a garden and potato patch.
This was done by taking bushes and driving the grasshoppers out at
about 11 o’clock a. m., and again near sunset. They are very de-
structive during the night, and should always be driven off before
sunset.

123

“T first noticed these insects on the wing this season on the 27th
of June at Fort Leavenworth, when I saw a large number above the
tops of the trees flying off in a south-easterly direction. Upon leav-
ing the egg, they are of a milky white color and very tender. When
they first began to appear in the spring, the cool nights destroyed
many. Indeed during the entire time they have been constantly dying
by millions; those that remained alive devouring the dead carcasses
with the utmost avidity.

“No general damage has been done in the State this year by the
grasshoppers, but some localities have suffered extensively. As be-
fore remarked, as soon as they had developed wings, they left us,
apparently governed in their course by the wind. We are now quite
free of them, and nearly as good crops will be raised as usual.”

While passing down the Mississippi River by steamboat in the
middle of August, 1867, I fell in with Mr. Fowler, a very intelligent
farmer from the neighborhood of Chillicothe, Ohio, who, as he told
me, had been travelling extensively through Kansas with the view of
locating there, and, with business-like forethought, had been making
particular inquiries everywhere about this Grasshopper-pest. Accord-
ing to my usual practice under such circumstances, [ took down from
his mouth the following very valuable information respecting the
spring hatch of Grasshoppers in Kansas A. D. 1867.

“When the Grasshoppers hatched out in Kansas in the spring
of 1867, they always, even before they acquired wings, kept working
gradually in a south-east direction. After their wings had become
fully developed, whenever the wind permitted, they took flight and
flew in the same south-east direction; and if the wind changed, when
they were already in the air, so as to prevent them from travelling
south-east, they would immediately descend to the earth and wait for
a change of wind. Swallows [thought to be Bank Swallows, Hi-
rundo riparia| preyed very extensively on them, and so did the Black-
birds [Lcterus pheniceus, Linneus|; and a bird like a Night-hawk,
usually found on the barren Plains to the west, followed them up and
consumed numbers of them. After they had all disappeared, this
last bird disappeared also. It was the general opinion of the farm-
ers with whom I conversed, that, but for a six-weeks’ spell of cold
and wet weather in the spring of 1867, which benumbed the young
Grasshoppers after they had hatched out, and probably destroyed
many of them, the entire crops of the country would have been ruined
by them. As it was, according to the closest estimate I can make,
which however must only be considered an approximation to the
truth, the Grasshoppers took, on the average, during the summer of

124

1867, in the parts of Kansas which I visited, 1-8th of the field-crops
and 7-8ths of the garden-crops. The Dog-fennel [Maruta cotula,
D C.?] they swept clean off everywhere; but that the farmers could
very conveniently spare.”

VARIOUS IRRUPTIONS OF THE HATEFUL GRASSHOPPER IN BY-
GONE YEARS.

Usually—as is also the case with the Migratory Locust, (or, as
we Americans should call them, “Migratory Grasshoppers,”) of the
Old World and of Scripture—these Grasshopper invasions only take
place at distant intervals of time. For example, 46 years before
the invasion of 1866, there was a swarm descended from the Rocky
Mountains, A. D. 1820, upon Western Missouri, doubtless stopping by
the way in Kansas, though, as that State was then uninhabited save
by the Red Indians, we have no record of the fact. The following
paragraphs afford all the information that I have been able to glean
on this very interesting subject.

“We were informed by old residents of West Missouri and some
of the Indians, that long ago, I think it was in the year 1820, there
was just such a visitation of Grasshoppers as is now afflicting us. They
came in the autumn by millions, devouring every green thing, but
too late to do much harm. They literally filled the earth with their
eggs, and then died. The next spring they hatched out, did but little
harm (?), and when full-fledged left for parts unknown. Other dis-
tricts of country have been visited by them; but, so far as I could
learn, they have done but little harm after the first year.”—S. T. Kel-
sey, of Ottawa, Kansas, in Prairie Farmer, June 15, 1867, p. 395.

“A Missouri Paper publishes a statement by an old settler, that
great numbers of Grasshoppers appeared in September, 1820, doing
much damage. The next spring they hatched out, destroying the cot-
ton, flax, hemp, wheat and tobacco crops; but the corn escaped un-
injured. About the middle of June they all disappeared, flying off
in a south-east direction.”—Western Rural, 1867.

Again: In the year 1856, or ten years before the invasion of
1866, and thirty-six year after the invasion just referred to, there
descended from the Rocky Mountains another swarm, apparently of
these same Hateful Grasshoppers, which—perhaps owing to the more
northerly direction of the prevalent winds—took a more northerly
course than the invading army of 1866 did, and swooped down upon
Minnesota. In the Practical Entomologist, (I1., p. 3,) I have printed
all that I have been able to collect on this subject. Whether the dam-
age said by the writer of that article to have been done by these in-

125

sects in Minnesota in the following year, 1857, was done by a fresh
swarm descending from the Rocky Mountains, or by the individuals
that hatched out from the eggs deposited in the earth by the swarm
of 1856, is left uncertain. But I incline to believe in the latter
alternative, because it seems improbable that, for two successive years,
two successive swarms of Grasshoppers descending from the Rocky
Mountains, should have been deflected so unusually far to the north
of their customary line of flight as Anoka Co., in Minnesota. Be-
sides, I see that W. E. Watt, of Minnesota, says that “the year after
the Grasshoppers invaded Minnesota they did but little harm,” thus
evidently implying that there were not two successive years of inva-
sion. (N.Y. Sem. Tribune, Feb. 1, 1867.)

Eight years afterwards, or A. D. 1864, there seems a have been
another Grasshopper invasion of Minnesota, but only over a com-
paratively small region of country, and probably by some species dis-
tinct from the true Hateful Grasshopper. At all events, instead of
appearing in September, they appeared in July; whereas, as Minne-
sota lies to the north of the districts usually invaded by the Hateful
Grasshopper, we should expect that species to appear, if anything,
rather later instead of considerably earlier than it always appears in
more southerly latitudes. To whatever species these Grasshoppers
belonged, they seem to have laid eggs, which hatched out the next
spring in the invaded district, as the following extracts show:

“Minnesota, July 19, 1864.—A correspondent of the St. Paul
Press speaks very alarmingly of the great Grasshopper raid now in
progress down the Minnesota valley. They take every green thing
in their course. We have no later news of the pests.”—Prairie
Farmer, Aug. 6, 1864.

“Fort Ridgely, (on the Minnesota River) Minnesota, May 24,
1865.—Our bright prospects are blighted by the belief that the crops
will be destroyed by the ravages of the Grasshoppers. In many lo-
calities, the ground is completely covered with these little insects,
and as small as they necessarily are at this early day, they have
begun their work of destruction. I have seen small fields entirely
ruined by them. Last spring (summer?) large armies of Grass-
hoppers started down from a point west and northwest of this, near
the British Possessions, and in the autumn the frost found them in
this section of country.”—Ibid., June 3, 1865.

Whether the following extract refers to the winged grasshoppers
developed in 1865, from the eggs laid in the Minnesota Valley in
the summer and autumn of 1864, or to a fresh swarm winging its
way into the State in 1865, from the west and northwest, I am un-

126 -

able to decide; but I rather incline to the former alternative. Clearly,
this entire Grasshopper visitation must have been quite local; for,
in the Prairie Farmer for 1865, may be found sundry “Records of
the Season” from sundry parts ofMinnesota,. namely, Rice Co.,
Anoka Co., Ramsey Co., Goodhue Co., Blue Earth Co., Wabasha Co.,
Martin Co., Elgin and St. Paul, and dated from June 19th to Octo-
ber 7th, 1865, which say nothing whatever on this subject.

“St. Peter, Minnesota, July, 1865.—The Grasshoppers have been
flying over this place in countless myriads. The-air, for a quarter
of a mile high, was filled with them, and their speed was four to five
miles an hour. In every town or farm through which they pass,
they leave a strong guard, and the destruction of crops is sure to
follow.”—Prairie Farmer, July 22, 1865.

Lastly, in 1857, as appears from the following ota or one
year after the first Minnesota invasion, and nine years before the
great invasion of 1866, there was an irruption of some kind or other
of Grasshoppers—perhaps our Hateful species, perhaps a different one
—into the dominions of that High and Mighty Autocrat of a vast
portion of the soil of Republican America, whom the vulgar herd of
Gentiles designate as Brigham Young.

“In 1857, the Grasshoppers ate everything green in Salt Lake
Valley, and came near starving the Mormons out, since which time
old Brigham keeps one ‘year’s supplies on hand, knowing that they
would not come the second year.”—lowa Homestead, May 8, 1867.

Ten years afterwards, as is shown below, there was still another
irruption of the same insect, but apparently in greatly diminished
numbers, into the same territory.

“Great Salt Lake City, Utah, about July 31, 1867.—The season
has been very fine for farming, but on the last day of the month the
Grasshoppers came by millions.”—Monthly Rep. Agr. Dep., 1867,
p. 306.

“Wanship, Utah, July 31, 1867.—First appearance of a cloud of
Grasshoppers over Wanship. They have destroyed one-half of the

grain in Cache Valley, and all the fruit and a great amount of the |

grain in Davis Co. They are swarming on the lower part of Weber
River.”—IJbid. |

“Great Salt Lake City, Utah, about November, 1867.—In a field
that was being planted in the north-east portion of this City, last
Monday, numbers of young Grasshoppers (the size of House-flies)
were turned up by the plow, all alive and green, and quite recently
hatched.”—Ibid., p. 365.

It is by no means certain, that the insect referred to in the above

127

six paragraphs is the same species as the Hateful Grasshopper of the
other side of the Rocky Mountains. Indeed, as the young ones that
hatched out underground from the eggs in November, 1867, are said
to have been “green,” while those that hatched out in Kansas from
the eggs of \the true Hateful Grasshopper in the spring of 1867, are
said by Mr. Goble to have been “milky-white upon leaving the egg.”
(above, p. 123,) I should rather infer that it belonged to a different
species, peculiar to the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains. If it
be the same, its appearing in the winged state in Utah, A. D. 1867,
nearly a month sooner than it appeared in the Valley of the Missis-
sippi, A. D. 1866, may be accounted for, partly by the western expos-
ure of the Rocky Mountains being perhaps warmer than the eastern
exposure, which would, of course, have a tendency to accelerate the
transformations of the insect, and partly by the invading army not
having to march so far in this case to reach its “objective point.” ~ In
the lowlands on this side of the Rocky Mountains, the average daily
progress of the Hateful Grashopper, when full fledged, in 1866, was
only, as we have seen, from five to ten miles. (Above, p. 121.)

THE LAST INVASION OF THE HATEFUL GRASSHOPPER IN THE
AUTUMN OF 1867.

From the following extracts, which I have laboriously gleaned
from various sources, it appears that, contemporaneously with the
above invasion of Utah and just one year after the Grasshopper-inva-
sion of Kansas, Nebraska and Missouri in 1866, and at least 42 days*
after the last remnants of the descendants of that great army had
finally wasted away and disappeared from the invaded territory, a
fresh host of invaders descended upon the fertile plains of the Mis-
sissippi from the barren canons (kanyons) of the Rocky Mountains,
and at precisely the same period of the year. This time, however,
they took a rather more northerly course, the main body descending
though Nebraska upon Iowa, instead of through Kansas upon Mis-
souri. Still, in both years there were flying columns of the enemy,
that deviated a little from the general line of march either to the
right or to the left. For, as will be seen hereafter, some of the more
northerly parts of Kansas and the extreme north-west corner of Mis-

_*As may be seen by the accounts collected from various sources and
printed above, the departure of the Grasshoppers that hatched out in the
spring of 1867 in Kansas, Nebraska and Missouri, from eggs laid in the
preceding autumn, is variously dated in various localities from June 25th
on to July 14th; while the earliest invaders in the autumn of 1867, as will
be immediately shown, appeared August 25th, and the latest September 30th.

128

souri were invaded by the army of 1867; and, as I have shown in the
Practical Entomologist, the southern parts of Nebraska were very
generally invaded by the, army of 1866. This second invading
army, however, does not seem to have been quite as numerous as that
of the preceding year.

It has been erroneously supposed by many, that this swarm of
winged Grasshoppers, which made its appearance in Kansas, Ne-
braska and Iowa from August 25th to September 30th, 1867, was
not a fresh importation from the Rocky Mountains, but simply the
individuals that hatched out in the spring of 1867 from the eggs laid
in the autumn of 1866 by the invading army of that year. But, in
the first place, as I have already shown, there was an interval of, at
the very least, 42 days, during which no ravages by Grasshoppers are
recorded anywhere in the afflicted region—which pretty effectually
demolishes the above supposition ; secondly, one of the reports printed.
below expressly says that, for a period of 24 days,there was a constant
influx of Grasshoppers into Richland, Nebraska, FROM THE NORTH-
west; and thirdly, although south-western Iowa was really invaded
in 1867 by some of the unfledged Grasshoppers from Missouri, yet this
took place, not in the autumn, but early in June as the following para-
graph shows :—

“The Grasshoppers are making sad ravages upon the crops of
south-western Iowa. Whole fields of grain disappear in a single
night. They go in large droves, and keep straight onward, no im-
pediment whatever turning them from their course.”—Rock Island
(1ll.) Union, June 17, 1867.

Now, if the swarms that invaded Jowa in September sprang from
the same source as those that invaded that State in June, why do we
hear nothing of any Grasshoppers there from the forepart of June
to the latter end of August? The truth of the matter seems to be,
that the Hateful Grasshopper, in its native alpine home in the Rocky
Mountains, attains maturity in August, and then, according to the
mysterious promptings of its peculiar instinct, often takes wing for
the far-distant lowlands towards the East; while the very same spe-
cies, when hatched out in warmer climates, that is, in the lowlands
of the Mississippi Valley, attains maturity towards the end of June,
or fully one month earlier, and then, prompted by the same instinct
that governed it in its native home, immediately takes wing, and
usually flies off in a south-east direction; after which it perishes in
some unknown manner.

“De Soto, Nebraska, Aug. 29, 1867.—Invasion of Grasshoppers,

-_

129

looking like a snow-storm. They show preference for corn and po-
tatoes.”—Monthly Rep. Agr. Dep., 1867, p. 311.

“Glendale, Nebraska, Aug. 31, 1867.—Grasshoppers now at work
on the corn-fields; the blades and tops mostly gone; many stalks,
three-quarters of an inch in diameter, cut off, and many ears just
glazing eaten down, cob and corn, from one to two inches.”—/bid.

“Richland, Nebraska, Aug. 31, 1857 —At noon on August 27th
large numbers of locusts [grasshoppers] appeared, and-continued to
come FROM THE NorTH-WEsT until the evening of the 29th. They
still (August 31st) remain, and it is probable that the corn will be
almost or entirely lost.”—Jbid.

“Algona, Lowa, Sept. 20, 1867.—Grasshoppers made their ap-
pearance in large numbers, and by the 30th had stripped gardens and
tender herbage. Corn was too far advanced towards ripening to be
much damaged. They seemed to come FROM THE WEST OR SOUTH-
west.”—Ibid. p. 352.

“Council Grove, Kansas, Sept. 26, 1867.—September 20th, Grass-
hoppers passing SOUTH-EAST in great numbers, dropping heavily of
their numbers on farms and woodland. All seem to be of spring
hatching. September 26th, laying eggs same as last autumn, and eat-
ing everything in their reach.”—Ibid. p. 352.

“Fort Dodge, Iowa, Sept. 20, 1867.—A swarm of Grasshoppers
arrived at 1 P. M., September 10th, and commenced work immediately
upon vegetables, leaving hardly any buckwheat worth cutting, and
stripping the leaves entirely from the corn, so that it looks like sticks
stuck in the ground. They came again in additional numbers on the
20th, but are now (at the end of the month) gradually decreasing.
They have laid their eggs by millions.”—Jbid. p. 352.

“Holton, Kansas, Sept. 30, 1867.—Grasshoppers eating some
early-sown wheat. They can be seen by millions passing to the
SOUTH-WEST. They have done but little injury here thus far.”—
Ibid. p. 352.

“Greenwood, Iowa, Oct. 6, 1867.—Grasshoppers pretty thick, but
came too late in the season to injure anything except autumn-grain,
of which there is very little.’—“Justice,” in Prairie Farmer, Oct. 12,
1867,

“Ottoe Co., Nebraska, Oct., 1867.—Of late, the Grasshoppers
have again visited our section, and are depositing their eggs in vast
numbers. We begin to fear that they may prove to be an annuai
pest to our River towns, and in fact to the entire Missouri valley.”—
Monthly Rep. Agr. Dep., 1867, p. 327.

“Osceola, Clarke Co., Iowa, Oct. 20, 1867.—The Kansas Grass-

130

hopyers, which for six weeks past have gradually made their way
EASTWARD, appeared here in comparatively small numbers about two
weeks since. hey are rather small brown insects, with red legs and
white wings, to the general observer differing from the ordinary
Grasshopper in nothing except their power of continued flight. A
gentleman from the upper part of this county reports that, on a road
running through his place, the Grasshoppers would be found, morn-
ing and evening, sia inches deep, [in the ground?—B. D. W.?] He
stated that their eggs were hatched after an incubation of several
days, and that a few days’ growth gave distinct form to the young.
The female may be seen in large numbers on our roadsides in the
act of ‘setting’ The tail of the insect, projecting downward and
backward, is found to enter a tubule in the sod, about 34 of an inch
in depth and 3-10ths in diameter. Into this nest is deposited an egg-
sack of mucus, containing in uniform order 16 minute eggs of the
shape of an elongated bean. I send a pair of insects and severat
nests of eggs.” —Corresp. of Keokuk (Iowa) Constitution.

“Des Moines, Polk Co., Iowa, Oct. 30, 1867.—Myriads of young
Grasshoppers have been observed in the fields about here of late,
which of course must be the progeny of the flood of insects, which
first made their appearance here the latter part of September.”—
Iowa Homestead.

“Fort Calhoun, Nebraska, Dec. 6, 186%7—Corn is about all in
crib and not very good. The Grasshoppers took the leaves about 3
or 4 weeks too early, which affected it about the same as an early
frost does.”—“C. Be in Prairie Farmer, Dec. 21, 1867.

“Nodoway Co., N. W. Missouri, about Nov. 1867—The Grass-
hoppers made a raid upon us this autumn, but too late to do much
injury. We look for their appearance in the spring, when the eggs
deposited will hatch."—Monthly Rep. Agr. Dep., 1867, p. 365.

“Woodson Co., Kansas, about Nov. 1867.—The ‘Mormon locusts’
[| Hateful Grasshoppers] made their appearance in this county on the
25th of September, and there was not sufficient cold weather to stop
their ravages upon the crops until the 29th of October, when the
thermometer fell to 24 degrees above zero. The consequence is
that they have destroyed all the wheat sown prior to their arrival.”—
Ibid.

“Dakota Co., Nebraska, about Nov. 186%—The Grasshoppers
have left us, but their eggs have been deposited to be hatched out in
the spring.”’—IJbid.

“Hall Co., Nebraska, about Nov., 1867.—Grasshoppers have been

131

very thick again this season, but have done little damage. They have
deposited few eggs compared with the preceding year.”—Ibid.

“Page Co., Iowa, about Nov., 1867.—We have been visited this
autumn by the Grasshoppers, which have devastated gardens to con-
siderable extent, and even eaten the fruit from the trees. ‘They were
particularly fond of peaches, in many instances eating the fruit en-
tire, leaving the pit [stone] on the tree. Nearly all the cabbage in
the county has been devoured by them, and the autumn wheat en-
tirely eaten up, my own being the only piece left in this section. 'The
earth is filled with their eggs.”—Ibid.

“Des Moines, Polk Co., Iowa, Jan. 8, 1868.—There come to us
from every direction expressions of great apprehension, about the
devastations of the Grasshoppers the coming season.”—lowa Home-
stead.

When I was attending the Fair of our State Agricultural Society
in October, 1867, I got into conversation at my Hotel with Mr. C.
McKee, of Cass Co., Illinois, who, as he informed me, had just re-
turned from a business tour through a great part of Iowa. From
this gentleman I learned that the Grasshoppers first invaded Iowa
about August 25th, and that they continued arriving till about the
end of September. .“They came,” he told me, “with a westerly wind,
and were generally believed by the Iowa farmers to have originated
in Dacotah.” He had met with them, or heard of them in the fol-
lowing counties of Iowa, and from the above Reports of the Agricul-
turai Department we may add Adams and Page counties to the list;
all of which, as will be seen by the geographical student, lie in the
western half of the State, the most easterly point in the most easterly.
counties (Polk and Warren) being no less than 115 miles from the
nearest point on the Mississippi River :—Cherokee (also reported by
the Agricultural Department,) Woodbury, Ida, Sac, Calhoun, Greene,
Dallas, Guthrie, Adair, Madison, Warren, Clarke, Ringgold, Carroll
and Polk (Des Moines.) I may add that the Editor of the Iowa
Homestead, to whom I had forwarded a list of the above 17 counties
in Iowa, says in his issue of January 15, 1868, that he “thinks that
the territory named covers the extent of the Grasshopper-raid into
Towa in the summer and fall of 1867.”

Of course, throughout the districts in Kansas, Missouri, Ne-
braska and Iowa, which have thus been invaded by the Hateful Grass-
hopper in the autumn of 1867, the eggs laid by the females, except
the few that hatch out the same autumn, will mostly live through
the winter and hatch out in the spring of 1868; when, in all human
probability, the same partial destruction of the crops will take place,

132

that was experienced in the spring and summer of 1867 throughout
the districts invaded in the autumn of 1866. But there is not the
least reason to anticipate, as the writers of many of the above extracts
evidently do, that these Grasshoppers have become a permanent insti-
tution in that section of country. Likely enough these districts may
not be again invaded by their little foes from the Rocky Mountains
for the next ten or twenty years. When in October, 1866, in the col-
umns of the Practical Entomologist, I stated that it was not at all
probable that the Grasshopper plague would be continued in Kansas
and Nebraska beyond the summer of 1867, I did so with the distinct
proviso, “unless fresh swarms should descend upon those countries
from Colorado.” (Vol. II., p. 5.) Since, however, I am now writ-
ing more especially for the citizens of Illinois, it is not necessary to
dwell further upon this subject.

But Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska and Iowa were not the only
States on this side of the Rocky Mountains, that were invaded by
Grasshoppers in the autumn of 1867. Nearly a dozen counties in
Texas have suffered in the same manner and at the same time, and
probably from the same species of Grasshopper, the portions of the
State that le at the greatest distance from the Rocky Mountains
having been apparently not infested by these insects. I give below
all that I have been able to collect on the subject.

“Greenville, Hunt Co., N. E. Texas, about Dec. 24, 1867.—Since
the departure of those few dozen Grasshoppers, our farmers have
begun to sow wheat in real earnest. The damage done by that same
set of Radical bugs is not so great as was anticipated.”—Greenville
Independent.

“Dallas Co., N. EB. Texas, about Nov., 1867.—The Grasshoppers

made their appearance here on October 17th, the air being filled with

them. They appeared to be coming from the west, and traveling east.
They have literally eaten every green thing, and in places where they
got to the wheat that was being sown, they devoured the grain.
About two-thirds of them have disappeared, and I think all will leave
in a few days.”—Monthly Rep. Agr. Dep., 1867, p. 364.

“Fannin Co., N. BE. Texas, about Nov., 1867.—The Grasshoppers
made their appearance about two weeks ago, but have done little or
no injury yet. There is a general disposition to withhold seeding
until they entirely disappear.”—Ibid., p. 365.

“Red River Co., N. E. Texas, about Oct., 1867.—We have now
in this county, for the first time in my recollection, a visitation of
Grasshoppers, which are devouring everything they can make food
of, and I fear they will destroy all the wheat put into the ground.
Sowing will be suspended until they disappear.”—ZIbid., p. 365.

133

“Lampasas Co., Central Texas, about Oct., 1867.—Since my last
report, Grasshoppers have come upon us, though not very numerous,
but sufficient to deter farmers from putting in wheat and other small
grains.” —Ibid., p. 365.

“Lampasas Co., Central Texas, about Nov., 1867.—Grasshoppers
made their appearance here in immense numbers about the Ist of
October, and completely destroyed the autumn and winter gardens,
and injured the stock range materially. They continued with us
until the 20th, when they moved on their journey in a south-easterly
direction. Many are deterred from sowing wheat by apprehension of
the re-appearance of the destroyer in the spring.”—IJbid., p. 364.

“Bell Co., Central Texas, about Nov., 1867.—We have had Grass-
hoppers in considerable numbers since the 15th of October, but too
late to do any harm except to gardens, which they have entirely de-
stroyed.”—Ibid., p. 364.

“Coryelle Co., Central Texas, about Nov. 12th, 1867.—The Grass-
hoppers ‘made their appearance in this county on the 12th of October,
coming in vast quantities from the north. They have been with us
a month and done much injury. All the autumn gardens were de-
stroyed; and though wheat-sowing is past, little has been sown, as
the Grasshoppers eat the grain before it can be covered.”—Lbid.,
p. 365.

“Lavaca Co., Central Texas, about Nov., 1867.—The Grasshop-
pers are already, in the western part of the county, depositing their
eges by the million, which, if not destroyed by storm or severe winter,
will hatch out in the spring and do a great deal of damage.”—Zbid.,
p. 361.

“Burleson Co., Central Texas, about Nov., 1867.—We have the
Grasshoppers with us, and they cover the ground, and are depositing
their eggs.”—Ibid., p. 364.

“Fayette Co., Central Texas, about Oct., 1867.—Grasshoppers ap-
peared in this neighborhood on the 3rd instant in great numbers.”—
[bid., p..365.

“Austin Co., Central Texas, about Nov., 1867.—Grasshoppers,
hitherto unknown in this locality, have appeared in countless num-
bers.”—Ibid., p. 365.

In the following Table will be found a chronological synopsis of
the various Grasshopper-invasions, of which the details have been
given above. In every case eggs were deposited in the ground in
great numbers, which, so far as can be ascertained, hatched out in the
following spring, so as to cause considerable damage to the crops.

134

A.D. DisTRICTS INVADED. Gantee as
1820..; Western Missouri scaieh Baneast) Efasinlel ciel Gr ayalelolasva re taacste ey ct’stlais Hatetul Grasshopper.
1856..|Minnesota.. Sane sete cece cere cree cere csereseecseseeeess| Hateful Grasshopper?
Seb hhstes | Weick) Elemarteyet fetetere the nin) cjojel cteiala niece icicle sidisie tusine’s is etele amlaiiein aie ss eneeets Unknown species?
1864..; Minnesota River Valley in Minnesota.. .| Unknown species?
1866..|Kansas, South Nebraska, West Missouri and N. E Texas. Hateful Grasshopper.
ABO sori Wea Meme sea veer Acme acmctsccs wines, seiner - Unknown species?
1867..|\Texas (North-eastern ae central counties)... Hatetul Grasshopper?
1867..| Nebraska, North Kansas, N. W. Missouri and ‘West Iowa. Hateful Grasshopper.

The true Hateful Grasshopper must be carefully distinguished
from the common Red-legged Grasshopper (Caloptenus femur-ru-
brum, DeGeer,) which swarms everywhere from Massachusetts to Min-
nesota, and from Pennsylvania to Illinois. The unpractised observer,
indeed, would very readily confound the two species; for in reality
they differ in nothing but the comparatively much longer wings of
the former, which enable it to fly vast distances; whereas the latter
does not usually fly more than a few yards at a stretch. Harris re-
ports of the Red-legged Grasshopper, (or, as he prefers to call it,
“the Red-legged Locust,”) that in certain seasons it almost entirely
consumes the grass of the New England salt-marshes, and then emi-
grates on to the uplands, devouring on its way grass, maize, garden-
vegetables, potato-tops, clover and tobacco-plants. “These insects,” he
continues, “will even destroy in a few hours the garments of laborers,
hung up in the field while they are at work ; and, with the same vorac-
ity, they devour the loose particles which the saw leaves upon the sur-
face of pine-boards, and which, when separated, are termed saw-dust.”
(Inj. Ins.. pp. 168—170.) As the reader will have noticed, the Rocky
Mountain species has the same omnivorous propensities. It is prob-
ably to this Red-legged Grasshopper that Mr. 8. T. Kelsey, of Kan-
sas, refers, when he says that he “has known Grasshoppers in west-
ern New York to destroy a large proportion of the growing crops,
and then deposit their eggs,” as the other species did in Kansas in
1866. (Prairie Farmer, June 15, 1867.) While I was attending
the State Fair held at Freeport in North Illinois in the year 1859,
I heard (as I have already recorded elsewhere) from the farmers of
that neighborhood great complaints of the damage done them that
year by Grasshoppers. And Mr. Arnold, of DeKalb County, which
also lies near the northern boundary of this State, says that his oat-
crop in 1861 “was diminished at least 10 bushels per acre by the
Grasshoppers, who ate off the heads, the ground being literally cov-
ered with grain.”* In Fulton Co., Central Illinois, “myriads of
young grasshoppers” are reported to have appeared “in the meadows,

*See, on these two points, Trans. Ill. State Agr. Soc. V. p. 497.

ae

135

so as to be likely to destroy the crop of clover seed,” on June 23, 1860.
(Prairie Farmer, July 5, 1860.) And in Champaign Co., Central
Illinois, young grasshoppers are said to have swarmed “in countless
multitudes” in the middle of June, 1861. (bid., June 20, 1861.)
All these grasshoppers in North and Central Illinois were also, in all
likelihood, the common Red-legged_ species; and it is to that species
that I should likewise refer the following observations, which, as well
as many others that the reader has already perused, have been gleaned
from the very valuable “Records of the Season,” that enrich the pages
of the Prairie Farmer.

“Morgan Co., Illinois, Sept. 7, 1867.—Some grasshoppers are
eating on the leaves of the corn, but not enough to do any damage.” —
Prairie Farmer, Sept. 14, 1867.

“Stark Co., Illinois, Aug. 27, 1867—Some grasshoppers are eat-
ing on the leaves of the corn, but not enough to do any harm.”—
“W.N.” in Prairie Farmer, Sept. 7, 1867.

“Marshall Co., Illinois, Sept. 27, 1867.—Corn was doing well
until the 27th of August, when THE GRASSHOPPERS made their
appearance, eating off all the corn-blades and all our vegetables that
grow above-ground.”—“H#. S. H.” in Prairie Farmer, Oct. 12, 186%.

“Washington Co., Illinois, Sept. 3, 1867—THE FLYING
GRASSHOPPERS are here by the bushel; voracious eaters, they
make fruit-trees, groves, currant and gooseberry bushes, and potato
vines look bad indeed. Corn-fields look like fields of bean-poles with
ears on them.”—“O. C.” in Prairie Farmer, Sept. 7, 1867.

Washington county, it will be observed, is in South Illinois,
Morgan county in Central Illinois, Marshall and Stark counties in
- North Illinois; and all four of them are removed by the width of at
least two counties from the Mississippi River. Consequently, it is
unreasonable to suppose, knowing what we do of the habits of the
Hateful Grasshopper, that that insect could have flown from the very
centre of Iowa—the nearest point to Illinois where it is known to
have occurred in the autumn of 1867—over the whole of the eastern
half of Iowa and at least two counties in Illinois, without leaving
any signs of its journey on the road, and have subsequently appeared
in one or more of the interior counties of Illinois in September, 1867.
Hence, so far as indirect evidence goes, it is utterly improbable that
the Grasshoppers referred to in the above extracts could have belonged
to the Rocky Mountain species. It is very true that there is no di-
rect evidence, that the Grasshoppers found in Illinois in Marshall
and Washington counties during September, 1867, by “E. S. H.”
and “O. C.,” were not the veritable Hateful Grasshoppers of Kansas,

136

and Nebraska, and Western Missouri, and Western Iowa; and cer-
tainly their habits, as stated in the above two extracts, agree very
remarkably with those of the Rocky Mountain insect. But who is
to blame for this missing link in the chain of evidence? Not the
editors of the Prairie Farmer; for no doubt they printed faithfully
all the intelligence that their correspondents sent them. Not “E. 8.
H.” and “O. C.”; for they spoke according to the lights that had
been vouchsafed to them. Not the Entomologists; for we have been
preaching for the last ten years on the practical importance of our
favorite branch of Science. The blame, in reality, lies with our
wretchedly defective School System, which persists in tearing the
brains of young children to pieces with such useless acrobat-feats of
the intellect, as are dignified by the name of “Mental Arithmetic,”
while it utterly neglects to instill into their minds the commonest
rudiments of Natural History. Hence we are perpetually dinned
with nonsensical theories about “THE borer,’ “THE fly,’ “THE
bug,” “THE grasshopper,” etc., etc., as if there was respectively but
ONE species of borers. of flies, of bugs and of grasshoppers within the
limits of the United States! Whereas in reality there are hundreds
of distinct species of each of them, differimg one from the other as
widely as'a sheep from a goat, or a cow from a deer, or a horse from a
hog. Had but “O. C.” of Washington county and “E. S. H.” of
Marshall county been familiarized in their school-days with these
simple truths, they would not have thought it sufficient merely to
chronicle the fact, that “THE grasshoppers” had done so and so in
their respective neighborhoods; but ‘they would, in addition, have
sent specimens of the culprit insects to some competent entomologist
—Mr. C. V. Riley, for example, who at that very time was conduct-
ing the entomological department of the Prairie Farmer—and thus
it could have been decided with scientific certainty, to what particu-
lar species their grasshoppers really belonged. Would farmers but
make it a rule to adopt this course, whenever they notice any unusual
occurrence in the little World of Insects, they would not only put
money into their own pockets by furthering our knowledge of Hco-
nomic Entomology, but they might, in addition, often subserve the
interests of pure theoretical science, by adding new facts to the great
store which has been already accumulated. When the scientific name
of an Insect has been once, no matter how, determined, the Farmer
can record for all future ages with scientific precision whatever he
knows about it; and the Farmer, be it remembered, is just as capable
as the Philosopher of observing the peculiar habits of any particular
species of Insects, and ordinarily he has much better and more fre-

+ 187

quent opportunities for so doing than any Philosopher has. On the
other hand, until the name of an insect is scientifically ascertained,
everything that is said about it amounts to little more than guess-
work, and groping round in the dark, and the balance of probabilities.
We may, it is true, sometimes solve the scientific conundrum, as I
have myself attempted to do in the present case, and believe that we
have found the correct solution. But it cannot be too often repeated
that, “Believing is not knowing, and faith is not science.”

The practical man will, perhaps, think that, of whatever theo-
retical interest these long-winded discussions on the nativity of cer-
tain broods of Grasshoppers may be, they are of no manner of prac-
tical importance. But the practical man, if he so think, will be, for
once in his life, mistaken. Let it only be conceded that Hateful
Grasshoppers, after being raised from the egg in 1867 in the lowlands
of Kansas and Missouri, can generate freely the same year in the low-
lands of Nebraska and Iowa—for it must be remembered that the
Grasshoppers that afflicted the two last-named countries in the
autumn of 1867 are said to have laid millions of eggs—and no good
reason can be given, why Hateful Grasshoppers, raised from the egg
in 1868 in Nebraska and Iowa, should not generate freely in Illinois
in the autumn of that year; and so on indefinitely for a long series
of years. In other words, upon this seemingly mere theoretical ques-
tion, that has been discussed at such tedious length, hangs the purely
practical and highly important question, whether or not we folks in
Illinois, and in other States still further to the east, are likely to be
afflicted in the future by the Hateful Grasshopper for nobody knows
how many years. If, on the contrary, every swarm of Hateful Grass-
hoppers raised in the lowlands is always barren, and if every swarm of
them that is capable of laying fertile eggs must necessarily, as I firmly
believe, have been raised from the egg in its native alpine home, away
up in the canons (kanyons) of the Rocky Mountains, then there MusT
be some geographical limit or other to the region of lowland country,
which they are physically capable of reaching. It would be absurd,
for example, to imagine for one instant that a Grasshopper-army,
starting from the Rocky Mountains, could in one season fly all the
way to France or England, or even as far as the Atlantic seaboard of
the United States. Hence, allowing that there is some veographical
limit to the flight of such an army, we have but to recur to historical
facts to find what that limit has hitherto been; and we may then infer
with moral certainty that for the future—all other influencing cireum-
stances continuing the same—the geographical range of a swarm of

138

Hateful Grasshoppers, descending from the Rocky Mountains, will als
ways continue to be the same or nearly the same.

It may perhaps be thought, by those who have not carefully
studied the difference between the two cases, that, if the Colorado Po-
tato-bug could descend from the Rocky Mountains into Nebraska and
Iowa, and then pass onwards into Illinois, and so indefinitely for-
wards in its grand march to the Atlantic Ocean, the Hateful Grass-
hopper may do the very same thing. But the two cases are not
parallel. The Colorado Potato-bug, as we all of us in northern and
central Illinois know from woful experience, propagates freely and
rapidly, generation after generation, in the northern lowlands of the
Mississippi Valley, and spreads by this means every year further and
further to the eastward; although it is very true that in the more
southerly lowlands of that Valley—such as Kansas, and Missouri and
South Ilinois—it propagates much less freely and rapidly, and con-
sequently spreads but very slowly indeed towards the east. On the
other hand, superabundant evidence has been detailed in this chap-
ter, to prove that the Hateful Grasshopper does Nor breed anywhere
in the lowlands of the Mississippi Valley, but, on the contrary, gradu-
ally wastes away and disappears from off the face of the earth, when
raised there from the egg, without itself laying any eggs at all.
Therefore it is utterly improbable that this insect should, at any fu-
ture period, breed freely in the country immediately to the west of
the Mississippi, and thus pass gradually eastward into Illinois, and
after breeding there pass on still further eastward. And in point
of fact we know that the true Hateful Grasshopper has never been
found by any entomologists, even in very small numbers, from one
end of Illinois to the other. Moreover, the Colorado Potato-bug is a
slow-flying insect, physically unable to fly across the vast Plains of
the Western Desert at one fell swoop. Hence, until the distance be-
tween Colorado and eastern Kansas and Nebraska was bridged by
settlements where potatoes were grown, it was incapable of passing
into Kansas and Nebraska, and thence through Iowa into Illinois;
and we know that history proves to us, so far as any negative fact
can be historically proved, that it never did so. On the other hand,
the Hateful Grasshopper is a rapid-flying insect, capable of flying
hundreds of miles at a stretch, when caught up by a strong westerly
wind; and there is historical evidence that it crossed the Plains, that
intervene between Colorado and the inhabitable or eastern parts of
Kansas, in 1820, or long before any white man had thrust his plow
into the virgin soil of those two districts. Therefore, if this Grass-
hopper is going at some future period to make its way into Illinois,

139

not by successive broods being raised one from the other on the
route, but by one single uninterrupted flight from the Rocky Moun-
tains, we have a right to ask, why it has never done so at some pre-
vious period?

Our State has now been organized for about 50 years, and for
many preceding years it was sparsely inhabited both by the French
and by the English. Yet, in all that long period of time, no record
of any such Grasshopper-invasion of our State, as history shows to
have repeatedly taken place in various States to the west of us, and
in various years from A. D. 1820 up to the present year, 1867, can
be met with in any printed document, or gleaned from the trusty
memory of the “oldest inhabitant.’ Why is this? What possible
cause can be assigned, why, up to the year 1870, for example, the
Hateful Grasshopper should never have flown eastward from the
Rocky Mountains within 115 miles of Illinois, and in that particular
year should fly so many miles further east as to touch the sacred soil
of Illinois? The distance from the alpine regions of the Rocky
Mountains to the most easterly point that this insect has ever hitherto
reached, namely, the centre of Iowa, is about 550 miles. What is to
enable it at some future period to fly 150 miles further, or a total
distance of 700 miles, which it must do if it is ever going to swoop
down upon any considerable portion of [llinois from its present alpine
home? It surely cannot be the settlement of some portion of the
intervening country, that will enable it to do so. This cause, if it had
any influence at all upon the length of its flight, would rather have
a tendency to diminish that length; for there is abundant evidence
that every invading army, composed of these Grasshoppers, drops a
portion of its numbers, as it goes along, wherever it finds abundance
of suitable crops to prey upon; so that, the wider the extent of settled
country that it passed through, the sooner would such an army be re-
duced to nothing. ‘The only physical change that I can conceive of,
as likely to cause such an invading army to penetrate into Illinois,
is a sudden upheaval to the amount of many hundred feet of the
whole chain of the Rocky Mountains that lies to the westward of. us,
so as to bring the native alpine home of this insect full 115 miles
nearer to Illinois. But modern geology teaches us that, although
such an upheaval may very probably take place by slow and gradual
steps in the course of the next 10,000 or 20,000 years, yet it can
never come to pass in our time, or in the times of our grandchildren,
or even in the times of our great-grandchildren twenty times removed.
Therefore we may infer, with moral certainty, that no swarm of
Hateful Grasshoppers can swoop down from the Rocky Mountains

140

upon Illinois, within the only future that practically concerns us.
But it was demonstrated before, that this insect could not pass into
Illinois in the same mode as the Colorado potato-bug has done,
namely, by breeding at various way-stations on the road. Therefore,
as there are but two conceivable modes by which the Hateful Grass-
hopper can reach Illinois, namely, Ist, at a single flight, or 2d, by
breeding on the road, and as it has been shown that both modes are
utterly improbable in the case of this species for hundreds of years
to come, it necessarily follows that. in all human probability, it will
not pass into Illinois at all for hundreds of years to come.

Kvery man—except, perhaps, some crazy Millerite—believes
firmly that, in all human probability, the sun will rise in Illinois
every morning for hundreds of years to come. Yet he has no better
kind of evidence to justify such a belief, than I have to justify the
truth of my theory, namely, that, in all human probability, we shall
never for hundreds of years to come, be afflicted with the Hateful
Grasshopper in Illinois. Both the inorganic and the organic worlds
are governed by certain fixed laws; and whether it be a vast fiery
globe of liquid lava revolving slowly upon its axis in the midst of
the attendant worlds, that have been circling around it, each in its
own peculiarly prescribed path, for indefinite ages; or whether it be
some infinitesimally minute insect winging its way from the alpine
heights of the Rocky Mountains over the Desert Plains of the West;
we have but to ascertain by what laws each of them is governed, in
order to be able to predict, in the case of each of them, what is, and
what is not, morally certain to happen in the future.

THE END.

Color, dull black
mottled with gray.

hig.2a

Colors, black, rust-red,
gray, and white.

Colors, black. white,
rust-red, and pale steel blue.

Drawn by BENJ. D. WALSH. Original cut engraved by WM. MACKWITZ.

Fig. 1. The Grape Curculio, (Cwliodes inequalis, Say.)

Fig. la. Its frontleg highly magnified.

Fig. 1b. Its larva.

Fig. 2. The Apple-maggot Fly, (7rypeta pomonella, Walsh.)

Fig. 2a. I's larva, the Apple-maggot.

Fig. 2b. The Apple-worm, (larva of Carpocapsa pomonella, Linn.)
Fig 3. The Plum Moth, (Semasia prunivora, Walsh,) female.

Fig. 3a. Part of the hind wing of the male Plum Moth.

Fig.3b. Larva of the Plum Moth.

Fig. 8c. Larva of the Plum Curculio,(Conotrachelus nenuphar,Hbst.)

N.B. The hair-lines show the size of the insect, when not magnified.
gre

FIRST ANNUAL REPORT | |

ON THE

JNOXIOUS INSECTS

STATE OF ILLINOIS. ‘d
BY WILLIAM LeBARON, AE | |

STATE ENTOMOLOGIST.

mi

SPRINGFIELD :
ILLINOIS JOURNAL PRINTING OFFICE.

1871.
ES ce SS SD ee

FIRST ANNUAL REPORT

ON THE

NOXIOUS INSECTS

OF THE

STATE OF ILLINOIS.

BY WILLIAM LeBARON, M. D.,

STATE ENTOMOLOGIST.

ao a

SPRINGFIELD :

ILLINOIS JOURNAL PRINTING OFFICE, / re v S LS 4

! 1871.

ERRATA IN FIRST REPORT.

Page 16, 14th line from top, for “larva” read “‘ larva. ”
«20, 3rd “ “for “from” read ‘“‘ upon.”
« 31, Sth ‘ bottom, for “‘ with” read ‘‘ in.”
So 465 Vth +6 “for “described” read “ describes. ”
S465 21 bth 4) 15° “for “ follows” read “ follow. ”
“61, 8th « top, for “once” read “one.”
“ 6%, 14th <“ bottom, for “close ” read “closely, ”

8th RQ « for ‘‘ lying ” read “‘ flying. ”

bth sss top, for ‘‘immovable” read “immovably. ”
OTH a “for ‘“‘of oyster” read “of the oyster. ”
14th “ “for “superiors ” read “superior. ”

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PaGE
AESOP EL OED ELOIN re alisich ope cisielen a’e(a)syaiciiie ainiaia sisielsia/tisie « cialccis ansiay © ahs Shereyatateliera ciate 5
PMSHOlS INIURIOUS: TO? THE: APPILE-RRED « o:6 cis.cie)) sso 2 '<lajnarsrve's oi ainlnle bia sei 18
1. The White-marked Tussock Moth ( Orgyia leucostigma. Sm.-Abb.)........13
2. Vie) Ball, Web-worm)(Spilosoma textor, Harris) "ise << <1c)-)/e)2/cs12 silicic siere = 18
8. The Lesser Apple Leaf-folder ( Tortxiz malivorana. N. sp.)....seeeeeeees 20
4. The Oyster-shell Bark-louse ( Mytilasyns conchiformis. Gmelin. )..... Soocectt:
NS HOLS IN UR LOUW SiO MRED PRANTL TURE Hisc; o)4 atel s'elsls}alolate leis) Lelele sisis/sleisiaie) elelerele 47
5. The Callimorpha Pear-caterpillar ( Callimorpha Lecontei, Boisd, var. fulvi-
ani, (CUBIS, \oonodhooloecoosonogooU God cog aponedepoucddoouebon’ 47
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PLUM-TREE. .........eccecccccsssssee seve 51
6, The Green, Chestnut-backed Plum-caterpillar ( Acronycta superans, Gueneé )51
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE-VINE.............cceceeccecccceeeces 54
7. The American Vine-Chafer (Anomala lucicola. Fabr.)...+++e.0++ seers BA
8. The Green, Cream-spotted Grape-worm ( Amphipyra pyramidoides. Guen. ). .56
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CURRANT......... cc eecceeceecee cecesceeees 59
9. The Spinous Currant-caterpillar ( Vanessa ( Grapta) Progne. Fabr.)...... 59
10. The Four-striped Plant-bug ( Capsus 4-vittatus. Say.)......eeeseeeseeees 61
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO.......... Ron Orc appoucHoDUnteosoc 63
11. The Colorado Potato-beetle ( Doryphora 10-lineata. Say.)........- Jeg eles
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE ROSE........ gobonoooGadDboobor Soodgusnobte 79
2cenne Rose-slues (Selanditasiiose. Warris:)))slo/i- osicies=sieeicieisisiesielets |) 1 e =\«1~ 79
“NSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PINE............ Sclekey o/sictatniaratstevetais| aia) sx sis elassvaie 83
13. The Pine Leaf-louse ( Mytilaspis pinifoli Fitch. ).........- sototbecsss 83

INTRODUTCION.

To His Excrtiency, Joun M. Parr,
Governor of the State of Illinois:

Srr—Having been called by your appointment to fill the va-
cancy in the office of State Entomologist, caused by the sudden
and accidental death of Benjamin D. Walsh, whose untimely loss
scientific and economic entomology equally deplore, I herewith
present my first annual report, in compliance with the require-
ment of the law by which this office was established, and in fur-
therance of the objects which my lamented predecessor had so
much at heart.

My attention has been so much diverted, for several years past,
from the study of insects, by the pressure of professional and
other duties, that I have not been able, in most instances, to make
these continuous observations which are essential to the complete
elucidation of the history of species. The present publication,
therefore, will be in the main, what its title implies, a report of
my observations in practical entomology for the season just past.

The history of many of our noxious insects, and especially the
most notorious of them, has been pretty thoroughly traced, not
only by the entomologists expressly employed by several of the
States for this purpose, but also by many other active gleaners in
this field. Still, any one who enters upon the study of this ex-
tensive subject, soon finds work enough upon his hands. It can-
not be said that the history of any insect is perfectly and abso-
lutely known,'and it is a notorious fact that some of the insects
which have been longest known and studied, such as the Plum
Curculio and the Apple Worm, are the very ones which are caus-

6 INTRODUCTION.

ing the most damage to the horticulturist at the present day ; and
if we take into account the multitude of insects which are preying
upon our shade and ornamental trees and shrubs, which, in the
estimation of many, are scarcely inferior in value to the fruit bear-
ing trees, we may safely conclude that the prospect is very remote
when the work of the practical entomologist will cease or mate-
rially diminish. And the force of this view is greatly enhanced
by the occurance, every year, to a greater or less extent, of new
species of noxious insects, or rather of insects which, having ex-
isted here or elsewhere in moderate numbers, from time imme-
morial, have suddenly sprung into destructive profusion in conse-
quence of an abundant supply of congenial food, or the absence of
their natural enemies, or other conditions favorable to life, some
of which are known, and some of which are obscure or inscrutable.
The Colorado Potato-beetle, the Currant Saw-fly, the Asparagus-
beetle, and the Bruchus granarius; to which we might add the
Pear-caterpillar (Callimorpha Lecontei), and the Lesser Apple-
leaf folder (Zortrie malivorana,) treated of in the following re-
port, were all unknown here as noxious insects until within the
last few years. It is true that some noxious insects, on the other
hand, have greatly diminished, and some, which have been the
sorest scourges of the orchardist, such for example, as the notori-
ous Bark-louse of the apple tree, seem to be in the process of ex-
tinction. But we must not draw too much encouragement from
this state of things, since it is also true that noxious insects are
sometimes known to disappear from one section of the country,
only to break forth in greater number and virulence in another.
The Chinch-bug, which at one time rendered the raising of spring
wheat an impossibility in Northern Illinois for several years in
succession, has, for many years, been wholly unknown in this sec-
tion. And yet this very year it has again made its appearance in
considerable profusion in a few localities, and I have recently
heard of its having been found hybernating under the sheaths of
corn-stalks in my own county of Kane; not in great numbers, it
is true, but sufliciently numerous, I fear, to start a colony for the
succeeding year.

Whilst it is the bueiness of the scientific entomologist, in apply-
ing his knowledge to economic purposes, to teet the value of the
various antidotes which have been recommended against our in-

INTRODUCTION. Tq

sect enemies, and if possible, suggest new ones, it is more espe-
cially his province to thoroughly study the habits and trace the
development of the noxious species, so as to determine at what
period of their existence, and at what time of the year, and to
what part of the infested plant, the proper applications can be
made with the most effect. For there is a period in the lives of
most°of our noxious insects, and that is usually, of course, the
time of their tender infancy, when some one or other of the com-
mon remedies, such as soap, tobacco, lime or ashes, is effective in
destroying them, provided only that it can be made to reach them,

In illustration of zhe time when such applications should be
made, we may take two of the most destructive foes of the apple
tree, the Round-headed borer and the Oyster-shell bark-louse.
A single application of soap in the one case, and of soap diluted
with water in the other, about the last week of May, or the first
week of June, will be fatal to every insect which it reaches;
whereas the same applications are utterly useless if made at any
other time of the year,

In illustration of the importance of observing, in some cases,
the tume of day also, in which to make remedial applications, a
good example is furnished by the Rose-slug, which hides under
the leaves in the day time, and thus escapes our ordinary applica-
tions, but comes upon the upper surface to feed in the evening,
and is therefore entirely exposed.

As regards the particular part of the tree to which to direct our
remedies, a very good example is furnished by some observations
which I have been making the past summer, upon the Bark-lonse,
or more correctly, the Coccus (d/ytilaspis) of the pine, which, in
this instance, stations itself upon the leaf. It is the habit of this
insect, like most others of its family, to become stationary for life
after the first few days succeeding its hatching; and it is the sin-
gular instinct of this species for the two sexes to fix themselves
upon different parts of the tree, the males remaining upon the
same leaves upon which they hatched, whilst the egg-laying fe-
males, which alone demand our attention, for the most part spread
themselves upon the new and terminal foliage.

These, and many other examples of the above general proposi-
tions, will be found more fully elucidated in their proper places,
in the following report.

8 INTRODUCTION.

In order to be able to avail ourselves of the knowledge accumu-
lated by others, concerning the habits of our noxious insects, and
the methods of counteracting their ravages, the first step is to
identify with certainty, the species which we may have in hand.
For this purpose, it is necessary to refer to some living authority,
or to a correctly named cabinet, or to plates, or to well written
descriptions. :

Next to consulting some well informed entomologist, the surest
way to identify an insect, is to compare it witu the specimens in
a well preserved and correctly named cabinet. -With this end in
view, it would be well for those whose pursuits render some
knowledge of noxious insects especially important, to make pri-
vate collections of their own. But as this is hardly to be expected,
except in a few isolated cases, it becomes the more important that
every horticultural society should have a well arranged collection
of noxious insects, both in larva and perfect states, located at
some central point where it would be easily accessible to its mem-
bers, and others interested. But as such collections, also, will be
most likely to be either wholly neglected or imperfectly prepared,
we can understand the paramount necessity of having, at least,
one if not more large cabinets in the State which may serve the pur-
poses of ultimate resort. It was a pervading consciousness.of this
kind, no doubt, which produced so general a desire, on the part
of intelligent men throughout the State, that the large and val-
uable collection of insects left by my predecessor in office, Mr.
B. D. Walsh, of Rock Island, should be secured as the perma-
nent property of the State. Soon after my appointment to the
office of State Entomologist was publicly announced, I received
communications from several persons of influence, and amongst
others, Mr. W. C. Flagg, President of the, Illinois Horticultural
Society, calling my attention to this matter, and expressing the
wish that this cabinet might be secured to the State. Mr. Flagg
stated that he had already had two interviews with Gov. Palmer,
in which this matter formed a principal topic of discussion, and
that the Governor expressed his willingness to take any steps
which might be necessary for the attainment of this end. Ac-
cordingly, as soon as it was determined that there would be a bal-
ance of the contingent fund at his disposal sufficient for the pur-

INTRODUCTION. 9

pose, Gov. Palmer authorized me to visit Rock Island and effect
the purchase. Some of the details of this transaction were pub-
lished in the newspapers at the time, and need not be here re-
peated. It may be stated in a few words, that this collection em-
braces ali the orders of insects, that it is estimated to contain about
thirty thousand specimens, well preserved and admirably mounted,
‘and most of the species scientifically named; and that it was the
result of ten years’ assiduous labor by this able and enthusiastic en-
tomologist. The price paid for it was twenty-five hundred dollars,

_. which sum also covered a considerable balance of salary due to

Mr. Walsh at the time of his death. I may here add that I have
been both surprised and gratified at the universal expression of
satisfaction by men of intelligence, wherever my official travels
have carried me, at the accomplishment of this purchase, and I
have heard no intimation that the sum paid for this cabinet was
injudiciously expended. The cabinet is deposited, for the present,
in the fire-proof building of the Chicago Academy of Sciences.

Next in value to a collection of the insects themselves, are cor-
rectly drawn figures. With respect to availability, a well illus-
trated book must even take the precedence of a cabinet, since the
book can be obtained at a comparatively trifling cost, and may be
always at hand. It is in this way that Mr. C. V. Riley, State En-
tomologist of Missouri, has done an excellent work in the cause of
Western economic entomology. The figures with which his val-
uable Reports are illustrated, are remarkable for their accuracy,
and one can never be at a loss, in referring to them, to identify
any of the species illustrated.

And in this connection, [ cannot help referring to the extensive
and valuable series of plates illustrative of the entomology of the
United States, and with special reference to the injurious species,
in all their stages, in the course of preparation by Mr. Townend
Glover, Entomologist to the Department of Agriculture at Wash-
ington.

The work consists of a great number of figures etched upon
copper, many figures upon the same plate so as to economize
space and material, and thus reduce the cost and price of the pub-
lication. The plates have already reached the following num-
bers: forty-five plates of Coleoptera, six of Orthoptera, seven of
Neuroptera, ten of Hymenoptera, one hundred and nineteen of

A +-2

10 INTRODUCTION.

Lepidoptera, six of Homoptera, five of Heteroptera, and eight of
Diptera. Mr. Glover contemplates adding six or eight more plates
of Coleoptera, and ten or twelve of Lepidoptera, to make the work
as complete as possible. These will make, at least, two hundred
and twenty-two plates, and as each plate contains twenty-five or
more figures, we shall have here exhibited, at the lowest estimate,
six thousand, five hundred and fifty illustrations of our North
American insects. In addition to these, there are already com-
pleted, twenty-two plates of the cotton plant and the insects in-
jurious to it. The drawing and etching have both been performed
by Mr. Glover himself, and the whole work, as I understand, has
been performed wholly outside of his regular office hours; a re-
markable monument, certainly, to the zeal and industry of the
author. This work, having been performed under such disadvan-
tageous circumstances, the figures necessarily exhibit considerable
inequality, in point of excellence, and many of them will have to
be retouched before they are ultimately submitted for publication ;
but the author informs me that the whole work could be finished
in a few months if he could devote his time exclusively to it.

The clause in the law by which the office of State Entomologist
was established, which makes it a part of his duty to prepare a
cabinet of the insects of the State for the Illinois Industrial Uni-
versity, has never yet been carried out. Mr. Walsh had accumu-
lated valuable materials for this purpose, but no suitable provision
has yet been made at the University to receive them. It is my
intention, as soon as the work of preparing this Report is com-
pleted, to commence making up a collection, systematically ar-
ranged and named, both from Mr. Walsh’s collection and my own,
to be placed in temporary boxes, ready to be transferred to the
museum of the Industrial University, whenever it shall be desired,
and when suitable provision shall be made for their reception.

Most of the figures accompanying this report are reprints of
figures prepared by Mr. C. V. Riley, for the illustration of his
own Reports, or the pages of the American Entomologist. So far
as I could avail myself of these figures, it answered my purpose
as well as new engravings could have done, and they were ob-
tained at considerably less than the original cost.

INTRODUCTION. il

I take this opportunity to express my thanks to the officers of
the great railroad lines throughout the State—the Illinois Central 5
the Chicago, Alton and St. Louis; the Chicago and Rock Island;
the Chicago, Quincy and Burlington ; and the Chicago and North-
western railroads—for the annual passes over their respective
routes, which they have freely presented to me.

All which is respectfully submitted, by

WILLIAM LeBARON,

Geneva, Dec. 15. State Entomologist.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE TREE.

THE WHITE-MARKED TUSSOCK-MOTH.
( Orgyia leucostigma, Smith and Abbott. )

Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of Arcrup2.

Harris’s Treatise, State Ed., page 366 ; Fitch’s 1st and 2d New York Reports, p. 209 ;
Riley’s 1st Missouri Rep., p. 144.

There is no noxious insect which I have received from so many
different localities during the past summer, as the pretty caterpil-
lar, which is the larva of the above-named moth. It is easily
recognized by its coral red head and neck, and two tubercles of
the same color, on the ninth and tenth rings. There are four
short, thick, brush-like tufts on the fourth and three following
rings, varying in color from cream color to yellow, and three long
pencils of black hairs projecting one on each side of the neck, and
the other from the top of the eleventh ring. It is figured on plate
seven, of Harris’s Treatise, fig. one; and there is a better figure
on the 145th page of Mr. Riley’s first Missouri Report, a copy of
which is given at the head of this article, and also a figure of the
male of the moth which proceeds from it. This insect has always
been described ag an exclusively leaf-eating caterpillar, but in

14 WHITE-MARKED TUSSOCK-MOTH.

almost every instance in which I have received specimens, com-
plaint has been made of their gnawing the young apples, and
examples of the fruit thus corroded have generally been sent in
the packages with the caterpillars. The effect is either to destroy
the fruit, or, where the corrosion is less in extent, to induce a de-
formity in its future growth. This kind of injury can only be
done by the first or spring brood of caterpillars. The later brood
will sometimes strip the tree of its foliage after the apples are
nearly grown, and I have this year seen the curious spectacle of
an orchard loaded with apples with scarcely a leaf to be seen upon
any of the trees. The only injurious effect in this case seemed to
be the diminishing somewhat the size of the fruit.

This is one of our most widely distributed insects, having been
noticed in most of the States east of the Mississippi River. The
female is wingless, and it could have obtained this wide geographic
range only by being transported upon nursery trees from one lo-
cality to another. This is sufficiently explained by the fact that
the female moth lays her eggs upon her cocoon, which is attached,
sometimes to fences or other objects, but usually to the twigs of
the tree upon which she has fed. If left to themselves, therefore,
these insects would migrate very slowly, and in point of fact, are
remarkable for committing their ravages within very limited
ranges. For this reason they have never been regarded as nox-
ious insects of a very serious character.

The Tussock-moth caterpillars are solitary in their habits; that
is, they do not live together in families like the Tent-caterpillar
and many others. This would render them very difficult to eradi-
cate, were not their distribution limited by the wingless and sta-
tionary character of the female moths. They do not cover them-
selves with a web, but they have the power of letting themselves
down from the tree by a thread, when disturbed.

These insects are remarkable for the great variety of foliage
upon which they can subsist. Though they seem to prefer the
apple, yet they feed freely upon the oak, maple, elm, plum, pear,
horse-chestnut, black-walnut, larch, and rose-bush.

They pass the winter in the egg state, attached for the most
part to the twigs and branches of trees, and as the egg masses are
fastened to the outside of the cocoon from which the female has
emerged, they form very conspicuous objects upon the leafless

WHITE-MAKKED TUSSOCK-MOTH. 15

limbs, and can therefore be easily seen and removed. Every or-
chardist and nurseryman should look over his trees in the course
of the winter or early spring, and remove all the tufts of web or
crumpled leaves which he may find adhering to their branches.
In this way he will save himself from much loss, and also a great
deal of labor in the subsequent and more busy seasons. He will
thus remove at least two kinds of insects which are liable to be-
come quite troublesome : the Tussock-moth caterpillar, now under
consideration, and the Leaf:crumpler, often found disfiguring our
apple and plum trees, and which is the larva of the Phycita neb-
ulo. If this be neglected, the only way to get rid of them in the
summer time, is to shake them from the trees. The foliage might
also be made distasteful to them, by dusting it with lime when the
dew is on. :

Dr. Hull, of Alton, who has had much experience in the treat-
ment of noxious insects, informs me that he has found the lime a
very effective remedy, especially for the Leaf-crumpler. Indeed,
the lime-dusting process is a sort of panacea, with the doctor, for
destroying many of the foliage insects by which horticulturists are
molested.

Another reason why the Tussock-moth larva has not been so
destructive as many others, is that it is extremely subject to the
attacks of parasites. Dr. Fitch describes two kinds of Chalcides
which infest it, and Mr. Riley says he knows of seven others.
And I have myself witnessed, this season, the most wholesale de-
struction of this insect, by parasites, that I have ever known in
the case of any species. On the second of September my atten-
tion was called to an orchard a few miles from my residence, in
which all the trees in one corner of the inclosure, to the number
of fifteen or more, had been entirely stripped of their foliage by
these caterpillars, whilst they were at the same time well loaded
with fruit. The remaining trees, at least four times the number,
were scarcely touched, illustrating, in a remarkable manner, the
local restriction of the species. They had nearly all inclosed
themselves in their cocoons, and were attached everywhere: on
the twigs, branches and trunks, lying in masses in the crotches,
and even on the sides of the trunk wherever there happened to
be a little depression. In these cases, a number of cocoons, lying
side by side, would sometimes have a sheet of web spread in com-

16 WHITE-MARKED TUSSOCK-MOTH.

mon over the whole. Upon opening the cocoons, I found, with
very few exceptions, not pup, but partly changed caterpillars,
dead and dry, and in each of these two or three, and sometimes
four coarctate pupze, of a regular oval form and mahogany color,
evidently belonging to some parasitic two-winged fly. In some
were found the larvee or maggots, not yet changed to pupe.

They are from three to four-tenths of an inch in length, and present the ordinary
characters of the larvee of the Muscide or fly family. The body is somewhat tapering,
anteriorly, and capable of considerable extension, The only parts of the mouth visible
are two minute, curved, black mandibles or teeth. The body is rounded, posteriorly,
with a shallow depression, in which are situated two conspicuous spiracles or breathing
pores. On all the rings, but mostly on those nearest the extremities, are numerous mi-
eroscopically minute, black, spinous points. These points extend all around the body,
beneath, as well as above, and probably assist the larve in the slight locomotion which
it requires. The pupa is a quarter of an inch long, with slight, but distinct segmental
incisions, and even with vestiges of the spinous points of the larva, proving that the
covering or case of what are known as coarctate pupe is really only the skin of the
larva contracted and hardened.

The parasitic flies began to emerge from their pupal cases during the first week of
September, and proved to belong to the genus Tachina, proper, as restricted by Mac-
quart, and to section A A A, distinguished by having the third joint of the antenne a
little more than twice the length of the second. They resemble the common house-fly,
but are somewhat larger and have more bristly bodies. Many of the Tachinw bear a
close resemblance to each other, and are therefore difficult to distinguish from each
other by merely verbal descriptions. This species may be appropriately named the Tach-
ina orgyie. Length about one-third of an inch; sides of front, pale golden; middle
space, velvet black; face, silver-ash; fascial bristles, reaching nearly to the middle of
the face; eyes, bare; third joint of antennz, a little more than twice as long as the sec-
ond; second joint of the seta, well developed; third joint of seta, thickened for half its
length; palpi, brownish; thorax, with alternate stripes of black and dusky cinereous.
First longitudinal vein of the wings, after the auxillary, reaching the middle of the
costa. Third and fourth veins, almost meeting, some way before the tip of the wing.
Fourth vein, prolonged beyond the curve, half way to the border. Discal cross vein re-
moved its own length from the border, and more than half its length from the flexure
of the fourth vein. Abdomen black with cinereous reflections at the incisions and on
the basal half of the segments, except the first. Two bristles on the hind margin of
the first and second segments. Terminal segments many bristled.

Of the myriads of cocoons here accumulated, it appeared that
scarcely one out of a hundred had escaped the fatal visitation of
these parasites. So that the race of caterpillars, so abundant and
destructive this year, may be considered as practically extermi-
nated in this locality.

It might seem, at first sight, that a knowledge of parasitic in-
sects is of no practical importance, inasmuch as they carry on their
beneficent work wholly irrespective of our cognizance or co-ope-

WHITE-MARKED TUSSOCK-MOTH. 17

ration. But a moment’s reflection will show the erroneousness of
this conclusion, of which the case now before us furnishes a suffi-
cient illustration. Here is an orchard, one-fourth part of which
has been devasted by these destructive caterpillars. The pre-
sumption is that their progeny, next year, will sweep the field.
It behooves the owner, therefore, to set to work in earnest to col-
lect and destroy this almost countless number of cocoons, and
from ‘any ordinary degree of search it may be reasonably feared
that many will escape detection. But if he, or any one whom he
may have it in his power to consult, knows enough of entomology
to understand that all this work has been done for him by his
parasitic friends, and much more thoroughly than he could do it,
he is at once relieved from all labor and anxiety.

It was in the case of the larva of the Tussock-moth that I made
the interesting observation, last summer, of the manner in which
such birds as the American cuckoo contrive to eat the hairy cater-
pillars without fillingstheir stomachs with indigestible material.
Whilst sitting in the porch of Mr. Jesse K. Fell’s residence in
Normal, where I was visiting, with the ad interim horticultural
committee, my attention was attracted to a cuckoo regaling him-
self upon these caterpillars which were infesting, in considerable
numbers, a kind of imported larch which was growing near the
house. My curiosity was excited by seeing a little cloud of hair
floating down upon the air from the place where the bird was
standing. Upon approaching alittle nearer I could see that he
seized the worm by one extremity, and drawing it gradually into
his mouth, shaved off, as he did so, with the sharp edges of his
bill, the hairy coating of the caterpillar and scattered it upon the
wind. It has been long known that the American cuckoo is one
of the very few birds that will eat the hairy caterpillars, but I be-
lieve that it has not been before observed how it is that he per-
furms this usetul part, without at the same time disturbing his
digestion.

18 THE FALL WEB-WORM.

THE FALL WEB-WORM.

(Hyphantria (Spilosoma) textor, Harris.)
Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of Artnpz.

Harris’s Treatise, page 357 ; Fitch’s Report, No. 88.

This is the caterpillar which disfigures with its web, often sev-
eral feet in extent, both garden and forest trees in the latter part
of the summer and fall. Like other caterpillars of the family of
Arctians, to which both this and the preceding species belong,
they are very indiscriminate feeders. This is the more remark-
able as the great majority of insects are very select in their diet,
generally confining themselves to a single species of plapt, or at
most to plants of the same natural family. The Web-worm flour-
ishes equally well upon the apple, pear, cherry, both wild and
cultivated, shagbark and pignut hickory, black walnut, butternut,
elm, ash, and willow, and they bear to be transferred from one
kind of tree to another with impunity. I have, this summer,
changed them from the apple tree to the black walnut, and vice
versa, without their seeming to suffer any inconvenience. Their
range of diet Lowever has its limits. I have tried the experiment
of tying nests of these caterpillars upon the common locust, maple,
currant and rose bushes, and grape vine. In all these cases the
caterpillars extended their web a short distance, but ate but little,
and in no case came to maturity.

When young they eat only the upper surface of the leaves, but
when more mature they devour the whole leaf except the larger
ribs. They are active caterpillars, and when disturbed, have a
habit, especially when young, of showing their dissatistaction by
snapping their heads from one side to another. They do not crawl
upon the branches like the Tent-caterpillar, but travel along the
threads of which their webs are composed. They inclose within
their nests the leaves upon which they feed, extending their web
from branch to branch as their necessities require. Late in the
season these nests attain a great size, and where there happens to
be a number of them on one tree, they will sometimes almost cover
a tree of moderate dimensions. A nest of these insects upon an
apple tree in my garden, the present season, which I left unmo-
lested for the purpose of observing their habits, attained an extent

THE FALL WEB-WORM. ; 19

of seven feet by actual measurement. Ifa nest be torn open, the
inmates in a short time repair the breach.

I have examined the nests upon different kinds of trees to see whether the differ-
ence of food produced any variation in the color of the caterpillars, but could dis-
cover none. This is the more remarkable as they are not a particularly uniform spe~
cies, the insects in the same nest varying from a pale buff or brownish yellow to
a dull green, but having in both cases somewhat of a grayish tint, produced by a dense
sprinkling over the whole body of minute black points and lines. This intermixture
of black is the densest on the upper side, so as to constitute a broad blackish dorsal
stripe; but many individuals are scarcely darker on the back than on the sides.
Drs. Harris and Fitch both describe the larva of Hyphantria textor, as having a black
head. I have seen a few black-headed individuals in nests both on the apple and
the hickory, but nearly all of them have heads of a clear amber-brown color. The
upper lip and the basal joint of the small antennz are pure white, constituting quite
characteristic marks, irrespective of all other variations. There are five inconspic-
uous whitish lines extending the length of the body, one on the middle of the back
and two on each side. The upper part of the neck is black or dark brown, divided
through the middle by the white dorsal line. There are twelve pale orange or amber
colored tubercles on each segment, the two middle dorsal and the lowest lateral ones
being smaller than the others. The two larger dorsal tubercles are sometimes black,
both in the darker and lighter colored individuals. Each tubercle emits a tuft of long
hairs which are usually rusty-white, but in some specimens bright-ferruginous.

Many kinds of caterpillars conceal themselves, or at least remain
statiopary through the day and feed only in the evening or night.
In this way, no doubt, they escape to some extent the notice of
insectivorous birds, which are almost all diurnal in their habits.
The caterpillars of which we are now treating are strictly noctur-
nal feeders. They remain in the oldest and densest part of their
nests through the day, and notwithstanding their long fast, they
do not venture out till it is quite dark. In order to witness them
at their work I have been under the necessity of examining them
by candle light.

The Fall Web-worms, as these caterpillars are usually called,
have not heretofore been regarded as holding more than a third
rate rank in the catalogue of noxious insects. Yet, judging from
my observations the past season, I should suppose them to be upon
the increase. I saw the apple trees much disfigured by them
through the middle portions of the State, and also in my own
neighborhood ; and a correspondent of the American Entomologist,
writing from Massachusetts, remarks that they have been unusu-
ally abundant in that part of the country. They appear so late in
the season, not making much show till atter the first of August,

20 LESSER APPLE LEAF-FOLDER.

that it is not probable that they will ever be very seriously injuri-
ous to fruit trees. The greatest objection to them is the disfigure-
ment which their extensive webs produce both from fruit and
ornamental trees. I do not know that any predaceous or parasitic
insects prey upon them. Indeed they are so protected during the
day, that it is not easy to comprehend how any insect enemies
could get access to them.

An interesting question here presents itself, whether the para-
sitic insects are active in the night. We often see them plying
their busy avocation in the day time, but the minute size of most
ot them precludes the possibility of our detecting whether they
extend their operations into the night. .

These are gregarious insects and are therefore easily removed
by hand, or, where they are out of reach, by thrusting a pole into
their nests and turning it round and round so as to entangle them
in their web. Shaking and lime-dusting are here of no avail.
One of my neighbors told me that he effectually removed them
from his garden trees by tearing open their nests and sprinkling
in some Paris Green with which he had been killing potato-bugs.
But such applications are unnecessary. The true remedy consists
in removing the nests by hand as soon as they make their appear-
ance.

These insects pass the winter in the chrysalis state, and make
their appearance in June and July in the form of white moths,
without spots, with tawny yellow fore thighs and blackish feet,
and measuring a little more than an inch across the expanded
wings. A figure of the cocoon, and an imperfect one of the cat-
erpillar, may be seen on plate vu, figs. 10 and 12, of Dr. Harris’s
treatise on insects injurious to vegetation.

THE LESSER APPLE LEAF-.FOLDER.

(Tortriz malivorana, N. sp.)

Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of Torrricinz.

A pretty little bright-orange, round-shouldered moth, the
larva of which is a small, greenish, naked caterpillar, with a pale
amber-brown head and whitish incisions. In some specimens the

LESSER APPLE LEAF-FOLDER. 21

whole caterpillar is of a pale brownish tint. Usually, one cater-
pillar, sometimes two or three, eats off the upper cuticle of the
leaf, curling the two sides upwards till the edges nearly or quite
meet, and tying them togethe: with web. In this inclosure the
little caterpillar goes through its transformations. It lines the
opposite sides of the leaf where the pupa lies with fine white silk.

Pupa three-tenths of an inch long or a little less; terminating anteriorly in a little
knob attached by a neck. There is a series of minute points upon the edge of some of
the segments, and the posterior extremity is furnished with two hooks, bent downwards,

by means of which thefpupa works itself half way out of the closed edges of the leaf
before the moth emerges.

Moth three-tenths of an-inch long, average expanse of wings half an inch. Anten-
nz brown, annulated with whitish on each joint, most distinctly on the under side, first
joint densely clothed with orange scales. Palpi, orange, horizontal; the scales project
around and beyond the end of the pentuitimate joint so as to form a little cup in which
the small ultimate joint is inserted. Maxillary palpi rudimental. Tegule well devel-
oped, more than half as long as the thorax. Head, thorax and fore wings bright orange.
The orange scales which cover the wings are observed when carefully examined, or seen
through a lens, to be mixed with numerous whitish, almost silvery scales, so arranged as

“to form about ten indistinct, transverse sinuous or wavy lines. Hind wings, abdomen
and legs whitish with silken lustre. There is a little plume of divergent scales at the
end of the abdomen.

This little insect furnishes a very remarkable example of the
sudden appearance and rapid multiplication of noxious species.
The mota is so rare that I cannot learn that it has ever before
been seen even by entomologists. There is not a specimen of it
in the collections of either Mr. Walsh or Mr. Riley; and Mr.
Glover, of Washington, who is himself an experienced lepidopte-
rist and is familiar with most of the eastern collections, and to
whom I had an opportunity of showing my specimens, said he had
never seen it, and remarked that the species is so peculiar that he
knew he should recollect it if he had ever met with it.* And yet
this summer, in a single nursery of young apple trees, specimens
enough could have been captured to supply all the cabinets in the
world.

All I know of this insect I learned during a visit to the fruit
farm of Mr. D. B. Weir, of Lacon, on the 22d of July. Atsome
distance from the place my attention was arrested by the blasted

*Norr.—Since writing the above Mr. Glover informs me by letter that he has recently
had occasion to visit several of the large collections of insects in Philadelphia and Bos-
ton, and that he could find no specimen of this moth.

29 LESSER APPLE LEAF-FOLDER.

appearance of his apple nursery, the foliage looking, at a distance,
as if it had been scorched by fire. Upon entering the inclosure,
the authors of the mischief were readily detected. Upon putting
apart the two halves of the folded leaves, a little worm could occa-
sionally be seen, but at this date most of them had passed into
the pupa state, and many of the moths had already emerged, so
that a flock of them could be put to flight almost anywhere by
brushing against the plants. Mr. Weir says that as little known
as this insect seems to be, this is not the first year that they have
injured his nursery.

There are at least two broods of this insect in a season. The
first brood of moths, according to Mr. Weir, make their appear-
ance early enough to deposit their eggs in the folds of the young
leaves just as they begin toopen. Another brood was just emerg-
ing, as I have above stated, in the third week of July. This brood,
as Mr. W. afterwards informed me, by letter, began at once to
deposit their eggs upon such leaves as had not been injured. <Ac-
cording to my own observation, the caterpillars of the earlier
brood draw the opposite edges of the leaf upwards, by means of
their web, till they meet, thus forming a roof over the insect,
which protects it fromthe weather, and must also serve to conceal
it in a great measure from birds and other enemies. It must also
form a serious barrier to the effective use of any destructive ap-
plications on our own part. But Mr. Weir informs me that the
young of the last brood, hatching as they do on the surface of the
mature and rigid leaf, do not draw its edges together, but simply
protect themselves by constructing a web over the surface of the
leat. From the above account, it is evident that this little insect
resembles, in most of its habits, the larger and more common Tor-
trix of the apple and the rose. In what form they pass the win-
ter I believe has not yet been determined.

If this insect should spread so as to infest other nurseries, as it
has that of Mr. Weir, it would prove itself a pest of the most se-
rious character; and, as far as we can judge, from present appear:
ances it will be a difficult matter to reach them with remedial
agencies, both on account of the closure of the leaf in which they
dwell, and their webby covering. Fortunately, as is the case with
most other double-brooded insects, the first brood is comparatively
limited in numbers; and Mr. Weir thinks it would have paid him

LESSER APPLE LEAF-FOLDER. a3

well to have gone throngh his nursery early in the season and
picked off the folded leaves.

The importance of combatting evils in ‘their incipient stages
can find no more apt illustrations than in the department of eco-
nomic entomology. Many noxious insects can be substantially
eradicated in their infancy, which, if permitted to attain a larger
growth and a wider spread, are wholly beyond our control. This
is emphatically the case with the present species. It is evident
that whatever applications we may make use of here, must be
made before the young insects have time to close the leaf above
them, in the case of the first brood, and before they have covered
themselves with web, in the second. These periods will probably
be found to be about the first week of May and the third week of
July. But the time will vary some with the character of the
season, and must be determined by actual inspection. These lit-
tle worms are so tender and so unprotected by any hairy covering,
that I should expect them to be easily destroyed by any of the
ordinary applications, such as lime, ashes or soap, provided we
can find a time when the substance applied will really reach them-
Mr. Weir intormed me that he discovered a bug with many
bright stripes, preying upon these caterpillars, which from his de-
scription, I suppose to be the Harpactor cinctus; but this tribe of
predacious insects is not usually sufticiently numerous to make
much headway against such a multitudinous species as the Zor-
rie malivoranda.

94 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

Explanation of figures—1, egg, scarcely one hundredth of aninchin length ; 2, young larva in
its active ‘stage ; 3, its appearance soon after becoming fixed ; 4, appearance of scale after the
second plate is formed ; 5 and6, insect at different stages, as seen under the scale ;7, fully formed
scale with inclosed insects, as seen from below : 8, antenna, highly magnified. The side figure
shows the natural appearance of the scales on the tree.

THE OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.
(Mytilaspis conchiformis, Gmelin.)
Order of HOMOPTERA. Family of Coccipa.

Harris’s Treatise, page 252; Fitch’s 1st and 2d N. Y. Rep., p. 31; Walsh’s 1st III:
Rep., p. 34; Riley’s Ist Mo. Rep., p. 7.

The common Apple-tree Bark-louse, obscure and un-
4 inviting as it at first sight appears, is, in many repects,
one of the most anomalous and interesting insects that
comes under the cognizance of either the scientitic or the
practical entomologist. How it is propagated, how it
obtains its nutriment, and how it migrates from one tree
to another; whether it flourishes best on a healthy or a
“es debilitated tree, whether it exercises any selection
oy amongst the different varieties of apple, and whether,

with respect to its prevalence, it is upon the increase or
ithe decrease, are questions which have long been in-
volved in much obscurity, and some of which are yet
ssitar from being satisfactorily solved. Yet it is an insect
which has been long known, having been originally imported in-
to this country from the other side of the Atlantic, and has been
subjected to the prolonged scrutiny of some of th eacutest ento-
mologists that either Europe or this country has produced.

It is one of the opprobria of entomology that the male of the
Oyster-shell Bark-louse has never been discovered. Judging from
the analogy of other species of the same genus, the male, if ever
discovered, will be found to be a very small two-winged insect,
yet having no special affinity with the dipterous order of insects.

a ie i

ug

eM
=

pe

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. 95

_ The parts of the mouth are undeveloped, so that it takes no food,
| his sole office being the propagation of the species.

The female, on the other hand, with which alone we are ac-
quainted, and which has been, upon the whole, probably the worst
enemy that the orchardist, in the Northern States, has had to
contend with, is a wingless, footless, eyeless, grub-like creature,
which never moves from the spot where she first fixes herself,
and effectually excludes herself from the light of day, by inclosing
herself in an impervious cell, as it were, in a living sepulchre.
And yet, though destitute both of the organs of vision and loco-
motion, these insects have passed from one continent to another,
spread over vast States and Territories, crippled or destroyed
thousands of orchards, and impoverished their owners, in spite of
all the efforts and appliances which human ingenuity could de-
vise. And the difficulty is increased when we consider that, with
the exception of the first three or four days of their lives, they
are immovably fixed to the bark of the tree. Can the mystery
be solved ?

In the first place, it is evident that this insect, if indeed it be
identical with the European species, must have been brought
across the ocean, attached to the bark of nursery trees. But it is
far from being so easy to explain how it has been carried from
one tree, and from one orchard to another, often at great distances
apart.

Three theories have been suggested upon this subject; iirst,
that the insects transport themselves during the short active pe-
riod of their lives, by crawling from one tree to another. It
seems to me that a very little observation must convince us that
this theory is wholly untenable. If we compare the roughness of
a piece of plowed ground, or the inequalities of sod land, with its
growing grass and its complicated matting of last year’s growth,
with the microscopic minuteness of these insects, during the short
active period of their existence, it will be obvious that they never
could migrate more than two or three feet, at most, from the tree
on which they grew, by any locomotive powers of their own.

Another theory is that they are carried from one place to an-
other by adhering to the feet of birds, and possibly also to the feet.
and legs of larger insects. This was Mr. Walsh’s theory, and it
seems to be the only way in which we can account for their being

carried to any considerable distance, such for instance as a mile
A—4

26 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

or more; and we often find them in isolated situations and under
circumstances which preclude the idea that they could have been
brought hither by human agency. For example, the Oyster-shell
Bark-louse, being an imported insect, is never found, in a state of
nature, upon our native crabs, and when they accidentally get a
foothold upon them they do not multiply much, the crab tree be-
ing evidently uncongenial to their tastes. Yet I have seen them
in small numbers upon every tree of a small grove of crab-apples
which I have known for twenty-five years, standing upon the
prairie, nearly a quarter of a mile from any apple orchard; and I
have found a few scales on another crab-apple tree standing in
the edge of the timber, more than half a mile from any cultivated
trees. The bird theory, however, is a very inadequate one to ex-
plain the general diffusion of the Bark-louse. The most we could
expect would be that a few of the insects might possibly be thus
transported during the short time when they are not attached to
the tree; and a series of experiments which I made, the past sea-
son, with the view of testing this theory, go to disprove the sup-
position that they are ever disseminated in this way. I wished
to see whether these minute insects would readily crawl on to any
obstruction like the toes of a bird. I experimented for hours by
putting little slivers of wood about as large as a bird’s claw in the
way of the crawling Coccids, but in no instance would they crawl
on to them. If the stick were put down abruptly before them, at
a short distance, say one-tenth of an inch, they would usually stop
and turn off in another direction, showing that they have the
sense of sight. If it were put a little further off, so that they
would approach it gradually, they would sometimes turn away
before reaching it, and at other times they would come up to it,
run along parallel to it, and if they could not find a place to get
under it, they would turn away. I then beveled off the stick to
a sharp edge, so as to present the least obstruction, and at the
same time offer an inclined plane up which they could easily crawl,
but they would not goon toit. It is pretty evident, therefore, that
these creatures have no instinct which leads them to avail them-
selves of such means of transportation.

The third theory is that they are blown from place to place by
the wind. That they are carried by a moderate breeze, during
their hatching period, to a distance of several rods, has been
abundantly proved by myself and by others. If you suspend an

| OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. 27
= am . a a te a ee Dee

inverted umbrella under an infested apple tree, at this period, you
| will soon see the little white crawling points upon it, being the
‘more easily detected from their contrast with the ee Biel
ground. They can also be seen upon the grass or other objects
under the tree by examining with a lens. They will uniformly
be found further from the tree on the side towards which the wind
is blowing than on the other. I have also found them thickly
sprinkled upon the upper surface of cob-webs which happened to
_be spread over the grass at the distance of two or three rods from
“the tree. “2 Being caught on the web, it was evident they could not
have crawled there, but that they must have fallen there from
above.
An interesting query here suggested itself as to the degree of
tenacity with which these insects adhere to the tree at this period,
and how strong a wind it requires to remove them. To Geter-
mine \this point I} experimented by blowing upon them with my
mouth, with different degrees of intensity. I found that a pretty
strong current of wind did not disturb them, provided it was
steady and uniform, but that a short, sharp puff readily dislodged
them. At one time, during my examination, the wind arose and
blew a pretty stiff breeze, and I could feel it sweep over the sur-
face | was examining with considerable force; yet in only a very
few instances could I perceive that any of the Coccids were blown
off; and yet actual observation showed that the ground beneath
was thickly sprinkled with them. The query arises whether these
creatures may not have an instinct to loosen their hold upon the
tree, irrespective of the force of the wind, for the purpose of dis-
semination. This may seem improbable, but it is no more won-
derful than mary of the instincts of insects.

A still more important question is, how far they can be trans-
ported by the wind. This will depend very much, of course, upon
the force with which the wind may happen to be blowing, at any
given locality, at the hatching period. At the time I made part
of my observations, last spring, there ‘was a pretty fresh breeze
blowing, but I did not detect any Coccids upon the ground beyond
about three rods from the extreme branches of the trees. Never-
theless, some of them may have been carried farther, for it must
be borne in mind that it is not an easy thing to find such minute
objects upon the ground, except where they are numerously dis-

28 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.
eee —~— ; <tr:

tributed. Actual observation shows that these insects, small as
they are, are decidedly heavier than the atmosphere, and that
their tendency is to fall to the ground, at no great distance from
the tree. That they are carried by the wind to great distances,
under any ordinary circumstances, is extremely improbable. ‘T'o
produce this result we must assume the coincidence of a violent
gale or hurricane, such as would very rarely occur at any one time
year after year. And I repeat, lest it should be lost sight of by those
who are not familiar with the history of this insect, that there are
but three or four days in the year in which it is not immovably
fixed to the tree. In view of the inadequacy of ail the theories
thus far propounded, it must be admitted that the rapid and wide-
spread dissemination of the Apple-tree Bark-louse is yet involved
in much mystery, and that such instances as the occurrence of the
PBark-louse on the isolated crab tree above mentioned, remain to be
explained.

The instrament by which this insect draws its nutriment from
the tree, is in the furm of a long and extremely slender proboscis
or sucker, with a glossy surface and a redish tint, exactly resem-
bling a very fine hair. It is so delicate and fragile that it is usually
broken off in the act of removing the scale from the bark, and as
it generally parts at its juncture with the insect’s body, it escaped
for a long time the notice of the most careful observers. Even so
acute an entomologist as Mr. Walsh, so late as the time of the
publication of his Report in December, 1867, although he pre-
sumed from analogy that such an organ must exist, and though it
had been discovered and described by European authors in the case
of allied species of the same family, nevertheless admits that “as
to any organized beak he could discover nothing of the kind.” And
Mr. Riley, in his first Report, published a year later, says:
*“ Though from analogy it must have a beak of some kind, it is so
exceedingly fine and fragile, that I have never been able to per-
ceive it.” I had myself also examined hundreds of bark-lice
without detecting the proboscis, and indeed did not see it till
after I had discovered it in another and closely allied species, the
Coccus of the pine leaf. I had noticed that in raising these scales,
they did net always drop from the leaf, but sometimes hung flut-
tering from its surface, as if suspended by an invisible thread. This
occurred so many times that my curiosity became excited to know

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. 29

by what means it was thus suspended. Upon examining one of
these pendant scales with a strong lens, I saw a fine hair-like fila-
ment, attached by one end to the leaf, and by the other to the in-
sect’s body, at that part of the breast from which the beak of Ho-
mopterous insects appears to proceed. The idea at once occurred
to me that this was nothing other than the long-sought-for probos-
cis of the Coccida, and a little further inspection with the micro-
scope proved the truth of the supposition. I immediately went
into my garden and obtained some twigs infested by the Apple-
tree Bark-louse, anxious to see if I could detect the corresponding
organ in this species. It is astonishing how easy it is to find a
thing when you know just where to look for it. I found that the
proboscis of the Apple-tree louse exactly resembles that of the
pine leat species, and is just as easily detected. Subsequently,
upon looking over some of the back numbers of the Transactions
of the American Entomological Society, which I had not before
seen, I noticed the article upon the Bark-louse, by Dr. Shimer, of
Mt. Carroll. From this, it appears that he detected this organ in
the course of a series of microscopic observations upon t':1s insect
which he made in the summer of 1867; so that to him must be
given the credit of first discovering the proboscis of the Apple-
tree Bark-louse, which for so long a time has eluded our search.

Fine as this organ is, it is found, when examined under the
microscope, and under proper conditions of the organ itself, to be
not the single hair-like sucker which it appears, but to be com-
posed of several still finer pieces or filaments, which, though usu-
ally lying together, are capable of separation. The number of
these pieces in the proboscis of the Coccide has been a subject of
some diversity of opinion amongst European entomologists. M.
Percheron, a French author who investigated these insects many
years ago, stated the number to be three. Dr. Shimer also saw
the proboscis of the common species separate into three pieces,
for a part of its length, and I have seen it several times separate
sometimes into apparently two and sometimes three parts. But
Mr. Westwood says, that in some species which he examined, he
detected four, and M. Signoret, who has very recently submitted
ihe whole family of Coccrd@ to a most rigid scrutiny, gives the
normal number of pieces in the proboscis to be four. It is alto-
gether probable therefore that the reason why we have not seen

30 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

this number in our species is that we have not happened to see
them all separated. The length of this proboscis is also diflicult
to be ascertained, on account of its fragility, and the consequent
doubt, ip any case, whether we have extracted the whole of it
from the bark. In my experience it has usually broken off, either
close to the body, or of a length somewhat less than that of the
body, though I have seen it considerably longer. M. Signoret
says that in some species he has seen it twice the length of the in-
sect’s body, and in rare instances even three times as long. I
once removed a young female of the pine leaf species (A/ytelaspis
pinifoliw, Fitch) just as it was beginning to form the terminal
shield, and when it was scarcely one-thirtieth of an inch long, in
which the proboscis was two lines, or one-sixth of an inch in
length, by actual measurement, and therefore fully five times the
length of the insect’s body. In this instance I noticed that the
proboscis was filiform, or of equal thickness for the greater part
of its length, and that it thence tapered to a very fine point, from
which I concluded that I had succeeded in extracting the whole of
the instrument from the leaf.

It is difficult to conceive how so delicate and fragile an organ
can be inserted into the leaf, and much more into the tough tissue
of the bark. I once succeeded in tracing the proboscis of the
Pine-louse, for about half its length, ranning horizontally, just un-
der the semi-transparent cuticle, and it is not improbable that this
is the situation in which the instrument is usually introduced.
Notwithstanding the sluggish and apparently almost lifeless con-
dition of the female Coccus, the proboscis seems to be endowed
with a special vitality. I have often seen it move with a waving
or serpentine motion, and M. Signoret thinks it is capable of a
considerable degree of extension and retraction, and it was some
action of the attached proboscis, no doubt, which produced the
jerking motion of the insect’s body noticed by Dr. Shimer.

Upon the interesting topics of the difference of the sexes in
this tribe of insects, and the nature and growth of the scale by
which they are protected, we have made a somewhat systematic
series of observations during the past season, but we have preter-
red to avail ourselves, for this purpose, of the species which dwells
on the pine-leaf, for the reason that the existence and characters
of the male of this species are known, and that the several parts

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. 31

of which the scale is composed are so distinct and contrasted in
this elegant species, that the investigation of it is much more prac-
ticable and satisfactory. We must therefore refer those who are
curious in these abstruse and controverted branches of the subject,
to the history of that species, at the end of this report.

We pass to a more practical question, whether the Oyster-shell
Bark-louse flourishes best upon a healthy or a debilitated tree.
This question also has its difficulties. For if the Bark-louse does
not find the tree sickly, it makes it so, and as the two things al-
ways go together, it leaves an uncertainty which is the cause and
which the effect. It is like the old question of the ague and the
quinine; which it is that has damaged the constitutions of so many
Western people. The popular hue-and-cry is against the quinine,
which is a pretty good illustration of the danger of keeping bad
company. We take the quinine only when we have the ague,
and the two things becoming confounded in our experience, we
perversely conclude that the disease is harmless and that the heal-
ing medicine does all the mischief.

That an insect, that lives by imbibing the sap of a tree, should
flourish better upon a half dead and dried up tree than upon a
thrifty and succulent one, is, on the face of it, extremely improb-
able. The conclusion to which I have come, both from reason and
observation, is that if bark-lice get foot-hold upon a tree which is
congenial to them, they will multiply and impoverish it, however
healthy it may be at the time of attack, or however well the tree
may be cultivated.

And this leads us to another question of considerable practical
importance, and this is, whether the Oyster-shell Bark-louse exhib-
its any preference or exercises any selection between the different
varieties of apple tree. That this is the case is, I believe the gen-
eral opinion, and I am perfectly satisfied of it from my own ob-
servations. I saw the truth of this most satisfactorily illustrated
in the orchard of Mr. Robson, of Galena. Here were trees some
of which must be presumed to have been congenial, and others
uncongenial to the insect, intermixed with the same inciosure,
and the curious spectacle was exhibited of trees standing side by
side, or alternating with each other, some of which were almost
covered with scales, and others nearly or quite clear. These trees
were so similarly situated with respect to all outside agencies that

32 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

it is difficult to conceive how they could have become so diversely
affected, without supposing some selective taste or instinct on the
part of the insects.

I have made some inquiries with the view of determining what
varieties of apple tree are most infested by these insects, and
what varieties are most free from them. There are some kinds
about which the testimony is pretty uniform, whilst, as might be
expected, some occupy a middle or debatable ground. Some of
the varieties most largely infested are the Janette, the Yellow
Bell-flower, the large Red Romanite, the Red Astracan, the Ram-
bo, the Early Harvest, the Summer Rose, and several varieties of
sweet apples. Some of those most free from the insect, are the
Northern Spy, the Maiden’s Blush, the Benona, the Soulard Ap-
ple, the Willow Twig, the Lowell and the Limber Twig, though
with regard to the two last the testimony is conflicting.

The last of the questions propounded at the commencement of
this article, was whether the Oyster-shell Bark-louse is at the pre-
sent time increasing or decreasing in numbers. Happily for the
prospects of the apple culturist, the uniform answer to this ques-
tion from all quarters, at least from all those parts of the country
where these destructive insects have most largely prevailed, is
that their numbers are rapidly diminishing. This result has not
been brought about by human agency, but by a reaction on the
part of nature itself, whereby the excessive prevalence of this in-
sect has been followed by a corresponding increase of its natural
enemies, until these last have come vastly to preponderate, so
that the notorious Bark-louse of the apple tree seems to be in a
course of rapid extinction. The chief of these destroyers of the
bark-lice are the Acarz, or mites, and certain little roundish, foot-
less maggots, which are the larvee of little four-winged flies be-
longing to the family of Chalezdide. The amount of destruction
caused by the Chalcides can always be determined with mathe-
mathical certainty ; because we can either find the maggots under
the scales, (except when they are very young and therefore not
easily discoverable,) or we can see the little round holes through
which the flies have emerged. Ly counting these and then com-
paring them with the whole number of scales on a given twig, we
can estimate precisely the proportional number which the Chalci-
des have destroyed. Brt the work of the Acari cannot be so ac-

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. 33

curately determined. Upon raising many of the scales in the fall
of the year, we find them destitute of the eggs of the bark louse
which should naturaily fill them at this season. In their place we
find a confused and discolored mass which we suppose to be the
remains of the legitimate occupants, that is, the egg shells and the
dried up body of the mother louse.

Amongst this debris the minute Acard are sometimes seen, and
to them the ruin is generally attributed. But in most instances,
so far as | have observed, no Acar? are found, and some scales are
almost wholly empty, so that if the Acari caused the destruction
in both cases, they must, in the former instance, have done their
work and left, and in the latter they must have devoured the
mother louse, egg shells and all. But it is of no consequence to
us who or what has wrought the ruin, so long as the bark-lice are
destroyed. The important question is, what proportion of the
bark-lice are destroyed, by any and all causes, and what part
remain to propagate the race for another year ¢

Mr. Walsh, after examining many hundreds of scales in the
summer of 1867, stated that the largest proportion which he had
ever found with their contents destroyed, *as two-thirds. From
this form of expression we infer that it was only in certain cases,
or perhaps localities, that so large a propartion were abortive, and
this destruction he attributed solely to Acari.

The following observations will exhibit the matter in a more
definite light.

On or about the twentieth of September, I examined all the
scales on four twigs, taken from different trees, and from two
gardens remote from each other, with the following result :

Wittole nim ber a bescalenaetsrastateaa ctalel ele) e'e)o)« cleieve «viele eiciolal crejel oie slatclelelataleiche: s)s/c/at 330
Number of scales with round holes, through which the Chalcides had escaped........ 116
Number of scales having under them the larve of the Chalcides...........-..... 95
Number of scales, the contents of which have been destroyed by Acari, or unknown
CRSRE 6 cog Gboce oUDOb.0 BBO0.0065 OSG EDD BOCOLC0000C OOO ODEO GCOURD DE EEED 85
Scales with ragged ales eaten by Coccinelle. < . ac crelsinle <leiele eecesece Slatelatsfeletcie be
Scales containing more or less sound eggs.,...++.-++eee0 eisislelesiecene COP COOBODC 0 27
Vinal) Tei teN gees hace oO DBOUIOND OO bdo CODOCUAC COC OCL COcU DC OUBE BD EOUDOOOUUOC 330

Oct. 20th, examined four twigs taken from different trees :
Whole number of scales... ..cccccccecenece dish aletdialstalatatslal te) wicisi sis'clejaic's shatelerelalt 284

—

—a 5

34 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

@halciseholesitaciis ccwlsetio: cc sicelde weet tales <teplalellol~ ole thelels s @ieleaieale hele aieibiats 86
Ghialciswlanvece ence cenot este cae starcis talon istepierehelsiteleial= jo wiatolels 1s RES eet e (oie 49
Acari, or unknown. .......seeeeereseees eek asian we einistalayn s.08 wrotewhete gt theremin 102

Cocaine cate nctieec o catele cle sleis aie terciatetavetelsiaie’ “sie ‘allsteisle le’ ate sla]n's/= a's] eal slelsiiaietsletate 2

Wihole wmuUMbers serie ale aersic siele sss ell Vulsiebisielsia'eiainyelels belo atte ao auckate be eiiaye Bekee 284

Oct. 25th, examined a number of twigs obtained from different
orchards in DuPage county:

Whole number of scales....... Bsttaietele Uicietate Biel stew hie rainis lan eieeecisieiitc noe ieee 230
Chalcis holes. .....00 -seeeeeere cece eet e teens eee tee eee tees e eee eenetecens 87
Chalcis larvie... 2s. cece eee e cere tees tere t tent ee eee c cess a en seeneeteene 70
Acari, OF UNKNOWN... + eee eee sence cect eee e cette et et tt eee ee eeeeeee scenes 58

Eggs..-- wee eeenese® a 0eic e eheltle © wit @/p\e!04s)\ei9) eis: n)\6\0 0's wile) fe .6 le ap/o wis isleimiaipieleldicicia sities 15

Whole number....... At OA SOLIA Sole slatalel aio htcielos ele tale steloty ofelaelot « caver etanes 230
From this it appears that in the localities which I examined,
more than twice as many bark-lice were destroyed by Chalcides,
than by all other agencies combined. But the most important re-
sult is, that, of eight hundred and forty-four scales examined, only
fifty-seven, or about one in fifteen, contained any eggs for another
year’s crop; and thé case is really much more decisive than ap-
pears from the statement as it here stands, because | have inclu-
ded all the scales which had any eggs under them, though most
of them were more or less damaged, and in some of them the
Chalcis larvee had commenced their work of destruction,

The history of this little Chalcis-fly furnishes one of the most
interesting chapters in the literature of economic entomology. It
had long been known to exist, by the smooth, round holes in the
scales through which it had escaped. But it was not till the pres-
ent season that I had an opportunity to trace the insect itself
through its changes and witness the mode of its beneficent o»era-
tions. I have drawn up a brief sketch of its history for the De.
cember number of the American Entomologist, illustrated by g
figure of the fly and its larva. '

Parasitic Chalcis of the Apple Bark-louse (Aphelinus mytilaspidis, nob.) a, fly; 6, an-
tenna; ¢, larva.

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. 85

| The following extract from this article presents some interest-
| ing observations not otherwise stated in the body of this report.

The causes which have been instrumental in producing the de-

struction of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse, and which are still opera-
- ting to its completion, are matters of much interest. The agencies
to which it has been usually attributed are the four following: In-
| sectivorous birds; predaceous insects, especially the Coccinelle,
or Lady-bugs, and their larvee ; the larvee of the parasitic Chalcis-
" flies, and the Mites, or Acaré.
_ It has been generally supposed that the smaller insectivorous
_ birds, such as the wrens and warblers, devour many of the eggs of
the Bark-louse, but these egys are so minute and. so completely
_ concealed under the bark-like scales, that even the sharp eyes of
a bird could scarcely detect them, unless it were endowed with a
special instinct for the purpose, and I know of no record of any
actual observations which confirm this supposition. I am there-
fore inclined to the opinion that birds have done little or nothing
in the way of exterminating the Bark-louse.

The Coccinelle devour a very small proportion of these insects,
whilst they are in their incipient ard active state; but this lasts
only three or four days, and therefore but very few of them can be
thus destroyed. These predaceous insects, and especially their
larvee, also destroy a few of the bark-lice, in their subsequent sta-
ges, by gnawing ragged holes through the scales, and thus getting
access to the insect beneath. Mr. Walsh conjectured that these
rough holes were made by Acar, but I have repeatedly seen the
larva of the Two-spotted Coccinella in the act of gnawing just such
holes in the scales of the Bark-louse of the pine tree, and devour-
ing its contents, and it is therefore probable that they are the au-
thors of the similar holes on the apple tree. But the small num-
ber of scales eaten into shows that but few bark-lice are destroyed
in this way.

The destructive work of the Acarz is supposed to be indicated by
the brownish, discolored remnants of the eggs from which the
contents seem to have been extracted, easily distinguished from
the pure white shells from which the insects have been hatched.
Both Mr. Walsh and Dr. Shimer, who were the first to notice
these mites, attribute much efficacy to their depredations, but that
they are the sole authors of this work is rendered somewhat doubt-

36 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

ful by the fact, that in some localities, at least, where the scales
containing these discolored eggs are not uncommon, the Acari are
comparatively rare. Of eighty-one scales just examined (Sept. 26),
containing these shriveled and discolored eggs, in only four were
Acari seen. It is possible, however, that they may have left them
after having extracted their contents.

But, besides the ragged holes above mentioned as the work of
the Coccinelle, a much larger number of scales are found through
which has been bored perfectly smooth and round, or slightly oval,
holes, which we know from analogy must have given exit to some
parasitic fly. These holes have been particularly mentioned by
several of our entomological writers, and must have been seen by
all who have made a special study of the Apple-tree Bark-louse.

So long ago as the year 1855, Dr. Fitch,in his first Report upon
the Noxious Insects of New York, gave a history of this Bark-louse,
so far as it was then known, and mentions the frequent occurrence
of these round holes in the scales at that time. He also discover-
ed under some of the scales a little oval, footless maggot, which he
conjectured might be the larva of some hymenopterous parasite,
which, in its exit, made the holes in question.

In 1867, Mr. Walsh, in his history of the Bark-louse, in his first
annual Report upon the Noxious Insects of Lllinois, refers to Dr.
Fitch’s statement, and adds that he had often noticed the round
holes in the scales, which he also attributes to the exit of a para-
sitic insect belonging to the Chalcis or Proctotrupes family. But
he says he had never met with the larva described by Dr. Fitch.

In the course cf a series of observations upon the Apple-tree
Bark-louse, during the past season, it has been my good fortune to
trace the history of this interesting little insect, which, if it has
ever been seen before, has not been identified, and whose very ex-
istence has been only a matter of inference from the visible marks
of its beneficent operations.

In the early part of the season, whilst examining the lice upon
an apple tree, I noticed two or three little yellow Chalcides running
along the infested twigs, which I conjectured might be the para-
sites of the Bark-louse, but had no proof that this was the case.
But about the first of August, upon raising one of the scales, I
happened to uncover one of these insects in the last stage of its
transformation. Its wings were not yet unfolded, but it ran so

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. ST

rapidly that I had some difficulty in keeping it within the field of
the lens. As soon as it paused long enough to be examined, it
was easily recognized as a Chalcis by its general aspect, and espe-
cially by the peculiar vibratile motion of its short, geniculate
antennee.

Having once become familiar with its appearance, I have had
no difficulty in capturing, in the latter part of August and Septem-
ber, all the specimens I desired on the infested trees. I have
repeatedly watched the female Chalcis in the act of inserting her
ovipositor through the scale of the Bark-louse, for the purpose of
depositing her egg in the cell beneath. She always places herself
transversely with respect to the scale. Sometimes she mounts
upon it, and then her tiny body is seen to be considerably less in
length than the width of the scale. Usually she backs up upon it
only so far as to bring the tip of her abdomen about opposite the
middle of the scale. Then bringing her ovipositor down perpen-
dicular to her body, she forces it through the scale by a series of
boring or short plunging motions. Having accomplisned this she
remains stationary for many minutes, whilst by some invisible
intestine motion the egg is carried down the ovipositor and deposi-
ted beneath the scales. So absorbed is she in this delicate opera-
tion, upon the successful accomplishment of which not only her
own hopes, but those of the horticulturist, so largely depend, that
nothing can deter her from it. In one instance, having drawn
down a branch of an apple tree, I discovered a Chalcis in the act
of depositing. Whilst holding the branch in one hand and view-
ing the insect through a lens held in the other, the branch slipped
through my fingers and flew back with violence to its place.
Drawing it down again, the twig I had hold of broke, and it flew
back a second time. I supposed that that observation had, of
course, been brought to an abrupt termination. But, upon draw-
ing down the limb the third time, there stood my little Chalcis as
immovable as a statue, at her post. She may be touched with the
finger whilst thus engaged, or even crushed, as I have often inad-
vertently done in my attempts to capture her, but nothing short
ot this actual violence can move her from her position. With such
wonderful perseverance and devotion do these living atoms of
creation perform their allotted part in the complicated economy of
nature.

38 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

The egg thus deposited hatches into the little footless larva pre-
viously mentioned. This larva is so admirably described by Dr.
Fitch, in a single sentence, that I cannot do better than copy his
description: ‘ Under these scales 1 have repeatedly met with a
small maggot, three-hundreths of an inch long, or frequently
much smaller, of a broad oval form, rounded at one end and taper-
ing to an acute point at the other, soft, of a honey-yellow color,
slightly translucent and shining, with an opaque brownish cloud
in the middle, produced by alimentary matter in the viscera, and
divided into segments by faintly impressed transverse lines.”

The only motion of which this small grub is capable is a slight
extension and contraction of its body, particularly at the two
extremities, by which its form is correspondingly modified.

There is usually but one larva under each scale, and I have
never seen more than two. In the earlier part of the season it is
seen adhering to the body of the Bark-louse, but later it is found
in the midst of the eggs or their remains.

The Chalcis-fiy itself is a beautiful object under the microscope.
Its length is a little less than half a line, or about one-twenty-fifth
of an inch, though I have captured a few specimens considerably
smaller, being but little more than one-third of a line. I at first
supposed that these smaller individuals were males, but all the
specimens that I have examined bave proved to be females. Their
color is a uniform pale lemon yellow. The only variation from
this color is in the minute mandibles, which are reddish brown.
There are three coral red occelli on the summit of the head, and
the ovipositor, which lies in a groove on the underside of the abdo-
men, exhibits a slight reddish tint. The wings are thickly beset,
over nearly their whole surface, with bristly points, and their mar-
gin is ornamented with a long fringe.

But a better idea of the appearance of this little insect will be
obtained from the magnified figures which accompany this article,
than from any verbal description.

By observations, made as late as the first week in November,
the opinion is confirmed that the Chalcis of the Bark-louse has
two broods in a year. By the middle of September we find many
ef this year’s scales pierced with the round holes through which
the first brood of Chalcides has escaped; and late in the fall we
find, under about an equal number of scales, the fully-grown larvee

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. 39

of the second brood, sometimes with the eggs ot the Bark-louse
upon which they have subsisted all consumed, and sometimes with
a few remaining ; and in this state they undoubtedly pass the win-
ter. This second brood must appear in the winged form early
enough next summer to deposit the eggs from which the first
brood of next year will proceed.

The drawing made for the American Entomologist having been
inaccurate, and the engraving’ imperfect, Mr. Riley kindly con-
sented, at my request, to have a new engraving prepared, and the
figure here given is a copy of the improved -engraving.

From this general destruction of the Bark-louse, it would seem
that its virtual if not total extermination must be near at hand.
Yet it would be imprudent to permit ourselves to come to this
conviction with too much haste or certainty, since it is a truth
with which we have become painfully familiar, that noxious in-
sects have their periods both of increase and decrease, and that
some species, of which the Chinch-bug is a notorious example,
have returned with renewed life and profusion after years of ap-
parent extermination. One of the ways in which this is brought
about, I conceive to be this: the numbers of a certain species hav-
ing become greatly reduced by the operation of its natural ene-
mies, parasitic and others, these, in their turn, being deprived of
their appropriate nutriment, also become reduced in like propor-
tion. The remnant of the former species, being, we may pre-
sume, naturally prolific, take a new lease of life and rapidly mul-
tiply again in all their former profusion. Judging from known
facts and experiences, it is reasonable to suppose that such ebb and
flow in the prevalence of particular species, are ever taking place
in the multitudinons world of insects. Such reflections have for-
cibly occurred to my mind, as I have watched the parasitic Chal-
cis-fly of the Bark-louse, coursing busily over the branches, amidst
the dry and empty scales, in search of some suitable pabulum in
which to deposit the germs of her future progeny. Another ci: -
cumstance which gives rise to some apprehension is, that these in-
sects, within the last few years, have been found farther south
than it has been heretofore supposed that they could subsist. I
have received, this year, infested twigs from Mr. A. C. Hammond,
of Warsaw, as far south as the northern border of Missouri. And
I was informed at the horticultural meeting at Mr. Flagg’s, near
Alton, on the sixth of October, that the Oyster-shell Bark-louse

40 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

was known to exist, and was thought by some to be on the in-
crease in that section of the country. And, furthermore, it ap-
pears from the correspondence of the American Entomologist, that
this insect has been found even so far south as the State of Missis-
sippi. The question therefore arises, with considerable pertinency,
whether this destructive insect may not be disappearing from the
north, only to enter upon a new career in the more southern lati-
tudes. All I can say in answer to this question is, that this has
always been regarded as an essentially northern species, and, there-
fore, it is supposed that it will not multiply to any great extent at
the South. A little circumstance, incidentally mentioned by Mr.
Walsh, gives us additional encouragement. He states, in a note
to his report, that he received some branches infested with this in-
sect from Mr. Huggins, of Macoupin county, and that upon exam-
ining them he found that in nineteen-twentieths of them the con-
tents of the scales had been destroyed, as he supposed, by Acari.

It is not necessary here to go into a detailed account of the vari-
ous remedies that have been resorted to for the purpose of destroy-
ing this insect. Mr. Walsh instituted a thorough series of experi-
ments in this matter, and has given us the results in his treatise
upon the Oyster-shell Bark-louse, in his first report. To that I
refer those who are interested to know the past history of the
treatment of this pest. The essential and universally approved
remedies can be stated in a few words. The treatment is of two
kinds: that which is appropriate on or about the first of June,
when the lice are young and tender, and that which may be ap-
plied at any time in the winter or early spring, with a view of
destroying the eggs under their protecting scales. At the former
period, much weaker applications, of course, are successful than
in the latter, and we are necessarily restricted to such on account
of the danger of injuring the young foliage. Various kinds of
narcotic and alkaline washes have been tried for the purpose of
destroying the lice in their incipient stages, but the most effectual
of all is common soap-suds. This has to be used of different de-
grees of strength, according to the part of the tree to which it is
applied. Undiluted soft-soap can be applied to the trunk of a
tree of considerable size, without injury ; on the smaller branches
it is better to dilute it to the extent of from four to six parts of
water to one of soap; and on the young shoots and foliage it must
be very largely diluted, not exceeding two or three cups of soap

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. 41

_ to a pailful of water. Even of this strength it discolors the
' foliage, but does not kill it. The one great difficulty in the way
| of exterminating the bark-lice, is their habit of spreading on to
| the terminal twigs. Here they do most of their mischief, and

here it is most difficult to reach them, and we are debarred from
using very efficient washes on account of the tenderness of the
foliage. The practical rule is this: with a whitewash brush wash
over the trunks and branches of the trees as far as you can reach,
with the strong solution, one part soap to four of water; then
syringe the remainder with the weak solution, two or three cups
of soap to a pailful of water. The strong solution will kill every
louse it touches, and the latter, according to Dr. Mygatt’s experi-
ence (Trans. Il]. St. Agricult. Soc., I, p. 516), will kill about half
of them. But this is the best we can do, unless we take a dull
knife and scrape every twig, which might be done on one or two
very small trees, but would of course be utterly impracticable in
an orchard. The above course, to be successful, must be put in
practice when the young lice have just hatched, or within a few
days thereafter. This time varies two or three weeks, according
to the character of the season. The usual time is the last week of
May or the first week of June. But this year they began to hatch,
in the latitude of Chicago, on the 15th of May, the season being
unusually hot and dry. The only way to be sure is to watch, and
examine the trees at this time of the year with a pocket lens, each
one for himself.

But the great desideratum is something that will kill the eggs
through the scale, without injuring the tree, and which can there-
fore be applied in the winter or early spring, when farmers are
most at leisure, and when there is no foliage to be damaged. No
such application, at the same time safe and effectual, has been dis-
covered. ‘The scales are sufficiently thick and impervious to pro-
tect the eggs beneath from any of the ordinary applications. Even
undiluted soft-soap does not affect them. Greasing over the in-
fested branches with any kind of oily substance, is sure death to
them, but it is questionable whether it does not also injure the
tree. Mr. Walsh collected much testimony upon the subject, but
it is very conflicting. Some say that it killed their trees, whilst

_ others assert that it does not injure them. Even if the greasing

process were unobjectionable, there would still remain the difticulty
A —6

42, OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

of applying it to the extreme branches. Mr. Walsh attempts to
explain why oily applications are more effectual than washes, by
saying that nature has made the scales of the Bark-louse water-
tight, but did not think it necessary to make them oil-tight. It is
a sufficient explanation, and I think a more probable one, that
greasy applications destroy all life beneath the scales, simply by
rendering them impervious to the air.

There is one application from which I had been led to expect
the most satisfactory results from the strong testimony I had heard
in its favor, and this is fish brine—being the refuse liquid in
which mackerel and other fish have been pickeled. This possesses
two of the essentials of a universal remedy, namely cheapness
and a liquid consistency, so that it can be thrown with a syringe
over all partsofatree. I visited the orchard of Mr. John Robson
of Galena, and saw the trees upon which the experiment with this
substance was, I believe, first made, some three or four years ago,
und about which a good deal was said at the time. It was asserted
that the scales peeled off from the branches to which it was ap-
plied, leaving the bark uninjured. I found the trees in a clean
and healthy condition, but some doubt was thrown over the special
efficacy of the application, by the fact that other trees standing
near them, and which had been treated with common alkaline
washes, were about equally clean. I made some experiments
with this remedy upon some infested trees in my garden, about
mid-summer, after the scales had become fully formed, but a little
before the time of depositing eggs, by dipping the ends of the
branches into a solution, such as Mr. Robson made use of, namely,
one pint of the brine to two gallons of water. If the application
were effectual it would of course arrest all future development of
the insects beneath the scales, and consequently no eggs would be
found deposited. All such experiments have been rendered very
unsatisfactory the present season by the almost universal destruc-
tion of the bark lice and their eggs, as previously related, by para-
sites. But truth compeis ine to state that I certainly found scales
filled with sound eggs on the branches thus treated, very few,
indeed, but about as many as the Chalcides and other parasites
had left on the other branches. I suspect that whatever virtue
the fish brine may be found to possess, is due to the oil with which
it is largely impregnated. And even in this point of view it
may prove to be a valuable remedy by furnishing a cheap and

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. 43

available means of applying oil in a diluted form. But as the
proper time to apply this remedy is in the winter or early spring,
when there is no foliage on the trees, it could undoubtedly be used
much stronger than it was in Mr. Robson’s experiments and mine.

I cannot close this chapter, already, perhaps, too long, without
briefly referring to a subject of the utmost interest and importance,
and one directly suggested by the foregoing history, and that is,
the practicability of transporting beneficial parasites from one
part of the country to another, or if necessary, importing them
from abroad.

The incalculable benefits resulting from the depredations of
parasitic insects upon those kinds which are injurious to mankind,
are now generally known, and they can have no more striking
illustrations than those furnished by the history of the Cbalcis-fly
in a former part of this chapter, and the parasitic Tachina of the
Tussock-moth, described in the first article of this report. It is
also a notorious fact that many of our most pernicious insects have
been imported from abroad, and one reason why they have proved
so intractable, is, that in introducing the noxious insect, we have
failed to import with it the natural enemies which held it in check.
Mr. Walsh was so impressed with the importance of this subject
that it became almost a hobby with him, and he went so far as to
advocate the artificial breeding of parasitic insects, if they could
not be otherwise obtained. However difficult this might be in
ordinary cases, since we should also be obliged to rear the noxious
species upon which the parasite subsists, yet that the transporta-
tion of them, at least, is not necessarily impracticable, is very
clearly shown by the case of the Chalcis of the Bark-louse. One
brood of this insect passes the winter in the larva or pupa state
under the scale of the Bark-louse, at whose expense it has sub-
sisted, ready to emerge on the opening of the succeeding summer.

The twigs cf apple trees, where the Chalcis is known to abound,
could be easily gathered any time in the winter or spring, and
carried to any other part of the country, or even to a foreign land,
and all that would then be necessary would be to tie these twigs,
here and there, upon the branches of the trees which it is desired
to protect. That this operation will ever have to be performed
with this particular species, is not, perhaps, very probable, but

44 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

the case is none the less interesting, as showing that parasitic in-
sects, even of the most minute character, can be transported, in
some instances, with perfect ease and certainty, and should cau-
tion us against dismissing the whole subject from our minds, as
we have been inclined to do, as impracticable and absurd.

POSTSORIPT.

Since writing the above, my friend Capt. Edward H. Beebe, of
Galena, procured and transmitted to me (Nov. 8) a number of
apple twigs, obtained partly in that town and partly from the
Southern part of Wisconsin, a section which has suffered more
from the depredations of the Bark-louse than almost any other
locality. A very brief inspection of these twigs was sufficient to
show that our infinitessimal friend, the Chalcis, has not yet found
its way to that region, or at least not to that particular locality.
Not a trace of it could be discovered, either by the round holes in
the scales or the presence of the larvee beneath them. The dis-
appointment, however, was somewhat mitigated by finding that
more than two-thirds of the scales are, nevertheless, from some
cause or other, aburtive. Upon carefully raising and examining
two hundred scales upon six different twigs, sixty of them were
found to contain sound eggs of the Bark-louse, and one hundred
and forty were abortive. These abortive scales present the same
appearances that such scales have when obtained from other lo-
calities; that is, a small proportion of them contain only the thin
and dried remains of the female Bark-louse, who has perished
from some cause, without depositing or perhaps even forming her
eggs. But most of the scales exhibited the brownish, granulated
mass which they generally contain, and which we may presume
to consist of shrunken and discolored eggs. This mass of dzbres
also has, in most cases, a furry aspect, which is probably owing
to mould.

The interesting question here arises, what, in the absence of
the Chalcides, has caused the destruction of this large proportion
of the bark-lice and their eggs? I searched carefully for Acard,
and lest, from their minute size, 1 might overlook them with a
common lens, I put many of the scales under the microscope, but
did not detect more than haif a dozen in all; just enough, how-
ever, to show that they are not altogether absent. All the phe-

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. 45

nomena in the case would be satisfactorily explained by the theory
that the female Bark-louse, in these instances, had failed to become
mpregnated. In this case she might perish without forming
egos, or she might go on to the formation and deposition of her
ova, since we may infer from analogy, such for example as that
of the common fowl, that the presence of the male is not essential
to the formation of ova, but only to their fertilization. This theory
is so plausible that 1 can scarcely avoid the conclusion that it af-
fords the true explanation of a part, at least, of these cases; but
how large a proportion, if any, is of course wholly a matter of
conjecture.

The absence of the Chalcis of the Bark-louse in this locality
will furnish an excellent opportunity for testing the practicability
of transporting it thither from those places where it is known to
exist. If, after taking the necessary preliminary steps,as described
in a former part of this article, we should find, next September,
upon the trees experimented with, the characteristic holes in the
scales which mark the exit of the Chalcis, we should know that
the friendly parasite had entered npon its work. If such an ex-
periment could be conducted to a successful issue, it would fur-
nish one of the most admirable instances on record of the triumph
of science, in its application to economic entomology.

NOTE UPON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THIS SPECIES.

We have in the more Northern sections of the United States, two species of Bark-
louse infesting the apple tree: one a native American species, known as Harris’s Bark-
louse, which prevails mostly South of the thirty-ninth parallel of latitude, though found
in diminishing numbers considerably farther North; the other, supposed to be an im-
ported species, much more injurious than the other, and occupying a more Northern
geographical range, often called, by way of emphasis and as indicative of its notorious
character, simply the Apple-tree Bark-louse, or more specifically, the Oyster-shell Bark-
louse, this name being derived from the shape of the scale. It is the latter species of
which we have here been treating.

This species has been classed by all our more recent entomological writers, under the
genus Aspidiotus of Bouché, following the determination of Dr. Fitch, as obtained from
Mr. John Curtis, a distinguished English entomologist. In the recent elaborate re-
vision of the family of Coccide, by a French author, M. Signoret, the genus Aspidiotus
is restricted to those species having a rounded form, with the larva scales attached at or
near the middie, and a new genus, named Mytilaspis, (meaning muscle-shaped shield,)
is formed to contain those species which have a long narrow form, usually a little curved
to one side, like the shell of a muscle, and having the larval scales attached to the ante-
rior and smaller extremity. «

l

46 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

Though opposed, as a general principle, to the disposition exhibited by many modern
authors, to the excessive sub-division of genera under distinct sub-generic titles, yet
the name JVytilaspis is so happily expressive of the form of these insects, that I have
thought it best to adopt this term for the present species, and also for that found on the
leaf of the pine, treated of at the close of this report.

The specific name, conchiformis, was originally given by Gmelin to a European species,
the history of which is a good deal confused. It appears to have been originally applied
to a species found on the elm; but Dr. Shaw, as quoted by Dr. Harris, states that it i8
abundant on the apple trees in England, and Mr. Kirby and Mr. Rennie add that itis
also found on the currant-bush, all of which, as respects its habit, goes to identify that
species with our Northern Apple-tree Bark-louse. Moreover the description given by
M. Signoret of the JZ conehiformis, as found upon the elm, corresponds, in all its more
obvious characters at least, to our apple-tree species; but on the other hand it is a re-
markable fact, and one which tends to throw considerable doubt upon the identity of the
species, that the JZ. con hiformis of Hurope seems to be generally admitted as peculiarly
the Bark-louse of the elm, whereas our American species, so far at least as I have been
able to observe, is never found upon the elm in this country. The force of this fact,
however, as affording an argument against the identity of the two species, is considerably
weakened by the occurrence of our species on the currant-bush, and very abundantly on
the Persian Lilach—plants as far removed as the elm in their natural relations to the
apple tree. This question of identity can be definitely settled only by the actual com-
parison of specimens obtained from these several sources.

But here follows some interesting statements appertaining to this subject. M. Signoret,
writing, we may presume, more especially from observations made in the latitude of
France, speaks of the 7. conchiformis as being exclusively an inhabitant of the elm, and
described another species, under the name of J. pomorum of Bouché, as being the spe-
cies which infests the apple tree. Upon referring to this description and the figure illus-
trating it, we find it to be quite different from the species that infests the apple tree in
this country. Besides some minute particulars, it is described as having a blackish-
brown scale with a white apical border, whereas our species is of a uniform ashen-brown
color, like the bark of the tree, and still more remarkable as having red eggs, whilst the
eggs of the American conchiformis are invariably white. Neither can it be identified
with the Harris’s Bark-louse of this country, which, though it resembles the other in
having red eggs, is of different form and belongs to a different sub-genus. From all
this we draw the interesting conclusion that in Europe, as in this country, there are two
species of Bark-louse, a more Northern and a more Southern species, which inhabit the
apple-tree.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PEAR-TREE.

The Pear Calimorpha and its larva, of the natural size, with some of the segments of
the latter magnified to show the characteristic markings.

THE CALIMORPHA PEAR CATERPILLAR.

(Callimorphia Lecontei, Boisd., var. fulvicosta, Clemens.)
Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of Lirmosupa.

The only new insect injurious to the pear tree, which has come
to my knowledge the past season, by which I mean the only insect
that has not been heretofore known and described as a noxious
insect, is a blackish hairy caterpillar, an inch and a quarter long,
with five narrow yellow and white stripes extending the length of
the body, which is the larva of the above named moth.

On the sixth of May I received a box from Mr. E. J. Ayres, of
Villa Ridge, at the southern extremity of the State, containing
seven of these caterpillars, with the following account of their
habits :

“T send you a few specimens of the Solitary Caterpillars, which
have been quite troublesome to my pear trees. They appear to
be quite general feeders, as 1 have found them on both cherry and

48 CALIMORPHA PEAR CATERPILLAR.

peach trees, but they appear to be quite partial to pears. I have
killed perhaps a thousand of them in my pear orchard this spring.
My pear orchard consists of two thousand trees, set two years ago.”

In a subsequent letter, dated May 10th, Mr. Ayres makes the
following additional statements: ‘The caterpillars of the kind
first sent have all disappeared. I think they must go through
their transformations under ground, or else somewhere outside of
the orchard; nor do I think that the eggs are laid upon the pear
twigs, for I should certainly have found some of them.” He goes
on to say that he thinks they must pass the winter in the caterpil-
lar state, from the fact that he had seen no very small caterpillars,
but that they make their appearance all at once, from one halt to
fully grown, though he had seen a very few not more than one-
quarter grown. He adds that they appear to be very migratory in
their habits, and that he had killed a caterpillar nearly every day
for a week on the same small tree, one taking the place of another.
Of the seven caterpillars sent, one must have been lost, as | have
a record of only six- One was put in alcohol and preserved in the
larva state; two were taken into Chicago to be delineated and en-
graved, and died from not being properly supplied with food.
The other three were put into a glass covered box and regulerly
fed with pear leaves. The box was partly filled with earth, that
they might go into it to transform if it were their nature to do so;
and some chips were laid upon the earth to which they might at-
tach their cocoons. On the 13th and 14th of the month, that is
about a week after I received them, two of them crept under the
chips and inclosed themselves in their cocoons, into which little
bits of loose earth were woven so that nothing but the earthen par-
ticles were visible. The other continued to feed ten days longer,
till the 24th of May, when it made its cocoon like the others, of
web and particles of earth, attached to the under side of a chip.
Two of them, owing probably to the unnatural conditions to which
they were subjected, failed to come to maturity. One of them for-
tunately completed its transformations, which was all that was
necessary to determine the species.

The perfect, or winged form of this insect, is a whitish moth with yellow markings;
the body three-quarters of an inch long, and the wings expanding two inches. The gen-
eral color of the body and wings is white, with a satiny lustre, and with a scarcely per-
ceptible yellowish tint. The antennz are blackish-brown. Palpi yellow tipt with brown.
The head, collar, scutellum and first segment of the abdomen are yellow; as are also the

CALIMORPHA PEAR OATERPILLAR. 49

sides of the breast, the legs, and the costa, or anterior, border of the wings. The ante-
rior and middle tarsi and the tips of the posterior tarsi are blackish-brown. In some
individuals the anterior and middle tibie, or shanks, are also blackish-brown on their
outer face.

This proves to be a pale, and remarkably distinct variety of a very variable species of
moth belonging to the genus Callimorpha of Latreille. It has been described and
named no less than four times, by different authors, as so many distinct species, in the
following order of priority:

Callimorpha Lecontei, Boisduvol.
C. militaris, Harris.

C. fulvicosta, Clemens.

C.: vestalis, Packard.

The last variety appears to have been founded upon a pair of small specimens of the
preceding one. The descriptions of the two varieties are almost precisely identical. The
smaller size and the absence of the blackish tint on the tibia and tarsi are insufficient
characters to establish a well-marked variety upon, much less a species, especially in so
variable an insect as this. In Mr. Walsh’s, Mr, Riley’s, and my own collections are spec-
imens varying nearly as much in size, and in which the black shade upon the legs is of
various degrees of distinctness, and in several of the specimens is wholly wanting.

The other three varieties, however, are so strongly marked, that it is not at all surpri-
sing that they have been described as different species. Indeed they never could have
been suspected tobe the same, were it not that intermediate grades have been discovered
which bridge over the space between them. The white variety above described is the
fulvicosta. In the militaris the fore wings are bordered nearly all around with dark
brown, a band of the same across the end, and also an angular projection from a little
beyond the middle of the costal border. In the Zeconiei the brown color predominates,
so that Dr. Harris describes the fore wing of this variety as being brown, with five large
white spots. The hind wings are simply white in all the varieties.

The caterpillar was first described by me and figured in the Prairie Farmer, where it
was, by mistake, assigned to the wrong species. I now place it in its true relations.
The following description was taken from the specimens sent by Mr. Ayers:

Length one inch and a quarter. It may be described in general terms as a blackish,
somewhat bristly caterpillar, with a shining black head, and with three narrow but con-
spicuous orange stripes extending the length of the body, one dorsal and one on each
side; and below the latter a whitish line interrupted by yellow spots. The orange
stripes, when closely examined, are found to be made up of little elongate pieces ar-
ranged in a linear series. In the middle portion of the dorsal stripe, these pieces have
the form of little urns with their mouths directed forward. The lateral stripes are still
more irregular or jagged. These stripes are not wholly orange, but interspersed, espec-
ially the lateral ones, with white and lemon-yellow. There is also a yellow spot on the
outer side of each of the prolegs. The broad portion between the dorsal and lateral
stripes is velvety black, divided longitudinally into two parts by an indistinct whitish
line with wide interruptions. The body is rather sparsely clothed with short stiff hairs
or bristles, black and white intermixed, radiating from little black warts or tubercles,
with steel-blue reflections, of which there are twelve on each segment, arranged as fol-
lows: Three between the dorsal and lateral stripes, one between the first and second
lateral stripes, one below the last stripe, and one at the base of the prolegs. The under
side of the body is sordid white sprinkled with blackish.

A—7T

~

50 CALIMORPHA PEAR CATERPILLAR.

This is an interesting insect, in a scientific point of view, but it
has not multiplied, as yet, to a sufficient extent to make it of much
practical importance. Its solitary habits, that is its mode of feed-
ing separately, or not in flocks, would render it a troublesome in-
sect to contend with should it ever become very numerous. The
only method that suggests itself to us, at present, of destroying
them, is by the common practice of hand-picking, or shaking them
from the trees and crushing them under foot.

The following cut, made at the office of the Prairie Farmer, ex-
hibits another view of these caterpillars, both in their natural size
and magnified.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PLUM-TREE.

THE GREEN, CHESTNUT-BACKED PLUM CATERPIL-
LAR.

(Acronycta superans, Gueneé.)
Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of Nocruip #.

On the 18th of June I discovered upon a plum-tree, and at a
distance from each other, two rather thick-bodied green caterpil-
lars, with a broad chestnut stripe along the back, once inch long
when extended, but usually a little shorter owing to their habit of
humping up the anterior half of the body, whilst the head and
posterior part remained upon the same level. When first observed,
in the middle of the day, they were not feeding, but resting per-
fectly motionless. I put them in a bex and fed them with plum
leaves. During my absence from home one of them escaped.
The other crept under a chip lying upon the earth with which the
bottom of the box was covered, on the 23d of June, and inclosed
itself in a thin cocoon mixed and covered with particles of earth.
and attached to the under side of the chip, in a manner very simi-
lar to that of the Pear Caterpillars described on a preceding page.

On the first of July I found upon another plum tree, a much
smaller, less than half grown individual of the same species, hay-
ing a small Ichneumonideous cocoon attached crosswise to the un-

_ der side of its body, just in front of the anal prolegs. The para-

sitic Ichneumon-fly emerged from this cocoon on the 10th of July.

On the same day, (July 10th,) the first mentioned caterpillar
emerged from its cocoon, in the form of a gray and white moth,
belonging to the genus Acronycta, and very similar to, if not iden-
tical with the species named at the head of this article. Itis a

52 GREEN, OHESTNUT-BACKED PLUM CATERXILLAR.

very rare moth in this part of the country, and has not before,
I believe, been reared from the larva state. There is no specimen
of it in the Walsh cabinet, but Mr. Riley has a sinyle specimen,
presented to him by Rey. C. J. 8. Bethune, of Canada, under the
name given above, of Acronycta superans, of Gueneé. It would
seem to be a more common species farther north, as Mr. Bethune,
in his notes on Canadian Lepidoptera, speaks of having captured
numerous specimens at Cobourg, in June, 1855. It can scarcely
at present be considered a noxious insect. Nevertheless it feeds
upon one of our fruit trees, and, from its considerable size and its
non-gregarious habits, it might become a serious pest if it should
ever become numerous.

In the short account given above of these caterpillars, and which
contains all we at present know of them, five circumstances are
mentioned which we here repeat, in order to show what important
inferences may sometimes be drawn from a few well attested facts.
First, they were found upon a plum tree and were afterwards fed
to maturity upon plum leaves; they must, therefore, in proportion
to their numbers, be injurious to this tree, and must be admitted
into the catalogue of noxious insects. Second, from their being
found at a distance from each other, we conclude that they are sol-
itary in their habits, and therefore would be more difficult to de-
stroy if they should ever multiply to any serious extent. Third,
from their being stationary by day, we infer that, like many, and
perhaps most caterpillars, they are night-feeders. Fourth, from
the discovery of a much smaller individual later in the season, it
is probable that they have two broods in a year; and, fifth, from
the attached cocoon of the Ichneumon-fly, it is evident that we
shall have the aid of parasitic insects in keeping this species in
check. As this is a very rare moth, and as it does not appear to
have been reared from the larva state, and moreover as the descrip-
tion of the superans, by Guened, is incomplete in some of the
most characteristic particulars, I herewith subjoin a more detailed
description of the insect in both the larva and the winged state:

Larva, OR CaTEerPILLaR.—Length, one inch. Body thick, green, with a broad, chest-
nut-brown stripe the whole leneth of the back, separated from the adjoining parts by a
yellow line. Within the stripe, on the top of each segment, are little shining black tu-
bercles, two on the first, second and third segments, and four on the others, arranged in

a transverse curved line, each emitting one or more black hairs, but wanting on the last
ring. Some long, sparse, whitish hairs along the lower part of the sides.

|

GREEN, OHESTNUT-BAOKED PLUM CATTERILLAR. 53

Imago, on Motn.—Length between seven and eight-tenths of an inch. Expanse of
the wings, one inch and six-tenths. Antennz setaceous, brown. Labial palpi, a little
longer than the head, porrected; basal joint black above, with long white scales be-
neath; second joint white beneath at base, gray at tip, with a broad, oblique black band
across the middle; third joint very small, gray. Maxillary palpi obsolete, appearing
only as a minute pencil of white hairs. Proboscis quarter of an inch long, pale brown-
ish; face dark gray, with a small but distinct white spot in center; thorax pale gray or
cinereous, collar and tegule distinctly dotted with black; abdomen cinereous, indis-
tinetly sprinkled with black points, most obvious near the tip; fore-wings varied with
black or brownish black and white. The blackish portion presents, under the lens, and
in the fresh specimen a tint of dark metallic green, which seems to be nearly or quite
lost in the dried specimen, The coloration of the wing is somewhat equally divided be-
tween the white and the dark portions. Regarding the white as the ground color, the
black portion may be described as follows: a broad, diffused, irregular vitta or longitu-
dinal band extends the whole length of the wing, nearer the posterior than the costal
margin. From the middle of this stripe, a broad, imperfect band extends across to the
costa. There are three series of blackish spots across the end of the wing, two of which
are approximate, and sub-terminal; the other, further inwards, less perfect, but present-
ing in its middle a larger, somewhat triangular blackish spot; the costal margin is
divided into alternate portions of black and white. At the posterior basal angle of the
wing is a pale, but distinct oblong buff-colored spot. Posterior wings cinereous brown,
with,a central lunule, a middle, transverse line, and the terminal border of a deeper
color; their under side whitish, with the same lunules and lines anda series of terminal
brown points, very distinct; legs black, annulated with white.

The characters of the posterior wings are here copied almost verbatim from Guencé,
and serve more distinctly than any other part of his description to identify the species
with the swperans.

If this should prove to be a distinct and undescribed species, I propose for it the
name of Acronycta prunivora.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE-VINE.

THE AMERICAN VINE-CHAFER.

(Anomatla lucicola, Fabr.)

Order of COLEOPTERA. Family of Me.otonrnip.

One of the insects injurious to the grape vine in Europe, and
sometimes to a serious extent, is a small beetle belonging to the
family of Melolonthidz, and resembling, in its general characters,
the common May-beetle or Dorr-beetle which makes such a buz-
zing about our lamps in the early summer evening. This insect
is known as the Anomala vitis, or Vine-chafer, and we have in this
country one species at least, of the same genus, which has the
same injurious habits, though never to so great an extent. This
species is now generally regarded by entomologists, I believe, as
the Anomala lucicola of Fabricius, though it has often been con-
founded with another species, the A. varzans of the same author.
Dr. Harris mentions it in his treatise upon the noxious insects of
Massachusetts, and speaks of its being quite destructive in parti-
cular localities of that State in the year 1825.

About the last of June of the present year (1870), I received a
box of these insects from Mr. E. J. Ayres, of Villa Ridge, to whom
I have been indebted for many interesting insects, and to whom
Iam happy to have this opportunity of publicly expressing my
thanks. Mr. Ayres gives so graphic an account of the habits of
this insect, as observed by himself, that I cannot do better than
copy his words:

“T send you a box of perhaps a dozen or more beetles which
are new to me, and which are just now making sad havoe with

AMERICAN VINE-CHAFER. 55

our Norton’s Virginia grape-vines, eating the leaves in a manner
similar to the leaf inclosed. The first I noticed them was about
four days ago, when, about sun-down, in my pear orchard, they
were flying close to the ground, in a ziz-zag style, as if they were
hunting for something, and were in such numbers as to sound like
a swarm of bees. After I had eaten my supper, and it had be-
come quite dark, I discovered them in great numbers on the Nor-
ton’s Virginia vines. They would shake off very easy, and ‘ play
possum’ for a few minutes, and then fly up and commence again.
The next morning I went out to sprinkle the vines with lime, and
to my surprise, found there was not a beetle on the vines; all
were gone; but of two hundred and fifty vines they had eaten
half of the leaves. In searching, I found large numbers in the
ground, under the vines, but apparently not in so great numbers
as they were on the vines the night before. This was Friday
morning. I was obliged to go to Cairo on business, and did not
get back till Sunday, and on my return found that the vines did
not look as if they had been injured any during my absence, or at
least but very little. I took a look to-day and found them still in
the ground, about half an inch deep, and generally in pairs. In
my vineyard of twenty varieties, they have disturbed none but
Norton’s Virginia. Ina neighboring vineyard containing say a
dozen Norton’s, with several thousand Concords and Ives, they
have eaten all the Norton’s, and worked a little upon some ad-
joining Concords, but they were evidently not suited to their
taste. Judge Brown, who has but three or four Norton vines, in
a vineyard of three or four hundred vines of different kinds, finds
his Nortons badly eaten and none of the others touched. I shail
examine the vines to-night, and if possible ascertain if they come
out of the ground and eat the vines. They do not eat at all in
the day time.”

Dr. Harris speaks of the Anomalz as being diurnal in their hab-
its, and the specific name of ducicola given to this species by Fa-
bricius, if indeed it be the same, means loving or seeking the
light. But from Mr. Ayres’s observations, it appears that, like
many of our larger Melolonthians, this is a night-feeding species.
Mr. Ayres’s description of its mode of flight calls to our mind the
low, mousing flight of another and more common, allied species,

56 GREEN, CREAM-SPOTTED GRAPE-WORM.

the Cetonia Inda, very much like that of a hawk, scouring over a
field in search of mice.

The leaves eaten by these insects resemble a piece of coarse,
irregular net-work, all the larger veins and part of the smaller
ones being left. |

From the great numbers and concerted operations of these in-
sects, and the suddenness with which they make their attack, it is
evident that serious loss might be suffered from them before their
depredations were discovered. The ease with which they are
shaken from the vines suggests the method of capturing them, by
shaking them onto a sheet; but their nocturnal habits would ren-
der this inconvenient if not impracticable. Dusting the leaves
with lime, as above suggested, or if this did not succeed, syringing
them with tobacco water or whale oil soap, might prevent their
depredations.

THE GREEN, CREAM-SPOTTED GRAPE-WORM.
(Amphipyra pyramidoides, Gueneé. )
Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of Nocruma,
1 have heard of the larva of this insect from various localities
in the southern half of the State, but little has yet been recorded

concerning its numbers or its habits. The Caterpillar is a fleshy,
green, naked worm, about an inch and a quarter long when fully

GREEN CREAM-SPOTTED GRAPE-WORM. 57

grown, sprinkled with minute cream-colored or straw-colored
_ spots. There is a cream-colored line along the back, and a yellow

line along the sides, connecting the spiracles, or breathing pores,

_ which appear like black points, each one being surrounded by a

narrow white ring. The perfect insect is a dark brown or black-

_ ish moth, varied with rather obscure whitish spots and zigzag

lines. The hind wings are dark coppery-red, with a dusky bor-
der. The larva is figured in the American Entomologist, Vol. L.,

| page 225, and the moth in Vol. IL, p. 26.

I received some of these Caterpillars from Mr. E. J. Ayers, of
Villa Ridge, early in May, with the following note: ‘ The green
worms with cream-colored spots, I find on my grape vines. They
are not numerous, but they are ravenous feeders. Should they
become numerous they would be very destructive.” At the time
of their reception the leaves of my cultivated grape vines were
but just opening, and I fed them on the leaves of the wild grape
vine which was running over my garden fence and which was
more advanced. They are, as Mr. Ayers remarks, gross feeders,
and are very easily reared. Some caterpillars are very restless in
confinement, but these creatures strongly remind me of a hog,
being perfectly contented so long as they had enough to eat.
Sometimes, after eating their fill, they would roll over upon their
sides and take a rest, very much like the gluttonous animal just
referred to.

They began to transform on the 16th of May, folding a piece
of grape leaf pretty close around their bodies, and lining the
cavity very slightly with silk. Different individuals remained in
the chrysalis state from forty-two to forty-eight days. The char-
acter of the moth is strongly contrasted with that of the larva with
respect to its activity. The caterpillar, as we have just stated,
is gluttonous and sluggish in its habits. The moth, on the con-
trary, is extremely alert, and rapid in ita motions, lying in an ab-
rupt, zigzag manner. I came very near losing some of my
specimens, though they were within the walls of my office. One
of them flew precipitately across the room, dove in amongst the
books in one of my cases, and concealed itself so artfully and per-
tinaciously, that though I saw where it flew, I had to take down
upwards of an hundred volumes before I could discover it.

This insect has aiso been bred by Mr. Riley, of St. Louis, and

A—8

58 GREEN CREAM-S8POTTHD GRAPE WORM

by Major Muhleman, of Woodburn, Ill. The former states that
he has found the same caterpillar on the Red Bud and the Pop-
lar. They have not as yet been known to multiply so but that
they could be easily destroyed by picking or knocking them from
the vines.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CURRANT.

THE SPINOUS CURRANT.CATERPILLAR.
(Vanessa (@rapta) Prog’, Fabr.)
Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of NymMpyaLipa.
Fitch’s Third New York Rep., No. 142.

A light-brownish or drab colored caterpillar, about one inch in
length, thickly beset with white, branching spines, slightly tipped
with black, and averaging in length about half the width of the
body. The face also is prickly with short, whitish spines. The
first segment or collar is narrower than the head and second seg-
ment, forming a neck between the head and body. Pupa sus-
pended with the head downward, often attached to a twig or leaf
stalk ; pale brown, faintly clouded upon the side with olive-green,
and the abdomen broadly striped, with the same on the back and
sides. There is a deep depression across the middle of the back,
on each side of which are two small silvery spots.

In its perfect state this insect is one of our most common and
widely disseminated butterflies, being met with over nearly the
whole of the North American continent. It expands from one
and three-quarters to two inches. Jt has scalloped wings, of a
bright tawny or orange-red color, with black spots. On the under
side the wings are entirely different, being of a blackish-gray color,
paler at the tips, and with a small silvery mark on the hind wings,
resembling the letter L.

The larva or caterpillar of this species sometimes feeds upon the
leaves of the currant, but from the fact that the butterfly is com-
mon, whilst its larva is not generally known as a currant-eating
caterpillar, it is evident that it must, ordinarily, have some other

60 SPINOUS CURRANT-CATERPILLAR.

kind of plant-food. Dr. Harris speaks of having raised it from
caterpillars found feeding upon the elm, but makes no mention of
its eating the currant. Dr. Fitch, in his New York Reports,
speaks of them as sometimes eating the ieaves of the currant, and
on the 15th of July I received a number of these caterpillars from
Mr. B. N. McKinstry, of Judson, Kankakee county, accompanied
with the statement that they were doing considerable mischief by
stripping the leaves from his currant bushes. This is, I believe,
the first record of its feeding upon the currant in this State, and
it cannot be regarded, at present, as a noxious insect of a serious
character.

I made a few observations upon the individuals sent to me, of
some scientific interest, which I will briefly state.

The chrysalis state, which is stated by Drs. Harris and Fitch to
vary from eleven to sixteen days, lasted, in my speimens, only
seven days. The weather was excessively hot, the thermometer
indicating, most of the time, 100 degrees, which may, perhaps,
account for the rapid development.

As these caterpiliars, after they had suspended themselves for
the purpose of transformation, hung directly in front of my study
table, I was led to observe more closely than I had hitherto done,
the process by which these creatures divest themselves of their
larval covering. It appears to consist of two stages: the first is
slow, gradual and almost imperceptible, occupying some twenty-
four hours of time, during which, it may be presumed, there is
effected a gradual separation of the larval from the pupal envelope.
During this period the caterpillar hangs with its body curved for-
wards and upwards, and appears to be almost motionless ; but upon
close observation it is seen to undergo almost continuous though
slight changes, consisting of a nodding motion of the head, and an
occasional variation in the curvature of the body. The second
stage is short and active, usually lasting but a few minutes, the
object of which is to throw off the loosened larval skin; first, by
bending the body it bursts open the skin upon the back, and then,
by a wriggling motion, works it up towards the point of attach-
ment, and lastly detaches and throws it entirely off by a series of
violent contortions, apparently at the imminent risk of severing
the thread upon which its safety literally depends. |

FOUR-STRIPED PLANT-BUG. 61

Should this insect ever become numerous in any locality, it

_ would have to be destroyed in some of the ways commonly re-
_ sorted to for caterpillars of this kind, namely: by shaking them

from the bushes and crushing them under foot, or dusting the
leaves with ashes or lime. |

THE FOUR-STRIPED PLANT-BUG.
( Capsus ( Phytocoris) quadrivittatus, Say. )
Order of HETEROPTERA. Family of Carsma.
Upon going into my garden on the morning of the seventh of

June, my attention was arrested by the blighted appearance of
the leaves on some of the currant bushes. Upon examining them

they were found to be more or less densely sprinkled with little,

dried, somewhat square or angulated spots, not much larger than
pin heads. Some of the leaves were completely withered, and a
number of parsnips which had been left for seed, were found still
more severely affected, some whole branches and their leaves be-
ing as dead and brown as if they had been severed from the plant
for a week. I examined the plants carefully, but could find no
adequate cause for the mischief, and I was inclined to think that
it was either some kind of blight, or that if any insects had been
damaging them, they had run their course and disappeared. I
saw on most of the bushes a small number of the pretty, black
and yellow hemipterous insect whose name is placed at the head
of this article, but they did not seem to be in suflicient numbers
to account for the evil. I observed them, however, puncturing
the leaves, and upon referring to the American Entomologist, I
found on page 246 of the first volume, a notice of these same in-
sects having been sent to the editor by Mr. M. B. Bateman, of
Painesville, Ohio, with the statement that they were found to be
quite injurious to the currant bushes and various kinds of shrubs.

This is an interesting insect, by adding another to the compar-
atively small list of noxious insects belonging to the order of
Heteroptera. This list includes the Chinch-bug ( dLicropus leu-
copterus ), the brown Squash-bug ( Cureus tristis), the large grey

62 FOUR-STRIPED PLANT-BUG.

Plant-bug (Brochimena annulata), and the Lined Plant-bug (Cap-
sus linearis). The last species, also known as the Tarnished Plant-
bug, is one of our most pernicious insects, and belongs not only
to the same order, but also to thesame genus with the species now
under consideration. All these insects do their damage by punc-
turing the leaves or stems of plants, and wilting them by the ab-
straction of their sap. The suddenness with which the parts be-
yond their punctures, wither, and sometimes turn black, has led to
the general belief that they infuse a poison into the wounds ; but no
such poisonous secretion has been proved to exist.

This species has never been fully described, and I therefore ap-
pend the following description :

Length, three-tenths of an inch. Deep honey-yellow, inclining to orange. Elytra,
bright greenish-yellow, with four black stripes.

Head, deep honey-yellow; nasus and antenne, black. Thorax, greenish-yellow; its
anterior border, honey-yellow, and with four black stripes; the two middle ones in the
form of large sub-triangular spots, the outer ones slender and near the margin. Scu-
tellum, greenish-yellow, with the lateral angles black. Elytra, greenish-yellow, each with
two black stripes, the outer ones more slender, near the margin, and having a black dot
beyond its tip. Membrane, black. Beneath, honey-yellow, the venter deepening into
orange; vent black, in the male furnished wiih two black hooks; in the female with a
blackish sword-shaped ovipositor, originating from the middle of the sixth segment, lying
upon the venter, when not in use, and concealed between two valvular folds, forming a
carina, with its point backwards. When elevated from its sheath, it appears to issue
from the middle of the venter. Legs pale-greenish, with two black rings near the end
of the thighs; last joint of the feet black.

The females are easily distinguished, at this season, by their more swollen abdomens.
Upon opening them they are found to contain about 20 (from 15 to 24) oblong subeylin-
drical flask-shaped eggs, pale, with white tips. I have not been able to discover where
these eggs are deposited.

These insects may be called social rather than gregarious, be-
ing sometimes found singly, but usually in smal] companies.

The insects of the genus Capsus are very active, and instantly
take to flight when alarmed, especially in the heat of the day.
The only time when they can be captured and destroyed is very
early in the morning, when they are chilled by the coolness of the
night, and therefore disinclined to fly. They can be shaken or
brushed off into a pan or pail partly filled with lye or strong suds.
Simple water answers just as well, so tar as to prevent their flying

away.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO.

Explanation of fiqures.—a, a, eggs; b,b, larvae; c, pupa; d, beetle of the natural size;
e, wing-case magnified; f, leg magnified,

THE COLORADO POTATO BEETLE,
(Doryphora, 10-lineata, Say.)
Order of COLEOPTERA, Family of Curysomeipa.

Walsh’s and Shimer’s articles in the Practical Entomologist, vols. 1 and 2; Riley’s
ist Missouri Report, page 101.

This insect does not need to be described. We all know the
creature, alas! too well. Though one of our most recent acquisi-
tions in the line of practical entomology, having been known in
this State only for a period of six years, yet it is so unceremonious
in its visitations, and so free and easy in its manners, after it has
arrived, that we have already come to regard it as an old acquaint-
ance. As such we have everywhere extended to it a warm recep-

64 COLORADO POTATO BEETLE,

tion, devoting whole fields of our most valaable esculent to its
uses—at least, it has not hesitated to appropriate them thus—and
adorning it with our most brilliant pigments. But having, in ac-
cordance with the old adage, ‘‘ Welcomed the coming,” we are
now quite willing to “speed the parting guest.” To tell the plain
truth, our visitors from Colorado, with their enormous families,
have got to be an intolerable bore. In no former years have the
complaints of their depredations been so loud and so universal;
the hot and dry summer having evidently been favorable to their
multiplication.

I have heard of a few localities, both in Iowa and Illinois,where
these insects were numerous last year, but have nearly or quite
disappeared this year, giving us a gleam of hope for the future.
But such cases, the past season, I believe to have been rare and
exceptional, and we have reason to be not a little suspicious that
our visitors trom the Rocky Mountain country will prove to be-
long to that class of friends alluded to by the poet in the following

stanza:
*T do not tremble when I meet

The stoutest of my foes;
But Heaven defend my from the friend
Who comes—but never goes,”

In our dilemma, the question then is, what can we do to expe-
dite their departure ?

In the first place mother Nature has come to our relief, to a cer-
tain extent, and has sent a host of assistants to aid us in the task.
We can now enumerate at least nineteen different kinds of insects
which prey upon the Colorado Potato-beetle. We give their
names below, numbering for the purpose of reference:

COLEOPTERA,
1, Tetracha virginica. 7. Lytta vittata.
2. Calosoma calidum. 8. Lytta cinerea.
8. Harpalus caliginosus. 9. Hippodamia maculata.
4, Pasimachus elongatus. 10. Hippodamia, 13-punctata.
5. Philonthus, sp. undetermined. 11. Hippodamia convergens.
6, Lebia grandis. 12. Coccinella, 9-notata,
HEMIPTERA DIPTERA.
18. Reduvius raptatorius, 17. Promachus apivorus.
14. Harpactor cinctus, 18. Lydella Doryphore.

15. Arma spinosa.
16. Stiretrus fimbriatus.
ARACHINDA.—19. Phalangium.

COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. 65

_- Of these ‘insects, the first five are ground beetles, and are pre-
_ daceous both in the larva and perfect states, and they devour the
_ Potato-beetles and their larvee, mostly on the ground or whilst
_ undergoing their transformation beneath the surface.

The next three attack them on the vines.

The next four belong to the family of Lady-bugs and help to
destroy the Potato-bugs by eating their eggs.

The four Hemipterous insects are all predacious. They attack

the Potato-bugs wherever they can find them and kill them by
- puncturing them with their beaks and extracting their juices.
No. 17 is a large, savage two-winged fly, which, it would
- seem, attacks almost any insect that comes inits way. Its specific
name means bee-eating, and it is the same insect which has been
called the Nebraska Bee-killer. It also kills Horse-flies, and now
it is proved to add the Potato-beetle to its indiscriminate bill of
fare. I received a pair of these insects from Mr. A. R. Whitney,
of Franklin Grove, who caught them in the act of seizing and
carrying off the mature beetles. These ferocious insects resemble
the hawk in their mode of dealing with their prey. They seize
it, fly off with it for a short distance and then alight and devour
it at their leisure. Whilst so engaged they allow themselves to
be approached quite nearly, and are easily captured. Mr. Whit-
ney followed a number of them, and got possession of the beetles,
which he always found dead by the time he could reach them.

No. 18 is a parasitic fly, belonging to the family of Tachinide,
the larvee of which live in the bodies of the Potato-bugs, and thus
destroy them. It was actually bred by Mr. Riley from the infested
insects, and I have several times seen this fly or another similar
species alight upon the vines in the midst of the beetles and their
larve.

No. 19 is commonly known as the Daddy-Long legs, and I place
jt in the list of Colorado Potato-bug destroyers on the authority of
Mr. Arthur Bryant, as given in the Transactions of the Illinois
Horticultural Society, Vol. I, page 102. To this list may be added,
though with some doubt, the Little-lined, or Tarnish Plant-bug
(Capsus linearis). Early in the season, I received a letter trom
Mr. James Taylor, of Somonauk, in which, amongst other matters,
he spoke of a small insect which pierced with its beak and de-
stroyed the eggs of the Colorado Potato-beetle. As I could not

—a 9

0 OO ee

66 ~ COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE.

from his description, identify the insect with any known depreda- |

tor upon the Potato-bug. I wrote to him requesting him to send
me specimens, and soon after received from him a number of the

above named species. As the Capside@ are all vegetable feeders,

and as the Capsus linearis is often abundant on early potato vines,
which they injure by puncturing the young shoots, I at first
thought that Mr. Taylor had confounded this species with the
Arma spinosa or some other species which is well known to de-
stroy the eggs of the Potato-beetle in the way he describes. But
as he speaks as if he had actually seen them performing this act,
and as the Capsus limeards is a very indiscriminate feeder as re-

spects its plant-food, and finally as the two Lyttw, above men- |

tioned (Nos. 6 and 7), are also plant-feeders, and yet are admitted,
on what is supposed to be sufficient authority, to be occasional
feeders upon the larvee of the Potato-beetle, I am inclined to be-
lieve that, after all, Mr. Taylor’s observations may have been cor-
rect. This point, however, will have to besettled by future obser-
vation.

To these insect depredators upon the Potato-bug I have pretty
good reason to add a four-footed animal, which we are not in the
habit of regarding in a very friendly light, and that is the Skunk.
This animal is well known to relieve the opprobrium which usn-
ally attaches to his name, by destroying the May-beetle, and its
larva the White grub, and some other of the larger sized insects.
Whilst on a visit to Benton Harbor, Mich., early last spring, Mr.
L. Camfield stated to me that a part of his potato field furthest
from the house was comparatively free from Potato-bugs, and
that he knew that skunks frequented it from the fact that his dog
was often heard barking there, and bore unmistakable evidence,
on his return, of the company he had been in. I told Mr. Cam-
field that as every fact of this kind was of interest, I wished he
would watch, some moon-light night, and see if he could verify his
supposition. Later in the season, in answer to a letter of inqui-
ry from me, I received a reply from Mr. Camfield, under date of
Aug. 15, saying that he had not seen a skunk about his premises,
they having been probably frightened away by the dog. But he
adds that his brother and neighbor, who have potato patches in
the same inclosure, near a thicket much frequented by skunks,
have been but little troubled by Potato-bugs, though others in

COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. 67

| that section have suffered serious damage. That the Skunk
_ should eat Potato-bugs has no intrinsic improbability, and I think

every one must be impressed with a feeling of the extreme ap-
propriateness of the diet.

The testimony with respect to these insects being eaten by
domestic fowls is contradictory. The truth seems to be that some

_ chickens will eat them and others*will not, or that they will eat

them under some circumstances, such as the pressure of extreme
hunger. My next door neighbor, Mr. Wurts, says he has taught

_ his fowls to eat the bugs by throwing them down to them like so

much corn, when they were hungry; and he thinks that if all
chickens do not eat them it is because their education has been
neglected.

The question will naturally be asked, why, with all these ene-
mies, do the Potato-bugs continue to multiply, like the locusts of
Egypt? The best answer I can give is, that no one of these
many enemies, if we except, perhaps, the parasitic Lydella, is ex-
clusively appropriated to these insects, like the Tachina of the
Tussock-moth or the Chaicis of the Bark-louse, mentioned in the
earlier part of this report. In other words these various enemies
depredate upon the Potato-bugs when they happen to come in
their way, but do not depend upon them for subsistence. Be-
sides, the predaceous insects above enumerated do not belong to
the prolific class, and therefore are too few in individuals to make
much headway againt such a multitudinous host as the Colora-
do Potato bugs. I have repeatedly walked through potato fields
swarming with bugs, with the express intention of taking note of
their destroyers, without seeing any creature seriously deserving
of the name.

Nature, if left to her own resources, often exhibits wonderful
curative and recuperative powers, which are ordinarily sufficient
to preserve the balance between the world of insects and that of
plants. If in any case, like the present, she seems to fail, it is
because we have abruptly disturbed the balance by supplying
these prolific insects with a superabundance of congenial food.
And now that we are overrun by them we stand osghast at the
consequences. But nature often accommodates her economy to
human wants, and rectifies our errors and our follies. And I
have no doubt that the Colorado Potato-beetle, like other nox-

68 COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE.

ious insects that have been equally prevalent, will in time disap-
pear, especially in those localities where it is now most abundant,
even though we leave the work wholly to Nature. But we must
give her time. Nature moves more slowly but more surely than
man, and her judgments take the course of an inevitable retribu-
tion. Ifwecan have more patience, and get along with fewer
potatoes for a year or two, I doubt not the day of our redemption
will draw nigh. But as we do not know exactly when that time
will come, and as patience without potatoes may seem to many a
tedious virtue, I opine there can be no sin in our doing what we
can to hasten the wished-for result. Let us see, then, what hope
we can derive from any success that has attended past efforts in
this direction.

There are four principal methods and agencies which have been
adopted for the purpose of destroying these prolific and pernicious
insects: first, hand picking and mechanical contrivances ; second,
sun-burning; third, starvation; and fourth, Paris-green. Mr.
8. S. Barnes, of Olena, Henderson county, says he has preserved
his potatoes for the last five years, by mashing between his thumb
and finger, every bug that made its appearance on his vines, and
picking off their eggs. He says that for early kinds, twice going
over, once when the vines are three or four inches high, and again
in ten or twelve days atterwards, is all that is necessary. This
may be styled the expervmentum crucis method, and is of course
a sure cure, where it can be applied; that is where the field is
not too large, nor the bugs too numerous, nor the operator too
sensitive.

Speaking of mashing these insects in the hand, suggests the
question of their alleged poisonous nature. Mr. Barnes says that
though he has practiced this method freely for five years, he has
never experienced any poisonous effects from it. There is no
doubt, however, that they are poisonous toa certain extent, and this
has been most strikingly manifested in the effects of the fumes
arising from their burning bodies. Major W. N. Davis, of Aux
Sable Grove, recently told me that his neighbors, the Messrs.
Cherry, were quite severely poisoned by the smoke arising from
an ignited hollow stump into which a quantity of Potato-bugs had
been thrown. It affected them very much like an attack of ery-

COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. 69

| sipelas, their faces being so much swollen as almost to close their
_ eyes. There are also several cases on record of severe inflamma-

tion of the hand and arm, after handling these insects, when

_ there was an abrasion of the skin.

But it is not necessary to touch the insects with the hand. The
common practice is to knock them off into a pan or pail. As
simple and convenient a plan as I have heard of was adopted by
one of my neighbors, Mr. H. OC. Hawkins. He took an old meal
bag, cut it off in the middle so that it might not be inconvenient-
ly long, and fitted into it a small hoop so as to keep the mouth
open, and then, passing along the rows, knocked the bugs into
the bag with the flat side of a shingle, occasionally shaking the in-
sects down to the bottom of the bag, from which they could not
easily escape.

It is not my intention to enumerate the hundred and one me-
chanical contrivances that have been resorted to for the purpose of
killing these insects. I only mention a few that seem to me most
worthy of imitation. Mr. J. W. Clark, of Twin Hills, Wisconsin,
makes use of the following wholesale method, in field culture. A
person with a common broom held perpendicularly with one
hand and grasped as low down as convenient with the other,
passes along close to or astride a row of the vines, and with a
quick lateral motion strkes the vines first on one side and then on
the other, scattering the bugs into the spaces between the rows.
Another hand follows immediately after with a plow and crushes
or buries the greater proportion of the insects. If the potatoes
have been already plowed and hilled np, he drags along the fur-
row a heavy bundle of brush, or a small harrow made for the
purpose. A considerable proportion of the insects will of course
escape, but the operation is so rapidly performed that it can be
repeated as often as necessary. Mr. C. closes by saying: “On the
whole, we confidently offer this system of treatment as one that
will be found cheap, rapid and effective. The work can be
performed in half the time that it requires to apply Paris-green,
which, moreover, is not a fit thing for children to handle. The
only cost is labor, and this not difficult. A smart boy or girl will
easily broom over an acre in two hours.”

The second of the methods above enumerated is sun-burning.

70 COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE.

If these insects are knocked off the vines in the middle of a very
hot and dry day, the mercury in the thermometer ranging at 950
or upward, they will die in about one minute, as I have tested by
actual experiment. The soft-bodied larvee roll over and over and
seem to almost liquify from the heat. The beetles spread their
wings and attempt to escape, but cannot rise from the broiling
surface. Two of my fellow travelers on the ad interem Commit-
tee, Mr. Galusha and Mr. Wier, both certify, from their own expe-
rience, to the efficacy of this method when the conditions are
favorable. The former adds that it is most effective where the
potatoes have been hilled up, so as to present an inclined plane of
crumbling earth, up which the insects must climb, under the
fierce fire of the enemy, before they can reach the protecting
shelter of the over-spreading foliage. The objection to the prac-
tice of this plan is that the operator has to expose himself to the
same heat which is fatal to the insects, and besides, there are usu-
ally but few days in the year when this remedy is available.

Another agency for lessening the numbers of the Potato-beetle
is starvation. This takes place from the simple fact that the in-
sects, in some cases, eat all the potatoes and other available food
within their reach, whilst many of them are immature, and before
the season is far enough advanced for them to go into winter quar-
ters. I have been forcibly struck the present season with the ef-
ficacy of this condition of things in my own neighborhood, and
it must have occurred in many other localities. I have seen my-
riads of these insects, in all their stages, leaving the potato-fields,
where they had left scarcely a stump standing, and traveling over
fences, buildings and roads, and I may say everywhere, but where
there was no congenial plant food within their reach. The per-
fect insect, it is true, can fly to a considerable distance, but the
supply of food sometimes gives out when the great majority of the
insects are in their larva state. I have heard of their being seen
crawling half a mile cr more from any place where potatoes grew:
this, however, I think must have referred to the mature beetles,
which had availed themselves of their wings for a part of the dis-
tance. An important question arises in such cases, whether these
insects are capable of subsisting upon other plants besides the po-
tato, to a sufficient extent to preserve them from starvation. It is

COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. vit

i

a curious fact that these ravenous insects seem to be exclusively

_ appropriated to the natural family of Solanacew or the Night-
| shade family, upon all the species of which they will feed to some
- extent.

This family includes, in addition to the Potato, the Tomato the
Egg-plant, the Bitter-sweet, the Black Night-shade, the Horse-

_ nettle, the Ground-cherry, the Thorn-apple, the Henbane, the
| Tobacco, wild and cultivated, the Box-thorn, and the Cayenne Pep-
_ per. Upon two of these plants, the Egg-plant and the Horse-

nettle, these insects feed as readily as they do upon the potato,

but upon all or most of the others they eat sparingly and only
from necessity. We sometimes hear of them eating other plants,
and J have seen the Thistle and other plants slightly gnawed by
them when on their march for more congenial food, but it is only
as an act of desperation. The Thorn-apple, or Apple of Peru,
they will eat more freely, but they do not like it; and the Cay-
enne Pepper, if eaten to any considerable extent, is fatal to them.
Mr. Ellsworth, jr., of the Naperville nursery, informed me that
he had several times found the bugs lying dead under the pepper
plants upon which they had been feeding. Now it is evident that
all the plants above enumerated are too rare in locality, and too
small in quantity to afford subsistence, to any considerable extent,
to such a prolific and multitudinous species as the Colorado Po-
tato-beetle; and there can be no doubt that in such a season as
the present, in many localities, millions of these insects must have
perished for want of food. And though there will probably be
enough left to continue the breed, yet they will be so much re-
duced in numbers that their presence will hardly be noticed for
years to come. And, besides, in proportion, as their numbers are
reduced, they will become subject to the depredations of preda-
ceous and parasitic foes.

In such ways as these does Nature come to our relief from the
indefinite encroachment of the many noxious insects to whose de-
predations we are exposed, and says to the advancing tide, with
more authority than did Canute, of old: “ Thus far shalt thou
come, and no farther. ”

I think there is no doubt that we could avail ourselves of the
starvation process to exterminate the Colorado Potato beetle, if
this insect should prove to be of a sufficiently persistent character

a2 COLORADO POTATO: BEETLE.

to induce a concert of action amongst agriculturists. This could
be accomplished by planting only the earliest varieties of pota-
toes. If this method were universally put in practice, there

would be no potatoes after mid-summer for the insects to feed upon,
and they would probably all perish from starvation. And even if

a small proportion of them should subsist upon other plants till
fall, they would be of too old a brood to survive the winter and
perpetuate the race another year.

But it is now generally admitted that the most effective remedy
for the Colorado Potato-beetle, so far as human agency is con-
cerned, is the application to the vines of the poisonous substance
commonly known as Paris-green, and chemically designated as
the Arsenite of Copper. This substance proves fatal to the insects,
not by coming in contact with them, but by being eaten by them.
Indeed, these creatures have a very pertinacious vitality under
all the ordinary applications which prove destructive to insects.
I have thoroughly sprinkled the infested vines with copperas water,
one ounce to the quart, which has been highly recommended ;
and with fish brine, one quart to two gallons of water, but both
applications hurt the vines much more than they did the insects.
I have also immersed the beetles in diluted carbolic acid, and then
rolled them over and over in Paris-green, and put them in a box,
and some of them were alive on the next day. But when this
article is eaten by them with the foliage, it proves speedily and
certainly fatal.

The first time that I knew of this substance being used on a
large scale, was in the summer of 1869, by Mr. E. W. Grosvenor,
of Hastings, Minnesota. This gentleman used twelve dollars worth
of Paris-green, diluted at about the rate of one quarter of a pound
to half a peck of flour, and.saved his potato crop. Upon the older
vines it had to be repeated, but upon vines three or four inches
high, he thought it affected them in some way which rendered
them thenceforward repugnant to the insects. But upon this point
it is proper to remark that the{testimony is conflicting. Mr. Gros-
venor also mentioned the interesting incident that in stripping
the bark from some old fence posts in the winter time, near the
fields that had been infested by the bugs, he found thousands of
them, which had availed themselves of this shelter for the wiuter,

|
|

|}
\

COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. ia

though it is generally supposed that the majority of them hyber-
nate under ground. .

To show the efficacy of Paris-green on a large scale and in en-
ergetic hands, I cannot do better than to quote, in full, two letters
which I have recently received, relating to this subject, and from
two very remote localities :

Bia THompson, Cotorapo, Oet. 7, 1870.
Dr. Witttam LeBaron:

Dear Sir—In the Prairie Farmer of May 28, you requested a report from those
who experimented with Paris-green. Here is mine:

The Colorado, Potato-bug attacked my potato field early in May, and having a large
crop (twenty-five acres), I procured nine pounds of Paris-green and mixed it with six
times its bulk in flour, and applied it to the vines in the morning, when the dew was on.
The result was, I killed millions of bugs and saved my potato crop.

Icommenced digging my potatoes on the 10th ult.,and have now about eighteen
hundred bushels in the pits, and expect to have about three thousand bushels in all,
The second brood of bugs have made their appearance, and the ground is literally cov-
ered with them; thousands of them crawl into the potato pits and eat the potatoes vor-
acious y, especially the cut ones. I found as many as twenty-five bugs on one potato.
Will they live in these pits all winter? If so, I fear that they will damage the potatoes
to a great extent, Is their any remedy that will exterminate them now ?

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOHN SULLIVAN.

In reply to this letter, I stated that if Mr. 8. thought it too early
in the season to close his pits with earth, I should advise him to
cover them with a close matting of straw, which would be likely
to exclude most of the insects, and yet give sufficient ventilation ;
and as to their damage in the pits, I thought it would be of short
duration, as approaching winter would render them torpid, and in
the spring their tendency would be to leave the pits in search of
light and fresh food, and in obedience to the instinct of propaga-

tion.
Rusavite, Inprana, Sept. 26, 1870,
Dr. Witt1am LeBaron: .
Sir—Having seen, by chance, a number of the Prairie Farmer, of Sept. 10, containing
a few remarks by you in reference to the Colorado Potato-bug, I send you my experience
and observatiéns. The first ever seen in this locality made their appearance in June,
1869. Paris-green, mixed with five to ten parts of wood ashes, effectually destroyed
them, and the crops of potatoes were unsurpassed. Last Spring they came much earlier
in the season, very soon after the potato tops were above ground, and by millions, Paris-
green, used in the same way, was entirely effectual; but a second brood appeared, which
was destroyed in the same way, and potatoes are good for this season. Variety, mostly
Early Rose. Many of my neighbors used Paris-green in the same way with similar re-

A—10

74. COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE.

sults. Have not known it fail in a single instance; and have not heard of a single case
of any evil result from using the poison. All were informed that it was poisonous, and
to be used with care.

Why not form a line North and South from Lakes to Gulf of Mexico, at a point East
of where they have thus far been found, and the farmers on that line organize and poison
them out as they come, and prevent their migration eastward ? Every farmer east of
the line is interested and should aid. Respectfully,

GEORGE C. CLARK.

It is refreshing to read such letters as these, written with a clear
head and a strong hand, and which give us faith to believe that
the Colorado Potato-beetle, like most other ills that afflict humani-
ty, can be mitigated, if not wholly overcome, by energy and per-
severance.

With regard to Mr. Clark’s suggestion of a cordon of Paris-
green across the continent, I replied to him that I thought it a
very excellent one, with one slight drawback, and that was that it
would be impossible to carry it out. Farmers are never guilty of
such concerted, beneficent action. If they were, the worst pests
that afflict them, the Potato-bug, the Cureulio and the Codling-
moth would, before this, have been practically exterminated. But
farmers are like other people; some are ignorant, some are shift-
less, some are timid, and some have other and greater interests at
stake to distract their attention ; and the result will be that gaps
enough will be left, through which the advancing hosts will march
on to their allotted destination. My friend, Prot. Welch, told me
that when he made his visit to his old homestead in Maine, last
summer, he took a box of the Potato-beetles with him, and the
circumstance becoming known on his arrival, the liveliest curiosity
was excited to see the notorious strangers, and that sume people
traveled fitteen miles to get a sight of them.

Have patience, friends, and in due time, in all probability, your
utmost curiosity will be gratified. This Western tortoise in minia-
ture is plodding on his way to you-ward, at the rate of fifty or sixty
miles a year, and, in good time, he will meet vou at your thresh-
old and will say to you, “Lo! I am here. I have come a long
and weary journey, I have crossed high hills, broad lakes and
rushing rivers, enemies have waylaid me on every side, and mani.
fold perils have beset my path; but I have overcome all obsta-
cles, and have arrived at last, and shall abide with you for a sea-

COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. £3)

son; and to see me you will henceforth need to make no distant
pilgrimage.” .
Here is a letter upon the other side of this question :
Sauina, Kansas.

Dr. W. LeBaron:
Dear Sir—Some time since you requested a report from those who experimented with

Paris-green. _ Here is mine:

The Colorado Potato-bug attacked my potato patch. I dusted the vines with Paris.
green, mixed with twice its bulk of flour. The poison was applied in the morning when
the dew was on. I killed thousands of bugs—in fact the ground was really covered, I
could scrape them up by the handful. Many potato vines turned black and died. For
every bug that died a thousand seemed to come. They ate up all my potatoes and Paris-
green too. I dissent from the position that the bugs shun the presence of the Paris-
green; if so they would not eat it; and I found as many on the vines that I thoroughly
dusted as any. They ate them entirely up, stalks and all. epee

Fighting against these voracious, prolific and many-brooded in-
sects is often, it must be confessed, very discouraging work, of
which the letter just quoted gives an example, and the following
case is another of a somewhat different character. One of my
townsmen, Mr. John Hepworth, an industrious and careful farmer,
had nearly an acre of choice potatoes, which, by frequent hand-
picking he had preserved from the insects till about the middle of
July, when, being driven with harvest work, he paid no farther
attention to them. Two weeks later I saw these vines and they
were half eaten up by the second brood of these loathsome ver-
min, and covered by them to such an extent that the owner aban-
doned them to their fate. A week later, Aug. 6, nothing but the
leafless stalks remained, and the insects, mostly in the larva state,
were leaving them and crawling in all directions in search for food.
In this case most of the insects had come in from a neighboring
potato patch which had been neglected. No doubt hundreds, if
not thousands of similar cases have occurred throughout the coun.
try in the course of the past season. A timely use of the Paris-
green would have gone far to save the crop in such cases. But
where the potatoes have become worthless, eifher from necessity
or neglect, there is but one resort left to procure any return from
the land, and that is to plow it up in season to raise some one of
the rapidly maturing crops, such as buckwheat, turnips, or Hunga-
rian grass.

The great objection to the use of Paris-green is its virulently
poisonous nature, which renders it liable to injure seriously and

"6 COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE.

even fatally, both the plants and the operator. With regard to its
injury to the plants, I believe it can always be sufficiently obvia-
ted by largely diluting the poison with flour or ashes. The former
is preferred, because if applied when the plants are wet with rain
or dew, it makes a paste which prevents the poison from being
blown from the vines. Experiments would seem to show that the
poison is about equally effective upon the insects, whether diluted
with five, ten, fifteen, or even twenty times its bulk of flour, And_
the more it can be diluted without destroying its efficacy, the less
injurious, of course, it will be to the vines, and the more widely
it can be diffused at the same expense.

Considering the extremely poisonous nature of this substance,
and the very considerable extent to which it has been used, it is
remarkable that, so far as | am aware at least, no case of death
from its use as an insect-destroyer is on record. The only proba- ‘
ble exception to this statement that has come to my knowledge
was in the case ofa child four years old, in my own neighborhood,
who, together with a still younger brother, was taken suddenly
sick with very suspicious symptoms, after playing amongst some
potato vines near the house, to which Paris-green had been applied. ~
These children were taken with griping, and vomiting, and purg- ‘
ing of green colored matter, and in a week from the time of the ‘
attack, the older one died. This case was, to say the least, of so
very suspicious a character, that it made me much more careful |
in using and recommending this poison, and I immediately pub- *
lished a caution in some of the papers against the use of it in any |
place to which children would be likely to resort. i

With regard to to the method of applying this substance, there is |
no simpler and more effectual way than to shake it from a gauze *
bag tied to the end of a stick, the operator always taking the pre- |
caution to stand so that the wind shall not blow the powder to- |
wards him.

The remarkable success which has attended the use of the Paris. ©
green for the destruction of the Potato-bug, has very naturally |
raised the query whether this poison would not be an equally ef- |
fective remedy against other noxious insects, and a good many ;
interesting experiments have been performed to test this question. ||
Experience shows, what we indeed should suspect, that this poison |
is speedily fatal to all foliage-eating insects, but not to those which |

COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. Wi

_ live by suction. As these introduce their beak into the substance

of the plant, or its fruit, and imbibe the juices, they avoid the

| poison which lies upon the surface. And as respects the former

class, the use of the Paris-green will have to be limited to those
insects which subsist upon low or herbaceous plants, as its appli-
cation to trees would evidently be inconvenient, expensive and
dangerous. There are at least three of our worst insect pests for
which the Paris-green has been successfully used. These are the
Colorado Potato-bug, the several kinds of Blister-beetles (Ly¢ta),
which are sometimes almost equally destructive to the potato, and
the small, striped Cucumber-beetle (Diabrotica vittata), which, if
not properly counteracted, often renders the cultivation of cucum-
bers and melons an impossibility. One of the most satisfactory
reports that I have met with on this branch of the subject, is in a
paper read by Mr. Barler before the Alton Horticultural Society.
He applied the Paris-green mixed with four parts of flour, by
means of a sifter tied to the end of a long pole, to fifteen acres of
melon plants. ‘Absolutely every bug disappeared within twelve
hours after they were dusted.” I have songht for opportunities
to submit this use of Paris-green to additional tests, the past sea-
son, but have not been able to find enough of these insects to serve
the purposes of experiment; and Mr. Parker Earle informed me
that the same scarcity of them has been noticed in the southern
part of the State, and Mr. Galusha bore the same testimony re-
specting them in the more central section where he resides. This,
at first sight, would seem to be the more remarkable, as the
past hot and dry summer would have been favorable to their
multiplication ; but it is not improbable that the excessive rains of
the preceding year may have proved destructive to them at the
propagating season.

The fear often expressed that the poisonous qualities of Paris-
green will be communicated to the potatoes, may be safely dis-
missed as unfounded. The article has been in use long enough to
have developed any such danger if it existed.

Upon the whole the Paris-green, if properly used, may be con-
sidered to be an almost infallible remedy against the Colorado
Potato beetle, and many other leaf-eating insects. Any harm
from its use, either to the plants or the operator, can be obviated
by observing the following rules:

/
48 COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE.

1. Always dilute the poison with at least ten times its bulk of
flour.

2. Apply it to the plants when wet with rain or dew.

3. Never entrust its use to young or careless persons.

4. Never use it near the house where young children resort.

5. Apply it with a gauze bag or some other sifter, attached to
the end of a pole.

6. Let the operator always keep upon the side from which the
wind is blowing.

7. Do not apply it to any plant where it will come in contact
with the fruit.

Belore closing this article I wish to call the attention of agricul-
turists to the practicability of substituting arsenious acid, or the
white powdered arsenic of commerce, for the Paris-green, for the
destruction of noxious insects. The simple arsenic is a lighter
substance than Paris-green, that is more bulky for the same weight,
and would, therefore, go farther, pound for pound ; its white color
would render the extent of its application more easily visible on
the green foliage, and its cost is less than one-guarter of that of
Paris-green, the wholesale price of the latter being about forty
cents a pound, whilst the price of arsenic is only about eight cents.
It, as is generally supposed, the efficacy of Paris-green in destroy-
ing insect life depends wholly upon the arsenic in its composition,
there seems to be no reason why the simpler and cheaper article
should not be substituted for it. This matter was brought to my
notice by an intelligent druggist, but too late in the season to put
it to the test of actual experience, and I would here call attention
to it as a matter well worthy of future consideration and experi-
ment.

It is proper to add here, that with regard to this whole matter
of using violent poisons to destroy insects, some judicious persons
take strong ground against it; arguing that if the use of such dan-
gerous substances becomes common, they will almost unavoidably
fall into the hands of some young and careless persons, and that
some valuable lives will be lost. The argument is a weighty one,
and shows the necessity of great caution in the use of such arti-
cles, if not their total abandonment. It is my desire, in this re-
port, to state, as far as possible, all the known facts bearing upon
the case, and then leave it to the judgment of each one to deter-
mine for himself whether to use them or not.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE ROSE.

THE ROSE-SLUG.
(Selandria Rose, Harris.)

Order of HYMENOPTERA. Wansaly of TENTHREDINIDA.
Harris’s Treatise, p. 525.

Few things are more distressing to a pereon of taste and refine-
-ment'than the blasted and ruined aspect which the rose bushes,
almost everywhere, have, for many years past, presented. In
traveling through various parts of the State, in the course of the
past summer, I have seen many gardens upon which much Jabor
and money had been expended, rendered unsightly by the lifeless
skeletons of these queenly plants, which should have been their
ornament and pride. Those who suffer most from this sad spec-
tacle are the women, who being naturally more refined than men,
are, in the same proportion, greater lover of flowers. Now, if by
anything that {£ can say, I can put the fair women of the land in
the way to restore their lost darlings to their pristine life and
loveliness, I have no doubt that they would unhesitatingly con-
clude that the office of State Entomologist isa great institution,
and I should not be much surprised if they should combine to pay
the salary of the incumbent, as people sometimes raise monuments
to the great and the good, by the universal payment of penny
contributions. .

Well, I believe all this can be done—I mean the roses saved,
not the monument built—at a very trifling expense, and without
any great amount of labor, by the general putting in practice of
knowledge which has long been had by the few, and in reiterating
which I therefore lay no claim to originality. All the merit I can
assume is in explaining a little more fully than our writers have

eee enema eS ees”, ere

80 ROSE-SLUG.

usually done, the philosophy of the thing, so that we may work
understandingly and therefore effectually.

The blasted appearance of the foliage of the rose bushes is the
work of a little soft, green worm, scarcely noticeable without close
inspection, on account of its similarity of color to that of the leaves
on which it rests. This insect is generally known as the Rose-
slug. It is the larva of a small Hymenopterous or wasp-like in-
sect, scientifically named the Selandria Lose:

In conversing with people upon this subject, I have found that
many are acquainted with the insect, but very few know anything
of those peculiarities in its habits upon which its successful treat-
ment depends. If we only hastily examine a rose bush which is
;nfested with these worms, we shall be very likely to tail to dis-
cover the agents of the mischief, for the reason that, like the ma-
jority of caterpillars, they are night-feeders, and conceal them-
selves during the day from their enemies, and from the heat of
the sun, by retiring to the under side of the leaves. When we
examine the damaged leaves more closely, we tind that it is only
the upper cuticle of the leaf that is eaten off, and yet, at the time
when we usually look for them, they are upon the under side of
the leaves—all of which is easily explained in accordance with
their habits. They rest during the day upon the under side of
the leaves, and reserve their appetites for their noctural foraging
visits upon the upper surface.

It is evident from this brief statement that whatever applica-
tions are made use of for the purpose of destroying these insects,
must be made in the evening after they have exposed themselves
upon the upper side of the leaves. I regret that I did not take
pains, at the proper season, to determine more particularly at
what time in the evening they come upon the upper surface, and
also at what time in the morning they retire. This, however,
any one can easily determine for himself. If it should appear
that these worms, or any part of them, remain in concealment
until it is quite dark, as we have seen to be the case with the Fail
Web-worm described in the second article of this report, then we
should have to make our applications by moonlight, or by the
light of a lantern, in order to be wholly successful, or successful
in the shortest time.

The long known and established application for the ‘désttuetten

]
ROSE SLUG. 81

lof the Rose-slug is a solution of whale-oil soap. The first use of
this cheap and effective article, now extensively used to destroy a
| variety of insects, was made many years ago by Mr. David Hag-
-gerston, of Watertown, Mass., as stated by Dr. Harris, in his
Treatise, when speaking of the insect now under consideration.
Mr. Haggerston used it of the strength of two pounds of the soap
_to fifteen gallons of water. The Hon. Lewis Ellsworth, proprie-
tor of the Naperville nursery, and his son, who make the cultiva-
tion of roses a specialty, informed me that they find this article to
_be all sufficient for the purpose of destroying the Rose-slug in
their green-houses and elsewhere, and that they do not find it ne-
_cessary to use more than one pound to fifteen gallons of water.
As it is a very coarse and disagreeably smelling article, it is of
course desirable to use as weak a solution as can be without im-
pairing its effect. It is applied with a water-pot or a yarden
syringe. The whale-oil soap being so effectual, it is not necessary
to resort to other applications.

I will take this opportunity to state, however, that I have ex-
-perimented with the carbolic acid about which so much has been
said as an insect destroyer, by mixing, first, one ounce of the pure
acid to one gallon of water, and afterwards two ounces to the gal-
lon, and applying it to the Rose-slug and to the equally tender
slug of the Pear-leaf, but with very unsatisfactory results. It ap-
pears from my diary, kept at the time, that the Rose-slugs were
only driven temporarily from the leaves, but not killed, even by
the stronger solution, and that the Pear-slugs having been dipped
into it with the leaves to which they were attached, were found
the next day feeding upon the same leaves, unharmed. It is
probably more effectual in the form of carbolic acid soap, but
whether this is any better than the cheaper whale-oil soap, I am
unable to say, from any experience of my own.

There are two broods of these insects in a season; the first usu-
ally making their appearance early in June, and the other in Au-
gust. But if the former be pretty thoroughly exterminated, there
will be little to fear from the late brood.

I hope that the dissemination of this report may prove instru-
mental in calling attention to this subject, and in saving from ut-
ter destruction this favorite flower. If it should be permitted me,
when another June calls the roses to blossom, to revisit the beau-

A—1l11

§2 ROSE-SLUG.

tiful grounds which I have this year seen robbed by the spoiler of
half their beauty, I should deem it a most grateful consummation |
of my labors to see my fair country-women once more smiling |
and hopeful, embowered amidst their roses, and no longer mourn-
ing over their loved and lost, like Rachel, comfortless, or like
Niobe, weeping.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PINE.

THE WHITE PINE LEAF-LOUSE.
( Mytilaspis pinifolia, Fitch. )
Order of HOMOPTERA. Family of Coccip#.
Fitch’s 1st and 2d New York Reports, page 256.

The White Pine (Pinus Strobus of Linnzens, ) is the taliest and
most valuable of our timber trees, and also one of the most highly
valued for ornamental purposes. Unfortunately its balsamic and
pungent qualities afford it no immunity from the attacks of de-
structive insects. Many distinct species and myriads of individu
als find sustenance in its majestic trunk or on its almost innumer-
able leafets.

The species now under consideration appears in the form of
little oblong, white, muscle-shaped scales, one-tenth of an inch in
length, attached to the leaves, and differing but little, except in
color, from the well known scales of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse
of the apple tree. The insect, indeed, though it lives upon the
leaves instead of the bark, belongs to the same family and the
same genus as this last mentioned notorious species. I do not
know that they infest the tree in its native forest, but they are
very injurious to ornamental trees, not only to the White Pine
proper, but also it would seem to a still greater extent, to the va-
riety known as the Gray or Scotch Pine. They sometimes mul-
tiply so as to almost completely whiten the foliage, like a fine
snow storm. They belong to the sucking, as distinguished from
the gnawing division of insects, and impoverish the leaves to a
greater or less extent, by imbibing their sap. The leaves turn
brown and unsightly, and in some cases the whole tree presents a
sickly and decaying aspect. I have noticed that the scales with
which the insect covers itself assumes a different form upon the

84 WHITE PINE LEAF-LOUSE.

two varieties of pine above mentioned. On the narrow leafet of
the White Pine, the scale—or I should specify, for reasons which
will appear hereafter—the female scale, has a slender and linear
form, exactly corresponding to the width of the leaf on which it is
moulded ; but on the broader leaf of the Scotch Pine, where it has
space to expand, it may be supposed to assume its normal shape.
It here often appears almost in the form of an elongated triangle
with its terminal or shorter side rounded. Its generic tendency
to the muscle shape is perceptible only in one of the long sides
being nearly straight and the other a little more arched.

Upon a more critical examination, these scales are seen to be
composed of three parts, one behind the other, gradually increas-
ing in size, and thus marking the successive stages of the insect’s
growth. Mr. Walsh designated these parts, respectively, as the
larval scale, the medial scale, and the anal sack. The French
authors call the large terminal portion the buckler or shield, but
to avoid unnecessary changes I shall, in the present articie, adopt
Mr. Walsh’s names. Besides, the term anal sack expresses more
accurately the composition of this part, it being turned under at
its edges so as to inclose the insect and itseggs. But this inferior
lamina is very thin, and being adherent to the surface of the leaf
it is necessarily ruptured in raising the scale.

The larval scale is of a pale, transparent amber color, and a
flattened, oval form, slightly elevated or carinated along the mid-
dle, with transverse furrows on each side, indicating imperfectly
that division into rings or segments which characterizes all the
annulose animals. The larval scale, as its name implies, is evi-
dently the moulted skin or envelope of the insect in its primitive
or larval state. In retreating from it, the insect leaves all its
members attached to it.

The smal], and scarcely more than rudimental legs, and the
slender anal filaments become obliterated and indistinguishable
as soon as the larva is fixed; but the antennz remain and can
generally be seen attached to the anterior extremity of the scale
after the lapse of a year, and after the insect beneath has passed
through all the phases of its existence.

In leaving its larval envelope, the insect retreats a little upon
the leaf, and at the same time becomes clothed with a new integu-
ment, closely resembling the former, but a tint darker colored,

WHITE PINE LEAF-LOUSE. 85

more opaque, with the segmental divisions less sharply defined,

| and about four times as large; that is, about twice as long and

twice as broad, indicating the corresponding growth of the insect.
This is the medial scale. It is, in reality, the second larval skin,
aud though in the course of a very short time, not exceeding a
day or two, the insect beneath becomes detached from it, as it did
from the first envelope, yet there is a short period when it is evi-
dently a part of the insect itself, and cannot be detached from it
withont violence.

As soon as the medial scale is formed, there begins to appear
from under its posterior edge, a white membraneous border,which
is the commencement of the anal sack. This increases rapidly
day by day, so that in from two to three weeks from the time the
insect hatched from the egg, the growth of the whole scale is com.
pleted. The anal sack, when fully formed, is more than four
times as large as both the former scales combined, by which I
mean, as in the former case, not four times as long, but more
than twice as loug, and considerably more than twice as broad.
It is of a pure milk-white color, beautifully contrasting with the
amber colored larval and medial scales, and rendering this a really
elegant little insect, notwithstanding its pernicious habits and its
opprobrious name.

If we raise the scale at any time during the growth of the anal
sack, we find the soft, wrinkled, memberless body of the insect
itself, apparently wholly detached from the scales above, and at
once suggesting the question, in what manner and from what
source is the growth of the anal sack accomplished. Upon care-
fully examining the insect, however, with a strong magnifier, a
number of fine silken threads can be detected projecting from its
sides and posterior extremity, which were ruptured in the act of
raising the scale, and which formed the connecting tissue between
the insect and the scale above. It must be by means of these
filaments that the anal sack is constructed. What strikes us as
remarkable is, that so comparatively large and rapid a growth
can take place through such sparse and attenuated media. We
see, from this account, that the anal sack is very different in its
nature from the two preceding envelopes, and never, like them,
strictly constitutes a part of the insect itself.

86 WHITE PINE LEAF-LOUSE.

Perhaps a correct idea of the nature of the several envelopes
with which these anomalous insects are invested, may be obtained
by tracing the analogy which exists between them and the succes-
sive integuments of the higher insects, more especially the cater-
pillars or larvee of the nocturnal Lepidoptera. The larval and
medial scales may be considered as analagous to the first and sec-
ond skins of the caterpillar before and after the first moult, the
most important difference between the two successive envelopes
being the increase of size, in order to accommodate the insects’
growth. The anal sack exhibits a remarkable analogy to the
cocoon in which the caterpillar subsequently incloses itself. Nei-
ther is strictly a part of the insect, but is constructed by it solely
as a means of protection. Both are constructed from silken threads
secreted by the insect, with this difference: that the caterpillar
constructs its cocoon with a single thread, secreted through a spin-
aret near the mouth, whilst the Coccus forms the anal sack from a
number of threads produced from pores in the posterior part ot its
body. The analogy seems to fail in that the caterpillar leaves its
cocoon upon arriving at maturity and before depositing the germs
of its future progeny, whilst the Coccus lays her eggs beneath, or
more strictly speaking, within the anal sack. But even here the
analogy is maintained by certain exceptional moths, one of
which, the Tussock-moth (Orgyia lencostigma), never wholly de-
serts her cocoon, but lays her eggs upon the outside of it; and
another, the Basket-worm moth (Zhyridopieryx ephemereformis ,
preserves the analogy still more completely by actually depositing
her eggs within her cocoon.

Such is the view which I have been led to adopt, after an al-
most daily examination of the development of these insects du-
ing the past summer, of the nature and formation of these scales
and their component parts. The whole subject is, at first sight,
abstruse and difficult, and entomologists have held a diversity of
opinions concerning it. Drs. Harris and Fitch, probably from not
having traced the insect through all its stages, thought that the
whole scale was the dried remains of the mother insect. Dr.
Shimer supposed that all the parts of the scale were the results of
successive moultings, and adopted the gratuitous notion that they
are cemented together by the animal’s excrement; and Mr. Walsh,

WHITE PINE LEAF-LOUSE. 87

whilst he corrected the errors of his predecessors, failed himself
to detect the radical difference in the nature of the anal sack as
compared with the larval and medial scales.

We have thus far spoken only of the female insects and their
scales, but in addition to these we find upon the leaves about an
equal number of a much smaller scale, being only one-half as long
and scarcely half as broad; straight, linear, and carinated. This
is the scale of the male insect. It is found, upon examination, to
be composed of only two of the forresboudine parts of the ents
scale, namely, the larval scale and the anal sack, the medial scale,
and that stage of growth indicated by it, being absent. Accord_
ingly it attains its growth in a shorter period than that of the fe-
male, requiring only about ten days for its completion. The
male of this species is deserving of special interest, from the fact
that. this sex, in the more widely known Bark-louse of the apple
tree, has never been discovered. From the similarity of the two
species in all their important characters, so far as they are known,
itis reasonable to assume that the male of the Aspzdiotus (or as it
is now called, Mytilaspis) conchiformis, if it ever be discovered,
will be found to resemble, in all essential characters, the male of
the Mytilaspis of the Pine.

The first sight that I obtained of this interesting insect was on
the 19th of August, when, upon raising a number of the small
linear scales, I detected under one of them a male individual, ina
condition analagous to the pupa state, with its rudimental limbs
lying flatly upon its sides, and with a short, obtuse, and but half
developed style projecting from its anal extremity. On the 23d
of the same month, I saw a fully developed specimen after it had
emerged from its cocoon-like scale, and for two weeks following
this, any number of them could be obtained by inclosing the infes-
ted leaves in a closed bottle.

It will be borne in mind that the minute larvee of this very
anomalous tribe of insects, enjoy but a very brief period of active
life; that they move about over the adjacent leaves and twigs
for a time, rarely exceeding two or three days from the time they
leave the egg, and then fix themselves immovably. At this inci-
pient stage of their existence the two sexes cannot be distinguished
from each other. But as soon as they become fixed and begin to

88 WHITE PINE LEAF-LOUSE.

develop the scales which cover them, they can be distinguished at
a glance by the characteristic differences in their respective scales
which we have described above. The female never afterwards
leaves the scale, but attaches herself to the surface, on which she
rests by means of a slender, hair-like proboscis or sucker, which
we have particularly described in a former article when speaking
of the Apple-tree species. She increases in size in proportion as
she enlarges her protecting shield, and presents the appearance of
a soft, wrinkled, footless, and apparently almost lifeless grub.
She, however, fulfills, infallibly, if she be not interrupted, the few
but paramount laws of her being, attains her normal development,
in due time becomes impregnated, and shortly after deposits her
eggs and perishes. With such unerring certainty does nature con-
duct her operations, in her lower walks, where she reigns supreme.

Fixed immovable to the surface on which she reposes, and hid-
den from view beneath the shadow of her vaulted carapace, but
dimly conscious, we may presume, of some unfilled requirement
of her being, the helpless female Coccus awaits the addreeses of
her unknown and invisible paramour. Nor does she wait in vain.
Of all the countless myriads of these lowly creatures which congre-
gate upon the bark of the apple tree, or whiten with their spotless
phylacteries the foliage of the pine, not one, so far as we know,
fails to be called to enact the offices of maternity. Nature, in the
universality of her providence, takes them in her charge and min-
isters to their necessities, and no unloved or unfruitful virgin is
permitted to languish in the halls of the Coceeda.

At the same time that I was making my observations upon this
insect, my friend, Mr. C. V. Riley of St. Louis, succeeded also in
obtaining the perfected and hitherto unknown male of this speciea.
The engraving at the head of this article, is the one prevared by
Mr. Riley from his specimens, with a copy of which he had the
kindness to furnish me.

The following is a description of the male of this species.

Length, one quarter of a line, or about one fiftieth of an inch. Color, pale red.
Antenne as long as the body, ten jointed, counting as two the stout, basal, indistinctly
bi-articulated joint; the other joints elongate, somewhat equal, except the last which is
a little more than half as long as the preceding, each joint with a number of bristles
more than half its own length. Eyes prominent, black, with comparatively few facets.
The three segments of the thorax well developed. Meso-thorax somewhat elevated above.

|

WHITE-PINE LEAF-LOUSE. 89

the pro-thorax. Scutellum large, sub-quadrate. Last segment of the abdomen abrupt-
ly narrowed and terminating ina straight awl-shaped style, as long as the abdomen,
Wings two, large, lying flat upon the abdomen, and one over-lapping the other in repose,
extending more than half their length beyond the tip of the abdomen; two veins, a sub-
costal vein, parallel with the costa, and extending upwards of two-thirds the length of
the wing, and emitting a branch near the base which runs somewhat parallel with the
posterior margin, and extends more than half the length ofthe wing. Behind the wings
are two poisers, somewhat like those of Dipterous insects, but furnished at their extrem-

ity with a slender hook-like appendage.
Middle and posterior legs approximate, situated far back and remote from the ante-

rior pair. Tibie and tarsi bristly. Tarsi one-jointed but with two slight contractions

which indicate three normal joints consolidated into one. The tarsi terminate in a
bristle-like claw; and in addition to this are four flexible finger-like processes or digituli,

slightly enlarged at their tips.

We have thus far said nothing of the times of hatching of these
insects, nor of their peculiar distribution upon the foliage, upon
the understanding of which their practical treatment wili depend.

Unlike the Bark-louse of the apple tree, this species produces
two broods in a year, and the periods of their hatching are not
sharply defined, both of which circumstances will enhance the
difficulty of reaching them effectively with destructive applications.

One brood, like the single brood of the Apple-species, passes
the winter in the egg state, safely protected under the maternal
scale. These eggs, unlike the white eggs, of the M. conchiformis,
but similar to those of the Harris’s Bark-louse of the apple-tree,
and some other species, are of a blood-red color. Their number
averages considerably less than those of the J/. conchiformis.
These latter, when in good condition, range all the way from
forty to sixty and sometimes more, whilst those of the Pine spe-
ciesy so far as I have observed, do not exceed half the number.
Of a considerable number of scales which I have this day exam-
ined’ ( Nov. 15th), the number of eggs under each varied from
twety to thirty, a good average being twenty five.

I’ did not commence my observations early enough to deter-
mine the precise time in the Spring when this winter clutch of
eggs hatch, but it must be quite early, since by the fourth of July
they have completed their development and have begun to lay
their eggs for the second brood, and by the middle of July the
work of deposition is completed. It is proper to remark here
that the past Summer has been excessively hot and dry, and pro-
bably the dates here given may range somewhat earlier than in
ordinary years. We know that the eggs of the Apple-tree Bark-

wet

90 WHITE-PINE LEAF-LOUSE

louse hatched this year at least ten days earlier than usual. But
all years are sufficiently hot in mid-summer, and all the stages
of these insects are accomplished with great rapidity. By the

30th of July many of the eggs of this second brood had hatched, |

and by the end of the first week of August about half of the eggs
under each scale had hatched, and the young had fixed them-
selves upon the nearest leaflets, many of them settling upon the
same leaflet on which they were hatched.

And now began to be apparent one of the most remarkable pe- ,
culiarities in the history of these singular insects. Up to this |

period—about the seventh of August—nearly or quite all the
eggs that had hatched, and which appeared to have been that

portion of them which had been first deposited, and which conse- ,
quently lay farthest from the insect’s body and nearest the end of ,

the scale, had produced only male insects, clearly indicated by

the development of the small linear scales. After this period, as ,

the remaining eggs gradually hatched, a sprinkling of the broad-
er female scales began to appear; afew mingling with the male

scales upon the same leaflet on which they had hatched, or the |
leaflets next adjacent, but the most of them migrating outwards ,;

upon the young or terminal whorl of leaves, on which no male in-
sect was to be seen. And here remark the wonderful instinct
displayed by these creatures, which are usually considered as oc-
cupying almost the lowest rank in the insect scale. The males,

which will remain attached to the leaf but a short time, and —
which will soon acquire wings with which to transport themselves |
whithersoever they desire, attach themselves indifferently upon ,
the first vacant space they can find, whilst the females, whose |
power of locomotion is limited to the first two or three days of |
their existence, improve this transient period to spread out Wpon |

the terminal foliage where they will find a fresh supply of nutri-
ment, and in this way each succeeding generation comes into ex-
istence where it will find the easiest access to the youngest and
freshest foliage. Amongst the many wonderful provisional in-
stincts of insects, this is by no means the least remarkable. But
wonderful and beautiful as all this is, so far as the insects are con-
cerned, it is precisely that course of procedure which is most
fatal to the tree. The eggs which produce females, and which, as

we have seen, do not begin to hatch till about two weeks later |

—

= =

—= = as

WHITE-PINE LEAF-LOUSE. on

| than the males, continue to hatch in a very gradual manner, some
unhatched eggs being found under the scales all through the
month of August, and as late as the middle of September, at
which time I found a considerable number of scales, with from
two to six unhatched eggs. But before the close of this month,
the females trom the eggs first hatched have completed their de-
velopment, and have begun to deposit their eggs for the next
Spring’s brood. So that there is an almost continuous brood of
these insects throughout these two months. I cannot perceive
what is gained in the economy of this insect by this protracted
hatching of the Summer brood—since the product of this brood
all hybernate in the egg state—unless it be to baftle the opposi-
tion of mankind. For if they had this end expressly in view,
they could not pursue a more effectual course, since it follows that
at whatever time we make our applications for the purpose of des-
troying them, some of them will elude our assaults. If we make
onr applications early, the unhatched eggs wil! be safe beneath
the maternal scale. If we make them later, those first hatched
will have found protection under the scales of their own forma-
tion. The unsatisfactory results of my own experiments go to
confirm this view.

On the 6th of August, that is at about the close of the hatching
of the male-producing eggs, I applied to two branches of a badly
infested tree, a wash, composed of common fish brine, diluted at
the rate of one pint to two gallons of water, and to two other
branches, the same wash, but of double the strength. Again, on
the 23d of August, after the greater proportion of female produc-
ing eggs had hatched, I applied to other branches, soap-suds of
the strength of one gill of soft soap to a gallon of water. I also
wet a branch with water and dusted it thoroughly with unleached
ashes.

Upon examining the leaves upon these several branches, late in
the Fall, I could not perceive much difference in the result of the
different experiments. Upon all of them could be seen, still adhe-
rent, the dead and discolored remains of a considerable number of
small individuals whose development had been arrested whilst in
the incipient larval state, and also a larger number which had at-
tained their normal growth, the washes having failed to reach
them for the reasons above stated. It aid not appear that any of

92 WHITE-PINE LEAF-LOUSE.

these applications had injured the foliage much, if at all; there
being some uncertainty upon the subject, from the fact that the
leaves upon most of these branches had been more or less discol- |
ored by the depredations of the insects. At any rate it was evi- 1
dent that the resinous leaves of the Pine will bear stronger appli- |
cations with impunity, than the foliage of the Apple and other ,
common fruit trees.

The practical conclusion is, that owing to the double-brooded
character of this species, and the protracted manner in which the .
eggs are hatched, no single application of any remedial substance
will suffice, as it does in the case of the common Bark-louse of the
Apple-tree. These applications will have to be made at two dif- |
ferent seasons of the year in order to reach both broods. I have |
not learned at what precise time the Spring brood hatches, but
any one can determine this for himself by examining them from ,
time to time with a simple pocket lens; probably sometime in the ,
month of May. The second brood will require attention, to sim. |
plify the matter as much as possible, once a week through the
month of August.

If soap-suds be used, I would suggest making it, if practicable, »
of the coarse whale-oil soap, which is known to be more destruc.
tive to some species of insects than the common kind. Perhaps ,
throwing air-slacked lime into the trees when the dew is on, would |
prove equally or more effectual. The way to apply washes to a
tree is by means of a garden syringe, which is merely a large syr- /
inge made expressly for such purposes, by having the end perfo- :
rated with many small holes, so as to throw the liquid in the form ,
of a fine shower.

The difficulties which I have just pointed out as lying in the ’
way of any effective counteraction of the depredations of these in- —
sects, on our own part, renders it doubly interesting and impor- |
tant to determine what prospect there may be of their being ex- *
terminated, or effectually held in check by the operation of natu-_
ral agencies. My own observations upon this branch of the sub- |
ject have been very limited in extent, but highly interesting so |
far as they have gone.

First, with regard to the parasitic Chalcidida, I have seen in a :
few of the scales the round clean-cut holes made by these insects, ¢
and under others I have found the oval, pellucid larva, exactly °

WHITE-PINE LEAF-LOUSE. 92

| resembling that found under the scales upon the apple tree. It is
| evident, therefore, that the Pine coccus is subject to the attacks of
| some species of Chalcis fly, though apparently not as yet to any
| great extent.

| Of the shrunken and abortive eggs,so common under the scales
_on the apple tree, and which are supposed to be the work of Acard,
_I have met with no well marked examples in the present species.

_ The most effective agent in the destruction of the Pine coccus,
so far as my observations have extended, is the one which ap-
_ peared to be the least so in the case of Oyster shell species, namely,
the Coccinellidw and their larve. I have seen whole branches
covered with the scales of the Coccus, where scarcely one could be
found that had not been gnawed into and its occupant destroyed
_ by these predaceous insects. Most of this destruction is effected
by them in their larva state, and as these, being wingless, do not
move very rapidly from one part of a tree to another, it is often
observable that one branch will be nearly cleaned by them whilst
an adjoining one will be scarcely touched. The species of Coccin-
ella which I have usually seen on the pine tree is the CAzlocorus
bivulnerus, the small black species with two red dots.

The Coccus of the Pine-tree has long been known to be injurious
to trees cultivated for ornamental purposes, a brief account of it
having been published by Dr. Fitch, as long ago as the year 1856,
from specimens sent to him from trees growing in the yard of S.
Francis, Esq., in the city of Springfield, in this State; and I saw,
last summer, many valuable ornamental trees in that city almost
ruined by what we may presume to be the lineal descendants of
those identical Pine-tree parasites, and as little or nothing has been
done to counteract their ravages, the only reason we know why
they have not spread more extensively, and effected still greater
mischief, is that they have been held in partial check by such nat-
ural enemies as those which we have just enumerated.

The present article has grown under my pen beyond the limits
I contemplated, but I have not seemed to be able to state in any
briefer manner the history of my observations respecting the in-
teresting insect which is the subject of it. Besides I consider the
history of one species, thoroughly elucidated, of greater value than
many brief and imperfect sketches ; for this reason especially, that
every insect may be taken to a certain extent as a type of its ge-

94 WHITE-PINE LEAF LOUSE.

nus and family, and to this extent, the history of one is the history
of all.

In treating of the two species of Coccide included in this report,
the Mytilaspis conchiformis, and the I. pinifolie, I have intended
to dwell more fully upon those points in their common structure
and history in the one article, which I have touched upon the more
lightly in the other, so that the two articles combined, and both
taken in connection with the results of the labors of my predeces-
sors in the same field of investigation, might present a comprehen-
sive view of the subject, not perfect indeed, but somewhat approx-
imatirg to completeness.

{ have mentioned, a few pages back, the wonderful instincts of
the Coccus of the Pine, which prompts the female insects to im-
prove the short period of their active existence, to migrate out-.
wards upon the terminal foliage, where they and the generation
succeeding them will find themselves in the midst of the greenest
and freshest forage, whilst the males which are to acquire wings,
and the consequent power of locomotion, fix themselves indiffer-
ently upon the first vacant space that offers; thus indicating a
kind of prophetic vision utterly beyond any reach of intelligence
which we can reasonably attribute to beings so low in the acale of
creation. The student of entomology is continually meeting with
instances of this kind, which arrest his attention and excite his
wonder, and which baffle his utmost ingenuity to explain.

Permit me, by way of conclusion, to refer briefly to a few of
these instances, not merely as marvellous stories, intended to ex-
cite the curiosity of children, but as remarkable facts in nature,
fraught, it may be, with a profound significance.

It is the common instinct of insects which are wood-borers in
their larva state, but which have no such power in their subse-
quent stages, to gnaw their way to the surface of the tree before
they stop feeding, so that they can emerge without obstruction
after they shall have completed their transformations.

The Plum-gouger (Anthronomus prunicida), whose history
was so carefully traced by my predecessor, Mr. Walsh, and which
in its larval period occupies not the flesh but the kernel of the
plum, when it has completed its growth and is ready to trans-
form in the kernel, takes the precaution to gnaw a round hole in
the shell, through which it may subsequently emerge. If it did

WHITE-PINE LEAF-LOUSE. 95

‘not do so it would be fatally imprisoned, in its future beetle state,
within the mature and hardened shell, an event which the Gouger
carefully guards against, though the horticulturist might regard it
as a consummation devoutly to be wished.

The Dissipus-butterfly (Vymphalis distppus, Gdt. ) an interest-
‘ing account of which is given by Mr. Riley, in the first volume of
the American Entomologist, lives in its caterpillar state, on differ-
ent kinds of willow. In this state it passes the winter, inclosed
‘in a willow leaf, rolled into a cylindrical case. But as the leaf
would fall like the rest, when touched by frost, or be blown away
by the wind, the insect fastens its footstalk with silken threads to
the branch on which it grows, and thus securely rides through the
frosts and storms of winter.

The larvee of a beautiful East Indian butterfly, the Zhecla Iso-
crates, live in companies of half-a-dozen or more, in the fruit of the
pomegranate, and there also pass the pupa state. But before
changing to chrysalids, each larva cuts a round hole in the rind,

‘through which the future butterfly, which itself has no teeth, but
only a slender flexible proboscis, may be able to escape, and as the
worm-eaten fruit would be likely to fall prematurely to the ground
the larvee crawl out and make the stem fast to the tree with their
web and then return and go through their transformations.

Those moths whose larve or caterpillars are leaf eaters, always
lay their eggs upon that kind of plant or tree upon which it is the
nature of their future progeny to subsist, though they have no
other relation to the tree, and though the eggs do not usually hatch
till after the death of the parent, and sometimes not till the follow-
ing year.

Many kinds of wasps exhibit a wonderful provisional instinct.
The female wasp burrows into the ground or sometimes into rotten
wood, constructs a cell at the bottom of the cavity and there de-
posits her eggs. She then carries in insects which may serve as
food for her future progeny. Some species take the additional pre-
caution to disable but not kill the insects thus provided, so that
her young may find themselves provided with fresh provisions.
Having completed her task she closes the hole, and never again
re-visits it, but shortly after perishes.

Now are we to understand that these insects are really endowed
with a prophetic vision? Do they know what will be their own

96 WHITE-PINE LEAF-LOUSE.

condition the next month or the next year, or what will be the!
future necessities of their offspring which perhaps are yet unborn? #
We are hardly prepared to attribute to them such superhuman in-
telligenve. If they do not know, then what is it that prompts §
them to take such wise and far-reaching precautions? Who will §
answer? I ask the question, but I shall hear no response, for
there is no earthly intelligence which can solve the mystery.

I can conceive of the formation of a planet, by the condensation
of nebulous matter, in obedience to the law of gravitation. I can
form some idea, however unsatisfactory, of the development of or-
ganic bodies by the operation of physical laws, responsive to the
impressions of surrounding .circumstances. But that an insect @
which was born yesterday, and which will die to-morrow, can,
without the invocation of a wisdom superiors to her own, adopt a
systematic course of conduct having for its object the safety and
welfare of her future progeny, which will not spring into active
existence till long after she herself shall have perished,—this, it
passes the bounds of my imagination to conceive.

It is said that Galen was converted from Atheism by the con-
templation of the human skeleton; but I confess that nothing has
so strongly impressed upon my own mind the presence of an all-
pervading intelligence in nature, as the wonderful prophetic in-
stincts of insects.

ON THE

|
:
|
)

NOXIOUS INSECTS}

OF THE

STATE OF ILLINOIS.

BY WILLIAM LeBARON, M. D.,

STATE ENTOMOLOGIST.

Sie SPRINGFIELD
ILLINOIS JOURNAL PRINTING OFFICE
1872.

| SECOND ANNUAL REPORT

ON THE

Meo: INSECTS

SBrATE OF ILLINOIS:

BY WILLIAM LeBARON, M. D.,

STATE ENTOMOLOGIST.

SPRINGFIELD :
ILLINOIS JOURNAL PRINTING OFFICE.
1872.

INTRODUCTION.

[Second Report.]

To His Excettency, Joun M. Parmer,

Governor of the State of Illinois :
_ Srr—I herewith transmit my second annual report upon the Noxious
Insects of Illinois.
A few words are necessary, by way of introduction and explanation.
It is perhaps generally known to those who take an interest in such
matters that the whole of the first edition of the first annual report,
—comprising five thousand copies—was burnt, in company with other
state documents, in the public bindery, at Springfield, on the 23d of
‘February, 1871. Near the close of its session, the General Assembly
‘erdered the reprint of a part of these documents, and amongst others,
‘the report of the State Entomologist. This reprint was made in the
'month of August, from a single copy, which was the only one that hap-
pened to be preserved, the manuscript also having been mislaid and
‘lost. The printing was done without the supervision of the author,
and though for the most part correct, a considerable number of slight
verbal errors were overlooked which, so far as they have been detected,
have been corrected under the head of errata, at the end of this re-
‘port.
| In the introduction to that report I stated my intention, as soon as
ithe work of preparing it was off my hands, to devote my time for the
\remainder of the winter, to assorting and labeling the duplicates in the
‘Walsh collection and my own, with the view of furnishing a suite of
the insects of the State for the Industrial University, in compliance
with one of the requirements of the law by which the office of State
Entomologist was created. Accordingly, the greater part of the win-
‘ter was devoted to this work, and the labeling of the specimens in the
two most extensive Orders—the Coleoptera and the Lepidoptera—was
‘completed. It was my intention to go through with the other Orders

98 INTRODUCTION.

in the course of the winter of 1871 and 1872, so as to have a tolerably
full suite of the insects of the State, in all the Orders, ready to be
transmitted to the Industrial University in the spring of 1872. But
the element. of fire, which is so terrible when beyond the reach of hu-
man control, has again thwarted my designs. The great conflagration
which laid the city of Chicago in ashes, included in its fatal embrace,
amongst many other fine buildings which were supposed to be fire-
proof, the Chicago Academy of Sciences, which contained the most val-
—uable scientific treasures of the West, and amongst them, the exten-
sive collection of insects known as the Walsh Cabinet. When we con-
sider the many years which that indefatigable entomologist had devo-
ted to tne, accumulation of this collection, and still more when we take
into view the scientific research and the extensive correspondence and
exchanges, by which he had succeeded in attaching to almost every
specimen its correct scientific name, thus making it a standard of ret-
erence, not only for the entomologists of this State but of the country
generally—it is a difficult task for the lover of this science to reconcile
himself to this almost irreparable loss. It is a source of some conso-
lation that the greater part of the duplicates of Coleoptera and Lepi-
doptera, which had been prepared for the Industrial University, had
not been returned to the academy, and therefore escaped the flames.
I had also at my residence two large drawers of the original cabinet,
containing the families Staphylinide, Histeride, Nitidulidwe, Chryso-
melide and Coccinellidew, making, in connection with the duplicates,
something like a tenth part of the whole collection.

It will be observed that the pageing of this report is made continuous
with that of the preceding one. The object of this is to facilitate in-
dexing when a number of these reports shall be bound together in one
volume. ‘

I am indebted in this, as in the former report, to Mr. C. V. Riley,
for the figures which .iastrate it, with the exception of those of the
two Willow insects, which were engraved by Baker & Co., of Chica-
go, and the bug-catching machine, at the end of the volume, which
was engraved at the office of the Prairie Farmer.

I have again to express my thanks to the managers of the leading
railroads of the State for free passes over these great thoroughfares.

Respectfully submitted.
Geneva, December, 1871. WILLIAM LEBARON,
State Entomologist.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE,

Explanation of figures.—a, the eggs; 6, the eggs magnified; ¢, the Canker-worm or larva; d, the
@ecoon; ¢, the pupa; f, the male moth; g, the female.

THE CANKER-WORM.
( Antsopteryx vernata, Peck. )
Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of Gromutripa.
Harris’s Treatise, (Ed. 1862) page 461; Riley’s 2d Rep., p. 94.

Amongst the many kinds of insects which are injurious to mankind
a comparatively small number have been so extensively destructive,
and have become so generally known, that they might be appropri-
ately called, by way of distinction, first-class noxious insects.

In order to be entitled to this bad preéminence, an insect must pos-
sess a certain number and degree of obnoxious gualities. In the first
place it must depredate upon some one of the mere valuable produe-
tions of the soil upon which mankind depend for subsistence and
profit. In the next place it must be sufticiently numerous to attract
general notice, and to demand the most prompt and energetic measures
for its suppression. And, thirdly, it must extend over a suflicient area
of country to make itself felt, not only upon individual welfare, but
also upon the commercial interests of the country.

Tried by these tests but very few of the many insects treated of in
our Reports and Treatises upon noxious insects, can be admitted into
this primary class; and of these some would enter without question,
whilst the claim of others would be regarded as debatable. Amongst

100 OANKER-WORM.

the insects which take this rank without doubt or question, may be
mentioned the Hessian-fly, the Chinch-bug, the Oyster-shell Bark-louse,
the Plum-curculio, the Codling-moth, the Colorado Potato-beetle, and
lastly, the notorious Canker-worm, which is the subject of the present
article.

Whilst it is important to examine, describe and name all the species
of noxious insects, partly for the convenience of reference, and partly
because we do not know how destructive any one of them may here-
after become, yet it is chiefly by the continued and repeated investi-
gation of the most notorious and destructive species, and the record of
every fact and experiment which may throw light upon their history
and the most effective means of combatting them that the entomologist
can expect to render an essential service to the farmer and the horticul-
turist.

With this end in view, having had a good opportunity to observe the
Canker-worm and the moth which produces it, during the past season,
I determined to submit the habits of this notorious and long known
insect, to a renewed and careful scrutiny. J am in hopes that the ob-
servations and experiments here recorded will enable us hereafter to
combat this destructive insect more successfully than we have hereto-
fore done.

ITS HISTORY.

The Canker-worm is a native American species, and is one of the
longest known of our noxious insects. The earliest record of its his-
tory that | have met with is printed upon a discolored scrap of an old
book, the title of which is lost, which was sent to me by Mr. Jonathan
Huggins, of Macoupin county. As the extract is brief and is worth
preserving on account of its antiquity, I here transcribe it:

*“* CANKER-WorMs.—lIn the year 1789, the Rev. John Cushing, of the
county of Worcester (Mass.), communicated to the Academy of Arts
and Sciences, a method to destroy Canker-worms in the egg. It is as
follows: In autumn, before the ground be frozen, take an iron bar and
make a number of holes under each tree, near the body; thrown in a
few kernels of corn into each; let in swine; and they will root the
ground over and over, which will not only so disturb the eggs deposit-
ed in the ground as to destroy them, but it will be very salutary to the
trees. Nothing is better to make apple-trees flourish than to have hogs
turn up the ground under them.

“This method (added Mr. Cushing) I had from Mr. Edward Ray-
mond, of Sterling, who has tried it with success.”

|

CANKER-WORM. 101

The practical advice given in this extract is by ne means devoid of
walue, but the writer has fallen into the error of mistaking the chrysa-
lids of the insect for its eggs.

But, like other widely spread noxious insects, the Canker-worm has
had its seasons ef increase and decrease. It was very abundant in
Massachusetts seventy years ago; subsequently it became almost un-
known in that State for many years. It is said to have disappeared
after a very heavy frost in the month of June which killed the cater-
pillars. But this is hardly probable of so hardy an insect as the Canker-
worm. They appear to have been numerous in the vicinity of Boston
in the year 1840, and several preceding years; but Dr. Harris states
that from 1841 to 1847 they almost disappeared from that section, but
that they rapidly increased again after the last. mentioned date.

It is remarkable that several of our noxious insects which are most
destitute of the means of locomotion, have become the most widely
spread over the country. ‘This is the case with the Oyster-shell Bark-
louse, the White-spotted Tussock-moth, and the Canker-worm, in
all of which the female is destitute of wings. The Canker-worm ap-
pears to have been first known as a noxious insect in New Eng-
land, but it has now become spread over all the northern and western
States, as far west as Lowa, and as far south as Missouri. I have received
the past season, accounts of serious damage by them from Clinton,
Wisconsin, and DuQuoin in the southern part of Illinois, and from
several intermediate places. Reports of their injuries have also been
communicated to the Department of Agriculture at Waehington from
Norfolk county, Massachusetts; from several counties in Ohio, and
from Jefferson county in Iowa. In these communications they are
sometimes designated as the Measuring-worm, and sometimes as the
Black span-worm. But, as might be expected from the wingless char-
acter of the females, their distribution is very unequal and apparently
arbitrary, a common road sometimes serving for years as a barrier be-
tween a free and an infested orchard.

DESCRIPTION.

The general appearance of this inseet, in its several stages, is suffi-
ciently obvious in the figures at the head of this article. They are ofa
pale gray eolor, and have no conspicuous markings. The wings of the
male are of a very thin and flexible texture, and are usuaily seen more or
less denuded of their scales. The females, as already stated, are wing-
ieas. They vary in length from two to five-tenths of an inch. Their

102 CANKER-WORM.

gray color is produced by short black hairs and scales, on a whitish
ground. The thorax is hoary, usually with a distinct transverse black
line or narrow band. Some individuals have a distinct black dorsal
stripe extending the length of the body, but this is usually interrupted,
and often obsolete or wanting. Their general color is so similar to that
of the bark of the apple tree that they are easily overlooked, when not
in motion. The proboscis is obsolete in both sexes; and these insects
take no food in their imago state.

THE NATURAL HISTORY

of these insects may be briefly stated as follows: The female de-
posits her eggs upon various trees, but mostly upon the apple-tree
and the elm. These eggs hatch in the latter part of April or beginning
of May, or at about the time of the flowering of the red eurrant—the
time varying a week or two, according to latitude and the charaeter of
the season. The caterpillars feed upon the foliage, and are often so
numerous as to defoliate whole orchards of apple-trees or whole parks
of elms. They attain their full growth in about one month, when they
let themselves down by a thread, and burrow from two to six inches
into the ground. Here they assume the chrysalis state, and remain,
with a few exceptions, through the winter and until the first mild
weather of spring releases them, by removing the snow and frost from
the surface. They immediately make their way to the nearest tree,
and crawl up its trunk. The winged males are now seen fluttering
about the wingless females, and, after pairing, the females deposit their
eggs and perish, thus completing the circle of their existence.

RECORD oF 1871.

I will introduce the practical treatment of this subject by a condensed
record of my observations upon this insect, during the spring and sum-
mer of 1571. Such records, if carefully made, often pc-ssess an intrin-
sic value, inasmuch as they present the actual facts and observations
upon which the opinions of the author are founded, and from which
others also can draw their own inferences, and we sometimes find it
convenient to refer to them for purpeses which the author did not eon-
template.

In the summer of 1870 my attention was ealled to a small orchard
of apple trees, within less than a mile from my residence, which had
been stript of its leaves by some kind of caterpillar. Upon visiting it I
found the trees nearly bare of foliage, but not an insect could be found.
They had done their work of destruction and disappeared. I had no

CANKER-WORM. 103

doubt that the Canker-worm had been the agent of the mischief, though
I had never happened to have an opportunity to observe the habits of
this insect where it prevailed to so large an extent.

The winter of 1870-71 was equable and mild. There was an unusual
fall of snow for this section of the country, and the ground was not
deeply frozen. The first week of March was remarkably warm, and
the remnant of snow disappeared, except where it had been deeply
drifted.

Calling the canker-worms to mind, I suspected tha: under these cir-
cumstances the moths would be moving early in the season.

March 7.—Upon visiting the infested orchard late in the afternoon,
I found many of the male moths flying about the trunks of the trees
and alighting upon them. Nota female was, as yet, to be seen. But
upon looking amongst the dead grass and leaves at the foot of the trees,
I found a considerable number of the wingless females, inactive and
apparently torpid.

Remaining in the orchard till it began to get dark, I noticed a
striking increase in the activity ef the moths of both sexes, The females
could now be seen emerging from their concealment, and crawling
eagerly up the trunks of the nearest trees attended by, and often paired
with, their fluttering mates. Visiting the orchard again the same
evening after nine o’clock, with a lantern, I found the moths still tra-
veling up the trunks of the trees and out upon the larger branches,
but there did not seem to be that universal and restless activity which
prevailed earlier in the evening. From this and subsequent cbserva-
tions, I conclude that these insects are crepuscular in their habits,
rather than strictly nocturnal.

March 8.—Visited the orchard in the forenoon. Only here and
there a solitary moth could be seen. But upon looking under the dead
leaves and grass around the foot of the trees, and under the loose bark
on the trunk and larger branches, the insects of both sexes, but espe-
cially the wingless females, were found, often crowded together torpid
and motionless, and waiting for the return of night to resume their
activity. Fifteen or twenty insects could be sometimes counted under
one of the larger scales.

March 9.—Yesterday afternoon there occurred a violent thunder-
storm with occasional heavy showers, which settled into a steady rain
in the evening, and continued till near midnight. It grew cold in the
night, and to-day there has been a sprinkling of snow. I was curious
to see how so sudden and severe a change of the weather had affected

104 CANKER-WORM.

the Canker-worm moths, especially as most of them were not so pro-
tected, but that they must have been frequently drenched with cold
rain. I could not find that any of them were seriously damaged, but
only rendered a little more torpid for the time being.

March 10.—Rather cold and windy. Mercury at 45°. Visited the
orchard and remained till after six o’clock in the evening. Very few
moths moving; examined the ends of the lower branches of several
trees, but did not see more than a dozen moths in all, and these had
uniformly stationed themselves in the little crotches formed by the
forks of the smaller branches or twigs.

March 11.—Caught a male flying near my house more than half a
mile from the infested orchard, just before dark. Evening calm, mer-
cury at 40°. Visited the orchard after dark with a lantern, and
found the trees quite animated again with the ascending moths, many
of them in pairs. Many were now seen making their way out upon
the limbs of the trees, but seemed generally to stop short of the small
branches.

March 13.—Examined the infested trees with the special view of de-
termining where the eggs are deposited. Found many clusters of eggs
attached to the under side of loose scales of bark on the trunk and
branches; never close to the ground; sometimes, but rarely, only a
few inches above it, but becoming more numerous towards the upper
part of the trunk, and still more so upon the large branches. Found
no eggs on the smooth branches or twigs, except where some accidental
protection could be obtained. I detected some of the eggs concealed in
the tufts of dead leaves produced by the Leaf-crumpler or larva of the
Phycita nebulo; and upon further examination found that in almost
every instance these tufts had been made use of by the Canker-worm
moth as a depository for her eggs. In some cases the open ends of the
last year’s cones were found crammed full of eggs.

At this date | commenced a series of experiments with the view of
preventing the ascent of the female moths, by putting around the trees
bands of hay, rope and tin, which will be described more fully in the
sequel.

March 15.—Very warm and showery. Mercury at 70°. Went out
to the orchard just as it was getting dark and remained over an hour.
I had never seen the moths so abundant. The trunks of the trees
were alive with thousands of ascending moths. Indeed, the ascent of
the Canker-worm moths, at the hight of their season, in a badly infested
orchard, presents a most curious and animated spectacle. As evening

CANKER-WORM. 105

approaches a few straggling moths may be seen issuing from the dead
grass around the foot of the tree, or from under the scales of bark where
they have found shelter during the day. But as the darkness deepens
the activity becomes general, and soon the trunks of the trees become
alive with the multitudes of ascending moths of both sexes; the wing-
less females eagerly making their way up the trunk, attended by flocks
of the winged males. Sometimes a female will be wholly hidden from
sight under two or three superincumbent males, and her presence is
only known by the steady upward progress of the fluttering mass, as
she presses onward up the steep ascent, though burthened within and
encumbered without, scarcely pausing for love’s dalliance by the way,
but dragging her partner along with her, urged by an irresistible im-
pulse toward the accomplishment of the one grand purpose of her
being: the deposition of the germs of her future progeny on the
branches above, where her young, as soon as they are hatched, will be
in the midst of their appropriate food.

March 16.—Weather much changed ; but little above freezing ; raw
and misty. Examined the moths at dark, but only one here and there
could be seen moving.

March 17.—Evening clear and cool. Mercury at 44°. Moths mov-
ing in considerable numbers, and upon those trees where bands of tin
and hay had been put around the trunks, many moths were found con-
gregated below the obstructions.

March 25.—Since the last date the weather has been very cold for
the season, freezing at night and moderating but little by day. Ihave
visited the orchard but once, and that in the day time. This evening,
the weather having moderated, mercury at 43°, cloudy, wind east, I
went out to the infested orchard an hour after dark. Moths still run-
ning, but noticed mostly below the obstructing bands.

April 7—Weather since last date rather cold for the season. I have
examined the moths a few times, but no observations of importance
have been made. To-day has been very warm, mercury up to 80°;
visited the orchard an hour after dark; counted thirty moths on one
tree below the band; examined other trees upen which there was no
obstruction. Upon only one of them a few moths were found moving,
just enough to show that some stragglers continue to ascend the trees
as late as the first week of April.

NUMBER OF EGGS AND PLACE OF DEPOSIT.

The female Canker-worm moths differ much in size, varying as we
have stated from two to five-tenths of an inch in length, and the num-

106 CANKER-WORM.

ber of eggs laid by each ‘individual varies accordingly. I have found
in the smallest moths only fifteen or twenty eggs, whilst the largest
contain from one hundred and forty to one hundred and fifty.

As the season for laying the eggs is now past, I have made a num-
ber of examinations with the view of determining definitely where
the eggs are deposited. Whilst the moth of the Tent-caterpillar
covers her eggs with a water proof varnish and deposits them on the
exposed twigs, the Canker-worm moth does not so protect her eggs,
and only secretes enough of a glutinous fluid to stick the eggs to
the bark. She therefore always seeks some other protection, and
this is furnished almost exclusively by the loose scales of bark. In ac-
cordance with this statement no eggs are found on the twigs or the
small smooth branches. Dr. Harris states that the eggs are deposited
“in the forks of the small branches, or close to the young twigs and
buds.” But I must conclude that Dr. Harris did not make this state-
ment from his own observation. I have recorded above that in cold or
stormy weather the female moth, after she has ascended the tree, and
passed out upon the branches, often seeks the slight and only available
shelter afforded by the forks of the twigs, and it was natural to expect
that she would deposit her eggs there. But if she ever so deposits
them, it must be very rarely and exceptionably. After a diligent
search with the aid of a lens on several different occasions, upon
heavily infested trees, I have never succeeded in finding any of the
eggs in this situation, nor elsewhere than under the scales of bark, with
the solitary exception, above referred to, of the protection afforded by
the crumpled leaves and cones of the Phycita nebulo.*

A corroboration of this view is furnished by a remark of my corres-
pondent, Mr. J. Tinker of Wisconsin, who, speaking of these insects,
which have been very destructive upon his place, incidentally remarks,
“They do not bother small, smooth barked trees, either in the nursery
or orchard.”” I may here add that, in a subsequent letter, Mr. Tinker
stated that he had found the eggs of this insect in the dried apples
which had adhered to the tree through the winter.

* An interesting instance of this habit of the Canker-worm moth was communicated to me
by Mr. Elmer Baldwin. He stated that at one time his orchard became infested by these in-
sects, and that at the same time the Leaf-crumplers were very numerous and troublesome, and
that the moths availed themselves of the shelter thus afforded for the deposition of their eggs,
to such an extent, that he regarded it as one of his most efficient modes of getting rid of the
Canker-worms, to gather and destroy the crumpled nests of the Phycite—thus destroying two
noxious insects by the same operation,

CANKER-WORM. 107

I have already referred to the fact that the moths deposit their eggs
almost exclusively upon the inner surface of the loose scales of bark,
and not upon the body of the tree. Why they should always attach
their eggs to the dead bark over them, rather than to the smooth living
bark under them, it is difficult to conjecture, but that tney do se puts
them, to a greas extent, at our mercy. For it is evident that by scra-
ping off the dead bark on the trunk and branches, any time between
the laying and the hatching of the eggs, so large a proportion of the
eggs will be destroyed that the comparatively few which may escape
will not be numerous enough to effect any serious amount of damage.
The bark and eggs thus scraped off should always he caught upon a
sheet or a number of newspapers, and burned.

RECORD CONTINUED.—TIME OF HATCHING.

April 27.—About a week ago I saw a few young Canker-worms on
the trees, but they were evidently premature stragglers, as the foliage
had then scarcely begun to open. But to-day, the red currant being in
pretty full bloom, and the leaves on some of the apple trees being half
expanded, I found almost every tuft of leaves which I examined occu-
pied by two or three minute Canker-worms.

May 11.—Canker-worms not injured by frost. The first part of May,
since the Canker-worms hatched, has been cold and rainy, and on Fri-
day the fifth, there was a sprinkling of snow, and water froze at night.

Visited the Canker-worms to-day and found them in good condition.
The cold weather had, at most, only checked their growth a little. The
worms vary much in size, implying that the eggs do not all hatch at
once. Many of them are now three-tenths of an inch long. Noticed
the ease with which they are jarred from the trees. <A slight rap upon
a branch will let off a shower of them, all hanging by their threads.
I tried the plan of sweeping them away by passing a pole horizontally
under the tree. It is evident that a vast number of them can be swept
off in this way, and could be destroyed by having a brush fire at some
one or more convenient points, over which the pole could be held for
a few minutes.

APPROPRIATENESS OF NAME.

May 23.—Whilst looking at the apple trees blasted by this insect, I
was struck with the appropriateness of their popular name of Canker-
worm. By eating numerous irregular holes through the leaves, they
interrupt the flow of sap, so that the leaf becomes withered and brown
before it is wholly eaten, and the tree presents the appearance of having
been scortched by fire.

108 CANKER-WORM.

MODE OF MIGRATING.

May 24.—Most of the worms nearly full grown, but others only half
grown. Many worms are leaving the defoliated trees by hanging down
upon their threads and trusting to the wind to swing them on to the
neighboring trees. When the wind blows freshly, the worms are car-
ried off nearly horizontally to a distance of many feet. 1 saw some
to-day floating thirty feet from the tree. As the web by which they
are suspended is scarcely visible, the worms often have the appearance
of flying in the air. At the same time I could find very few worms on
the trunk, showing that their normal way of migrating is not by crawl-
ing down the tree but by floating off on threads.

DIURNAL IN THEIR HABITS.

Whilst the parent moths are noctural or crepuscular, the larve are
diurnal in their habits. They are seen feeding and migrating by day,
and, having put twenty or more of them in a breeding cage, and exam-
ined them for a succession of nights, I always found them stationary
en the leaves, and often standing off in horizontal or grotesque aitti-
tudes.

PRACTICAL TREATMENT.

I will now give a condensed statement of a series of experiments
which I instituted, with the view ef accomplishing the end so long
sought for in combatting this insect, namely: the preventing the female
moths from ascending the tree. As these females are destitute of
wings, they cannot, like most other insects, fly upon the trees, but are
under the necessity of crawling up the trunk, in order to deposit their
eggs upon the branches above. To prevent her so doing has been the
study of gardeners, fruit growers and amateurs for the greater part of a
century, and yet no contrivance and no application, at once simple,
cheap and effective, has ever been suggested. In the struggle for ex-
istence between man and the Canker-worm, the latter has thus far come
off victorious. Many expedients have been resorted to. A leaden
trough fitted around the trunk, and filled with oil, has been found the
must effective, and might be used to preserve a few choice trees; but
it requires considerable attention to keep it in order, and it is altogether
too expensive for general use. The most common and generally ap-
proved method has been the application of a band of cloth around the
tree, besmeared with some adhesive substance, which will entangle the
feet of the ascending moths and hold them captive. For this purpose

CANKER WORM. 109

tar has generally been used as most available and effective. But this
method is very troublesome and unsatisfactory, when attempted to be
used upon any considerable scale. The tar dries rapidly in the air,
and has to be renewed as often as every other day ; and when we con-
sider that the moths sometimes commence running in the fall, and con-
tinue to do so on mild days in winter and all through the month of
March, we can see that the remedy demands too much time and atten-
tion to be practiced in large orchards.

Mr. Walsh, in an article upon this subject in the “Practical Ento-
mologist,”’ assuming that, in order to make this remedy successful, it
may be necessary to renew the tar every day from the last of October
to the middle of May, with the exception of cold days in the dead of
winter, so as to intercept not only the moths but also the young cater-
pillars that might hateh below the obstruction, goes into a calculation
to show that, even at this rate, it would pay the cost, if by so doing we
can save our crop of apples. Ido not qnestion his calculation as a
matter of dollars and cents, but it is utterly useless, as a general princi-
ple, to recommend remedies against noxious insects which will require
daily thought and attention for six months in the year, or any consider-
able fraction of that period. Abundant experience shows that people in
general will not persevere in fighting noxious insects if the contest re-
quires any considerable expenditure of time, thought or money. Many
of them will sooner adopt the heroic treatment formerly recommended
by the editor of the “New England Farmer” to the Michigan State
Agricultural Society, namely : to cut down the infested trees for fire-
wood, or leave them to die a natural death, and turn their attention to
some less troublesome means of procuring a livelihood.

At about the time of commencing my observations upon the Canker-
worm moth, in the spring, I received a letter from Mr. John Tinker,
of Clinton, Wisconsin, to whom I have before had occasion to refer,
asking for information how to fight the Canker-worm. I immediately
entered into a correspondence with him, and derived some interesting
information, drawn from his extensive experience with this destructive
insect. Mr. Tinker states that apple-trees will perish after having been
defoliated three years in succession. With respect to the orchard in
which I have made my observations, ‘I have learned that the Canker-
worms first made their appearance in it four years ago, and now some
of the trees are dead and others are in a dying condition. Mr. Tinker
went extensively into the tarring process, and, at my suggestion, used a
mixture of molasses with the tar, which he found would spread easier
and retain its fluidity longer.

110 OANKER WORM.

Mr. Tinker continues: “On account of the coldness of the weather
I have had to set a tin of tar mixture in a pail, and fill the space with
hot water, to make it fluid, so as to apply it with an old paint brush.
My man an1 I run off one thousand trees this afternoon, in four hours
—second coat. The first coat takes longer. Amount of material used
for one thousand trees, averaging six inches in diameter, from three to
four gallons. The first coat takes about five gallons.”

In a former letter Mr. Tinker says: “Your letters of the 7th and 9th
are received. I got my tar on the 9th, and have been into the tar and
moths knee-deep since; have caught enough already to fence the farm,
but whether I shall succeed in catching the rest remains to be seen. I
have observed the same as you have: that they run at night, even with
the thermometer at eight degrees below freezing.” I have not myself |
had an opportunity to see them moving at so low a temperature, but
the above record shows that they will run on quite cold nights, provi-
ded it be not stormy.

Later in the year, after the Canker-worm season was past, I wrote to
Mr. Tinker, inquiring the result of his experiments with tar. The fol-
lowing extract give the substance of his reply: “My efforts held the
Canker-worms somewhat in check, still they stripped a good many
trees; but they left so early, and the trees growing fast, they have had
a good growth of wood since. But the tar must be put on every after-
noon, and the moths run this year nearly a month.” He adds, sub-
stantially, that unless some plan can be invented that requires less
labor and looking after, he is satisfied that human effort will not exter-

minate them. |
Other substances, which do not harden so rapidly, have been tried |

as substitutes for tar. Some have used melted India rubber, and print-

ers’ ink has been recently recommended in the ‘Boston Journal of ff.

Chemistry.” But the practical objection to all such applications is, |
that they have to be kept fresh not only through the whole month of |
March and a part of April, but also in open weather, in the late fall
and winter. And Mr. Tinker’s experience, like that of thousands who
have preceded him, shows that such remedies are at best but partial
and unsatisfactory. |
Ir having been noticed that the Canker-worm moths climb with dif-
ficulty over a hard smooth surface, attempts have been made to inter-
cept their progress by surrounding the trunks of the trees with strips |
of glass and bands of polished tin. I have repeated these experiments
and find them, like many of the other methods that have been resor. |
ted to, a partial but not complete preventive. If a moth be placed |

eo —tiiasOtisiCiswS

CANKER-WORM. 111

upon her back on a piece of glass, she cannot get sufficient foot-hold to
turn over, and I experimented for some time with them before I saw
any of them succeed in crawling up a perpendicular glass surface. But
1 found that they can do so, though with difficulty, and they sometimes
drop off in the attempt. They adhere to smooth surfaces in the same
way that the house-fly does, that is, by means of a little adhesive pad
(plantula,) situated between the claws at the extremity of the feet,
but with this difference, that the moth has but one pad to each foot,
and the fly has two, and the brush of hairs upon the under side of the
pad is more dense in the fly.

In the course of my experiments I made the following observations,
which seem to furnish the key to a practically complete control of this
notorious insect. I first tried the experiment of putting round the
trunk of one of the infested trees a plain tin band four inches wide.
The result is thus recorded in my diary:

March 13.—Went out at eight o’clock with a lantern to see how the
experiment worked. Mereury at 34°. The moths were ascending in
considerable numbers. There was a dense crowd of moths all around
the tree just below the tin band. A considerable number had crawled
on to it, but most of these seemed to be merely holding on without
much disposition to pass overit. They were evidently baulked in their
instincts. I occasionally saw one drop to the ground. A very small
proportion had traveled over on to the tree above.

March 15.—Very warm. Moths very abundant, as recorded above.
Tried the experiment of putting another tin band outside of the first,
with a piece of inch rope between them so as to close the passage.
The moths came up in crowds, but did not accumulate between the
bands as I had expected, but below the inner one, as in the former exper-
iment. It appears, therefore, that if a plain tin band, four inches wide,
be put round the trunk of a tree, the moths will congregate below it,
but will not freely go on to or over it. A small proportion go over,
and seem to do it without any great degree of difficulty. That they
do not more readily and more generally pass over, can only be ex-
plained upon the supposition that the insects are baulked or disconcer-
ted. They find on the polished surface none of the shelter which their
instincts teach them to seek for their eggs, and they are at a loss what
course to take. When the instinct which impe!s the wingless mother
ot the Canker worms to make her way up the tree with such untiring
zeal and pertinacity, was inscribed in the great book of Nature, the in-
tervention of a polished tin band was not in the programme,

112 CANKER-WORM.

The moths congregrated in such numbers, one upon another, that at
some points they were nearly or quite upon a level with the outer band,
and the outside ones passed on to it. Upon reaching its upper edge,
if the rope filling were on a level with it, they would pass over on to
the tree above; but if the rope happened to be below the top of the
bands, the insects would not attempt to crawl down so as to reach the
rope, but would go round the edge till they came to a place where it
was up to the level and then pass over. This suggested the idea that
if the upper edge of the tin band were made to stand out free all
around, the insects would probably be completely baulked in their as-
cending instincts. As the free upper edge of the outer band was the
essential part of this experiment, I simplified the operation by omitting
the inner band, and putting a single tin band outside of the rope band
and placing it so that the rope should be about midway between its
upper and lower edges. This simple contrivance seemed to be success-
ful for all practical purposes. Comparatively few moths got on to the
outside of the band, and these, upon arriving at its upper edge, and
being unable to go higher, kept traveling round and round the edge
until they became discouraged.

This simple method of placing a single tin band over a band of rope
was adopted on the 15th of March, and though the moths continued to
run in diminishing numbers all through the remainder of the month,
yet only a single moth is recorded in my diary as having been seen
above the band after this date.

The next practical question that arises is: what course will these
egg-laden moths take if prevented from ascending the tree above a cer-
tain circle. My observations show that they will not return and de-
posit their eggs amongst the dead grass and leaves around the foot of
the tree, as I had apprehended, nor even upon the lowermost part of
the trunk ; but that, faithful to their instinct, they will deposit their eggs
as high up as they can get. Accordingly, I found the under side of
the rope densely sprinkled with eggs, and the bark of the tree, for sev-
eral inches below, almost covered by them, in many places piled upon
each other. If there be loose scales of bark at hand, they will crowd
the spaces beneath them with eggs, and when these fail they will
adopt the only alternative the emergency admits of, and lay their eggs
upon the exposed surface, though at the time they are deposited the
crowded bodies of their companions must furnish a temporary shelter.

If the simple apparatus above described proves as effectual, upon
further trial, as it has in my experiments, and if the intercepted moths

OANKER-WORM. 113

or the great majority of them, deposit their eggs within the space of a
few inches below the obstruction, then we shall have narrowed down
the practical treatment of the Canker-worm toa very small circle.
The only remaining necessity will be to dispose of the eggs in such a
manner that they shall not hatch, or that the worms proceeding from
them shall not ascend the tree. I have proved, by experiment, the
truth of what has been stated by others, that polished surfaces, such as
tin and glass, furnish no obstacle to the ascent of the young worms.
They walk with the utmost ease up a plate of glass, its smoothness be-
ing, in their case, simply equivalent to the absence of obstructions.

The quickest and surest remedy, therefore, is to destroy the vitality
of the eggs. It has been found that the eggs of insects will often with-
stand much stronger applications than the insects themselves, and [|
have found that the eggs of the Canker worm moth may be smeared
with soft-soap, or wet with a strong infusion of Paris green, without
losing their vitality. But the least touch of kerosene oil is invariably
fatal to them. By removing the bands, immersing the pieces of rope
in boiling water, and applying kerosene to the trunk for a few inches
below the band, the greater part of the eggs will be destroyed. To
make the work more thorough, it will be necessary to apply the kero-
sene over the greater part of the trunk between the band and the
ground, as some eggs are found under the bark nearly down to the
ground; and this suggests the propriety of putting the band as low
down as convenient, so as to circumscribe as much as possible the
space to which the oil is to be applied.

But it will be asked: Will not the direct application of the kerosene
injure the tree ¢

It seems to be generally supposed that certain strong and pungent
substances cannot be applied to the bark of trees without injury. Ac-
cordingly we find that it has been the common practice in applying tar,
especially the coal tar, to the trunks of apple trees, for the purpose of
preventing the ascent of the Canker worm moths, to first surround the
trunk with a band of coarse cloth, upon which the tar may be received.
As it appeared from my experiment, that the strong applications usually
made use of to destroy insects, fail to destroy the vitality of the Can-
ker-worm eggs, whilst the least touch of kerosene is fatal to them, it
became desirable to test this matter, and determine whether the direct
application of kerosene oil to the trunk and branches is injurious to the
tree.

2

lit CANKER-WORM.

For this purpose, the following experiments were performed :

On the 30th of March, before the buds had expanded, I selected
two thrifty, five-year old apple trees and anointed them all over, twigs
and all, with kerosene oil.

On May 9th, atter the foilage had expanded, I anointed the trunk
and large branches of another tree, leaving the smaller branches and
foilage untouched.

On the 13th of May, with the view of making the test more general,
I scraped off the rough outer bark from the truaks of a number of for-
est trees, three or four inches in diameter, for a space of about two
feet, and thoroughly anointed them with kerosene. The trees experi-
mented with were a white oak, a hickory, an iron wood, a thorn, and a
crab-apple. I examined these trees at various times in the summer and
fall, and could not find that any permanent injury had been inflicted
upon them. In the case of the two young apple trees which were
anointed all over, thejzfirst crop of buds were either killed or checked
in their development, and these trees were several weeks later than
others in leafing out. But later in the season (July 5th) these trees
appeared as healthy and their foliage as full as any others..

In connection with these experiments, similar ones were made with
simply greasy substances, such as lard and linseed oil, with equally
harmless results. |

The application of coal tar to the trunks of young trees, however,
has resulted much more disastrously. Mr. Jonathan Sells, of Bloom-
ington, imformed me that having seen it stated in an agricultural pa-
per that the application of coal tar to the trunks of apple trees would
keep off rabbits, he applied it to a space of six or eight inches high, at
the bottom of the trunks of sixty apple trees, six years old from the
graft, and every tree was killed and subsequently dug up.

How can we explain the difference in these two results? Was it
that the coal tar is so much the more powerful and injurious in its ef-
fects, or was it due to the difference in the time of the year when the
applications were made ?

I wrote with reference to this point to my friend, Mr. Tinker, whose
large experience in these matters renders his opinion of much value,
and in his reply, under date of September 12, he says: ‘I have seen
young trees injured by coal tar, put on in the winter to keep off rab-
bits, but I think any thing will injure a tree more, put on when the sap
is dormant, than when growing.” He adds that he has found pine

CANKER-WORM. 115

tar entirely harmless, but that it dries so rapidly that it requires to be
renewed every day.
With regard to the particular point now under consideration, how-
ever, namely: the application of kerosene oil to the trunks of trees
fer the purpose of destroying the eggs of the Canker-worm moth, my
own experiments, above detailed, seem to show conclusively that it is
entirely harmless, at least, in the spring of the year; and this is the
time when it is to be applied for this purpose. But a reasonable caution
as to the extent of its application should be exercised, until tested by
further experience. .

NATURAL ENEMIES.

These insects have been observed to be destroyed by birds, by a
number of predaceous ground beetles, and by several species of para-
sitic flies. My own observations upon this branch of the subject have
been very limited, and mostly of a negative character. I have seen
no natural enemies preying upon them to any appreciable extent. I
have seen black ants carrying Canker-worms down the trunks of the
trees, sometimes larger than their own bodies, but only in occasional
instances. :

I have also seen, under the same scales with the eggs, large numbers
of a sub-globular smooth, brownish-black acarus or mite. This is sim-
ilar to, and perhaps indentical with, the species referred to by Dr.
Packard under the name of Wothrus ovivorus, and which he says he
has seen sucking the eggs of the Canker-worm. My correspondent,
Mr. Tinker, also called my attention to them, and said he suspected
that they destroyed the eggs, as he had observed some of these to be
shrunken where the mites were present. I have repeatedly examined
these acari, but have never detected them in the act of sucking the
egos. Ihave also kept quantities of eggs and acari shut up together
in a box for days, but in due time the eggs nearly or quite all hatched.
I have also found the same acari in equal numbers under bark where
there were no Canker-worms. My own observations, therefore, do not
lead me to attach much importance to them as Canker-worm destroyers.

SUMMARY OF REMEDIES.

The following remedies against this insect are given in the order in
which they are to be applied, commencing with the appearance of the
moths in the spring.

“tet. Prevent the passage of the moths up the trees. “The most ap-
proved plan heretofore used, is to put a canvass or other cloth band, six

1168 CANKER-WORM.

inches or more wide, around the trunk and besmear it with tar, or a
mixture of tar and molasses, applied every other day. Roofing felt
besmeared with refuse printers’ ink has been recently suggested as pre-
ferable. The method suggested in this Report is, to put a band of rope
or closely twisted hay around the trunk, and over this a tin band about
four inches wide, placed so that the rope shall be at the middle of the
tin, making a closed cavity below and a free edge of the tin above.
The time to use these appliances is, mostly, in the month of March ;
but also at other times when the weather is pnw epen to permit
the insects to run.

2d. If the moths are prevented from cone the tree they will
deposit their eggs below the obstruction, and for the most part near to
it. These eggs can be destroyed by a single application of kerosene oil.

3d. If the moths are not prevented from ascending the tree they will
deposit their eggs mostly upon the under side of the loose scales of bark
on the upper part of the trunk and the large branches. Many of these
can be destroyed by scraping off and burning the scales.

4th. If all precautions have been neglected, and the eggs have been
permitted to hatch, then, as soon as the worms are large enough to be
easily seen, jar them from the trees and sweep them away with a pole,
as they hang by their threads, and burn or otherwise destroy them.
Strong washes, such as Paris green water, or suds made from the whale
oil soap, thrown upon the trees with a garden syringe, will also mate-
rially check their depredations.

5th. If the worms have matured and gone into the ground for win-
ter quarters, plow the ground late in the fall, so as to expose the pup
to frost and the action of natural enemies. The effectiveness of the
plowing will be increased if a few handfuls of corn be plowed in under
each tree, and the hogs be permitted to have the range of the orchard.

The method of putting on the tin and rope bands mentioned in the
first paragraph is very simple. Take a piece of inch rope—old worn
out rope is just as good as new—tack one end to the trunk, two feet or
less from the ground, with a shingle nail, driven in so that the head
shall not project beyond the level of the rope; bring the rope round
the tree and let it lap by the beginning an inch or two ; cut it off, and
fasten it in the same manner. Get the tin-man to cut up some sheets
of tin into strips four inches wide, and fasten them together end-wise,
so that they shall be long enough to go round the trees over the rope
band, having the rope at the middle. Let the ends of the tin lap a
little, punch a whole through them and fasten them with a nail driven
through the tin and rope into the tree. 5

APPLE AND WALNUT LEAF-OCRUMPLERS. in Erg

Fixplanation of the figures.—a, the worm in its twisted case; 4, a crumpled mass of leaves
containing a number of worms; c, the anterior part of the worm or larva, magnified; d, the
perfect or winged insect.

THE APPLE AND.WALNUT LEAF-CRUMPLERS.

( Phycita nebulo, and Phycita juglandis. )
Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of Tinzipa,

As the second of the abpve-named insects is of a scientific rather
than a practical interest, we have not thought it worth while to make
it the subject of a separate article, but to treat of it in connection with
its congener, the well-known Leaf-crumpler of the apple-tree. We have
been confirmed in this course, we will not say by the opinion, but
rather by the suspicion that these insects may ultimately prove to be
only plant-varieties, or, to use Mr. Walsh’s more expressive term,
phytophagic varieties of one and the same species But this point we
shall treat of more fully in the sequel.

Phycita nebulo is the scientific name of the little gray moth whose
larva forms those tufts of dead crumpled leaves which adhere to the
twigs of apple and plum trees all winter, and with which every or-
chardist is familiar. The first account of this insect was written by
the author of the present Report, and published in the September nunt-
ber of the “Prairie Farmer” for the year 1853. As this account gives a
brief and comprehensive outline of this insect’s history, we here re-
produee it :

118 APPLE AND WALNUT LEAF-CRUMPLERS.

“Tye AppLe-TREE AND PiuM-Tree Lear-CroMPLer,—This insect passes the winter in a half-
grown larva state, and is rendered very conspicuous at this season by the little clusters of
dried leaves attached to the twigs of the apple and plum-trees in which the larve lie con-
cealed, sometimes singly, but often two or three in company. Besides the covering of
dead leaves, each larva is enclosed in an elongated, conical and somewhat twisted case,
rough externally, but of fine texture and polished surface within. As soon as the foliage ex-
pands in the spring, the caterpillar begins to devour the leaves in its immediate vicinity,
drawing them in around itself, and confining them there by threads of web. It is thus en-
abled to feed at ease, by protruding its body partially from the larger and open extremity of
its case. The larva arrives at maturity about the endof June. It is then about two-thirds of
an inch long, sixteen-footed, pale dull green, with a brown head, It now slightly closes the
mouth of its case, and changes into the chrysalis state. Before the middle of July the perfect
insects begin to make their appearance in the form of small gray moths belonging to the
family Tineide, The antenne setaceous and simple; labial palpi long and recurved; maxil-
lary palpi short and distinct; wings narrow and applied to the sides of the body when at rest;
length four and a half lines, or less than half an inch; color light gray, slightly varied above
with brown; across the end of the wings are three oblique blackish lines, the terminal one
consisting of a series of black points.”

Subsequently, in May, 1860, Mr. Walsh, not having noticed this ac-
count, published in the same journal another sketch of this insect, ac-
companied with an imperfect figure, and for the first time gave the
species the scientific name which it now bears.

Mr. Walsh designated this insect by the popular name of the “ras-
cally leaf-crumpler,” and to another insect which he described he ap-
plied the epithet of “the hateful grasshopper.” Such terms cannot
meet with general approval. However injurious or obnoxious some
insects may be to us, the application to them of epithets indicative of
rascality or malignity is incorrect, and r@pugnant to good taste. The
term bogus, also, applied to certain insects because persons ignorant of
entomology have mistaken them for other and more notorious species,
is equally objectionable. The specific term nebulo means the same |
thing as the English cognomen, but being couched in one of the dead

languages, it is perhaps admissible, more especially as it certainly pos-.
sesses the merit of euphony.

APPLE AND WALNUT LEAF CRUMPLERS. 119

Explanation.—a, the larva in its case suspended between two leaves; the dotted lines show
the position of the case behind the leaf; 6, the case seen separately; c, the wings of Phycita
nebulo ; d, wings of Phycita juglandis ; e, wings of a variety of P. nebulo bred on the crab-apple.

Phycita Juglandis, N. Sp.

The insect to which I have given the specific name of juglandis,
lives in its larva state upon the hickory and black-walnut. The prin-
cipal interest that attaches to it lies in its close relationship to the
species just described, involving the curious question of identity of
species, under diversity, not only ef the coloration of the imago, but

also of the food-plant and habits of the larva.

The moth is a much plainer insect than the apple-tree species; for
whilst the latter, though tinted with subdued colors, is rather prettily
variegated, the walnut species is a plain cinereous or ash-gray moth,
with its markings so obscure and obsolete that, in most individuals,
they can scarcely be detected. I have before me at the present mo-
| ment five specimens of the Phycita nebulo, and fifteen of the P. jug-
| landis, twelve of which I bred from !arve taken from the black-walnut,
_and three are from the Walsh cabinet, marked as having been obtained
from the hickory. These last have their markings rather more distinct
| than those from the black-walnut, but much less sv than those of the
genuine nebulo. If we compare the P. nebulo with the average speci-
mens of the P. jug/andzs, their specific identity could scarcely be sus-

pected. But if we take the best developed specimens of the latter, and
retie the most characteristic marks of each of them, we can make up
! an imaginary individual which would present a considerable similarity
_of pattern to that of the genuine P. nebulo.

But it is in the habits of the larve, and the form and mode of at-
tachment of its case, that the most striking differences are observed.

120 APPLE AND WALNUT LEAF-ORUMPLERS.

The larvze themselves are small, almost naked or hairless worms, and
bear a close resemblance to each other, differing only slightly in size
and color; those of the nebulo being a little larger and usually of a
reddish-brown color, while those of the juglandis often incline to a
dull green. They both inhabit cases which they construct of web, into
which is compactly woven the little hard, dry particles of their castings.
' The cone of the nebulo is of a brown color, a spiral or twisted form,
and is often attached by its whole broad side to the twig. That of the
juglandis is of a slate-black color and more compact structure; of a
straight form, and invariably suspended by its smaller extremity. The
cases of the nebulo are sometimes attached directly to the twig, lying
around it in a spiral form, but they are usually found in companies, or
two or three in a clump of crumpled and partially eaten leaves ; but in
this case they take the precaution to anchor their cones by a streng
silken cable to the permanent twig from which the leaves proceed.

The habits of the larva of the black-walnut species is in striking con-
trast with this. As soon as the leaves are about half grown, in the
spring, it leaves the twig to which it has been attached through the
winter, and passes out upon the central or common leaf-stalk of the
long pinnate leaves of the black-walnut, usually to about the middle of
its length, and suspends its case invariably between the bases of two
opposite leaflets, and these it draws down and ties together so as to form
a kind of roof above it. Upon these leaves it feeds, always commenc-
ing with the tips, so as not to disturb the connection of the leaf with
the stalk. I have seen at least a hundred of these larvee in their cases,
but never saw but one on the same leaf.

It is an unsettled question whether the larva takes its case wit it,
when it migrates, or leaves it and constructs a new one. Mr. Walsh
speaks of the larva of P. nebulo, as traveling from limb to limb, and
carrying its case with it. But he gives no details, and leaves it doubt-
ful whether he had actually seen the insect so migrating, or only in-
ferred that it did so. It is the instinct of these insects te tie their cases -
securely to the tree, and they could not move them from place to place
without an elaborate separation ; and that they are capable of construct-
ing a new cone, I have repeatedly proved in the case of the larvee of
the P. jugiandis, by taking them from their cones and placing them
naked upon another leaf. In the course of twenty-four hours they
were usually found to have constructed or commeneed, at least, a new

cone, locating it in the ordinary position, at the junction of two oppo-
site leaflets.

APPLE AND WALNUT LEAF-ORUMPLERS. 197

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL REMEDIES.

The Phycita nebulo may be called a troublesome, rather than a very
noxious insect. They always render the trees unsightly by the tufts
of crumpled leaves which they tie together and partially devour; and
they sometimes multiply so as to considerably damage young trees.
If they are unusually numerous they can be checked, to some extent,
by throwing air-slaked lime, soap suds, or Paris green water upon the
trees; not by any direct injury to them, for they are so protected, both
by their cases and the crumpled leaves, that such applications could
scarcely reach them—but by rendering the foliage distasteful or poison-
ous to them. But the true remedy is to pick off the crumpled leaves,
with the inclosed larva, in the winter or early spring, at which times
they form conspicuous objects upon the leafless trees.

In a recent article upon this insect, in the “ Prairie Farmer,” by Mr.
B. D. Wier, a very good suggestion is made, namely: that the crum-
pled leaves and the inclosed worms should not be burned or otherwise
destroyed, but that they should be taken to some distance from the fruit
trees which they are known to infest, and there left unharmed. The
result will be that the worms will starve, whilst the useful parasites
will be permitted to escape.

As a general rule, however, they may be safely left to the operation
of natural agencies. Both birds and parasitic insects prey upon them
to a very considerable extent. Mr. Walsh reared a species of Zachina
from them, but said he had detected no parasitic Ichneumon-fly intest-
ing them. Last winter Mr. B. D. Wier sent me some of the cones of
this insect infested by small white worms, which were evidently the
larvee of some Hymenopterous insect; and in the summer following,

frem about two dozen cones, I obtained but three moths (July 7th, 12th
and 16th). The rest were destroyed by parasites, of which I obtained
two Ichneumon-flies of the same species, upward of a dozen individuals
of a minute Chalcis-fly, and three specimens of a small species of
Tachina. So that, notwithstanding their natural protections, they ap-
pear to have their full share of parasitic enemies,

Winter birds also feed uponthem. Mr. A. R. Whitney, of Franklin
Grove, stated to me that these insects have been much less numerous
in his nursery of late years than formerly. He said that he had
often seen quails jump two feet and upwards from the ground and
seize the crumpled leaves in which these worms were concealed, and
that he had seen numbers of these tufts scattered upon the ground

—3

122 APPLE AND WALNUT LEAF-CRUMPLERS.

between the nursery rows, from which the insects had been pecked

by these birds. Mr. Whitney further remarked that he had noticed
that a considerable fall of snow would give the quails a vantage ground
which enabled them to obtain those worms which were, ordinarily,
above their reach.

With respect to the parasites of the P. juglandis, I may here state
that I have bred from their cones two distinct species of Ichneumon-
fly, one of which was different from the species obtained from the

Phycita nebulo.

THE QUESTION OF SPECIFIC IDENTITY.

Whether the insects here described (and the question applies equally
to many other similar cases), be distinct species, or only plant varieties
of the same, is at present merely a matter of conjecture, or of personal
opinion. The question could be definitely settled only by a series of ex-
periments, extending through a long period of time, in which the insects
should be changed from one kind of plant-food to the other, and notice
taken whether there were a gradual tendency to those variations which
we now see to exist.

The whole subject of the variation of species according to difference
of loeation, food, and other circumstances, is one which is attracting
much attention amongst naturalists at the present day. It involves the
important question whether there really be in nature any sueh thing as
species, in the ordinary acceptation of that term; that is, whether there
be any definite and permanent forms which have existed in the indefi-
nite past, subject, as a general rule, only to slight variatien, and always
tending to return to the original and normal type; or whether what we
call species are only varieties of a comparatively more permanent form,
and this permanency owing simply to the force of circumstances, and
not to any inherent law of their being.

The subject is also of interest as having an important bearing upon
what has been heretofore known as the development theory, but which
is at present more commonly called the Darwinian theory, after the
name of its most able and popular expousder. Every well-attested
fact which shows the gradual and constant change of organized forms,
tends to open the way for a more general reception of this theory, by
showing that our pre-conceived notions of the original creation of spe-
cies, essentially in the forms in which they now exist, cannot be main-

tained. But thisis not the place to discuss these profound and difficult |
questions in the philosophy of natural history. It has been our object ,

|

APPLE AND WALNUT LEAF-CRUMPLERS. 123

here only to carefully observe, and put on record, a few of the data
upov which the settlement of such questions must ultimately depend.

DESCRIPTION.

Length, three-tenths of an inch. Expanse of wings, seven-tenths, cinereous. Top of the
head, collar and tegule, in some specimens, almost white. Fore wings cinereous, with nearly
the basal third usually paler; a large triangular blackish spot on the middle of the costa, just
beyond which and nearly in the middle of the wing are two black dots, placed transversely ;
about one-fourth from the end of the wing is a very obscure blackish double bar, and still
nearer the tip an obscure row of blackish dots; on the posterior part of the wing, or that part
which is opposite the costa, are two rather large pale brick colored spots, one at the base and
the other one-third of the way to the tip. Hind wings paler, somewhat dusky towards the tip.
Abdomen inclining to pale buff, more or less distinctly fasciate with black at the bases of the
segments, :

All the above characters, except the occasional whitish on the head and thorax and the
paler base of the fore wings, are found much more conspicuously on the Phycita nebulo. In-
deed, these marks are usually either wholly or partially indistinguishable on the P. juglandis,
and it would be scarcely possible to distinguish the two insects by any verbal description, if
we did not take into account their very distinctive characters and habits in the larva state.
As these characters are well exhibited in the accompanying figures, it will not be necessary
te describe them more fully than we have already done in the body of the article. We may
also add, as a pretty constant distinctive mark between the two moths, that the two dots on
the disk of the upper wing in P. yuglandis almost always run together in P. nebulo, forming
a very short, black, transverse bar.

All the Ichneumon-flies which I bred from these insects I passed over to Mr. Riley, who
will describe them in his next annual report.

The Tachina-fly, above spoken of as having been bred from the larve of Phycita nebulo, I
describe below.

DiPTEROUS PARASITE OF PHYCITA NEBULO,
(Tachina (Exorista) phycite, n. sp.)

Matz—Length, 0.20 inch, or two-tenths of an inch. Antenne black; third joint twice as
long as the second. Face silvery, without bristles at the sides; sides of the front with a dull
golden tint, becoming silvery at its junction with the face; the middle black vitta occupying
a little more than half of the interocular space; frontal bristles continued down the face to
opposite the junction of the second and third joints of the antenne. Palpi blackish brown.
Eyes hairy. Thorax black, with the ordinary cinereous stripes scarcely perceptible. Abdomen
black, varied with cinereous at the bases of the segments; a large fulvous spot on the side of
the abdomen, occupying nearly the whole of the side of the second segment, about half of the
third, and sometimes a small spot on the first; bristles on the middle, as well as at the end,
of the second and third segments. Venation of the wings of the usual type; first posterior
cell almost closed before the end of the wing; fourth long vein slightly curved beyond the
angle; fifth long vein prolonged to the margin; hind cross vein moderately curved. Tarsal
claws and pulvilli unusually long.

Fremate--A single specimen, a very little larger than the others, was obtained from the same
lot of Phycite, which may be the female of this species, It differs as follows: Front broader,
Antenne inclining to brown, The cinereous markings on the body more distinct. The tip
of the abdomen fulvous, but without the fulvous spot on the side, and with the tarsal claws of
the usual length.

124 PERIODICAL CICADA.

This species appears to belong to the sub-genus Hzorista, of Meigen, closely allied to Ta-
china proper, and differing from it chiefly in having the eyes hairy, and in the presence of
bristles on the middle of the second and third abdominal segments, as well as at their poste-
rior margins, whilst Tachina has only the latter.

The following table exhibits the distinctive characters of the three closely allied sub-genera,
Tachina, Exorista and Lydella:

Third joint of the antennz about twice as long as the second. Face nearly vertical,
with few or no bristles at the sides,
Eyes naked. Stout bristles at the hind margin only of the second and third

aADGAOMINAL BeMMONGS jarctelaicc,c/elcie ojaie oi <teielan eis elatotaye nian siete elaicieetee tenets Tachina .
Eyes hairy. Stout bristles on the hind margin and middle of the abdomi-
Tall |SEAMENES., - 2's oe, 0/0\c1s)- « c\c1e v\s aajainieio.sic/e ino} Bape isielatetatal eiaie(stetetelpie lel Exorista.

Third joint of the antennz three times as long as the second. Face oblique, bristled
at the sides. Eyes generally hairy. Usually two bristles on the middle of the
second and third abdominal segments.......... SADOSUGOOAHnOOnC covccccee o. mydella.

PERIODICAL CICADA.
( Cieada Septendecim. Linn. )
Order of HOMOPTERA. Family of Cicapipa.
Harris’ Treatise, page 206; Fitch’s First Report, page 38; Riley’s First Report, paze 18.

The year 1871 has witnessed one of the periodical returns in North-
ern Illinois and the borders of the contiguous States, of this notorious in-
sect, more commonly known by the name of the Seventeen-year Locust.

In several respects this is one of the most remarkable and anomalous
of the insect tribes. Its unprecedented longevity in its larval state
and subterranean abode, the regular periodicity of its appearance, and
the elaborate and systematic deposition of its eggs in the twigs of
trees, often near the summit of forest trees, whilst the young hatched
from them live exclusively in the earth, are all ca culated to attach a
peculiar interest to the history of the Cicada.

The history and habits of this insect after it has emerged from the
earth and assumed its winged form, have been pretty thoroughly traced
by the authors enumerated at the head of this article, and by many
other observers. To those authors the reader is referred for a detailed
aceount of this insect. We shall, in the present article, confine our-
selves chiefly to a record ef the observations made during the season,
and especially to such facts as bear upon unsettled points in its history.

GECGRAPHICAL RANGE.

Amongst the many remarkable circumstances in the history of the
Veriodical Cicada, is the great extent of country in which they have

PERIODICAL CICADA. 195

at one time or another prevailed. Their appearance has been recorded,
within the last two hundred and ferty years, over the whole extent of
the United States, from Massachusetts to Florida, on the East; North,
to Michigan and Wisconsin; South, to the Gulf States; West, to parts
of Kansas and Nebraska; and South-west, to Louisiana and Texas.
And as it is now known that during all the intermediate periods these
insects are maturing under ground, at the depth of from one and a half
to six feet, we must conclude that all parts of the country where trees
suitable for the deposit of their eggs have grown, are, at all times, un-
dermined by the larve or grubs of this insect, in different stages of de-
velopment. It must not be understood, however, that they are equally
abundant in all places.

Sometimes two broods appear in different sections of the country in
the same year. These have been described as the brood of such a year.
But it is evident that when these insects prevail in two or more places,
remote from each other, they must constitute distinct broods, and
should be designated by their locality in connection with the year.

NUMBER AND DEPOSITION OF EGGS.

The eggs of the locust are laid in the twigs of all deciduous trees,
and sometimes, though rarely, in evergreens. They are deposited in
grooves, cut through the bark and into the solid wood of the twig, by
the finely saw-toothed ovipositor of the female insect. In performing
this operation she clings to the twig, with her back downward, and
consequently lays her eggs in the under side of the twig. Without
changing her position she cuts, or rather saws, two grooves, side by
side, but slightly diverging at their further extremities, leaving a
wedge-shaped partition of wood between the two cells. When thrust
into the twig, the ovipositor throws up a little bundle of finely sepa-
rated woody fibres, free at one extremity, which secures a passage for
the young insects, by preventing the bark from closing over the eavity—
just as the surgeon prevents an opened abcess from closing too soon, by
placing a linen tent between the lips of the wound. The female deposits
about a dozen oblong whitish eggs, less than the twelfth of an inch
long, in each cell, placing them two and two, at an angle of abont 45°,
lapping upon each other, and pointing towards the loose and open end
of the splintered fibres, directly under which they are placed. After
filling the two cavities with eggs, she moves on a few steps and makes
two other cavities, and so on till her store of eggs is exhausted. The
number of eggs laid hy each female is about four hundred. In those

126 PERIODICAL CICADA.

which I have dissected I have found them to vary from three hundred
and eighty to four hundred and twenty.

TIME AND CONDITIONS OF HATCHING.

Mr. Riley states that in the region of Saint Louis the eggs of the
Seventeen-year Cicada hatch from the 20th of July to the 1st of August.
In the latitude of Chicago some of them remain unbatched a month, at
least, later. On the 24th, and again on the 28th, of August, I saw in-
dividuals in the act of hatching, though in most instances only empty
egg shells could be found.

As the young locusts obtain their subsistence not on the tree but in
the earth, and as many of the twigs stung by the parent insects break
off and fall to the ground, carrying the eggs with them, it has been
commonly supposed that this constitutes a part of the natural economy
of the insect; but this supposition proves to be erroneous. On the
contrary, it is found that in the twigs which die, whether they fall
to the ground or hang upon the tree, the eggs do not come to maturity,
the moisture of the growing twig seeming to be essential to the develop-
ment of the eggs.

Upon examining the eggs in many twigs, in the latter part of August,
I found, quite uniformly, that in the living twigs the young had hatched
and gone, leaving only the white membranous envelopes behind, whilst
in the dead twigs the eggs were unhatched, somewhat shrunken, and
of a pale-brownish or amber color. Some exceptional eases are seen,
where vacant eggs shells are found in dead twigs; but these cases can
be plausibly explained, upon the supposition that though the twigs ul-
timately perished they retained their vitality long enough to perfect
the enclosed eggs. The sound egg, when near the time of hatching,
can always be distinguished trom the abortive eggs, not only by their
whiter color, but more definitely by the presence of two distinct dark-
red spots at one extremity, which are produced by the eyes of the en-
closed insect showing through the thin envelope.

The death of the twig is caused simply by the mechanical violence
done to them in the act of depositing. Accordingly it is usually only
the small terminal part of a twig that perishes, whilst the stouter basal
part, which is proportionately less damaged, survives.

These insects also sometimes, but rarely, perish in the egg from the
opposite cause, namely: the too rapid growth of the twig in which they
are deposited. This sometimes occurs in thrifty young apple-trees,
and in twigs of considerable size, usually as large as a man’s finger,
where the injury caused by the deposition of the eggs has not been sut-

PERIODICAL CICADA. 127

ficient to check, materially, the growth of the branch. In such cases
the twigs grow so rapidly that, in the course of the month which inter-
venes between the time of the laying and the hatching of the eggs, the
wound heals completely over, the tent of splinters is nearly or quite
over grown, and the young insects never emerge from the eggs, being
enclosed in a living sepulchre.

LARVAL HISTORY.

Of the protracted subterranean life of these insects in their larva
state, of the nature of their food, the depth to which they usually pene-
trate, and the extent of their underground migrations, we know almost
nothing. The following is a condensed statement of the past record
upon this subject :

In the year 1846 Miss Margaretta H. Morris, of Germantown, Penn.,
found a number of locusts in their larva state, and varying from a quar-
ter of an inch to an inch in length, attached to the roots of some lan-
guishing pear trees. But if this is their habit, it is remarkable that no
similar observations have been made by others. And the statement
that an insect so regular in its development as the Cicada was found of
such different sizes, would render the identity of the insect question-
able, were it not for the well known #CODTAGS, of this lady in her ento-
mological observations.

Mr. R. W. Kennicott, of West Northfield, Illinois, wrote to Dr.
Fitch that in following down a foot or more, in the month of Novem-
ber, the roots of several trees and shrubs, the twigs of which had been
badly cut to pieces by the locusts of the previous year, he could find
no trace of the insects. But this is only negative testimony, and the
insects, at this period, must have been so small that they might have
been easily overlooked.

Dr. Gideon B. Smith, of Baltimore, who made extensive observations
upon these insects, held the opinion that these grubs subsist exclusively
upon the moisture which exudes from the surface of the vegetables radi-
cles which permeate the earth.

He says, ‘It takes its food frora the surface of these roots by means
of three exceedingly delicate capillaries or hairs which project from the
tube of the snout, and sweep over the surface, gathering up the minute
drops of moisture. This is its only food. The mode of taking it can
be seen with a good glass.”

I have no means of knowing the method, or extent, or accuracy of
Dr. Smith’s observations, but if the above account is correct, the way
in which this insect takes its food is as anomalous as many other por-

128 PERIODICAL CICADA.

tions of its history. The only instance that I know of, in the history
of insects, at all resembling it, is the lapping of the honey of flowers
by some of the Hymenoptera.

As Dr. Smith is the only one who has recorded any observations up-
on the larval history of these insects, I will extract a few additional
items of interest from his account, more especially as his observations
are not published in any work of ordinary reference. He says that
they occupy oblong cells in the earth, from one to three inches in length,
in which the insect freely moves. When the food to which this cell
gives access is exhausted, the insect moves gradually into fresh earth
by digging from one end of its cell and throwing the loose earth back
into the other end. The depth to which they usually penetrate into the
earth has not been eatisfactorily determined. One of my correspond-
ents who plowed up large numbers of them in the spring, found that he
could trace their holes down about a foot and a half; and Dr. Smith
states that he has frequently found them from one to two and a-half
feet from the surface of the ground. But there are many well at-
tested cases on record of their being found from three to six feet,
and in one case ten feet below the surface. The following additional
cases have come to my knowledge. Mr. Charles W. Woolston stated
to me that he found them six feet under ground whilst digging a road-
way through the side of a hill. Mr. Geo. S. Haskell, of Rockford, saw
them come up through the bottom of a cellar in the latter part of
April, And Dr. N.S. Read, of Chandlersville, in Cass county, writes,
that whilst examining some mounds on the bluffs of the Sangamon
river, in the spring, he found fully grown grubs of the Cicada five feet
below the surface.

Mr. Henry W. Searis gave me the following more explicit statement.
Whilst digging a vault in connection with one of the public school
houses in this town, on the fifth of September, 1868, he found the lo-
cust grubs four feet from the surface. The ground was so hard that it
had to be loosened with a pick axe. The grubs were nearly fully
giown, rather softer and paler than the mature grubs, but active and
apparently in good condition. It will be observed that this was three
years before the period of their maturity. The date of the observation
is also worthy of particular notice as it serves to fill an important gap
in their history. In the accounts of these cases it has usually been
omitted to state the time of year when the observations were made, and
therefore we have been left in doubt whether the insects had probably
retired to these depths for winter quarters, or were living and feeding

PERIODICAL CICADA. 129

so far under ground in the active period of the year. The latter must
be supposed to have been the case, in the present instance, the insects
having been found as early as the fifth of September. Such facts, taken
in connection with the circumstance that vegetation does not usually
appear to suffer from their subterranean feeding, go to show that their
usual range is several feet below the surface. But this only leaves the
nature of their food involved in the greater uncertainty.

Such accounts as these are very unsatisfactory, but they may serve
to draw attention to those parts of the Cicada’s history which most
stand in need of elucidation.

TIME OF APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANOKE,

A period of from five to six weeks covers the whole time in which
the Cicadas are seen in their perfect or winged state. At the time of
the appearance of the more seuthern brood in 1868, Mr. Riley states
that he saw the first Cicada on the 22d of May, and that none were to
be seen after the fourth of July. My observation of the northern brood
coincides almost precisely with this—having seen the first on May 23d,
and the last on the Ist of July. Mr. Wier wrote to me that he first
saw them on southern exposures, at Lacon, on the 19th of May. Dr.
Smith states, that in Maryland and Pennsylvania, their time of emer-
gence from the ground was from the 20th to the 25th of May, thus cer-
responding precisely with the periods recorded above, and showing a
remarkable uniformity in the time of their appearance in different lati-
tudes, and remote localities. Straggling individuals, however, continue
to emerge long after their general appearance. I saw instances of this
as late as the 12th and the 17th of June.

GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT OF THE BROOD OF 1871.

. A good deal of interest has heretefore been taken by others as well
as entomologists, in tracing the geographical outlines of the different
broods of the so-called 17-year locust. It seemed, therefore, to be one
of the special duties of the State Entomologist of Illinois, in the season
of 1871, to determine, as nearly as possible, the range of the present
brood, and to make a record of it, which may be consulted by those who
may take an interest in this matter, seventeen years hence. I have,
therefore, entered into a somewhat extensive correspondence upon this
subject, with persons in different parts of this and the neighboring ~
States. The following is a condensed statement of the results of these
inquiries :

130 PERIODICAL CICADA.

In the “ Prairie Farmer” for July 29th, a brief outline of the locust
range was published by Mr. Suel Foster, of Muscatine, Iowa; but in
this outline, as Mr. Foster himself stated, many gaps were left undeter-
mined. I have found Mr. Foster’s outline to be, in the main, correct,
and have filled, as far as possible, the gaps which he left. I will take
the same starting point with Mr. Foster, namely, the junction of the
Iowa river with the Mississippi, in Louisa county, lowa. Thence, in a
northwesterly direction, following the eastern branch known as the
Cedar river, as far north as about opposite the mouth of the Wisconsin
river. Thence east, in about the same line of latitude to Lake Michi-
gan, following the Wisconsin river so far as it lies in this line, thus.
leaving out the northernmost counties of Iowa, and including the two
lower tiers of counties of Wisconsin. Thence, southernly around the
lower extremity of the lake, and taking in the northwestern corner of
Indiana, as far south as the Kankakee river. ‘If they extended at all
into Michigan, it could only have been a little over the line, as advices
from Kalamazoo, and from two witnesses in Benton Harbor, agree in
certifying that no locusts were seen in those localities. Thence, taking
our departure from about the point where the Kankakee river crosses
the Indiana border, the locust line takes a southwesternly direction
through Iroquois county, till it strikes the head waters of the Sangamon
river, in the northwestern corner of Champaign county. From this
point, the Sangamon river seems to have formed very nearly the south-
ern border of the locust range. By looking upon a map it will be seen
that this river takes, first, a southwesternly and then a westernly direc-
tion, till it reaches the vicinity of the city of Springfield, which seems
to have been the southernmost limit of these insects. Thence, the locust
line continues to follow the river, first nerthernly, through Menard
county, to the northern boundary of said county, and then west on the
dividing line between Cass and Mason counties, to its junction with the
Illinois river. From this point there appears to have been a gapin the
locust line until we reach the southern part of Peoria county, a little
below the entrance of the Mackinaw river, in Tazewell county, into the
Illinois, where the locusts were abundant. From the southern point
of Peoria county the line strikes northwest, taking in the northeast cor-
ner of Fulton county, and continuing through Knox county on about a
line with the city of Galesburg, where only a few locusts were seen.
Thence north, to the eastern border of Mercer county, and thence west,
through the middle of Mercer county, following, in the main, the course

PERIODICAL CICADA. 131

of the Edwards river to its entrance into the Mississippi, nearly oppo-
site the mouth of the Iowa river, which was the place of beginning.

The only gap in this outline, of any considerable extent, that I have
heard of, is the one above referred to, between the Sangamon river on
the south, and the Mackinaw river in Tazewell county, on the north—
the average course of this last named river being about on a line with
the southern point of Peoria county, and the intervening space embra-
cing the whole of Mason county. This gap is the more remarkable at
first sight, inasmuch as the bluffs on both sides of the Illinois river are
well wooded, and would, therefore, seem to form a natural continuation
of the locust range. The first explanation that occurred to me of this
break in the line, was in the sandy nature of the soil in this locality.

«Mr. J. Cochrane, of Havana, Mason county, in his communications to
me upon this subject, speaks of the sandy character of the soil, and sub-
sequently, Mr. Stephen Tompkins, of Avon, Fulton county, who is an
old resident of this county, and who has often traversed it in all direc-
tions, described to me more particularly the character of this section.
He stated that from the southern point of Peoria county to Beardstown,
six miles below the mouth of the Sangamon river, the soil is very sandy
on the east side of the Illinois river, but less so on the west side. At
Beardstown the soil changes, becoming more intermixed with loam,
and it is acurious fact that a few locusts were seen at this place, though
it lies somewhat below the locust line. The supposition was that the
locust grubs do not find, in this sandy soil, the kind of subterranean
vegetation upon which it is their nature to subsist. But the correctness
of this explanation was disproved by subsequent correspondence with
Mr. Cochrane, in which he stated that there was an abundant brood of

locusts in Mason county a number of years ago, about the year 1859
or 1860—as nearly as he can recollect—and that the groves and thickets
of what is known as the black-jack oak, were, in particular, badly cut up
by them. Mr. Tompkins also spoke of a visitation of locusts in Fulton
county, about ten yearsago. Both these gentlemen, undoubtedly, refer
to the brood of 1861. The records show that there was a brood of
locusts in this year, which occupied a narrow strip of country, including
the northern border of Missouri and the southern border of Iowa, and
extending across the middle of the State of Illinois, in the line of
McDonough, Fulton, Mason, and Champaign counties. So that it
would seem that the true explanation of the absence of locusts in Mason
county in the year 1871, is the pre-occupation of this territory by
another and perhaps older brood.

132 PERIODICAL CICADA.

It will have been observed that in giving the above locust range I
have often referred to rivers as forming its boundaries. It will, of
course, be understood that it is not the rivers themselves, but the wood
which skirt their banks, which really constitutes the boundary.

It is not to be inferred that all places within this outline were equally
infested by these insects. Every one who traveled through this ex-
tensive region during their active period must have remarked that the
locusts were much more abundant in some placesthan in others, even
where the supply of timber was equally abundant. I heard of several
curious instances of their being abundant at one end of a es grove,
and almost wanting at the other.

Neither must it be understood that no locusts were seen outside of
this range. The locust-line is not a simple and straight one, but more
or less zig-zag, being necessarily much governed by the presence or
absence of the timber which constitutes the natural depository of the
nsects’ eggs. Stragglers have often been seen many miles out upon
the prairie, having been driven, sometimes, by high winds, and pos-
sibly being impelled by an instinct to extend their borders.

I may here remark, in passing, that the Northern Illinois brood of
locusts of 1871 meets and interlocks more or less with the Sothern Illi-
nois brood of 1868, which also extended further east, into the State of
Indiana. Champaign county, in Illinois, which lies on the dividing
line, seems to belong more to the southern than the northern brood, in-
asmuch as bat few locusts were seen in this county in 1871, and these
mostly in the northwestern part, whilst ali the southern half of the
county was densely infested by them in 1868.

I take this opportunity to express my thanks to the many persons
who have assisted me in this enquiry, and upon whose authority |
the above statements are made. I deem it just and proper to give the
names of these individuals in their geographical order. Suel Foster,
of Muscatine, Iowa; Charles W. Lillie, Independence, Iowa; J. L.
Budd, Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Postmaster of Lansing, in Northeastern
Towa; Dr. John Conant, Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; Morrow and
Bevthver; Madison, Wisconsin; L. Camfield, Biaten Hisihor: Michigan ;
Judge David Miter, Giown Point, Indiana; J. B. Dodge, Warkane
Indiana; Dr. J. H. Longbridge, Rensselaer, indiana: P. D. Hammond,
TeBahotis: Indiana; B. N. McKinstry, Karlkakues Illinois; L. H,
Fairchild, Danville, Illinois; J. R. Parks, Tolono, Illinois; E. Daggy
Tuscola, Tivinots's Prof. Burrill and Dr. Howard, Gileapiign: Illinois,
Charles S. Davis, Decatur, Illinois; Prof. J. B. Turner, Jacksonville,

PERIODICAL CICADA. 133

Illinois; J. T. McNeely, Petersburg, Menard county, I[lJinois; Dr. J.
F. Snyder, Virginia, Cass county, Illinois; J. Cochrane, Havana,
Mason county, Illinois; Postmaster of Canton, Fulton county, Illinois ;
Postmaster of Farmington, Fulton county, [linois; Stephen Tomp-
kins, Fulton county, Illinois; Dr. A. G. Humphrey, Galesburg, Illi-
nois; Tyler McWhorter, Aledo, Mercer county, [llinois.

TREATMENT.

The Periodical Cicada cannot be considered, in a practical point of
view, as an insect of very serious character. Even if the injury
caused by them were more sévere than it is, the long period which in-
tervenes between their successive appearances, would reduce them to
the rank of not more than a third class noxious insect. The damage
done by them, as a general rule, amounts to nothing more than a pretty
severe twig-pruning, which is out grown in a year or two, by trees of
considerable size. But young nursery and orchard trees are often
severely cut up by them, and sometimes killed outright.

All attempts to check or drive away the locusts after they have made
their appearance, have proved futile. The only practical rule of any
importance respecting them is, to avoid planting a nursery or young
orchard upon cleared land, or in the vicinity of timber land, where it is
known by experience, that these insects will make their appearance in
a few years.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PEAR TREE.

Explanation.—Psylla Pyri—a, pupa, showing the under side; 5, upper side of same

THE PEAR FLEA-LOUSE.

(Psylla Pyri, Linn ?)
Order of HOMOPTERA. Family of PSYLLIDZ.

Whilst visiting the fruit farm of Mr. Parker Earle, of South Pass, on
the first of June, my attention was called to the sickly condition of some
of his young pear trees, apparently caused by a leakage of sap from the
axils of the leaves; in some instances running down the branches and
trunk to the ground.

Mr. Earle had examined his trees a number of times for the purpose
of discovering the cause of this mischief, but on account, as it after-
wards appeared, of the very small size and concealed position of the
real culprit, he had failed to detect it. Upon turning my attention
particularly to the points from which the flow of sap seemed to origi-
nate, and with the aid of a pocket lens, I discovered, imbedded in the
axils of the leaf-stalks, and immersed in the exuding sap, from one to
half a dozen minute, louse-like insects, which were evidently the cause
of the injury. I afterwards captured a few of the mature or winged
insects which furnished the clue to their name and character. They
belong to the Homopterous Genus Psylia of Geoffroy, and are very
similar to, if not identical with a species equally injarious to the pear
tree in Europe, to which Linnaeus gave the name of Chermes Pyri.

PEAR FLEA-LOUSE. 135

Dr. Harris gives a short account of the damage produced, probably
by the same species, in Massachusetts, between the years 1834 and 1888
inclusive, and speaks of one individual who lost several hundred pear
trees from this cause. No record however has heretofore been made of
its appearance in the Western States.

The following additional particulars in the habits of this insect were
subsequently communicated to me by Mr. Earle, under date of July 10:

“T first observed the strange exudation of sap on the leaves of my pear trees about the
middle of May, noticing it first upon the Duchess d’Angouleme variety. After a few days the
injury seemed to extend to every leaf of every tree of that variety in the orchard, and to a
less general extent, involving the Howell, Bartlett, and Lawrence varieties. The sap exuded
most seriously from the axils of the leaves, but was found in globules, scattered over the sur-
face of most of the leaves, slowly drying away to a sticky sirup. All growth was at once ar-
rested, and the trees lost a portion of their leaves, amounting, in some cases, to more than a
quarter of the foliage. The extent of their ravages was about as great at the time of your
visit, on the first of June, as at any time thereafter, I saw no particular change for a week
or so, when we had a heavy rain, after which they appeared less numerous. But whether the
little pests were destroyed by the rain, or had just then reached the end of their destructive
career, Iam not able to say. The whole term of their visible depredations in my orchard
was a, little less than one month. I find that my neighbors suffered in the same manner and
to about the same extent.”

Many species of insects are found inhabiting the two continents,
which are so similar to each other, that they have been denominated
representative species. The increased facilities of communication are,
every year, bringing new instances of this kind to the knowledge of
entomologists, in which insects that have long been supposed to be pe-
culiar to one country, are found repeated in the other, with no greater
variation than species are known to undergo, in their own country, from
a change of food, locality, and other circumstances. Whether these in-
sects are really distinct species or modified descendants from a common
origin, is one of those obstruse questions in natural history, which, with
our present knowledge, we are, in many cases, unable to decide. Bat
where the species in question are known to subsist upon the common
frnit-trees or vegetables, and where their transportation can"be easily
explained, the best course would seem to be to assume their identity,
unless the differences are important and of a decidedly organic charac-
ter. One of these instances is furnished by the little inseet now under
consideration. From a comparison of the few specimens of the winged
insect in my possession, with such descriptions of the European insect
as I have access to, I should be led to regard them as different species ;
but a colored figure of the Psylla pyri of Europe, by the accurate hand
of Mr. Westwood, communicated to me by Mr. Riley, resembles my

136 PEAR FLEA-LOUSE.

specimens so nearly in coloring, and so precisely in the venation of the
wings, that I do not feel authorized in considering our insect as a dis-
tinct species, without further investigation,

I will briefly direct attention to those points in which the discrepancy
seems to exist.

M. Kollar, a German author of good standing, describes the European
insect as varying somewhat in its hues,at different seasons of the year,
but as having, when in its fullest maturity, the head and thorax of an
orange or a crimson color, shaded with black in the male, the abdomen
green, and the wings snow-white.

Our species is also of a deep orange-red color, but the thorax is not
merely shaded, but distinctly striped with black, as shown in the an-
nexed figure. The abdomen, at least in the dried specimen, is black-
ish-brown, and the wings are clear, and in no sense snow-white.

The common habit of the larvee and pupz of our species of nestling
- in the axils of the leaf-stalks, and thus escaping observation, 1 do not
find mentioned in the history of the foreign species.

In consideration of the economic importance of this insect, and of
the interesting position which it holds in a scientific point of view, it
might be appropriately designated by the specific name of americana,
if it should be decided to be a distinct species.

I will not occupy more space by a minute description of these insects,
but refer the reader to the figures at the head of this chapter, which
exhibit the insect in both its perfect and preparatory stages, greatly
magnified.

It is proper to add, however, that my specimens of the winged insect
not being sufliciently well preserved to be correctly figured, I have
made use of a cut, taken from a specimen from Massachusetts, which
is presumed to represent the same species.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PLUM.

THE SMALL BRONZE FLEA-BEETLE.

( Haltica helaines. Linn. )

Order of COLEOPTERA. Family of CarysoMELipa.

These pretty, little beetles are found upon several kinds of fruit trees,
early in the spring, eating roundish holes through the leaves, and some-
times destroying the petals or flower leaves.

They are only the tenth of an inch in length, and are of a coppery-
brown or bronze color. In the Walsh Cabinet were specimens re-
ferred to this species, of a beautiful metallic green. Like others of
their genus, they have very stout hind thighs which enable them t°
skip out of sight, when disturbed. From their appearance so early in
the season, it is evident that like many other of the leaf-beetles, they
hibernate in the perfect state.

They are seen upon the plum, the apple and the pear, and they seem
to be partial to the tender foliage of the suckers which spring up
around the base of the trunk. I have seen the foliage and the blos-
soms of the plum tree, in particular, so riddled by these insects as to
attract notice from a distance, and to asuflicient extent to entitle this
species to a place on the list of what may be called the minor noxious
insects. My attention was first attracted to them in the latter part of
April. On the 6th of May they were seen pairing, and before the
middle of the month they had mostly disappeared, having, no doubt,
laid their eggs and perished, as is the general course of insects after hav-
ing provided for a future generation. I examined the infested trees
several times in the course of the season, but failed to discover either
the eggs or the larvee of the insects. Should these insects become
troublesome, they would have to be treated upon general principles ;
that is, the application to the tree of some of those substances which
are known to be obnoxious to insects but harmless to vegetation, such
as lime and whale-oil soap.

—4

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE WILLOW.

THE SPOTTED WILLOW-APHIS.

( Lachnus dentatus, n. sp. )
Order of HOMOPTERA. Family of Apnipa.

Found in flocks, in October and November, on the under side of the
branches of the gray willow. They were also found in smaller num-
bers on the trunks of small nursery apple trees, standing about a rod

from the willows. When crushed, they stain the fingers with a thick
reddish fluid.

Length, two-twelfths of an inch; expanse of the wings, six-tenths. Black; abdomen,
dark ash-colored, with six transverse rows of black dots. Antenne, filiform, as long as the
head and thorax; two basal joints, short and stout, the third as long as the three terminal
ones united; these three equal. Proboscis, greenish-yellow at base. Fore wings, with the
usual stout sub-costal vein, and a very elongate stigma; three discoidal veins, (exclusive of
the stigmatic vein,) much wider apart at their tips than at their bases; third vein, two-forked;
hind wings with a sub-costal and two discoidal veins, the latter very closely approximate at
base and divergent at tip. Thighs, dark honey-yellow, broadly tipt with black; tibie, dusky;
reddish at the base.

The honey-tubes are sub-obsolete. The dots on the abdomen are very distinct, especially
on the fully-grown, wingless individuals. In the intermediate rows, the dots are six in num-
ber, the two middle ones being smaller than the others. Just behind the middle of the abdo-
men, and occupying the place of the two middle dots in the fourth row, iS a somewhat con-
spicuous black, conioal protuberance, varying in size in different individuals, and sometimes
considerably more prominent than it is represented in the figure.

SPOTTED WILLOW-APHIS. 139

This species belongs to the genus Lachnus, of Illiger, which differs
from Aphis proper in the shortness of the antennae, the seventh joint
being rudimental or wanting, in the very short and almost obsolete
honey tubes, and in the habit of the species of stationing themselves
on the limbs of trees instead of the foliage.

I cannot find that this species has been described, and Prof. Uhler,
ef Baltimore, to whom I transmitted specimens, confirms this opinion.
Dr. Harris describes a similar species found on the pig-nut hickory, but
this is a much larger species and has but four rows of dots on the ab-
domen. \ The same author also describes a species found, like the pres-
ent, on the limbs of the willow, and also resembling this in staining
the fingers red, when crushed. But this is a smaller species and
wholly destitute of the characteristic dots on the abdemen. Dr. Fitch
also briefly describes a species found on the willow, under the specific
name, sallicelis, which he refers tothe genus Lachnus; but this is a
still smaller species, and also, so far as we can judge from the descrip-
tion, without spots on the abdomen. From the similarity in habit of
Dr. Harris’ species just referred to, the suspicion arises whether that
may not prove to be an abnormal variety of the present species. In
that ease Dr. Harris’ species would stand as a variety of the present,
inasmuch as the specific name of Salzctz, given by him to that species,
had been pre-occupied.

In selecting a name for this rather large and well-marked species,
the term salices—meaning, of the willow—which first suggested itself,
was abandoned on account of its resemblance to several other terms,
which mean eseentially the same thing, and which have been already
employed to designate other species of Aphides. The term sadlicis,
itself, moreover, has been applied by Linnzus to a European species
of the genus Ap/zs, and it is always desirable to avoid the repetition
of the same specific term in naming the species of closely allied genera.

The term punetatus, referring to the dots on the abdomen, would
seem to be very expressive, but it is not sufficiently characteristic.
Prof. Uhler informs me that all the species of the genus Lachnus in
his collection have the abdomen more or less spotted, so that this would
seem to be a generic rather than a specific character. I therefore
made use of the term dentatus, having reference to the conical or tooth-
like process on the middle of the abdomen, and which, so far as I can
learn, is peculiar to this species.

140 WILLOW BARK-LOUSE.

THE WILLOW BARK-LOUSE.
( Mytilaspis salicis, n. sp. ) j
Order of HOMOPTERA. Family of Coccipaz.

On the 8th of May, 1870, I received from Stark
M county, some twigs of the gray willow, densely in-
a fested with a pure white bark-louse scale, of about
“the same size as the Oyster-shell Bark-louse of the
j apple tree, being about one-tenth of an inch in length,
= but of a more regularly oblong, oval shape, and ex-
§ hibiting but little of the curved or muscle shell form,
3 which gives the scientific name to this genus of Coc-
i cidw, and resembling more nearly, both in form and
color, the scales of the bark-louse of the pine. They
J also resemble this last species in having blood-red
a eggs. The number of eggs under each scale averages
i about seventy-five, exceeding in this respect those of

Mees the apple tree, which usually have about forty-five or
fifty, and still more those of the pine which rarely exceed thirty.

The eggs were just hatching at the time of their reception. The
young, like the eggs, are deep-red. Indeed, it is the young within the
transparent shell which gives to the egg its color. They exhibit, un-
der the microscope, all the characters of the young of the other spe-
cies of the genus Mytilaspis, being of an oval form, with short, taper-
ing, divergent antenne, and two anal filaments, as long as the body,
but so fine at the extremity that the terminal third is only visible un-
der a strong magnifier. The four digituli, or little finger-like proces-
ses with which the feet of this family of insects terminate, are very
distinct in this species.

As the minute lice were just hatching at the time of their reception,
I tried the experiment of tying one of the infested twigs to a branch of
the gray willow, taking pains to adjust it so that the young insects
could easily pass on to the tree. For some reason the experiment
failed. Icould never find the least trace of the insects upon the tree
to which they were attached, and yet they were transferred to precisely
the same kind of tree as that from which they were taken, and in not
far from the same latitude. This failure may, therefore, teach us a
useful caution against hasty conclusions in eur experiments of trans-
fering such minute insects trom one kind of a tree to another. The
failure of the experiment does not necessarily imply that the insects
perish from incongeniality of food.

The twig from which the figure was taken, was much less densely
infeated with scales than some of the others.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GRAIN.

THE STALK-BORER.

( Gortyna ritela. Guenée. )
Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of Nocruinz.

The larva of this moth*is a dark livid, naked worm, with a few
imperfect whitish stripes, tapering a little at each end, and upwards of
an inch and a quarter long, when fully grown. They have been known
for a number of years, as doing considerable damage to various plants,
by boring into their stalks. They have been most injurious to potatoes
and tomatoes, and to garden flowers, especially dahlias and asters. It
is closely allied to another species, the Gortyna zez of Harris, the larva
of which bores into the stalk of the young plants of the Indian corn,
causing them to wilt, turn yellow, and perish. ‘There is no record of
either species having been known to attack the small grains. An in-
stance of their injury to the wheat plant, however, has come to my
knowledge, the past season, of sufficient extent to warrant serious ap-
prehensions that this most important crop may have another added to
the already formidable list of its insect depredators.

On the 20th of June I received a number of these worms from Mr.
A. E. Lansing, of Blooming-grove, Wisconsin, with the following note:
“‘Tnclosed in a tin box you will find three pieces of straw, containing
worms, which are making a great destruction in the wheat fields. The
like has never been seen in these parts. Some call it a weevil, but no
one is able to tell what it is. I have seen it in all my neighbors’ early
wheat, One piece of two acres of very early wheat is entirely ruined.
Thie is five miles east of Madison,”

‘

142 OHINCH-BUG.

The worms were at this time less than half grown, but could be
easily identified as the larvee ef the moth named at the head of this
article.

It is a very important question whether these insects are likely to
multiply and spread so as to become aserious enemy of the wheat crop,
in the more northern latitudes. It is worthy of remark that these larvee
usually inhabit the larger and more succulent plants, and do not attain
their full size, so as to be prepared to transform, until about the end of
July. There is some reason to hope, therefore, that the wheat plant
will not prove to be sufticiently succulent and long-lived to enable them
to come to that perfect maturity, ce cre is essential to the free propaga-
tion of the species.

We have given above figures of this insect in both its larva and
winged states, to aid in their identification. Ifthey should make their
appearance another season, and especially if they appear te be spread-
ing, it will be very desirable that those suffering by their depredations
shall make notes of their times of appearance and disappearance, and
other habits, so that we may be enabled to suggest some rational means
of checking their increase.

THE CHINCH-BUG.
(Micropus leueopterus, Say.)
Order of HETEROPTERA. Family of Lyeaina,

Harris’s Treatise, page 198. Fitch’s 1st and 2d Reports, page 277. Riley’s 2d Report,
page 15. Shimer, in Proce. Phil, Acad. Sc., May, 1867.

The summer of 1871 has been chiefly remarkable in this State, in an
entomological point of view, for the periodical appearance of the 17-
year Cicada, and the excessive prevalence of the notorious Chinch-bug.

Some idea of the loss caused by the depredations of this last named
insect, in this and the neighboring States, may be realized when we
learn that over a belt of territory one hundred miles wide, com-
mencing in the western part of Indiana, and extending more than four
hundred miles west, embracing an area of more than forty thousand
square miles, the great staple of spring wheat was reduced to not more
than a quarter of an average crop, and in many places wholly de
stroyed; and that over the same territory barley was less than half a
crop, and oats not more than three-quarters of their usual amount.

CHINCH-BUG. 143

The center of this belt appears to have been a little north of the cen-
ter of the State, being about on a line with the junction of Iowa and
Missouri, and taking in a corresponding part of Southern Iowa and
Nebraska and of Northern Missouri and Kansas. South of this belt
winter wheat takes the place of spring wheat and barley, and the
Chinch-bugs, though present in considerable numbers, ceased to com-
mit any very serious damage. North of this belt, also, notwithstand-
ing that spring wheat constitutes a leading crop, the bugs became
gradually less numerous, and a tolerable crop of this grain was har-
vested. And yet all through Northern Illinois and the southern part
of Wisconsin, these insects were numerous enough to damage the crop
to some extent, and to excite the most serious apprehensions for the
succeeding year.

In order to obtain as correct an idea as possible of the amount of loss
sustained by the agriculturist from the depredations of this insect, the
past year (1871), both in this and the other Northwestern States, I have
made the following calculation, based upon the statistics of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, with a reasonable estimate of the proportional
damage caused by this insect to those crops upon which they depredate.
All such calculations must necessarily be only approximately correct,
and very loose and extravagant conjectures have sometimes been in-
dulged in upon the loss caused by Chinch-bugs in former seasons of
their prevalence. It has been my intention to keep within reasonable
bounds, and by giving the figures in the case I give others the oppor-
tunity to review my estimates.

Taking the returns to the Department of Agriculture, for the years
1869 and 1870, for our guide, we may assume the present annual yield
of wheat, in the State of Lllinois, to be 30,000,000 of bushels; of oats,
40,000,000 ; and of barley, 2,000,000. ©

The area seriously ravaged by these insects, comprised, as we have
above stated, about the middle third of the State. This section would
bear its full proportional third of the wheat and oats, and at least one-
half of the barley raised in the whole State. This would give as the
product of that part of the State ravaged by Chinch-bugs, 10,000,000
bushels of wheat, upwards of 13,300,000 bushels of oats, and*1,000,000
bushels of barley. ‘The proportion of these crops destroyed by Chinch-
bugs, we have put at three-quarters of the wheat, one-half of the bar-
ley, and one-quarter of the oats. This will give as the amounts actually
destroyed by these insects, 7,500,000 bushels of wheat; 500,000 bush-
els of barley, and, in round numbers, 3,300,000 bushels of oats.

144 CHINCH-BUG.

If we make a cash estimate of this loss, by putting the price of wheat
at one dollar a bushel, barley at 50 cents, and oats at 25 cents, we shall
have an aggregate loss of upwards of eight and a half millions of dol-
lars in the central third of the State of Illinois.

In this estimate we have made no account of the injury done to corn
throughout the State, nor of the damage to small grains north of the
central belt. Here the calculation becomes much more indefinite, but
I believe it will be generally admitted to be a low estimate if we add,
for this purpose, one-quarter part to the above aggregate of loss. This
will make the total loss caused by Chinch-bugs, in the State of Illinois,
in the year 1871, upwards of ten and a half millions of dollars.

If we assume an equal amount of loss for the two States of Iowa
and Missouri combined, and another equal amount for the four States
of Indiana, Kansas, Nebraska and Wisconsin, we shall have a total
loss in one year, in the Northwestern States, of upwards of 30,000,000
of dollars, from this one species of insect.

In consideration, therefore, of the enormous loss caused by the
Chinch-bug in the past year, and the well-founded apprehensions for
the year to come, every observation which can throw any light upon
the history and treatment of this formidable insect, becomes of the
greatest interest and importance. So much, however, has aiready been
written upon the general history of this insect, that we shall confine
ourselves, at the présent time, to the practical treatment of the subject,
especially in the light of the experiences of the past season.

The methods and agencies for the destruction of these insects, or for
the prevention of their excessive multiplication, may be reduced to the
following :

Ist. Their natural enemies.

2d. The plan of anticipating their ravages by sowing grain so early,
in the spring, as to get in advance of their depredations.

3d. The attempt to save a part of our crops by preventing the mi-
gration of the bugs from one field to another.

4th. The method of destroying them by burning corn stalks and
other rubbish, in the fall of the year.

Sth. The attempt to prevent their breeding, to any serious extent,

by abstaining from the cultivation of those grains upon which they
chiefly subsist.

CHINCH-BUG. 145

FIRST.—THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES,

With respect to the destruction of Chinch-bugs by natural enemies,
the testimony on record is extremely meagre and unsatisfactory. Lady-
bugs are sometimes found in company with them under corn hnsks and
in other sheltered situations, and this circumstance, taken in connection
with the fact that these are predaceous insects, has led most of cur
writers upon practical entomology to enumerate them amongst the
destroyers of Chinch. bugs, but I can not learn that any one has actually

seen them devouring these nauseous insects.

The larvee of the Lace-winged flies sometimes feed upon them, as has
been proved by the observations of Dr. Shimer. Bat it is only ocea-
sionally that the Lace-wings are seen where Chinch-bugs abound, and
they are nowhere numerons enough to make any perceptible impression
upon their multitudinous hosts. It has been said that quails will eat
them, but this seems to rest upon a few imperfectly attested statements,
passed down from one to another, rather than upon actual and repeated
observation. I do not wish to be understood as denying the truth of
the statement; but if there is any reliable testimony upon this subject,
it has escaped my search. At any rate, I believe, that for all practical
purposes, any hope of essential aid from natural enemies, in the de-
struction of Chinch-bugs, may as well be thrown wholly out of the
question.

SECOND.—THE PLAN OF SOWING GRAIN S89 EARLY IN THE SPRING AS TO GET
IN ADVANCE OF THEIR DEPREDATIONS,

The well-known fact that winter wheat generally matures before the
young brood of Chinch-bugs makes its appearance, and thus escapes
their ravages, naturally suggested the idea that the same end might be
accomplished with respect to spring wheat, if the seed could be got
into the ground very early in the spring. However plausible this sup-
position may appear, the experiences of the past season would seem to
show that auy reliance based upon it must prove, in a great measure,
fallacious. Notwithstanding that the last spring was dry and favorable
for the early sowing of grain, and notwithstanding that it is universally
understood by farmers that the earlier wheat can be sown the better for
the crop, and therefore it may be presumed that wheat was sown un-
usually early, yet the result could scarcely have been more disastrous.
I am not prepared to say that nothing can be gained by this course,
but in view of the experiences of the past season, I do not see how we

—5

146 ’ CHINCH-BUG.

can place much reliance upon this method of escaping the ravages of
the Chinch-bug.

In this connection we may advert to the plan of sowing certain
stimulating substances, such as salt and lime, with the seed, for the
purpose of hastening the growth and the ripening of the grain. It has
also been supposed that a pretty heavy dressing with such materials
might render the soil obnoxious to the bugs. I have known of at-
tempts being made to protect corn from the bugs, by the application of
salt and air-slacked lime, but without any visible effect, and it is not
probable that any quantity of such substances which we could reason-
ably apply to the soil would be effective in preserving our crops from
these insects. But in the other point of view, that of hastening the
ripening of the grain and thus placing it in advance of the depredations
of the bugs, this plan seems to me to be well worthy of trial. I was
informed by a farmer living in Dixon, that he had tried sowing salt
with his spring wheat, at the rate of one barrel to two and a half acres,
and that upon the part of the field so treated, the crop was much larger
than on the other portions, and ten or twelve days earlier. The effects
of salt will differ, of course, to some extent, like all other applications,
according to the nature and condition of the soil.

THIRD.—THE ATTEMPT TO SAVE A PART OF OUR CROPS BY PREVENTING THE
MIGRATION OF THE BUGS FROM ONE FIELD TO ANOTHER,

It is well known that when the small grains become too mature and
dry to afford nutriment to the Chinch-bugs, they migrate in vast num-
bers into the adjoining cornfields, and generally destroy from half a
dozen to a dozen or more of the outer rows, and nothing but the great
extent of these fields, at the West, and the exuberance of the plants,
which, at this time, have nearly completed their growth, preserve the
corn crop from the same destruction which has overtaken the emaller
grains.

As this migration takes plaee before the young brood have aequired
wings they necessarily travel on foot, and varions attempts have been
made to intercept their progress. The principal of these are a succes-
sion of furrows plowed across their path, and a barricade of fence-
boards besmeared with coal tar or kerosene oil. The first plan, thongh
but very partially successful, is so simple and easy of execution that it
is always worthy of trial. 1 was informed by some of the farmers who
practiced it the past season, that it very materially checked their pro-
gress for the first day or two, so long as the furrow was fresh and the

CHINCH-BUG. 147

earth friable; but that a shower of rain or heavy dews for a succession
of nights, so consolidated the earth that the insects could pass over.

The other plan is much more effective, but also much more trouble-
some and expensive. It consists of a barricade of fence-boards, placed
end to end, and set edgewise into the ground, with the upper edge be-
smeared with some offensive substance, the one most commonly used
being coal tar. This method has been extensively resorted to, the past
geason, in the central part of the State, and especially in the neighbor-
hood of the Bloomington gas works, where the coal tar is extensively
manufactured. I was informed by one of the proprietors of the gas-
works that nearly one hundred and fifty barrels of tar had been pur-
chased at that establishment for this purpose. I had an opportunity
of seeing this method put in practice, on a large scale, on the farm of
Mr. Joshua Sells, of Bloomington. At the time of my visit Mr. Sells
had discarded the boards as an unnecessary trouble and expense, and
had adopted the simpler and more expeditious plan of running a stream
of tar, from the spout of an old tea-kettle directly upon the ground,
along the exposed sides of his cornfields. He found that a gallon of
tar would extend about ten rods, so that a two-gallon kettle, twice filled,
would furnish a strip of tarred ground the whole length of a forty-rod
cornfield. The tar had to be renewed every other day, and oftener in
case of rain. The insects would crowd up to the line in such numbers,
that in many places they would pile up from half an inch te an inch
deep, and could be scraped up by the double handful.. But go long as
the tar was kept fresh not a bug would cross it. They were not pre-
vented from crossing by the adhesive nature of the tar, but by its re-
pulsiveness. The bugs would not touch it. They were destroyed by
conducting them into perpendicular holes, or by shoveling them in and
burying them. The usual price of coal tar at the gas-works is abou;
two dollars a barrel. This is the most effective means yet resorted to
for intercepting the progress of these insects when in the act of moving
from one field to another; but the trouble and expense of using it, es-
pecially at.a distance from the places where the tar is manufactured,
will probably prevent its ever being very generally practiced. The
great deficiency of all such methods, as a remedy for the chinch-bug,
is that, at best, they only protect that crop which is usually the least
damaged by them.

148 OHINCH-BUG.

FOURTH.—THE METHOD OF DESTROYING THE INSECTS BY BURNING OORN-
STALKS AND OTHER RUBBISH IN WHICH THEY ARE SUPPOSED TO
HIBERNATE. j

We have just adverted to the fact that when the small grains fail the
Chinch-bugs migrate into the corn, and that at this time they travel on
foot and confine themselves mostly to the outer rows. But shortly
after this, the young bugs acquire wings and then spread themselves
over the field in large flocks. It is a question of considerable impor-
tance, and one to which but little attention has been paid, whether these
insects materially damage the corn crop after this general scattering of
themselves, in the latter part of summer. From the circumstances of

the case, this question does not admit of a very easy solution. The. |

fact that insects require comparatively little nutriment after they have
attained their winged and mature state, taken in connection with the
vast extent and luxuriance of the western cornfields, and with the addi-
tional consideration that the crop, being at this time considerably ad-
vanced, the loss would be only comparative, and therefore not easily
discriminated ; all this tends to involve the subject in much uncer-
tainty.

Mr. George W. Patten, of Delavan, in Tazewell county, at whose
house I visited in the hight of the Chinch-bug season, actively co-ope-
rated with me in the determination of this and other matters appertain-
ing to these destructive insects. Mr. Patten took the pains to visit
many of the farmers in his own and the neighboring counties, all of
which were badly infested, for the purpose of making inquiries upon
this point. He found it to be the general opinion that the bugs had
damaged the crop very sensibly. As the whole State has suffered
severely the past season, for the want of rain, there was the additional
difficulty in this case, of distinguishing between the effects of the
drouth and that caused by the bugs. The insects themselves, however,
furnished a key to the solution of this difficulty, by virtue of their gre-
garious habits. It appears that they do not scatter themselves indis-
criminately over the field, but that they move in large flocks, not
unlike their fellow depredators—the blackbirds. Accordingly the corn-
fields are found to be damaged in patches, and it was thought toa sufli-
cient extent to materially diminish the crop.

This general diffusion of the chinch bugs over the cornfields after
midsummer, taken in connection with the common observation that
they remain there till late in the fall, has naturally suggested the ex-

CHINCH-BUG. 149

pediency of gathering the stalks together and burning them, after the
corn kas been harvested, with the view of destroying the bugs. It has
also been advised, in order to make the remedy more sure, to burn the
dead grass and other rubbish which accumulates around the borders of
fields and fences. My own observations have led me to the conclusion
that this remedy, also, in the way that it would be likely to be gener-
ally put in practice, can be of but little avail. Upon examining an in-
fested cornfield late in October, I found that the bugs had left the upper
part of the stalks and had collected about the one or two lowermost
joints, under the sheaths of which they were congregated. They had
gone thither, partly perhaps to avoid exposure to the cold winds of ap-
proaching winter, but chiefly, no doubt, for the sake of the nutriment
which they could still extract from the lower joints of the stalks after
the upper ones kad become dead and dry. Upon visiting the same
field a month later (Nov. 22d), after winter had virtually set in, the
mereury standing 15° above zero, and the ground whitened with snow,
after cattle had had the range of the field, very few bugs could be
found. A few were found in deep cracks in the stalks, and a few were
lying torpid upon the ground close to the roots of the corn. Upon
digging up a number of hills no bugs could be found beneath the surface.
Where the great majority of them had gone was not apparent. It is
known that some of these insects hibernate under boards and flat
stones, lying loosely upon the ground, and similar situations. Dr.
Shimer found many of them under the fallen leaves of apple trees, but
nearly half of these were dead. I have heard of their being seen fly-
ing in flocks, towards the woods, late in the fall. I cannot vouch for
the truth of this, but I found them, this fall, in small numbers, under
the loose bark of prostrate logs, in the edge of the woods, half a mile
trom any tillage land. I also found them congregated on the under
side of some flat stones, lying upon stubble land. Within a few rods
from them was a ravine filled with long dead grass, but I could find no
bugs amongst the grass. It is proper to say, however, that this last was
not a badly infested locality.

With the view of obtaining further observations upon this part of
the subject, stiil later in the season, and especially in the badly intested
district, I wrote to my friend Mr. Patten, whose assistance I have
above been happy to acknowledge, and requested him to examine
some of the cornfields in his vicinity. From Mr. Patten’s reply, under
date of December 20, I extract the following valuable observations:

* Since the receipt of your letter, I have at different times examined

150 CHINCH-BUG.

corn stalks with a view to finding Chinch-bugs, but have not succeeded
in finding a live one. I have a piece of ground sown to fall wheat,
from which I had carried what few stalks of corn the bugs had left
standing, and had thrown them in heaps along the edges of the field.
These heaps I have been examining, and have always found large
numbers of dead bugs, but no live ones. To-day it occurred to me
that perhaps by bringing them into # room of proper temperature, they
might shows signs of life; but after giving them a fair test, I have been
unable to bring any to life. In all shocked corn that was put in shock
before the frost killed the corn, I find large numbers of dead bugs,
from the ear down. In later cut corn they do not seem to be so numerous.
In the stalk fields I find very few bugs, either dead oralive. To-day I
chopped up stalks by the roots, examining each sheath, from the ground
up; then opened the stalks, hoth sound and and fractured ones, but
found nothing that could be recognized as ever having been a Chinch-
bug. That the bugs disappeared from their usual haunts upon the ap-
proach of severe cold weather, I am fully satisfied, but where they now
are I have failed to ascertain. The first thought is that they have gone
below the surface of the ground; but when we consider that our cold
weather came so suddenly upon us that the first night the ground was
frozen to the depth of three or four inches, it hardly seems possible
that the Chinch-bugs could have penetrated it.”

Mr. Patten made the following curious observation bearing upon the
hibernation of these insects:

“About the time of our first frosts, while gathering hazel-nuts in the
timber, I observed that in nearly every instance where a nut had been
bored into by an insect or grub, from one to four Chinch-bugs had
found their way into the nut. Whether they were there for winter
quarters, or were feeding upon the partly consumed nut, was a question
which I could not solve.”

Mr, Patten concludes his letter with the following practical remark :
‘As to burning the stalks with a view to destroying the Chinch-bugs,
I have but little faith in it. Could the stalks be burned before exces-
sive cold weather sets in, very probably a large portion of the bugs
could be destroyed, but by the time the corn can be harvested, and the
stalks are dry enough to burn, the Chinch-bugs have taken to their
legs or wings, and lett for parts unknown.”

What strikes us as remarkable in these statements of Mr. Patten is
that all the Chinch-bugs which he discovered appear to have been dead-
The question arises, did they die a natural or an unnatural death? Had

CHINCH-BUG. L5i

they arrived at the natural term of their lives, or were they killed by
the sudden accession of cold weather. or by some ‘other and unknown
cause? As many of these insects were found in tolerably well pro-
tected situations, that is, under the sheaths of corn stalks which had
been laid in piles, it does not seem probable that they could have been
killed by the first cold snap of winter. The most plausible explanation
of the case that I can give, is, that these dead insects were the old
bugs of the former broods which had arrived at the end of their natural
lives, whilst the instincts of the new brood, which are to perpetuate the
race in the succeeding year, had led them to seek out more secure and
permanent retreats.

From all this we conclude that late in the fail, and when winter is
about to set in, Chinch-bugs, like most other insects, seek secure and
hidden retreats where they will not be exposed to the snows of winter,
nor to the cold rains of the late fall and spring, and therefore that
the burning of corn stalks or other loose rubbish, late in the fall,
will destroy but.a very small proportion of them. The only way toac-
complish this end, to any considerable extent, would be to husk the corn
as early as possible, and then cut off the stalks close to the ground, and
burn them. Buteven here it is very questionable whether the bugs
would not leave the stalks before they were dry enough to burn. But
in any event, the plan is scarcely available in actual practice. In the
. first place, most farmers depend upon their stalks for faJl feed for their
eattle; and if a farmer should conclude to sacrifice his stalks for this
purpose, it would insure him no immunity from the inroads of the in-
sects in the spring, from surrounding localities.

It may seem to be poor encouragement to show that the plans and
preventives upon which we have been taught chiefly to rely, for check-
ing the ravages of this formidable insect, are of 80 little real efficacy.
But it is best to know the truth, and to see the evil in its true propor-
tions. The first step to take, in meeting a real danger, is to divest
ourselves of all false securities.

FIFTH.—THE PREVENTION OF THEIR BREEDING TO ANY SERIOUS EXTENT, BY
ABSTAINING FROM THE CULTIVATION OF THOSE GRAINS UPON WHICH
THEY CHIEFLY SUBSIST.

If then our supposed remedies for the Chinch-bug prove to be in a
great measure fallacious; if experience shows that we cannot get our
grain into the ground so early but that the bugs will be even with us;
if plowed furrows and tarred barricades can only be resorted to when
most of the mischief has been done; and if these insects hide them-

152 CHINCH-BUG.

selves so securely, in the winter, that burning cornstalks and other
rubbish can destroy; at best, but a very small proportion of them ; and,
finally, if their natural enemies are so few as to make no perceptible
impression upon their countless hosts; then we are driven to inquire,
with the more earnestness, whether we can take a step in advance of
all these imperfect palliatives, and absolutely prevent the breeding of
these noxious insects, to any serious extent, by abstaining from the cul-
tivation of those crops which are most congenial to their nature. It
may seem a hard alternative to give up the raising of some of our most
valuable crops, at the behest of these nauseous Hemiptera, but a hard
remedy is better than no remedy. (It is better to save your labor and
your seed, than to lose seed and labor and harvest likewise.

What then does experience teach us with regard to the breeding
habits of these insects, and the plants upon which they mostly subsist?

When the warmth of spring has become sufficiently confirmed to
penetrate the hidden recesses where insects hibernate, many different
species which have wintered over, in the winged state, are seen emerg-
ing from their retreats, and launching out upon the vernal air, appa-
rently rejoicing in their new lease of active existence. Amongst these,
in the localities where they prevail, the Chinch-bugs are to be seen,
flying in dense flocks, in search of the plants at the roots of which it
is their instinct to deposit their eggs. Mr. Sells, of Bloomington, in-
formed me that whilst plowing, about the first of May, his clothing
and his horses were thickly sprinkled over with them, and that the
horses were seriously annoyed in breathing by the bugs flying into
their nostrils. These insects deposit their eggs at the roots of our cul-
tivated cereals, and some of the grasses which most nearly resemble
them. As the Chinch-bug is a native insect it must have subsisted
originally upon the native grasses, before the cultivated cereals were
introduced. The Chinch-bug was then a rare insect, only occasionally
met with by collectors. Mr. Thomas Say, who spent twenty years in
collecting and describing insects, in many parts of the United States
and their Territories, first described the Chinch-bug, from a single
specimen, and the only one which he had ever seen, and which was
captured in the eastern part of Virginia. But there is no difficulty in
getting specimens now. We have, ourselves, been the means of their
excessive multiplication, by furnishing them with a superabundance of
congenial food in the shape of our cultivated grains.

But the question now before us is, upon which of these grains do
they thrive best, and will they thrive sufficiently upon all of them to

CHINCH-BUG. 153

multiply to a serious extent, or are they restricted in their food-plants
to such a degree that we have it in our power to get rid of them, at
any time, by abandoning the cultivation of some one or more of these
grains.

It seems remarkable that these insects should make a selection be-
tween plants so similar, both in nature and appearance, as are the sev-
eral species of what are known as the small grains. Yet abundant
experience has taught us that they do make a very decided selection.
It is known that they always give a strong preference to spring wheat
and barley, where these are at hand. Where these two grains are not
available, they will oviposit upon either of the others, and perhaps to
about an equal extent. We know this from the fact that all of these
grains are sometimes considerably injured, where Chinch-bugs abound,
and the chief reason, probably, why winter wheat does not suffer as
much as spring wheat, is that this crop gets nearly matured before the
new brood of bugs makes its appearance; and accordingly, we some-
times see late piecesof winter wheat almost as much damaged by them
as the spring wheat. But the main question is, whether, if no spring
wheat or barley be raised, the Chinch-bugs will continue to thrive and
multiply to excess upon any other kinds of grain. The general opin-
ion is that they will not. And yet a sufficient number of exceptional
cases occur to throw some doubt upon the matter, and to induce some
farmers to hold the opposite opinion. Chinch-bugs are, in some years,
found in considerable numbers in the southern part of this State, where
the winter grains exclusively are raised. A number of cases, also,
like the following, have come to my knowledge. Mr. D. Veatch, of
Livingston county, stated to me that winter wheat, oats and corn, were
all seriously damaged in his neighborhood, though but little spring
wheat was raised; and on his own farm, a field of thirty six acres of
oats was not worth harvesting, though no spring wheat had been raised
in its vicinity for the last five years. Anda somewhat similar case was
related to me by a Mr. Vail, of Tazewell county. More definite testi-
mony is needed upon this subject. My opinion, from my present
knowledge, is that such cases are rare and exceptional, and perhaps
could be easily explained if we knew all the circumstances.

From the foregoing observations we draw the following practical
conclusions:

Ist. That it is useless to attempt to raise spring wheat or barley
where Chinch-bugs have been present in any considerable numbers the

154 CHINCH-BUGS.

preceding year, unless we have reason to believe that they have been
killed off by heavy rains in the breeding season.

2d. That in case the seasons should continue to be favorable to the
propagation of the Chinch-bug, we always have it in our power to get
rid of these pests by the abandonment of these two kinds of grain, for
one or two years. But to make this course effective, there must be a
concert of action by farmers over a considerable section of country.

3d. That the presence of Chinch-bugs the preceding year will not
prevent the raising of corn or any of the winter grains.

4th. With regard to oats, the testimony thus far is that if this grain
be sown where Chinch-bugs abound, and especially if it be sown ex-
clusively, it will be damaged to a greater or less extent the first year,
but that the bugs probably will not continue to breed in it to any great
extent in succeeding years.

OTHER PROPOSED REMEDIES.

It may be proper, before closing, to advert briefly to a few of the
more plausible of the other remedies for the Chinch-bug, which have
been suggested.

It has been proposed to burn over the infested and ruined grain
fields just before the time for the bugs to leave them, with the view of .
destroying the bugs and thus preventing their migration into the
corn. This is a good suggestion, provided the grain is dry enough to
burn before the bugs leave it; and also provided it will burn low
enough to kill the bugs, which in this case would all drop to the
ground. The plan would be most likely to succeed by the aid of dry
straw, and favorable conditions of wind and drouth.

Another plan which has been proposed, is to sow a small proportion
of winter rye (one bushel to twelve), with the spring wheat, with the
expectation that the bugs would feed upon the green rye near the
ground, whilst the more rapidly growing wheat would rise above it and
come to maturity. This suggestion is founded upon the mistaken no-
tion that Chinch-bugs feed upon the green blades of the grain, whereas
they imbibe their nutriment, first from the roots, and afterwards from
the lower joints of the stalk.

The well attested fact that Chinch-bugs are checked in their operations
by rain, induced Dr. Fitch to advise the sprinkling of wheat fields—or
at least those parts of them where the bugs first make their appearance—
with water, by means of a garden engine, or some other contrivance.
This would be an interesting experiment where the field is very small

CHINCH-BUGS. 155

and the supply of water abundant; but we presume the Doctor-would
hardly recommend this plan as practicable on the forty thousand square
miles of territory overrun this year by Chinch-bugs, at the West.

All attempts to check the depredations of Chinch-bugs, by throwing
offensive substances upon them, such as tarred saw-dust, salt or lime,
have proved to be labor lost. The recommendation of the salt applica-
tion had the run of the newspapers the past season. Both this and the
air-slaked lime were thoroughly tried by Mr. Sells, of Bloomington,
without making any perceptible impression upon the bugs.

DESTRUCTION OF OHINCH-BUGS BY NATURAL AGENCIES.

This article would be incomplete without a brief reference to those
natural agencies by which this destructive insect is kept in check. Un-
like many of our noxious insects, such as the Plum-curculio and the
Codling-moth, which are permanent fixtures, the Chinch-bug seems to
be subject to an irregular kind of periodicity, the causes of which are
not fully understood. We have stated above that we have no reason
to expect any efficient aid in the extermination of Chinch-bugs from their
natural enemies. It is far otherwise with adverse climatic influences.
We have already had occasion to refer to the important fact in the his-
tory of this insect, which has been established by repeated observation,
that cold rains, ora succession of heavy showers, especially in the month
of June, when the insects are small and immature, are fatal to them ;
and, therefore, that no fears of Chinch-bugs need be entertained for a
number of years succeeding a summer of this character. It is an un-
settled question whether there are any other adverse influences by
which the destruction of these insects, upon a large scale, is effected.
Are they ever destroyed by the severity of winter, as well as by the
rains of summer ?

In the observations made upon these insects, in their winter quarters,
by Dr. H. Shimer, in the winter and early spring of 1864-5, it appeared
that all the bugs which had been overtaken by winter in exposed situa-
tions, especially if above the snow line, were found to be dead. Even
of those which had found more secure retreats, under sticks of wood
lying upon the ground, and under the fallen leaves of apple trees, from
one-halt to three-quarters were found to be dead in the spring.

The observations of Mr. G. W. Patten, above recorded, were of the
same character, but still more decisive. All the bugs found by him in
the month of December—although many of them were in tolerably well
protected situations, under the sheaths of corn-stalks which had been

156 CHINCH-BUGS.

thrown in piles, were apparently dead, and that most, if not all of them,
were really dead, and not merely torpid from cold, was proved by his
experiments of bringing them into a warm room, and failing to resusci-
tate them. Now, the question is, what had caused the destruction of
this large proportion of these insects? Were these the old bugs
which had lived through the preceding winter, and which were now
dying off—having fulfilled the ends of their existence? The analogy
of insects, in general, would lead us to believe that the bugs of the
former year perish much earlier in the season, soon after having de-
posited their eggs, and, therefore, that these were the bugs of the pres-
ent season. We have not at present the requisite knowledge to discuss
this matter satisfactorily. We only refer to it as an interesting field
for future inquiries. Perhaps the key to the whole question will be
found in the fact that the Chinch-bug is more a southern than a north-
ern insect. Their ravages were recorded in Virginia and North Caro-
lina many years before they made their way into these more northern
sections. It would seem highly probable, therefore, that our northern
winters must be incongenial to their natures, and often fatal to them.
If this be 80, we may expect that after a very cold winter, or even one
of ordinary severity, but where there has been a scarcity of snow, the
Chinch-bugs will have been so far destroyed as to be harmless for a
number of succeeding years. And yet, the general fact that Chinch-
bugs do survive our northern winters to a ruinous extent, is too patent
to permit us to base our conduct upon any such speculations as the
above, unless the truth of them shall be confirmed by future observa-
tion. The experience of the next year will be very interesting, in this
point of view, more especially as the past summer has been a very dry
one over a great part of the western country; and, therefore, if Chinch-
bugs prove not to be destructively numerous next year, we shall be
forced to account for their destruction by the operation of some other
cause than the summer rains, to which their sudden disappearance, in
former years, has been exclusively attributed. *

USEFUL PARASITES,

THE GRASSHOPPER PARASITE.
(Atoma gryllaria, n. sp.)
Class of ARACHNIDA. Family of Acaripz.

During a visit at the residence of Mr. O. B. Galusha, at
Morris, on the 26th of June, he called my attention to a ver-
milion-red parasite, which he had observed for a number of
years, and which were attached to the underside of the wings
of grasshoppers. Mr. Galusha had previously spoken to me
of these parasites, but I had not before had an opportunity to investi-
gate them. ‘Three years ago the grasshoppers prevailed excessively in
this section of country, and were very destructive to many kinds of
vegetation. Since then they have been much less numerous, and the
diminution of their numbers has been attributed to the operation of
these parasites, which seem greatly to weaken their victim without
directly destroying it. The grasshoppers, the present season, are not
very abundant, and did not appear to be much infested with parasites,
though most of the fully-grown ones which we examined, had a few
parasites attached to their wings. Subsequently, 1 examined grasshop-
pers in my own neighborhood, and found them equally, and some of
them more severely infested. Upon the wings of one of them I counted
thirty of these parasites. Most of them had attained a pretty uniform
size, being about one-thirtieth of an inch in length, but easily visible on
account of their intensely red color, giving them the appearance of little
bits of sealing-wax, or coral.

They are of an oblong, oval form, moderately convex and having an
Uneven surface, produced by four shallow depressions on the upper
side, the two larger near the middle, and the others behind them. The
body has also two slight constrictions, giving it the appearance of being
divided into three segments; but the impressions are superficial and
only visible at the sides. The whole surface is finely striate, under the

158 GRASSHOPPER PARASITE.
yi | EE i vod OTe Oe

microscope, the stris running in a waving transverse direction. The
mouth-organs appear to be reduced to their minimum of development.
The only part visible, externally, is a minute papilla, on each side of
which are two bristles, the inner of which is stouter, tapering to an
acute point, and curved inwards, or towards its fellow of the opposite
side. They differ from the majority of acarides in having but six legs,
and these, being of but little use in so stationary a creature, are short
and slender, projecting but little beyond the outline of the body.
They are six-jointed, garnished with short stiff bristles, and terminate
in two slender curved hooks, The anterior and middle legs are closely
approximate and situated near the anterior extremity of the body ; the
posterior are set a little nearer to each other, and a little in advance of
the middle of the body, being inserted at the posterior part of the ante-
rior division or lobe. Four hairs project from the posterior extremity
of the body.

These parasites are found on the under side of the basal half of the
inferior or true wings, and adhere with such tenacity that it is difficult
to scrape them otf with the point of a penknife. They appear to adhere
by their mouths and not by their claws.

The acari of this country have been but little studied, and scarcely
anything has been done in the way of classifying them, or reducing
them to their proper genera. The present species appears to belong to
the division of Zrombidia hexapoda, of Hermann, and to the genus
Atoma*, of Latrielle, chiefly characterized by the imperfect develop-
ment of the oral organs.

The species of grasshopper which these parasites were found infest-
ing at Mr. Galusha’s, was the common red-legged grasshopper (Calop-
tenus femur-rubrum, of De Geer). They are stated in the American
Entomologist to have been also found on the allied species so destruc-
tive west of the Mississippi river, and called by Prof. Uhler and Mr.
Walsh, the Caloptenus spretus. The grasshopper upon which | found
them so numerous, in my own neighborhood, was also a common but
much larger species, the specific name of which I neglected to deter-
mine. Itis probable, therefore, that they will be found infesting many.
different species of grasshoppers, and I have accordivgly appropriated
to them the specific name gryllarza, indicative of this tribe of insects.

*This is the generic term applied to these mites in the “ Régne Animal.” The word
Astoma, meaning mouthless, would have been more characteristic, and might be supposed to
have been the word intended, were it not that this latter term is appropriated, in the same
work, to a genus of radiate animals in the class Acalepha.

NOTES OF THE SEASON.

THE LESSER APPLE LEAF-FOLDER.

(Tortrix malivorana, LeB.)

A brief account of this insect was given by the writer in his first
annual Report. We refer to the subject now merely to add that the
apprehensions which were naturally entertained of its increase and dif-
fusion, have not been realized in the experience of the present year.
Whether it be that they have been destroyed by natural enemies, or
what seems more probable, in the absence of any known enemies of this
kind, that they are very susceptible to the vicissitudes of the weather, it
is a gratifying fact that the hosts of last year have entailed a very
scanty progeny upon the present. I visited Mr. Wier’s place this
season, at about the time of my last year’s observations, and though
there were marks of damage by the early spring brood, the second
brood seemed, for some reason, to have proved abortive. I could find
but few specimens, and the nursery trees had made a good growth and
presented none of the blasted aspect which they exhibited the previous
year.

OYSTER SHELL BARK-LOUSE,
(Mytilaspis conchiformis.)

In treating of the remedies for the Apple Bark-louse, in the author’s
first Report, reference was made to the various applications which have
been used for the purpose of destroying the eggs under the scales, it
being very desirable that some such remedy shall be found, inasmuch
as it can be applied in the early spring, when the farmer is more at
leisure, and when the foliage, being yet in the bud, is not exposed to
injury.

160 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

It was further remarked that experience had shown that very strong
applications, such as undiluted soft soap, failed to destroy the vitality
of the eggs under their protecting shield; but that simply greasing
them over was fatal to them, probably by closing the pores and thus
excluding the air. The question then naturally arose whether greasy
applications would be injurious to the tree, and it appeared that the
published testimony upon this subject is quite conflicting.

At the time of writing that article the season had gone by for experi-
menting in this matter; but in the spring which has since intervened
(1871), I performed the following experiments for the purpose of fur-
ther testing this point.

On the 30th of March, the buds not having yet expanded, I selected
six thrifty five-year-old apple trees, of three different varieties, and
applied to two of them simple lard, greasing over every part of the
trees, trunk, branches and twigs. To two others kerosene oil was ap-
plied in the same manner. To the other two linseed oil was applied ;
but in this case, to vary the experiment, the terminal twigs were omit-
ted. None of these trees were eventually damaged by the applications.
Upon those to which the lard and the linseed oil were applied, no effect
was perceived. They leafed out as early and looked as well as other
trees standing beside them. The kerosene, as might have been antici-
pated, acted more severely. It killed or seriously damaged all the first
buds, and the trees were several weeks later in leafing out than the
others, but at an examination of them on the fifth of July, no differ-
ence could be seen in the quantity or healthiness of the foliage, from
that on the other trees. One effect of the kerosene is deserving of
notice. The check thus given to one of these trees had an effect simi-
Jer to girdling or root-pruning, namely: that of throwing it into pre-
mature bearing—this tree producing an apple though still standing in
the nursery row.

In farther illustration of the effect ef greasy application to apple-
trees, I will add that Mr. James Crotty, an intelligent Irishman, in
whose nursery the above experiments were performed, stated to me
that when he lived in Ireland it was a common practice to annoint with
linseed oil apple-trees large enough to bear, but which were growing too
much to wood. The whole tree was annointed except the smallest
twigs and fruit-spurs. The effect was to check the growth of the tree

and put it into a bearing condition. The operation was not supposed to
permanently injure the trees.

PINE LEAF SCALE-INSECT. 161

SG YE
SS We
FW 3} Ail

Ca S

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OK

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tee

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bbs

THE PINE LEAF SCALE-INSECT.
(Mytilaspis Pinifolii, Fitch.)

The natural history of this insect was given at some length in the
author’s first report. As it belongs to the family of Bark-lice (Cocezda),
but is in this case stationed upon the leaf, I distinguished it from its
congeners by the English title of the White Pine Leaf-louse. But as
the term Leaf-louse is usually restricted by entomologists to the various
species of Aphides, I have here restored Dr. Fitch’s name, which is
free from this ambiguity. |

My object in referring to this insect again is, to fill out a part of its
history which my observations last year were made too late to deter-
mine. I refer to the time of hatching of the first or spring brood. In
the former report, judging from what was known and from the analogy
of allied species, I stated that the spring brood would probably be found
to hatch in the month of May. The observations of the last spring
show this conjecture to have been correct. It appears from my note
book that the eggs were generally found hatched on the 25th of May,
but not so early as the 10th, in my own locality or the latitude of Chi-
cago. Happening to be at South Pass, in the southern part of the
State, on the last of May, I found the new scales about half grown, so
that it appears that the hatching of the first or spring brood of this
species corresponds very closely with that of the first and only brood
of the allied Bark-louse of the apple-tree.

The coccus of the pine, like that of the apple-tree, and I might add,
also, like several species of the allied aphides, is first found on the low-
est branches of the infested trees. This suggests the idea of cutting

162 COLORAD@ POTATO-BEETLE.

off and burning these branches, as one important step in eradicating
the insects. A handsome Scotch pine in one of my neighbor’s yard,
upon which I made many of my observations, has been treated in this
way, and the Lady-bugs having been busy at work upon the remain-
ing branches, the tree is now almost free from its destructive parasites.

Owing to the absence of the author at the time of the printing of the
second edition of the first report, the highly magnified figure of the
male of this species, which was there referred to, was omitted. I have
therefore had it prefixed to the present notice. In order to show clearly
the characters of this insect, which is of much scientific interest, it has
been drawn very greatly magnified. The insect itself is very minute,
being only about one fiftieth of an inch in length.

THE COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE.
(Doryphora, 10-lineata, Say.)
Supplementary to the Author’s article upon this Insect in his First Report.

The experiences of the past season, with regard to this comparatively
new but now widely known noxious insect, have been remarkable, and
not satisfactorily explained. It was the general report, especially in
the northern parts of Illinois and Indiana and the southern parts ot
Wisconsin and Michigan, that these insects made their appearance in
the spring in greater numbers than ever before, and it was the general
impression that the potato crop was doomed to destruction. As the
season progressed the reports became more favorable, and the result
has been that a tolerable crop of potatoes has been harvested, notwith-
standing that it also had to contend with drouth as well as insects, in
the latter part of the season. Any one may obtain sufficient testimony
to the accuracy of this statement, by reading the unfavorable reports of
the National Department of Agriculture, for the months of May and
June, and comparing them with the favorable and hopeful accounts of
this crop in the same series of reports for the month of July. This
favorable change was attributed partly to persistent hand-picking and
the free use of Paris-green, and partly to the increased numbers of the
natural enemies of the Potato-bug, especially the Armed Soldier-bug
(Arma spinos2), which destroys the Potato-bugs mostly whilst in the
immature state, by puncturing them and extracting their juices, and
the Many-spotted Lady-bug (Hippodamia maculata), which checks

COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. 163

their increase by devouring their eggs. But there have been reports,
from many localities, of a diminution in the numbers and destructive-
ness of these insects beyond what these agencies would account for.
It was a common remark, after the season was somewhat advanced,
that the Potato-bugs were not nearly so bad this year as they were the
last. In the Agricultural Reports for July were such items as the fol-
lowing :

“Vapeer county, Michigan.—The potato crop looks fair. The old
bugs have nearly disappeared; the young ones may yet do some dam-
age.”

“Green Lake county, Wisconsin.—Bugs leaving. They have left a
few eggs and some young bugs, but the latter are doing no harm. The
crop looks well.”

“Floward county, Indiana.—The Colorado-bug has almost disap-
peared.”

“Benton county, Minnesota.—Colorado-bug disappearing. Old ones
have about all gone; the young ones do not seem to thrive as in pre-
vious years.”

Now, these may have been exceptional eases, or rather exceptionally
strong cases; but taken together and in connection with other obser-
vations, which we have not here space to record, they seem to intimate
pretty clearly that the Colorado-beetle is not exempt from the opera-
tion of those general and imperfectly known laws or conditions which
are known to affect other insects, and which cause them to be compara-
tively rare one year and abundant another. A curious paralellism may
be traced between the inroads of noxious insects and the prevalence of
epidemic diseases, both being much more virulent and destructive in
the earlier than in the later periods of their prevalence.

If this view is correct, it gives us reason to hope that though this
destructive insect may not become wholly exterminated, it may never-
theless cease, in a few years, to be the terrible scourge that it has been
for the five or six years last past.

As the Colorado-beetle originated from the far West, and has been
steadily progressing eastward, the question has been anxiously asked
by agriculturists, whether, in proportion as these insects overrun new
territory, they will subside in the sections first attacked. The experi-
ences of the past year go far to answer this question in the affirmative.
Whilst the most disastrous reports have come from the more recently
invaded States of Indiana and Michigan, the State of lowa, which these
insects ravaged for a year or two before they crossed the Mississippi

164 COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE.

River, has been comparatively exempt, and the potato crop has been
good, especially in the northern counties.

With respect to that popular remedy, the Paris-green, there is with
many people a natural disinclination to the free use of so virulent a
poison. This repugnance is founded not only upon its dangerous qual-
ities, but also upon a lurking suspicion that its constant use is injurious,
though not absolutely poisonous, to the potato. It is more probable
that the imperfect quality of the potatoes, where much Paris-green has
been used, is owing to the general damage of the plants, both by the
insects and the remedy, rather than to any specific poisonous influence
of the latter.. But, be this as it may, it is undoubtedly true that pota-
toes which are known to have been raised without any contact of the
plants with Paris-green, will command a more ready sale in the mar-
ket than those which have been produced by its use.

The natural wish to raise potatoes without the use of poisonous ap-
plications, has led to a variety of experiments for the purpose of cap-
turing and destroying potato-bugs by machinery. One of these ma-
chines, which has the important merits of simplicity and cheapness, has
been gotten up, the past season, by Mr. George Squires, a successful
farmer, residing near Aurora, in Kane county. Having had an op-
portunity to see this machine, and to converse with Mr. Squires con-
cerning its use, I will briefly describe it. It may be stated, in general
terms, to be an oblong shallow box, which is drawn by a horse between
the rows, whilst the bugs are knocked into it by brush or paddles work-
ing at the sides. It is constructed something in this wise: First, a
plain board platform or drag is made, six feet long, and two and a half
feet wide, coming within three inches of the vines on either side, the
potatoes being planted in rows three feet apart. Upon this are set four
posts, one at each of the hind corners, and the other two four feet in
advance of them. ‘To these posts the side and end boards of the box
are nailed, the sides being four inches and the ends about eight inches
high. This leaves two feet in front of the box which serves as a plat-
form on which the driver stands. The posts may be made of two-by-
four scantling, though it is not necessary to have them so thick. They
are two feet high, and set a little flaring so as to bring their tops over
the middle of the rows. They are set with their flat sides facing fore
and aft, or towards their fellows on the same side. Two inches from
the top an augur hole, an inch and a half in diameter, is bored. From
the top of one post to that of the other, on the same side, extends the
revolving bar, about three inches in diameter, its ends being narrowed

~~.

COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. 165

so as to enter the holes in the posts. Through this bar, a few inches
from each end, an oblong square hole, or mortise, is cut, through which
the arms pass, to the ends of which the flapper is attached, as seen in
the figure. The flapper is a piece of thin board, a piece of siding for
example, which is nailed to the ends of the arms. The arms are s0
arranged as to slide by each other in the mortise, and in this way the
flapper can be raised or lowered according to the hight of the vines.
The bars, with their flappers, are made to revolve by a crank attached
to the,forward end of the near, or left hand bar, and is turned by the
driver. The forward end of each revolving bar passes through a pulley
wheel, about seven inches in diameter, a band passing from one to
the other, and crossed so as to make both bars revolve inwards.

In cultivating a few acres, the machine may besimply dragged along
upon the ground. Butas Mr. Squires raises from twenty to thirty
acr of potatoes yearly, he attached the machine to the forward wheels
of a light wagon, suspended by a chain to the axle-tree, so that the for-
ward end of the drag barely touched the ground, and thus greatly facil-
itated the draft. The driver sits upon the axle-tree, with his back to
the horse and his feet upon the platform, and turns the crank, sitting a
little sideways so as to direct the horse at the same time.

In answer to questions put to Mr. Squires, the following additional
information was obtained:

The machine was made in less than half a day, and did not cost over
four dollars. Those who used it were the only ones in that neighbor-
hood, with one exception, who harvested any potatoes. Mr. Squires
had sold a thousand bushels of potatoes at a dollar a bushel, and had
half as many more left. ‘The machine operates most successfully upon
vines from four to twelve inches high. It knocks off nine-tenths of the
beetles and larger grubs, but does not remove many of the very small
enes. A man can easily go over fifteen acres a day, and he had once
bugged ten acres in half aday. The potatoes being on ridges, the
machine drops a little below them, and this explains how bugs can be
knocked from vines only four inches high into a box of the same hight.
In answer to the question whether it would not be a good plan to line
the box with zinc, to prevent the bugs from crawling out, Mr. Squires
replied that the bugs do not attempt much to crawl out of the box.

_ The blow which knocks them in, partially stupifies them for a time,

and the continual whipping in of the vines by the flappers tends to
knock them back. If many of them are attempting to crawl out at any

time, they can be jarred down by asharp rap on the sides or ends of
_ the box.

i

166 . COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE.

The bugs are disposed of by burying them in perpendicular holes,
covering them with a foot of earth and stamping it down. At first
Mr. Squires thought it necessary to kill the bugs, and drenched them
with strong lime-water, but he found this to be unnecessary. The bugs
thus buried, en masse, soon perish

We have not space for comments, but every reader can draw his
own conclusions. The machine could, no doubt, be improved by ex-
perience and ingenuity. The one which we saw was a rough and
cheap, but effective piece of work; but these are the very qualities
which make it available to the common farmer, and which have ap-
peared to us to justify this somewhat extended notice of it. If this
machine proves as successful in the hands of others as it did in those
of the inventor, it will supply an important need in potato culture upon
a large scale. |

The Paris green will still have to be ased whilst the vines are small,
or until they are four or five inches high, but at this time its applica-
tion is very easy, and it requires comparatively little of the poisonous
material ; and we cannot too often reiterate that experience has shown
that the Paris green may be, and ought to be very largely diluted,
that is to say, with about twenty times its bulk of flour or lime, or
other inert powder.

THIRD ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

STATE ENTOMOLOGIST OF ILLINOIS.

DECEMBER 20, 1872.

eT aaa

Vol. [V—45

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART FIRST.

PAGE

TONE MO) DO CG Ds peek Sc Mee ae tet ae 1 ee eee aR a ea ieee ee Vv

PN SHC TRS EN URIOUS: LOWER) AP PIMs es eee es). san cas seco ase mo neee ee kee eee aaidscdoageae 167
The Codling-moth, or Apple-worm (Carpocapsa pomonella. Linn.).....------------------------ 167
The Hand-maid Moth, or Yellow-necked A pple-tree Caterpillar (Datana ministra. Drury.).--- 186

PN SHC MeN MUR LOU S| LO) bik}: COM ONSWOO estat sete see 2 ene sok se ae eee eee 193
The Cotton-wood-leaf Gall-louse (Pemphigus populicaulis. WFitch.)...-....--.-----+--.----+--- 193

EAN SPORTA DION, OF USEE UI) INSECD PARAGITHG:..27sl sch -sseceeuacecstossceodgasnese 200

PART SECOND.

OUP EMNES ORUEN LOMO LOGY ccpencesesssc cee orene scecancoes ass Bese doaisaais ile. eee eeta 1
AMNSCis in weneral ;- SAe-iiss sae cee Se Se nee st leleci tema dasa emcnen aa soecewse cians d wetinne cemcido es Scere
miternalstrucvure;ol insects.) 2532.4 ees s sya ae A ne sete uot ao oe ile ae ae
Organs) of thejsensesis.. Jas Jasicc acts o's ate so sidiste qjaasme case win a eels eines cto ie we.cinis wis dime noes iainalate ears 5
HOUNAS Produced piymtOSOCtSacee aces sods See oes setae ceekas caskets soe ese stiac ).cue ame cee dae ame 7
Miehamorphoses: Of ANSECtS2sse)s4-sase ead se neis Jose site p Sos base Jerscc cei tsecbseced \sSdtees See 8
GXKGN Ole t SCG US ime oe een cere aoe seam Saecte acres aeice jams eaeleiaia <iars Mee enters ste cree ae ret eet ee rete 9
i x<hemal Swucvale Ol MSCCHS: onc sacs eee See Sen oe adidas Siaeidacm Hs nace ee sms cele ones 10

The head and its appendages (10). The thorax and its appendages (12). The abdomen and
TSP yO a era eeee| (1) ee Se ene One Rar ercHcbe SU BRCCeRe SC RSt ES aco ogdRer Fos. seers ceaspeae 10
Cap TUM SAN Ce PLESER VAN ANS CCUG petals wislste ra orale ala iw opus Stejaln a =1s)s' sina elwininial a menial mite ayant eerste alot 14
NTIS ITOH OLANSEC HALAS ea ata ne seta oe Tete ee PE Oe Sid ace soe ee lca ce ra ee ere aera 1%
insects in eeneraly from)a; prachical pout) Of WviGW: -a--c)qr = «vias )aielnjeine sein qeisigeaeloiae alnia = sisi = ap 17
Msciotslcarnauian dl SCLONUlTCLELOIS sees sas aol arm lalate ata ate aialctale acelin oleate iotata)ataialejeietete stoi teratmenteer areca 21
Wlassilicatiqn and nomenclature ss. sc-sess-ssece esas saphoenmeiccacssaascaeeceeece ens cseemececs s 22
ID Tels tors! OF8 abate Glerrsiobay Zen Cds Bee enpeecios AC OCeOnaGer Bebe Cor OoO COREA Ueore oartccea] cle oeeGEcrceoe 24,
Ue CUB Wiehe ped se gen dese Coe UE ce cae T OCR AC EEE BERDIET Oe HORS OCOSOES 50Gb REET BOPeHOppr bOREtADS 26
Phe Coleoptera, fromia practical point of View. 222. .co- os e-cn 2b ece es enn = ean =o} a anannls 29
Ada inn Elassiiyin oy thet COLEO PUCK Bert) aia sme eran aetna tela atta eel tal miei aial= s/o) oie site Miele 32

Classification of the Coleoptera... .2:..--222..02-tesecesssicecscen Hefasseeere ee SBEOOLEC aicatletes 35

IN TROD UOTION.

{Third Report. |

To His EXCELLENCY, JOHN L. BEVERIDGE,
Governor of the State of Illinois:

Srir—I herewith submit my third annual report upon the insects, in-
jurious and otherwise, of the State of Hlinois.

It will be seen that in a part of this report I have stepped aside from
the ordinary form of entomological reports of this kind, for the purpose
of giving assistance to the young people of this State and others who
are taking an interest in this subject, in its scientific as well as its prac-
tical relations. I have been induced to take this course by the following
considerations :

In the original enactment by which the office of State Entomologist
was created in this State, it was made the duty of the incumbent to
make an annual report upon the insects of the State, especially those
injurious to the agriculturist, and also to make a general collection of
the insects of the State, to be deposited at the Industrial University.
As the great majority of insects are not injurious to mankind, and as a
general collection of insects is merely a pretty but useless show, unless
something is known of their habits and classification, it may be inferred
that, in requiring such a collection to be made, the founders of this of-
fice took an enlarged view of the subject, and had an eye to the advance-
ment of the scientific as well as the more directly practical interests of
the State.

By a recent enactment of the General Assembly of this State, it is re-
quired that the study of natural history shall be made a branch of the
popular education. Of the great number of young people who will thus
be induced to direct their attention to this subject, there must be a con-
siderable number whose tastes will lead them to prosecute the study to
« greater or less extent. This class of students will not be satisfied with
the superficial knowledge which they may be able to obtain froin the in-
structions of teachers, most of whom cannot be expected to have made
a special study of the natural sciences. Especially must this be true of

5 | 425 |

so extensive and difficult a science as that of entomology. It seems de-
sirable, therefore, that there shall be some work of easy access, which
shall assist them in their studies, and at the same time serve as a step-
ping-stone from such teaching as they may be able to obtain at the pub-
lic schools, to the more learned and elaborate treatises upon this science.

As many reports and treatises have already been published by the
entomologists of this and other States, intended especially for the use
of the practical farmer and horticulturist, in which the habits and the
treatment of the most injurious insects have been pretty fully described,
it seems the more admissible and proper, at this time, to give some as-
sistance to that class of students who have the time and inclination to
prosecute this subject in all its relations. In this way we may give en-
couragement to many young enquirers, which will stimulate them to ac-
quire a more thorough knowledge of the subject, and one which they
may hereafter turn to practical account, both for themselves and others.

It must be borne in mind, however, that the main object of this office
is of a directly practical nature, and if reports of a more scientific char-
acter are occasionally published, the subject should be so treated as to
show, as much as possible, the connection between scientific and practi-
cal entomology. With this end in view, I have, in the present report,
made the food and the food-habits of the insects treated of the basis of
classification, it being in this connection chiefly that insects are injuri-
ous to human interests. By this means the student who has acquired
the art of referring insects to their natural connections by the examina-
tion of their external structure, will be able to determine whether any
species which he may have in hand be injurious, or liable to become so,
by knowing the habits of the family or tribe to which it belongs.

It will be seen that the present report consists of two parts: the first
being devoted, as usual, to the consideration of injurious insects; and
the second part being the first instailment of the elementary treatise
in general, referred to in the preceding remarks. In my next report I
contemplate completing that part of the work which treats of the large
and important order of Coleoptera, or beetles.

The value of an elementary work like this, intended chiefly to aid the
inexperienced student, must depend very much upon its being suitably
illustrated by figures. A bill making an appropriation for this purpose
was introduced into the Senate, at the recent session of the General As-
sembly, and passed to a third reading without opposition, but so near
the close of the session that it failed to reach the lower house. It is an-
ticipated that this bill will be passed at an early stage of the adjourned
session; but the delay is a matter of regret, since the figures may re-
quire a considerable time for their preparation, and they cannot be com-
menced till it is known with certainty that the appropriation will be
made.

| 426 | 6

The cuts in the first part of this report were engraved from drawings
made by Mr. C. V. Riley, State Entomologist of Missouri.

The elaborate figure of Harpalus caliginosus, illustrative of the external
anatomy of the Coleoptera,was engraved from a copy, reduced by pho-
tography, from a gigantic drawing made by Mr. Franklin C. Hill, of
Yellow Springs, Ohio, aud kindly put at my disposal by the author.

Respectfully submitted, |
WILLIAM LEBARON,
State Entomologist.
GENEVA, December 20, 1872.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE,

Ezplanation.—a, section of an apple which has been occupied by a Codling-worm, showing the point
of entrance of the worm at b, and the place of exit of the mature worm at the left hand side of the
figure; e, the full srown worm; h, its head and first segment magnified ; i, the cocoon; d, the pupa
removed from the cocoon ; J, the moth with wings closed; g, the same with wings expanded.

THE CODLING-MOTH, OR APPLE-WORM.

(Carpocaspa pomonella, Linn,)
Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of Torrricipz.

In a classification of fruit-damaging insects, in the order of the degree
and extent to which they are injurious to human interests, the Codling-
moth, which is the parent of the common apple-worm, must undoubt-
edly hold the first place. And it would occupy this position, not only
because the apple is the most valuable of fruits, but on account of the

great extent of territory over which it prevails, not being limited to
this country, but being also an inhabitant of the British Islands and the
Continent of Europe, where its habits and history were long since no-
ticed and described.
_ We propose, in this article, to give the results of our personal obser-
vations upon this insect for the past two or three years. We will first
give a brief outline of its natural history, and then notice more particu-
larly those parts thereof which are not generally known, or about which
a difference of opinion has existed.

| 428 | 8

ITS HIBERNATION.

The Codling-moths pass the winter in the larva state enclosed in
cocoons, which are concealed, for the most part, under the more per-
manent scales ,or in the deep fissures of the bark or wood of the tree, in
the fruit of which they were reared. Those which have been taken with
the fruit into the fruit-room or cellar, are often found in great numbers
under the hoops on the barrels, or in cracks of the apple bins. It is a
curious circumstance in the history of this insect, that the late brood of
worms, after they have enclosed themselves in cocoons, retain, as above
stated, the larval form all winter, and do not change to pupe till within
two or three weeks of the time when they emerge as moths in the spring.
All testimony agrees upon this point. The summer brood, however,
pursue the usual course, and change to pup in the course of two or
three days after they have spun their cocoons.

TIME OF APPEARANCE IN THE SPRING.

The moths begin to make their appearance about the time of the
opening of the apple blossoms, or soon thereafter; the time varying
several weeks, according to the latitude and the character of the season.
Last year (1871) the moths were first noticed north of the center of this
State on May 20. The present season, in the latitude of Chicago, I first
saw a moth on the 12th of May, the apple trees being in pretty full
blossom; but the pupz which I had kept through the winter did not
begin to open till the last week in May; and Dr. Jaines Weed, of Musca-
tine, Iowa, states that on one occasion, upon examining the pupe which
had remained under the trap-bands through the winter, nearly all were
found unchanged on the 25th of May. The time of their appearance
will, of course, be earlier further south, to the same degree that vegeta-
tion is earlier; the difference in this respect being expressed with suffi-
cient accuracy by the rule of adding or subtracting, as the case may
be, about one week for each one hundred miles of latitude.

’ TIME AND PLACE OF EGG-DEPOSIT.

The moths deposit their eggs, one at a time, usually in the calyx end
of the apples, as soon as they are out of the blossom. The moths them-
selves, on account of their smallness, the general obscurity of their col-
oring, and their nocturnal habits, are very rarely seen, but we know
that they deposit their eggs at the calyx end because we can trace the
burrow of the young worm from that part; and the other points above
stated are known by a similar er post facto method of reasoning. As
insects are known often to exhibit a wonderful apparent prescience in
their operations, we may fairly conclude that the final object of the habit

9 [ 429

of this species, in laying its eggs in the calyx end of the apple, is to
avoid interferance with the connection of the apple with the tree by
means of the stem, and thereby ensure its attachment, till the worm with-
in shall have nearly or quite matured its growth. We shall have occasion
to refer to this point more particularly in the sequel.

SUBSEQUENT HISTORY.

The eggs hatch in the course of a week after they are deposited. The
young worm is so small that it is not easily seen without the aid of a
lens. It is white, with a black head and collar, and a black spot on the
top of the last segment. There are eight black dots on each segment,
so arranged as to make four rows, extending the length of the body.
As the larva increases in size the black parts become brown, the dots
become pale, grayish and often indistinct, and the body assumes more
or less of a pinkish tint.

The young worm, as soon as hatched, eats its way directly, but by a
slightly tortuous course, to the core of the apple, throwing out its cast-
ings through the hole by which it entered, and which it must somewhat
enlarge for this purpose. A portion of the castings adhere to the
shrunken calyx upon the outside of the apple, in the form of a dark rust-
colored mass, which can be easily seen from the ground beneath, and
which thus enables us to distinguish the wormy apples at a considerable
distance.

_ Arrived at the core, the worm subsists for a time mainly upon the
seeds, which appear to be peculiarly agreeable to its taste; and it is
very common to find a worm at this stage, completely enclosed in the
hull of an excavated seed. ‘When half grown or more, they usually
make their way to the side of the apple and cut a comparatively large
hole, through which to discard their castings; and through this hole
the matured worm ultimately makes its exit. Itis not very uncommon,
however, for the worm to enlarge the passage by which it entered, and
to pass out by it, in which case no side hole is made.

A part of the wormy apples fall to the ground, but not usually until
the worms are nearly or quite matured, and a part remain adherent to
the tree for a time after the worms have left them. Whether the apples
fall or not, depends partly upon the variety, (some kinds being much
more strongly adherent than others,) and partly upon the occurrence or
not of strong winds. In exceptional cases apples which have harbored
worms adhere to the tree all winter.

The worms which leave the fallen apples, as a general rule, make
their way to the tree, crawl up its trunk and spin their cocoons under
the scales of bark on the trunk and larger branches. Those which leave

the apples on the tree, either let themselves down to the ground by a
Vol. [V—46

[ 430 | | 10

‘

thread, and then it may be presumed crawl up the trunk, or crawl down
the branches and spin up under the first convenient shelter that offers.
Whilst observing insects in the orchard, by lamp light, I have seen the
Coddling-worm, in a few instances, descending in each of the ways here
specified, and the reason we have not seen more of them so doing, pro-
bably, is that they are nocturnal in their movements.

The summer brood of these insects remains in the pupa state about
two weeks. In the latitude of Chicago, the great majority of moths of
this brood emerge in the last two weeks of July and the first week of
August. After pairing they proceed to deposit their eggs upon the now
partly grown apples. It is these eggs which produce the second or au-
tumnal brood of worms, which damage our ripening fruit, and many of
which are gathered with it at the harvest.

LENGTH OF LIFE IN ITS SEVERAL STAGES.

This may be expressed, with respect to the summer brood, with ap-
proximate accuracy, by weeks, as follows: Egg state—one week; larva
state—four weeks; pupa state—two weeks; imago or moth state—one
week; being eight weeks, or two months in all. Each of the three
first stages is known to be shortened from one to three days under fa-
vorable conditions ; but as there is reason to believe that the moth may
live somewhat longer than the above estimate, the aggregate duration
of life will not vary much from that stated. The life of the second
brood, which survives the winter, extends through the remaining ten
months of the year.

Having thus given a brief outline of the common or average history
of this insect, we proceed to notice those points which are exceptional
or less generally known.

NUMBER OF WORMS IN THE SAME APPLE.

We have stated above that the female moth deposits her eggs, one
at a time, in the calyx end of the apple. This is the general rule. The
exceptions, however, are not so rare as has been supposed. I see from
my notes that in the examination of a large number of wormy apples
on the 19th and 20th of August, ten instances of two worms in the same
apple oceurred; and on the 21st of the same month, upon examining
two or three dozen wormy pears, four additional cases of this kind were
observed. In almost all these instances it is found that the first, and
consequently the larger worm, entered at the calyx end, and the second
one at some other part, usually at the side, but sometimes at or near
the stem. The habits of the Codling-moth in depositing its eggs may
be explained in the following manner: At the time of the appearance
of the first brood of moths, the apples are very small and incapable of
supporting more than one worm, and the Codling-moth has the wise in-

ae [ 431 ]

stinct to lay but one egg on the same apple, and what is still more re-
markable, she must. have the instinet to avoid those apples which have
been already appropriated to this purpose; since, otherwise, we should
oftener find more than one worm in the same apple. At the time when
the second brood of moths appears, circumstances have become changed,
and the instinets of the insects are somewhat modified accordingly.
The apples have now become large enough to support more than one
worm, and the moths, though adhering, in the main, to their original
instinct, sometimes depart from it to a limited extent. But even here
the same moth never lays but, one egg on the same apple. The fact that
where there are two worms in the same apple, they are almost invaria-
bly of different sizes, shows that they are undoubtedly the offspring of
different parents.

DURATION OF THE IMAGO OR WINGED STATE.

It is well known that many insects, after they have arrived at their
mature and winged state, have the mouth-organs wanting or rudimen-
tal, and consequently that they take no food at this stage of their ex-
istence. The life of these insects, after their maturity, probably does
not much exceed a week, and this brief period is wholly occupied in
pairing and depositing the eggs by which the species is to be perpetu-
ated. The tongue of the Codling-moth is very short, and when raised
artificially, scarcely exceeds the head in length, and appears to be rath-
er obtuse at the end. The apparent imperfection of the organ, and the
fact that the moth has never been seen eating in the state of nature, has
led to the supposition that this insect belongs to the category of non-
feeding imagos. This, however, is not the case. Upon putting lumps
of moist sugar, and also slices of sweet apple in the boxes in which a
number of these moths were enclosed, I have seen then feed upon both
these substances, especially the latter; eight or ten moths sometimes
alighting upon the same slice of apple. The tongue, when extended by
the voluntary act of the insect, is seen to be slender and pointed, and
nearly double the length that it appears when notin use. They feed
greedily but awkwardly, their flexible tongues bending in every direction
against the resisting surface, and giving rise to the probable supposi-
tion that, in the natural state, they feed, like most other moths, upon
the honey of flowers, and most probably, in part at least, upon that con-
tained in the blossoms of the apple tree. I have kept many of these
moths in boxes without food, and have never known them to live beyond
the seventh day.

I have dwelt upon this point more particularly, because it enables us
to explain how it is that newly hatched worms are found in apples, to a
limited extent, all through the summer, showing either that the moths
must vary much in the time of their emergence in the spring, or else,

[ 432 | 12

what now appears possible, and more probable, that the moths may live
and continue to deposit their eggs fora period of several weeks. This
view is confirmed by the unequal development of the eggs, as’ seen in
the ovaries of the female moths. Upon dissecting these moths within
a few days of the time of their emergence from the pupa state, for the
purpose of counting the eggs which they contain, I have found it very
difficult to determine the number, for the reason here given. Whilst in
in many moths, such as many, if not all of the Bombycide, the eggs are
developed and deposited at one and the same time, in the Codling-moth
the eggs are to be seen in all stages of development, analogously
to those found in the domestic fowl. By carefully unfolding the ovaries
in water, they can be traced to their origin, with the contained ova
of gradually diminishing diameters. This condition of the ova implies
that they are developed and therefore probably deposited successively
and for a considerable time. I have usually succeeded in counting from
forty to sixty tolerably developed eggs, making an average of about
fifty. But if all the undeveloped eggs come to maturity, this number
must be considerably increased.

MORE THAN ONE BROOD.

The testimony is somewhat conflicting upon this point, and must pro-
bably be explained by the circumstance that the habits of this insect have
been observed in different latitudes and in widely remote localities. Dr.
Harris expresses the opinion that it is usually single brooded in New
England, but it is universally double brooded, at the West; at least in
all parts of the State of Illinois, and farther south.

The same discrepancy exists in the reports from different parts of
Europe. M. Zeller, the distinguished microlepidopterist of Stettin, in
the northern part of, Prussia, as quoted by Mr. Riley, states that this
moth is single brooded in that latitude, whilst M. Schmidberger, in
Kollar’s Treatise, writing in the latitude of Vienna, about five degrees
or nearly three hundred and fifty miles farther south, describes the
moths as depositing eggs for a second brood.

‘

PRACTICAL TREATMENT.

This may be reduced to the four following heads:

ist. Destroying the insects in their winter quarters.

2d. Picking the wormy apples from the trees.

3d. Gathering the wormy apples from the ground, or letting swine and
Sheep have the range of the orchard.

4th. Entrapping the worms in bands and other contrivances.

To which may be added the help to be derived from their natural
enemies.

13 . [433]

Ist. Destroying the insects in their winter quarters.—W hen we consider

that each female moth is capable of laying fifty eggs, ommore, and that
every worm of the first brood ruins an apple, we can see the importance
of destroying these insects before they leave their winter quarters.
We have already stated that, in the state of nature, these worms pass
the winter in cocoons, concealed under the bark, or in the crevices of
apple trees. The summer brood of worms which remain but two weeks
in the pupa state, sometimes content themselves with a very slight pro-
tection, but it is the nature of the insect to seek deep concealment ; and
the instinet of the second brood, which is to survive the winter, leads
them to search for the deepest protection they can find. We therefore
rarely find them under shallow and loose scales of bark, but very often
in deep cracks and crevices, partially embedding themselves in the sub-
stance of the wood or bark. Any superficial scraping of the trees, or
‘white-washing, or other outward applications, would not therefore be
likely to reach many of them. And inasmuch as they may be hidden
upon any part of the trunk or large branches, any attempt to discover
them with the intention of digging them out, would evidently be im-
practicable. But at the point where we become powerless, the wood-
peckers come to ouraid. In their search for just such hidden worms as
these, these busy foragers unite business with pleasure, and all through
the wintry day the sharp rattle of their beaks may often be heard in the
orchard, as with ear intent, and sharpened beak, and appetites not less
sharp, they pursue their hidden prey with unerring and fatal preci-
sion. ;

A more efficacious way of destroying these worms, so far as our own
instrumentality is concerned, is to search for them about the barrels and
bins in which fall and winter apples have been kept. I have heard of
instances where the side-boards of the bins have been taken away from
time to time, as the apples were removed, and thrown one upon another,
in which these boards became so fastened together by the webs of the
worms between them, that a number of boards could be raised by taking
hold of the upper one only. There can be no doubt that the destruction
of the Codling-worm at this stage of its existence, would be very effec-
tive, and that it has been by far too much neglected.

2d. Picking the wormy apples from the trees—We have stated above
that the young worms, soon after they have entered the apple, begin to
throw out their castings through the hole which they made in entering.
As this hole must be originally almost microscopically minute, it is evi-
dent that they must enlarge the opening for this purpose. We further
stated that a portion of the castings adhere to the rough and shrivelled
calyx, forming a rust-colored mass, which is easily seen from the ground
below. Some horticulturists, amongst whom we may mention Mr. Oliver

; meee tea aa

ee

[ 434 ] , 14

Chapin, of East Bloomfield, New York, and Mr. L. Barnes, of Blooming-
dale, Illinois, have availed themselves of this circumstance for the pur-
pose of removing the wormy apples from the trees, before the worms
have escaped. Mr. Chapin’s plan is to beat off the wormy apples, but
Mr. Barnes adopts the method of picking them off by means of a wire
hook attached to the end of a pole. These two methods can be very
usefully combined by first jarring or beating off those apples which
readily fall, and then going over the trees a second time with the pole
and hook. The apples thus removed should, of course, be fed to swine
or otherwise treated so as to destroy the worms within. Too much value
cannot be attached to these simple’ expedients, which, in the case of a
few choice trees or even a small orchard, might almost be made to super-
cede the necessity of any other treatment.

3d. Gathering the wormy wind-fall apples from the ground, or letting
swine or sheep have the range of the orchard.—This plan has been gene-
rally recommended. as of very great importance. Its efficacy will de-
pend, of course, upon the proportion of worms which fall to the ground
in the apples, as compared with those which leave the apples whilst
hanging upon the tree. Those which crawl down the branches spin up
before reaching the ground, and those which let themselves down by a
thread, would, for the most part, be detected only by birds or by do-
mestic fowls, and as there is reason to believe that they usually perform
this act in the night, even these must fail to capture them.

With regard to those wind-falls which contain worms, it is necessary
to gather them frequently, that is, every day or every second day at
farthest. The apples do not usually fall till the worms are nearly ma-
tured, and they leave them in the course of a few days. If you exam-
ine indiscriminately a large number of wind-fall apples lying under the
trees, you will be surprised to find how few worms they contain, they
evidently having left the fruit before it fell, or soon after.

But the most important question in this connection is, what propor-
tion of the worms leave the apples before they fall from the tree? I-
have endeavored to arrive at an approximate estimate upon this subject,
by putting two or more bands upon the same tree, upon the presump-
tion that the worms descending from above will spin up in the upper
band, and those crawling up from the ground, in the lower. The fol-
lowing tables, numbered for the purpose of reference, give the results of
these experiments. The wind-fall apples in every case were left as they
fell upon the ground.

On the tenth of July, (1871,) I put bands as follows upon four trees,
the ground underneath being bare, or free from grass or rubbish of any
kind. One band was put about a foot from the ground, another about
two feet higher on the trunk, and others on two or three of the larger

15

[ 435 |

branches, eight or ten feet from the ground. They were examined J uly

28th, eighteen days after they were put on:

No. 6.

No. 1.
Niholemuniber of worms tn all stages! an <n) teeaiis os anie ds 324 snn-cice doen eee see eee
Number of empty pupa cases.-..-....--.-.- lel lvl he ele) ci wien aie am mm etm ol 9 alm aw olan eee ote ere ee 38
I EEROL YO), TR cen once me Seeger odec hap Bc cadeeabo-r Tee CE ERA RCBHEBEEE sac cis eisenencs: 127
Wumber of enelosed but unchanged larva....-..-.---..s200200eeeec cee ceneccecececeel cee 55
Niniperesalljstacediny lowest, bandsso 5.85 uon= eases toe eck. eb Se, Bae 94
Numberiofi all’ stares in-apper trunks bands:2.. - 5-1/4 « toacias Set de de ota sascdeke yaee glee. 83
Naormber of allistaces inibands on limbs. osc... .sec<e-csescease=sclsns cose cess uieene tee 43
No.. 2.
; (Same trees examined August 11th, two weeks later.)
De(EELA LG OE OPS GE Se cele Soe Se cae Ices oe od ado r arise Sen eee ee BeBe pease ebecr ete sea: 16
ANTIMONY ROR TOW haat OB Soci seen creringcecedehesedesee tr pc hc Sane: Seam eeee DERE eE MEE ae or 34
INEGI CHE Iho Ske Shape JAh Cape ocecebd oe OB EAE SECC REP Ee ler ctcro- ACRE me mmer Mere eee. 15
WiholerinmM op Orsi lOWesb OANOSG. 232i scene seta caeaspenaesdcetcre tees: ccscc eects ae 21
Min olen pert GULey DANOSe2 5c seacets as sae oe as aae enna eee ee eat: re ple 13
Manolemumpenim bandsion limber js tidanac a eee anise wes sekiladas aes ois ooo tee oil os de 31
No. 3.
(Same trees—August 25th, two weeks from last.)
INIT OF TENE CORES Be Ree Gena Seer nr Mo rpO nS ERCE EC OC ACECe Heer Bes” Seer see Ee SE ReRee ep aene nm EA
NTRS) NP OEY TEE shed cote ome bee eee Se SECCe SHOOTS Se Sa D EE OAT OCS A ESE SME Gor CEES ye ie ai tee 4
BRUTE ENE ONE4 CoAten SIS VES EEE © EL ELELI ls ote wtetat arate Sieieretetate ice etets ste slate enetae eet tira aera a ee a ee 41
MIMD OL LILO wy OSt AHO Sets aes ale ostake neo etelala seme ae eieelore ote wel tara Nahe dato Se ieeraee uN yo tem Ue 24
JO rbre aie TE eT GWG [CPE ES Se cceoc cone NSC aE ODOC cB AEE IOC ENE EER Ree ee ees alten ae Marty Piel 15
SIVTCRNIN EYES Pan aN se IA CLS OTL LEE Se tomto ein see eta arenes maar a sient terateynlelerciieie nae ait acta cera see ee "7
No. 4.
(Same trees—September 9th, fifteen days later—Found larve only.)
Meuron lament Danis ts: sess Seta. se sse n+ 0s oe o=ae ees ees eee Oe ees Re 33
Numbergn middle AE co nee Seer ae oreCae Se SEE RSE ooSeccUsodEEarceSsbenbeeeAcesebed eek 39
Virose tin Toa Gy Wied Se ese nececoeocouse anceOgcae EP OER SSUEeTC Ger ear cerorconreneabecee eouunen 9
No. 5.
(Same trees—September 23d, two weeks later—Larve only.)
iShares iim Tay es ine G Re Cae Secigeccsecoseenned RoBoctien: do sec Ace mA eoceeeeL CHEE een Meee: piel 28
PRICE M UGGS: OM OS =. cece cleayasyalaleynie ate aivw —afelaleininteelatntem cere ma aeece ce eee ole eee 29
Number in bands on MANUS aio oa a alate 1a) sinlni nin = wins ates etic teal a(e etaWalas Seiataeisie oiciaid= Sec elee ee 4

o4

On the fourth of July, (1872,) I selected a smooth, thrifty apple tree,
six inches in diameter, growing upon grass land, and well filled with
apples, bearing many marks of being wormy, but remarkably tenacious,

CC

[ 436 ] 16

and consequently but few lying upon the ground. Put two bands upon
the trunk, one a foot and a half above the other.

Examined July 23d, a moderate number of apples having in the mean-
time fallen upon the ground:

Waolemnmberin the lower band. 2.02 st .s- ot <ceckcceesie cece sacchesce oes nas ee ee eee ees 150
Wholenumber inthe upper band...) 3652 oc db seco ces soe ce ee natek ebopceee pean anee eee 110

The bands in this experiment were made of carpet six inches wide
and long enough to go twice round the tree, making a very abundant
covert for the worms. As might have been anticipated, in this case the
greater part of the worms in the upper band were found in its upper
half, indicating that the worms had reached it by descending from
above; and, on the other hand, the greater part of the worms in the
lower band were in its lower half, showing that they had come up from
the ground. We say the greater part, but not all: implying that some
worms in each case had passed over one band and gone on to the next.

The above tables furnish data for many interesting and practical de-
ductions.

First, as respects the question now under consideration, namely, What
proportion of the worms leaves the apples before they fall from the tree;
if we add together all the worms found in the highest and the lowest
bands, respectively, and divide those found in the middle or upper trunk
bands equally between the other two, we shall have four bundred and
thirty six in the lower bands, and two hundred and ninety in the upper,
implying at first view that much the larger number came up from the
ground. But there are several circumstances in these experiments which
must be taken into account, and which will somewhat modify this conclu-
sion. First, many of the limbs had no bands upon them, and the worms
from these may be presumed to have found covert chiefly in the upper
bands on the trunk. Second, two of the trees experimented upon were
large rough trees, and a part of the worms undoubtedly spun up under
the seales of bark on the limbs above the bands. And, thirdly, we do
not know what proportion of the worms may have let themselves down
to the ground by threads, and then found shelter under the lowest bands.
Taking these circumstances into account, we shall perhaps arrive at an
approximation sufficiently accurate for practical purposes if we divide
the whole number of worms equally between the upper and lower bands,
from which we infer that about half of the worms crawl down the tree,
and the other half reach the ground either in the apples or by threads.
We must infer from this, so far as one series of experiments enables us
to judge, that the gathering of windfall apples, either by ourselves or by
the aid of domestic animals, enables us to destroy less than half of the
Codling-worms.

17 [ 437 ]

The animals used for this purpose are hogs and sheep. The latter are
more cleanly, and equally effective, but they are liable to damage young
trees by gnawing the bark. Mr. A. R. Whitney, of Franklin Grove,
has pastured sheep in his large orchards for years, without any injury of
this kind. Sheep seem to differ in their tastes in this respect; but the
result will probably be found to depend generally upon the size and age
of the trees, and upon the circumstance whether there be a sufficient
supply of other food.

4. Entrapping the worms under bands and other contrivances.—The
well known habit of the Codling-worms to seek shelter, when about to
transform, under the scales of the bark of the trees upon which they
have been reared, long ago suggested the idea of entrapping them under
some artificial covert in which they could be easily destroyed. More
than fifty years ago, Mr. Joseph Burrelle, of Quincy, Mass., practiced
the method of winding pieces of old cloth around the trunks of the
trees, or hanging them in the crotches ; and subsequently Dr. Trimble,
of New Jersey, suggested the substitution of hay bands in large or-
chards. These different methods have been largely put in practice, and
are now regarded as the most effective remedy against the damages of
the Codling-moth. The tables given above furnish sufficient examples
of the effectiveness of this process, showing that seven hundred and
twenty-six worms were captured on five trees, three of which were small
trees not more than six inches in diameter.

‘The materials commonly used are bands of hay, or of cloth, or traps
made by placing two or three pieces of thin board or shingle one upon
another, and fastening them to the tree by a screw through the middle.
The hay bands are the least convenient, and are resorted to only when
a sufficiency of material for the cloth bands is not at hand. Where ma-
terial is abundant, the cloth bands should be from four to six inches
wide, and long enough to go twice round the tree, one layer upon the
other. In my first experiments I used cotton bands, and found the
worms rarely between the folds, but usually under the bands, more or
less embedded in the bark. The next year I used strips of old carpet,
which seemed to be more satisfactory to the insects, as many of them
sought protection between the layers. These bands can be kept in their
place either by a nail driven through the loose end into the tree, or by a
piece of twine tied around the middle of the band. They must be taken
off and examined at certain intervals, and replaced after the worms
within and beneath them have been destroyed. An expeditious way of
killing the worms has been suggested, by running the bands through a
common clothes wringer.

The shingle trap is a recent invention of Messrs. Thomas and D. B.
Wier, of Marshall county, in this State. It is an extremely simple con-

trivance, made usually of three pieces of old shingle, new shingles being,
Vol. LV—47

[ 438 | 18

objectionable on account of their terpentiny odor. The pieces may be
about a foot long and from four to six inches wide. The three pieces
for one trap should be of different widths, the narrower ones being next
to the tree. It is recommended to put a few piece of straw between the ,
shingles, letting them project beyond the edge, partly for the purpose
of keeping the pieces slightly apart, and partly to serve as conductors ,;
to the worms. ‘There can be no doubt that the covert furnished by these
pieces of wood, lying in juxtaposition, is a very congenial one to these |
insects. It is the same in its nature as that afforded by the boards of 4
apple bins, which are often found glued together by the accumulated co-
coons of these insects. Another similar instance is that furnished by the
partial splitting down of the crotch of forked limbs, where hundreds of
worms are sometimes found imbedded in the cleft thus made. Mr. D.
B. Wier performed a number of experiments for the purpose of testing
the efficacy of these traps in comparison with the hay and cloth bands.
When put to similar tests, the result stood as follows: cloth bands, 27;
straw ropes, 36; Wier’s trap, 74. In another trial, from 43 to 188 worms
were found in each trap, at the end of every ten days.

The obvious imperfection of these traps consists in the very limited .
extent of their contact with the tree, so that unless many traps are
placed’ upon the same tree, the worms are liable to pass by them ; though
it is possible that if no other covert be found, a part of the worms may
return to them. The claim that has been set up that the traps attract
the worms from a distance, so that one, or at most two, traps to a tree
are all that are necessary, is improbable in itself, and does not bear the
test of experience. The following experiments with these traps were
performed by me during the past summer.

Early in the season I put upon the trunk of each of four apple trees,
two of Mr. Wier’s traps, on opposite sides, one higher than the other,
so as to admit a carpet band six inches wide between them. Of course
no worm could reach the bands without passing by one or the other of
the traps, or rather its horizontal range. These appliances were ex-
amined on the 26th of July, with the following results:

Number of worms in the upper trapSe......- 2-2-2 eee eee ee cee ee eee eer rete eet ete ee ee ae ee eee 36
Number of worms in the lower trapS..-.---.---------- eee ence cece eee e ee een eens SIMCHAS hos 44
Number of worms in the cloth bands. .....-..-- 1.2.0 --- ee eee e ee ee eee ee eee en eee ee ee eee e nee 188

The traps were made of but two pieces each. The pieces for two of
them were senttome by Mr. Thomas Wier for experiment. ‘The other
two were made each of one shingle six inches wide, sawed across in the
middle and one half laid upon the other. The traps would have been
more effective undoubtedly if each had been made of three or four pieces.
But the experiment, as it is, shows that the shingle traps possess no
special attractions. Mr. Wier claims, as one of the chief advantages of
his traps, that the worms can either be taken from-them, or crushed be-

4

L 19 [ 439 |

| tween them by rolling one piece upon another, much more exepditiously
than they can be destroyed in the bands. The bands, on the other hand,
| possess the obvious advantage of completely surrounding the tree and
- thus intercepting the passage of the worms on every side.

We advise every orchardist to try both of these methods and retain
that which proves, in his hands, to be most effective and convenient.
A sample of the most approved pattern of the shingle trap can be ob-
_ tained by application to Mr. D. B. Wier, of Lacon, or Mr. Thomas Wier,
_ of Henry, Marshall county, Illinois.

In large orchards, where a sufficient supply of waste cloth is not at

_ hand, the bands can be made of paper, folded two or three times, which
will answer the purpose for one season. Coarse straw paper can be
procured by the bale at such a price as to render the expense very
‘trifling. The paper should be selected of such a size, that when cut into
strips, they will reach around the trees. Such bands would, of course,
be spoiled by scalding, but the worms might be killed some other way,
or the bands could be renewed at a merely nominal expense.

Itis evident that the bands must be put upon the trees as soon as the
worms begin to leave the apples, and that they must be kept on all
through the season, because the worms of the second brood continue to
leave the apples as long as they hang upon the tree. But it is well es-
tablished, as a general rule, that the worms of the second brood do not
emerge as moths until the following spring, so that it is not necessary
to examine the bands after the first brood have ceased to run, with the
exception of one final examination late in the fall, or any time in the
winter or early spring. - Mr. Riley states thatin the latitude of St. Louis
the great majority of the worms of the first brood leave the fruit from
the middle of May to the middle of June. In the lattitude of Chicago
the time will have to be put a full month later. Indeed avery few
worms in this latitude leave the apples in the month of June, and more
than nine-tenths of the worms of the first brood leave the apple in the
month of July. A good practical rule, which will apply to all latitudes
and seasons, is to apply the bands at the end of one month from the
time of the blossoming of the apple trees. They can be applied, of
course, at any time previous to this when leisure permits.

HOW OFTEN AND HOW LATE MUST THE BANDS BE EXAMINED?

The intervals between the examinations must be somewhat less than
the duration of the pupa state, for the obvious reason that the insects
will begin to escape in the form of winged moths as often as this period
elapses. The usual duration of the pupa state, in mid-summer, is about
twelve or fourteen days, though it varies from ten to twenty. It will be
seen, by referring back to table No. 2, that sixteen empty pupa cases

[ 440 ] 20)

were found, though only two weeks had elapsed since the preceding
examination, showing that in this time sixteen of the worms had entered
the band, gone through with their transformations and emerged in the
winged form, and therefore that in order to capture every worm that en-
ters the bands, the examinations must be made oftener than every two
weeks, say every ten or twelve days.

We have already stated that, as a general rule, the second brood of
worms do not change to moths till the following spring, and therefore
that it is unnecessary to examine the bands after the first brood have
ceased to emerge, until we examine them once for all late in the season.
What, then, is the dividing time between the two broods? This, like
_ mnost other questions in natural history, can not be answered by draw-
ing a straight line. The two broods overlap each other to a very limited
extent, but not sufficiently to invalidate the adoption of general practical
rules. If we refer back to tables Nos. 4 and 5, we shall see that at these
examinations only unchanged larvee were found, from which we infer that
all the worms which entered the bands after the 25th of August belonged
to the second brood. And in the preceding examination, embracing
the period between the 11th and the 25th of August, only five out of
forty-six worms had changed to pupe. Judging from these tables we
conclude that in this latitude the dividing time between the two broods
is about the middle of August, and therefore that it is unnecessary to ex-
amine the bands after this date, until the final examination. If we put
the time of the first examination on the tenth of July, and the last but
one on the fifteenth of August, it will require three intermediate ex-
aminations at intervals of twelve days, making four summer and one
fall or winter examination, or five in all.

By the collation of these dates we may adopt a general rule which © |
will answer for all latitudes and seasons. Supposing the bands to have
been applied at any convenient time within a month after the blossoming
of the apple trees, then, allowing one week after the falling of the apple
blossoms for the laying and hatching of the earliest eggs, thirty days
for the growth of the larva and twelve days for the duration of the
pupa state, it follows that the moths will not begin to escape from the
bands till the expiration of seven weeks after the falling of the blossoms,
and therefore that the first examination of the bands need not be made
till a day or too previous to the expiration of this time. After this they
must be examined three times at intervals of twelve days, and once
more at the end of the season.

We may here add that these methods of entrapping the Codling-worms
are much more efficacioug upon young and smooth trees than upon old
and rough ones, for the reason that upon the latter many of those worms,
which leave the apples on the tree, spin up under the scales on the

1 [ 441 ]

branches, and therefore do not reach the traps. One of the trees
experimented with was of this kind, being upwards of forty years
old. In the summer of 1872 this tree was tolerably well filled with

apples, the greater part of which fell to the ground in consequence of

the injuries of the Codling-worms, and were allowed to remain there for
the sake of experiment. Upon the trunk of this tree were put, early in
the season, two of Wier’s traps and a carpet band. These appliances
were examined for the first time on the 26th of July, and then only thir-
ty larvee and pupze were found in all of them; whilst from two other
trees, not half as large, I obtained 129 and 260 worms, respectively.
The only explanation I could give of this remarkable difference was that .
a large proportion of the worms had left the apples before they fell, and
found shelter beneath the scales of bark on the limbs of this rough old
tree. To determine this point I spent a couple of hours in picking off
the scales on the large branches, and in this time discovered thirty
worms or pup, the same number that had entered the traps, and yet
I examined only a very small part of the tree’s surface.

AID TO BE EXPECTED FROM NATURAL ENEMIES.

Those injurious. insects which inhabit the substance of our fruits,
such as the plum-cureulio, the plum-gouger, and the codling-worm,
escape in this way, to a great degree, the attacks of natural enemies,
whether birds, or predaceous or parasitic insects—enemies to which
the soft, naked, pinkish-white bodies of the codling-worm would other-
wise offer a very tempting bait. The only time in their lives when they
are exposed to view is the brief period after leaving the apple, and
whilst seeking for a covert in which to spin their cocoons, and there is
good reason for believing that they usually take advantage of the dark-
ness of night for this purpose. In this way they must escape, to a
great exient, the many kinds of small insectivorous birds, all of which
are diurnal. Their only efficient enemies amongst the birds are the
woodpeckers, whose instinct enables them to discover and devour them
in their winter retreats. The boards of apple bins in open out-houses
often bear unmistakable marks of the penetrating beaks of these busy
insect-hunters, and I have seen the shingles of which Mr. Wier’s traps
were made, and which had been left on the trees through the winter,
ruined for future use by being riddled with holes made by woodpeckers
in digging out the worms concealed between the layers. The same in-
stinct enables them to discover the worms in their natural retreats be-
neath the bark, and many of the insects are known to be destroyed in this
way; and it is an encouraging circumstance that the worms which es-
cape our traps by pupating upon the branches, are exposed to the per-
tinacious search of the woodpeckers all through the autumnal, winter

442 | 22

and vernal months. But that a goodly proportion of the moths escape
all their enemies, our half-ruined apple crops abundantly testify. But
though insects which inhabit fruits are in this way protected from many
enemies, it is not to be understood that they wholly escape. ‘Two spe-
cies of Ichneumon fly are known to attack the larve of the plum-cur-
culio, and Mr. Riley informs me that he has also bred two species of the
same parasitic family from the larve of the codling-moth. I have also
bred one species ; but it is remarkable that from the hundreds of cod-
ling moths which I have reared from their larvee, I have bred but a sin-
gle individual of the parasitic Ichneumon, going to show how rarely
they find an opportunity to sting these protected larve, and therefore
how little we can expect from them in the way of practically reducing
the numbers of fruit-inhabiting larve. *

There is another enemy of the codling-worm, of which, we believe,
no public notice has been taken. Our attention was first called to it by
a communication from Dr. James Weed, of Muscatine, Iowa.

On the 25th of July, 1871, I received from Dr. Weed a couple of
white, elongate, somewhat depressed larve, between three and four-
tenths of an inch in length, with a brown head and straight mandibles,
with two brown spots on each of the three first segments, those on the
first being sub-quadrate, and the others round and successively decreas-
ing in size, and with a brown horny plate on the end of the last seg-
ment, from which project backwards a pair of short and slightly in-
curved spines. Dr. Weed stated that these were samples of a kind of
predaceous worm which were found in considerable numbers devouring
the larve and pupe of the codling-moth, so that in some cases the
pup under the bands were almost wholly destroyed by them, and that
he had seen them, in several instances, with their heads immersed in
the body of a pupa. Having had my attention drawn to this insect, I
subsequently saw them, from time to time, under the bands upon the
trees in my garden, and in one instance saw one of them in the act of
eating a codling pupa. These little worms are the larve of a small,
black, oblong and somewhat flattened beetle, belonging to the genus
Trogosita. They exactly resemble the figures of the larva of the Eu-
ropean Trogosita mauritanica, in Westwood’s Introduction, Vol. L., p.
142, fig. 21; and also in Ourtis’ Farm Insects, p. 330, fig. 27. We have

' two common American species of this genus, the ZT. castanea and the

Tf. corticalis, of Melsheimer, and I have seen the latter under the same
bands with the larve.

* In a letter received from Mr. Riley, since writing the above, he states that of one of the species
of Ichneumon flies reared by him from codling-worms he has obtained but three specimens in all;
but of the other species a much larger number. From one lot of 162 worms he bred 21 flies. He very
plausibly conjectures that in these latter instances the worms were stung after they had left the
apple, and probably after they had changed to pup.

23 [ 443 ]

The opinions heretofore entertained respecting the habits of the Tro-
gosite and their larvee have been chiefly founded upon the history of the
foreign species above mentioned, the Trogosita mauritanica, of Linnzeus,
subsequently named 7. caraboides by Fabricius. These insects are often
found in great numbers in stored grain in the south of Europe, where
the larva has received the popular name of the Cadelle ; and one of the
older French authors, M. Olivier, speaks of its doing more damage to
housed grain in the southern provinces of France than any other of the
destructive grain insects. The carnivorous habits of the perfect insect,
however, had been noticed from time to time, and Mr. Curtis, after
speaking of the injury done to grain by the larvee, adds: “ The beetle
is carnivorous, and makes some amends for the mischief it had done in
its larva state by destroying the Tinea granella.”

The observations of a recent French author, M. Ed. Perris, upon the
larva of another species of this family, lead to the conclusion that these
insects are carnivorous also in the larva state, and M. Lacordaire, after
referring to these observations, adds: ‘“ After this it is necessary to
rectify what I have said above concerning the granivorous tastes of
the larve of the Trogosita mauritanica. It is more than probable, as
M. Perris suggests, that they do not touch the grain in which they live,
but that they destroy, on the contrary, the larve of the grain beetles
(Calandre) and the caterpillars of the grain moths ( Tinee and Alucite)
which are the actual authors of the mischief, and therefore that instead
of being injurious, they render us a real service.”

Our observations, above recorded, upon the carnivorous habits of the

_ larvee of some of our American species, go to confirm this view.

Before leaving the Trogosite I may mention a curious incidental prac-
tice—I cannot call it a habit—of these insects. In the summer of 1871
one of the flouring mills in this town stood unoccupied, on account of the
financial difficulties of the parties owning it. The miller having it in
charge mentioned to me that the expensive bolting cloths in the estab-
lishment were being seriously damaged by some small black beetles
which ate small holes through them, and would soon ruin them if they
remained stationary, and that he was obliged to start up the machinery
of the mill every day in order to save them. These proved, upon ex-
amination, to be the larger of the two species of Trogosita above named,
and which I understand to be the 7. castanea.

. Asan enemy of the codling-moth it appears, from the testimony of
Dr. Weed, that the Trogositie exercise a considerable efficiency in some
localities, but we have not at present sufficient reason to suppose that
they contribute much, upon the whole, to lessen the numbers of this
destructive fruit insect.

[ 444 | O4

To the above enemies of the codling worms must be added, upon the
testimony of Mr. George W. Shaw, of Garden Grove, lowa, the well
known Arma spinosa, or Soldier-bug, which is known to be such an
effective destroyer of the larve of the Colorado potato-beetle. Mr.
Shaw writes to me that he has actually seen this predaceous insect (or
possibly an allied species), in a number of instances, spear the codling
worm with its sharp probocis, and draw it out from its burrow in the
apple. This interesting statement rests at present, we believe, solely
upon Mr. Shaw’s testimony.

FUNGUS ON CODLING WORMS.

We occasionally find codling worms dead in their burrows, and cov-
ered with mould. Mr. Wier stated to me that he had met with so many
instances of this kind that he had come to the conclusion that they are
often destroyed by some kind of fungus. It seems to us a more proba-
ble explanation that these larve had perished from some other cause,
and that the mould was a post mortem production.

SUMMARY OF REMEDIES.

We will briefly recapitulate the principal measures to be adopted with
the view of destroying the larve of the Codling-moth:

Ist. Destroy the worms in their winter quarters.—This we have shown
to be an excellent rule so far as it is practicable. It is in this way that
we derive our principal aid from birds, especially the Downy and the
Hairy woodpeckers.

2d. Pick the wormy apples from the trees by means of a wire hook at-
tached to the end of a pole-—The wormy apples are distinguished by the
little mass of rust-colored castings which adhere to the withered calyx.
This is also an excellent practice. Every apple thus gathered in the
early part of the season contains a worm, and its destruction may pre-
vent the propagation of a large number of worms of the second brood.

3d. Gather the wind-fall apples from the ground, or let sheep or
swine have the range of the orchard.—Where it is convenient to let the
domestic animals run in the orchard, it is well to do so. The apples will
thus be economized, and by gathering them almost as fast as they fall,
a considerable number of worms will be destroyed. But unless the
gathering of wind-falls can be accomplished in this way, the method is
scarcely worth the time and labor which its practice requires. And this
_is for two reasons: first, because a large proportion, probably more than
half, of the worms leave the apples before they fall; and secondly, be-
cause the worms whichremain have usually nearly attained their growth
and are about ready to leave the apples at the time of their fall, and
therefore, to be at all effective, the apples must be picked up as often as

25 [ 445 ]

every second day. The orchardist will hardly submit to this tedious
labor when he knows that even from the apples thus frequently gathered
more than half of the worms have escaped.

Ath. Entrapping the worms in bands and other contrivances—This we
have shown to be a very effective method, especially upon comparatively
young and smooth-limbed trees. Having” sufficiently described these
methods in the body of this article, we will here simply give the rules
for applying and examining these traps.

Let the horticulturist make a memorandum of the time of the falling
of the apple blossoms. Any time within a month after this date, the
bands or other traps may be applied. Between six and seven weeks
from the fall of the blossoms let the first examination be made; and
after this make three other examinations with intervals of twelve days.
Lastly, make one more and final examination, which may be done any
time late in the fall, or in the winter, or in the early spring.

Before closing we will briefly advert to another practical suggestion
upon this subject, made originally, we believe, by Dr. E. S. Hull, the
well known horticulturist, of Alton, in this State. This is the method
of throwing air-slacked lime upon the trees, when they are in blossom,
or immediately thereafter. The idea is, that as the blossom end of the
apple, at this incipient stage, points upward or outward, a sufficient
quantity of the lime will lodge upon it to render it repugnant to the
moth, and thus prevent her from depositing her eggs. Weare not aware
that this plan bas been put in practice to a sufficient extent to test its
efficacy. ‘Two considerations oceur to us which must prevent its being
completely successful: first, that experience shows that the moths con-
tinue to deposit their eggs, to a greater or less extent, all through the
earlier part of the season, and the lime would be liable to be washed off
by rain; and secondly, many apples would be so protected by the
foliage that the lime would fail to reach them. The idea, however, is
_ an interesting one, and the efficacy of the method, like that of all others,
would depend upon the thoroughness with which it was put in practice.

Vol. IV—48

Explanation —a, the fully grown larva; b, the moth; ¢, a cluster of eggs; d, an egg magnified.

THE YELLOW-NECKED APPLE-TREE CATERPILLAR.
(Datana ministra, Drury.)
Order of LEPIDOPTERA. Family of NoTopontTIpDz.

Synonyms :—Phalena ministra, Drury. Datana ministra, Walker.

Pygera ministra, Harris’ Inj. Ins. p. 430. Humetopona ministra, Fitch, Second N. Y. Rep., p. 289.

This moth varies from an inch and a half to two inches and a quar-
ter across the expanded wings. The head and forepart of the thorax
vary from buff-yellow to a dark red. The hinder part of the thorax
and abdomen are dull yellowish of different shades. The forewings vary
from a bright buff-yellow to a peculiar livid or smoky-brown, crossed
by four or five narrow, dull reddish bands. The under wings are pale
yellowish or whitish, but tinted more or less with the darker color 0
the upper wings, and with the posterior margin more deeply colored.

These various tints in the imago bear a certain relation to the varied
coloration of the larva, and this seems to depend upon the nature of the
different kinds of foliage upon which they feed. The larva, when fully
grown, may be described in general terms as a black, moderately
hairy caterpillar, with four conspicuous yellow or white stripes on each
side of the body, and with the top of the neck, or first segment after
the head, in most of the varieties, of a bright wax-yellow color. When
fully grown they attain, under favorable circumstances, a length of two
inches or a little more.

This brief description may answer the purpose of introducing the
species of which we are now to treat. The moths, like most other noc-
turnal Lepidoptera, are seldom seen, but the lary, on account of their
large size and peculiar habits, must often have attracted the notice of
persons not usually interested in the subject of insects. They feed upon

=

————

27 [ 447 |

the leaves of various trees, having been found on the apple, cherry,
quince, oak, hickory, black walnut, black locust, birch, basswood, thorn,
hazel and sumach. The eggs, from seventy to a hundred in number, are
white and spherical, and are deposited in a dense patch, side by side, on
the under side of the terminal leaves, so that the young worms have
the newest and tenderest foliage to feed upon. They eat at first only
the under side of the leaves, but as they increase in size they devour
the whole leaf except the mid-rib. They do not spin any visible web,
but are nevertheless strictly gregarious, feeding in dense clusters, and
eating clean every leaf as they go. When all the leaves upon one twig
or branch are consumed, they hastily migrate to another, sometimes
making their appearance upon a remote part of the tree. When not
feeding they often rest with their heads and tails elevated at right
angles with the rest of their bodies, and they always suddenly throw
themselves into this attitude when they are disturbed.

But what is calculated more than anything else to attract attention to
these worms, is their remarkably gregarious habit at their moulting
periods. They then come down upon the side of the trunk, and mass
themselves together, very much after the fashion of a swarm of bees,
sometimes making a quantity as large as could be held in both hands
united. They maintain themselves in this position by means of shreds
of web extending over and through them. ‘Those which [ have particu-
larly noticed remain in this position two days and nights. Before the
middle of the third day, those which have first accomplished their
moulting, begin to crawl up the tree, and by the close of the third day
nearly all have ascended. During this time they have cast off their
outgrown skins, which are left dry and empty, attached to the web.
They do not always come down upon the trunk to go through with this
operation, but are sometimes seen attached, en masse, to the under side
of the large horizontal branches.

These worms, like the larve of the fall web-worm, and the tent cater-
pillar of tke forest, and some other social caterpillars, become less gre-
garious towards the close of their larval career, and after the last moult
they often become quite solitary and erratic. They are one of the latest
of our insects, never making their appearance before mid-summer, and
being seen of different sizes from this time on, till the frost renders the
foliage no longer fit for their nutriment.

As these insects all pass the winter in the pupa state, and are there-
fore in the same state of maturity when the summer opens, and as the
female moth lays her eggs all at one operation, the question may natur-
ally be asked how this succession of broods through the season is pro-
duced. It is evidently owing to the different periods of time that the in-
sects remain in the pupa state.

| 448 ] 28

About fifty of these larve, for example, which I reared last fall, and
all of which entered the ground at about the same time, or in the course
of four days, in the first week of August, began to emerge in the winged
form on the tenth of the following June, and continued to come out till
the end of the first week of July, and I have known the apple variety
to emerge as late as the 18th of July. As these insects are of so large
and conspicuous a size, and as the larvee subsist upon the foliage of so
ereat a variety of trees, they furnish one of the best examples in the
whole class of insects, of phytophagic variation, or the variation of
color, both of the larve and of the perfect insects, according to the di-
versities of their food-plants. As might be expected, some of these va-
rieties differ but slightly from each other, whilst others, and especially
those which feed upon the black walnut, differ so remarkably from the
rest that they might almost be regarded as distinet species. Indeed,
some recent writers upon our Lepidoptera have elevated most of these
varieties to the rank of species, and have accordingly given to them dis-
tinet specific names.

In speaking of the two allied moths, the Phycita nebulo and the
Phycita juglandis, in my second report, I had oecasion to allude to the
vexed question in natural history, whether there be any essential distine-
tion between what are known as species and varieties ; or whether these
terms only express different degrees of permanency in allied organic forms,
all of which are subject to change. Whatever opinion we may enter-
tain upon this difficult subject, the practical question will often arise, in
descriptive entomology, whether we shall regard and deseribe a particu-
lar kind of insect as a new species with a distinctive specific name, or
let it stand as only a variety of another and previously known species.
The well known test, applied to the higher animals, is that of uniting
the sexes of the two allied forms, and observing whether the progeny
have, or have not, the power of procreating their kind; the former
being understood to indicate only varieties, whilst if the progeny are
sterile, it is supposed to prove that the parents were of different species.
But the application of this test requires so much time and attention
that it can scarcely be expected to be practiced merely for the purpose
of determining the specific identity of two allied insects.

A criterion often applicable to insects is that founded upon their food-
habits, in accordance with the common rule that though the same species
of insect will often feed upon closely allied plants, they will very rarely
subsist upon plants of different natural families. But there are too
many well known exceptions to this rule to admit of making it a test of
specific identity. Indeed the larvee of many of the moths belonging to
the family of Arctiidwe, pay no respect to this distinction; and some of
them, of which the woolly bear or larva of the Spilosoma virginiea is a

29 [ 449 |

familiar example, eat almost every plant which comes in their way, and
have been known to subsist, for a time, upon the dead remains of other
insects. The great diversity of foliage eaten by the different varieties
of the Datana ministra cannot, therefore, be admitted as proof of diffe-
rence of species.

A much closer test of specific identity is the tolerance of a change of
food-plant. If two insects very similar, but yet with such differences
as to render their specific identity doubtful, be found feeding upon diffe-
rent kinds of plants, and if, upon transferring each of them to the food-
plant of the other, they continue to feed and thrive, it is generally re-
garded as affording the strongest presumptive evidence that they are
only varieties of one and the same species; and inversely, if they each
refuse to eat the food of the other, that they are specifically distinct.
This is no doubt, in the great majority of cases, a correct and suflicient
test. Can we go farther and hold it to be an unexceptionable rule? If
we assume it to be such, it will follow that some of the different forms
of the Datana ministra are distinct species; for we have repeatedly
tried to change the black walnut variety to the apple tree, and the
walnut and sumach varieties each to the food of the other, and in every
instance they have persistently refused to eat. But this test does not
appear to us to be of such a nature as to make it infallable. If two
broods of some indiscriminate feeder, such as the larvie of the Spilosoma
virginica above referred to, should be so situated that they would be
compelled to feed, each upon some one species of plant, and if this re-
striction should be continued through many generations, it would seem
very probable that their tastes might become so confirmed that each
would refuse to eat the food of the other, especially if the two plants
were very unlike each other.

It will have been observed that the three trees to which we have
above referred as the food-plants of the larve of Datana—the apple,
the sumach, and the black walnut—belong to as many distinct families
of plants, far removed from each other in their natural characters. But
where their food-plants are botanically allied to each other, the larve
ean be transferred from one to the other without difficulty. I received,
Jast summer, a number of half-grown larvee which had, been found upon
the quince, and these were reared to maturity upon the leaves of the
apple.

But let us proceed to describe some of the principal variations which
occur in these insects, both in the larvee and imago states, and see how
far these variations seem to depend upon diversity of food-plants.

Without going into any extensive detail, we will take three of the
most characteristic varieties, those found upon the appie, the sumach,
and the black walnut, and point out the most striking differences. The
larvee described below are to be understood to have arrived at maturity.

| 450 |

Apple variety.

Body black, with four narrow,
pale-yellow stripes upon the
sides, narrower than the inter-
vening spaces.

Upper side of the neck, or
tee segment, deep, wax-yel—
ow.

Hairs upon the body whitish
—about as long as the width

30

Sumach variety.

Body black; in some speci-
mens, very dark-red, with
bright lemon-yellow stripes as
wide as the intervening spaces.

Top of neck black, sometimes
with a narrow anterior margin
of yellow.

Hairs same.

Black Walnut variety.

Body wholly black, without
stripes.

Top of neck black.

Hairs pure white—twice as
long as the width of the body.

of the body.

The dissimilarity of the black walnut variety from the others, is very
remarkable; so much so, that judging from the mature larvee alone we
should never suspect them to be the same, or even a closely allied spe-

cies. But previously to the last moult, this variety is striped like the
others, and it has precisely the same manners in feeding and moulting;
and I have seen individuals, after the last moult, with short hairs as in
the other varieties.

With respect to the coloration of the corresponding moths of these
three varieties, a certain relation can be observed to that of their re-
spective larvee. The, moths proceeding from the apple-feeding variety,
are of a russet or reddish-brown color, varying considerably in shade in
different individuals. These may be taken as the types of the Datana
ministra proper. The moths from the sumach larve, with their broader
and brighter yellow stripes, are of a pretty uniform buff-yellow color, with
a conspicuous dusky spot a little below the upper extremity of the second
transverse line, and a smaller dot opposite to it, between the first and
second lines. This variety partially combines the characters of D. per-
spicua and D. major of Grote and Robinson, haying the bright, buff-
yellow color of the former, but without its confluent first and second
cross lines, and the discal spots and other characters of the latter.

The moths from the unmixed black caterpillars found upon the black
walnut, are much darker than the others, being of a smoky-brown color of
different shades, but sometimes approximating to the russet brown of
the apple ard the oak varieties. The space between the first and sec-
ond cross lines is usually darker in this variety, than the rest of the
wing.

Besides their diversities of color the varieties of Datana ministra differ
also, but only in a slight degree, in the number and direction of the
cross lines, the proportional width of the wings, and the depth of the
crenulations or little rounded notches in the terminal margin of the up-
per wings. But Mr. Walsh has shown by the comparison of many spe-
cimens, (Proceedings of the Ent. Soc. of Philadelphia for 1865, page
194) that these variations pass into each other by insensible gradations,
and therefore that they cannot be relied upon as specific characters.

31 [451 |

Dr. Fitch has given an account of this insect in his second New York
Report, and points out the principal varieties, but without referring
them to their corresponding larve.

We have spoken above of the comparatively late season of the year
when the Datana-moths issue from the pupa state in which they have
passed the winter. This circumstance might suggest an interesting in-
quiry into the causes which produce the great diversity in the periods
of insect life. Not only do animal, as well as vegetable organisms 0G
cupy every part of nature’s domain, but they are also widely distributed
as respects the seasons of the year. As we have our spring, summer,
and fall flowers, so we have our early and late insects, destined to keep
in check the earlier and later vegetation. One way in which this is
brought about is an unexplained difference in the time required for the
development of different species of insects in the pupa state. Of the
many moths which pass the winter in this condition, some emerge in the
month of May, a much larger number in June, whilst a few, like the
moth of the fall web-worm, and the Datana ministra of which we have
here been treating, often lie dormant till well into July. The ultimate
or economical reason for this diversity is sufficiently obvious, but the
actual or physiological causes which produce it, are’ unknown, and per-
haps unknowable. All we can say is, that it is their nature to do so.
Here, for instance, are two chrysalids, lying side by side, belonging it
may be to closely allied species, and scarcely distinguishable from each
other. Yet one shall feel the first touch of sping and come forth, whilst
the other shall lie dormant and motionless, heedless alike of winter’s cold
and summer’s heat, till at length the dial points to the predestined hour
in the cycle of its existance. Then, without any known or visible cause,
the vital forces begin to circulate, and the creature exhibits tokens of
reviving animation, within the darkened chamber of its sepulture.
Gradually it rouses itself from its lethargy, and throws off its swaddling
cerements, and puts on its beautiful garments, and comes forth to the
light and liberty of a more exalted state of existance.

We do not mean to say that these changes take place without the op-
eration of natural causes, but that these agencies are of so subtile a na-
ture, and of so delicate an adjustment, that they will probably forever
lie beyond the reach of human investigation.

PRACTICAL TREATMENT.

This insect has never been known to increase to any very serious ex-'
tent, and it cannot be regarded, at most, as more than a third-rate inju-
rious insect. We have occasionally seen small apple trees nearly. defo-
liated by them; but our own experience has been mostly with the black
walnut variety. We have an ornamental row of these trees which we

i i

[ 452 ] 32

set out as seedlings twenty years ago. Scarcely a year has passed, since
they attained a considerable size,that they have not been more or less
disfigured by having some of their branches stripped of their foliage by
these caterpillars. Some seasons they have been so numerous that we
have thought it necessary to take measures for their destruction. They
are eminently gregarious and therefore easily controlled. They feed
side by side as closely together as they can stand, and when they are
young a whole brood of them can be taken from the tree by removing a
single compound leaf of the walnut. Later in the season, as we have
above described, they come down, every time they moult, and mass
themselves upon the trunk or large branches. As at this time they are
bound together by web, they can be taken off en masse and consigned to
to the flames.

They are, no doubt, kept largely in check by their natural enemies.
We have reared from them two large species of Ichneumon flies, the
Ophion mundum of Say, and another undetermined species.

IT have often seen flocks of blackbirds alight upon the trees infested by
these worms, but I was never near enough to determine whether they
fed upon them. But I have seen that efficient destroyer of the hairy eat-
erpillars, the American Cuckoo, in the act of devouring them. I observed
that it always siezed the insect by one extremity, probably the head, and
mashed it, by mumbling it between the tips of its mandibles for a time,
before swallowing it. In the article upon Tussock-moth, in my first
annual report, I described the manner in which I had seen the Cuckoo
shave off the tufts of hair upon the larva of this moth, before swallow-
ing it; but the larva of the Datana is but little hairy, especially pre-
viously to the last moult, and the only object that I can coneeive the
bird to have, in crushing the heads of these worms, is to destroy their
vitality as nearly as possible. This is undoubtedly a wise precautionary
measure, since the presence in the stomach of two or three dozen un-
harmed and squirming caterpillars could scarcely be compatible with
that repose after a hearty meal, which is generally supposed to be con-
ducive to digestion.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE COTTON-WOOD.

Explanation.—a, inciptent gall on the under side of the leaf; b, corresponding bulge on the upper
side; c, fully formed gall, showing the lips slightly separated, so as to permit the escape of the mature
insects; d and e, incipient double galls, one being located on each side of the mid-rib; /, the wingless
female ; g, the mature winged insect.

POPLAR-LEAF GALL-LOUSE.

(Pemphigus populicaulis, Fitch.)
Order of HOMOPTERA. Family of APHID sz.

The Cotton-wood (Populus monilifera, Aiton), though one of the least
valuable of our shade trees, is nevertheless worthy to retain its place
among our shade-trees on account of its rapid growth, and the ease and
certainty with which it can be propagated, thus often becoming avail-
able where other trees have failed. For these reasons there is a con-
siderable demand for it, in proof of which we may state that we have
recently seen a statement of twelve thousand of these trees having been
shipped, upon one order,.to a Swedish colony in Nebraska. The health
and growth of the Cotton-wood, and some other species of the poplar
family, are sometimes seriously impaired by different kinds of excres-
cences on the twigs and leaves, constituting what are technically known
as galls, and formed by as many different species of the gall-making
aphides. One of these is a large corrugated gall, formed on the ends of
the twigs, often near the tops of the trees, turning black when mature,
and adhering to the tree through the winter, and making unsightly ex-

[ 454 | 34 5

‘

crescences on the leafless trees. This gall is the work of the species
first described by Mx. Walsh, under the name of Byrsocrypta vagabundus.

Another species, which is the subject of the present article, forms the
swellings at the junction of the leaf-stalk with the leaf, often assuming
a reddish tint, and growing to the size of a small marble. Unlike the
former, this species is most abundant on the lowest branches, and pro-
bably always commences its operations upon this part of the tree. It
is a widely spread insect, and its bullet-like galls must have been often
observed, but very little has been recorded of its history. Mr. Walsh
refers to it incidentally in some of his able and elaborate writings upon
the gall-making insects; and Dr. Fitch described and named it many
years previously, but evidently without having had an opportunity to
study its habits. Though not itself an insect of much practical import-
ance, its history has what may be denominated a generic value, in
consideration of its belonging to the gall-making division of the exten-
sive and important family of Aphides, and as helping to elucidate the
origin and growth of these curious excrescences. Indeed, the manner
in which the growth of galls takes place seems to be very imperfectly
understood. Dr. Fitch, in his brief sketch of the present species, quotes
from Mr. Rennie’s “Insect Architecture,” an account of’ the manner in
which the gall of a closely allied European species is formed, reasonably
judging that all galls of the same general character, or which are made
by species of the same genus, are formed in the same manner. But Mr.
Rennie’s explanation has very much the aspect of a closet theory, and
not a description founded upon actual observation. If insects could be
supposed to be endowed, for a brief period, with superior intelligence,
we can conceive that they would often be much amused at the theories
which we, their more pretentious fellow-creatures, propound for the pur-
pose of explaining their works and ways.

Mr. Rennie supposes that these galls are formed by an exudation of
sap caused by the punctures of the insects, which subsequently becomes
condensed and organized ; but an inspection of the gall now under con-
sideration, in its earlier stages, shows that it is first formed by a little
fold of the leaf which encloses the insect, and that its subsequent en-
largement is an excessive and abnormal growth of the surrounding tis-
sues. The lips formed by the meeting of the folds of the leaf never be-
come agglutinated, but remain in the form of a slit, like the mouth of a
purse, which can be drawn open, and through which the matured in-
sects ultimately escape. In the cases of certain other species of Aphides,
such as the common species which infests currant leaves, the irritation
ot the insects simply causes bulgings of the leaf with intermediate hol-
lows in which the insects repose. These corrugations might, therefore,
be regarded as incomplete or abortive galls.

35 [ 455 |

The incipient galls of the species now under consideration can be de-
tected early in May, and by the middle of this month they are visible at
a distatice on account of their reddish tint. Im the early part of the
season each gall is occupied by a single, wingless, female aphis, which,
by midsummer, becomes the mother of a numerous progeny, often
amounting to one hundred and fifty in number. From the very small
and tender condition in which this insect is first seen in the spring, not
exceeding at this time the twentieth of an inch in length, it is probable
that it passes the winter in the egg state, which is known to be the case
with the Aphides generally. Upon examining the twigs of the Cotton-
wood with a lens, late in the fall, I have detected a small number of
black eggs, about the fortieth of an inch in length, imbedded in the lit-
tle folds at the base of the buds. As the eggs of some other species of
Aphides are known to be deposited in similar situations, and to have
the same black color, it is not improbable that these may be the eggs
in question. The only circumstance which threw a doubt upon this
point, was the very small number of these eggs that I could discover in
comparison with the ordinary profusion of galls. .

Judging from what is known of other species of Aphides whose his-
tory has been more continuously studied, we may conclude that the eggs,
by means of which these insects are perpetuated through the winter,
are deposited by the last brood of impregnated females, late in the sea-
son. Strange to relate, these eggs produce fertile females, which in
due time, produce living young, without having had any union with the
other sex, and this process is capable of being continued through a
number of successive generations. Ordinarily, and perhaps always, in
the state of nature, male individuals are produced before the close of
the season; but the experiments of Kyber, as quoted by Westwood,
show that under certain artificial conditions, this process of reproduc-
tion without the male influence, may be continued through a number of
years.

The facts observed in the life history of the gall-making Aphis of the
poplar leaf, render it altogether probable that this species is propagated
essentially in the same manner. We uniformly find in these galls, in
their incipient stages, a solitary wingless individual which, later in the
season, becomes greatly distended, and in due time is found surrounded
‘with a numerous progeny. We have never discovered any eggs of the
Aphis in the cells, nor have we been able to detect any distinctly formed
ova in the bodies of the distended females, from which we conclude
that, like many other species of Aphides, they bring forth their young
alive.

The young lice are of a pale-greenish color, with the tips of their ab-
domens covered with a cottony secretion. By the first of June some of

[ 456 | 36

them exhibit the rudimental wing-cases upon their backs, which show
that they have passed into the pupa state, and by the middle of this
month, most of them have become developed into perfectly winged in-
dividuals, changing at the same time from pale-greenish to a dingy blue-
black color. We will‘not occupy space by a minute description of these
insects, inasmuch as, like the majority of gall-making insects, they are
much more easily recognized by the size, shape, and situation of their
galls, than by minute details of their own structure.

Like other insects with wingless females, this species is much restric-
ted in its range, and it is common to see some trees damaged by them
and others not, though growing side by side. The infested trees are
easily distinguished from the others, at a distance, in the latter part of
the season, by the faded and yellow color of the foliage, especially on
the lower branches.

If the lips which form the mouths of these galls be drawn apart,
any time in the month of June, and usually through the greater part of
July, they are found to be filled with lice in all the stages of their
growth, seeming to show that there must be a continuous generation of
them, or that the different broods interlock with each other. I have
found galls thus oceupied even as late as the middle of August.

In the same cavity, and intermingled with the insects, are usually to
be seen a considerable number of little spherical globules, varying from
the size of a very small pin-head to that of a very large one, sometimes
lying lose in the cavity, and at other times attached to the bodies of
the young lice, and usually adhering to the tips of their abdomens.
When one of these galls is opened, its crowded population are evidently
much agitated by the unwonted admission of light. Whilst watching
them attentively at such times, I have seen the curious spectacle of the
little globules flying out of the cell with such rapidity that the eye
barely caught a glimpse of them as they passed. I observed them
closely for a considerable time before I could get any clue to the mecha-
nicism by which this phenomenon was produced ; but I concluded that
it was caused by a jerking motion of the legs of the young lice. The
difficulty of determining this point lay in the suddenness and rapidity
of the motion, and the impossibility of knowing beforehand upon which
globule to fix the attention.

These globules are composed of a limpid fluid, not distinguishable
from water, covered with a film so exceedingly delicate that when sha-
ken out of the cell upon a hard surface, they break from their own
weight. Whether these globules occur in other galls I am unable to
say, but I have seen similar bodies in the cavities caused by the folding
of the edge of the leaf of the persimmon, produced by a species of
Psylla.

|

37 [ 457 |

The origin and nature of these globules, and the part which they ful-

| fillin the economy of the insect, are matters of conjecture. We do not
_ know, with certainty, whether they originate from the insect itself, or
_ from the inner surface of the gall. The most plausible supposition is
_ that they are secretions from the bodies of the insects, probably from

| their anal extremity, and that they bear some analogy to the drops of

|

|

| sacharine fluid secreted from the honey-tubes of the true Aphides.

The mouths of these galls do not close so closely, at least in the latter
part of the season, as to exclude a variety of predaceous and parasitic
enemies, by which their numbers are greatly reduced. If we examine
them in the latter part of July and subsequently, we often find but few
lice remaining, and in their place some one or other of their natural
enemies. I have found within them minute, black, four-winged flies of
the Chalcis family. Also, the larvee of some small, two-winged Syrphus
fly, known by their oblong, pear-shaped form, tapering to a point ante-
riorly, and their snake-like manners. These larvee appear to be blind,
and they discover their prey by moving their pointed anterior extremity
from side to side. I have also seen a considerable number of green-
ish-yellow, semi-pellucid grubs, of a short ovoid form, abruptly pointed
posteriorly, apparently too large to be the larve of the Chalcides, and
being more probably the larvee of some species of Ichneumon fly.

But their most common destroyer is a small Hemipterous insect be-
longing to the genus Anthocoris, and closely allied to, if not identical
with, the Anthocoris musculosus of Say. From one to half a dozen of
these predaceous insects are often found in one of these galls in the lat-
ter part of the season. The fully matured insects are one-eighth of an
inch long, and are of a glossy-black color, with brown and white wings.
The young larvee are scarlet-red.

PRACTICAL REMARKS ON THIS AND OTHER SPECIES OF APHIDES.

The extensive family of Aphides, viewed with respect to their modes
of life, may be divided into four sections.

First. The leaf-lice or Aphides proper, distinguished by their long,
tapering seven-jointed antennze, and the honey-tubes on their abdomens
These live on the leaves both of trees and herbaceous plants, or on the
tender growth of the current year. They are diffused upon almost all
kinds of vegetation, and those subsisting upon different kinds of plants
are often so much alike in their organic characters as to render it doubt-
ful whether they are different species, or mere plant-varieties of the
same. The Aphides are very tender insects and are often extensively
destroyed by sudden changes of the weather. The most troublesome
variety is that which infests hot-houses, where they luxuriate in the ar-
tificial protection and warmth provided for the plants. The common

an, ee

[ 458 ] 38

remedy for them is the fumes of tobacco. It is a good plan to apply
the tobacco-smoke two or three successive days, as one exposure to it is
often found to stultify without killing the insects.

Second. The twig-lice, comprising the several species of the genus
Lachnus. These are distinguished by their six-jointed antennze, the
honey-tubes ,very short or merely rudimental, and by their usually
dotted abdomens. These are found in flocks on the smaller limbs of the
hickory, the willow, and probably other trees. We have seen them on
young apple trees, but in this instance it was evident that they had mi-
grated thither from some neighboring willows. With this accidental
exception we believe the species of this genus have not been found on
any of our fruit trees.

Third. The root-lice, belonging to different genera, with the an-
tenn still shorter, and the honey-tubes wholly wanting. These infest
the roots of plants, often causing their death, and they are therefore
much more serious pests than any of the other kinds. The root-lice
which infest the roots of young apple trees (Hriosoma Pyri) and those
found upon the roots of the grape vine, (Phylloxera vitifolii,) are the
most important species in this section. Both of these species are much
more abundant in the southern than in the northern half of the State.
The best preventive of the spread of these insects is to examine the
roots of young trees or vines when taken up for the purpose of trans-
planting, and if found to be infested by the root lice, to immerse them
for a few minutes in hot soapsuds or tobacco water. The presence of
the lice is often first detected by the swellings or knots upon the roots
which the lice produce.

Fourth. The gall-lice, or more definitely, the gall-making Aphides, for
galls are also made by other insects, to some of which, especially the
gall making Acari or mites, the term gall-lice would be still more appro-
priate. .

To this section belongs the species which is the subject of this article.
It is evident that gall insects, like those which inhabit the substance of
our fruits, must be very difficult to contend with, for the reason that our
destructive applications cannot ordinarily be made to reach them, and
yet, if we carefully trace the history of almost any noxious insect through
its whol career, we can generally discover some one more weak or ex-
posed points in which they become subject to destructive agencies.

Fortunately the gall-making Aphides have not as yet seriously infested
any of our fruit bearing trees, with the exception of those found on the
leaves of the Clinton grape vine. Galls in great diversity render un-
sightly the foliage of many forest and ornamental shade trees, but as a gen-
eral rule they are not sufficiently numerous to interfere materially with the
health and growth of the trees. This rule, however, has its exceptions,

; 39 [ 459 |

as in the case of young elm trees infested with the cock’s-comb gall, and
the cotton-wood sometimes has quite a sickly aspect from the profusion
of the galls now under consideration.

It is one of the admirable provisions of nature that those insects which
are stationary the greater part of their lives, such as the scale-insects,
and the gall-insects, not only select, with wonderful discrimination, each
its own particuliar kind of tree, but in some instances different insects,
and sometimes even closely allied species, exhibit a strong predilection for
some particular part of a tree, and different from that selected by others.
For example, the scale insects of the genus Mytilaspis, to which the oyster-
shell bark-louse of the apple tree belongs, are generally found much the
most abundantly on the lower branches. This is exemplified by
the apple bark-louse, and still more strikingly by the Mytilaspis of the
pine. In curious contrast with this is the habit of a closely allied
species, specimens of which were sent to me by Prof. Uhler, of Balti-
more, which were found upon the ornamental linden trees in that city,
and which were so exclusively confined to the upper portions of the
trees, that he obtained his specimens only from branches which had been
brought to the ground by pruning.

A similar distribution of species occurs, as we have already had ocea-
sion to observe, in the gall-making Aphides of the cotton-wood, one of
which (the vagabundus) is often seen upon the topmost twigs, whilst the
species now under consideration (the populicaulis) is mostly confined to
the lowest branches. This is only one exemplification of the law of dif-
fusion of species, in nature, whereby all parts of her domain become
peopled by living and sentient beings. It is evident also that this lo-
calization of particular species may sometimes afford us important prac-
tical suggestions by giving to our remedial measures a more definite
aim. When the insect to be combatted locates itself, as in the present
instance, upon the foliage of the lowest branches, the obvious sugges-
tion is to reduce the field of operations by cutting them away, or strip-
- ping off the leaves where it is important to save the branch.

With respect to the above classification of the Aphides in accordance
with their habits and modes of life, it is proper to remark that it must
be regarded as one of practical convenience rather than of scientific ac-
curacy. This follows, from the fact that we sometimes find in the same
genus, as in that of Hriosoma, species which vary greatly in this respect ;
and in other cases, as in the gall-louse of the grape leaf, (Phylloxera
vitifolii,) it is now pretty well determined that the same species may
form and inhabit galls at one period of its life, and at another migrate
to the roots.

TRANSPORTATION OF USEFUL PARASITIC INSECTS,

The idea of rearing the useful parasitic insects, and of transporting
them, when necessary, from one part of the country to another, has
often presented itself to practical entomologists, and was a favorite
topic of speculation of my predecessor in office, B. D. Walsh. But the
very small size of most of these insects, many of them, indeed, being
so minute that they cannot be easily seen without the aid of a lens, and
the consequent difficulty of manipulating them, have always given a
somewhat chimerical aspect to the suggestion, and have caused it to be
regarded as more ingenious than practicable.

In the course of our investigation of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse of
the apple tree, in the year 1870, we discovered a minute Chalcis fly,
which we designated as the Chalcideous parasite of the Oyster-shell
Bark-louse, (Chaleis [Aphelinus| mytilaspidis) which was found to be
extensively instrumental in extirpating that deadly enemy of the apple
tree, by boring into the scale and depositing her own egg in the body,
or in the midst of the eggs of the Bark-louse. The parasitic larvie
which hatched from this egg lived at the expense of the Bark-louse
and its eggs, and thus caused their destruction. It was found that in
several of the counties of this State where the examinations were made,
that more than half of the bark-lice had been destroyed by this para-
site, its operations being known, partly by the presence of the little
grubs beneath the scales, and partly by the minute round holes in the
scales, through which the Chalcis-flies had escaped. It was also found,
by examining the scales late in the fall, that one brood of the Chalcides
hibernated in the larva state beneath the scales. The idea, therefore,
readily occurred that this was a very favorable opportunity for testing
the practicability of transporting these friendly parasites to those parts
of the country in which their presence cannot now be detected. We
had previously received several packages of apple twigs from dif-
ferent localities in the northern part of Illinois and the southern part
of Wisconsin, heavily infested with the scales of the Bark-louse, but

41 [ 461 |

without any traces of the parasitic Chalcides, and this section of coun-
try seemed therefore to furnish a favorable field in which to try the ex-
periment of colonization. :

Captain Edward H. Beebe, of Galena, who had been passing the
winter in Geneva, and who had taken a lively interest in this investiga-
tion, undertook to conduct this interesting experiment. Early in the
spring of 1871, on his return to Galena, he took a package of twigs,
which we had procured from trees known to have been inhabited by the
Chalcides, and under some of the scales upon which it was therefore
probable that the larve were hibernating. These he tied upon trees in
three different orchards, in the town of Galena, which were known to
be badly infested by bark-lice. :

When we consider the minute size of these insects, the fully matured
fly being only one twenty-fifth of an inch in length, and that the hole
in the scale of the bark-louse which reveals the operation of the Chal-
cis is So minute that it can only be seen by the aid of a magnifying
glass; and we further take into account that probably less than a dozen
of these larvze were transported to the new locality, and that the small
number of parasitic flies. proceeding from these were let loose in three
orchards containing many hundreds of apple trees, we may form some
idea of the difficulties of this experiment, and of the uncertainty which
would be likely to attend any observations made for the purpose of de-
termining the presence of the Chalcides. Even if the experiment should
prove ultimately successful, it would be very doubtful whether the Chal-
cis marks would be sufficiently numerous to be detected at the close of
the first year, but after this they would be likely to multiply in a rap-
idly increasing ratio.

About the last of May, 1872, that is, after the intervention of one
year from the time of commencing this experiment, Capt. Beebe exam-
ined some of the trees to which the Chalcis twigs had been attached,
and after a careful search thought that he had discovered a few traces
of the operations of the Chalcides, and sent half a dozen of the twigs
bearing these marks to me for inspection. Wemay here state for the
information of those who have not seen our former articles upon this
subject, that the scales of the bark-louse are found to be damaged by
two very different kinds of insects, namely, the larvie of the Coccinellidze
or lady-bugs, which gnaw ragged holes through the scales for the pur-
pose of obtaining and devouring the lice beneath, and the minute para-
sitic Chalcis flies, of which we are speaking, which cut perfectly clean
and round holes, for the purpose of escaping from the cell, in which,
after devouring the rightful occupant, they have undergone their trans-
formations. Upon the selected twigs were found some marks of the

Coccinellide, and also a few holes, about one to each twig, which were
Vol. IV—49

I i a a

[ 462 | 49

so round and smooth that they could not be fairly attributed to any
other source than to some species of Chalcis; but as they were a little
larger than the holes made by the minute species with which we were
experimenting, we were unable to arrive at a definite conclusion.

On the 15th of July, I visited Galena, and in company with Captain
Beebe, submitted one of the trees, to which the greatest number of the
twigs had been attached, to a thorough examination.

The result, if not actually conclusive, was at least extremely encoura-
ging. We detected a considerable number of holes in the scales, which
appeared to be identical, in every respect, with those made by the Chal-
cis in question, and in one instance we discovered three of these holes
upon the same twig, within a space of four inches.

In conducting an experiment of so delicate a nature I am well aware
that the greatest caution must be exercised to avoid jumping to hasty
conclusions, and that the observations of a number of succeeding years
will be necessary before we can arrive at a definite conclusion that the
experiment has been followed by a practical, as well as a scientific sue-
CeSS.

At the close of the author’s article upon the Oyster-shell bark-louse,
in his first annual report, after speaking of the absence of any signs of
the Chalcides, in the northermost part of the State, and of the possible
practicability of transporting them thither, we concluded with the fol-
lowing remark :

“The absence of the Chalcis of the bark-louse, in this locality, will
furnish an excellent opportunity for testing the practicability of trans-
porting it thither from those places where it is known to exist. If, after
taking the preliminary steps, as described in a former part of this arti-
cle, we should find, after the lapse of the necessary time, upon the trees
experimented with, the characteristic holes in the scales which mark |
ihe exit of the Chalcis, we would know that the friendly parasite had —
entered upon its work. If such an experiment could be conducted to
a successful issue, it would furnish one of the most admirable instances
on record, of the triumph of science, in its application to economic en-
tomology.”

OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.

INSECTS IN GENERAL.

Insects constitute the most numerous and diversified class of the
second grand division of the animal kingdom, designated by the term
ARTICULATA, and so called because their bodies and limbs are com-
posed of many pieces, connected together by movable joints or articu-
lations.

Insects as a class, and in the widest meaning of the word, comprise
three divisions, or sub-classes, commonly known as Spiders, Insects and
Millipedes. They may be distinguished by the following characters :

Ist. Sub-class : ARACHNIDA, including Spiders, Scorpions, and Acari
or Mites. Body divided into two parts, the head and thorax being united
in one; legs eight in number ; without wings.

2d. Sub-class: INSECTA, or Insects proper. Body divided into three
parts, the head, the thorax, and the abdomen; legs six; furnished with
wings, in the perfect or imago state.

dd. Sub-class: Myrraropsa, commonly called Millipedes or Centi-
pedes. Body divided into many parts or segments, varying from ten to
two hundred; legs numerous ; usually either one or two pairs of legs to
each segment of the body ; never have wings.

The exceptions to these characters are very few. In the Arachnida,
some of the most minute Acari have but six legs.

Insects proper are always six-legged in their last or perfect state, and
they also generally have six true legs in their larva state; but some
larvee have no legs, and the larvee of the Lepidoptera, commonly called
caterpillars, have, in addition to their six true legs, several pairs of
false legs, or pro-legs, which assist in locomotion.

There are a few exceptional cases in which insects are destitute of
wings. The Fleas (Pulices), the Lice (Pediculi), and the little family of
insects known as Spring-tails (Thysanoura), never have wings. In some
rare instances the females are wingless whilst the males have wings.
This is the case with some species of the Lightning-beetles (Lampyridie),
and with the Canker-worm moth, and the Tussock-moth, and a few other
species amongst the Lepidoptera. Similarly exceptional cases are also
found in other orders of insects.

The present work will treat only of Insects proper,

[ 464 | 44

NTERNAL STRUCTURE QF INSECTS.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The nervous system of in-
sects consists of a double
m cord extending the length
8 of the body, and lying upon
4 the inferior or ventral side
4 of the internal cavity. The
y two threads which compose
4 this cord do not lie side by
Aside, but one above the
other. The lower thread
swells at intervals into lit-
tle knots of nervous matter,
lcalled ganglia. In insects
of an elongated form, such
as some of the Neuroptera
gem (ce. g. Corydalis), and the
Be larvie of the Lepidoptera,
Hm there is a ganglion at each
segment of the body, making
thirteen in all; but in most
mature insects the ganglia
Sr as become more or less consoli-
Explained nite chest: dated. In the Butterfly

Nervous system of insects.

(Papilio), there are ten ganglia, counting the brain as one; in the Bee
(Apis), there are eight; in the May-beetle (Melolontha), there are five ;
and in the Cicada there are but two. The upper of the two nervous
threads runs nearly in contact with the lower, but is destitute of gang-
lia. These two threads seem to represent the double and more compact
cord which constitutes the spinal marrow of the higher or vertebrated
animals. The upper simple thread is supposed to furnish the nerves
of motion, and the lower and ganglionic thread, the nerves of seusation.
The fibres which compose these cords separate at the anterior extremity
of the body, so as to embrace the cesophagus or gullet, above which
they again unite to form the cerebral ganglion or brain, which is some-
what larger than the other ganglia. From the nervous cords, and
chiefly from the ganglia, fine lateral threads are emitted, which are dis-
tributed to the adjacent parts.

The nerves thus far described represent what, in the higher animals,
is called the cerebro-spinal system of nerves, and are sometimes called

45 [ 465 ]

the nerves of relation, because they control the sensations and motions
which associate the animal with the world around it. But in addition
to these, there have been discovered a number of very fine nervous fila-
ments proceeding from the brain, and extending down into the body,
and furnished with minute ganglia of their own, which are supposed to
represent the sympathetic system of nerves which preside over the in-
ternal functions, such as those of digestion and secretion.

The foregoing cut represents the nervous system of a butterfly, (Papilio
brassice) (after Herold), A exhibiting that of the larva, B that of the
pupa, and c that of the perfect insect; and showing how the nervous
system becomes shortened;and consolidated in changing from the lower
to the higher stages. Fig. D shows the more concentrated nervous sys-
tem of a Coleopterous insect, as exhibited in the common English Cock-
chafer or Door-beetle, Melolontha vulgarus ; (copied from Straus.)

THE CIRCULATORY, OR SANGUIFEROUS SYSTEM.

The blood of insects is a colorless fluid which does not circulate in
closed vessels or tubes, like that of the higher animals, but permeates
the tissues of the body. The only vessel that can be discovered, is an
oblong, membraneous, pulsating sac, situated in the upper or dorsal
part of the body, and which evidently represents the heart. This is
divided into several compartments by cross-valves which are so ar-
ranged as to permit the blood to pass only in a forward direction. The
heart is prolonged anteriorly into a narrower tube analagous to the
aorta. Through this the blood flows first towards the head, and thence
through the body, returning to the heart which it enters through open-
ings at its sides. As compared with that of the warm-blooded ani-
mals, the blood of insects is not only colorless, but small in quantity,
and must circulate very slowly, as is proved by the fact that when their
bodies are wounded no biood escapes.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

Most of the organs of insects, and their functions, have an obvious
analogy to those of the higher animals, but their breathing apparatus
is constructed upon_an entirely different plan. In all the vertebrated
animals the blood is carried in vessels to a particular part or organ of
the body, for the purpose of being exposed to the life-giving influence
of the air. This part, in terrestial animals, is the lungs, and in aquatic
animals, the gills. But in insects the process is reversed, and the air is
carried to the blood by being distributed to every part of the body in
very delicate pearl-white tubes or vessels, which present a beautiful ap-
pearance under the microscope. They are called trache, or air tubes.
They admit the air through little openings along the sides of the in-

[466]. 46

sect’s body, called spiracles. The spiracles or breathing-pores can be
easily seen along the sides of all caterpillars which are not too densely
covered with hairs. In the perfect or winged state of insects the
branches of the air tubes are dilated into a great number of little ves-
sieles or air bladders, which render their bodies lighter, and thus facili-
tate their flight.

In some aquatic larve the trachee project from the body in the form
of little tufts, analagous to the gills of fishes. The aquatic beetles are
under the necessity of rising to the surface, at intervals, for air, in a
manner similar to that of the aquatic mammalia, the whales and the
dlolphins.

THE DIGESTIVE OR NUTRITIVE SYSTEM.

The digestive apparatus of insects,
like that of other animals, consists of
an elongated tube called the aliment-
@ ary canal, extending through the body,
@9 and having a number of enlargements
fin its course, and in many insects pre-
sents a particular resemblance to the
digestive apparatus of birds. First,
there is a short, straight cesophagus
ea or gullet; this expands into a much
larger cavity resembling the crop;
& then follows a smaller muscular part,
® analagous to the gizzard; and next, a
Hmuch larger and longer cavity which
is the true digestive stomach; this be-

See EE PRR RET ~ comes contracted into the intestinal
~ the text. canal, which sometimes runs nearly
straight through the body, and in other cases is more or less convolu-
ted; the intestine enlarges again before it reaches the end of the body
into what is known as the large intestine, or colon. As in other ani-
mals, the alimentary canal is much longer and more capacious in the
herbivorous than in the carnivorous kinds. <As a general rule the canal
is much more capacious in the larva than in the imago state.

The figure, C, represents the digestive organs of one of the carnivo-
rous beetles, Cicindelu campestris. a the commencement of the ceso-
phagus or gullet; ¢ the crop; d the gizzard; e the stomach or principal
(dligestive cavity; / the commencement of the small intestine; h the -
large intestine; both of these parts are unusually short in this tribe of
insects ; mm the convoluted vessels which are supposed to represent the
liver of the higher animals.

47 [ 467 |

THH SECRETORY SYSTEM.

The secretory apparatus of insects, though analagous in function, is
very different in appearance from that of the higher animals. Instead
of solid glands, like the liver or kidney, it has the form of masses of
convoluted tubes, as represented at m in the preceding figure. The sal-
ivary glands, the liver, the kidneys, and the testacles are found repre-
sented in insects. The gastric and pancreatic fluids are secreted by
little cells or follicles in the coats of the stomach.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

The muscles of insects, like those of other animals, consist of con-
tractile fibres, but in their situation and attachments, as compared with
those of the vertebrate animals, they are reversed; that is to say, in
the latter, the muscles are situated outside of, and upon the bones,
which constitute the supporting part of the body, whereas in insects,
the supportin g part is the external crust, and the muscles are attached
to its internal surface. The muscles are of a pale yellowish color, and
are usually presented in the form of thin layers, and sometimes of iso-
lated fibres, and are never united into the rounded compact form, which
they have in the higher animals. By counting the separate fibres a
very great number of muscles have been enumerated. Lyonet counted
nearly four thousand in the larva of Cossus ligniperda, and Newport
found an equal number in the larva of Sphinx ligustri. The muscles
of insects possess a wonderful contractile power in proportion to
their size. <A flea can leap two hundred times its own length, and some
beetles can raise more than three hundred times their own weight. This
remarkable strength may probably be attributed to the abundant. sup-

ply of oxygen by means of the myriad ramifications of the air tubes.

THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES.

Insects are evidently endowed with the ordinary senses which other
animals possess, but no special organs of sense, except those of sight,
have been discovered with certainty.

Sight.—The eyes of insects are of two kinds, simple and compound.
The simple or single eyes are called ocelli, and may be compared in ap-
pearance to minute glass beads. They are usually black, but sometimes
red, and are generally three in number, and situated in a triangle on the
top of the head. In insects with a complete metamorphosis, these are
the only kind of eyes possessed by them in their larva state, and in
these they are usually arranged in a curved line, five or six in number,
on each side of the head. We have noticed that in some insects which
undergo only a partial metamorphosis, as for example the common

| 468 ] 48

Squash-bug ( Coreus tristis ), the ocelli are wanting in the larva and pupa
states, but become developed in the last or perfect stage.

The compound eyes of insects present one of the most complex and
beautiful mechanisms in the organic world. They are two in number,
but proportionately very large, occupying in many insects nearly the
whole of the sides of the head, and in the dipterous order especially,
often present across their disks, bands of the richest tints of green,
brown and purple. These eyes are found to be composed of a great
number of lesser eyes or eyelets, in the form of elongated cones so
closely compacted as to form apparently a single organ. The larger
ends of these cones point outwards, and by their union form the visible
eye. Their smaller extremities point inwards, towards the brain, to
which they are connected by means of a large optic nerve. When one
of these eyes is examined through a strong magnifying glass, it is seen
to be composed of a very great number of little facets, sometimes
square, but usually six sided, each one of which represents the outer
and larger extremity of one of the component parts. These facets vary
greatly in number in the eyes of different kinds of insects. In the ants
there are about fifty in each eye; in the Sphinx moths, about 1,300; in
the house fly, 4,000; in the butterfly, upwards of 17,000; and in some of
the small beetles of the genus Mordella, it is said that more than 25,000
facets have been enumerated in one compound eye; so that if we sup-
pose that each of these component parts possesses the power of separate
vision, one of these insects must have more than 50,000 eyes. How
vision is effected, or how a unity of impression can be produced by so
complex an organ, we are unable to conceive.

Hearing.—Insects are evidently affected by loud noises, and moreover,
as many insects have the power of producing voluntary sounds, it is
reasonable to suppose that they possess the sense of hearing. No or-
gan, however, which has been generally admitted to be an organ of
hearing, has been discovered. It is the most common opinion of ento-
mologists that the antenne are instrumental in receiving the impres-
sions of sound, and that the sense of hearing is located at or near their
place of attachment to the head, and this view is much strengthened by
the fact that in some of the larger crustaceans, such as the lobster and
crab, a distinet organ of hearing is found located at the base of the an-
tenn.

Smelling.—That insects are endowed with the sense of smell, is proved
by the fact that the carrion-fly, and other insects which feed upon, or |
deposit their eggs upon, putrescent matter, detect such substances a ta |
distance, however completely they may be hidden from the sight. The.
bee also discovers honey under similar circumstances, and it is therefore
fair to presume that insects are conducted to flowers, in hidden situa-

49 [ 469 ]

tions, more by their odor than by their visible characters. But no organ
‘of smelling has been discovered, and this sense is supposed, from anal-
ogy, to be located in the lining membrane. of the spiracles.

Taste and Touch.—It is impossible to determine, but there is no rea-
son to doubt, that insects, like other animals, taste and enjoy the food
of which they partake; and the manner in which they frequently touch
their food and the surfaces over which they walk, with the tips of their
palpi, which, indeed, have received the common name of feelers, renders
it probable that these organs are endowed with a special sense of touch.

SOUNDS PRODUCED BY INSECTS.

The songs of birds, and the noises made by other animals, are pro-
duced by the forcible passage of air through the glottis, which is the
narrow opening at the top of the wind-pipe, aided by the vibration of
certain muscular folds near the outlet, called the vocal chords. But we
have seen that insects never breathe through their mouths, and there-
fore they never make any oral sounds. But the humming of bees and
flies is produced in an analogous manner, by the expulsion of air through
the thoracic spiracles, and the vibration of a delicate valve-like fold,
just within the opening.

But besides this, insects make a variety of noises, which are produced -
in different ways. The singing of the Cicada, which is the loudest noise
made by any insect, is produced by the expulsion of air from the first
abdominal spiracle, striking upon a large transparent drum-like appa-
ratus, situated at the base of the abdomen. The chirping of crickets is
produced by rubbing together their parchment-like wing-covers, The
well known noise of the katy-did is produced in the same way, but here
the sound is intensified by a thin talc-like plate set into the base of each
wing-cover. The stridulation of grass:‘hoppers is caused by the friction
of their spined shanks across the edge of their wing-covers. The
fainter, squeaking sounds, made by many insects when captured, are
produced simply by the rapid friction of one part of their bodies upon
another; in certain Hemiptera, by the friction of the head upon the pro-
thorax; in the Capricorn. beetles, by the friction of the pro-thorax upon.
the meso-thorax; and in some of the Lamellicorn beetles, by the friction
of the abdomen against the wing-covers.

The more complex and special apparatuses of insects for the production
of sounds, are possessed exclusively by the males, and are supposed. to be
exercised by them as calls to the opposite sex, but the simpler squeaking
sounds are emitted by both sexes, and appear to be mere notes of
alarm.

Vol. LV—50

| 470 50

THE METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS.

Nothing in the history of insects is more remarkable than the striking
changes of form which many of them undergo, in the course of their
development. Whilst other animals progress from infancy to maturity
simply by a process of growth, and by such gradual and imperceptible
changes only as their growth necessitates, many insects assume totally
different forms in the course of their development, so that they could
never be recognized as the same individuals, if this development had
not been actually traced from one stage to another. These changes are
called the metamorphoses or transformations of insects. All insects, in
their growth, pass through four stages, designated as the egg state; the
larva, or caterpillar state ; the pupa, or chrysalis state; and the iago,
or perfect and winged state. The metamorphoses of insects are of two
principal kinds, complete and incomplete.

In the complete metamorphosis the larva bears no resemblance to the
imago, and the insect, in the intermediate or pupa state, is motionless,
and takes no food. This kind of metamorphosis presents two principal
varieties. In some (Lepidoptera and many Diptera), the legs and wings
are completely inclosed in the pupa case. In others (Coleoptera, Hy-
menoptera, and some others), the legs of the pupa, though useless, are
free, and the rudimental wings lie loosely upon the sides. Moreover, in
some (the nocturnal Lepidoptera, and many Hymenoptera), the pupa
is inclosed in a separate covering or cocoon, whereas the majority
of insects have no such covering. Pupe thus inclosed are called folli-
culate. The term chrysalis, from a Greek word meaning golden, is some-
times applied to the pup of the diurnal Lepidoptera, because the
pupe of some butterflies are ornamented with golden spots.

Most insects, in changing from the larva to the pupa state, cast off the
larval skin, but in many of the two-winged flies, (Muscidze, Syrphide,'
etc.) the larval skin becomes contracted and hardened, assumes an oval
form and a brown color, and thus forms a compact and closely-fitting
case, in which the pupa proper is inclosed, but distinct. Pup thus in-
closed are called coarctate, and their cases are analogous to the cocoons
of the Lepidoptera.

In the incomplete metamorphosis, the insect presents essentially the
same form, and is active in allits stages, after leaving the egg. The
pupa is distinguished from the larva by the presence of short rudimen-
tal wings at the base of the abdomen, and the imago or adult state is
distinguished by the fully grown wings and wing-covers. It is only in
this last stage that insects are capable of propagation. All the Hemip-
tera, or bugs proper, and all the Orthoptera, or crickets, grasshoppers
and cockroaches, exhibit this imperfect kind of metamorphosis.

7

R Bl | 471 |

In treating of the development of insects it is necessary to refer to the
periodical casting of the larval skin. All the growth of insects takes
place in the larva state. Consequently no insect increases in size after
it has acquired wings. The larval skin seems to be an imperfectly or-
ganized membrane, which does not correspond in its growth to that of
the body, but yields to this growth, to a certain extent, by virtue of its
elasticity. A time comes therefore when it can yield no farther. The
insect then evidently becomes oppressed, ceases to eat, usually retires
to some secluded spot, and, if gregarious, huddles together with its com-
panions, and there remains a day or two, almost motionless and with-
out food, and in an apparently torpid and sickly condition. After ¢
time WA distended skin bursts open, and the insect throws it off, and ap-
pears in anew, bright, and elastic skin, which, in its turn, is capable of
a certain degree of distension. This process, which is called moulting,
takes place three or four times in the course of the larval growth, and
in a few larve which continue more than one year in this state, the moul-
ting is said to occur from five to eight times. In insects of very rapid de-
velopment, on.the other hand, such as the maggots, or larve of the
Muscide, no mouiting takes place, and it is the larvee of this kind which
form coarctate pupe.

THE SEXES OF INSECTS.

As a general rule insects of different sexes resemble each other so
closely as to leave no doubt of their specific identity, and in many the
sexes can scarcely be distinguished. but this rule is subject to many
exceptions, and the naming of insects has been greatly confused by the
sexes of the same insect having been described and named as distinct
species.

The sexual organs, especially those of the males, are usually conceal-
ed so as to be nearly or quite invisible; but the female, especially in
the order of Hymenoptera, often have an exserted ovipositor of greater
or less length, which readily distinguishes them from the opposite sex.
An analogous structure exists in many wood-boring beetles which de-
posit their eggs in deep crevices in the bark of trees; and more rarely
in insects of the other orders. In the Coleoptera the males are sometimes
distinguished by one or two horns, either upon the head or thorax, and
many of the predaceous beetles, both terrestrial and aquatic, have the
anterior feet much widened, and furnished beneath with a cushion of
hairs or bristles.

The antennz usually differ in length but little, if at all, in the two
Sexes; but in the long-horned beetles (Cerambycidz) the antenn of the
males are generally considerably longer than those of the females.

| 472 | 52 :

In those moths which have bi-pectinate antenne, these parts are
almost always wider in the males. Many insects in the order of Diptera
are remarkable for the great size and beauty of their eyes, and these
organs are almost always larger in the males than in the females.

a ° In describing insects it is customary, for the sake of brev-
ity, to distinguish the sexes by signs, as shown in the margin.

male. female.

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS.

The clasification of insects depends chiefly upon the structure of the
external and visible parts. It is necessary therefore that the student
should have a thorough knowledge of these parts and of the names
by which they are designated. But as these parts are very greatly
modified in the different orders of insects, we shall reserve a minute
discription of them till we come to treat of them in connection
with the several orders respectively, and shall here give only a general
enumeration of them. The student will be much aided in understan-
ding the following description by comparing it with the figure of Har-
palus caliginosus on a subsequent page.

THE HEAD AND ITS APPENDAGES.

Tt often becomes necessary to refer to different parts of an insect’s
head, and they are therefore designated by particular names indicative
of their situation. These are—

The Hind-head, (Occiput). The Crown, (Vertex). The Fore-head,
(Frons). The Face, (Facies). The Cheeks, (Gene).

The appendages of the head are the Horns (Antenne); the Eyes,
(Oculi); and the parts of the Mouth, (Trophi, or oral organs.)

The Antenne.—All insects have two more or less elongated and
usually many-jointed antenne, situated one on each side of the head,
and varying greatly, in different kinds of insects, in length and in the
form of their component joints. Insects have very short antennz in
their larva state, and in some perfect insects, such as the water-beetles,
(Gyrint and Hydrophili), the antenne are not longer than the head,
whilst in others, such as some of the longicorn beetles, they are more
than twice as long as the whole body, and in some of the small moths
of the genus Adela, they are five or six times as long. The uses of the
antenne are not known, but, as we have stated above, when treat-
ing of the senses of insects, they are supposed to be instrumental in the
seuse of hearing. The most common variations in the forms of the an-
tenn are expressed by the following terms. Figures of most of these
forms are given on a subsequent page, in treating of the Coleoptera.

Piliform, or thread-like; long and slender, and of the same, or nearly
the same width throughout.

53 [ 473 |

Setiform, or setaceous; bristle-like; long and slender, but tapering
towards the tip. .

Moniliform, or bead-like; when the joints are of about the same size, and
round, so as to resemble a string of beads.

Serrate, or saw-tootked; when each joint is somewhat triangular, and a
little prominent and pointed on the inner side.

Pectinate, or comb-toothed; when the inner angles of the joints are con-
siderably prolonged.

Bi-pectinate, or double comb-toothed; pectinate on both sides.

Clavate, or club-shaped; gradually enlarging towards the tip.

Capitate, or knobbed; when a few of the terminal joints are abruptly en-
larged.

Lamellate; when the joints which compose the knob are prolonged on
their inner side, in the form of plates.

The Hyes.—We have briefly discribed the mechanism of the eyes when
treating of the sense of sight. They are uniformly of a round or oval
shape, and sometimes notched on their inner side, to give place for the
insertion of the antennze. In a few instances they are placed at the end
of foot-stalks made by a lateral prolongation of the head.

The Trophi, or parts of the mouth.—The mouths of insects present
two strongly marked variations, one of which is fitted for gnawing solid
substances, and is called the mandibulate, or gnawing mouth; and the
other is fitted for sucking fluid nutriment, and is called the haustellate,
or suctorial thouth.

The mandibulate mouth is composed of six pieces, more or less dis-
tinct, and their appendages. First, the labrum, or upper lip: a horny,
usually somewhat semi-circular plate, attached to the anterior and in-
ferior edge of the.head, and serving to close and protect the mouth in front.

Then, the Mandibles, or upper jaws; a pair of very hard, horny
pieces, more or less hooked at the point, and often toothed on their in-
ner sides, which work together laterally, somewhat like the blades of a
pair of scissors. These are the true biting, gnawing, or masticating
organs.

Next are the Mavillae, or lower jaws; a pair of organs, working lat-
erally like the mandibles, but softer and more pliable in their texture,
generally divided into two lobes at their extremity, which are furnished
more or less with hairs. The maxillae undoubtedly assist in the opera-
tion of eating, but the precise part which they perform is not well un-
derstood.

Behind the maxillae is a single piece which partially closes the mouth
behind, and which may therefore be considered as the counter-part of
the labrum or upper lip, and is accordingly called the labiwn or lower lip.

In the Coleoptera this piece is usually attached at its base to the an
terior face of an elevated ridge upon the under side of the head, which

[474 | BA

forms a kind of wall behind the mouth, usually deeply notched in the
middle, and which is called the mentum, or chin.

When the labium forms a narrow elongated piece, distinct from the
mentum, as in most of the Coleoptera, it is now generally called the
tongue, lingua or ligula.

The Palpi, or appendages of the mouth.—Near the base of each max-
illa, on its outer side, is attached a moveable appendage, usually com-
posed of four or five joints, and never more than six, called the mawil-
lary palpus ; and near the base of the labium is attached a similar pair
of organs, but with a less number of joints, distinguished as the labial
palpi. These appendages are subject to considerable variation, espe-
cially in the shape of their terminal joints, and are made much use of
in determining the families and genera of insects.

The haustellate or suctoriat mouth consists of a more or less elongated
proboscis or sucker, which is sometimes short and fleshy, as in the flies,
(Muscidae ;) sometimes more elongate, horny and pointed, as in the
bugs, (Hemiptera ;) and sometimes very long and slender, and rolled
up, when not in use, in a spiral coil, as in the butterflies and moths,
(Lepidoptera.)

It is evident that all insects with a suctorial mouth must live exclu-
sively upon liquid food, or the juices of animals and plants.

The haustellum or sucker is not a single organ, as it appears, but has
upon its upper side a deep groove, in which are contained usually either
two or four, but in some of the carnivorous species (mosquitoes and
horse-flies) six needle-shaped pieces, which in these last make a compli-
cated weapon with which they pierce the skins of animals upon whose
blood they subsist.

From a comparison of the haustellate with the mandibulate mouth, in
different kind of insects, it has been concluded that the apparent sucker,
which, as we have just seen, forms a sheath for the smaller needle-
shaped pieces, corresponds to the labium, and that the contained pieces
must represent the mandibles and mavxillae, and, where six pieces are
present, also the labrum and lingua. In accordance with the propor-
tionately great development of the labium, we find that its appendages,
that is, the labial palpi, are also very prominent, whilst the maxillary
palpi are very small or rudimental. This is the case in two of the sue-
torial orders, the Lepidoptera and Diptera; but the other order (He-
miptera) is exceptional in this respect, having neither maxillary nor
labial palpi developed.

THE THORAX AND ITS APPENDAGES.

The thorax is the second, or middle division of the bodies of insects.
Though apparently single, it is really composed of three pieces soldered

55 [ 475 |

together. These pieces are more distinct in some insects than in others,
but they can always be distinguished by impressed lines upon the sur-
face called sutures. The three pieces of the thorax are distinguished as
the fore-thorax, the middle-thorax, and the hind-thorax ; or, in scientific
language, the pro-thorax, the meso-thorax, and the meta-thorax. Inthe
Coleoptera the pro-thorax is very large, and forms the large upper part, or
shield, to which we usually give the general name of thorax. Inthis order
of insects, the meta-thorax is invisible above, and the only part of the
meso-thorax seen from above is the triangular piece between the bases
of the elytra, called the scutellwmn.

In many insects (Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera) the pro-thorax is
much reduced in size, and forms only a narrow rim, which is usually
called the collar.

The under side of the thorax is called the sternum or breast plate.
Each of the three divisions of the thorax has its sternum, designated
respectively as the pro-, meso- and meta sternum. In many insects,
and especially the Coleoptera, each section of the sternum is divided
by sutures into a middle piece or sternum proper, and a side piece, called
the episternum. These parts will be described more particularly in treat-
ing of the Coleoptera.

The appendages of the thorax are the organs tt motion, namely, the
wings and the legs.

The Wings.—The great majority of insects have four wings. The ante-
rior pair are attached to the upper part of the meso-thorax, and the
posterior pair to the meta thorax.

The wings are thin, membranous, transparent organs, in some cases
folded when at rest, and supported by ribs or veins running across them.
These veins are found to correspond in their number and complexity to
the rank of the insect in the scale, and from the ease with which they
can be seen, they furnish admirable characters for the purposes of class-
ification. In some insects, such as the grass-hoppers, the fore-wings are
thicker and less transparent than the hinder pair, and have nearly the
consistency of parchment; and in one large order-of insects, the Coleop-
tera or beetles, the fore-wings become converted into the hard opaque
pieces, known as the elytra or wing-cases. The elytra take no part in
flight, but serve only to cover and protect the hinder or true wings,
Saleh are folded under them when at rest.

In one large order, the insects have but two wings, and are named
from this character Diptera, or two-winged insects. In these insects
the place of the hind-wings is supplied by a pair of little knobbed ap-
pendages called halteres or poisers.

There are a few exceptional cases of two-winged insects in some of
the other orders—for example, some of the smaller Day-tlies (Hphem-
ere) in the order Neuroptera, and the males of the Bark-lice (Coecide)
in the order Homoptera,

[ 476 | 56

}

The Legs.—Insects have six legs, attached in pairs to the under side of
each of the three segments of the thorax. The leg consists of four
principal parts; the hip (cova), a short piece by which the leg is at-
tached to the body; then an elongated piece called the thigh (femur,
plural femora); then another elongated piece called the shank (tibia) ;
and lastly the foot (or tarsus), which is composed of a number of smaller
pieces or joints ; of which five is the largest and most common number.

The feet of insects terminate, almost invariably, in a pair of sharp
horny claws (wngues) ; and between these, at their base, is often one or
two little pads (plantule) by means of which flies and many other in-
sects adhere to glass, or any other surface which is too smooth and hard
for the claws to catch upon. The Lepidoptera have but one plantula,
and the Diptera have two. Besides the parts of the leg here enumera-
ted, there is a small piece attached to the hind part of the hip, called
the trochanter. This is usually small and inconspicuous, but in the
hind legs of the ground-beetles (Carabide) it forms a large egg-shaped
appendage, which is one of the most characteristic features of this
family of insects.

THE ABDOMEN, AND ITS APPENDAGES.

The abdomen is the hindermost of the three divisions of an insect’s
body. It is sometimes attached to the thorax by the whole width of its
base, in which case it is called sessile. But itis often attached by a
slender petiole or foot-stalk, when it is said to be petiolated. The abdo-
men is composed of a number of rings, one behind another, each ring
usually lapping a little upon the one following it. The normal number
of rings or segments of the abdomen is considered to be nine, and this
number is actually present in the Earwig (Forjicula) and a few other
insects ; but in the great majority of insects, several of the terminal seg-
ments are abortive, and only from five to seven can usually be counted.

In the females of many kinds of insects the abdomen terminates in a
tubular, tail-like process, through which the eggs are conducted to their
place of deposit, and which is therefore called the ovipositor. In some
insects the ovipositor is simple, short, straight and stiff, as in some of
the Capricorn beetles; but in others, as the Ichneumon flies, it is long,
slender and flexible, and composed of three thread-like pieces, which
when not in use, are separated from each other, giving these insects the
appearance of being three-tailed.

CAPTURING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.

Insects which do not readily fly, such as the beetles and the bugs
proper (Hemiptera), can be captured with the fingers, and are easily

BT | 477 |

killed and also preserved, for the time being, by dropping them into
alcohol. For this purpose every collector should have in his pocket one
or more small, strong, wide-mouthed bottles, securely corked, and filled
about two-thirds full with alcohol. The common morphine bottles an-
swer this purpose very well. The quinine bottle can be used when a
larger bottle is required. . The’insects can be left in the alcohol till the
collector has leisure to pin them. They can be taken from the bottle
with a pair of forceps, or the alcohol can be turned off into another
bottle, and the insects shaken out on to a newspaper, or what is better,
a sheet of blotting paper, which readily absorbs the moisture.

Insects which readily take flight, must be captured in a net, which is
made like a small dip-net for fishes, by making a hoop of stout wire
about ten inches in diameter, with the ends of the wire turned out so as
to form a short handle three or four inches long, and this can be length-
ened by inserting the ends of the wire into a wooden handle about two
feet long. The net is made of lace or tarleton muslin, and should be
twenty inches or more in depth.

Many species which would otherwise escape notice, can be obtained
by beating the branches of trees, especially forest trees, and catching
the insects as they fall. A common umbrella, inverted under the tree,
answers this purpose very well. This is in many ways a very useful
implement to the collector. It will serve to protect him from the direct
rays of the sun, or from a casual shower; and the hook at the end of
the handle will enable him to draw down branches so that they can be
satsifactorily examined. The umbrella would be improved by being cov-
eved with white cloth, upon which small insects would be more easily
detected.

Most insects except those above mentioned are injured by being im-
mersed in alcohol, and butterflies and moths would be ruined by it.
These insects can be killed by wetting them with benzine or chloroform.
The benzine is the cheaper, and the only objection to it is its disagreea-
ble odor. Large insects require to be saturated with chloroform several
times to destroy life. A very neat way to kill the smaller moths is to
put them under a wine-glass and put in with them a tuft of wool satu-
— rated with chloroform. The moths are killed by the fumes, without
- being wet or handled. Some use for this purpose a poisonous prepara-
_ tion called cyanide of potassium.

In mounting beetles the pin should be passed through the right wing-
_ cover; other insects are pinned through the thorax. The pin should be
inserted so far that half of it will project below the body of the insect.

The value of a collection of insects is greatly enhanced by having the
legs and wings of the specimens displayed in a life-like attitude. For
this purpose they must be set out with pins, and held so a day or two
till they have become fixed. For spreading the wings of butterflies and

Vol. IV—51

[ 478 ] 58

moths it is indispensable to have a simple apparatus called the stretcher.
It consists of two strips of nicely dressed soft pine wood, 18 or 20 inches
long, two inches wide, and about three-eighths of an inch thick, placed
side by side, half an inch apart at one end and quarter of an inch at the
other, so as to accommodate insects of different sizes, and held so by a
cleet across each end. The space between the strips must be closed on
the underside by pieces of sheet cork tacked to the board. The space
between the strips is to receive the body of the insect, the pin being
passed through the cork*so as to bring the wings on a level with the
upper side of the stretcher. The wings are spread by catching them
just behind the stout front rib with a pin, or, what is better, a needle
set into a little handle, and carrying them forward, till the hind margin
of the fore-wings are on a straight line with each other. They can be
held in this position either by strips of card laid across them and fastened
with pins, or by inserting a single small pin through the wing, behind
the rib, and into the side pieces of the stretcher, which on this account
should be made of the softest kind of wood. For very small moths the
stretcher must be constructed upon a smaller scale.

Insects must be allowed to dry thoroughly before inclosing them in
the cabinet. Beetles which have been permitted to dry with their limbs
contracted, can be relaxed by putting them into hot water.

Boxes for the permanent preservation of insects may be 17 or 18 inches
square, two and a half inches deep, outside measurement, and one inch
and a half or a trifle more in the clear, made of perfectly seasoned wood,
halved together in the middle, so as to have an upper and lower part,
the former serving as the cover. The lower part must be lined on the
bottom with sheet cork or thin strips of corn-stalk, and the whole cov-
ered with soft white paper. The paste with which the paper is attached
should have a portion of arsenic stirred in with it, to guard against de-
structive vermin. The upper part, or cover, should be eut in around
the top, like a window sash, so as to receive a plate of glass, which is to
be secured in the usual way with putty.

Every insect drawer should have a lump of gum camphor rolled in a
piece of muslin and pinned into one corner, to keep out destructive ver-
min. The presence of vermin is detected by little heaps of the dust-like
enawings under the infested specimens. Such specimens should be at
once removed, and if the drawer. is much infested, a teaspoonful or two
of benzine should be poured upon the bottom, and the drawer or box
immediately closed, so as to retain the fumes.

MAGNIFYING GLASSES.

A magnifying glass consisting of one, or, what is better, two lenses,
so arranged that they can be used either singly or combined, is abso-
lutely indispensable in studying insects. This simple instrument, the

59 [ 479 |

usual cost of which is one dollar per lens, is all that is usually required.
It is a common mistake to suppose that insects cannot be studied and
classified without the use of a complex and costly miscroscope. Such
instruments are useful only to examine excessively minute or transpa-
rent objects, and though sometimes indispensable to the professed ento-
mologist, they are rarely used in the ordinary study of insects.

THE INSTINCT OF INSECTS.

Instinct is that faculty by which animals are enabled to discover their
food, construct their nests, and provide for their young, and to perform
these operations without having had any previous education or experi-
ence. Many of the manifestations of this faculty are truly wonderful
and unaccountable. Such are the mathematically accurate construction
of the cells of the honey-comb; the curious economy of the ants and
bees; and the provisions which many kinds of insects make for the fu-
ture subsistence of their young, even in advance of their existence.

Instinct is often spoken of as an imperfect or partially developed rea-
son, but its relation to that faculty can be, at most, only that of a very
remote analogy. It differs from reason in its invariableness and its al-
most absolute infallibility, but most essentially in its independeney of
previous knowledge and experience. Reason acts only by virtue of what
is already known, and man, who vastly excels all other animals in his
reasoning powers, approaches perfection in any complex work only by
long study and practice; the honey-bee, on the contrary, constructs its
first cell with such mathematical accuracy that it cannot be improved
by any subsequent experience.

Some of the higher animals, such as the horse and the dog, give proof
of the possession of a reasoning faculty. similar to our own, and inferior
only in degree. But whilst the manifestations of reason are fainter as
we descend in the animal scale, instinct becomes more remarkable, and
in insects especially, in which reason is almost if not absolutely wanting,
instinct is exhibited in its highest perfection, far surpassing, in many
instances, in accuracy and prescience, the reason of man himself.

Of the nature of the instinct of animals, as of that of the human mind,
we know absolutely nothing; and we can only confess our ignorance
by referring its wonderful manifestations to the direct agency of the
creator.

INSECTS FROM A PRACTICAL OR ECONOMIC POINT OF VIEW.

In regarding imsects from this point of view, we .have to consider
them in both their beneficial and their injurious relations. The directly
beneficial insects are almost limited to the three well-known species:
the honey-bee, the silk-worm and the cochineal-insect ; whereas, those

| 480 ] 60

species which are injurious to mankind, chiefly by depredating upon
valuable cultivated crops, are much more numerous, although consti-
tuting but a very small proportion of the whole insect world. It is im-
portant to bear in mind that in these destructive operations insects oc-
cupy an exceptional or abnormal position, and that we ourselves have
been the means of bringing about this state of things, by the excessive
cultivation of certain plants, whereby a corresponding increase of cer-
tain species of the insects which feed upon them has been induced. It
is very rarely that any such loss of balance between the insect and the
vegetable worlds takes place in the state of nature; and yet, such oc-
currences are not wholly unknown. This has happened most remarkably
in the ease of wood-eating insects, there being instances on record in
which extensive tracts of forest trees have been destroyed by the larve
of some of the more minute wood-boring beetles.

But, as just stated, it is in their depredations upon some one or other
of the more valuable cultivated crops that inseets have come into the
most direct and serious conflict with human interest. These depreda-
tions, as is well known, have often been of a most extensive and ruinous
character, causing the annual loss of crops to the value of many millions
of dollars, and in some seasons and localities, necessitating the total
abandonment of some of the most valuable and staple productions,
such as wheat, barley and potatoes, and also some of our choicest fruits,
such as the plum and the peach ; and sometimes threatening the destrue-
tion even of the most valuable fruit of all—the hardy and widely dis-
tributed apple. These destructive operations of insects have necessarily
attracted to them the most earnest attention of both practical and
scientific men, and many valuable treatises and reports have been written
which have been devoted chiefly to the practical treatment of the sub-
ject. It is our present intention to treat of insects from a more general
and comprehensive point of view.

GENERAL UTILITY OF INSECTS.

From what has just been said, it is evident that it is in the nature of
their food and their food-taking habits, that insects hold the closest
relationship to human interests; and this is true not only in the direct
manner above described, but also indirectly, by means of the important
parts which they fulfill in the economy of nature. Indeed, the opera-
tions of insects in this last respect are of such vast importance, that it
would be safe to say that if these should cease, the earth would soon be-
come uninhabitable by mankind. These operations consist chiefly, first,
in the destruction of other insects by the predaceous and parasitic kinds,
whereby the excessive increase of the former is held in check ; secondly,

61 [ 481 ]

in the instrumentality of a large proportion of insects in their character
of scavengers, whereby the decomposition of decayed and offensive
matters, both animal and vegetable, is effected and accelerated ; and
thirdly, in the agency of insects in causing the fertilization of plants,
especially those with very deep corollas, and those which have the barren
and the productive flowers upon different plants, by carrying upon their
legs, in their search for honey, the fertilizing pollen from one flower to
another. A long chapter might be written upon each of these topies,
but we have space here barely to enumerate them.

DIVISION OF INSECTS ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF THEIR FOOD.

From this point of view all insects may be divided into two classes—
the carnivorous insects, or those which eat animal food, (Sarcophaga) ;
and the herbivorous insects, or those which subsist upon vegetable sub-
stances, (Phytophaga). Hach of these classes is again divisible aeccording-
ly as the insects which compose it take their food in a fresh and living
state, or in a state of decay. The former are called predaceous insects
(Adephaga), when they live upon animal prey ; and the latter are desig-
nated by the name of scavengers (Rypophaga). Those insects which eat
living animal food, are still further divisible into predaceous insects
proper, which seize and devour their prey, and parasite insects, which
live within the bodies of their victims and feed upon their substance.

Those insects which feed upon decaying animal matter present three
divisions: first, general scavengers, which devour particles of putresent
matter wherever they may be found; second, those which live exclusively
in or upon the bodies of dead animals, (Necrophaga); and thirdly, those
which are found exclusively in animal excrement, (Coprophaga).

The herbivorous insects may be divided in a similar manner into those
which eat fresh vegetable food, (Thalcrophaga), and those which subsist
upon vegetable matters in a state of decay, (Saprophaga). They can
also be usefully classified according to the particular parts of the plant
which they devour, into lignivorous or wood-eating insects, (Aylophaga);
the folivorous, or leaf-eating insects, (Phyllophaga) ; and the fructivor-
ous, or fruit-eating insects, (Carpophaga).

The above Greek terms in parentheses have been used chiefly in con-
nection with the insects of the coleopterous order, in which these diver-
sities of food-habits exist to a much greater extent than in any of the
other orders, but the terms themselves are of general signification, and
being very concise and comprehensive, they might, not improperly, be
used in speaking of insects in all the orders, so far as they are appli-
cable.

[ 482 | 6

bo

DIFFERENCE OF FOOD OF THE LARVA AND THE PERFECT INSECT.

In attempting to classify insects according to the nature of their food
we meet with a peculiar difficulty, oving to the remarkable change
which some species undergo in this respect, in passing from the larva to
the perfect state. Most caterpillars, for example, feed upon leaves,
whilst the butterflies and moths which they produce subsist upon the
honey of flowers, or other liquid substances. ‘Some two-winged flies
(Asilide) feed upon the roots of plants in their larva state, but become
eminently predaceous in their winged state. Another remarkable ex-
ample is furnished by certain coleopterous insects (Meloide,) which are
parasitic in their larva state, but subsist upon foliage after they have
assumed the beetle form. The question therefore arises, to which stage
of the insect’s existence shall the precedence be given in this respect ?
At first view it would seem that the perfect state ought to govern, but
when we take into account that insects are comparatively short lived in
this state ; that having arrived at maturity they require but little food ;
and that some insects take no food at all at this stage of their lives ;
whereas all the growth of an insect takes place whilst it is in the larva
state, and consequently it is in this state that they feed so voraciously :
when we consider this, it seems more reasonable that, in classifying in-
sects upon this basis, the food-habits of the larva should take the pre-
cedence.

In the following work I have not thought it best to adopt any inflexi-
ble rule in this matter, but have been governed by one or the other
view accordingly as its importance might seem to preponderate in each
particular ease.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN NOXIOUS AND INJURIOUS INSECTS.

The terms noxious and injurious are often used indiscriminately, but
strictly speaking, noxious insects are those which are endowed with
some poisonous or otherwise hurtful quality ; and these are divisible in-
to two classes accordingly as they are hurtful to mankind directly, such
as the mosquito, flea, and bed-bug; or are hurtful to the domesti-
cated animals, as the horse-fly, the bot-fly, and the various kinds of
animal lice. The insects which attack man directly are annoying rather
than seriously hurtftl, and this is usually the case also with those which
molest the domesticated animals; but these sometimes multiply so as to
seriously impoverish the amimals which they infest.

The term injurious, as distinguished from noxious, is properly applied
to all those insects which damage mankind indirectly, but often to a
most serious extent by depredating upon those crops upon which we de-
pend for subsistence and profit.

33 [ 483

NUMBER MORE IMPORTANT THAN SIZE.

It is worthy of remark that by far the greater proportion of the dam-
age caused by injurious insects is effected by species of very small size,
whilst the large species are generally harmless. The two most serious
fruit insects, the Codling-moth and the Plum-curculio, are both below
the medium size, and the Apple bark-louse, the Apple-aphis, the Hes-
sian-fly, and the Wheat-midge, are so minute that they would not be
noticeable were it not for the wide destruction which they cause to some
of our most valuable crops, in consequence of their excessive multiplica-
tion.

TREATMENT OF INJURIOUS INSECTS.

For the details of treatment the reader is referred to the practical
treatises and reports which have been published upon this subject. We
can give here only an abstract of the methods to be pursued.

First, hand-picking and destruction by machinery, as in the case of
the Colorado potato-beetle ; second, poisoning by such substances as
Paris-green, hellebore, and carbolic-acid, as in the cases of the Potato-
beetle, and the Currant saw-fly ; third, rendering their food distasteful
and repugnant to them by the application of such substances as ashes,
lime, and whale-oil soap, which are applicable to all foliage-eating in-
sects ; fourth, anticipating their attacks by planting at such times as
will cause the crops to sprout or to mature too early or too late for them,
both of which plans are exemplified by winter wheat, in its relation to
the Chinch-bug and the Hessian-fly; and fifth, when all other means
fail, preventing their ravages by abstaining for a year or two from
raising the damaged crops. ‘To these may be added, in certain favorable
instances, the transportation and colonization of friendly parasites. An
experiment of this kind has been performed by the author by the trans-
portation from the central to the northern parts of the State of Illinois,
of the minute Chalcis-fly which is parasitic upon the Oyster-shell Bark-
louse.

The above list exhibits the most common methods of contending with
injurious insects, and these methods admit of almost indefinite modifi-
cation. But they can be most usefully described in connection with the
particular species of insect to which they are respectively applicable.

USE OF LEARNED AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS.

With regard to the use of scientific terms, derived mostly from the
Greek and Latin languages, it is to. be remarked that though they may
appear difficult and forbidding, at first sight, the student soon becomes
familiarized with them and finds them to be almost indispensable by en-
abling him often to express in one or two words what would require a

[ 484 | 64

whole sentence in English. It is also an important consideration that
in learning the elements of any science or art, an indispensable part of
such education is to acquire a knowledge of the more common technical
terms which properly belong to it, and which constitute its peculiar
phraseology, and which the student will continually meet with in all
writings upon the subject. In a work intended, like the present, for the
common student, all unnecessary use of such words should, of course,
be avoided, and whenever we have found it necessary to use them, we
have taken care, as a general rule, to explain their meaning, either
directly or by the nature of the context.

The student must not expect that any science can be so simplified as
to remove all difficulties ; and especially true is this of so extensive and
complex a science as entomology. Nor is it desirable that this should be
done. One of the principal advantages to be expected from the study
of this science is the admirable mental discipline which it affords. The
forms: with which it has to deal are so numerous and diversified, and.
often, at the same time, so closely allied, that their classification con-
stantly demands a minute and careful examination, and a discrimina-
tive analysis, which, regarded purely as an exercise of the mind, are
searcely inferior to those required by the abstract mathematics, whilst
they possess the additional interest which naturally attaches to the
study of living beings.

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE,

Classification in natural history, has two objects In view—first, to
show the relationship which exists between organized beings, by put-
ting them in groups in accordance with the similarity of their charac-
ters ; and secondly, to facilitate the study of them by enabling the stu-
dent to comprehend a great number of different but allied forms under
a comparatively small number of general heads, and thus to afford an
‘important aid to the memory.

By nomenclature is meant the giving to these groups and the species
which compose them distinctive names. This is necessary to enable us
either to receive or to communicate knowledge ; and without it natural
history could not be raised to the dignity of a science.

In a department so extensive as that of insects, a very great number
of names, not only of species, but of the groups in which these are
comprehended, must be necessarily introduced. It is therefore import-
ant that the science shall not be encumbered by the creation of unneces-
sary genera, or such as are founded upon slight and unimportant char-
acters. It is, indeed, often difficult to determine precisely what charac-
ters or combination of characters necessitate or justify the formation
of a new genus, or the subdivision of an old one. No definition of the
term genus which is universally applicable, ever has been, or perhaps

65 [ 485 ]

ever can be given, inasmuch as the characters which constitute it often
possess very different values in the different genera and families, not.
only of insects, but of animals generally, and therefore the formation
of genera must necessarily be left to the judgment of the author.

It is the natural tendency of the specialist to attach undue value to
the minor subdivisions of his particular department, whilst he whose
studies take a wider range sees more forcibly the necessity of condensa-
tion and simplification. Much can be said upon both sides of this
question, but perhaps the argument may be condensed into a single sen-
tence by saying that, on the one hand, the minute subdivision of a na-
tural group tends to give definiteness and precision to our investiga-
tions, whilst, on the other hand, the multiplication of genera or sub-
genera upon trivial characters, unnecessarily gncumbers our nomencla-
ture, and diminishes the interest and importance which ought to attach
to the generic distinction.

In writing the names of insects—and the same rule applies to all
other departments of natural history—it is the established custom to
write first the name of the genus, usually without the author’s name
attached, and immediately following it the specific name, with the name
of the original describer, or an abreviation of it, appended. As no one
can carry all the modern genera of insects in his memory, it is an ex-
cellent practice, when space permits, to prefix the name of the older
and more comprehensive genus to which such species was formerly re-
ferred, and with which most entomologists may be presumed to be fa-
miliar. In this case the modern genus is included in a parenthesis, and
usually with the author’s name attached.

To illustrate by examples: The common rose-slug is the larva of a
little wasp-like insect known scientifically as the Selandria rose of Har-
ris. This species was first described by Dr. Harris, who gave to it the
specific name rosw, meaning of the rose. It belongs to the modern
genus Selandria, which was founded by Dr. Leach, an English ento-
mologist. This genus is a subdivision of the old genus Tenthredo, of
Linneus. The name written in full, therefore, will stand :

‘Tenthredo (Selandria, Leach) rose, Harris.

Our fine large Polyphemus moth was originally described by Linnzeus
under the name of Attacus Polyphemus. It belongs to the modern genus
Telea, made by the German lepidopterist, Hubner. Its name, therefore,
expressed in the simplest manner, is Telea Polyphemus, Linn.; or writ-
ten in full—

Attacus (Telea, Hubner) Polyphemus, Linnzeus.

This is ordinarily all that is essential to be known, and any additional
Synonyms or references should be placed in a subordinate position,

Vol, [LV—d2

| 486 ] 66

It will be observed that all the family names of insects end in ide.
This is a Greek termination, meaning like or similar, and implies that

all the species in any such group have a family resemblance to those of
the leading genus to which it is affixed—thus: Cicindelide means Ci-
cindela—like insects. In pronouncing these words the accent is placed
upon the syllable preceding this termination, thus: Cicindel-ide, Carab-
ide, ete.

It is often the case that families, especially those which contain many
species, admit of division into a number of natural groups of a higher
rank than genera, which are designated as sub-families, and distin-
guished by the termination ides. Thus the family Carabide is divided
into a number of sub-families, such as the Brachinides, the Scaritides,
ete.

DIVISION OF INSECTS INTO ORDERS.

The class of insects is divided into a number of primary groups called
orders. Between these larger divisions are certain smaller ones, which
serve aS connecting links between them, and which some authors have
merged in one or the other of the adjoining larger groups, whilst others
have considered them of sufficient importance to be raised to the same
rank with the larger ones. From this it has resulted that the number
of orders into which the class of insects has been divided has varied,
even in the works of standard authors, from seven to twelve; and the
number will be still increased if we regard as distinct orders certain
apterous forms such as the lice (Pediculi,) and the springtails (Thy- :
sanura.)

But as in this elementary treatise it is the intention to simplify the |
classification of insects as much as possible, we have adopted the smaller |
number of orders, with the single exception of recognizing the division |
of the Hemiptera into Homoptera and Heteroptera as of ordinal value. |

The orders of insects are founded primarily upon the number and
structure of the wings. This mode of division was first suggested by
Aristotle, who gave the names which they now bear to two of the orders, |
namely, the Coleoptera and the Diptera. It was afterwards almost per-
fected by Linnaeus, but has been somewhat modified by more recent
authors.

The orders, at the present time, are usually arranged in two sections, |

with four orders in each, based upon the form and structure of the |
mouth.

67 | 487 ]

Section Ist. Mandibulata, or Gnawing insects. —Mouth composed of
jaws and mandibles.
A. Upper wings of a horny or leathery consistency; under wings
membranous.
B. Upper wings horny, and usually inflexible; under wings folded
both lengthwise and crosswise ; inactive in the pupa state :
COLEOPTERA.
BB. Upper wings coriaceous, or like parchment; under wings
folded lengthwise only ; active in all their stages:
ORTHOPTERA.
A A. All four wings membranous and transparent.
C. Wings with many branching veins, and usually many cross-
veins ; abdomen without an ovipositor. ...NEUROPTERA.
C C. Wings with comparatively few veins; abdomen of the
females terminating in an ovipositor or sting:
HYMENOPTERA.

Section 2d. Haustellata, or Sucking insects—The mouth consolidated
into a proboscis or sucker.
A, Wings four.
B. Wings covered with bran-like scales..-........ LEPIDOPTERA.
B B. Wings naked.
C. Upper wings of the same texture throughout, not lapping
over each other, deflexed or roof-shaped when at rest:
HOMOPTERA.
C C. Upper wings coriaceous at base, membranous at tip,
lapping one over the other at the tip, and lying flat upon
the abdomen when at rest.....--...-- HETEROPTERA.
A EAS NWWanies two.) menibramous.: .. 2 - «2)24-4 4 2)sselee ei DIPTERA.

[ 488 | 68

ORDER or COLEOPTERA.

The Coleoptera, (a term composed of two Greek words, xodeo¢ a sheath,
and ztepa wings,) commonly called beetles, are the most numerous divi-
sion of the mandibulate or gnawing insects. They are distinguished
from all other insects by the hard texture of their bodies, and by their
horny wing-covers, called elytra, which represent the upper pair of wings
of other insects. The elytra are not moved in flight, but only raised so
as to permit the free motion of the lower or true wings, and a few of the
chafers (Cetonie) do not even raise them during flight. They are generally
hard, horny and inflexible, but in the lightning-beetles (Lampyride) and
a few others, they are comparatively thin and flexible, but never mem-
branous like the lower wings. The inferior or true wings differ from those
of ‘almost all other insects in being folded crosswise, as well as length-
wise, when at rest under their cases. The Buprestidz and a few others
form exceptions to this rule. A few kinds which live under stones and
in other dark places, and which liave no occasion to fly, have no wings
under their elytra.

Owing to the perfect development and the hard texture of the crust
or integument of the Coleoptera, and also to the circumstance that it is
not usually much obscured by hair, this part is made more use of in
classification than it is in any of the other orders. The upper side ex-
hibits the three divisions of the insect’s body: the head; the thorax; and
the abdomen, covered by the elytra. Between the elytra, at their base,
or where they join the thorax, is almost always a small triangular piece
called the scutellum. On the under side, each of the principal parts is
seen to be composed of a considerable number of pieces usually soldered

together and distinguished only by fine impressed lines, called sutures.
These subdivisions and their names will be sufficiently understood, with-
out the necessity of a detailed description, by the annexed figure of one
of the ground-beetles (Harpalus caliginosus) and the accompanying ex-
planation, taken in connection with the general description in the be-
. ginning of this work.

EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING FIGURE.

The oblong narrow piece in the middle of the mouth, marked L, is the
ligula or tongue. At the extremity of the ligula are two little wings or
side pieces marked p p; these are the paraglosse. The other parts of
the mouth are named in the figure, and have been described in the in-
troductory part of this work. The under side of the head, behind the
mentum or chin, is called the gula or throat.

The under side of the thorax is divided into a considerable number
of pieces more or less distinct, and separated from each other by im-
pressed lines called sutwres. The middle portion is called the sternum

or breast-plate, and is divided into three parts, the prosternum or fore
breast-plate ; the mesosternum or middle breast-plate ; and the metaster-
num or hind breast-plate. Each of these parts has a side piece called
the episternum ; so that there is an episternum of the prothorax; an
episternum of the mesothorax; and an episternum of the metathorax ;
all of which are tabelled in the figure. Directly behind each epister-
num is a smaller piece called the epimeron. These are indicated in the
figure by stars; three stars marking the epimeron of the prothorax ;
two stars the epimeron of the mesothorax; and one star the epimeron
of the metathorax. The epimeron of the mesothorax is very narrow in
Harpalus, and scarcely distinguishable without the aid of a lens; but

| 490 ] 70

in a part of the long-horned beetles (Saperde, etc.) and in some others, .
it is considerably wider, and affords valuable characters in classification.
The trochanters, or little joints at the base of the thighs, are marked TR
in the figure, except the large hind trochanters, where the name is
printed in full. Behind the metasternum, and extending outwardly
from the hind cox# is a narrow piece marked cx.P. This is the hind
coxal plate. This is a very narrow piece in Harpalus, but in some of the
serricorn beetles (Buprestide and Hlateride), it is much wider, and fur-
nishes important generic characters ; and in Haliplus, a genus of water
beetles, it is excessively dilated. The other parts are sufficiently named
in the figure.

The antenne of the Coleoptera are usually eleven jointed and of mod-
erate length, but they are subject to much variation both in length and
form, aS will appear in the descriptions of the different families. The
subjoined figures show their most common variations, and the names by
which they are designated. These forms have been more particularly
described on a former page, when treating of insects in general.

Explanation —1, filiform or thread-shaped ; 2 and 3, serrate or saw-toothed; 4, pectinate or comb-
toothed ; 5, capitate or knobbed; 6, 7, 8, clavate or club-shaped ; 9 and 10, lamellate or plated.

The palpi, or little jointed appendages to the mouth, also sometimes
furnish important characters in classification. They vary chiefly in the
shape of the terminal joint, which is sometimes much narrower than
the others, when it is called acicular or needle-shaped, and sometimes
much widened, so as to be in the form of a triangle or of a half moon, or
hatchet.

As the terms large, small, and medium-sized are often used in speaking
of insects, and as these words vary considerably in force, when used in
different relations, we give below their average meaning when applied
to the Coleoptera:

An inch or more in length, . - - : Very large.
Three-quarters of an inch, - - : - - Large.
Halfaninch, - - - - - - - Medium.
Quarter of an inch, - - - . - - Small.
One-eighth of an inch or less, - - - - Very small.

The intermediate sizes are expressed by such phrases as, rather large,
rather small, or a little above, or a little below the medium, ete. This
standard applies only when speaking of any one group of beetles as
compared with the Coleoptera generally. The same expressions will

71 [ 491 |

necessarily vary in force when applied to the species of a particular
group aS compared with each other, accordingly as the species of that
group are large or small as compared with the rest of the order; that
is to say, a small species of a group of generally large-sided insects,
may be larger than a large species of a small-sized group.

LARVA AND PUP.

The larve of the Coleoptera are usually soft whitish grubs; naked,
or with a few scattered hairs; with a mandibulate mouth not very
unlike that of the perfect insects; usually furnished with six short
feet and a single terminal proleg, but sometimes wholly footless.
They live in secluded situations, sometimes in the ground, but
oftener in the wood or under the bark of decaying trees, or in
putrescent animal substances, and not unfrequently in nuts and
seeds, and in the pulp of fruits. They are rarely found exposed to
the light of day, and therefore they never exhibit the beauty of colora-
tion, nor the variety of clothing which gives so much interest to the
study of the caterpillars, properly so called, which are the larve of the
moths and butterflies. The larvee of most of the families of Coleoptera
are now pretty well known, but owing to the circumstances just men-
tioned, they have generally received but little attention from entomolo-
gists compared with that which has been bestowed upon the perfect
insects. The larve of the several families will be more particularly
described in their proper connections.

The pupe are never inclosed in cocoons, but the larvee, before chang-
ing, simply form cells by turning themselves round and round in the
earth or rotten wood, in which they usually undergo their metamor-
phoses. The legs are free, that is not concealed from view under a
pupa case, but they are not used, the insects being dormant and motion-
less during this stage of their existence.

THE COLEOPTERA FROM A PRACTICAL POINT OF VIEW.

In order to show more clearly the connection between scientific and
practical entomology, in classifying the Coleoptera we have taken the
food-habits of the several species as the basis of classification, it being
in the nature of their food, and their methods of obtaining it, that in-
sects come into the most important relationship to mankind, whether of
an injurious or a beneficial character. We refer to the Coleoptera par-
ticularly, because they exhibit a much greater diversity of food-habits
than any of the other orders of insects. Indeed this principle of classi-
fication is of value just in proportion as such diversity exists ; and where
it is very limited, as especially in the great order of Lepidoptera, it
ceases to be available. Even in classifying the Coleoptera upon this
basis, and at the same time paying the necessary respect to structural

[ 492 | 72

considerations, we are sometimes compelled to place insects of similar
food-habits in several different,’ and sometimes remote, tribes. The
wood-boring beetles, for example, constitute three distinct tribes, desig-
nated as the saw-horned borers (Buprestidce); the long-horned borers
(Cerambycide); and the short-horned borers (Scolytide). There are
likewise four distinct families of fungus-beetles, found respectively in
each of the four tarsal sections. But notwithstanding such instances as
these, the Coleoptera admit of a very interesting, useful, and, in the
main, natural classification in accordance with the nature of their food.

As compared with the other orders of insects the Coleoptera are sur-
passed only by the Lepidoptera in the extent of their injuries to cultiva-
ted crops; and indeed they are so nearly equal to the latter in this re-
spect, that there may be a doubt which takes the precedence ; and it is
true of either of these two orders, that, with the exception of the other,
it includes a greater number of injurious species than all the other
orders of insects combined. The great destructiveness of the Lepidop-
tera is readily explained by the nature of their food, nearly all their
larvee, commonly known as caterpillars, subsisting upon plant-food, and
mostly in a fresh and growing state. The Coleoptera, on the contrary,
embraces, in addition to the plant-eating species, extensive tribes of
predaceous and scavenger beetles, which are indirectly of incalculable
benefit to mankind.

In studying the bearing of scientific upon practical entomology,
nothing perhaps is more important than to trace the connection of the
external structure of insects with their habits, and especially with the
nature of their food; since we are thus enabled, to a certain extent, to
determine the habits of an insect by simply observing the form and
structure of its visible parts. We are able to lay down some general
rules of this kind with respect to the Coleoptera, though most of them
are subject to important exceptions. In order not to give too much
space to this part of the subject, we will limit our observations to two
of the most important and prominent organs, the antenne, and the
feet, or tarsi.

All predaceous beetles have filiform antenne except the lady-bugs or
Coccinellide.

All the scavenger beetles have strongly clavate or knobbed antenne,
except the short-winged scavengers or Staphylinide.

All the leaf-eating beetles have filiform or nearly filiform antenne,
except the herbivorous Lamellicorns (Rutelide and Melolonthide. )

All fungus-eating beetles have the antenne more or less strongly cla-
vate.

The feet of the Coleoptera are of two principal kinds; first, simple
feet, in which the joints are slender, and of about the same width

‘

(el [ 493)

throughout, and clothed only with somewhat scattered bristles; and
secondly bi-lobed feet, in which the joints are somewhat widened and de-
pressed, with the last joint but one wider than the others, and divided
into two lobes, between which the last joint is inserted, and all of them
clothed beneath with densely crowded short stiff hairs, of the same
length, so as to resemble a brush; sometimes also compared to a piece
of sponge.

As a general rule, beetles with simple feet reside upon the ground, or
under the bark of dead trees, or in other decomposing matter, and are
either carnivorous or rypophagous (filth eating) in their habits; and
those which have bilobed and spongy feet live upon the foliage of trees
and other plants, this structure of the feet seeming to be especially
adapted to enabling them to adhere to the surface of leaves; and ac-
cordingly most of these insects are herbivorous.

But this general statement is subject to important exceptions. Some
of the lamellicorn beetles (Melonthide, Rutelide, etc.) have simple feet
and yet feed upon the foliage of trees; but these insects do not run
over the leaves, but simply cling to them with their sharp claws, whilst
feeding.

So, also, some carnivorous beetles (Telephoride and Coccinellide),
which pursue their prey over the foliage of trees, have their feet bilobed
and spongy.

It is an interesting circumstance that those insects ( Melolonthide, etc.)
which only cling to the foliage by their claws, do not breed upon the
trees, but pass their larval period under ground, subsisting upon roots
or other subterranean matters, and only visit the trees for the sake of
feeding; whereas the true Phytophaga, with spongy feet (Chrysomelida
and their allies) live upon the plants upon which they feed, through all
the stages of their existence.

It is also a curious coincidence that the insects first mentioned, which
only visit the trees occasionally for the purpose of feeding, do so only
by night; whilst the genuine Phytophaga (plant eaters) are diurnal in
their habits.

There is another partial but important exception to the rule
above laid down, as respects the males of many carnivorous beetles,
which have some of the joints of their anterior feet much widened and
brushed underneath; but here the last joint but one is not bilobed, and
the brush is usually confined to the anterior pair of feet, rarely extend-
ing to the middle pair, and never to the hind ones; besides being lim-
ited exclusively to the males.

Whilst some of the other orders of insects excel the Coleoptera in the
perfection of their instincts, no other order can be compared with them
in the diversity of their food, and their corresponding habits and organ-

ization. Indeed the Coleoptera combine, to a great extent, the tood.
Vol. IV—53

| 494] 74

habits of all the other orders. The herbivorous habits of the Orthop-
tera, the carnivorous habits of the Hemiptera, the aquatic habits of the
Neuroptera, the honey-eating and the parasitic habits of the Hymenop-
tera, the leaf-eating habits of the larve of the Lepidoptera, and the
putrivorous habits of the Diptera—all find their parallel in the ranks
of the omnivorous Coleoptera.

SUGGESTIONS TO AID IN CLASSIFYING THE COLEOPTERA.

The student will perceive that the primary division of Coleopterous
insects is based upon the number of joints in their feet, or tarsi. This
character, though apparently of trivial importance, is found to furnish
an index to a more natural classification than can be established upon
any other single character. In almost all beetles of considerable size,
that is, more than quarter of an inch in length, this character is very
uniform, or, in other words, the number of tarsal joints in the insects of
any one section or family, is remarkably unexceptional. It also has the
advantage, in insects of this size, of being easily determined, if not by
the naked eye, at least by the aid of a simple lens.

But the insects which are necessarily the most difficult to examine
and classify are the very small ones, and here the character founded
upon the number of tarsal joints not only becomes more difficult to de-
termine, but more exceptional, and therefore of less value. We there-
fore give the following suggestions to aid the inexperienced student in
cases of this kind.

It will be seen that the whole order of beetles may be divided into
four sections :—First, the pentamera, or those having five joints in all
their tarsi; second, the heteromera, or those having five joints in the
anterior and middle tarsi, and four joints in the hindermost; third, the -
tetramera, or those having four joints in all the tarsi; and fourth, the
trimera, or those having three joints in all the tarsi.

The last section contains strictly but two families, the Coccinellidse
and the Endomychidz, though another family, the Erotylide, having
four joints in their tarsi, are usually classed with them. The species in
this section are so comparatively few in number and usually so well
marked by their other characters that the student will seldom have any
difficulty in distinguishing them.

The second and third sections are very nearly unexceptional in the
number of the tarsal joints. The principal difficulty occurs, therefore,
with respect to numerous families containing very small species in the
first or pentamerous section ; and these are mostly limited to what are
known as scavenger beetles, both the club-horned tribe, ( Clawicornes ; )
and the short-winged tribe, (Brachelytra.) In the minute species of both
of these tribes the number of tarsal joints is very irregular, one of them

75 | 495 ]

being often indistinct or wanting, especially in the posterior feet, and in
three families at least the Lathridiide, Trichopterygids and Pselaphide,
two joints are wanting in all the feet, making them apparently but
three-jointed.

The student will naturally inquire, why place these insects in the
pentamerous section? The answer is, that they harmonize more closely
with the insects of this section in their other characters, whilst they do
not affiliate with the insects of the other sections which agree with them
in the number of tarsal joints. An examination of their other characters
will usually enable the student, after a little experience, to refer these
insects to their true position; though cases sometimes occur which
puzzle the most astute entomologist. They can hardly be confounded
with the Heteromera, because these are, for the most part, much larger
insects, and the exceptionally small species belong mostly to the tribe
of Trachelides, which are distinguished from these and most other
beetles by having the head attached to the thorax by a narrow neck.
They differ from the Tetramera in the form of the tarsi and also that
of the antenne. Almost all these small species with deficient tarsal
joints, have these parts slender and simple, whilst all the genuine Fet-
ramera have the tarsal joints somewhat widened and covered beneath
with a dense brush of short hair, and the last joint but one is wider
than the others, and divided into two lobes, between which the last
joint is inserted. The only pentamerous beetles which have some of
their tarsal joints obsolete, and at the same time have the last joint but
one bilobed, are a part of the serricorn family of Cleridz. Some of the
short-winged scavengers with an irregular number of tarsal joints
(Staphylinide), have a part of these joints widened but not bilobed. in
the males, but here it is a sexual distinction, and is confined to the an-
terior feet.

These small Pentamera, with variable tarsi, almost always have
strongly clavate antenn, except the Staphylinide, and these are dis-
tinguished at once by their short wing-covers. The true Tetramera, on
the contrary, have the antenne filiform, or at most slightly and gradu-
ally enlarged toward the tip, except the snout-beetles (Curculionide),
and these are readily known by their elongated rostrum.

If, then, the student have in hand a small beetle whose place in the
system he cannot determine with certainty, from the number of tarsal
joints, let him first observe whether these joints are simple and of the
same width throughout, or whether the last joint but one is a little
wider than the others, and deeply notched or bilobed at the end; and
next, let him examine the antennz, and observe whether they are slen-
der and filiform, or whether they are decidedly enlarged at the end,
either gradually (clavate), or suddenly (capitate).

| 496 | 76

1. If the tarsi are simple and the antenne filiform, the species may
belong to some one of a number of diverse families (Carabidae, Elaterids,
Mordellidz, Melandryide, Cistelide, and a few smaller fam'lies); but
the beetles with this combination of characters are rarely of very
small size, and they are, therefore, the more easily determined by their
other characters.

2. If the tarsi are simple and the antenne clavate or capitate, the in-
sect may be referred, with very few exceptions, to some one of the fami-
lies of scavenger beetles in the pentamerous section. This rule embra-
ces a large proportion of very small-sized beetles, and will, therefore,
be found of great use to the student in narrowing the field of his in-
quiry. A few appareut exceptions exist in the heteromerous families
of Diaperidz and Tenebrionide, but the former can be usually distin-
guished by their perfoliate antenng, and the antennez of the Tenebrio-
nide are usually so slightly enlarged towards the tip as scarcely to be
entitled to the name of clavate. Other partial exceptions are found in
the family of Scolytide, or short horned wood-borers, all of which have
strongly clavate antenne, and some of which have simple tarsi; but
many of them have the last joint but one slightly bilobed.

3. If the last joint but one of the tarsi is bilobed and the antenne jili-
form, the insect belongs to the family of long-horned borers (Ceramby-
cide), or to that of the plant-beetles proper (Chrysomelide, etc.) The
tarsi thus formed arc almost always spongy on the under side. Only a
few partial exceptions to this rule are found, and these are in the he-
teromerous families of idemeride, Anthicid#, and a few others; but
in these the tarsi are usually but slightly dilated, and but little, or not
at all, spongy beneath.

4, If the tarsi are bilobed and the antenne clavate, the species belongs
to the tribe of snout-beetles (Curculionide), in the terramerous section,
or to the family of Erotylide, or that of Coccinellid, in the trimerous
section.

5. Beetles with distinctly serrate antenne belong almost exclusively
to the families of Serricornes proper, in the pentamerous section; but
this rule also has a few exceptions. The pea and bean weevils (Bru-
chide), in the tetramerous section, usually have the antenne decidedly
serrate; and a few small families of the division of Trachelides, in the
heteromerous section, (Rhipiphoride and Pyrochroide,) usually have
the antenne serrate in the females, and flabellate or branched in the

males.
6. All beetles with lamellate antenne belong to the division of Lamel.-

licornes proper, in the pentamerous section. Only in very rare instances
the branches of a pectinate or flabellate antenna are somewhat flattened
80 as to resemble the true lamellate. An example of this is found in
the little beetles of the genus Phleotribus in the family of Scolytide.

U7 [ 497 |

CLASSIFICATION OF THE COLEOPTERA.

The Coleoptera are divided into four sections founded upon the num-
ber of joints in their tarsi, or feet. We have explained sufficiently the
value of this character in the foregoing preliminary remarks.

These sections may be tabulated as follows :

Ges Rekiverjoints:in alli: the tarsi waite cokes serie a Ie eas) se lars tate retew ere Pentamera.
Sec. 2. Five joints in the anterior and middle tarsi, aud four joints in the hind

PANS ele oteicre)e nto ete let solace tales o Ula wb stu Te RRbs oath lola Chal aie aia a fatats ata aie eee Heteromera.
Sec. 3. Four joints in all fee LO gt Ome SOMES Soe F BEBE Ese tin CRAP ab a ea cee 3 ic Tetramera.
i Shute Uae LEY ata Va) Hah Ayah EN Uo aX Ih gs) ee EE SR aeGor ger abaronouraa=one Trvmera.

These terms, except the second, are composed of the Greek numerals
meaning respectively, jive, four, and three, prefixed to a word meaning
parts or pieces. The prefix hetero, in the second section, means different.

As a general rule iusects have five joints in their tarsi, and never
more than five. This may, therefore, be regarded as the normal or typi-
cal number, and a smaller number must be taken as an indication of in-
feriority or degradation, using this word in its scientific sense. In ac-
cordance with this view, the most perfect and highly organized beetles —
are found in the pentamerous section; and in those which have less
than five joints, there is usually a little swelling at the base of the last
joint, which is supposed to be a vestige of the missing joint. This cir-
cumstance has led some authors to give more complex names to these
sections, expressive of this character, but with the explanation here
given we have preferred to retain the simpler nomenclature of Olivier
and Latreille.

Section !. PENTAMERA.
Five joints in all the tarst.

This is the most numerous section, and comprises, as a general rule,
the largest and most highly organized species in this order of insects,
though it also contains many small species.

They can be divided into six sub-sections, founded upon their habits
and the nature of their food, and distinguished primarily by the struc-
ture of their antenne; and these sub-sections are again naturally divi-
sible into a number of subordinate divisions or tribes. The following
table gives a synopsis of the sub-sections, tribes, and fainilies of the
pentamerous veetles. The names given to these sub-sections are gen-
erally recognized, and in common use, except the first and the third.
The term filicornes, though sufficiently characteristic of the predaceous
beetles as compared with others of the pentamerous section, does not
sharply distinguish them from some of the beetles of the other sections ;
and the term monilicornes, applied to the third sub-section—which is
composed chiefly of the family of Staphylinide, though tolerably char-
acteristic, especially of the larger and typical species—is not ordinarily

| 498 ] 78

applied to them, for the reason that the beetles of this division are more
readily and strongly distinguished by another character, namely, the
remarkable shortness of their wing-covers, expressed by the Greek
term brachelytra, by which they are generally designated, or the corres-
ponding Latin word brevipennes, which is sometimes, but less commonly
used.

SYNOPSIS OF THE PENTAMEROUS COLEOPTERA.

SuB-sEc. I. Filicornes. Antenne filiform. Habits predaceous.
Tribe 1. Predaceous ground beetles. (Carnivora terrestria.\
GEODEPHAGA, MacLeay.
Families: Cicindelide ; Carabide.
Tribe 2. Predaceous water beetles. (Carnivora aquatica.) HyDRA-
DEPHAGA, MacLeay.
Families: Dytiscide ; Gyrinide.

Sup-sec. Il. Clavicornes. Antenne club-shaped. Habits mostly
putrivorous. }
Tribe 3. Water scavengers. (Putrivora aquatica.) PHILHY-
DRIDA, MacLeay.

Families: Parnide; Hydrophilidee.

Tribe 4. Land scavengers. (Putrivora terrestria.) NECRO
PHAGA partly, Latreille.

Families: Silphide ; Scaphidiide ; Histeride; Nitildulide ;
Dermestide; Mycetophagide; Cryptophagide; Byrrhide;
Anisotomide ; Phalacride ; Trichopterygide ; Scydmeni-
de; Trogositide ; Cucujidee ; Colydiide ; Lathridiide.

Sup-sec. I. Monilicornes. Antenne more or less moniliform or
bead-like ; wing covers very short. Habits putrivorous.
Tribe 5. Short-winged scavengers. (Putrivora brevipennata.)
BRACHELYTRA, Latreille.
Families: Staphylinidz ; Pselaphidee.

Sup-sec. lV. Pectinicornes. Antenne pectinate or comb-toothed.
Tribe 6. Stag beetles.
Family: Lucanide.

SuBp-SEc. V. Lamellicornes. Antenne lamellate. Food-habits
different in the two tribes.
Tribe 7. Lamellicorn dung-beetles. (Excrementivora lamellicor-
nia.) SAPROPHAGA, MacLeay.
Families: Copride; Aphodiidie ; Geotrupide ; Trogide.
Tribe 8. Lamellicorn leaf-beetles. (Herbivora lamellicornia.)
THALEROPHAGA, MacLeay.
' Families: Dynastidee ; Rutelidee ; Melolonthide ; Cetoniide.

79 [ 499 |
SUB-SEC. VI. Serricornes. Antenne more or less serrate or saw-
toothed. Food—habits various.
Tribe 9. Saw-horned wood-beetles. (Lignivora serricornia.)
STERNOXI, Latreille.
Families: Buprestide ; Elateride; Cebrionide.
Tribe 10. Aberrant wood-beetles. (Lignivora aberrantia.)
Families: Ptinide; Cupesidz ; Lymexylonide.
Tribe 11. Soft-winged carnivora. (Carnivora mollipennata.)
MALACODERMI, Latreille.
Families: Lampyride; Melyrida ; Cleride.

ee SY TO Seas

ON TONE

[NOXIOUS AND BENEFICIAL, INSECE

STATE OF LLLINOIS.

BY WILLIAM LEBARON, M.D.,
SLATE ENTOMOLOGIST. ,

SPRINGFIELD :

STATE JOURNAL STEAM PRINT. .

ge a9 arate 1874. ad
Perimeter ee Reg ye ee

a

aS a eee
- es rie
7 t: * > ¢

FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT

ON THE

NOXIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS

OF THE

Sot a yO Leh NO LS:

BY WILLIAM LEBARON, M.D.,
STATE ENTOMOLOGIST.

SPRINGFIELD :
STATE JOURNAL STEAM PRINT.
1874.

Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1874, by
WILLIAM LEBARON, M. D.,

in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

|

INTRODUCTION.

[Fourth Report.)

To His EXcELLENCY, JoHn L. BEVERIDGE,
Governor of the State of Illinois:

Sir—I herewith transmit my fourth annual report upon the injurious
and beneficial insects of the State of Llinois.

In this report I have carried out the plan proposed in the introduc-
tion to my last report, of continuing the work there commenced under
the title of Outlines of Entomology, so far as to complete the order of
Coleoptera or beetles. As stated in the introduction just referred to, my
object in this undertaking is to simplify and facilitate the study of this
extensive and difficult science, for the benefit of those who may be in-
terested in it, and who, it may be presumed, will comprise a considera-
ble number of the young people of the State, under the stimulus recently
given to the prosecution of this class of studies by the legislative enact-
ment which requires that the study of natural history shall constitute
one of the branches of education to be taught in the public schools.

The continuation of this work, however, so as to embrace all the
orders of insects, would require more time and study than could be de-
voted to them consistently with the proper discharge of the more directly
practical duties of this office. 1 shall not therefore attempt to continue
it any further, at least for the present. . But as the study of the several
orders of insects is, to a great extent, independent of each other, the
present work, it is hoped, will be found equally useful to the student,
so far as it goes, whether the remaining parts ever be completed or not.
With the view of making the part now published as complete in itself
as possible, I have appended to it a glossary of the scientific terms
More commonly used in descriptive entomology, and also a list of the
principal authors, in this branch of science, both European and Ameri-
can.

As the present report is a continuation of the preceding, or third an-
nual report, and will undoubtedly fall into the hands of many who will
be unable to procure copies of the other, I have reprinted, with some
alterations, the concluding portions of the last report, which forms a
natural introduction to the present.

THs +o IMTRODUCTION.

I may here add that the lateness of the date at which the bill for th
appropriation for the purpose of illustrating this report passed the
General Assembly, and the time required for preparing the engravings,
have necessarily caused a delay in the publication of this report of sey-
eral months beyond the usual time.

I also deem it proper here to put on record, that the preparation of
the above mentioned bill, and its passage through the General Assem-
bly, were largely due to the interest and exertions of that well known
friend of popular education, the Hon. Elmer Baldwin, of LaSalle county.

Respectfully submitted.
WILLIAM LEBARON,

GENEVA, September 1, 1874. State Entomologist.

QUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY,

ONNECTION WITH THE AUTHORS

ANNUAL REPORTS UPON INJURIOUS INSECTS.

PART FIRST.
INCLUDING THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

~ BY WILLIAM LeBARON, M. D.,

STATE ENTOMOLOGIST OF ILLINOIS.

PREFACE.

It is the object of the present work to simplify and facilitate the study
of entomology, and especially to aid the inexperienced student in classi-
fying the insects which he may from time to time collect.

With this end in view I have made use, as far as practicable, of obvious
and conspicuous characters in preference to those which are more minute
and obscure, and consequently of more difficult application. I have
therefore made much use of the general characters of size, shape and
color, but only so far as could be done consistently with the established
classification of insects, founded upon their more permanent organic
characters.

In treating the Coleoptera, for the purpose of keeping in view the
connection between scientific and practical entomology, I have endeav-
ored to classify them, as nearly as possible, in accordance with their
food-habits, it being in the nature of their food and their modes of pro-
curing it that insects come into the most direct relation to human inter-
ests ; and this arrangement does not materially differ, so far as relates
to the larger divisions, from that already established by LATREILLE and
other entomologists, mostly upon structural considerations. This mode
of classification is particularly interesting and available'in the order of
Coleoptera, on account of their much greater diversity of habits in these
respects, than that of any of the other orders of insects.

In classifying the Coleoptera I have not included a few small families,
and a much larger number of small genera, thinking it best not to con-
fuse the mind of the inexperienced student by the description of too
many divisions, many of which contain but a few rare species, or else,
are so Similar to other and previously established genera that their sepa-

‘ration is a matter of questionable utility. Neither have I been able,
without greatly extending the size and scope of this work, to take into
account many of the new species which have been brought to our know-
ledge by the recent explorations of the more western portions of the
continent. The reader who wishes to extend his researches to these re-
mote States and Territories, is referred more particularly tothe’ various
writings of Dr. LCCoNnTE, and the revision of the Tenebrionide of North

Viit PREFACE.

America, and other memoirs, by Dr. GEo. H. HORN. But whenever a
general enumeration of the species in any group is given, without quali-
fication, it must be understood to embrace all the known North American
species. In stating the numbers of species, I have followed, for the most
part, the recently published Check List of Mr. G. R. CrotcH, (1874).
Where two or more closely allied genera or sub-generaare merged in one,
all the species are, of course, included under the leading generic title.
A precise adjustment of species formed no part of my plan, and my
principal object in giving these numbers has been to show the compara-
tive numerical importance of the several families and their leading or
typical genera. ;

In the definition of genera I have had constant reference to the great
work of LACORDAIRE on the genera of Coleoptera*; and to Dr. J. L. LE-
CONTE’S very accurate and scientific classification of the Coleoptera of
North America, prepared for the Smithsonian Institution. (Part Ist, 1
vol., 8 vo., 1861; and Part 2d, 1873.) To these elaborate systematic
works, and especially the latter, which, for obvious reasons, is most
readily available to the American student, the present treatise is only
intended to serve as an introduction or stepping stone; and to them the
reader is referred for more extensive details, and for the definition of
the smaller families and genera not included in the present work.

In the families Chrysomelide, Erotylida, Endomychide and Cocecin-
ellidz, which have not been reached in either of the uncompleted works
just referred to, I have derived valuable aid from the synopsis of these
families by Mr. G. R. CRorcu, recently published in the Proceedings of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and in the Transac-
tions of the American Entomological Society.

: In treating of the internal structure of insects I have necessarily lim-
ited myself to the briefest general statements. Those who wish to pro-
secute further this department of the science, will find much interesting
matter in Dr. A. S. PACKARD’s well known Guide to the study of In-

sects.
It will be seen that some of the families of Coleoptera are much more

fully treated than others. This has been owing, partly, to the greater
amount of material at my command, partly to the comparative impor-
tance of certain families in a practical or economic point of view, and
partly to the irregularity of the intervals at which the work has been
prosecuted, which has prevented that uniformity of execution which
would have been desirable.

Tn order to make this little work as useful as possible, I have added
a glossary of the terms most commonly used in descriptive entomology ;
and also, a brief catalogue of authors, especially those whose names ap-

Genera des Coleopteras. Ten vols. 8 vo., Paris, 1854-1872. The author died before the completion
of this work, and the tenth yolume has not yet been published.

PREFACE. Ix

pear in connection with the descriptions of North American Coleoptera,
or the elucidation of their natural history.

Much of the value of a work intended, like the present, for the inex-
perienced student, must depend upon accurately executed figures of the
insects treated of, and the details of their organization. An appropri-
ation for this purpose by the General Assembly has enabled me to illus-
trate the present work to a reasonable extent. Most of these figures
have been drawn by Mr. C. V. RitEy, State Entomologist of Missouri,
and engraved under his direction, which is a sufficient guarantee of their
accuracy. Many of these have already been published in illustration of
his own official reports, but a considerable number of them have been
prepared originally for this work. A small proportion of the figures
have been obtained from Dr. Packard’s Guide to the study of Insects,
from Westwood’s Introduction, and a few from other sources.

The straight hair-line frequently placed at the side of a figure, shows
the natural length of the insect.

8

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

; PAGE, |CARABIDA. PAGE
EN ISEC TS aN Gi ING RAG oe een cnn wenn 1 BRACHINIDES.

Internal structure of insects 2 Calleida 2225 eee: SE ee Eee tintic 44
Circulatory system -.........------ --+ 3 @yanindisiss.Jccu ae cose eo ee 44
Respiratory system ...... .-.-..--- =<. 3 Casnonians ca oe cee ee ee 44
Direstive System 25-5. 6ss.2.s- e525 -n- 4 Leptotrachelus: 222.2. eee 44
Searetoryesystemie esses seees sae eee oe 5 Hellnomorphatssescenne eee eee eee eee 44
MGSODI ASV StenU see ashe os essere er 5 CHIZENTIDES SoU soe 5522 Se seanee eee 45
Organs of the senses..-..---------------- 5 RANG PUSS a 525.555 Sete cceee cee ee eee 46

Sounds;madelbyunsects =: .5-- 2o-nsna aioe - 7 Chisonitseic ei shed es neea cee eee 46

Metamorphoses of insects...-.-.----------- 8 Dicmlussase 3252 ease cesar 46

Sexesiofinsects 222.56 sco csmemrccesesce 9 Diplocheilay ee se a5 5522200 een eee 46

External structure of insects -...---.-...-- 10 Oodes SIF ss e355. 2 eee 46
Head! and appendages...--.--.-+.-.....-- 10 Badisters 2540 eb. cecsens eee ee eee 46
Thorax and appendages..-.----.------- soe IP) FLARPALINES Eee smcc isso ent ee ease ene 47
Abdomen and appendages. ..-....--.---. 14 Amisodactylasi!: 422. /os. 22. eee a ene 48

Capturing and preserving insects. ...-.----- 14 Giynandnopus': 24-2525. en eee 48

IMISTINCiAOte NISC CHA eee epee allan eleiele alt= 17 iManpalises el 0) Ge es eae eee

Tnsects practically considered ....-...-..-- 17 Stenolophus

General utility of insects.............-..-- 18° Brady celltist. ies scseeencaecse

Division according to food-habits ... ....--. 19 Pterostichus.

Troatment of injurious insects..-.....----. Peecilus.....

Classification and nomenclature : ASM BMA Seseicrsre'e sae se hay ee ctee pee oe

DivISiOU NM tOlORders 42) -e cence seer ae Galathuss 323 Se eae

Ra TOWOMOLGGIs! soe ses ceo deons semact ieee a= 25 Platynus..s3ssssceecse eo eee

The order of COLEOPTERA.-...---.---------- 26 IPatroDuss. sc-- sas vionsec se soeeeace ee

External anatomy, ...-.-..----.22------.-- 27 PRTECHUINT == 5580. acene eas vane eee en ete e ene

Marve and PUpes= s.2.ss 65 sensneseiooue~ « 29 Geopints. ds cpascecccice avis cece eee eee

The Coleoptera practicall y considered... ... 29 A\PONODELUBL poss sjee=sessccJee Semana eee

PAT Gsiinl Glassiivin goof asses asec = 32 BEMBIDIIDES | 5.562-.ss0s20 seus ssecstedeen

Classification of Coleoptera. --.-..-.--------- 35

TRIBE II.
Section I. PENTAMERA :
Synopsis of the Pentamera.......-...----.---
Sub-section I H‘ilicornes.
TRIBE I.
PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLES. Hy daticus:~5-.-s2--scrsesoneeedeeoeeeneee 51
ean libar Govmabetes peta (eateteieievelatenietalet= stateiaetstae eee 51
; PIQUE Soot nocodoneccnoonaoboanceToobere 51
CICINDELIDE Laceophius amaiees Sirs 5 5. 51
UNS ISSSOS SSOE . COLO DORA Reretereiciete clan = alto eee eet 51
CARABIDAD 0000002 io ieee eres GURINUD ano e cor. fia) aera 51
GARE as agen eee GiyTiNWs ee sees a scito accion seen es aeeeae 51
WalLOSOMS) 226 ase ce cece sa eee socaeeameie =
Cychrus ....--------------22 2-2 200-2222: Sub-section I. Clavicornes.
BING Dae erns sete ate ielalele ware wie ah afctereinvatelaleio\s
Haphrus sb ate Seo oeos noscneneJ=nssSen Cue oe TRIBE III.
une ul epee deseseadeeeuosseas Soo seGed
SEOVE 5 ae Lo aI ALOT 43 WATER SCA VENGER-BEETLES.

NO ARIMIDRE Wee aac scence <= eee eer 430 Pb AGUNIED) Allee se erctemecina) sae cisecisee seat emeet ee 52
BSI AC IMSS seyse so cncie)ctscein= mameem ete 43 IPATNUS Soe sawatis oa a'2)e'a\ai a eee eee eS 52
SGantheserwes a. ae cobs = ccc cose te seteiaecs 43 LD aon CoD OG SO REE NAaCaobrOcmccecbe cine 52
Wiivari aieree eee occ ce kicein nce ne cee ease sie 43 ISTE ao ne oo qoponoe pasceorococesesas 52
Wy SChinisiess 2 aset saceee ee see sseatene cc 435 ERYD RO EG RDA een cto ee eee se ie eee 53

IB AGHINTDESHs Cc onic/occs ake e aout ec ee ceee 44 Melophorus: = .j.2scbce-eicmeje seeeecents 54
Galenitaessa eee: feo cesc eo sestenacsen 44 Hydrophilus’: 2. asics pancaene eee eens 54
PG rachinii pies soso jose ooo caaaaseeeee se sel 44 IBGROSUS Ses aisesieeiates ae alo = fe etnies siete eee 54
LOD eee tae ee Sea sen ba ee Goouseen 44 My drobius: Jes oe02. cc cosmic ccceeeeeeetee 54

MITOMUUS Ree eae cc cence uis cade ceneuese. 44 Sphridiumeses-eesseseeeee wecrecceeeen 54

XII SYSTEMATIC INDEX.
i PAGE |STAPHYLINID#. PAGE
TRIBE IV. Ss Seema Se ies Sie ee Se eT Ns fe 72
- 2 MAP TIA Soe ent semen enc esee nee ee 3
LAND See GER-BEETLES. ‘Abemelearas ice, 5c sere 73

1. Olavicornes, proper. JATOOCHAT Alo cp ceo oes ea ae ee 13

(SY 0 6&4) 30 0 0): Of ee a oe eee See TE) Ge eee 57 Tachyusa..-......--- wee eee eee ene eee 73
Necro phoruss =< 22-5 eS ee 57 Homa) OCA meee oe bee eee eee 72
Silpha s/o seen. o52-/55 ee 57 Gyrophiona-.. 2222-2202 enone eeeeeees 73
Chtopss*.s2es eee ee Sei fine ae 57 WACHYPORIDEB! :2s22- 2 sno c en ee ee 74

sc APHIDUDE Re ete ee Pee ke ec 58 Pachinus 22. sssie. 2s. La ee ee 74
Scaphidium: =.= 4 2e2.25 5 eee ae Pee en 58 WachiypOrdsee a-cenre Hees se eee een 74

TEES BRR DD aa eee Oy ed ee ee 58 Conosoma ye secs eens eee 74
Hololepta..<:..= 8.250.222 Sere 59 Boletobinispasee y=. bcc se ee ee 74
Plister: <iensoscdec kee eee ee 59 My COUGPOLUseas 2-5-2 7
Saprinuss so. 325522 ee ee eee 59 Hy poeyp tus: ) 2s 25 ae eee 74

ENED aT DAR atk ook See ae ee ps 59 OMAUID RS Ee ae ee eee ee
ING tidtl a oe Seen ee ee ee eer ae 59 IESE ean oeaeasscesseseees so aciac sase se
Cy chramius).. 45.65 eons reese ne eng Anthophagus
Be See ce ane wise ait opine Seen ee Pee gO Olophram ee eee) ee seen e eee
Carpophiltagicsis: 05 oot ee nen ene 59 Omalinin reece eee eee
RinZOpharusssese. Le see ee eee 59 AMI GHG Dit eens ee eee eee

18) OY 29 GSH 0 GB ys Shee ee ane eee OE eg OE Bei 60 |PSELAPHID......_...

Mermestesns 2-4 ee scan a eee 60 ES elap niger se pee ee neers eee
PAT IAC OMUS hee eter Ce era” ei eaten ate 60
PAMGRRENNS 55-2 2.25 ai ceeae see eRe eee = 60 Sub-section IV. Pectinicornes.
ay CE ee Sameer teers hyd ete wrk Bt 61 “ =
VWMOlLO PRACT ee scone. a.) eee eee 61 RIBE VI.
CRYPTOPHAGIDM. ... sd eceetetee &. 62 STAG BEETLES.
a eR Per ala Gece Ese (Oainac eee eee erro 62 LUCANID a
Denia ouete wale ee ieie erie nee Cee 62 |* wate e enn e eee ee wee ewww ne nnn ew wee
ae (ARH APTS oh es Aah bs A lobe bs prin io eave 62 Tacanus: iis .ssitt.2 fee wird

ANISOTOMID A PP vere Re AP SW 63 Doreus...--..--/22-220- -2225 2 settee eens 17
SAMIBO COMES a tae eee Oe mere en aaa 63 Blaby Genus: eee ene ee 7%
A catMiGiomMys. 2 scons once ease ee et eeeS 63 Ceruchus. =~ ses sens) seen en ene eee 78

PEVATHAC RID) A oes eon nen ee age ae 63 Sintodendron ---.-2- 222 2--02so2 es seeeeeee 78
iPhalacruseces) 6 ole Stee Soe Elo 63 IPaSsaLUS! = ar eee eee eee oe es eee 78

SERCO PEER VGH Ag! ocean cement e 63
Drychopteryk.<-- schoo oo epen cee ene mee 63 Sub-section V. ILamellicornes.

Bore oe WW ciate = ais crass, Seronpelseee eee 64 Trex VIL

AG: CE Ge eeeepeaeeeee art eeacas 64 0
: LAMELLICORN DUNG-BEETLES.

2. Sub-Olavicornes. GOPRID eo
TROGOSETID A... --.2e0oee coseeeecceenn 64 1st Ganthonilt loco. ecco Ue AOE
Omen Mat Dee cas ROAD AN .cauuisees eave cons hig coe ea a

(Ont ae aoe obeaae soe eesde nea yas 65 Cuihephegas ponire rater sino 81
Catogenus tc cntsas-s42 5555 nce eee COs APH OD LID Ani ee ete | ee ee 81
Lemophleus BO EOC EER OC ARSCISE dalatna doe Be OD) Pe, SA hoditia ds i Ae kOe | eae
Aphodius sielefel=lawin oir © oreseis CREE See 81
IBTONUES s secccte see wo as.canee noe Se ee 65 GEOTRUPID4........... arin 81
SUVAMUBS? 4a.) sccasseccesee 55 ees e eee eee 65 Geotrupes ... ap Metcrra tre ee 82

COLV DTD AG. o-oo 2 s--in a= - See ree eae 65 Bolbocerus. Bi Pod ay) es rales aa 82
Colidinine: : 5.22 Sic s cece. ko ee eee 66 PLUS GUT) aia woe esas 1 ek 83
PATHLLONILUIN = /.2 eters ee ic ae Oe ate 66 TT POSE els cy, eNO ae ed 83
Difomate oso Pee. eee! | Sa cei cite iia hamanie sak SS

ACER Da 2 soe t 1s Sa ua aeemar ene: 66 TRIBE VIIL
Sub-section II. JIWflonilicornes. BS ELEN

ID VNEA'S SUD 7 cee an Se aon aa ee eee 84

TRIBE V. Dynastessaus2h- 22-22 beet ee eee 84
SHORT-WINGED SCAVENGERS. piles Dine Por cere a
SUP VN ay feof. es SBR, 67 Cunlosanhnlares gis: cece anne 85
SHUM GO ADE GDN can39- paedae os awedals Sees G8 MET OLO NED Ase se oe aa ee eee 86
(1S NUTIG CA ek eee Beco a ee boroseces sor 69 Lichnanthe: 2:75 eaee 2. ae ee 87
GISTOULOPHUS aco tans so ene eat ee 69 OPM =< senda ee eae as vp
Steines sae eee Sees ses eee 69 Polyphylia ee em ers ee ae Fi

[1 ONTA a) ES iene ete ape monet eee as de Se ni ad 69 Dichelony chal... 225.1. cae eee 87
POON TRUS Se so gece eke eee ee 69 Machnosterna: 222s ce5c cee ae vd
OXyporus .-- 22-022. bee tee. 69 Macrodactylus: 4-)< <=s0-e5 52 eee Rees 87
Man tHOMDMS ea sace esos sl cee eee oeaee 69 Seritais ice 2 oe ee a 87
OXYIELIDES .......--.------ Wor ete eee e sees 70 Diplobasxis sec stcce ae eeee se eee 87
O}seiilinie ls: ane 2 coe onaoue eee Baas nena Cie 21 Cs bg 1 OV OD ys ee ae EE eat en LOE 88
Bledwusie 22- le PPB. yonder scat cece 71 Sirigoderma,-e seme armen ees 89
Osalelitgi a saat cee at ciao enon i AnOmala.: 5.226 ke eee 39
DNR UO IS eee eee tte ee eee 71 Cotalpae..74 82 eAes so stikes<o-cee eee eee 89
Crvptobiumeeseneros ares.) eee eee 71 Pelidnotacsue ee, ee 89
MiMi Le DEM hee ee ee NEY On OU OTAGO Dy: hee eee Gees Mem Une, SG Deu 0 re 89
EG eTs GAC ApEn Cee Bie nor Reem esa Sees ara 7 GyInetiss oss seccee- bees cs eee 90
Lit hocharis tae ni noes eis sre ieee ai: cat HUPYODMAE: weccteepe ose cares ce Eee ee 90
Stiliens Dent ttt s ete cee ee eee ee eee eee eee ee 71 Gremastocheiluss--2---.... ee eee eee 90
SUNIUS...-.-------- 2-2. ee eee eee eee eee ee- 71 Osmodermases 2.4.5... 23. e eee 90

_ Palaminus ......- acing dt - Beep ese. rat TTT Bil tse ee et fake eee ee 90
PLENTUHS | stl eb oe ob eet eee 72 Walonssettce 2)... eee 90

DIENUS vise. cepceen secs. SOE Eee 72

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XIII
Sub-section VI. Serricornes. PAGE
MORDE LAG At. sa ccnceeee ee eee 113
Tribe IX. PAGE. ATID isp seecs cise oa sor ea ae eed eee ea ee 114
SA W-HORNED WOOD-BEETLES. Mordella ............ ....- weet ete ee eee. 114
avi (1) 0) Os Dee pet ees TEN Soa ina el OE i Steg 114
US AG sare a2 se eae he wee senine Sone eas oe 94 MelGe sco. co ee oan aE © 115
(Chelcop hore eee ee eee eee eee 95 Florian pti 115
Dicerca......--.-.-------- Nemognathusies oc eeece eee ods
Buprestis -.------------+++++-++2e22-e0e- fr ean Nee Sr ri 115
Chrysobothris MONIC a 2k eee 116
Melanophila..--..----- .---------------- Rylophilusy: ie 5 heSe eee 116
Anthaxia..-..-.---.--. 2-2-2222 0--- eee INotoxus' = 222.2. ac ee ree 116
Acme#odera............-------+-+-+------ Anthious':.2.20. 1122.0 3h eee 116
Agrilus .....---...-+--+-0eeeeee eee ee eee PYVROCHR OED AN. 2:0.) 205 aren aan 116
Ls Ra Bie a eicicinn am aimn racine ericiacic win dc Dendroides. 222920.) 0 eee Geel 117
FE FOS GER CEOS OO SERCO SONICS ORIEB ASOD Pyroch eA aya crs cre ors char TN oe
1D ESTs IDS ee a ee aol 96 Peddie...) ee a
EUCNEMIDES .....---.-------0--20+- 220-2 --- ae RBIPIPHORID AG... .-. =. sch. aks Be 117
Melasis.-----.-------------+-+++2eeeeeee- 8 Rhipophorus.. 22... hsbc ese eee 117
Eucnemis .....---..--------------------- 28) STELOPEDAT’ ....... 28). 0 eg 117
MOMMA Keene s rece ec cere weatetieeticeenine 98 Stylo ;
AOD S fete ons im = wee mie nee Eee eee 118
Nematodes -------------------------.-.-- 98 XOMOB oooh ei ee 118
2 Gerophytumpteess soccer saceteescoese: Ha
TAT RRL RG eee ns one a dcee ivicin eccrine g
Adelocera ...-...-- 3 Ty Ne teen ee Soe 98 TRIBE XIII.
ER AUR ee es een nee tee ceties 98 HETEROMEROUS BARK-BEETLES.
WARCIOD HORUS seme eieeeiaie= sales = eeiieenele= 98) (CED MU RGD) An ee oe ee eee 118
lah Ss. Be oe ee eee ae He PY cacemers SjaYs (wine wie ecicle wie mee te talateie mia are at 118
Cryptonypniss cect ceteee nebete ese cece 99 ELD Ane 2 See ae cece ee cen ee ae 119
Mp i Memon, 99 Pyghowastc sn ic eee ee 119
Monocrepidius eee ete seem ceeta]ate 99 Saly DUI PUS i \sa5 - 55-60 eee 119
Tree ys... sag secon eceMgacuosoMeneTon ae 990 CSTE TDA wa serec <3 oc bese eee ee 119
IA OTIOUGS sae Sele cee) eas Sala vw ininiawieeimaieir 99 Gistelae. 26552) 5 22 55 eee epee 119
Mlelaneuuge sce setae cee oe Occ ocmeatee sc 99 AN ena) gk ine ca eee eee ee 119
POUR Mes ae ete eee nee eee. OOF) | MEE ACN DERN ATG Attys ee eek a 119
livia Begs CRs Bone Bae aan SoLeSeD colar 99 Topratomas. sa. 6.42 ecece eee eee 120
INTAIAM CLES Meee ctr ween ae eens 99 Mielandiryat-. 3 sscsmscce con see ee 120
Corymbetes Seta ere wisivivis ape wietalciele stain 3 99 Serropalpus S (wien tNmfave la Wyerstaia/aintele aie je aerate 120
i SyMChroa 42sec see eee aoe ee 120
TRIBE X. Orchesiave =. h 05) 2280 Le Ahk Geena 120
ABERRANT WOOD-BEETLES. ae SCTAP UD <n anos nee a aoe Oe ee 120
PPETUIEN GRD AN eee crore eee siete aioe erie tem eo eeitciommiieree
RGIS Re ae ee coe oe acs oes Ceneicememierins 102 TRIBE XIV.
Fo Trg Oe eon enoe oan hh Been eee 102 HETEROMEROUS GROUND-BEETLES.
LAMININ 5 soon sseesocs aocosous Jenseeosee 202 GPR NM RION TOM... 2: ... 22, Ge eee 192
Bostm Ghusweey secon sees eae ene = 102 RES OPID EBL <-/ses tee bee ee 122
TWENTE Kea NIWA yee = ee ese ee ean 103 Helopasss2-e ese ness sya eee 123
Lymexylon ...-...--.. .----------------- 103 Strongylium) 2.22: 2.55.55 Ghee soe eee 123
(CLP OSG Dee see sae jooneeebeacoSeenecsccsosesep 103 Mieracan thay... / cies s swicietrce se meee eee 123
(GINNESsseoosbe sso geenaton sescoaidudesobar 103 MENEBRIONIDES S12 -00 2-14 oe 123
ZO PNCLUBS Yeas s)n (star(s nels tate ee eee 123
Tribe XI. Agi so ects ss toed ac 123
SOFT-WINGED CARNIVORA. Pelecy phorus s-tc)--)c;)2ne Se eee eee 123
ACNEE VaRUD) Au esc snc oh es sas eeisicism ad teeeisecio’e 104 Hleo@es=)25 peseyehe esos ease eee ee 123
Tieiani io ok wea BOSE ea Eee ee ene Ronan ee 105 Blaps’:2iwss asaucns see nase ee eee 123
MGV CUBE ae ere seen ree iacre cast eas eerie =: 105 Blapstinus 543. sssese sees eee 123
Galopteronvec es a2- eee coon e oe sisi =) 105 UDISe ss 2aseiceiisense ss Soe 123
OTOS eee oe eras ee, sce ai= sian eon’ 105 "PONGDTO 4/525 esa te Se ee
AUP YRED RG ino 228 3 ce enee isles et aot ts = = 105 ULOMIDESY ads o55 2h ggncse see ee
MGW OM Ota sone = ein 2 heer ise hele eareicie ee 106 Uloma..-.-.
IRON HE Saprsseoorese sone a 2s isinis/inicl= = = 106 Hypophleeus
IBROUUTIS= = jee ot ois ees sasinsice eis 107
JBC RNG Ce Bos ace poeeue Gabepace bese sauaa aoe TRIBE XV.
(VSM DSO UNOS S con eoeca seo seds~ eee see cee 7 oe z aa
(Ghanlioenathugs: oss see eee ees seme aes 107 HETEROMEROUS FUNGUS-BEETLES. :
peat ae (ov | DIAPHRUD Ae 0 aa eee 125
aaa ON ha con NAST BalitOuBRg US 25 -52----- =o eee _
© ETI SUDO Eo ace ee ceeceyt oro Hoplocephala = -.2.202022 127.220. 000uags
{D500 aR Uni ce adh on Platydema: (2c. j.son= 25s tep eee necro 125
CLERID-E Bete Linas teaeee
pa SOU OL US Section II. TETRAMERA:
ATTN S passe oo scsi ainte sins ealapereetopeyeretoresisrereare 109
Cymatodera TRIBE XVI.
Gemee Caa oeee SNOUT-BEETLES.
Hydnocera BRU CHED AGS unsaoanscae ee oe 128
MNO plinnteessseseesessesace SE AB abbaehsae 109 IBImehus\. ssh 52tec Gee Sas ee 129
NieCcrobiaiessccacs ses oas snc sccmeioeeene cis 109 Mivlabriste/{ 445252 asnenascet ae 129
ACN OPERRTB ED AB 3.2.2 5. ca 2336 41 gee ang 129
Section II. HETEROMERA : Mropideres! 4:4. 4252320222525 teen 129
3 a. ANP TD USS = 2555222555 s as eee i129
TRIBE XU. Crasoparis'ie. S222 282055. see 129
PARASITIC-BEETLES. Brachytareus 42/7, 2) eg 129
1Co\CG3 24) 0 D7 Da ee eh ee a 113) BRENDEED AG eco... es 58s ee ne 130
MaDTIAweePeee keke kine l ue toe see mecca are 113 Brenbhus ee cae seems secre ose cee eee 130

’

XIV SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

nnn nen ytd ttt nIdSS UE SSSgSS ddd

PAGE. TRIBE XVII. PAGE.
CURCULIONIDSS ......--. ----+-02e2r2rn 2077 sar SHORT-HORNED WOOD-BORERS.

TTY CRRIDES. 22 2-~)- 2 nicin + - nia cw ewes seinem =< 136 BOOT TUNE Lr hee St ce es 145
BRIG RES IS cn oo-< "5712-7 a Ps Platypum eet sick eke coe aa

2 ON) ac hammer sense), a Hylaread or 146
Clin a Gl geeseeeabescocs epeorecnnac 1 146

WiMPTOPSIDESY- = <-s-6- se anemia eiae aldara 136 Hylastes.-....-.-----+-++-----+-+++------

Se Sah ce NA AS 136 DE yleOSUNTIS one eine sain een eee ao
Panscopus -..-.---- ------------------- onGRHE Coe eee 146
Ophryastes . --.-....--------------------- 137 See es ra 146

IBRACHYDERIDES)...<s-c5sn 5s seem 137 FUUS ---- 2 on nen ne wean e serene rnnne

Epicerus ae minie ole@ woe ww wy ee em Wile hat atta falls a mlion)o 137 TRIBE XVIII.

Wandeletelus!- 2-226 acqs ss a eee sere a= 137

Poly drosusjess se see seme ne eee er 137 LONG-HORNED WOOD-BORERS.
Sitones -.----.--------------+++--+-22---- 137 | CERAMBYCIDZ
Tanymecus..-...--------------------+---- 137 PRIONIDEB Stee tae ne cece eae
Thylacites Samoa eo Sis) a) a ariel @ a wwe ee malta ial alien l= 137 Pavia oe ce ee eee

PaGhn cus ioe sess eee esieiae aera 137 PHOnus che he kee ee ee
Barynotes cnisle awison ca a a sme wisteie a(e, sil mdm miele 137 Derobrachus

Lachnopus ..---.---2...2.-sesceeoonsn--- 137 Otthoséma*:.. ov Soe se eae
Platyomus. ...-.------------------+------ 137 Wigatossee 533.055.2223 0 151
Strophosomus .-....-:..--.--------------- 137 MiallodOn ed fo stats Se tk! ee 151

OTIORHYNCHIDES) 22525) - ---0 5 222 - eee ta 137 Mra eoadnia 286A is en ee 151
Otiorhynchus. .....-.---------------++---- 137 Sphenostethus: 2 sconce ete ce eee 151
Agraphus .....-.----.-----------++++-+-- 137 Cir ambycipns< 0) 10224) eee 15)
STO ORES tee eae aeolian 137 Criocephalan. 22225530 3).00) Seema 153

CYLINDRORHINIDES2.- 0220-25 228- = ences 137 Totroplumi.. 2.) 2126: /2°. 154
Tistroderes):=-s:sse24 a2 eee sees sea eeee= 137 WHurea oso. 1 ata oe oe 154

LYXIDES .-----.--------- +--+ +++ -+-----22---- 138 @hion) ©. 23322300 eee See eee 154
Lixus .--.---------- ++ -+e0e2 22 2ee reer ee 138 Blaphidion 2.225. °.-. Tene iss Se ee 154
Larinus -----.-----------++++----+ 220007 138 Phiysochnemmum 2250525522 eee eee 154

OTIMOCHEPHALIDHS': == -2:325-6steees s-- === == 138 Batyloors iste sce ee 155
Otidocephalus --2.. 2-...-..2--=-----=---- 138 Hylotrapés <2. -.2. cote eee 154

IMAGDAUINIDES 2 2222 cictaec ste cree em eeles< == 139 Clyaads oobi ss ooe seen te eee 154
Magdalinus SCI OIC BP PORTS SOC 139 Shenaspis see see see ee eee ee eee 155

HIYLOBIIDES...-...--------+++---+22-22----- 139 Caliidinnest8.5s0 2.80 0e2 eo as 154
Hylobius .-..--.---------------+-----+--- 139 TRPTURIDES cotton ce cne ete e ee ene 155
TOPG HNO MTT en ee oeoneee cece mei coocs 139 TDVARTO GOTT See en 156
Pissodes DORIC AIOE OS ata Goa 139 Rbapiume] soot oe = eee ee eee 156
18 eh hal ee scaeesececee se decac ee andrea 139 GRO HAS Se aoe 156
Lepyrus Spey Simbel as ibe ete! mwa eimai im mies alae a a 139 Acmops Petey Pre E ENA Bt Me eee re es © 156

I RIRMINEDESECotoLe re oe cee nee epee tse oie 139 TosOtia hee at eee aaa ae 156
sGTAT TAS Se al ae ses os anemic cise ee lara 140 Paoligta ec. . ccc ch pane jhec ee 156
Endalus ..-..-.---------++------+-++++-++ 140 ney Glops 5. suber awsee See ae ee eee 156
Brachybamus..-.------------------------ 140 TUSTIN: neo ed erer een ME odie 156
Bagous ------------------2reer eer seceese 140 Sino a eee onbeosepcbene asters las 156

BALANINIDES....--.-------------00--+20---- 140 RIGIONUHOR CU cok een Na ae 156
Balaninus -.-.-------------+---+-2+2++00- 140 Stenopterus .-..-.-- Drakes acs eae neers 156

JA NUHONOMIDES) 225 /ccr oe ie ate hej emi eaten 140 LANES ore ok oc cnet eae 156
Anthonomus ..-..-----------+-++---+---- 141 Mondgnamimus 25250 soo lot sceare see eeeer 158

ORCHESTIDES. ------------+--+---+---------- 141 DOorchaschemacecs ees eon eels eee eee 158
Orchestes..-------------------esqdace7>- 14 1ahheyoyeygspeieee oe gee sec ceongnocacoScEnaos 158

ACTIV ABIONS| so. 5 cele een = -iarteiee ces eee 141 Desmiophora.; itt 2 ea eee 158
ATitelaints = 22-223 o at ene eee a eet- 142 Spalacopsis ‘ 158
BUN YMOD TOS =< <2 ob cane aoe Saperda BOE eee Stn ee nek cae eer eo
Eugnamptus ..-/.--.-------------0e++--- 142 Oncideres ose < oSssews see cies ee

SA PIONIDES 2s eo aieiowisis cracls amici aot a otoyersetee = 142 ‘Adetes <2 ee et
DAD OMe serene een omic eieteaaies - aiaelraas 142 Atuxin cot etal eee

CONOTRACHEINDES =~... o=\- <-> == nim cee = 142 isan ania a ee
Gonotracholus:~ <5) s+- cou sesh eres 142 Peoieeeree

CRYPTORHYNCHIDES ------ La pee eee pty Se Te 142 Aes Gereo ocak ee 158
CODY LOU ySICRUS sie 2 ogee See Graphisurus:---- 2 o--- == <---- == e-= 158
EE IE SS a ar ee ce we Leptostylus ....--.--------------------- 158
IPREOGOMTUB Snes te ceteris ciansen = seme 143 sy panes lobe iieet epmcnpmamemae 2 t 7 3 158
SATaIGIN See ees ine te eee eee 143 Tettao ed ke ee

CEUTORHYNCHIDES --_-.-..-425 sssc22---5-- 143 ies DOR ieee

(OPS en osiels aie salmaaa ee
ae ep eas ema _ StOMOStOlA kee cis sat ee elms ne eee reenter
WmW Odes ieee sarae he sete ep aeons ee 143 Photons
Cone vernes mnige bean sabe mee Meenas 143 Oboes Rao on ee
Phytobius mites heen 3 > 7.” Oy byte a a
Celogaster Amphionycha ..-.-- Behe tohanacoecscee: e+ 158
RTMOREH Bee mene see ees ees eee Tre XIX.

Bae a ee is Withee {TETRAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES.
BParidius iss cee ee ee aici se canis GHB VY SOMEEDD Al < sae acmiane conse mesons 161
Madargge:. Sette seek os enasas connor 144 DONACHDES. ------------+---022 02222022 eee 163

CADANDRIDER ae Receeete st otaae:- sccm. soa 144 DONA CI Aa es eee eee eee cs cee eee 163
Rhyncophorns 2.22 s.seece ens adase ae 144 (CRIOCHRIDES 2-60 cece eas ===) se a4 ee 164
Sphenophorus:ca-6 asso a emccric ee 144 rsoddens | oosss esac ce <r weenie 165
Calanidral os. 24 econ eos sce eee 144 GriOGOUIR eee onne cose oe one ee eres 165

COSSONIDES .....- pt ee a AP Shed Fa tae ee 144 GHIRYSOMEDLIDES oon sec 2 - oe <6 oo cle one 185
COssonUs) - 355 ha. seat eee eee eee 145 Chrysomelasecss-c-55---.545-0222-5---6-= 166
Bhyncolus.. 4. sess. cece ae eet 145 Gastrophysaeece. 2-2-2 2a 166
Dryopthorus'2 5-0. =ssac-2 ae een es 145 PHhedow sso se koe as seen cece omnia 166
ILbymantes 222s sct cs (aoe eee eee 145 Pragocunis eee ecet Wiawe eee seeoeee meee 166
Phicopharus':-. cscs -sucsuemereeeeee 145 Plagiodera.........----------------0+-=:- 166

Chrysochus........ Seay eens eee = ati saree 166

CRYPTOCEPHALIDES ..-

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XV

CHRYSOMELID &. PAGE.
CHRYSOMELIDES :

ELV POR UOTUS reer en see ee sine eames ee ene 166
PAM Aes ae ote cece em iuniare emeacionis 166
@olaspiseesssc-s22ssecss scr aeeseses oss 166
WON PNOLA Sona: Goce scmaerieeee eerie sae 167
Metachroma.....-... tAtcies alee selects Sesaunee
HTCUOLaA DIS) = 2/2 a= 3\atasoneie Seana eee ne
EV ae eae See hisi= Soe cidis suo ase dumistatetocis eases
2D TE os SS onenoecoseceo sao osbocKorec

PATIOMORAl Sse cores =
(CET E sae Seong escsooesess-ae5~ seer
IBS Asi as os oa aeeale steak aesicceap aoe
RNR eee are ie oe efoecisisiniceieimetsieretats 169
(CORPING TG) Seek GAC seuss espeacouccoded 169
hry piocephalus teas scte esse ssc sesane 169
SHAG HCD OS) See MOaReoenpesnSce leo Screpasce 170
GALOTU Cai reso eo teisial seein a woes eo ern 171
DH ADO tl CA ees cassia), 5 cao sieas peony ee So 171
ILRI! so coeonebessrspecesecsecdos aces 171
TSO H AG eee ae eee eee eae Ana 171
Ob TATI ETE) PB aGaseeccbeuecobsHearcapse 171
By POLAIN PIN esas ses cia = mineatye ie ela = 171
ra OG OA eae ce woes elas aeicluiclnja minictal~ sm 171
DisomyGhasscses ssc s se nae aces aneleie =o 171
OncHOsirISh ccs ack sees ae case tae =o aee is ate 171
Longitarsus - -. 1
Systena......
MUO) a seen cee ee eae caciese ase nie P
Whwtocnems pesos. vaselsnissicsos onldeame
Wrepidodera sees sn = sewers vce scene seems
ieppalllicw GH ate Sa cescoresandabasercwaceas c
LIS ERDES heehee rece eae core earpempcasteer ae
Odontotalpasecnmicacse secee sesina-a-/s ee cinls
Macrorhopala..-<2.cuics- seca seein aammcine -
SUODISP ase et eee mate an namo sewiameiste sl-

ENDOMYCHIDAi

CHRYSOMELID. PAGE.
CASSIDIDES) S522 sasecsce eee seetcieniciocem a 175
Evepliytaeple SRS CSIS ORE ORSerte Hee Epo ros 176

Chely morphine ceess= seen aee eee 176
IPhiysoneta 222 -sse el ee nee saan elena 176
Casgidal so sea set a eee cite ease cise 176

Section IV YTRIMERA:
TRIBE XX.
TRIMEROUS FUNGUS-BEETLES.

a

Ischyrus
Ub ES eoeeoeciceusabercendsbuosoceqcdeneans

Endomychus
Ty COPGEGING a2 aneee see eee eee

IES berger pScocactocabescecocer ---182
RD yMapHOra esse aes eee eee 182
Mycetwa .....--..----------------------- 182

TRIBE XXI.
PLANT-LOUSE BEETLES.

COCCENMIE RUD Ai ree te eee aala eee teeta

Hippodamia -
Coccinella -..-
@HIO CONUS oceania ee 3
Hyperaspis ...--.------------------------
Scymnus .........-----------.-----------
Psyllobora..- === = 2 -eni eles = 9m == =a
(OO; SE Sep pecnsoseneccsaesone noses sesiserec
Catalogue of authors .........-.-..-..... 186
Glossaryien-cataine 2 ease leet 191
Alphabetical index...-..-..--.-.--------- 195

Meee ee ee

SYNOPSIS OF THE TRIBES OF THE COLEOPTERA.

A. Tarsi usually 5-jointed, sometimes 4 or 3-jointed in very small species, slender
and sparsely haired, except Tribe XI, and except that the anterior, or anterior
and middle tarsi are sometimes dilated and brush-like beneath in the males,

B. Elytra covering the whole or nearly the whole of the abdomen.
C. Antenne filiform and simple; outer lobe of maxille palpiform, giving the
appearance of six palpi.

D. Legs long and fitted for running, hind trochanters large, egg-shaped and
prominent; tarsi always S-jommied oo eM. hese ee coer ee gem Aribed..
DD. Hind legs flattened and fringed for swimming; trochanters not promi-
nent; the fourth joint of the anterior and middle tarsi sometimes in-
(Mishinei in Very SIAM SPECIEs fice nian cl xe > ce eeiom tale eee aieiale Tribe II.
CC. Antenne filiform and usually serrate; outer lobe of maxille not palpiform.
E. Prosternum prolonged to a point behind and received in the mesosternum ;
body very firm, legs short, tarsi always 5-jointed, joints not dilated and
brush-like beneath, but often furnished with membranous lobes on the
Gina EGS adbabdcsouond ono coo ncodnCdoDUcODadan ada SoncdAG Tribe IX.

KE. Prosternum not prolonged behind.

F. Body moderately firm; legs more or less elongated ; tarsi various:
Tribe X.

F F. Body soft, elytra thin and flexible; tarsi usually somewhat dilated
and brush-like beneath, with the fourth joint bilobed; last joint
of palpi sometimes dilated... 2 iiscc. se Lecce am ete oe Tribe XI.

CCC. Antenne clavate or capitate.
G. Palpi usually very long, sometimes longer than the short antenne ;
antenne 6 to 9-jointed, strongly clavate; middle and hind coxe

dilated ; middle and hind tarsi sometimes fringed; habits aquatic.
Tribe IIT.

GG. Palpi not elongated; antenne 11-jointed, rarely 10 or 9-jointed;
coxe not dilated; habits not aquatic.

H. Olub of antenne pectinate; mandibles usually strongly toothed or

even branched; size large, or medium.............. Tribe VI.

HH. Club of antenne lamellate; size often large; sometimes small,

but never very small.

I. : Abdomen wholly covered by the elytra (except Copride); hind

legs set far DaCK.....ccseccvcseccecsseccssscverss Tribe VII.

II. Tip of abdomen exposed; hind legs not set far back. Tribe VIII

HHH. Antenne clavate, but with the club neither pectinate nor

lamellate, and nearly or quite filiform in the exceptional

group of Sub-clavicornes; size small or very small, (except

RLLOWIGED) 2% 6 sovrs.s cas anne ee etasine Secteur éoeus HLLDO LVS

SYNOPSIS OF THE TRIBES. XVII

BB. Elytra much shortened, usually covering less than half of the abdomen; an-
UGhoeb evened cs) WioMMlUbo md ooepsccanpacHeaosorenessouudonanc Tribe V.
A A. Anterior and middle tarsi 5jointed, hind tarsi 4jointed; the joints slender,
sparsely haired or spinous, sometimes silky or pubescent beneath, but never
dilated, brush-like and bilobed as in the remaining sections; except some-

times the penultimate joint in parts of Tribes XII and XIII.

K. Head as wide as the thorax, and attached to it by a neck; body rather soft and
elytra flexible; antenn filiform, sometimes serrate or pectinate; anterior
cox prominent and contiguous; colors various, and often diversified ; larvze
EBHIAUNY FOALAS LAC 2-5. «\ciayclets,.0.5 tz p's fiw> 216 Sie Poinsekecle speicaneld meee Tribe XII.

K K. Head narrower than the thorax, and usually partly inserted in it; body

firm; color black or brown; rarely diversified.
L. Antenne filiform; anterior coxz somewhat prominent.’ and nearly or quite
contiguous; color mostly brown, sometimes black; larve sub-cortical.
Tribe XIII.
LL. Antenne sometimes filiform, but usually more or less clavate; anterior
coxee small, depressed, and never contiguous.
M. Antenne usually moderately and gradually enlarged towards the tip, but
sometimes filiform, and usually as long as the head and thorax; body

oblong; color black or dark metallic; larve mostly terrestrial.
Tribe XIV.

MM. Antenne usually short and perfoliate; body short, oval or subquad-

rate; color brown, or black with red spots, sometimes metallic;

WepRVee MERE UVOT OUR 00 ofa te sue a n\ele ale,sieiait)<ia.e efs «stale wunas 5] aaa anere Tribe XV.

A AA. Tarsi apparently 4-jointed, with all the joints, except the last, dilated, brush-
like beneath, and with the penultimate joint usually bilobed, (except

Scolytide.)
N. Head more or less prolonged into a snout or rostrum; antenne usually
CAMA MACs NUCH MOUS) Gaede po coraoenodoee ae cocotoc Tribe XVI.

NN. Head not prolonged into a snout.

OQ. Antennz clavate or capitate; tarsi not dilated; form sub-cylindrical ;
size small; color brown or black; larvee lignivorous...Tribe XVII.
OO. Antenne usually filiform or setaceous; sometimes slightly widened
towards the tip; tarsi always dilated and brush-like beneath, with

the penultimate joint usually bilobed.
P. Form elongated; antennze almost always long, and filiform or seta-
ceous; often as long as the body or longer; size and colors va-
PIOUS; LHF Veo MOMMIVOTOUS..0 e150 05 << sic ors ales lemme: Tribe XVIII.
PP. Form short, and more or less oval; antennze filiform, or a little
thickened towards the end, and never much more than half as
long as the body; size below medium or small; colors various;
lanyserherDivOEO US zsjs/siclheho eiect-eicte <estete erect otitis Tribe XIX.
AAAA. Tarsi usually apparently 3-jointed, sometimes 4 or 5-jointed, the joints
dilated and brush-like beneath, with the penultimate joint usually

deeply bilobed; antennz usually strongly clavate, rarely sub-clavate.

Q. Form oval or oblong; antennze of moderate length; colors red and black,
usually arranged in large spots or stripes; habits fungivorous ...Tribe XX.
- QQ. Form rounded, or sub-hemispherical; antenne very short; colors mostly
red and black, arranged in dots; habits carnivorous.......... Tribe XXI,

XVIII

SYNOPSIS OF THE TRIBES.

NAMES OF THE TRIBES IN THE FOREGOING TABLE.

PAGE.
Tribe I. Predaceous ground-beetles.. 37
Tribe II. Predaceous water-beetles.. 50
Tribe III. Water scavenger-beetles.. 52
Tribe IV. Land scavenger-beetles... 54

Tribe V. Short-winged scavengers .. 66
iPripe VL. Stas-Deetlesi...< 55.1 ses as 76
Tribe VII. Lamellicorn dung-beetles 80
fbribesvuek. palueatehaters').V hate.) 83
Tribe [X. Saw-horned wood-beetles. 93
Tribe X. Aberrant,wood-beetles..... 101
Tribe XI. Soft-winged predaceous-
pecetless: Foe if
Tribe XII. Parasitic beetles........ 111

PAGE.

Tribe XIII. Heteromerous bark-bee-
TICS ce a aso erases rears 118

Tribe XIV. Heteromerous ground-
e beetles: Satieeh.s..«<.< 120

Tribe XV. Heteromerous fungus-bee-
TCS.) 2 ete isis aera eee eae 124.
iDribeseVvle Snouttbeetless.. ..-eesee 127

Tribe X Vil. Short-horned wood-bor-
CPSs this waa. Sameer 145

Tribe XVIII. Loug-horned wood-bor-
US is sre ere yi oe Cees 148

Tribe XIX. Tetramerous plant-beetles160
Tribe XX. Trimerous fungus-beetles178
Tribe XXI. Plant-louse beetles ..... 182

OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.

INSKCTS IN GENERAL.

Insects constitute the most numerous and diversified class of the
second grand division of the animal kingdom, designated by the term
ARTICULATA, and so called because their bodies and limbs are com-
posed of many pieces, connected together by movable joints or articula-
tions. A

Insects as a class, and in the widest meaning of the word, comprise
three divisions, or sub-classes, commonly known as Spiders, Insects and
Millipedes. They may be distinguished by the following characters :

1st. Sub-class: ARACHNIDA, including Spiders, Scorpions and Acari,
or Mites. Body divided into two parts, the head and thorax being
united in one; legs eight in number; without wings.

2d. Sub-class: INSECTA, or Insects proper. Body divided into three
parts, the head, the thorax, and the abdomen ; legs six ; furnished with
wings, in the perfect or imago state.

3d. Sub-class: MyriApopA, commonly called Millipedes or Centi-
pedes. Body divided into many parts or segments, varying from ten
to two hundred ; legs numerous ; usually either one or two pairs of legs
to each segment of the body ; never have wings.

The exceptions to these characters are very few. In the Arachnida,
some of the most minute Acari have but six legs.

Insects proper are always six-legged in their last or perfect state, and
they also generally have six true legs in their larva state; but some
larve have no legs, and the larve of the Lepidoptera, commonly called
caterpillars, have, in addition to their six true legs, several pairs OF
false legs, or pro-legs, which assist in locomotion.

There are a few exceptional cases in which insects are destitute of
wings. The Fleas (Pulices), the Lice (Pediculi), and the little family of
insects known as Spring-tails (Thysanoura), never have wings. In
some rare instances the females are wingless, whilst the males have
wings. This is the case with some species of the Lightning-beetles
(Lampyridix), and with the Canker-worm moth, and the Tussock-moth,
and a few other species amongst the Lepidoptera. Similarly excep-
tional cases are also found in other orders of insects.

The present work will treat only of Insects proper.

¥

2 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
[Fig- 1.]

The nervous system of in-
sects consists of a double
cord extending the length
of the body, and lying upon
the inferior or ventral side
of the internal cavity. The
two threads which compose
this cord do not lie side by
side, but one above the
other. The lower thread
4 Swells at intervals into lit-
tle knots of nervous matter,
called ganglia. In insects
of an elongated form, such
as some of the Neuroptera
(e. g. Corydalis), and the
larvee of the Lepidoptera,
there is a ganglion at each
segment of the body, ma-
; king thirteen in all; but in
most mature insects the
ganglia become more or less
consolidated. In the But-

Nervous system of insects, explained in the text.
terfly (Papilio), there are ten ganglia, counting the brain as one; in the
Bee (Apis), there are eight; in the May-beetie (Melolontha), there are
five, and in the Cicada there are but two. The upper of the two ner-
vous threads runs nearly in contact with the lower, but is destitute of
ganglia. These two threads seem to represent the double and more
compact cord which constitutes the spinal marrow of the higher or ver-
tebrated animals. The upper simple thread is supposed to furnish the
nerves of motion, and the lower and ganglionic thread, the nerves of
sensation. The fibres which compose these cords separate at the ante-
rior extremity of the body, so as to embrace the csophagus or gullet,
above which they again unite to form the cerebral ganglion or brain,
which is somewhat larger than the other ganglia. Krom the nervous
cords, and chiefly from the ganglia, fine lateral threads are emitted,
which are distributed to the adjacent parts.

The nerves thus far described represent what, in the higher animals,
is called the cerebro-spinal system of nerves, and are sometimes called

e

THE CIRCULATORY AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS. 3

the nerves of relation, because they control the sensations and motions
which associate the animal with the world around it. But in addition
to these, there have been discovered a number of very fine nervous
filaments proceeding from the brain, and extending down into the body,
and furnished with minute ganglia of their own, which are supposed to
represent the sympathetic system of nerves which preside over the in-
ternal functions, such as those of digestion and secretion.

The foregoing cut represents the nervous system of a butterfly, (Pa-
pilio brassice—after Herold), A exhibiting that of the larva, B that of
the pupa, and C that of the perfect insect; and showing how the nerv-
ous system becomes shortened and consolidated in changing from the
lower to the higher stages. Fig. D. shows the more concentrated nerv-
ous system of a Coleopterous insect, as exhibited in the common English
Cockchafer or door-beetle, Melolontha vulgaris, (copied from Straus.)

THE CIRCULATORY, OR SANGUIFEROUS SYSTEM.

The blood of insects is a colorless fluid, which does not circulate in
closed vessels or tubes, like that of the higher animals, but permeates
the tissues of the body. The only vessel that can be discovered is an
oblong, membraneous, pulsating sack, situated in the upper or dorsal
part of the body, and which evidently represents the heart. This is
divided into several compartments by cross-valves, which are so ar-
ranged as to permit the blood to pass only in a forward direction. The
heart is prolonged anteriorly into a narrower tube analogous to the
aorta. Through this the blood flows first towards the head, and thence
through the body, returning to the heart, which it enters through open-
ings at its sides. As compared with that of the warm-blooded animals,
the blood of insects is not only colorless, but small in quantity, and
must circulate very slowly, as is proved by the fact that when their
bodies are wounded no blood escapes.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

Most of the organs of insects, and their functions, have an obvious
analogy to those of the higher animals, but their breathing apparatus
is constructed upon an entirely different plan. In all the vertebrated
animals the blood is carried in vessels to a particular part or organ of
the body, for the purpose of being exposed to the life-giving influence
of the air. This part in terrestrial animals, is the lungs, and in aquatic
animals the gills. But in insects the process is reversed, and the air is
carried to the blood by being distributed to every part of the body in
very delicate pearl-white tubes or vessels, which present a beautiful ap-
pearance under the microscope. They are called trachee, or air tubes.
They admit the air through little openings along the sides of the in-

4 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

sect’s body, called spiracles. The spiracles or breathing pores can be
easily seen along the sides of all caterpillars which are not too densely
covered with hairs. In the perfect or winged state of insects the
branches of the air tubes are dilated into a great number of little ves-
sicles or air bladders, which render their bodies lighter, and thus facili-
tate their flight.

In some aquatic larvee the trachez project from the body in the form
of little tufts, analogous to the gills of fishes. The aquatic beetles are
under the necessity of rising to the surface, at intervals, for air, in a
manner similar to that of the aquatic mammalia, the whales and the
dolphins.

THE DIGESTIVE OR NUTRITIVE SYSTEM.

The digestive apparatus of insects,
like that of other animals, consists of
an elongated tube called the aliment-
ary canal, extending through the body,
and having a number of enlargements
in its course, and in many insects pre:
sents a particular resemblance to the
digestive apparatus of birds. — First,
there is a short, straight cesophagus
or gullet; this expands into a much
larger cavity, resembling the crop;
then follows a smaller muscular part,
analogous to the gizzard ; and next, a
much larger and longer cavity, which
is the true digestive stomach; this be-

Digestive organs of insects, explained in comes contracted into the intestinal
somaciae canal, which sometimes runs nearly
straight through the body, and in other cases is more or less convolu-
ted; the intestine enlarges again before it reaches the end of the body
into what is known as the large intestine or colon. As in other ani-
mals, the alimentary canal is much longer and more capacious in the
herbivorous than in the carnivorous kinds. As a general rule the canal
is much more capacious in the larva than in the imago state.

In Fig. 2, C, represents the digestive organs of one of the carnivo-
rous beetles, Cicindela campestris; a the commencement of the cesopha-
gus or gullet; ¢ the crop; d the gizzard; e the stomach or principal di-
gestive cavity; / the commencement of the small intestine ; 4 the large
intestine; both of these parts are unusually short in this tribe of in-
sects; m m the convoluted vessels which are supposed to represent the
liver of the higher animals.

THE SECRETORY AND MUSCULAR SYSTEMS. 5

THE SECRETORY SYSTEM.

The secretory apparatus of insects, though analogous in function, is
very different in appearance from that of the higher animals. Instead
of solid glands, like the liver or kidney, it has the form of masses of
convoluted tubes, as represented at m in the preceding figure. The sal-
ivary glands, the liver, the kidneys, and the testacles are found repre-
sented in insects. The gastric and pancreatic fluids are secreted by
little cells or follicles in the coats of the stomach.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

The muscles of insects, like those of other animals, consist of con-
tractile fibres, but in their situation and attachments, as compared with
those of the vertebrate animals, they are reversed; that is to say, in
the latter, the muscles are situated outside of, and upon the bones,
which constitute the supporting part of the body, whereas in insects,
the supporting part is the external crust, and the muscles are attached
to its internal surface. The muscles are of a pale yellowish color, and
are usually presented in the form of thin layers, and sometimes of iso-
lated fibres, and are never united into the rounded compact form which
they have in the higher animals. By counting the separate fibres, a
very great number of muscles have been enumerated. Lyonet counted
nearly four thousand in the larva of Cossus ligniperda, and Newport
found an equal number in the larva of Sphing ligustri. The muscles of
insects possess a wonderful contractile power in proportion to their
size. A flea can leap two hundred times its own length, and some
beetles can raise more than three hundred times their own weight. This
remarkable strength may probably be attributed to the abundant sup-
ply of oxygen by means of the myriad ramifications of the air tubes.

THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES.

Insects are evidently endowed with the ordinary senses which other
animals possess, but no special organs of sense, except those of sight,
have been discovered with certainty.

Sight.—The eyes of insects are of two kinds, simple and compound.
The simple or single eyes are called ocelli, and may be compared in ap-
pearance to minute glass beads. They are usually black, but sometimes
red, and are generally three in number, and situated in a triangle on the
top of the head. In insects with a complete metamorphosis, these are
the only kind of eyes possessed by them in their larva state, and in
these they are usually arranged in a curved line, five or six in number,
on each side of the head. We have noticed that in some insects which
undergo only a partial metamorphosis, as for example the common

6 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

Squash-bug (Coreus tristis ), the ocelli are wanting in the larva and pupa
states, but become developed in the last or perfect stage.

The compound eyes of insects present one of the most complex and
beautiful mechanisms in the organic world. They are two in number,
but proportionately very large, occupying in many insects nearly the
whole of the sides of the head, and, in the dipterous order especially,
often present across their disks, bands of the richest tints of green,
brown and purple. These eyes are found to be composed of a great
number of lesser eyes or eyelets, in the form of elongated cones so
closely compacted as to form apparently a single organ. The larger
ends of these cones point outwards, and by their union form the visible
eye. Their smaller extremities point inwards, toward the brain, to
which they are connected by means of a large optic nerve. When one
of these eyes is examined through a strong magnifying glass, it is seen
to be composed of a very great number of little facets, sometimes
square, but usually six sided,’ each one of which represents the outer
and larger extremity of one of the component parts. These facets vary
greatly in number in the eyes of different kinds of insects. In the ants
there are about fifty in each eye; in the Sphinx moths, about 1,300; in
the house fly, 4,000; in the butterfly, upwards of 17,000; and in some of
the small beetles of the genus Mordella, it is said that more than 25,000
facets have been enumerated in one compound eye; so that if we sup-
pose that each of these component parts possesses the power of separate
vision, one of these insects must have more than 50,000 eyes. How vi-
sion is effected, or how a unity of impression can be produced by so
complex an organ, we are unable to conceive.

Hearing.—Insects are evidently affected by loud noises, and moreover,
as many insects have the power of producing voluntary sounds, it is
reasonable to suppose that they possess the sense of hearing. No or-
gan, however, which has been generally admitted to be an organ of
hearing, has been discovered. It is the most common opinion of ento-
mologists that the antenne are instrumental in receiving the impres-
sions of sound, and that the sense of hearing is located at or near their
place of attachment to the head, and this view is much strengthened by
the fact that in some of the larger crustaceans, such as the lobster and
crab, a distinct organ of hearing is found located at the base of the an-
tenn.

Smelling.—That insects are endowed with the sense of smell, is proved
by the fact that the carrion-fly, and other insects which feed upon, or
deposit their eggs upon, putrescent matter, detect such substances at a
distance, however completely they may be hidden from the sight. The
bee also discovers honey under similar circumstances, and it is therefore
fair to presume that insects are conducted to flowers, in hidden situa-

SOUNDS MADE BY INSECTS. 7

tions, more by their odor than by their visible characters. But no organ
of smelling has been discovered, and this sense is supposed, from anal-
ogy, to be located in the lining membranes of the spiracles.

Taste and Touch.—It is impossible to determine, but there is no reason
to doubt, that insects, like other animals, taste and enjoy the food of
which they partake; and the manner in which they frequently touch
their food, and the surfaces over which they walk, with the tips of their
palpi, which, indeed, have received the common name of feelers, renders
it probable that these organs are endowed with a special sense of touch.

SOUNDS PRODUCED BY INSECTS.

The songs of birds, and the noises made by other animals, are pro-
duced by the forcible passage of air through the glottis, which is the
narrow opening at the top of the wind pipe, aided by the vibration of
certain muscular folds near the outlet, called the vocal chords. But we
have seen that insects never breathe through their mouths, and there-
fore they never make any oral sounds. But the humming of bees and
flies is produced in an analogous manner, by the expulsion of air through
the thoracic spiracles, and the vibration of a delicate valve-like fold,
just within the opening.

But besides this, insects make a variety of noises, which are produced
in different ways. The singing of the Cicada, which is the loudest noise
made by any insect, is produced by the expulsion of air from the first
abdominal spiracle, striking upon a large transparent drum-like appa-
ratus, situated at the base of the abdomen. The chirping of crickets is
produced by rubbing together their parchment-like wing-covers. The
well-known noise of the katy-did is produced in the same way, but here
the sound is intensified by a thin tale-like plate set into the base of each
wing-cover. The stridulation of grasshoppers is caused by the friction
of their spined shanks across the edge of their wing-covers. The
fainter, squeaking sounds, made by many insects when captured, are
produced simply by the rapid friction of one part of their bodies upon
another ; in certain Hemiptera, by the friction of the head upon the pro-
thorax ; in the Capricorn beetles, by the friction of the pro-thorax upon
the meso-thorax; and in some of the Lamellicorn beetles, by the friction
of the abdomen against the wing-covers.

The more complex and special apparatuses of insects for the produc-
tion of sounds, are possessed exclusively by the males, and are supposed
to be exercised by them as calls to the opposite sex; but the simpler
squeaking sounds are emitted by both sexes, and appear to be mere
notes of alarm.

3 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

THE METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS.
Nothing in the history of insects is more remarkable than the striking
changes of form which: many of them undergo, in the course of their
development. Whilst other animals progress from infancy to maturity,
simply by a process of growth, and by such gradual and imperceptible
changes only as their growth necessitates, many insects assume totally
different forms in the course of their development, so that they could
mever be recognized as the same individuals, if this development had
not been actually trased from one stage to another. These changes are
called the metamorphoses or transformations of insects. All insects, in
their growth, pass through four stages, designated as the egg state; the
larva, or caterpillar state ; the pupa, or chrysalis state; and the imago,
-or perfect and winged state. The metamorphoses of insects are of two
ypFmeipal kinds, complete and incomplete.
In dhe complete metamorphosis the larva bears no resemblance to the
imago, aud the insect, 'in the intermediate or pupa state, is motionless,
_and takes no food. @kis:kind of metamorphosis presents two principal
varieties. In some (Lepidoptera and many Diptera), the legs and wings
-areeompletely inclosed in the pupa case. In others (Coleoptera, Hy-
‘menoptera, and seme ethers), the legs of the pupa, though useless, are
‘free, and the rudimental wings lie loosely upon the sides. Moreover, in
some (the noctural Lepidoptera, and many Hymenoptera), the pupa
‘is inclosed in a separate covering or cocoon, whereas the majority of in-
sects have no such covering. Pupz thus inclosed are called folliculate.
The term chrysalis, from a Greek word meaning golden, is sometimes ap-
plied to the pupe of the diurnal Lepidoptera, because the pupze of some
‘butterflies are ornamented with golden spots.

Most insects, in changing from the larva to the pupa state, cast off the
larval skin, but im many of the two-winged flies, (Muscide, Syriphide,
etc.) the larval skin becomes contracted and hardened, assumes an oval
form and a brown color, and thus forms a compact and closely-fitting
ease, in which the pupa proper is inclosed, but distinct. Pup thus in-
closed are called coarctate, and their cases are analogous to the cocoons
of the Lepidoptera.

In the incomplete metamorphosis, the insect presents essentially the
same form, and is active in all its stages, after leaving the egg. The
pupa is distinguished from the larva by the presence of short rudimental
wings at the base of the abdomen, and the imago or adult state is dis-
tinguished by the fully grown wings and wing covers. It is only in this
last stage that insects are capable of propagation. All the Hemiptera,
or bugs proper, and all the Orthoptera, or crickets, grasshoppers and
cockroaches, exhibit this imperfect kind of metamorphosis.

THE SEXES OF INSECTS. 9

In treating of the development of insects it is necessary to refer to the
periodical casting of the larval skin. All the growth of insects takes
place in the larva state. Consequently no insect increases in size after
it has acquired wings. The larval skin seems to be an imperfectly or-
ganized membrane, which does not correspond in its growth to that of
the body, but yields to this growth, to a certain extent, by virtue of its
elasticity. A time comes therefore when it can yield no farther. The
insect then evidently becomes oppressed, ceases to eat, usually retires
to some secluded spot, and, if gregarious, huddles together with its com-
panions, and there remains a day or two, almost motionless and with-
out food, and in an apparently torpid and sickly condition. After a
time the distended skin bursts open, and the insect throws it off, and ap-
pears in a new, bright, and elastic skin, which, in its turn, is capable of
a certain degree of distension. This process, which is called moulting,
takes place three or four times in the course of the larval growth, and
in a few larve which continue more, than one year in this state, the moul-
ting is said to occur from five to eight times. In insects of very rapid de-
velopment, on the other hand, such as the maggots, or larve of the
Muscid, no moulting takes place, and it is the larve of this kind which
form coarctate pups.

THE SEXES OF INSECTS.

As a general rule insects of different sexes resemble each other so
closely as to leave no doubt of their specific identity, and in many the
sexes can scarcely be distinguished. But this rule is subject to many
exceptions, and the naming of insects has been greatly confused by the
sexes of the same insect having been described and named as distinct
species.

The sexual organs, especially those of the males, are usually conceal-
ed so as to be nearly or quite invisible; but the female, especially in
the order of Hymenoptera, often have an exserted ovipositor of greater
or less length, which readily distinguishes them from the opposite sex.
An analogous structure exists in many wood-boring beetles which de-
posit their eggs in deep crevices in the bark of trees; and more rarely
in insects of the other orders. In the Coleoptera the males are sometimes
distinguished by one or two horns, either upon the head or thorax, and
many of the predaceous beetles, both terrestrial and aquatic, have the
anterior feet much widened, and furnished beneath with a cushion of
hairs or bristles.

The antennz usually differ in length but little, if at all, in the two
Sexes ; but in the long-horned beetles (Cerambycidz) the antenne of the
males are generally considerably longer than those of the females.

—2

10 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

In those moths which have bi-pectinate antenne, these parts are
almost always wider in the males. Many insects in the order of Diptera
are remarkable for the great size and beauty of their eyes, and these
organs are almost always larger in the males than in the females,

In describing insects itis customary, for the sake of brevity,
z to distinguish the sexes by signs, as shown in the margin.

male. female,
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS.

The classification of insects depends chiefly upon the structure of the
external and visible parts. It is necessary therefore that the student
should have a thorough knowledge of these parts and of the names
by which they are designated. But as these parts are very greatly
modified in the different orders of insects, we shall reserve a minute
description of them till we come to treat of them in connection with
the several orders respectively, and shall here give only a general enu-
meration of them. The student will be much aided in understanding
the following description by comparing it with the figure of Harpalus
caliginosus on a subsequent page.

THE HEAD AND ITS APPENDAGES.

It often becomes necessary to refer to different parts of an insect’s
head, and they are therefore designated by particular names indicative
of their situation. These are—

The Hind-head, (Occiput). The Crown, (Vertex). The Fore-head
(rons). The Face, (Facies). The Cheeks, (Gene).

The appendages of the head are the Horns, (Antenne); the Eyes,
(Oculi); and the parts of the Mouth, (Trophi, or oral organs.)

The Antenne.—All insects have two more or less elongated and
usually many-jointed antennze situated one on each side of the head,
and varying greatly, in different kinds of insects, in length and in the
form of their component joints. Insects have very short antenne in
their larva state, and in some perfect insects, such as the water-beetles,
(Gyrini and Hydrophili), the antenne are not longer than the head,
whilst in others, such as some of the longicorn beetles, they are more
than twice as long as the whole body, and in some of the small moths
of the genus Adela, they are five or six times as long. The uses of the
antenn are not known, but, as we have stated above, when treating of
the senses of insects, they are supposed to be instrumental in the sense
of hearing. The most common variations in the forms of the antenne
are expressed by the following terms. Figures of most of these forms
are given on a subsequent page, in treating of the Coleoptera.

Filiform, or thread-like; long and slender, and of the same, or nearly
the same width throughout.

THE HEAD AND ITS APPENDAGES. 11

Setiform, or setaceous ; bristle-like; long and slender, but tapering to-
wards the tip.

Moniliform, or bead-like ; when the joints are about the same size,
and round, so as to resemble a string of beads.

Serrate, or saw-toothed ; when each joint is somewhat triangular, and
a little prominent and pointed on the inner side.

Pectinate, or comb-toothed ; when the inner angles of the joints are con-
siderably prolonged.

Bi-pectinate, or double comb-toothed ; pectinate on both sides.

Clavate, or club-shaped ; gradually enlarging towards the tip.

Capitate, or knobbed ; when a few of the terminal joints are abrubtly
enlarged.

Lamellate ; when the joints which compose the knob are prolonged on

their inner side, in the form of plates.
- The Hyes.—We have briefly described the mechanism of the eyes when
treating of the sense of sight. They are uniformly of a round or oval
shape, and sometimes notched on their inner side, to give place for the
insertion of the antennze. In a few instances they are placed at the end
of foot-stalks made by a lateral prolongation of the head.

The Trophi, or parts of the mouth.—The mouths of insects present
two strongly marked variations, one of which is fitted for gnawing solid
substances, and is called the mandibulate, or gnawing mouth; and the
other is fitted for sucking fluid nutriment, and is called the haustellate,
or suctorial mouth.

The mandibulate mouth is composed of six pieces, more or less dis-
tinct, and their appendages. First, the labrum, or upper lip: a horny,
usually somewhat semi-circular plate, attached to the anterior and infe-
rior edge of the head, and serving to close and protect the mouth in front.

Then, the Mandibles, or upper jaws; a pair of very hard, horny
pieces, more or less hooked at the point, and often toothed on their in-
ner sides, which work together laterally, somewhat like the blades of a
pair of scissors. These are the true biting, gnawing, or masticating or-
gas. -

Next are the Mawille, or lower jaws; a pair of organs, working lat-
erally like the mandibles, but softer and more pliable in their texture,
generally divided into two lobes at their extremity, which are furnished
more or less with hairs. The maxille undoubtedly assist in the opera-
tion of eating, but the precise part which they perform is not well un-
derstood.

Behind the maxille is a single piece which partially closes the mouth
behind, and which may therefore be considered as the counterpart of
the labrum or upper lip, and is accordingly called the labiwm, or lower lip,

In the Coleoptera this piece is usually attached at its base to the an-
terior face of an elevated ridge upon the under side of the head, which

12 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

forms a kind of wall behind the mouth, usually deeply notched in the
middle, and which is called the mentwm, or chin.

When the labium forms a narrow elongated piece, distinct from the
mentum, as in most of the Coleoptera, it is now generally called the
tongue, lingua or ligula.

The Palpi, or appendages of the mouth.—Near the base of each max-
illa, on its outer side, is attached a movable appendage, usually com-
posed of four or five joints, and never more than six, called the maail-
lary palpus ; and near the base of the labium is attached a similar pair
of organs, but with a less number of joints, distinguished as the labial
palpi. These appendages are subject to considerable variation espe-
cially in the shape of their terminal joints, and are made much use of
in determining the families and genera of insects.

The haustellate or suctorial mouth consists of a more or less elongated
proboscis or sucker, which is sometimes short and fleshy, as in the flies,
(Wuscidee ;) sometimes more elongate, horny and pointed, as in the
bugs, (Zemiptera;) aud sometimes very long and slender, and rolled
up, When not in use, in a spiral coil, as in the butterflies and moths,
( Lepidoptera.)

it is evident that all insects with a suctorial mouth must live exclu-
Sively upon liquid food, or the juices of animals and plants.

The haustellum or sucker is not a single organ, as it appears, but has
upon its upper side a deep groove, in which are contained usually either
two or four, but in some of the carnivorous species (mosquitoes and
horse-flies) six needle-shaped pieces, which in these last make a compli-
cated weapon with which they pierce the skins of animals upon whose
blood they subsist.

From a comparison of the haustellate with the mandibulate mouth, in
different kinds of insects, it has been concluded that the apparent sucker,
which, as we have just seen, forms a sheath for the smaller needle-
Shaped pieces, corresponds to the labium, and that the contained pieces
must represent the mandibles and maxille, and, where six pieces are
present, also the labrum and lingua. In accordance with the propor-
tionately great development of the labium, we find that its appeudages,
that is, the labial palpi, are also very prominent, whilst the maxillary
palpi are very small or rudimental. This is the case in two of the suc-
torial orders, the Lepidoptera and Diptera; but the other order (Hemip-
tera) is exceptional in this respect, having neither maxillary nor labial
palpi developed.

THE THORAX AND ITS APPENDAGES.

The thorax is the second, or middle division of the bodies of insects.
Though apparently single, it is really composed of three pieces soldered

THE THORAX AND ITS APPENDAGES. 13

together. These pieces are more distinct in some insects than in others,
but they can always be distinguished by impressed lines upon the sur-
face called sutures. The three pieces of the thorax are distinguished as
the fore-thorax, the middle-thorax, and the hind thorax; or, in scientific
language, the pro-thorax, the meso-th vax, and the meta-thorax. In the
Coleoptera the pro-thorax is very large, and forms the large upper part,
or shield, to which we usually give the general name of thorax. In this
order of insects, the meta-thorax is invisible above, and the only part
of the meso-thorax seen from above is the triangular piece between the
bases of the elytra, called the scutellwm.

In many insects (Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera) the pro-thorax is
much reduced in size, and forms only a narrow rim, which is usually
called the collar.

The under side of the thorax is called the sternum or breast plate.
Each of the three divisions of the thorax has its sternum, designated
respectively as the pro-, meso- and meta-sternum. In many insects,
and especially the Coleoptera, each section of the sternum is divided
by sutures into a middle piece or sternwm proper, and a side piece, called
the episternum. These parts will be described more particularly in
treating of the Coleoptera.

The appendages of the thorax are the organs of motion, namely, the
wings and the legs.

The Wings.—The great majority of insects have four wings. The
anterior pair are attached to the upper part of the meso-thorax, and the
posterior pair to the meta-thorax.

The wings are thin, membraneous, transparent organs, in some cases
folded when at rest, and supported by ribs or veins running across them.
These veins are found to correspond in their number and complexity to
the rank of the insect in the scale, and from the ease with which they
can be seen, they furnish admirable characters for the purposes of class-
ification. In some insects, such as the grass-hoppers, the fore-wings are
thicker and less transparent than the hinder pair, and have nearly the
consistency of parchment; and in one large order of insects, the Cole-
optera or beetles, the fore-wings become converted into the hard opaque
pieces, known as the elytra or wing-cases. The elytra take no part in
flight, but serve only to cover and protect the hinder or true wings,
which are folded under them when at rest.

In one large order, the insects have but two wings, and are named
from this character Diptera, or two-winged insects. In these insects the
place of the hind-wings is supplied by a pair of little knobbed append-
ages called halteres or poisers.

There are a few exceptional cases of two-winged insects in some of
the other orders—for example, some of the smaller Day-flies (Hphemere)
in the order of Neuroptera, and the males of the Bark-lice (Coccid@) in
the order of Homoptera.

ae

14 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

The Legs.—Insects have six legs, attached in pairs to the under side
of each of the three segments of the thorax. The leg consists of four
principal parts; the hip (cova), a short piece by which the leg is at-
tached to the body; then an elongated piece called the thigh (femur,
plural femora); then another elongated piece called the shank (tibia) ;
and lastly the foot (or tarsus), which is composed of a number of smaller
pieces or joints ; of which five is the largest and most common number.

The feet of insects terminate, almost invariably, in a pair of sharp
horny claws (wngues); and between these, at their base, is often one or
two little pads (plantule) by means of which flies and many other in-
sects adhere to glass, or any other surface which is too smooth and hard
for the claws to catch upon. The Lepidoptera have but one plantula,
and the Diptera have two. Besides the parts of the leg here enumera-
ted, there is a small piece attached to the hind part of the hip, called
the trochanter. This is usually small and inconspicuous, but in the
hind legs of the ground-beetles (Carabide) it forms a large egg-shaped
appendage, which is one of the most characteristic features of this
family of insects.

THE ABDOMEN, AND ITS APPENDAGES.

The abdomen is the hindermost of the three divisions of an insect’s
body. It is sometimes attached to the thorax by the whole width of its
base, in which case it is called sessile. But it is often attached by a
slender petiole or foot-stalk, when it is said to be petiolated. The abdo-
men is composed of a number of rings, one behind another, each ring
usually lapping a little upon the one following it. The normal number
of rings or segments of the abdomen is considered to be nine, and this
number is actually present in the Earwig (Forficula) and a few other
insects; but in the great majority of insects, several of the terminal seg-
ments are abortive, and only from five to seven can usually be counted.

In the females of many kinds of insects the abdomen terminates in a
tubular, tail-like process, through which the eggs are conducted to their
place of deposit, and which is therefore called the ovipositor. In some
insects the ovipositor is simple, short, straight and stiff, as in some of
the Capricorn beetles; but in others, as the Ichneumon flies, it is long,
slender and flexible, and composed of three thread-like pieces, which
when not in use, are separated from each other, giving these insects the
appearance of being three-tailed.

CAPTURING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.

Insects which do not readily fly, such as the beetles and the bugs
proper (Hemiptera), can be captured with the fingers, and are easily

CAPTURING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 15

killed and also preserved, for the time being, by dropping them into
alcohol. For this purpose every collector should have in his pocket one
or more small, strong, wide-mouthed bottles, securely corked, and filled
about two-thirds full with alcohol... The common morphine bottles an-
swer this purpose very well. The quinine bottle can be used when a
larger bottle is required. The insects can be left in the alcohol till the
collector has leisure to pin them. They can be taken from the bottle
with a pair of foreceps, or the alcohol can be turned off into another
bottle, and the insects shaken out on to a newspaper, or what is better,
a sheet of blotting paper, which readily absorbs the moisture.

Insects which readily take flight, must be captured in a net, which is
made like a small dip-net for fishes, by making a hoop of stout wire
about ten inches in diameter, with the ends of the wire turned out so as
to form a short handle three or four inches long, and this can be length-
ened by inserting the ends of the wire into a wooden handle about two
feet long. ‘The net is made of lace or tarleton muslin, and should be
twenty inches or more in depth.

Many species which would otherwise escape notice, can be obtained
dy beating the branches of trees, especially forest trees, and catching
the insects as they fall. A common umbrella, inverted under the tree,
answers this purpose very well. This is in many ways a very useful
implement to the collector. It will serve to protect him from the direct
rays of the sun, or from a casual shower; and the hook at the end of
the handle will enable him to draw down branches so that they can be
satisfactorily examined. The umbrella would be improved by being
covered with white cloth, upon which small insects would be more easily
detected.

Most insects except those above mentioned are injured by being im-
mersed in alcohol, and butterflies and moths would be ruined by it.
These insects can be killed by wetting them with benzine or chloroform.
The benzine is the cheaper, and the only objection to it is its disagreea-
ble odor., Large insects require to be saturated with chloroform several
times to destroy life. A very neat way to kill the smaller moths is
to put them under a wine-glass and put in with them a tuft of wool sat-
urated with chloroform. The moths are killed by the fumes, without
being wet or handled. Some use for this purpose a poisonous prepara-
tion called cyanide of potassium.

In mounting beetles the pin should be passed through the right wing-
cover; other insects are pinned through the thorax. The pin should be
inserted so far that half of it will project below the body of the insect.

The value of a collection of insects is greatly enhanced by having the
legs and wings of the specimens displayed in a life-like attitude. For
this purpose they must be set out with pins, and held so a day or two
till they have become fixed. For spreading the wings of butterflies and

16 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

eel $e
moths it is indispensable to havea simple apparatus called the stretcher.
It consists of two strips of nicely dressed soft pine wood, 18 or 20 inches
long, two inches wide, and about three-eighths of an inch thick,’ placed
side by side, half an inch apart at one end and a quarter of an inch at the
other, so as to accommodate insects of different sizes, and held so by a
cleet across each end. The space between the strips must be closed on
the underside by pieces of sheet cork tacked to the board. The space
between the strips is to receive the body of the insect, the pin being
passed through the cork so as to bring the wings on a level with the
upper side of the stretcher. The wings are spread by catching them
just behind the stout front rib with a pin, or, what is better, a needle
set into a little handle, and carrying them forward, till the hind margin
of the fore-wings are on a straight line with each other. They can be
held in this position either by strips of card laid across them and fas-
tened with pins, or by inserting a single small pin through the wing, be-
hind the rib, and into the side pieces of the stretcher, which on this ac-
count should be made of the softest kind of wood. For very small
moths the stretcher must be constructed upon a smaller seale.

Insects must be allowed to dry thoroughly before inclosing them in*
the cabinet. Beetles which have been permitted to dry with their limbs
contracted, can be relaxed by putting them into hot water.

Boxes for the permanent preservation of insects may be 17 or 18 inches
square, two and a half inches deep, outside measurement, and one inch
and a half or a trifle more in the clear, made of perfectly seasoned wood,
halved together in the middle, so as to have an upper and lower part,
the former serving as the cover. ‘The lower part must be lined on the
bottom with sheet cork or thin strips of corn-stalk, and the whole cov-
ered with soft white paper. The paste with which the paper is attached
should have a portion of arsenic stirred in with it, to guard against de-
structive vermin. The upper part, or cover, should be cut in around
the top, like a window sash, so as to receive a plate of glass, which is to
be secured in the usual way with putty.

Every insect drawer should have a lump of gum camphor rolled in a
piece of muslin and pinned into one corner, to keep out destructive ver-
min. The presence of vermin is detected by little heaps of the dust-
like gnawings under the infested specimens. Such specimens should be
at once removed, and if the drawer is much infested, a teaspoonful or
two of benzine should be poured upon the bottom, and the drawer or
box immediately closed, so as to retain the fumes.

MAGNIFYING GLASSES.
A magnifying glass consisting of one, or, what is better, two lenses,
so arranged that they can be used either singly or combined, is abso-
lutely indispensable in studying insects. This simple instrument, the

THE INSTINCT OF INSECTS. Li

usual cost of which is one dollar per lens, is all that is usually required.
It is a common mistake to suppose that insects cannot be studied and
classified without the use of a complex and costly microscope. Such
instruments are useful only to examine excessively minute or transpa-
rent objects, and though sometimes indispensable to the professional
entomologist, they are rarely used in the ordinary study of insects. .

THE INSTINCT OF INSECTS.

Instinct is that faculty by which animals are enabled to discover their
food, construct their nests, and provide for their young, and to perform
these operations without having had any previous education or experi-
ence. Many of the manifestations of this faculty are truly wonderful
and unaccountable. Such are the mathematically accurate construction
of the cells of the honey-comb; the curious economy of the ants and
bees ; and the provisions which many kinds of insects make for the fu-
ture subsistence of their young, even in advance of their existence.

Instinet is often spoken of as an imperfect or partially developed rea-
son, but its relation to that facul ty can be, at most, only that of a very
remote analogy. It differs from reason in its invariableness and its al-
most absolute infallibility, but most essentially in its independency of
previous knowledge and experience. Reason acts only by virtue of what
is already known, and man, who vastly excells all other animals in his
reasoning powers, approaches perfection in any complex work only by
long study and practice; the honey-bee, on the contrary, constructs its
first cell with such mathematical accuracy that it cannot be improved
by any subsequent experience. ;

Some of the higher animals, such as the horse and the dog, give proof
of the possession of a reasoning faculty similar to our own, and inferior
_ only in degree. But whilst the manifestations of reason are fainter as
we descend in the animal scale, instinct becomes more remarkable, and
in insects especially, in which reason is almost if not absolutely wanting,
instinct is exhibited in its highest perfection, far surpassing, in many
instances, in accuracy and prescience, the reason of man himself.

Of the nature of the instinct of animals, as of that of the human
mind, we know absolutely nothing; and we can only confess our igno-
ranece by referring its wonderful manifestations to the direct agency of
the Creator.

INSECTS FROM A PRACTICAL OR ECONOMIC POINT OF VIEW.

In regarding insects from this point of view, we have to consider
them in both their beneficial and their injurious relations. The directly
beneficial insects are almost limited to the three well-known species :
the honey-bee, the silk-worm and the cochineal-insect ; whereas, those

=

18 ; INSECTS IN GENERAL.

species which are injurious to mankind, chiefly by depredating upon
valuable cultivated crops, are much more numerous, although consti-
tuting but a very small proportion of the whole insect world. It is im-
portant to bear in mind that in these destructive operations insects oc-
cupy an exceptional or abnormal position, and that we ourselves have
been the means of bringing about this state of things, by the excessive
cultivation of certain plants, whereby a corresponding increase of cer-
tain species of the insects which feed upon them has been induced. It
is very rarely that any such loss of balance between the insect and the
vegetable worlds takes place in the state of nature; and yet, such oe-
currences are not wholly unknown. This has happened most remark-
ably in the case of wood-eating insects, there being instances on record
in which extensive tracts of forest trees have been destroyed by the
larvee of some of the more minute wood-boring beetles.

But, as just stated, it is in their depredations upon some one or other
of the more valuable cultivated crops that insects have come into
the most direct and serious conflict with human interest. These depre-
dations, as is well known, have often been of a most extensive and ruin-
ous Character, causing the annual loss of crops to the value of many
millions of dollars, and in some seasons and localities, necessitating the
total abandonment of some of the most valuable and staple produe-
tions, such as wheat, barley and potatoes, and also some of our choicest
fruits, such as the plum and the peach ; and sometimes threatening the
destruction even of the most valuable fruit of all—the hardy and widely
distributed apple. These destructive operations of insects have neces-
sarily attracted to them the most earnest attention of both practical
and scientific men, and many valuable treatises and reports have been
written which have been devoted chiefly to the practical treatment of
the subject. It is our present intention to treat of insects from a more
general and comprehensive point of view.

GENERAL UTILITY OF INSECTS.

From what has just been said, it is evident that it is in the nature of
their food and their food-taking habits, that insects hold the closest
relationship to human interests; and this is true not only in the direct
manner above described, but also indirectly, by means of the important
parts which they fulfill in the economy of nature. Indeed, the opera-
tions of insects in this last respect are of such vast importance, that it
would be safe to say that if these should cease, the earth would soon be-
come uninhabitable by mankind. These operations consist chietly, first,
in the destruction of other insects by the predaceous and parasitic kinds,
whereby the excessive increase of the former is held in check ; secondly,

UTILITY OF INSECTS. 19

in the instrumentality of a large proportion of insects in their character
of scavengers, whereby the decomposition of decayed and offensive
matters, both animal and vegetable, is effected and accelerated ; and
thirdly, in the agency of insects in causing the fertilization of plants,
especially those with very deep corrollas, and those which have the bar-
ren and productive flowers upon different plants, by carrying upon their
legs, in their search for honey, the fertilizing pollen from one flower to
another. A long chapter might be written upon each of these topics,
but we have space here barely to enumerate them.

DIVISION OF INSECTS ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF THEIR FOOD.

From this point of view all insects may be divided into two classes—
the carnivorous insects, or those which eat animal food, (Sarcophaga) ;
and the herbivorous insects, or those which subsist upon vegetable sub-
stances, (Phytophaga). Each of these classes is again divisible according-
ly as the insects which compose it take their food in a fresh and living
state, or in a state of decay. The former are called predaceous insects
(Adephaga), when they live upon animal prey; and the latter are desig-
nated by the name of scavengers (Rypophaga). Those insects which eat
living animal food, are still further divisible into predaceous insects
proper, which seize and devour their prey, and parasite insects, which
live within the bodies of their victims and feed upon their substance.

Those insects which feed upon decaying animal matter present three
divisions: first, general scavengers, which devour particles of putrescent
matter wherever they may be found; second, those which live exclu-
sively in or upon the bodies of dead animals, (Necrophaga) ; and thirdly,
those which are found exclusively in animal excrement, (Coprophaga).

The herbivorous insects may be divided in a similar manner into those
which eat fresh vegetable food, (Thalerophaga), and those which subsist
upon vegetable matters in a state of decay, (Saprophaga). They can
also be usefully classified according to the particular parts of the plant
which they devour, into lignivorous or wood-eating insects, (Yylophaga);
the folivorous, or leaf-eating insects, (Phyllophaga); and the fructivor-
ous, or fruit-eating insects, (Carpophaga).

The above Greek terms in parenthesis have been used chiefly in con-
nection with the insects of the Coleopterous order, in which these diver-
sities of food-habits exist to a much greater extent than in any of the
other orders, but the terms themselves are of general signification, and
being very concise and comprehensive, they might, not improperly, be
used in speaking of insects in all the orders, so far as they are appli-

cable,
$

20 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

DIFFERENCE OF FOOD OF THE LARVA AND THE PERFECT INSECT.

In attempting to classify insects according to the nature of their food
we meet with a peculiar difficulty, owing to the'remarkable change
which some species undergo in this respect, in passing from the larva to
the perfect state. Most caterpillars, for example, feed upon leaves,
whilst the butterflies and moths which they produce subsist upon the
honey of flowers, or other liquid substances. Some two-winged flies
(Asilide) feed upon the roots of plants in their larva state, but become
eminently predaceous in their winged state. Another remarkable ex-
ample is furnished by certain coleopterous insects (Meloide), which are
parasitic in their larva state, but subsist upon foliage after they have
assumed the beetle form. The question therefore arises, to which stage
of the insect’s existence shall the precedence be given in this respect?
At first view it weuld seem that the perfect state ought to govern, but
_ when we take into acconut that insects are comparatively short lived m
this state; that having arrived at maturity they require but little food ;
and that some insects take no food at all at this stage of their lives ;
whereas all the growth of an insect takes place whilst it is in the larva
state, and consequently it is in this state that they feed so voraciously :
when we consider this, it seems more reasonable that in classifying in-
sects upon this basis, the food-habits of the larva should take the pre-
cedence.

In the following work I have not thought it best to adopt any intlexi-
ble rule in this matter, but have been governed by one or the other
view accordingly as its importance might seem to preponderate in
each particular case.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN NOXIOUS AND INJURIOUS INSECTS.

The terms noxious and injurious are often used indiscriminately, but
strictly speaking, noxious insects are those which are endowed with
some poisonous or otherwise hurtful quality ; and these are divisible in-
to two classes accordingly as they are hurtful to mankind directly, such
as the mosquito, flea, and bed-bug; or are hurtful to the domestica-
ted animals, as the horse-fly, the bot-fly, and the various kinds of ani-
mal lice. Theinsects which attack man directly are annoying rather
than seriously hurtful, and this is usually the case also with those which
molest the domesticated animals; but these sometimes multiply so as
to seriously impoverish the animals which they infest.

The term injurious, as distinguished from noxious, is properly applied
to all those insects which damage mankind indirectly, but often to a
most serious extent, by depredating upon those crops upon which we <e-
pend for subsistence and profit. ’

PRACTICAL TREATMENT—SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 21

NUMBER MORE IMPORTANT THAN SIZE.

It is worthy of remark that by far the greater proportion of the
damage caused by injurious insects is effected by species of very small
size, whilst the large species are generally harmless. The two most
serious fruit insects, the Codling-moth and the Plum-curculio, are both
below the medium size, and the Apple bark-louse, the Apple-aphis, the
Hessian-fly, and the Wheat-midge, are so minute that they would not
be noticeable were it not for the wide destruction which they cause to
some of our most valuable crops, in consequence of their excessive mul-
tiplication.

| TREATMENT OF INJURIOUS INSECTS.

For the details of treatment the reader is referred to the practical
treatises and reports which have been published upon this subject. We
can give here only an abstract of the methods to be pursued.

First, hand-picking and destruction by machinery, as in the case of
the Colorado potato-beetle ; second, poisoning by such substances as
Paris-green, hellebore, and carbolic acid, as in the cases of the Potato-
beetle, and the Currant saw-fly ; third, rendering their food distasteful
and repugnant to them by the application of such substances as ashes,
lime, and whale-oil soap, which are applicable to all foliage-eating in-
sects ; fourth, anticipating their attacks by planting at such times as
will cause the crops to sprout or to mature too early or too late for them,
both of which plans are exemplified by winter wheat, in its relation to
the Chinch-bug and the Hessian-fly; and fifth, when all other means
fail, preventing their ravages by abstaining for a year or two from rais-
ing the damaged crops. To these may be added, in certain favorable
instances, the transportation and colonization of friendly parasites.
An experiment of this kind has been performed by the author by the
transportation from the central to the northern parts of the State of
Illinois, of the minute Chalcis-fly, which is parasitic upon the Oyster-
shell Bark-louse.

The above list exhibits the most common methods of contending with
injurious insects, and these methods admit of almost indefinite modifi-
cation. But they can be most usefully described in connection with the
particular species of insect to which they are respectively applicable.

,
USE OF LEARNED AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS.

With regard to the use of scientific terms, derived mostly from the
Greek and Latin languages, it is to be remarked that though they may
appear difficult and forbidding, at first sight, the student soon becomes
‘familiarized with them, and finds them to be almost indispensable by
enabling him often to express in one or two words what would require a

22 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

whole sentence in English. It is also an important consideration that
"in learning the elements of any science or art, an indispensable part of
such education is to acquire a knowledge of the more common techni-
cal terms which properly belong to it, and which constitute its peculiar
phraseology, and which the student will continually meet with in all
writings upon the subject. In a work intended, like the present, for
the common student, all unnecessary use of such words should, of
course, be avoided, and whenever we have found it necessary to use
them, we have taken care, as a general rule, to explain their meaning,
either directly or by the nature of the context.

The student must not expect that any science can be so simplified as
to remove all difficulties ; and especially true is this of so extensive and
complex a science as entomology. Nor is it desirable that this should
be done. One of the principal advantages to be expected from the
study of this science is the admirable mental discipline which it affords.
The forms with which it has to deal are so numerous and diversified,
and often, at the same time, so closely allied, that their classification
constantly demands a minute and careful examination, and a diserimi-
native analysis, which, regarded purely as an exercise of the mind, are
scarcely inferior to those required by the abstract mathematics, whilst
they possess the additional interest which naturally attaches to the
study of living beings.

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE.

Classification in natural history has two objects in view—first, to
Show the relationship which exists between organized beings, by put-
ting them in groups in accordance with the similarity of their charae
ters; and secondly, to facilitate the study of them by enabling the stu-
dent to comprehend a great number of different but allied forms under
a comparatively small number of general heads, and thus to afford an
important aid to the memory.

By nomenclature is meant the giving to these groups and the species
which compose them distinctive names. This is necessary to enable us
either to receive or to communicate knowledge; and without it natural
history could not be raised to the dignity of a science.

In a department so extensive as that of insects a very great number
of names, not only of species, but of the groups in which these are
comprehended, must be necessarily introduced. It is therefore import-
ant that the science shall not be encumbered by the creation of unneces-
sary genera, or such as are founded upon slight and unimportant char-
acters. It is, indeed, often difficult to determine precisely what charac-
ters or combination of characters necessitate or justify the formation
of a new genus, or the subdivision of an old one. No definition of the
term genus which is universally applicable evere has been, or perhaps

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 23

ever can be given, inasmuch as the characters which constitute it often
possess very different values in the different genera and families, not
only of insects, but of animals generally, and therefore the formation
of genera must necessarily be left to the judgment of the author.

It is the natural tendency of the specialist’ to attach undue value to
the minor subdivisions of his particular department, whilst he whose
studies take a wider range sees more forcibly the necessity of condensa-
tion and simplification. Much can be said upon both sides of this ques-
tion, but perhaps the argument may be condensed into a single sentence
by saying that, on the one hand, the minute subdivision of a natural
group tends to give definiteness and precision to our investigations,
whilst, on the other hand, the multiplication of genera or sub-genera,
upon trivial characters, unnecessarily encumbers our nomenclature, and
diminishes the interest and importance which ought to attach to the
generic distinction.

In writing the names of insects—and the same rule applies to all
other departments of natural history—it is the established custom to
write first the name of the genus, usually without the author’s name
attached, and immediately following it the specific name, with the name
of the original describer, or an abbreviation of it, appended. As no
one can carry all the modern genera of insects in his memory, it is an
excellent practice, when space permits, to prefix the name of the older
and more comprehensive genus to which such species was formerly re-
ferred, and with which most entomologists may be presumed to be fa-
miliar. In this case the modern genus is ineluded in a parenthesis, aud
usually with the author’s name attached.

To illustrate by examples: The common rose-slug is the larva of a
little wasp-like insect, known scientifically as the Selandria rose of
Harris. This species was first described by Dr. Harris, who gave to it
the specific name rosw, meaning of the rose. It belongs to the modern
genus Selandria, which was founded by Dr. Leach, an English ento-
mologist. This genus is a. subdivision of the old genus Tenthredo, of
Linneus. The name written in full, therefore, will stand :

Tenthredo (Selandria, Leach) rosw, Harris.

Our fine large Polyphemus moth was originally described by Linnzeus
under the name of Attacus Polyphemus. It belongs to the modern genus
Telea, made by the German lepidopterist, Hiibner. Its name, there-
fore, expressed in the simplest manner, is Telea Polyphemus, Li nn.; Or
written in full—

Attacus ( Telea, Hiibner) Polyphemus, Linnzeus.

This is ordinarily all that is essential to be known, and any additional
Synonyms or references should be placed in a subordinate position,

24 INSECTS IN GENERAL.

.

Tt will be observed that all the family names of insects end in ide.
This is a Greek termination, meaning like or similar, and implies that
all the species in any such group have a family resemblance to those of
the leading genus to which it is affixed—thus: Cicindelide means Cicin-
dela-like insects. In pronouncing these words the accent is placed
upon the syllable preceding this termination, thus: Cicindel-ide, Carab-
ide, ete.

It is often the case that families, especially those which contain many
species, admit of division into a number of natural groups of a higher
rank than genera, which are designated as sub-families, and distin-
guished by the termination ides. Thus the family Caribide is divided
into a number of. sub-families, such as the Brachinides, the, Scaritides,
etc.

DIVISION OF INSECTS INTO ORDERS.

’ The class of insects is divided into a number of primary groups called
orders. Between these larger divisions are certain smaller ones, which
serve as connecting links between them, and which some authors have
merged in one or the other of the adjoining larger groups, whilst others
have considered them of sufficient importance to be raised to the same
rank with the larger ones. From this it has resulted that the number
of orders into which the class of insects has been divided has varied,
even in the works: of standard authors, from seven to twelve, and the
number will be still increased if we regard as distinct orders certain
apterdus form, such as the lice (Pediculi,) and the springtails ( Thy-
sunura. )

Bat as in this elementary treatise it is the intention to simplify the
classification of insects as much as possible, we have adopted the
sivaller number of orders, with the single exeeption of recognizing the
division of the Hemiptera into Homoptera and Heteroptera as of ordi-
nal value.

The orders of insects are founded primarily upon the number and
structure of the wings. This mode of division was first suggested by
Aristotle, who gave the names which they now bear to two of the or-
ders, namely, the Coleoptera and the Diptera. It was afterwards al-
most perfected by Linnieus, but h&s been somewhat modified by more
recent authors.

The orders, at the present time, are usually arranged in two sections,

with four orders in each, based upon the form and structure of the
mouth,

bo
Ur

ORDERS OF INSECTS.

TABLE OF THE ORDERS OF INSECTS.

Section 1st. Mandibulata, or Gnawing Insects—Mouth composed of
_ jaws and mandibles.
A. Upper wings of a horny or leathery consistency; under wings
i membraneous.
B. Upper wings horny, and usually inflexible ; under wings folded
both lengthwise and crosswise ; inactive in the pupa state:
CoLEOPTERA.
BB. Upper wings coriaceous, or like parchment; under wings
folded lengthwise only ; active in all their stages :
ORTHOPTERA.
A A. All four wings membraneous and transparent.
C. Wings with many branching veins, and usually many cross-
veins; abdomen without an ovipositor....NEUROPTERA.
CC. Wings with comparatively few veins; abdomen of the fe-

males terminating in an ovipositor or a sting:
HYMENOPTERA.

Section 2d. Haustellata, or Sucking Insects—The mouth consolidated
into a proboscis or sucker.
A. Wings four.
B. Wings covered with bran-like scales........... LEPIDOPTERA.

BB. Wings naked.
C. Upper wings of the same texture throughout, not lapping
over each other, deflexed or roof-shaped when at rest:
HOMOPTERA.
CC. Upper wings coriaceous at base, membraneous at tip, lap-
ping one over the other at the tip, and lying flat upon
the abdomen when at rest.-..-..------ HETEROPTERA.

AAG, NGS) LW O.) MeMPrAneOUs. 22 f=. 22) oie) igo on DIPTERA.

—4

26 ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Order of COLEOPTERA.

The Coleoptera, (a term composed of two Greek words, xodeos a sheath,
and zrepa wings,) commonly called beetles, are the most numerous divi-
sion of the mandibulate or gnawing insects. They are distinguished
from all other insects by the hard texture of their bodies, and by their
horny wing-covers, called elytra, which represent the upper pair of wings
of other insects. The elytra are not moved in flight, but only raised so
as to permit the free motion of the lower or true wings, and a few of the
chafers (Cetonice) do not even raise them during flight. They are gen-
erally hard, horny and inflexible, but in the lightning-beetles ( Lampy-
ride) and a few others, they are comparatively thin and flexible, but
never membraneous like the lower wings. The inferior or true wings
differ from those of almost all other insects in being folded crosswise, as
well as lengthwise, when at rest under their cases. The Buprestida
and a few others form exceptions to this rule. A few kinds which live
under stones and in other dark places, and which have no occasion to
fly, have no wings under their elytra.

Owing to the perfect development and the hard texture of the crust
or integument of the Coleoptera, and also to the circumstance that it is
not usually much obscured by hair, this part is made more use of in
classification than it is in any of the other orders. The upper side ex-
hibits the three divisions of the insect’s body: the head, the thorax, and
the abdomen, covered by the elytra. Between the elytra, at their base,
or where they join the thorax, is almost always a small triangular piece
called the scutellum. On the under side, each of the principal parts is
seen to be composed of a considerable number of pieces usually soldered
together, and distinguished only by fine impressed lines called sutures.
These subdivisions and their names will be sufficiently understood, with-
out the necessity of a detailed description, by the annexed figure of one
of the ground-beetles (Harpalus caliginosus) and the accompanying ex-
planation, taken in connection with the general description in the be-
ginning of the work.

EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING FIGURE.

The oblong narrow piece in the middle of the mouth, marked L, is the
ligula or tongue. At the extremity of the ligula are two little wings or
side pieces marked p p ; these are the paraglosse. The other parts of
the mouth are named in the figure, and have been described in the in-
troductory part of this work. The under side of the head, behind the
mentum or chin, is called the gula or throat.

The under side of the thorax is divided into a considerable number
of pieces more or less distinct, and separated from each other by im-
pressed lines called sutwres. The middle portion is called the sternum

EXTERNAL ANATOMY. Zt

[Fig. 3.]

Diagram illustrating the structural parts of a beetle.

or breast-plate, and is divided into three parts, the prosternum or fore
breast-plate ; the mesosternum or middle breast-plate ; and the metaster-
num or hind breast-plate. Each of these parts has a side piece, called
the episternum ; so that there is an episternum of the prothorax; an
episternum of the mesothorax; and an episternum of the metathorax ;
all of which are labeled in the figure. Directly behind each episternum
is a smaller piece called the epimeron.* These are indicated in the figure
by stars; three stars marking the epimeron of the prothorax ; two stars
the epimeron of the mesothorax ; and one star the epimeron of the meta-

28 ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

thorax. The epimeron of the mesothorax is very narrow in Harpalus,
and scarcely distinguishable without the aid of a lens; but in a part of
the long-horned beetles (Saperda, etc.) and in some others, it is consider-
ably wider, and affords valuable characters in classification. The tro-
chanters, or little joints at the base of the thighs, are marked T RB in the
figure, except the large hind trochanters, where the name is printed in
full. Behind the metasternum, and extending outwardly from the hind
coxe is a narrow piece marked cx.P. This is the hind coxal plate.
This is a very narrow piece in Harpalus, but in some of the serricorn
beetles (Buprestide and Elateride), it is much wider, and furnishes im-
portant generic characters, and in Haliplus, a genus of water beetles, it is
excessively dilated. The other parts are sufficiently named in the figure.
The antenne of the Coleoptera are usually eleven jointed and of mod-
erate length, but they are subject to much variation both in length and
form, as will appear in the descriptions of the different families. The
subjoined figures show their most commen variations, and the names by
which they are designated. These forms have been more particularly
described on a former page, when treating of insects in general.

(Fig. 4.]

ANTENN OF COLEOPTERA.—1, filiform or thread-shaped ; 2 and 3, serrate or saw-teothed ; 4, pectinate
or comb-toothed ; 5, capitate or knobbed ; 6, 7, 8, clavate or club-shaped; 9 and 10, lamellate or plated.
—after LECONTE.

The palpi, or little jointed appendages to the mouth, also sometimes
furnish important characters in classification. They vary chiefly in the
shape of the terminal joint, which is sometimes much narrower than the
others, when it is called acicular or needle-shaped, and sometimes much
widened, so as to be in the form of a triangle or of a half-moon, or hatchet.

As the terms large, small and medium-sized are often used in speaking
of insects, and as these words vary considerably in force, when used in
different relations, we give below their average meaning when applied
to the Coleoptera:

An inch or more in length, - - - - Very large.
Three-quarters of an inch, - - - - - Large.
Half aninch, - - - . - . - Medium.
Quarter of an inch, : - - - - - Small.
One-eighth of an inch or less, - - - - Very small.

The intermediate sizes are expressed by such phrases as rather large,
rather small, or @ little above, or a little below the medium, ete. This

THE COLEOPTERA FROM A PRACTICAL POINT OF VIEW. 29

standard applies only when speaking of any one group of beetles as
compared with the Coleoptera generally. The same expressions will
necessarily vary in force when applied to the species of a particular
group aS compared with each other, accordingly as the species of that
group are large or small as compared with the rest of the order; that
is to say,a small species of a group of generally large-sized insects
may be larger than a large species of a small-sized group.

LARVA AND PUPA.

The larve of the Coleoptera are usually soft whitish grubs; naked, or
with a few scattered hairs; with a mandibulate mouth not very unlike
that of the perfect insects; usually furnished with six short feet and a
single terminal proleg, but sometimes wholly footless. They live in se-
cluded situations, sometimes in the ground, but oftener in the wood or
under the bark of decaying trees, or in putrescent animal substances,
and not unfrequently in nuts and seeds, and in the pulp of fruits. They
are rarely found exposed to the light of day, and therefore they never
exhibit the beauty of coloration, nor the variety of clothing which gives
so much interest to the study of the caterpillars, which are the larvx
of the moths and butterflies. The larve of most of the families of
Coleoptera are now pretty well known, but owing to the cireum-
stances just mentioned, they have generally received but little atten-
tion from entomologists compared with that which has been bestowed
upon the perfect insects. The larvie of the several families will be
more particularly described in their proper connections.

The pupe are rarely inclosed in cocoons, but the larvae, before chang-
ing, simply form cells by turning themselves round and round in the
earth or rotten wood, in which they usually undergo their metamor-
phoses. But some larvie, especially in the families of Curculionidae and
Chrysomelid, construct regular cocoons of web, not very unlike those
of the nocturnal Lepidoptera, which they attach to the plants upon
which they feed. The legs of the pup are always free, but they are
not used, the insects being dormant and motionless during this stage of
their existence.

THE COLEOPTERA FROM A PRACTICAL POINT OF VIEW.

In order to show more clearly the connection between scientific and
practical entomology, in classifying the Coleoptera we have taken the
food-habits of the several species as the basis of classification, it being
in the nature of their food, and their methods of obtaining it, that in-
sects come into the most important relationship to mankind, whether
of an injurious or a beneficial character. We refer to the Coleoptera
particularly, because they exhibit a much greater diversity of food-

30 ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

habits than any of the other orders of insects. Indeed this principle
of classification is of value just in proportion as such diversity exists;
and where it is very limited, as especially in the great order of Lepi-
doptera, it ceases to be available. Even in classifying the Coleoptera
upon this basis, and at the same time paying the necessary respect to
structural considerations, we are sometimes compelled to place insects
of similar food-habits in several different, and sometimes remote, tribes.
The wood-boring beetles, for example, constitute three distinct tribes,
designated as the saw-horned borers (Buprestide) ; the long-horned
borers ( Cerambycide ), and the short-horned borers (Scolytide.) There
are likewise four distinct families of fungus-beetles, found respectively
in each of the four tarsal sections. But notwithstanding such instances
as these, the Coleoptera admit of a very interesting, useful, and, in the
main, natural classification in accordance with the nature of their food.

As compared with the other orders of insects the Coleoptera are sur-
passed only by the Lepidoptera in the extent of their injuries to culti-
vated crops; and indeed they are so nearly equal to the latter in this
respect, that there may be a doubt which takes the precedence; and it
is true of either of these two orders, that, with the exception of the
other, it includes a greater number of injurious species than all the
other orders of insects combined. The great destructiveness of the
Lepidoptera is readily explained by the nature of their food, nearly
all their larvee, commonly known as caterpillars, subsisting upon plant-
food, and mostly in a fresh and growing state. The Coleoptera, on the
coutrary, embrace, in addition to the plant-eating species, extensive
tribes of predacious and scavenger beetles, which are indirectly of in-
calculable benefit to mankind.

in studying the bearing of scientific upon practical entomology, noth-
ing perhaps is more important than to trace the connection of the ex-
ternal structure of insects with their habits, and especially with the
nature of their food; since we are thus enabled, to a certain extent, to
determine the habits of an insect by simply observing the form and
structure of its visible parts. Weare able to lay down some general
rules of this kind with respect to the Coleoptera, though most of them
are subject to important exceptions. In order not to give too much
space to this part of the subject, we will limit our observations to two
of the most important and prominent organs—the antenne#, and the
teet, or tarsi.

All predaceous beetles have filiform antennz except the lady-birds or
Coccinellide.

All the scavenger beetles have strongly clavate or knobbed antenne,
except the short-winged scavengers or Staphylinidz, and these are only
partial exceptions, as many of them are known to be predaceous,

THE COLEOPTERA FROM A PRACTICAL POINT OF VIEW. 31

All the leaf-eating’ beetles have filiform or nearly filiform antenne,
except the herbivorous Lamellicorns (Rutelide and Melolonthide. )

All fungus-eating beetles have the antenne more or less strongly
clavate.

The feet of the Coleoptera are of two principal kinds; first, simple
feet, in which the joints are slender, and of about the same width
throughout, and clothed only with somewhat scattered bristles; and
secondly bi-lobed feet, in which the joints are somewhat widened and de-
pressed, with the last joint but one usually a little wider than the others,
and divided into two lobes, between which the last joint is inserted, and
all of them clothed beneath with densely crowded short stiff hairs, of
the same length, so as to resemble a brush; sometimes also compared
to a piece of sponge.

’ Asa general rule, beetles with simple feet reside upon the ground, or
under the bark of dead trees, or in other decomposing matter, and are
either carnivorous or rypophagous (filth eating) in their habits; and
those which have bi-lobed and spongy feet live upon the foliage of trees
and other plants, this structure of the feet seeming to be especially
adapted to enabling them to adhere to the surface of leaves ; and ac-
cordingly most of these insects are herbivorous.

But this general statement is subject to important exceptions. Some
of the lamellicorn beetles (Melolonthide, Rutelide, etc.) have simple feet
and yet feed upon the foliage of trees; but these insects do not run
over the leaves, but simply cling to them with their sharp claws, whilst
feeding.

So, also, some carnivorous beetles (Telephoride and Coccinellide ),
which pursue their prey over the foliage of trees, have their feet bi-lobed
and spongy.

It is an interesting circumstance that those insects (Melolonthide, ete.)
which only cling to the foliage by their claws, do not breed upon the
trees, but pass their larval period under ground, subsisting upon roots
or other subterranean matters, and only visit the trees for the sake of
feeding ; whereas the true Phytophaga, with spongy feet (Chrysomelide
and their allies) live upon the plants upon which they feed, through all
the active stages of their existence.

It is also a curious coincidence that the insects first mentioned, which

‘only visit the trees occasionally for the purpose of feeding, do so only
by night; whilst the genuine Phytopbaga (plant eaters) are diurnal in
their habits.

There is another partial but important exception to the rule above
laid down, as respects the males of many carnivorous beetles, which
have some of the joints of their anterior feet much widened and brushed
underneath ; but here the last joint but one is not bi-lobed, and the brush

32 ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

is usually confined to the anterior pair of feet, rarely extending to the
middle pair, and never to the hind ones; besides being limited exclu-
sively to the males.

Whilst some of the other orders of insects excel the Coleoptera in the
perfection of their instincts, no other order can be compared with them
in the diversity of their food, and their corresponding habits and organ-
ization. Indeed the Coleoptera combine, to a great extent, the food-
habits of all the other orders. The herbivorous habits of the Orthop-
tera, the carnivorous habits of the Hemiptera, the aquatic habits of the
Neuroptera, the honey-eating and the parasitic habits of the Hymenop-
tera, the leaf-eating habits of the larvee of the Lepidoptera, and the
putrivorous habits of the Diptera—all find their parallel in the ranks
of the omnivorous Coleoptera.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE COLEOPTERA.
The Coleoptera are usually divided into four sections founded upon
the number of joints in their tarsi, or feet.
These sections may be tabulated as follows:

See: ulus Hive jomiain) allithetarsle. 2 25. os ccces eee yecoae sce ee sere aaee teh ere Pentamera.
Sec. 2. Five joints in the anterior and middle tarsi, and four joints in the hind

TAYE 2c cio s,2 ecard meade See dee te See hee ie eens Seer Rie AGNES Heteromera.
Seco; Nour yomte in ial the taval.. 2m oocpsace oes oo cede ot Ue cee ecee dae eenee Tetramera.
Sec: 4.2.) 'Ehree jomts in all Ghe tarsi! 2. --ceceme eco scceccacbeccesce ces ee a ese Trimera.

These terms, except the second, are composed of the Greek nume-
rals meaning respectively, jive, four, aud three, prefixed to a word
meaning parts or pieces. The prefix hetero, in the seeond section, means
different.

As a general rule insects have five joints in their tarsi, and never
more than five. This may, therefore, be regarded as the normal or typi-
cal number, and a smaller number must be taken as an indication of in-
feriority or degradation, using this word in its scientific sense. In ac-
cordance with this view, the most perfect and highly organized beetles
are found in the pentamerous section; and in those which have less
than five joints, there is usually a little swelling at the base of the last
joint, which is supposed to be a vestige of the missing joint. This cir-
cumstance has led some authors to give more complex names to these
sections, expressive of this character, but with the explanation here
given we have preferred to retain the simpler nomenclature of Geoffroy
and Latreille.

SUGGESTIONS TO AID IN CLASSIFYING THE COLEOPTERA.

The student will perceive that the primary division of Coleopterous
insects is based upon the number of joints in their feet, or tarsi. This
character, though apparently of trivial importance, is found to furnish
an index to a more natural classification than can be established upon

AIDS IN CLASSIFICATION. 33

any other single character. In almost all beetles of considerable size,
that is, more than a quarter of an inch in length, this character is very
uniform, or, in other words, the number of tarsal joints in the insects of
any one section or family, is remarkably unexceptional. It also has the
advantage, in insects of this size, of being easily determined, if not by
the naked eye, at least by the aid of a simple lens.

But the insects which are necessarily the most difficult to examine
and classify are the very small ones, and here the character founded
upon the number of tarsal joints not only becomes more difficult to de-
termine, but more exceptional, and therefore of less value. We there-
fore give the following suggestions to aid the inexperienced student in
cases of this kind.

The principal difficulty occurs with respect to numerous families con-
taining very small species in the first or pentamerous section; and
these are mostly limited to what are known as scavenger beetles, both
the club-horned tribe, (Clavicornes,) and’ the short-winged tribe,
(Brachelytra.) In the minute species of both of these tribes the number
of tarsal joints is very irregular, one of them being often indistinct or
wanting, especially in the posterior feet; and in three families at least,
the Lathridiide, Trichopterygide and Pselaphid, two joints are want-
ing in all the feet, making them apparently but threejointed.

The student will naturally inquire, why place these insects in the
pentamerous section? The answer is, that they harmonize more closely
with the insects of this section in their other characters, whilst they do
not affiliate with the insects of the other sections which agree with them
» in the number of tarsal joints. An examination of their other charac-
ters will usually enable the student, after a little experience, to refer
these insects to their true position ; though cases sometimes occur which
puzzle the most astute entomologist. They can hardly be confounded
with the Heteromera, because these are, for the most part, much larger
insects, and the exceptionally small species belong mostly to the tribe
of Trachelides, which are distinguished from these and most other
beetles by having the head attached to the thorax by a narrow neck.
They differ from the Tetramera in the form of the tarsi and also that of
the antenne. Almost all these small species with deficient tarsal joints
have these parts slender and simple, whilst all the genuine Tetramera
have the tarsal joints somewhat widened and covered beneath with a
dense brush of short hair, and the last joint but one is wider than the
others, and divided into two lobes, between which the last joint is in-
serted. The only pentamerous beetles which have some of their tarsal
joints obsolete, and at the same time have the last joint but one bilobed,
are a part of the serricorn family of Cleridxe. Some of the short-winged
scavengers (Staphylinide), with an irregular number of tarsal joints,

—)

34 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

have a part of these joints widened but not bilobed in the males, but
here it is a sexual distinction, and is confined to the anterior feet.

These small Pentamera, with variable tarsi, almost always have
strongly clavate antenne, except the Staphylinidw, and these are dis-
tinguished at once by their short wing-covers. The true Tetramera, on
the contrary, have the antenne filiform, or at most slightly and gradu-
ally enlarged toward the tip, except the snout-beetles (Curculionidae),
and these are readily known by their elongated rostrum.

If, then, the student have in hand a small beetle whose place in the
system he cannot determine with certainty, from the number of tarsal
joints, let him first observe whether these joints are slender and _ siim-
ple or dilated and brush-like beneath, with the last joint but one deeply
notched or bilobed; and then let him examine the antenne, and observe
whether they are slender and filiform, or whether they are decidedly
enlarged at the end, either gradually (clavate), or abruptly (capitate).

1. If the tarsi are simple and the antenne filiform, the species may
belong to some one of a number of diverse families (Carabide, Elater-
ide, Mordellide, Melandryide, Cistelide, and a few smaller families) ;
but the beetles with this combination of characters are rarely of very
small size, and they are, therefore, the more easily determined by their
other characters.

2. If the tarsi are simple and the antenne clavate or capitate, the in-

sect may be referred, with very few exceptions, to some one of the faini-
lies of scavenger beetles in the pentamerous section. This rule embra-
ces a large proportion of very small-sized beetles, and will, therefore,
be found of great use to the student in narrowing the field of his
inquiry. A few apparent exceptions exist in the heteromerous families
of Diaperidz and Tenebrionidw, but the former can be usually distin-
guished by their perfoliate antenne, and the antenne of the Tenebrio-
nid are usually so slightly enlarged toward the tip as scarcely to be
entitled to the name of clavate. Other partial exceptions are found in
the family of Scolytida, or short horned wood-borers, all of which have
strongly clavate antenne, and some of which have simple tarsi; but
many of them have the last joint but one slightly bilobed.

3. If the tarsi are dilated and bilobed and the antenne jiliform, the in-
sect belongs to the family of long-horned borers (Cerambycide@), or to
that of the plant-beetles proper (Chrysomelide, ete.) The tarsi thus
formed are almost always spongy on the under side. Only a few par-
tial exceptions to this rule are found, and these are in the heteromerous
families of Gidemeride, Anthicidze, and a few others; but in these the
tarsi are usually but slightly dilated, and but little, or not at all, spongy
beneath.

SECTION OF PENTAMERA. 35

4, IPf the tarsi are dilated and bilobed and the antenne clavate, the spe-
cies belongs to the tribe of snout-beeties (Curculionidae), in the tetrame-
rous section, or the family of Erotylidz, or that of Coccinellide, in the
trimerous section.

5. Beetles with distinctly serrate antenne belong almost exclusively to
the families of Serricories proper, in the pentamerous section ; but this
rule also has a few exceptions. The pea and bean weevils (Bruchide),
in the tetramerous section, usually have the antenne decidedly serrate ;
and a few small families of the division of Trachelides, in the hetero-
merous section (fhipiphoride aud Pyrochroide), usually have the an-
tenn serrate in the females, and flabellate or branched in the males.

6. All beetles with lamellate antenne belong to the division of Lamel-
licornes proper, in the pentamerous section. Only in very rare in-
stances the branches of a pectinate or flabellate antennz are somewhat
flattened so as to resembie the true lamellate. An example of this is
found in the little beetles of the genus Phlwotribus in the family of
Scolytide.

Section 1. PENTAMERA.

Usually five joints in all the tarsi, one or two of them being sometimes deficient in very small species; all
the joints usually slender and simple, except that the anterior, or anterior and middle tarsi are some-
times dilated and brush-like beneath, as a sexual distinetion of the males.

It is seen by this formula that the pentamerous section is distin-
guished not only by the number, but also by the form and structure of
the tarsal joints, the tarsiin this, and also in the succeeding or hetero-
merous section being, with but few exceptions, slender and simple, and
clothed only with scattered hairs or bristles, whilst in the third and
fourth sections the tarsi are widened and covered bereath with a dense
brush of short hairs, or hair-like papill, and the penultimate, or last
joint but one, is almost always bilobed. It is important to bear this
two-fold distinction in mind, inasmuch as the form and structure of the
tarsi often give the clue to the classification of small species in which
the number of the joints is deficient or difficult to be determined. This
has been already more fully explained in the general remarks on pages
30 to 34.

The ambiguity arising from the dilation of some of the tarsal joints
in the males of certain species, can always be avoided by directing the
examination to the hindermost tarsi, which are never so dilated.

This is the most numerous section, and comprises, as a general rule,
the largest and most highly organized species in this order of insects,
though it also contains many small species.

They can be divided into six sub-sections, founded upon their habits
and the nature of their food, and distinguished primarily by the struc-

36 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

ture of their antennz; and these sub-sections are again naturally divi-
sible into a number of subordinate divisions or tribes. The following
table gives a synopsis of the sub-sections, tribes, and families of the
pentamerous beetles. The names given to these sub-sections are gen-
erally recognized, and in common use, except the first and the third.
The term jilicornes, though sufficiently characteristic of the predaceous
beetles as compared with others of the pentamerous section, does not
sharply distinguish them from some of the beetles of the other sections ;
and the term monilicornes, applied to the third sub-section—which is
composed chiefly of the family of Staphylinidz, though tolerably char-
acteristic, especially of the larger and typical species—is not ordinarily
applied to them, for the reason that the beetles of this division are more
readily and strongly distinguished by another character, namely, the
remarkable shortness of their wing-covers, expressed by the Greek term
brachelytra, by which they are generally designated, or the correspond-
ing Latin word brevipennes, which is sometimes, but less commonly
used.

SYNOPSIS OF THE PENTAMEROUS COLEOPTERA.

Sus-sEc. I Filicornes. Attenne filiform. Habits predaceous.
Tribe 1. Predaceous ground beetles. (Carnivora terrestria.)
GEODEPHAGA, Macleay.
Families: Cicindelide ; Carabidae.
Tribe 2. Predaceous water beetles. (Carnivora aquatica.) Hy-
DRADEPHAGA, MacLeay.
Families: Dytiscide; Gyrinide.

SuB-sec. II. Clavicornes. Antenne club-shaped. Habits mostly

putrivorous.
Tribe 3. Water scavanger-beetles. (Putrivora aquatica.)
PHILHYDRIDA, MacLeay.
Families: Parnide ; Hydrophilide.
Tribe 4. Land scavenger-beetles. (Putrivora terrestria.)
NECROPHAGA partly, Latreille.
Families: Silphide; Scaphidiide; Histeride; Nitudilida;
Dermestidz ; Mycetophagide ; Cryptophagide; Byrrhide; _
Anisotomide; Phalacride; Trichopterygidz ; Scydmenide ;
Trogositide ; Cucujide; Colydiid ; Lathridiide.

Sup-sEc. HI. Monilicornes. Antenne more or less moniliform
or bead-like; wing covers very short. Habits mostly pu-
trivorous.

Tribe 5. Short-winged scavengers. (Putrivora brevipennata.)
BRACHELYTRA, Latreille.
Families: Staphylinidx ; Pselaphidie.

PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLES. 37

SuB-SEc. IV. Pectinicornes. Antenne pectinate or comb-toothed
Tribe 6. Stag beetles.
Family: Lucanide.

SuB-sec. V. Lamellicornes. Antenne lamellate. Food-habits
different in the two tribes.
Tribe 7. Lamellicorn dung-beetles. (Hacrementivora lamellicor-
nid.) SAPROPHAGA, MacLeay.
Families: Coprid ; Aphodiide ; Geotrupide; Trogide.
Tribe 8. Lamellicorn leaf-beetles. (Herbivora lamellicornia.)
THALEROPHAGA, Macleay.
Families: Dynastide; Rutelide; Melolonthide ; Cetoniide.
Sus-SEc. VI. Serricornes. Antenne usually more or less ser-
rate or saw-toothed. Food-habits various.
Tribe 9. Saw-horned wood-beetles. (Lignivora serricornia.)
STERNOXI, Latreille.
Families: Buprestide; Elateride ; Cebrionide.
Tribe 10. Aberrant wood-beetles. (Lignivora aberrantia.)
Families: Ptinidse; Cupeside; Lymexylonide.
Tribe 11. Soft-winged predaceous beetles. (Carnivora mollipen-
nata.) MALACODERMI, Latreille.
Families: Lampyride; Melyride; Cleride.

First Sub-section, MTLICORNES.

Antenne filiform ; palpi apparently six; habits predaceous.

TRIBE I.

PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLES.

Carnivora terrestria. GEODEPHAGA,* Macleay.

This extensive tribe of beetles is distinguished by their slender and
filiform, or slightly tapering antenn, in connection with their five-
jointed tarsi or feet, all the joints always being distinct even in the
smallest species; by having apparently six palpi; and by the promi-
nence of their large egg-shaped posterior trochanters, which furnish a
very distinctive and easily recognized character, and which no other
coleopterous insects possess so conspicuously developed. (See Fig. 3, on
page 27.) No insects have strictly more than four palpi, and the appar-
ent additional pair which is peculiar to this and the following tribe, are
really the outer lobes of the maxille which are here palpiform. They
are almost exclusively carnivorous in their diet, and pre-eminently pre-
daceous in their habits, both in the larva and the perfect states. They

* From the Greek Yi] the earth, and adngayos ravenous,

38 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

subsist chiefly upon the larve of other insects, and are therefore useful
in helping to maintain a proper balance of insect life. As their name
implies, they are found mostly on the ground. They run with great ra-
pidity, and never attempt to seek safety by feigning death, as is the
habit with many of the leaf and fruit-eating beetles.

The tribe contains two families, distinguished as follows :

A. Head large and vertical, wider than the thorax ;* antenne inserted
on the front; eyes large and prominent; mandibles strongly
toothed; wing covers usually marked with yellow:

CICINDELID &.

A A. Head horizontal or a little inclined, usually narrower than the
thorax; antenne inserted under the sides of the front; eyes
moderate ; mandibles simple or slightly toothed; color usually
black ; sometimes blue, green or brown; very rarely spotted :

CARABID A.

Family I. CICINDELIDA, (Tiger-beetles.)

The Cicindelid are readily distinguished from all other pentamerous
beetles, by their large vertical heads; that is, their heads are so set
[Fig. 5.] upon the thorax that when viewed from above, only
the vertex or crown is distinctly seen, the face looking
directly forwards. In a few large species which vary
from the family type the head is not quite vertical, but
yet strongly inclined downwards.
The common English name of Tiger-beetles express-
es very well the character of these insects, and they
pee ln. nese may be said to represent in the insect tribes the tiger
2, larva—from Pack. AMOngst quadrupeds, and the hawk and eagle amongst
ard’s Guide. birds. They are the most highly organized and per-
fect of all coleopterous insects, and run and fly with equal facility. They
are often seen running in hot dusty roads. When pursued they fly
quickly, but usually alight again a rod or two in advance. About sev-
enty species have been described as inhabiting the United States, in-
cluding those found on the Pacific side of the continent.

* That part of the body of a beetle which, when viewed from above, lies between the head and the
base of the elytra, commonly called the thorax, is found upon dissection to be only the anterior section
or pro-thorax, which is here greatly developed; all of the meso-thorax, except the little triangular
piece called the scutellum, and the whole of the meta-thorax, being concealed under the basal portion
of the elytra. Many recent writers have, therefore, adopted for this part the name of pro-thorax, which
thus has the advantage of greater anatomical precision. The term thorax, on the other hand, has the
claim of brevity and of long established usage, and this brief explanation will relieve it of any ambi-
guity that might otherwise be attached to it.

PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLES. 39

Their larvee dig holes in the sand, often a foot or more in depth, at
the mouth of which they lie in wait for their prey, dragging it, when
[ Fig. 6. ] captured, to the bottom of their

burrows. The name of the prinei-
pal genus, Cicindela, is derived
from the Latin, Candela, a candle
or taper, and was applied by the

Pants OF CicINDELA:—1, head; 2, maxilla; 3, men- 2Clents to the glow-worm. The

tum ; 4, antenna; 5, anterior tersus—after LeConte, species are all of medium or rather
large size, and are generally marked with yellow angular spots upon a
dark green or purple ground. The Cicindela sexguttata of Fabricius,
of a brilliant metallic green color, with two yellow dots at the side, and
one at the end of each wing-cover, is one of our most beautiful beetles.
It is often seen running over prostrate logs in the forest, in search, no
doubt, for wood-eating larve.

Family II. CARABID, (Ground-beetles.)

The leading characters of this family have been given in the descrip-

tion of the tribe to which it belongs. They are readily distinguished
(Fig. 7.]

from the Cicindelidee by the position of the
head, it being directed forwards instead of
downwards, so that the face and parts of the
mouth are fully seen when viewed from

ae ee eee ee above. The two families, however, closely
2, maxilla; 3, mentum—after LeConte. approach each other in some of their species.

This is one of the most numerous families in the order of Coleoptera,
eleven hundred distinct species having been already described as in-
habiting North America alone. They are usually black, or of dark me-
tallic colors, but are sometimes parti-colored. They are almost always
found upon the ground, under stones, or in other obscure places. They
never attempt to escape by flight, but run with great rapidity. Some
of the smaller species, however, are seen flying in considerable numbers
in the first warm days of spring, and a few are sometimes seen flying
about our lights in summer evenings.

In view of the great numbers and predaceous habits of these insects,
both in the larva and perfect states, it is evident that they must consti-
tute a very important agency in holding in check the excessive multi-
plication of other insects. There are, however, a few exceptions to the
almost universally carnivorous habits of this family. Species of the
genera Omophron and Zabrus have been known to feed, even to an in-
jurious extent, upon the soft grains of growing corn, and M. Zimmer-
mann, in his memoir upon the genus Amara, states that the species

40 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

subsist mostly upon succulent roots, and upon the pith and stems of
grasses.

The larve are active grubs, of an elongated form, with sharp, project-
ing mandibles, and usually furnished at the hind extremity with a pair
of conical, bristly appendages. They live in the same obscure situations
as the parent insects, but are still more retiring, and are seldom seen.
They are very intolerant of confinement, and however well cared for,
they rarely live long enough to complete their transformations.

The Carabide constitute a very difficult study, on account of their
great numbers and the general uniformity of their coloring; and what
adds much to this difficulty is, that some of the most valuable charac-
ters used in their classification are peculiar to the male sex, and there-
fore afford us no aid, if the specimen in hand happens to be a female.
Nothing but the familiarity which is the result of long experience in the
study of these insects, can enable the student to recognize the slight
modifications of form by which the minor divisions are characterized.

Authors have differed much in the principal divisions which they have
made in this family, accordingly as they have assumed one or another
class of characters to be of primary importance. Linnzeus united all the
species which he knew in the single genus Carabus. Fabricius, and
others of the earlier authors, established many new genera, and Latreille
combined and systematized them in the Genera Crustaceorum et Insecto-
rum, and subsequently in the Regne Animal. This author divides the
Carabide into seven sections, based upon the forms of the elytra, feet
and palpi. Lacordaire, in his great work upon the Genera des Coleopteres,
following the method of Erichson, divides the family primarily into two
legions, founded upon the peculiarities of the tibie and of the epimera
of the metathorax; and these legions he subsequently divides into ten
sections, corresponding, in the main, with the sections of Latreille, with
three additional ones, to receive certain anomalous forms. Dr. J. L. Le-
Conte, the learned Coleopterist of our own country, originally divided
these insects, in his Notes upon the classification of the Carabide, pub-
lished in the tenth volume of the Transactions of the American Philo-
sophical Society, 1853, into three sub-families, founded upon the number
of abdominal segments and the form of the epimera of the mesothorax.
In his later work upon the classification of the Coleoptera of N. America,
(1860,) he abandons the number of abdominal segments as of primary
value, and divides the family into three sub-families, based upon the
form of the epimera of the mesothorax, and the relative position of the
intermediate cox.

Selecting from all these sources the characters which seem to be best
adapted to our purpose, we will divide the Carabidze into six sub-families,
as follows:

PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLES. AL

A. Epimera of the mesothorax wide and reaching the middle cox; epimera of
the metathorax indistinct. ;
B. Anterior tibiz quite or almost without notch on their inner side, and never

toothed on the outer side, both of their spurs at or near the extremity:
CARABIDES.

BB. Anterior tibie with a notch on the inner side, near the end, and toothed
on the outer side; one of the spurs at the end and the other above the

notch; abdomen pedunculated; size extremely various; color black:
SCARITIDES.

AA. Epimera of the mesothorax narrow, and not reaching the middle coxe; epim-
era of the metathorax distinct; anterior tibix always notched, with one spur
at the apex and the other above the notch; abdomen sessile.

C. Elytra truncated at the extremity, leaving the tip of the abdomen exposed ;
thorax more or less heart-shaped, and much narrower than the abdomen;
tarsi not at all or but slightly dilated; claws often pectinate; color
usually blue, green, or variegated, rarely brown or blackish, never pure
Da Lene bea sntvereia thosavehale orotate o chovctabe the eft a sicbsywusmlclavaie) stelcteyea! slePa Me BRACHINIDES.

CC. Elytra entire, covering the whole of the abdomen; anterior tarsi of the

males generally dilated; claws very rarely pectinate; colors various,
mostly black.

D. Last joint of the palpias wide, at least, as the others; size various, often
small, but rarely very small.

E. Anterior tarsi of the males with the three first joints much widened,
and covered beneath with a dense brush of hair-like papille; body
often hairy or pubescent; colors usually green or blue-black, some-
timés, but rarely, pure black ..........-s.+--0+--e-ee CHLANIIDES.

E E. Anterior and frequently also the middle tarsi, with the four or three,
or rarely two first joints dilated, and *usually furnished beneath
with two rows of scale-like papille, or more rarely with a brush of
hairs; body usually smooth and shining; colors mostly black
Gir 1s MO ne ostees pn bUcnas poco coeOUDOane puedo, boc HARPALIDES.

DD. Last joint of palpi very small; anterior tarsi of males usually with
the first joint much dilated, and the second much less so, and scaly
beneath; size small, usually very small..........---- BEMBIDIIDES.

The parts called epimera, made use of in the above table, will be un-
derstood by referring to Fig. 3, on page 27, where they are indicated
by stars, as explained in the text. In section A, the epimenon of the
mésothorax (indicated by two stars in the figure) is wide and ‘somewhat
triangular, and its inner extremity reaches the middle coxa, or rather
forms a part of the wall or outline of the coxal cavity. But in section
A A, (to which the species represented in the figure belongs) this epim-
eron is very narrow, and its inner extremity does not reach the coxal
cavity, but impinges upon the anterior angle of the metasternum.*

It is not necessary, however, that the reader shall study out these
parts. The several sub-families are sufficiently characterized without

* This is best represented, but still imperfectly, on the right hand side of the figure. The inner ex-
tremity of the epimeron should have been represented as touching the metasternum, not at its apex,

but a little behind it.
—6

42 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

them. They are introduced here as probably indicating the natural re-
lationship of the sub-families, and also because they form the basis of
Dr. LeConte’s classification of this family.

Sub-family CARABIDES.

This sub-family contains nearly all the large species in the family, the

_ [Fig. 8] principal exception being the genus Pasi- (Fig. 9.)

| machus, in the family of Scaritides. These \@
large species, constituting the Carabides pro-
per, are distinguished from all the rest of the |
family by the absence of the characteristic
, notch on the inner side of the anterior tibiz,
: . near the extremity, and by having the two
" tibial spurs situated at the apex. All the
other Carabidee have a conspicuous notch in a
TCD at IE this part, and one of the spurs is inserted CALIDUM

Beetle—after Riley. above the notch. The anterior tarsi of the _ Riley.
males are usually dilated, and spongy beneath. The palpi terminate in
a large triangular joint, and this sub-family was therefore called, by
Latreille, Grandipalpi. This division of the sub-family embraces the
genera Carabus, Calosoma and Cychrus. The Calosoma calidum, a large
black beetle, an inch in length, with three rows of golden dots upon each
wing-cover, is one of the most common of the larger Carabides. This is
the species illustrated at figs. 8 and 9.

But besides these large insects, a number of genera, composed of small
and very different species, are usually included in this sub-family, in
order to avoid a large number of primary divisions. This section con-
tains the genera Elaphrus, Notiophilus and Omophron, all of which are
usually found in wet situations. Hlaphrus ruscarvus, resembling a small
Cicindela of an ashen bronze color, and with round pits upon the wing-
covers, is often found in abundance running upon the wet sand along
the margins of water-courses. Notiophilas is composed of small bronze-
black species, not exceeding a quarter of an inch in length, and distin-
guished from the small species in the other sub-families by their large
prominent eyes, giving to the head a width greater than that of the tho-
rax. Omophron is an extremely anomalous genus, resembling a Cocci-
nella or a Cassida much more than a Carabus. The species are rare in
the northern States, but Omophron labiatum is common at the South,
where its larve are said to depart from the ordinary carnivorous habits
of the family, by feeding upon the grains of growing corn.

The most prominent characters of the leading N. A. genera are exhi-
bited in the following table:

va J RN
SY
Pai )iie
PN)

My

# ‘we
: \\, ty iN Y pap

PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLES. 43

A. Body of the usual oblong form; meso-sternum and scutellum distinct.
B. Thorax with a sharp lateral margin ; tibiz without notch; last joint of palpi large and tri-
angular; eyes moderate, size usually large.
C. Size large; elytra with numerous striz.

‘ D. Head of ordinary form; epipleura narrow. *
E. Third joint of the antenne cylindrical; color mostly black.........------- CARABUS, 11.
EE. Third joint of antennz flattened; body with rich metallic tints.....-.. CALOSOMA, 21.
DIDS eHeadmarrow, ; epiplenrs: very) Wid Os.. <3. cena s eon lees eee CYCHRUS, 25.
CC. Size medium or below; elytral striw not exceeding nine; color black.......--- NEBRIA, 18.

BB. Thorax without a sharp lateral margin; tibia with a small notch and with one of the
spurs at a distance from the apex; last joint of palpi moderate; eyes very large; size

small.
F. Thorax almost cylindrical, without salient margin, and much narrower than the ab-
domen:; ‘elytra withround shallow) pits: 4252. <4. 2s.cess2-es-sen- ELAPHRUS, 10.
FF. Thorax depressed with an obtuse margin, nearly as wide as abdomen; color
BROW ACS DIAG. cco eo. oa ee CON eas a treet ee a ee enter e NOTIOPHILUS, 8.
A A. Body almost orbicular; mesosternum covered by the prosternum; scutellum wanting; colors
WERlOP PROG 33 Foo) ocicistee oaieielie sk nigs Seng Sascinclots camate Joisiteiaine <ieeeees OMOPHRON, 9.

Sub-family SCARITIDES.

The most conspicuous character of this sub-family is the peduncu-
lated abdomen, producing a separation between it and the thorax,
(Fig. 10.1} whence this section was called Bipartitt by Latreille. But
the most essential and unexceptional character is the form
of the anterior tibe, which are widened and flattened,
and toothed on the outer side, and with the outer angle
prolonged into a long point. This structure enables these
[ sects to dig in the earth, a habit expressed by the name
, of the typical genus Scarites of Fabricius, meaning a
\ SY * seratcher. The sub-family is also remarkable for the ex-
Scars (Aspur treme disparity in the size of its species, Pasimachus
ClandoitefeRileybeing usually an inch or more in length, and Dyschirius
less than an eighth. The anterior tarsi of the males are very rarely,
and then but slightly dilated.

A. First joint of antenne elongated. Size comparatively large.
B. Thorax with the hind angles prominent. Size large, or very large. Elytra usually with

Line hit Ge Spee eB ee OB EeReee oe DROS GUC EES ERROR = Serb oCCOD Cr on hOr once, (Cor PAsIMACHUs, 14
BB. Thorax rounded behind. Size medium, or above......-...--------.---.--------- SCARITES, 3
A A. First joint of antennz moderate. Size small, or very small.
C. Thorax somewhat square-shaped ; abdomen elongate and depressed. ....-....---- CLIVINA, 35
CC. Thorax sub-globose: abdomen ovoid. .-...-..----------------------+------- DyscHIrIus, 38

Pasimachus is an exclusively North American genus. The P. margi-
natus of Bonelli, and the P. elongatus, LeConte, are common insects,
usually found under stones or old logs. Dr. LeConte has given some
interesting details of the habits of the larva of P. elongatus, which
digs a deep hole in the ground, resting with its head at the entrance,
and springing upon any prey that may come within its reach, thus re-
sembling in its habits the larve of Cicindela.

* The epipleura is the margin of the wing-cover which is bent abruptly downwards, and covers the
side of the abdomen.

44 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Sub-family BRACHINIDES.

This sub-family corresponds to the section of Truncatipennes of La-
treille. The elytra are cut off at the extremity, either straight across,
or obliquely, leaving the tip of the abdomen exposed. One of the most

[Fig.l] conspicuous general characters is the marked difference in

size, and often also in color, between the thorax and the ab-
domen, the thorax being usually scarcely wider than the
head. The beautiful pectinate claws at the end of the tarsi,
so common in this sub-family, are not found outside of it in
: any of our Carabidae, except the genus Calathus, in the sub-
Lavra Grane’, family of Harpalides. Other characters have been given in

Riley. the tabular view of sub-families. Most of the species are
extremely active. Some are found under stones, but those with pecti-
nate claws are often seen upon plants and flowers, this structure of their
feet probably enabling them to adhere to the hairs or down, or other
inequalities upon the surface of the foliage.

The typical genus Brachinus (from the Greek Bpaya, to resound,) is
remarkable for the faculty which the species have of discharging from
the anus a pungent, volatile vapor, accompanied by an audible report,
whence they have been denominated bombardiers by the French.

A. Antenne filiform or setaceous. Abdomen more or less oval. Legs slender.
B. Thorax more or less heart-shaped, as wide as the head, and with a sharp lateral margin.
C. Antennz setaceous, first joint as long as second and third united; the second nearly as
long as the third. Form oblong; size rather large; thorax reddish, and elytra blue or
FLO VCL ete Siku ae a ella IK Spa ala elie hh A En = eth 9 oe RE i SR Rc a CAE GALERITA, 5 sp.
CC. Antenne filiform, first joint moderate, second much shorter than the third.
D. Tarsal claws simple. Abdominal segments seven or eight. Color reddish yellow, with
WIIG mee oer seaes coco sae sacs Seen ener cone Ree eel ieee ts BRACHINUS, 38
DD. Tarsal claws pectinate. Abdominal segments six. Colors various.
E. Palpi slender. Thorax sub-orbicular or sub-quadrate.
F. Thorax roundish, wider than long; abdomen broad oval; colors usually bright and
SV, SUTTE@ OG Carat rafal =m arte a oe ee at LEBIA, 32
FF. Thorax squarish, longer than wide; abdomen oblong-oval; color blackish:
Dromtius, 13
EE. Labial palpi ending in a widened hatchet-shaped joint. Thorax heart-shaped; abdo-
men oblong-oval.

Ge, Body /glabrous: 4 Colors hrillianteot2t 2.25 33a s eer ces came eseen ee CALLEIDA, 11
G.G., Body more.or less hairy. Colorsobscure...-25-.225..<%-sc-s2cc-cs- CYMINDIs, 23

BB. Thorax elongate and slender, much narrower than the head, and without a lateral margin.
Claws simple.
H. Thorax spindle-shaped. Abdomen oval, convex, tarsi simple. Colors black
BNO NOM ae sot seen ose eh ee eda ceee eo Re Emre oo CASNONTA, 2
HH. Thorax nearly parallel; abdomen oblong, parallel, and depressed ; penultimate
joint of tarsi deeply bilobed. Elytra not truncated. Color brownish:
LEPTOTRACHELUS, 1
A A. Antenne robust, sub-moniliform, and somewhat widened and compressed towards the tip.
Body elongated, parallel and depressed. Legs rather short and robust. Color brown:
HeLLUOMORPHA, 6

Galerita janus, Fab., is a fine and not uncommon species. The head
is black; thorax and legs reddish-yellow, and elytra indigo-blue.
Brachinus fumans, Fab., nearly half an inch in length, with indigo

PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLES. 45

wing-covers, and all the other parts reddish-yellow ; and several similar
smaller species, which seem to pass insensibly into each other, are often
found in colonies under stones in dry places. Lebia contains many
prettily colored species, mostly a quarter of an inch or less in length.
Lebia grandis, Hentz (Fig. 11), upwards of a third of an inch long, colored
much like a Brachinus, is our largest species. This is one of the pre-
dacious insects which have been seen to devour the larvee of the Colo-
rado potato-beetle. The species of Lebia are sometimes found on low
or herbaceous plants, and sometimes running up the trunks of trees in
search for their minute insect prey.

The genera Dromius, meaning a runner, and Calleida, meaning beau-
tiful, have similar habits. Cymindis is found under stones. Casnonia
pennsylvanica, an elegant little insect, quarter of an inch long, and re-
markable for its slender spindle-shaped thorax, is usually seen running
upon the ground. The head and thorax are black, and the elytra red,
with two black bands. It is not a very rare species.

Leptotrachelus also, as its name implies, has a slender thorax, of about
the same width throughout. This genus is usually classed in this sub-
family, or near it, but it is exceptional in having the elytra entire and
completely covering the abdomen.

Helluwomorpha, of which we have several species, and the allied genus
Morio, of which we have but one Southern species, differ from all our
other Carabideous insects, in having the antenne stout and almost
bead-like, and either enlarged or strongly compressed toward the tip.

Sub-family CHLANITDES.

The distinetive character of the Chleeniides consists in the structure
of the anterior tarsi of the males, which have the three first joints
widened, and furnished beneath with crowded points, or hair-like papillee

(Fig. 12] all of the same length so as to
resemble a brush. These
joints are usually more or less
’ rounded at the corners, bear-
ing a fanciful resemblance to
the patella or knee-pan, which
suggested to Latreille the
name Patellimani, by which
he designated this sub-family;
mani, Ieaning hands, a term
whichis sometimes applied by
>] ~ ; ~ 3- bY By By
CHLENIUS PENNSYLVANICUS, Say :—a, male beetle; c, front entomologists to the fore meet
tarsus of female; d, front tarsus of male, showing the of beetles, because they are of-
widened and rounded or patelliform joints ; e, underside of ;
same, showing the brush-like surface—after Riley: 0, lar- ten constructed and used dif-
va of CHLaNIUS—after Chapuis and Candéze.
ferently from the others. But

46 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

apart from this sexual, and therefore often unavailable character, the
Chleniides can usually be distinguished from the Carabides proper by
the presence of the tibial notch, and by their smaller size and more
varied colors; from the Scaritides by the absence of the gap between
the thorax and the elytra; from the Brachinides by the thorax and ab-
domen never being of contrasted colors, and by their simple claws ; and
from the Harpalides by their usually lighter colors and silken surface.
But a considerable number of species which are black and hairless, like
the Harpalides, are included with the Chleniides proper on account of
the structure of their feet. Butthese we shall explain more particularly
in our references to particular genera.

In a strictly scientific point of view, the Chleniides can scarcely be
regarded as forming a sub-family distinct from the Harpalides, but it is
a matter of convenience, in practice, to subdivide very extensive groups.
If we regarded structural considerations alone, a large proportion of the
Carabids would have to be united in one great division, whilst certain
anomalous genera such as Omophron, Ozena, Morio, and a few others,
would really constitute the types of distinct sub-families.

A. Body hirsute; head ‘attached by a'short neck; abdomen pedunculated; size below medium;
colors varied with fulvous/and black.s:--2..22sinesceemeeee-eeee eo eeeeaee ee PANAGAZUS, 3 sp.
A A. Body finely pubescent; head without neck; abdomen sessile; thorax narrower than abdo-
men; size about medium ; colors mostly green or blue-black..-.-..---.--.---- CHLANIUS, 35.
A A A. Body glabrous; thorax nearly or quite as wide as abdomen; size medium or above; color
black.

B. Body elongated or elliptical; anterior angles of the thorax advanced; elytra carinated near the
margin; color black, usually with rich violet or metallic tints------ Tee ehetecke Dic& Lvs, 21.

BB. Boy oval; thorax and elytra, ordinary color black.
C. Head broad, and obtuse; thorax a little narrower at base than elytra; mentum without
toothte ess dat aee oc to ete ee het aes less ae ee Ae eee oe eee DIPLocHeEILa, 3.
CC. Head small and pointed; thorax as wide at base as elytra; mentum toothed. --.. OODES, 8.
A AAA. Body glabrous; thorax small; size small; color light red with black spots..BAbIsTER, 8.

Panageus contains two N. A. species, the crucigerus and fasciatus of
Say, both of which are rare. The generic name means holy, in allusion
to the arrangement of the spots on the elytra, in the typical species,
somewhat in the form of a cross. Chlenius contains many species, one
of the largest, most beautiful, and commonest of which is the Chlenius
sericeus of Forst. (fig. 12), a fine green insect, with yellow legs, and clothed,
like the rest of the species, with a microscopically fine silken down, or
pubescence, which can scarcely be seen directly from above, but which
is quite distinct when viewed side-ways, with the aid of alens. Dicelus
(two-pitted, in allusion to the hollows on the thorax) contains a number
of rather rare beetles, some of which are pure black, but most of them
are very richly tinted. They can be distinguished from the black Har-
palides by their more elongated form, and more particularly by the
Shape of their thorax, which is almost square, with its anterior angles
advanced, and considerably turned up at the sides.

PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLES. AT

The next two genera resemble still more closely some of the Harpali-
des, but the structure of the fore-feet of the males places them in the
present sub-family. They are easily distinguished, however, from the
great majority of the Harpalides, by having the thorax nearly or quite
as wide at base as the elytra. .

The meaning of the generic name Oodes, is, resembling the letter O, the
species being of a regular oval form, and the thorax and elytra being of
precisely the same width and closely applied to each other. ' In this re-
spect they resemble the genus Amara among the Harpalides. The genus
Badister, meaning a fast walker, is composed of a small number of pretty
little glossy reddish beetles, spotted with black, a style of coloration in
strong contrast with the usually dark colors of the Carabid.

Sub-family HARPALIDES.

The Harpalides, as here defined, embrace a very extensive group of
beetles, not much inferior in numbers to all the other sub-families com-
[Fig. 13.] bined; and as they are most-
ly of black or dark metallic
colors, and as their size is for
= the most part limited in its
AD) ja range from a quarter of an
SUPPOSED LARVA OF Harpatus (in the act of devouring a ne ue ee ee TH lhe at
Cureculio larva) :—B, headseen from beneath; j, 7, h, marks all inch in length, and when
on under side of abdominal segments, becoming fewer to- : =
wards the tip—after Walsh. we add to this that their
most distinctive characters are restricted to the male sex, some idea can
be formed of the difficulty of classifying them, or of referring any par-
[Fig. 14] ticular species to its proper location. Their
distinctive character lies in the structure of the
tarsi of the males, which often have both the
anterior and middle tarsi dilated, and instead
of having a uniform brush upon the under side,
they are furnished with two rows of little
transverse plates, or scale-like papillae, and the
hairs which border the sides of the tarsi are
usually coarser, or more bristly than they are
HARPALUS PENNSYLVANICUS, Dein the Chlieeniides; and the angles of the dilated

Geer :—The side figure exhibits

ue Bee ibe waives sew joints are more prominent. The first section,

ing the two rows of scale-like AT a ; 2t4]j a “2
pepillés, Near the end of the DOWeVEL, OF Anisodactili, have the tarsi brushed

tibia is also seen the notch, so , ix nit i
tibia is also seen the notch, &° underneath like the Chieniides, but differ from

tibia of the Carabidez, with one 7 =o = , rsi as Ww las th
ari uniiienacelat ito. anper elena 1m having the middle tarsi as well as the

rele ever Tiley: anterior ones dilated; and they moreever har-
monize better with the Harpalides in their general aspect.

48 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

4. Anterior and middle tarsi of the males with the four first joints dilated.
A. The dilated joints brush-like beneath.
B. Tarsi of the males only dilated; first joint not larger than the others; size never much below

medium ; color often inclining to brown. --.---..2--2-...2-02-----2+2--= ANISODACTYLUS, 37.
BB. Tarsi of both sexes dilated; first joint much larger than the others; size small; color
mos bly blaGK 6 <e. et cceb ee oper nies oe ee eee es I ee es GYNANDROPUS, 2.

A A. The dilated joints scaly beneath.
C. Mentum usually with a small'median tooth; thorax sub-quadrate ; tarsi not bilobed; size

usually about medium ; color black, rarely dark brown or green ......--- HARPALUS, 54.
CC. Mentum without tooth; thorax rounded ; the last of the dilated joints deeply bilobed ;
size small; color usually wholly or in part light reddish-brown. .-..--- STENOLOPHUS, 24.

2. Anterior tarsiof males with four dilated joints, which are scaly beneath ; middle tarsi not dilated ;

mentum toothed; size and color like Stenolophus ; thorax somewhat square-shaped:
BRADYCELLUS, 26.

3. Anterior tarsi of the males with the three first joints dilated and scaly beneath; middle tarsi
not dilated ; size about medium or below.
D. Anterior tibie rather stout and thickened at the tip.
E. Body more or less elongated; thorax narrower at base than elytra; size various;

Color mostly ap OLeUD aC Kets see ene ee ae ae ieee ne eee PTEROSTICHUS, 89.

EE. Body elliptical; thorax nearly as wide at base as elytra; three first joints of anten-

née carinated; size medium; colors metallic..-......--.-..-..--.2:-+- Paci.us, 13.

EEE. Body oval; thorax wider than long, and as wide at base as elytra; head small;

‘ color Diack or‘blackishy #55! cee rae serckee see cece ceeme seer ee eee AMARA, 38.
DD. Anterior tibiz slender and scarcely thickened at the tip.

EF. Claws pectinate; tibie strongly spinous .......'.-..-2---+-.-s+---255-- CALATHUS, 11.

KF. Claws simple; tibiz not strongly spinous; size usually below medium; often

With metallic: tints! loses cee eae eee ah ee Seems Sees PLATYNUsS, $6.

A. Anterior tarsi of males with the two first joints dilated, and scaly beneath.
G. Palpi not acuminate; thorax heart-shaped; size medium or below; color almost

DURA psysi eboney CLG 6 Go 26 cae ash oeescs cea Seeoeosecaor ee aogssoue sec PATROBUS, 14.
GG. Palpi ending in along pointed joint; thorax various; size small; color usually
TiN PLO Wis alm teres ee re ie eileen alata etetncn Stet Bre tre fe ee TRECHUS, 6.

5. None of the tarsi dilated; head rather broad and not narrowed behind the eyes; size various;
color brownish.

H. Anterior tibize abruptly widened at the extremity; size large...... GEOPINUS, 1.

HH. ‘Anterior tibiz normal’; size small. .- 22-22. .-2225.scecc sone AGONODERUS, 10.

Anisodactylus baltimoriensis, Say, nearly half an inch long, with red-
dish-brown elytra, and pale legs, is a very common insect, and is often
seen flying in considerable numbers in the first hot days of spring. We
have a considerable number of small, active, shining light-brown Cara-
bide, generally less than a quarter of an inch in length, which belong
mostly to the three genera, Stenolophus, Bradycellus and Trechus. The
second are distinguished from the first, in addition to the structure of
the feet of the males, by the thorax having distinct angles behind, whilst
it is rounded in Stenolophus. The distinctive character of Trechus is the
form of the palpi, the last joint being elongate, conical and pointed, and
the joint before it being somewhat similar, but reversed, so that the two
taken together form a fusiform or spindle-shaped body. SPterostichus,
Bonelli, is now substituted for Feronia, Latreille, on account of the lat-
ter term having been previously used in botany. It contains a vast
assemblage of species which have been divided into various sub-genera,
but without any fixed distinctive characters. We have already spoken
of the close resemblance between Amara and Oodes in the preceding sub-
family. The males are distinguished by the structure of their feet, but

oa

PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLES. 49

the females are scarcely distinguishable. The tooth of the mentum is
usually simple in Oodes and bifid in Amara, but even this character is
not invariable. The remark made of Pterostichus will apply to Platynus.
Calathus is peculiar in this sub-family for its pectinated claws, and in
accordance with this structure its species are often seen on the trunks
of standing trees, or under the scales of bark, sometimes in company
with Dromius and Lebia. C. gregarious, Say, is not uncommon. Geopi-
nus incrassatus, Dejean, has been found in loose soil several feet below
the surface. Agonoderus pallipes, Fab., is one of our most common in-
sects. It is often attracted into houses by the Jamps, in summer even-,
ings. The other species of this genus are rare.

The following are the literal meanings of the foregoing generic terms:

Anisodactylus—having dissimilar feet.

Gynandropus—male and female feet, referring to the widening of the
tarsi in both sexes.

Harpalus—ravenous.

Stenolophus—having a narrow neck or thorax.

Bradycellus—slow-footed.

Pecilus—changeable, alluding to their metallic colors, changing in dif-
ferent lights.

Calathus—a wicker basket, probably referring to their comb-toothed
claws.

Platynus—depressed.

Trechus—a runner.

The origin of the terms Amara and Patrobus, is not apparent.

Sub-family BEMBIDIIDES.

This sub-family is composed exclusively of very small species, varying
from a twentieth to a little more than a quarter of an inch in length.
Their distinctive character consists in the form of the palpi, the last
joint being very small and acicular, the contrast being made the more
striking by the preceding joint being unusually large and swollen. The
species are numerous, upwards of one hundred and forty North Ameri-
can species having been described, arranged in many sections or sub-
genera. They are almost all of a shining black color, but often exhibit
beautiful brown or green reflections. They are extremely agile in their
motions. A few of the smaller species are found under the bark of de-
cayed trees, but the great majority inhabit wet places. Mr. Haliday,
an accurate English entomologist, relates that some of the species which
frequent the sea-shore permit themselves to be submerged by the waves,

—7

50 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Tribe I.
PREDACEOUS WATER-BEETLES.

Carnivora aquatica, HYDRADEPHAGA,* Macleay.

These insects are distinguished from those of the first tribe by their
feet being fitted for swimming, the two hinder pairs being much flat-
tened and margined with long hairs or ciliz.

This tribe contains two families.

A. Antenne slender, filiform; hind legs long, and attached to the
breast far behind the other two pairs.-........-.--. DyYTISCID A.

A A, Antenne very short and peculiar; the three pairs of legs attached
at nearly equal distances from each other; middle and hind

oes Very: SHORE LISA: Yeh UTS AEEE Maya eee GYRINID #%.

Family III. DYTISCIDA:.

This family is founded upon the genus Dytiscus, of Linnzus, derived
from a Greek word meaning a diver, and given to these insects on ac-
(Fig. 15.] } count of their eminently

| aquatic habits. They are of

an oval and somewhat flat-
tened form, and of a brown-
ish-black color, generally
with a dull glaucous or sea-
green tint. In some species
the thorax is dull yellow,
either with or without black
- cross-bars. One of their
most distinctive and easily
recognized characters is the
position of the middle legs
close to the anterior ones,
leaving an unusually long
Dytiscus :—a, larva of D. marginalis devouring a larva of BPBee between the middle
Ephemera—after Reesel: b, pupa of same—after Rye: ¢, D. and the hind legs. These

Jasciventris, Say, the detached figure on the right showing | ‘
the grooved elytron of the female; d, the anterior tarsus of jnsects are eminently aqua-

the male, under side, showing the suetion cups; e, same of
female—after Riley. tic and predaceous, and may
be supposed to represent the sharks and other ferocious aquatie ani-
mals of the higher classes. :
They have sometimes been found very troublesome in artificial fish-

ponds, attacking the young gold and silver fishes and eating off their

es ee ere re ee ee ha PS A ea
* From the Greek hudor—water ; and adephagos—ravenous.

PREDACEOUS WATER-BEETLES. 51

fins. The larve leave the water and make little cavities in the earth,

when about to transform. Two hundred and thirty North American

species have been described, arranged, for the most part, in the fol-
lowing genera:

A. Antenne 10-jointed; hind coxal plates greatly dilated, so as to cover half of the abdomen; legs
slightly natatorial; size small; form somewhat pointed before and behind; color yellowish
SPOULCORWLUDSDIACKISI fan oc.ccenicwch oe aeae alee naan Se eects = meSas Cocco ace ener HAuipuus, 15.

A A. Antenniw 11-jointed; coxal plates obsolete ; legs strongly natatorial.

B. ‘Larsi distinetly 5-jointed, not bilobed ; scutellum distinet (except in Laccophilus).
C. Anterior tarsi of males widened and forming a rounded disk with cups beneath of very un-
equal size; generally large or medium-sized insects.

D. Hind tarsi with one claw ; size very large, exceeding an inch in length. .-.....CYBISTER, 3.
DD. Hind tarsi with two claws.
EH. Claws equal, or nearly so; size large, or very large .---.........------.----- Dytiscus, 11.
EE. Claws unequal. ;
FE: Body oval, depressed; size about medium.........--.2..-..-2-----cesses-e- ACILIus, 6.
FF. Body elliptical ; convex; size below the medium.-.....--...-.--------- Hypbaticus, 9.

CC. Anterior tarsi of males widened, with the joints oblong and with cups of about equal size;
size usually below medium.
G. Seutellum distinct; length between a quarter and a half of an inch.
Hi.’ Hind’ claws unequal’; form less! convex.-.:........00....2--4-<- COLYMBETES, 25.
Hi H.. ‘Hind claxvs.equal ; formmore convex :=.22.).-2-..---225-s-42--+444 AGABUS, 47.
GG. Scutel wanting; hind legs stout, compressed; length quarter of an inch or less:
LACCOPHILUS, 9.
BB. Tarsi apparently 4-jointed; third joint bilobed; scutellum wanting; size very small:
HYDROPORUS, 91.

Family IV. GYRINID.

Founded upon the genus Gyrinus, a name derived from a Greek word
meaning a circle, and given to these insects on account of their habit of
pt swimming round in little circles upon the surface of
the water. The antenne are very short and peculiar,
and of the form called auriculate. The second joint
is large and ear shaped, and the following ones form
a short spindle-shaped mass. They are inserted in a
little cavity in front of the eyes. The middle and
hind legs are very short, scarcely reaching beyond the
sides of the body, and very broad and flat like little
plates. These insects are of a medium or small size,
Gyrinus:—1, beetle; of a shining blue-black color, and are often seen in
2, larva—atter Packard. qonse flocks playing and gyrating upon the surface of
still water. Number of N. A. species, thirty-seven.

52 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Second Sub-section, CIAVICORNES.

Antenne club-shaped. _ Subsist mostly upon decaying animal or vegetable substances.
TRIBE ITT.
WATER SCAVENGER-BEETLES.

Putrivora aquatica, PHILHYDRIDA,* Macleay.

This tribe commences the series of beetles with clubbed antenna, a
character which at once distinguishes the insects of this tribe from the
predaceous water-beetles, with which they might otherwise be confounded
on account of their aquatic habits and similarity of form. This tribe is
composed of two very distinct sub-tribes.

Sub-tribe 1. Macrodactyla, Latreille. . Legs not fitted for swimming.
Last joint of the tarsi very long, often as long as all the others united,
and for this reason called Macrodactyla, which means long-toed. Palpi
of ordinary length. Antenne moderately clavate. Body clothed with
silken hairs. Family, Parnide.

Sub-tribe 2. Palpicornes, Latreille. Legs fitted for swimming (except
the Spheridiide). Palpi very long, usually longer than the antenne.
Antenne strongly clavate. Body glabrous.

These insects feed upon decomposing matter in water, and are one of
the agencies which prevent water from becoming offensive in a state of
nature. But some of them have been observed to be carnivorous in the
larva state.

The first sub-tribe are semi-aquatic, being found in mud, or adhering
to stones under water by means of their stout claws. The secoud sub-
tribe (except the Spheeridiide) are purely aquatic, but less rapid in their
motions than the predaceous water-beetles. Each of the sub-tribes is
represented by one principal family, the Parnidie representing the first
division and the Hydrophilide the second.

Family V. PARNIDA.

These are small sub-aquatic insects which have been sufficiently charac-
terized above. The family is composed of three leading genera. Parnus,
Fab., having the antenne enlarged at base and at tip, and the hind cox
dilated into a plate for the protection of the thighs; Hlmis, Latr., with
the antenn almost filiform, and the hind coxe not dilated ; and Hete-
rocerus, Fab., with the antennz much like Parnus, but the mouth organs
are more strongly developed, and the anterior and middle tibiw are
widened and armed with spines on the outer edge, by which they are
enabled to burrow in the wet sand which they and their larve inhabit.

*From the Greek phileo—to love ; and hudor—water.

WATER SCAVENGER-BEETLES. 53

The last genus is regarded by many as constituting the type of a
small family distinct from the Parnide. Most of these imperfectly
aquatic insects are clothed with fine silken hairs which seem to have
the property of shedding the water, and of enabling the insect to sur-
round its body with a globule of air whilst clinging to the stones be-
neath the surface; whereas the purely aquatic beetles, the Dytiscide,
the Gyrinidz and the Hydrophilide, which have the faculty of swim-
ming and of rising to the surface of the water whenever they need a
fresh supply of air, have no such clothing. Forty-eight N. A. species
are known. A synopsis of the Parnide of the United States is given
by Dr. Geo. H. Horn in the 3d. vol. of the Tran. Am. Ent. Society.

Family VI. HYDROPHILID 2.

|Fig. 17.]

Hypropuiius:—a, larva of H. piceus, Linn.; e, egg-ease; d, same opened showing arrangement of
eggs; c, pupa—after Blanchard: b, H. triangularis, Say., natural size; f, antenna; g, anterior tarsus of
female; h, same of male; all magnified ; 7, side view of the sternal spine—after Riley.

This family is named from the genus Hydrophilus, a word of Greek
composition meaning a lover of water. They constitute a somewhat ex-
tensive series of water-beetles, but less numerous and less eminently
aquatic than the Dytiscide. In swimming they move the hind legs
alternately, whilst the Dytiscide strike with them both together like a
frog. Both of these families contain both large and small species, the
largest being an inch and a half in length. Many of the larger species
of Hydrophilidze have the sternum or breast bone in the form of a keel,
and prolonged posteriorly to a sharp point. They are essentially dis-
tinguished from the predaceous water-beetles by their short clavate an-
tenn and their long palpi, which are usually longer than the antenna,
and are carried projecting forwards whilst swimming. The larvee of
Hydrophilus are predaceous. The names of one hundred and twenty-
two N. A. species are given in Dr. LeConte’s catalogue, inclusive of
twenty-one species of the small sub-family of Spheeridiides.

54 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA. ;

A. Middle and hind tarsi with the first four joints short; the last often as long as all the others;

body oblong ; thorax furrowed, and narrower than the elytra; size small.-_.-- HELOPHORUS.

AA. Middle and hind tarsi with second joint elongated, first very short; body oval; thorax as
wide at base as elytra.

B. Metasternum keeled and prolonged backward into a sharp spine; tarsi flattened; size large

OL VOLY alge: oo abe setae e Sen meecee eee ee ee clot ae ea Se Rte a eae Re HYDROPHILUS.

BB. Metasternum not prolonged; tarsi not compressed ; size small or very small.
C.- Hind tibize and tarsi ciliate; scutellum elongated. .......................--.------ 3EROSUS.
CC. Hind tibiz and tarsi not ciliate; scutellum regularly triangular --___--.-.-._-- HYpROBIUB.
AAA. Middle and hind tarsi with the first joint elongated ; body short and sub-globular; size very
small; notaguatic. found wnucow,-dane: - <<. senses cee eee - oes oes cee ee SPHG:RLDIUM.

TRIBE IV.
LAND SCAVENGER-BEETLES.
Putrivora terrestria, NECROPHAGA partly, Latreille.

This tribe embraces an extensive series of useful scavengers, whose
office it is to hasten the decomposition and removal of dead organic
matter. The typical species are found upon dead animals or other de-
composing animal substances. Some of the smaller species are found
under the bark of dead trees; whilst others feed upon fungi, especially
those which grow upon decaying trees. The only other insects which
can be compared with these in usefulness as scavengers, is the extensive
family of Muscide, in the two-winged flies. It is interesting to observe
the order in which these various tribes of scavenger insects perform their
respective parts. First come the Muscide, which, in the form of carrion
flies, deposit their eggs or /ly-blows upon dead animal matter at the
first moment of decay, and, in very hot weather, almost immediately
after life has ceased. Soon after these come the carrion-beetles, the
Silph and Necrophori, whose larve, like the maggots of the flesh-flies,
are seen revelling in the putrescent matter at the most offensive stage
of decomposition. When the softer parts have been devoured and only
the osseous and ligamentary portions remain, other families of scaven-
gers succeed, namely : the skin-beetles, Dermestide, and the bone-beetles,
Necrobii and Nitidule, which adhere to the dried carcass as long as any
vestige of animal matter remains.

The scavenger-beetles, with a few exceptions, are readily distinguished
from the other pentamerous Coleoptera by the form of their antennze,
which, in the great majority, are strongly clavate, and sometimes capitate
or knobbed.

The number of joints in the tarsi are much more variable in this than
any other tribeor section; and though the larger species very uniformly
possess five joints in all the tarsi, in many of the very small species one
of the joints, especially in the posterior tarsi, is either rudimental or
wanting. The place of these insects in the system has to be determined
therefore by the examination and collection of their other characters.*

*See suggestions on pages 30 to 34.

LAND SCAVENGER-BEETLES. 55

Indeed, in some of the families which are usually classed with the pen-
tamerous clavicorns, bothof the leading characters, the clubbed antenne
and the five-jointed tarsi, either partially or wholly fail. Some of these
insects also depart widely in their habits from the scavengers proper,
and might therefore very properly be separated as a tribe by themselves
were it not for the absence of any very strongly marked community of
characters. In order to guard against mistake we have thought it best
to throw these exceptional families ase as a sub-tribe, under the
title of sub-clavicornes.

The tribe of land-scavengers may therefore be divided into two sub-
tribes differing very considerably from each other, both in structure and
habits, and which may be distinguished as follows:

Ist Sub-tribe.—Clavicornes, proper. Body more or less oval; antennze
clavate or capitate ; usually three, sometimes more than three joints in
the club; usually five joints in all the tarsi, or, at least, in the anterior
ones; subsist mostly upon animal or vegetable substances, in a state of
decay. This division includes the families Silphidz, Scaphidiide, His-
teridx, Nitidulide, Dermestide, Mycetophagide, Cryptophagide,
Byrrhide, Anisotomide, Phalacride, Trichopterigide and Scydmenid.

2d Sub-tribe.—Sub-clavicornes. Body more or less elongated; anten-
nie almost filiform, or granose, or moderately and loosely clavate, some-
times with less than three joints in the club; tarsi, in many, less than
five-jointed. Found mostly under the bark of dead trees. They never
feed upon dead animal matter, but recent observations show that many
of them are carnivorous or vermivorous, at least in their larva state,
preying upon the soft larve of the wood and bark-eating insects.
Composed of the families Trogositide, Cucujide, Colydiidee and Lath-
ridiide.

FAMILIES OF LAND-SCAVENGERS

Sub-tribe Ist. CLAVICORNES.

A. Body oval or elliptical; antenne clavate or capitate. Anterior
tarsi almost always five-jointed.
B. Large insects, the smaller not much less than half an inch in
length (except Catops.) Hind trochanters prominent.
Thorax! withea thinkdersin. - 20. ysey Fhe: SLLPHID As.
BB. Small insects less than half an inch, mostly less than quarter
of an inch in length.
©. Wing-cases shorter than the abdomen.
D. Abdomen thick, conical and pointed, first segment very
Jone. si. vn a+ 4s eRe tee eas ee ae SCAPHIDILD 2,
DD. Abdomen rounded behind.

56 THE ORDER OF COLKOPTHRA.

KE. Head very small and retractile. Body very hard, color

shining black: jh sa a) woties t6 eek be HISTERID &.
E HK. Head moderate. Color usually dull brown, with or
Without, SpOiss whole debs eee tee NITIDULID A.

CC. Wing-cases covering the whole abdomen.

F. Head inserted in the thorax ; thorax as broad at base
as the abdomen.

G. Wings not fringed with long hairs.

H. Body moderately convex, pubescent. Antenne
strongly clavate.

J. Prosternum advanced beneath the retractile
headhesstwse Pi hse -neeewaee DERMESTID 2%.

JJ. Prosternum not advanced.
K. Body strongly pubescent, often prettily

spothed. ti. se ot tease MYCETOPHAGID &.
K K. Microscopically pubescent, generally un-
7 07011 5) 6 Ope ieee ore CRYPTOPHAGID &.

H H. Body very convex, or sub-globular.
L. Medium or small insects; body thick, ovoid,

pubescent, sometimes variegated :
BYRRHID &.

LL. Very small insects; body glabrous, black,
rarely spotted with red.
M. Club of antenne 3 or 5-jointed. Body
usually contractile into a ball:

ANISOTOMID 4.

MM. Club 3-jointed. Body not contractile :
PHALACRID Ai.

GG. Wings fringed. Size minute. Tarsi 3-jointed:
TRICHOPTERIGID &,

FF. Head, free. Abdomen, much wider than the ovoid
thorax. Size very small........ SCYDM ANID 4.

Sub-tribe 2d. SuB-CLAVICORNES.

A A. Body usually elongated. Antenne slightly clavate, or filiform
and granose. ‘'Tarsi often with less than five joints.
N. Body somewhat depressed, smooth. Tarsi five-jointed, first
joint very small. Color black, or dark red..TROGOSITID &.
NN. Body very flat, smooth. Color red or brown..CUCcUJID &.
NNN. Body not very flat; sometimes cylindrical, usually deeply
; sculptured, or scabrous. Tarsi less than five-jointed.
Q. ,All the tarsi:four-jointed ... 2.2... /5.,.22..2..-
OO. Allthe tarsi three-jointed................ LATHRIDIID &,

LAND SCAVENGER-BEETLES. 57

Family VII. SILPHID.

This family is founded upon the genus Silpha, a name originally given
by the Greeks to some kind of fetid beetle, and appropriated by Lin-
nus to the leading genus of the present family. These insects are
(Fig. 18.] most readily distinguished from
the other Necrophaga by their
large size. The species of Silpha
are usually half an inch and up-
wards in length, whilst some of
the burying beetles, composing
the genus Necrophorus, are an
inch and a half. The other lead-
ing characters are the orbicular
SILPHA INZQUALIS, Fab :—a, larva; d, same, natural or rounded thorax, very thin all

size; f,g, h, mandible, labium, and maxilla of lar-

va; 7, j, anal process and antennw of same; m, one Pn OL sli
of the lateral processes more highly magnified ; b, around at the matey and slightly

Biol acres aimiscraene one, OV CT ADDING Shey base. of Wea

Riley. tra. The club of the antennez is
perfoliate and 4 or 5-jointed. The hind trochanters are also prom-
inent, especially in Necrophorus ; but they are not swolen or sub-globu-
lar, as they are in the land predaceous beetles. The Silphe, in com-
pany with their larvee, are found on dead and putfid animals.* The
Necrophori have the curious instinct to deposit their eggs in small dead
animals or fragments of putrid flesh, and then bury them in the ground
several inches, and sometimes nearly a foot in depth. The larve hatch-
ing from these eggs feed upon the decayed flesh, and, it is said, devour
even the bones of small animals.

There is a small group of dusky or blackish beetles belonging to the
genera Catops and Colon, which are less than a quarter of an inch in
length, which are usually classed with the Silphidie, and consequently
form an exception to the majority of the family with respect to size.

Fifty-five North American species have been described.

The three leading or typical genera may be thus described :

ante tame

eS aR
[oe ha ee tyes
% ™ - # ” AP si >

Hastie iy Zh

A. Antenne capitate ; head large and free. Large thick bodied insects; color black, elytra spotted

Tuna) WEGU TS Na alll eee Sees Aas eee PE eOOBe Cbore ear ne secene ae ececoc-essenucecoane NECROPHORUS.

AA. Antenne clavate and perfoliate; head small; size medium; body broad and flattened ;
color black; thorax in many margined with yellow. .-.-..---.------------------------ SILPHA.

AAA. Antenne sub-clavate; head partly immersed in the thorax; size small; form ovate; color
ldindikare Tino Spee geo escent EE econ Sep anrSccSaana aos epoosAepenaconccnmeanaadoot CATOPS.

* A remarkable exception to the usual habits of this family, occurs in the case of a small European
species, (Silpha opaca, Linn.) the larvae ef which have been known to feed, to an injurious extent, upon
the leaves of the beet and the mangel-wurzel. Curtis’ Farm Insects, p. 388.

—S

58 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

The Necrophorus Americanus is nearly an inch and a half in length.
The other species do not exceed an inch, and a few of the smaller spe-
cies scarcely exceed half an inch in length. Silpha
Americana has the thorax broadly margined with
yellow; S. marginata has the thorax margined with

red; S. inequalis [Fig. 18] is wholly black; S. caudata

nes) adull bronze thorax, and black ee with many
“( small tubercles. The Necrodes surinamensis is black,
‘with a reddish spot near the end of each elytron, and
the elytra strongly carinated or ridged. Necrodes

Neon ae apenas differs from Silpha in having a more elongated
fron baa at oe form, and the antenne with a greater number of

perfoliate joints.

[Fig. 19.]

Family VIII. SCAPHIDIIDA.

From the genus Scaphidium of Olivier, a name meaning a little skiff
or boat, and given to these insects on account of their fancied resem-
blance to a boat, being thickest and arched in the middle, and narrowed
towards each end, the head being very small, and the tip of the abdo-
men being conical and pointed, and projecting beyond the end of the
wing-eases. The first abdominal segment is unusually long. These are
small, shining-black insects found in fungi and rotten wood. They
move rapidly, but with an uneven or skipping gait. They constitute a
very small family, only seventeen N. A. species having been described
at the present time.

Family IX. HISTERID 2. =

Founded upon the genus Hister of Linneus, a term borrowed from
the Latin hister, or histrio, meaning a stage actor or mimic, and applied
[Fig-20.] to these insects on account of their habit of persistently
feigning death when captured; a habit, however, which
, they have in common with many other Coleoptera. They
are mostly small, short, rounded or somewhat square-
shaped beetles, of a very hard consistency, and a glossy
black color, very rarely marked with a few red spots. They

Histhr:—1, bee
fle natural are further distinguished by their small heads, which can

size; 2, anten-

ne ‘of same be retracted into the thorax, so as to be nearly or quite in-

magnified —af

ae Weatinood visible; and also, by their truncated or shortened wing-

cases, leaving the i last abdominal segments exposed. They live in
the excrement of animals, and other decomposing substances, mostly
animal, but sometimes vegetable.

_ Number of described N. A. species, one hundred and eighty-four.

LAND SCAVENGER-BEETLES. 59

The following are the three typical genera:
A. Head porrected ; mandibles as long as the head; body very flat; size comparatively large—

HLOLOLEPTA-

A A. Head retracted; mandibles short ; body usually convex, (flattenedin sub-genus Paromalus.)
B. Prosternum advanced so that the head is invisible from beneath..........-.---- So 5 Bese HISTER.-
1316 ee ELOSLernum: NOtACVANCe . o-<uiaececee acisessma.siiace Hee See clown oe eenseeeeeeees SAPRINUS.-

Hister is divided by Dr. LeConte into ten lesser genera, which De
Marseul has still further subdivided so as to form four additional ones.
These divisions are made in accordance with slight organic variations,
which however are sometimes accompanied by differences in size, or by
perceptible modifications of the general form.

More recently, Dr. Geo. H. Horn has contributed to the American
Philosophical Society (June, 1873,) a valuable synopsis of the Histeridz
of the United States, in which all our species are carefully reviewed

and described.
ri

Family X. NITIDULID.

The typical insects of this family constitute the genus Nitidula of
Fabricius, a word literally meaning shining, or elegant, but which is sin-
[Fig-21.] oularly inapplicable to the insects of this family, as now
constituted, most of which are clothed with a fine pube-
scence, which is incompatible with a shining surface. They
are small, somewhat flattened beetles, the thorax having a
wide, thin margin, and the wing-cases more or less cut off
Nimpura -— 1, behind, so as to leave the end of the abdomen exposed. In
anterior tr the sub-family of Carpophilides, the elytra are so short as

sus; 2, anten-

vy stvoni to leave two or three of the abdominal segments uncovered,
but in the Nitidulides only the tip of the abdomen is exposed. The
fourth tarsal joint is very small, and wholly wanting in the hind tarsi
of the males of some species. Their colors are usually brown or black-
ish, with or without dull yellow spots.

The insects of this family vary much in their habits. Some are found
on carrion and others on flowers; several of the most common species
are often met with on apples and other fruit in a state of decay. The
larvee of the genera Ips Carpophilus and Rhiozophagus, have been
shown by the observations of a French author, M. Ed. Perris, to be car-
nivorous, subsisting upon soft, sub-cortical larve.

Ninety N. A. species have been described, under the following prin-

cipal genera :
A. Antean 11-jointed, club 3-jointed; body oval.
B. Only the tip of the abdomen exposed.

C. Surface pubescent; colors dull; upper lip exposed.
D. Body depressed ; thorax not overlapping the elytra; color brown, usually with obscure yel-

ROswaS PD US esa een eect oe eta eee am mtn tetera anton ein oatalfeir wie ele erm hc a NITIDULA.

DD. Body convex; thorax slightly overlapping the base of elytra. Color brown, usually shaded
with 11) yd) ee RR eine ee aemaoepeDnoroS cep trecanos moos mcc re ncts CYCHRAMUS.

CC. Surface smooth and shining; color black, spotted with yellow or reddish ; labrum cenceee :

7 S .

BB. Two or three last segments of abdomen uncovered by elytra. ..---------------- CARPOPHILUS.
RHIZOPHAGUS.

AA. Antenne 10-jointed; club solid; body elongated...---.-..----+--++----+++--++----

60 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

[Fig. 22.] Ips fasciatus, a shining black species, quarter of an
, inch long, with two conspicuous, interrupted reddish
bands across the elytra. Nitidula bipustulata, a black-
ish brown insect, with a yellow dot on the middle of
each elytron, one-sixth of an inch long; and Omosita

colon, a little species one-tenth of an inch in length,
= bstansae _y,,. brown, the elytra pale at the tips with two minute dots,

va and beetle—af- like a colon—are the three most common species.
ter Packard.

Family XI. DERMESTIDA.

This family is founded upon the genus Dermestes, of Linnzeus, a name
[Fig. 23.] derived from the Greek derma—a skin, and esthio
—to devour, and applied to these insects because
some of the species are destructive to skins and
™ furs, and other dried animal substances. They
“ differ from the three preceding families in hay-
ing the abdomen completely covered by the wing-
eases; but they are more particularly dis tin-
euished by having the sternum or breast-plate ad-
vanced under the mouth like a chin-cloth; by
their short and contractile legs and antennie, and
re by their coloration, which consists of light-colored
ee Ur ihe lax, Spots on a darker ground, the spots being pro-
bipiaocnpaw mer pesky duced by minute scales which can be rubbed off.
The larvee are rather hard, brown, active grubs, more or less clothed
with stiff hairs, which usually form a long brush at the end of the body.
Forty-nine N. American species have been described.

A. No ocellus or eye-like spoton the front. Size from quarter to half an inch in length :

DERMESTES.

A A. Frontal ocellus distinct; less than quarter of an inch in length.
Be eeMiddle cox mo tnwad Clive SO MANADO sete etree eel melee elu lele etalaleieie ts anata ae ATTAGENUS.
BB. Middlecoxe widely separated ; size very small............ .....-..-------------- ANTHRENUS.

The Dermestes lardarius, Linn., so called because it is usually found
upon refuse lard and bacon, is our most common species. It is an ob-
long oval, black beetle, one-third of an inch in length, with a broad,
brownish-yellow band across the middle of its body, and in the middle
_ of this band a transverse row of black dots.

Another species often found in houses, is the Attagenus pellio, which,
like the former, was originally an European insect, but which has now
become distributed over the civilized world. It is two-tenths of an inch
long, black with a white dot on the middle of each wing-cover, which is
wanting in some specimens, having probably been rubbed off. The
larvie destroy dried skins, furs and woolens, and are said even to gnaw

LAND SCAVENGER-BEETLES. OL

linen and cotton fabrics. They are sometimes quite injurious to carpets
whilst lying upon the floor. We have known them to select a particu-
lar stripe, especially one of red flannel, in the domestic fabric known
as rag-carpet, and follow it out into the middle of the room, gnawing it
off at intervals. They have to be treated upon general principles, no
specific remedy, we believe, having been discovered. Some very small
species, belonging to the genus Anthrenus, are very destructive to cab-
inets of natural history. Other small species are found on flowers.

Family XII. MYCETOPHAGID.

Founded upon the genus Mycetophagus, a word which means a mush-
room-eater, aud therefore indicates the habits of the family. They are
(ig. 24.] small, or very small, oval, moderately convex,
pubescent, and usually prettily marked in-
‘ sects. This is one of the families of small
Coleopterous insects in which the number of
tarsal joints is very variable, not unfrequently
Mycrrornacus:—1, beetle; 2, an- differing in the sexes of the same species.
Renney e auremor tarsus of The only preceding family with-whiehiit, is

male (RES same of female (2) ;
5, posterior tarsus—after West- Jinble to be confounded, is that of the Nitidu-

wood.

lide; but it differs: first, in the antennze, which are knobbed in Nitidu-
lid, and usually gradually clavate in the Mycetophagide; second, in
the elytra, which cover the whole abdomen in the latter, and are almost
always truncated, though often but very slightly in the former; and
thirdly, in the character of the pubescence or down upon the surface,
which is scarcely perceptible or wanting in the former, whereas the
Mycetophagide are densely clothed with prostrate hairs. They are
also more uniformly and conspicuously spotted than the Nitidulids, the
elytra usually exhibiting yellow spots or bands on a brown or blackish
ground.

Our largest species is the M. punctatus, Say, upwards of two-tenths
of an inch in length, blackish ; elytra reddish-yellow, with a large black
spot including the scutellum, another at the side, and another near but
not including the tip.

M. flexuosus, Say, is three-twentieths of an inch in length, blackish;
elytra redish-yellow ; a large transverse black spot on the region of the
scutellum ; a small rounded one on the shoulder; a large irregular one
on the side, sometimes extending to the suture, and a large black spot
on the tip, enclosing a small fulvous spot.

About twenty N. A. species are known.

ae ee ST ee

=

62 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Family XIII. CRYPTOPHAGIDA.

This family name means essentially the same as the preceding one,
and implies that the insects which compose it feed upon Cryptogamous
plants, which include the mushrooms and fungi. They are very small
insects, usually less than one-tenth of an inch in length, of a light-yel-
lowish brown color, and usually having a silken lustre, produced by a
microscopically fine pubescence. They are distinguished from the
Mycetophagide by their usually smaller size, their finer pubescence,
the absence of spots, and in the typical and most numerous genus by
little saw-like teeth along the sides of the thorax. The C. cellaris and
C. crinitus are often found in cellars.

Upwards of thirty N. A. species have been described.

Family XIV. BYRRHIDA.

The Byrrhide are distinguished from all other pentamerous clavicorns
by their short and very strongly arched or convex bodies, taken in con-

(Mig. 25] nection with the hairs or minute scales by which the surface
Bes of their bodies is more or less clothed and ornamented. The
family includes moderately large and very small species
—some of the species of the typical genus Byrrhus* being from
Saar one-quarter to one-half of .an inch in length. All the other
= beetles of this tribe, which have very strongly convex or sub-
eee globular bodies, are distinguished from the Byrrhide by being

iiiek op as small or very small insects, with a shining or polished surface.
) a ane

wiguitom The Byrrhide are further distinguished by the extreme con-
Westwood. tractility of their members—the joints of their legs being ca-
pable of being shut so closely upon each other and upon the body, that
they are scarcely distinguishable, except upon close inspection. This,
together with their sub-globular form, suggested to Linnzeus the specific
name of pilula, for a Kuropean species, from its resemblance to a pill or
little ball of inanimate matter. These insects are found upon the ground,

often in sandy situations, also at the roots of trees and grass. Some

species are known to feed upon the mosses.

Thirty-two N. A. species are known.

*This name, which is supposed to have been derived from the Greek bursa—a hide, from some fan-
cied resemblance in texture, was originally given to these insects by Linnzeus, in the twelfth edition
of the Systema Nature, in 1766. Mr. Crotch, in his recent Check List of N. A. Coleoptera, suppresses
this name and adopts the name of Cistela, previously given to this genus by Geoffroy, but since ap-
plied to a genus of heteromerous beetles. But we prefer to retain the name given by Linnieus, and
established by universal usage for more than a century.

LAND SCAVENGER-BEELES. 63

Family XV. ANISOTOMID.2.

This family of minute Coleoptera is composed chiefly of the genera
Anisotoma and Agathidium, of Iliger. The first term signifies wnequal
division, and has reference probably to the structure of the antennal
club, which, in the sub-family Anisotomides, consists of five joints, the
second of which is the smallest. Mr. Westwood regards the second genus
as the type of the family, which accordingly he denominates AGATHI-
pupa. But the other term is adopted by the most recent writers.
These insects are remarkable for their very small size and their sub-
globular bodies, those of the sub-family Agathidiides having the power
to contract the head and thorax upon the abdomen so as to form a little
ball. The thorax is orbicular with thin edges, like that of the compara-
tively gigantic Silphide, with which, indeed, they are united as a sub-
family by the principal modern authorities, such as Hrichson, Lacor-
daire and LeConte. |

These minute insects are found mostly in fungi and rotten wood, and
can frequently be caught flying in the evening.

Number of described N. A. species, thirty-five.

Family XVI. PHALACRID.

A small family of very small, convex, shining black insects, some-
times two-spotted or tipt with red; formerly confounded with the pre-
ceding family, but separated from it by a Swedish naturalist, Paykull,
under the generic name of Phalacrus, a word meaning bald-headed, and
suggested probably by the rounded, shining aspect of these beetles.
They differ from Anisotoma in having but three joints in the club of the
antenne, and from Agathidium in not being contractile, nor in having
the hind margin of the thorax overlay the base of the elytra. They dif-
fer also in their habits from the foregoing family, being usually found
upon flowers.

Twenty N. A. species have been described.

Family XVII. TRICHOPTERYGID.

This family surpasses the two former in the minuteness of its species
—the largest not exceeding small pin-heads in size, and the smallest
not being one-quarter as large—the species varying from about one-
twentieth to one-seventieth of an inch in length. Nevertheless, it is one
of the wonders of nature that within the almost infinitissimal compass
of their minute beings are contained all the divisions, the limbs and or-
gans of the most gigantic species. The family is founded upon the
genus Z'richopteryx, of Kirby—a term meaning hairy-winged, in reference
to the peculiar construction of the inferior or true wings, which are com-

64 . THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

posed of a little lamella or plate, supported at the end of a slender foot-
stalk, and ornamented with a fringe of long hairs. In some the wings
are wanting. The elytra are sometimes truncated. The club of the
antenn is usually four, rarely two jointed. The tarsi are only three
jointed, with a club-tipt bristle between the claws. The surface is often
pubescent. Some live in rotten wood and others in manure; a few have
been found in ants’ nests.
Thirty-eight N. American species have been described.

Family XVIII. SCYDMANIDA.

This is another family of very small insects, found under stones or in
waste matter, and in ants’ nests. They are of a brown color, and are
clothed with erect hairs. They are frequently seen flying in twilight.
They are very easily distinguished from the small beetles of the three
preceding families, by their more oblong ovate form, by the head sepa
rated from the pro-thorax by a distinct neck, and by their large abdo-
mens, much wider than the somewhat egg-shaped thorax. They bear
the closest relationship to the more extensive family of Pselaphide,
treated of below, from which, however, they are strongly separated by
their five jointed tarsi, and their elytra covering the whole abdomen.

Thirty-eight N. A. species already described.

Family XIX. TROGOSITID.

Founded upon the genus Trogosita, of Olivier, a name composed of the
Greek words trogo—to eat, and sitos—grain, and originally applied to the
most notorious species, the Trogosita mauritanica, (Tenebrio mauritani-

[Fig. 26.] cus, Linn.) because it is often
: . may f) found in great numbers in
worm-infested granaries. But
observations recently made up-
on the carnivorous habits of
other species of the genus, ren-
der it probable that the larvee
of the 7. mauritanica live upon
the larvie of the Calandrz and
Me caeas ee, Peet ee ee ee
anal plate ; b, the beetle; h, its antenna; i, mandible; g, thors of the damage. This view
labium and its palpi; j, one of the maxill and its palpus
—after Riley. is confirmed by our own obser-
tions upon the larva of a common American species, the Trogosita
corticalis, of Melsheimer, which we have seen preying upon the larva of
the Codling-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). The Trogositid are oblong,
somewhat depressed or flattened beetles, of a black or reddish black

LAND SCAVENGER-BEETLES. 65

color, usually found under the bark of decaying trees. Their antennze
are short, but reaching back, at most, beyond the middle of the thorax.
The club consists of three somewhat moniliform joints, not conspicuously
larger than the preceding ones. The tarsi are apparently four jointed,
the first joint being so short that it cannot be seen from above; the last
joint is very long, often as long as all the others united. In Trogosita
proper, the thorax is separated from the abdomen by a short neck or
strangulation. The larva of Trogosita is a whitish flattened grub, with
a pair of black spots on the top of the three first segments. The tail
terminates in two horny points.
Number of N. A. species, forty.

Family XX. CUCUJID.

The insects of this family are most conspicuously distinguished by
[Fig. 27.] their very flat bodies and by their projecting

. f mandibles. Antenne usually longer than

f the head and thorax, filiform, and generally
granose or moniliform. In the small sub-
family of Silvanides, the three last joints are
moderately enlarged. The tarsi, like those
of the preceding family, are apparently four
jointed, the first joint being very small. Both

af ES, Fabr.:— arva; oye 4 .
¢, PRG ne a Mon audi de ee ve" of these families are classed by Latreille with

ite anal jombs d, of te head; b, beetle. she Tetramera. Most of these insects are

brown, but some of the Cucuji proper are of a bright red color. They
are found under the bark of trees, but the larve, so far as they have
been observed, are found to be carnivorous. M. Perris discovered the
larvee of Brontes planatus feeding upon Podure, acari, and the larvee of
the wood-boring beetles of the genus Tomicus. And in England, Mr.
C. C. Babington and Mr. Westwood saw the Cucwjus testaceus in abund-
ance in granaries, from which, in connection with the similarity of the
larvee, we may conclude that they have the same useful habit as the in-
sects of the preceding family in counteracting the ravages of the de-
structive grain worms. |

Number of described N. A. species, forty-two.

The following is a table of the principal genera:

A. Antenne moniliform, not thickened at the tip, half as long as the body, or less; size, more than
one-quarter of an inch in length.

B. Posterior angles of the head rounded and prominent ; color; SCarlet.=---.----<s4--—---- Cucusus.
BB. Posterior angles of the head not prominent; color, brown. .----------------------- CaTOGENUS.
A A. Antenne sub-moniliform, more than half as long as the body, usually a little thickened at the
tip; size, very small ......----------------------- 2-222 e nee n cern nnn LMOPULEUS.

AAA. Antenne long and filiform, first joint elongated ; size, small. .....----------------- BRONTES.*
AAA A. Antenne with the last three joints forming a loose club ; size; very small. ....-- SILVANUS.

*This name, given to this genus by Fabricius, is discarded in Mr. Crotch’s Check List as having been
preoccupied, and Uliota, Latreille, substituted.

66 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Cucwus, Fab., contains but one N. A. species, the C. clavipes, Fab. ;
Catogenus, Westw., one, the 0. rufus, Fab. ; Lemophleus, Lap., ten spe-
cies ; Brontes, Fab., three species ; and Silvanus, Latr., nine species.

The word Cucujus comes from the Brazilian Cucuyo and Spanish Cu-
cujo, a name given by the natives to the luminous snapping-beetle
(Elater noctilucus, Linn.) of South America.

Family XXI. COLYDIIDA.

This family includes two principal types. In one, forming the sub-
family Colydiides, the species are elongate and cylindrical, with ribbed
or striate elytra, and in the other, or the sub-family of Synchitides, the
species are simply oval or oblong, somewhat flattened, and remarkable
for their rough or spinous bodies. The antenne are either moderately
and gradually clavate, or terminate in a small club, which usually in-
cludes but two joints. The tarsi are all strictly four-jointed. These
insects have the same carnivorous habits which seem to be common to
most of the species included in our division of sub-clavicornes. The
larve of Ditoma, of Aulonium, and of Cerylon, have ail been seen depre-
dating upon the larve of Tomicus and other small wood-boring beetles,
and one species, at least, the Cerylon histeroides, is equally predaceous
in its perfect state.

Forty-four N. A. species have been deseribed.

Family XXII. LATHRIDITDA.

Very small and not very common insects, sometimes found under
stones and sometimes caught flying. They are of an-oblong form, the
abdomen being wider than the thorax. The antennz terminate in a
small club of one, two, or three joints. The tarsi are three-jointed, the
last joint being at least as long as the other two. The thorax has a
raised border, and the elytra are puncto-striate, and ribbed between
the striz.

About fifty N. A. species have been described.

Third Sub-section, MONILICORNES.

Antenne often moniliform or bead-like ; subsist mostly upon decaying vegetable substances.
TRIBE V.
SHORT WINGED SCAVENGER-BEETLES.

Putrivora brevipennata. BRACHELYTRA, Latreille.
This tribe embraces an extensive series of beetles, corresponding, for

the most part, to the Linnean genus Staphylinus, sometimes called in
English Rove-beetles, and readily distinguished from all other Coleoptera

SHORT-WINGED SCAVENGER-BEETLES. 67

by their very short wing-cases, which usually cover less than half of the
abdomen. The insects of some other families, as we have seen, have
their elytra shortened or truncated at the end, but in these they always
cover more than half of the abdomen, and usually leave only the tip
exposed. The Staphylini have narrow, elongated and somewhat flat-
tened bodies. The antenn are rather short, sometimes of equal thick-
ness throughout, but usually a little larger at the end, and composed of
short, roundish or lenticular joints. The mandibles are long, sharp
and sickle-shaped, and usually cross each other at the tip when at rest.
The abdomen often terminates in two little finger-like bristly processes,
between which is a third and shorter one. The anterior tarsi of the
males are often dilated. They are also distinguished by the great
length of the cox or basal joints of their anterior legs. They usually
turn up the end of their long flexible abdomen whilst running, and also
use it in packing their wings under their short wing-covers. These in-
sects are generally found on the ground, under stones and amongst
rubbish. They usually subsist upon decomposing matter, both animal
and vegetable, but mostly the latter. They constitute an extensive
army of useful scavengers, second in number only to the Necrophaga or
club-horned scavengers, of which we have just been treating. Butsome
of the larger species are known to be eminently predaceous, especially
in the larva state, voraciously seizing whatever insects come in their
way, not even sparing their own species, and some of the small species
found on flowers have been observed to have similarly carnivorous
tastes. Indeed, their long, sharp, sickle-shaped mandibles, and the
large protuberant eyes of a portion of them, would seem to indicate a
more generally carnivorous habit than has generally been attributed to
them. Others have been found in ants’ nests, and are supposed to be
parasitic; and a species of Aleochara is an internal parasite, having
been reared from the pupx of Anthomyia brassice. (Am. Ent. 11, 370.)
The larvie, with the exception of the absence of wings, bear a general
resemblance to the perfect insects, both in structure and habits, and
are found in the same situations.

The tribe is composed of two families, the long bodied species or
Staphylinidze, and the minute short bodied species, which constitute the

family of Pselaphide.

Family XXIII. STAPHYLINID.

The original meaning and application of the generic term Staphylinus
are not now known with certainty, but it was applied by Linnzeus to
the tribe of short-winged Coleoptera. The leading characters of this
family have been given in treating of the tribe to which it belongs, and
of which it constitutes much the larger part. We will here define the

68 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

principal sections or sub-families into which it has been divided. Mod-
ern authors divide the family into eleven sub-families, but seven of
these contain all but a few rare or exotic species.

The following table exhibits the most conspicuous of their distinctive
characters :

A. Body narrow and elongated. Elytra (except in the Tachyporides) covering less
than half of the abdomen. No ocelli.
B. Head as wide, at least, as the thorax, and usually attached to it by a short neck.
C. Labrum bilobed. Antenne inserted upon the anterior edge of the front.
USO CORDS MATE ciel’ ine hacolecnn iain to kit as? fate Paslse mtate ie Satie STAPHYLINIDES.
CC. Labrum usually entire. Antenne inserted at the sides of the front. Size
moderate or small.
D. Maxillary palpi short. Posterior coxe wide. Tibsze usually spinous on
the outer edge. Tarsi usually three-jointed. Abdomen parallel.
OXYTELIDES.
DD. Maxillary palpi long and clavate. Posterior coxze much longer than
wide. Tarsi usually five, sometimes four-jointed. Abdomen more or
less tapering.
KE. Anterior coxe large. Eyes not prominent................ PEDERIDES.
EE. Anterior coxee small. Eyes large and prominent......... STENIDES.
BB. Head narrower than the thorax, and more or less inserted in it, often imper-
fectly visible from above.
F. Body depressed, of equal width and obtuse. Elytra usually covering
a third or lessof the abdomen . 2... 0. e006 ences wok ALEOCHARIDES.
F F. Body convex, conical and pointed behind. Elytra sometimes cov-
ering half or more than half of the abdomen ..... TACHYPORIDES.
A A. Body broad and depressed. Elytra usually covering half or more than half of
the abdomen. Two ocelli on the vertex. Size small........... OMALIIDES.

Sub-family STAPYLINIDES.

This group stands at the head of the family containing all the large
species, Sometimes exceeding an inch in length, though some of the
[Fig.28] genera also contain small species. Its two most [Mis 9]

Fy} distinctive characters are those given in the table. .@/
The antenne are inserted upon the epistoma, which
is the ridge which borders the face below, just ,
above the mouth. In the other groups of this J
family the antenne are inserted above the episto-%
ma, at the sides of the face, and are usually cov- # %@
< ered at the base by a little prominence. The spe- pan Ri APT-
Lary: a of cies are usually found amongst rubbish, or under {evRies ae

OLENS: dead leaves or stones. They have been daypaeed to be mostly
“Wiectaodl rypophagous, but some of them are known to be eminently
predaceous.

More than a hundred N. A. species have been described.

SHORT-WINGED SCAVENGER-BEETLES. 69

A. Antenn# inserted wide apart, at the extremities of the epistoma.
B. Palpi not enlarged at tip.
C. Size large, from half an inch to an inch or more in length. Surface pubescent, (except

ocypus )
D. Head of males large, wider than thorax; middle cox wide apart.
E. Antenne sub-clavate; abdomen as wide as elytra..........-..---.----0-00-:- CREOPHYLUS.
EXE. Antenne filiform; abdomen narrower than elytra..........-..--------- LEISTOTROPHUS.
DD. Head of males not enlarged; middle cox approximate.
Hy hon slightly tapering: broywnor dull black. o= s-e5-c<-e= sese nee eeeeeeiae STAPHYLINUS.
HH worm elongate, parallel’yshimine black: 9.240. <4. c-scsee ce sees ae see ee eeeeereee OcYPus.
CC. Size small, usually less tha: half an inch in length; shining black, sometimes tinted with
Tee ets reeks ci Spe ciasoncis sare eee ae Seine nate einer een ee See PHILONTHUS.
BB. Labial palpi terminated with a large semilunar joint; head of males enlarged ; middle cox
very wideapart. Size below medium; glabrous.................-..2------------ Oxyrorus.
A A. Antenne approximate, inserted on the middle of the epistoma; head oblong, sub-quadrate.
Length usually a quarter of an inch or less, elytra often reddish. .....-......-- XANTHOLINUS.

Creophilus, Stephens, contains two N. A. species, one of which, the
CO. villosus, Gray., is not uncommon. It is a robust species, about seven-
tenths of an inch long, black, with a broad ash-colored band across the
elytra, and another across the hbdomen, composed of short hairs. ‘The
specific name villosus—hairy, is expressive of this character. The gen-
eric name means a lover of flesh. Leistotrophus, Perty, a name expres-
sive of the ferocious character of the species, contains but one N. A.
species, J. cingulatus, Grav. It is of about the same size as the prece-
ding, of a grayish-brown color, indistinctly spotted with black. The
end of the abdomen has a golden luster. Twenty-one species of Staphy-
linus proper are enumerated in Dr. LeConte’s catalogue of 1863. One
of the largest and most common species is the S. maculosus, Grav., eight
or nine-tenths of an inch long, of a dark cinnamon-brown color, with a
black scutellum, and a row of obscure square blackish spots along the
middle of the abdomen. A somewhat similar but rarer and more ele-
gant species is the 8. vulpinus or fox-colored Staphylinus of Nordman.
In this the colors are brighter, and the abdomen is black, tipped with
fulvous, with golden incissions, and two cinereous pubescent spots at
the base of each segment. The S. cinnamopterus, Gray., is also cinna-
mon-colored, with the abdomen nearly black; but it is a smaller species,
being but half an inch, or a little more, in length. 8. tomentosus, Grav.,
is six-tenths of an inch long, and of a deep, dull black color. 8S. viola-
ceous is of about the same size, also black, but with the thorax and
elytra of a rich violet hue. The abdomen is varied along the margin
with a silken ash-colored pubescence.

Ocypus, Kirby, meaning swift-footed, contains but one species, the
O. ater, Erichs., seven-tenths of an inch long. Philonthus, Curtis, mean-
ing a lover of dung, contains many species, a few of which exceed half
an inch in length; but most of them range from two to three-tenths of
an inch. A considerable number of our species are arranged under the
genus Quedius, of Stephens, which is closely allied to Philonthus, but
differs in having the thorax with a sharp simple margin, and a fe

70 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

large scattered punctures, whilst in Philonthus the thorax is finely
grooved along the edge, and the punctures, also large and few, are ar-
ranged in longitudinal rows. The genus Oxyporus, Fab., occupies an
intermediate position between this sub-family and the Oxytelides, and
is placed in the latter by some authors ; but Lacordaire retains it in the
present sub-family, the essential characters of which it possesses. The
species are not large, but they are unusually broad and robust, and are
most readily distinguished by their stout mandibles, which project di-
rectly forward, and are crossed at the tip when at rest. The species
vary from a quarter to nearly a half an inch in length. They are found
in fungi upon trees. O. rufipennis, Lec., varies from less than three to
more than four-tenths of an inch in length, glossy black, with light red-
dish-yellow elytra, slightly tipped with black at their outer angles.
O. femoralis, Gray., between three and four-tenths of an inch; black or
brown, with pale dull flaxen-yellow elytra, more broadly tipped with
black at the outer angles. 0. vittatus, Grav., very much like the last,
but smaller. 0. 5-maculatus (Melsh.) Lec., between three and four-
tenths of an inch; bright tawny-yellow, with black spots, as follows:
one on the vertex, one on each side of the thorax, one covering the outer
angle of each elytron, and one on the top of each abdominal segment,
the two posterior of which are widened into bands. The females are
almost wholly yellow, but the outer angles of the elytra are always
black. O. stygicus, Say, three-tenths of an inch, body wholly black,
labrum, base of antennz, and tarsi reddish. Two other species, the
major and the lateralis, Gray., I have not seen. XYantholinus, Serv., the
name indicating the reddish-yellow color of most of the species, contains
a moderate number of species, which do net vary much from a quarter
of an inch in length. In color and general aspect they are liable to be
confounded with some of the species of Cryptobium and Lathrobium,
in the sub-family of Pederides; but we shall point out the distinctions
when we come to speak of those genera.

Sub-family OXYTELIDES,

A small group founded upon the genus Ovytelus, Grav. Their most
distinctive character is the row of spines on the outer edge of the ante-
rior, and sometimes also the middle tibiw. Their antenne are slightly
thickened toward the tip, and the abdomen is parallel and usually ob-
tuse or rounded at the end, but with the terminal segment abruptly
narrowed, forming a small point, to which the name Oxytelus, meaning
a pointed end, probably refers. ‘These two characters also serve to dis-
tinguish them from most of the Staphylinide, except the Aleocharides,
and from these they are distinguished by their free heads, which are as
wide as the thorax. But their most abnormal character is their usually

!
i

|
b

SHORT WINGED SCAVENGER-BEETLES. 71

three-jointed tarsi, the last joint being as long as the others united.
The species are all small, rarely exceeeding a quarter of an inch in
length, and sometimes being less than a tenth. The spines or teeth on
their anterior tibiz indicate their fossorial habits, and accordingly they
are usually found burrowing into manure or under the bark of decayed
trees. Mr. Westwood refers to a species of Bledius which is sometimes
found in great profusion, burrowing into the sand on the sea shore be-
low high water mark, and where consequently they must often be sub-
merged by the tide.

Most of our species, upwards of forty in number, are included in the
three following genera; the first of which, however, contains but a sin-
gle species :

A. Abdomen without a margin ; tarsi five jointed. Size rather large.............---.----- Osorious.
A A. Abdomen margined; tarsi three jointed; size small.
B. Anterior tibiz with two rows of spines; body cylindrical.....................-------- BLEDIUs.
BB. Anterior tibiz with one row of spines; body depressed...-.........--------------- OXYTELUS.

Sub-family PEDERIDES.

The species of this group are distinguished by their long clavate
palpi, the last joint but one being larger than the others, but the last
joint of all being small and contracted. As a general rule the species
are more elongated and slender than in the other sub-families, and their
colors are more various. Their length varies from a half to less than
a quarter of an inch. They are found mostly in wet places, and are
very rapid in their motions. Upwards of sixty N. A. species have been
described. The following are the principal genera :

A. Antenne strongly geniculate, and bristly; size rather large; color black, often strongly tinted
Taunt le aeebecagecerrBeboUE eCoC rn Open a asrb ac oenSe suc BUSEecoreS ssoaecd-cSepcoorac CRYPTOBIUM.
AA. Antenne not geniculate.
B. Head attached to thorax by a neck of ordinary width; size moderate.
C. Tarsi simple; color black, sometimes slightly tinted with red.....--..----------
CC. Penultimate joint of tarsi slightly bilobed; orange red, with head and tip of abdomen

black ; elytra, blue)-2 4.2.22) -2 5 gec 2 eee wee nner cee enennis seen PA DERUS.
BB. Head attached by a very narrow neck, (except Palaminus) ; size small, length less than a

LATHROBIUM.

quarter of an inch.
D. Body of ordinary form, color blackish.

E. Head square behind...--...------------+--+- 2-2-2 eceee ener eres ttet settee LiITHOCHARIS.
EE. Head narrowed behind. ....-.-.-------------------- +--+ 2-0-2 e eet tr rt: STILICUs.

DD. Body very elongate and slender; color wholly or partly yellow.
F. Head oblong, obtuse, horizontal, pedunculate. ---..----------------+--------- SunIus.
PALAMINUS.

FF. Head short, transverse, sessile...-.--.--------------+------2--22-207577-

The names Cryptobiwm and Lathrobium are expressive of the concealed

modes of life of these insects under stones or dead leaves, or similar

situations. The species of the former genus are usually more, and those

of the latter less, than a third of an inch in length; but this rule has a

few exceptions. The C. pusillum, Lec., is but two-tenths of an inch
long, and on the other hand the L. grande is four-tenths.

72 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Cryptobium, Mann., is most readily recognized by its strongly genicu-
late or elbowed antenne, the first joint being nearly as long as the three
following ones united. This character, together with their oblong heads,
and reddish coloration, give them a resemblance, as we have above re-
marked, to Xantholinus, in a former section; and this affinity is in-
creased by the bilobed labrum which occurs exceptionally in this and
the following genus. But in Cryptobium the species are usually larger,
and the antenne longer and more strongly elbowed, in addition to the
clavate palpi. Pcaderus, Gray., is at once recognized by the variegated
colors as stated in the table. The species are few in number, but one
of them, the P. littorarius, Grav., is common and widely distributed,
being usually found under stones in wet places. The other genera have
but three or four known species each. Stilicus, Latr., is distinguished
by its head narrowed behind, and the ovoid thorax narrowed in front,
so that the two parts are united by a mere point, giving to them the
aspect of small ants. Palaminus testaceus, Erichs., not quite two-tenths
of an inch in length, and of a pale yellow color, is notuncommon. They
attract attention by their very slender shape and their vermicular or
snake-like motions.

Sub-family STENIDES.

This sub-family is composed almost wholly of the genus Stenus of La-
treille, a word meaning narrow, and expressive of their slender form.
The species are less than a quarter of an inch in length, of a grayish-
black color, and are at once distinguished from all other Staphylinide
by their large portuberant eyes, which cause the head to be considerably
wider than the thorax. The antenne are small and widened at the tips;
the maxillary palpi long and club-shaped, with their first joint unusually
elongated; and the ligula or tongue is capable of being remarkably ex-
tended. The species are usually found running on mud, or in other wet
situations. About two dozen species are enumerated in Dr. Leconte’s
catalogue—closely resembling each other and distinguished chiefly by
the sculpture of the surface. The S. colon, Say, is distinguished by a
yellow semilunar spot on the middle of each elytron.

Sub-family ALEOCHARIDES.

This sub-family contains a numerous assemblage of small, or very
small species, rarely attaining a quarter of an inch in length, and often
being less than half that length, and ordinarily of obscure black or
brownish colors. Their distinguishing characters are sufficiently stated
in the table under the letters B B and F. The antenne are short, rather
robust, usually a little thickened at the end, and are inserted upon the
front at the inner margin of the eyes. Their habits are various, some
being found under stones or fallen leaves, some in the fungi on trees,

}
|

SHORT-WINGED SCAVENGER-BEETLES. 73

and a remarkably large proportion of them in ants’ nests. The habit
of raising the end of the abdomen whilst running, which is sometimes
practiced by the larger Staphylini, is almost universal in this sub-family.
A compilation of the descriptions of all the known North American spe-
cies of this group, amounting to eighty-one in number, is published by
Mr. James H. B. Bland, in the fourth volume of the Proc. of the Ent.
Soc. of Philadelphia. They are arranged in seventeen genera, many of
which contain but one, two, or three species. The following six genera
contain a very large proportion of them:

A. Head as wide as the thorax and attached to it by a distinct neck........ .....-.--.------ FALAGRIA.
A A. Head narrower than thorax and partly immersed in it.
B. Thorax widely hollowed in front for the reception of the head. Antenne filiform and longer
HM OMINEKeN GOL GUOTCLYbLas ese acn ct es ee co sens sees te acotootenece deecdteceene ATEMELES.
BB. Thorax not hollowed in front. Antenne not nearly reaching the end of the elytra.
C. All the tarsi five jointed; labial palpi four jointed; length an eighth of an inch or more:
ALEOCHARA.
CC. Anterior tarsi four jointed, the others five jointed; length an eighth of an inch or less.
D. Labial palpi three jointed; eyes depressed, finely granulated. Color black, or black and

brown.
EK. Antenns# slender; abdomen narrowed in front..............-..-.---------++--- TACHYUSA.
HE. Anbenns ropust: abdomen not narrowed « <<... .-22-c-c2ccccemme ss ceeccacc-n es HOMALOTA.
DD. Labial palpi two jointed; eyes large, convex, coarsely granulated; color black and light
WINE Bee OSS OCR ADECE DE] Be Ot GD OSC SB am neC nae chCne mrss anedasraHaeeborassocaue GYROPH MNA.

The anomalous little genus Falagria, Mann, is placed in this sub-fam-
ily by systematists on account of the position of the antenne, and the
exposed prothoracie spiracle, though it departs widely from it by its
large pedunculated head. They are only about a tenth of an inch long,
and of a reddish black color. Atemeles, Stephens, is of much larger size
and still more anomalous, and indeed bears no resemblance to the fam-
ily of Staphylinide except in its shortened wing covers. One North
American and three European species are all that are known. ‘They
inhabit ants’ nests. Our species the A. cava, Lee., is nearly a quarter
of an inch long, and one-third part as broad, and wholly of a rust-red
color. Aleochara, Grav., contains a few comparatively large species,
being usually nearly or quite two-tenths of an inch in length and of a
broad oval form. Homalota, Mann, contains a great number of small
obscure species, being mostly black, with the elytra often tinted with
reddish brown. The little genus Gyrophena, Mann, contains six de-
seribed N. A. species, none of which exceed one line or one-twelfth of an
inch in length. The most common species are light yellow, with the
head, a part of the elytra, and the tip of the abdomen black ; but some
minute species are black varied with reddish-brown. The name Gyroph-
cena comes from the Greek guros—a circle, and phaino—to appear or resem-
ble, and alludes to the habits of these little insects of carrying their
abdomens forwards on their backs, and at the same time bending their
heads under their breasts, so as to resemble a little ball.

. —10

74 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Sub-family TACHYPORIDES.

In addition to the characters given in the table, we may add that the
tibize are strongly beset with spines, which distinguishes them not only
from the Aleocharides but from nearly all the species in the other sub-
families except the Oxytelides. The abdomen also is often bordered
and terminated with divergent spines. The antenne are inserted under
the sides of the face, behind the mandibles, and are generally slightly
thickened towards the tip. They are considerably numerous, fifty-seven
N. A. species having been described. A few of them are of medium
size, but the great majority are considerably less than a quarter of an
inch in length. They are usually shining black, with the elytra often
tinted with dark red, rarely inclining to yellow, but this is a style of
coloration which is very prevalent in the whole family of Staphylinide.
It has been observed that the species of this sub-family never turn their
abdomens upwards, as is so generally done by the Aleocharides and
some other Staphylinide. They inhabit fungi, boleti, dung and other
decayed matter. Some are found under dead bark. The following
table exhibits the principal genera into which this group has been di-
vided:

A. Antenne eleven jointed ; tarsi five jointed; size various.
B. Elytra longer than the thorax, minutely and irregularly punctured.

C. Abdomen with anarrow margin; surface glabrous.
D. Body oblong, somewhat depressed, moderately tapering, maxillary palpi filiform ; length

from one-eighth to more than a quarter of an inch ........-.--...--------------- TACHINUs.
DD. Body short, convex, abruptly tapering; maxillary palpi sometimes swollen, subulate or
pointed at the end; length less than an eighth of an inch..-.-...-..--..----- TACHYPORUS.

C C. Abdomen without amargin; surface finely pubescent, form conical. size small ...CONOSOMA.
BB. Elytra about as long as thorax; smooth or with three rows of punctures.
E. Maxillary palpi filiform ; length from an eighth to more than a third of an inch:

BOLETOBIUS.
EE. Maxillary palpi swollen, subulate at tip, size small................--- MYCETOPORUS.
A A. Antenne ten jointed ; tarsi four jointed ; size extremely small.............-.------ HYPOCcYPTUS

Tachinus, Gray., meaning swift, and Boletobius, Leach, meaning liv-
ing in boleti, contain, as seen by the table, all the larger species, but
they vary much in size. Conosoma, Kraatz, contains but three species,
about a tenth of an inch or a little more in length. They resemble
Tachyporus in the convex conical shape of the body, but they are finely
pubescent or silky on the surface, and the abdomen is rounded at the
sides, without the narrow sharp margin which is common to all the
other genera. Mycetoporus, Mann, is very closely allied to Boletobius,
but the species are usually smaller, and more linear in their form. The
names of the two genera mean essentially the same thing. Hypocyptus,
Schup., contains the smallest species in the family of Staphylinida, and
some of the smallest in the order of Coleoptera, or in the class of insects,
being about the twenty-fifth of an inch in length, and some of them not
more than a fiftieth. The generic name is derived from the Greek hupo—

SHORT-WINGED SCAVENGER-BEETLES. 7D

under, and kuptos—bent, in allusion to their habit of bending the head
under the body, which, together with their convex form, gives them the
appearance of little globes or balls, much like the genus Agathidium
referred to above in the family Anisotomide, and also like Gyrophena
in the preceding sub-family of Aleocharides, but in the last the effect is
produced in a different manner. The genus Coproporus, Kraatz, does
not seem to be sufficiently distinct from Tachyporus, nor Byroporus
from Boletobius, to render the formation of these genera necessary.

Sub-family OMALIIDES.

Founded upon the genus Omaliwm, Grav., from the Greek omalos—
level, on account of the comparatively broad and depressed form of most
of the species. Their most essential character is the presence of two
ocelli, resembling minute glass beads, on the back part of their heads—
a character peculiar to this sub-family, with but two or three known ex-
ceptions. But their most conspicuous character is the comparatively
greater length of the elytra, which also has a few exceptions. The large
depressed elytra give to some of these insects an obvious resemblance
to the Nitidule, in the preceding tribe ; but in these only the tip of the
abdomen is usually exposed, and their knobbed antenne at once distin-
guish them from any of the Staphylinide. The species of the present
sub-family are of obscure brown or yellowish colors, and small size,
never attaining a quarter of an inch in length, and often being less than
an eighth. Their habits are various, some being found in wet places,
under stones, or under decayed bark, whilst others are found on plants
and flowers, and Mr. Walsh bred sonte of them from fungi.

Upwards of fifty N. A. species have been described, most of which are
contained in the following genera :

A. Mandibles toothed; head entirely free; thorax heart-shaped, narrow behind.
B. Last joint of palpi three times as long as the preceding. ..--------------------- Spotceaee LESTEVA.
BB. Last joint of palpi not elongated.........-.--.-.-----------------+---222--2+---- ANTHOPHAGUS.
A A. Mandibles simple; head partly inserted; thorax not narrowed behind.
C. Hind tarsi moderately elongated; elytra covering the greater part of the abdomen ; tibse not

ROWE. 6 Les cacesenodoeceanoceonenncinnocoseOuoD On esoSronersSEesoubeCecosqnacrconcr OLOPHRUM.

CC. Hind tarsi short, the four first joints combined not longer than the fifth.
D. Tibiz finally spinous; elytra covering about half of abdomen. -....----.------------ OMALIUM.
DD. Tibiz not spinous; elytra almost or quite covering abdomen ...-------------- ANTHOBIUM.

Anthophagus, Grav., scarcely differs generically from Lesteva, Latr.;
but their habits are different—the former being found on flowers, and
the latter amongst wet herbage, near the water. They are easily dis-
tinguished from all other Staphylinide by the heart-shaped thorax,
which, together with the free head and prominent eyes, gives them a
remarkable resemblance to some of the smaller Carabidée. There is a
small yellowish species in the Walsh cabinet, labeled “Anthobium pro-
tectum, LeC., from Mass.,” in which the abdomen is completely covered
by the elytra.

76 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Family XXIV. PSELAPHID&.

This is a family of minute beetles, generally less than a tenth of an
inch in length, and is founded upon the genus Pselaphus, of Herbst, a
term derived from the Greek pselaphus—to feel, in allusion to the greatly

[Fig 30.] | developed palpi or feelers. They are found in the same
situations as the Staphylinidz, and resemble them in the
shortness of the elytra, which usually cover only about half
, of the abdomen. In their form, however, they are wholly
different, being short thick-bodied beetles, with the abdo-
men much larger than the thorax. The antenne are clavate
or capitate, and the maxillary palpi are very long and cla-
vate, often equalling the antenne in length. The tarsi are
ak apparently two-jointed, but really three-jointed, the first
Pa pels. 8. tar. joint being very small. Like some of the larger Staphy-
fee sation: linidse, these very small insects are predaceous in their

ed—after Westw. habits, subsisting upon acari and other minute animals.
Some of them are found in ants’ nests. A synopsis of the Pselaphidie
of the United States is given by Dr. E. Brendel, in the sixth volume of
the Proceedings of the Hnt. Soc. of Philadelphia, where eighty species

are briefly described.

Fourth Sub-section. PHCTINICORNES.

Antennz pectinate or comb-toothed ; subsist mostly upon the sap of trees.

TrisE VI.
STAG-BEETLES.

This sub-division and tribe are composed of the single family of Lu-
canidie or Stag-beetles, distinguished by their pectinate or comb-toothed
antenne, which are also strongly geniculate or elbowed ; by the project-
ing mandibles, which, in the males, are often enormously developed and
branched, from which these insects have received their common name
of Stag-beetles; and by their size, which is never below the medium,
and is generally large or very large, some species being upwards of two
inches in length, including the mandibles.

These insects are closely allied to the Lamellicorn beetles which fol-
low, and are considered by many authors as holding the rank of only a
sub-division or family of the latter. Most modern authors, however,
treat them separately. The principal differences may be expressed as
follows:

Pectinicornes. Antenne elbowed, the club composed of fixed trans-
verse teeth. Mandibles of the males often greatly developed. The ner-
vous ganglia distributed through the abdomen as well as the thorax.
Larve without transverse wrinkles upon the segments; anal opening
lengthwise.

STAG-BEETLES. 77

Lamellicornes. Antenne not elbowed, the club composed of moveable
plates. Mandibles of the males not remarkably developed. Nervous
ganglia consolidated in the thorax. Larve with transverse wrinkles
upon the segments. Anal opening crosswise, except in the sub-family
of Passalides.

We have the more readily adopted this separate classification of these
insects as it enables us to discard the discordant element of Lucanidse
from the otherwise comparatively homogeneous group of lamellicorn
beetles, with neither of the two great tribes of which can they be made
to harmonize.

Family XXV. LUCANIDA.
[Fig. 31.] [Fig. 32.]

Be)

LUCANAS DAMA, Fabr.:—larve and cocoon-after Pack’

The characters of this family have
been given above sufficiently for their
LUCANUS DAMA, Fabr.:—after Packard. Tecognition. Notwithstanding their
conspicuous size, but little is known of the habits of the perfect insects.
The few observations on record go to show that their ordinary food con-
sists of honey dew, or the exudations of the leaves and bark of trees,
which last they are said to pierce with their pincer-like mandibles, but the
force with which these organs are brought together does not seem to be
sufficient for this purpose. They have been known to feed readily, in con-
finement, upon moistened sugar. Thelarve are found in rotton wood, and
some of them have been known to bore into the solid roots of trees. But
in this country they have never been known to be seriously injurious.
A. Ligula elongated and attached to the anterior face of the mentum; antenne
usually elbowed; first joint nearly or quite as long as all the others united ;
abdomen moderately pedunculated; scutellum normal and distinct.
B. Body moderately convex; head unarmed, and in the males nearly or quite as
wide as the thorax; club of antenne 4jointed with the first joint small.
C. Antenne geniculate or elbowed; anterior coxe approximate.
D. Mandibles pointed; eyes notched by the margin of the head.
E. Elytra smooth, slightly curved at the sides; size very large.. . LucANUS.
EE. Elytra striate and punctate; sides parallel; size above medium.
Dorcws.
DD. Mandibles thickened, obtuse, and many toothed at the end; eyes scarcely
notched; Size MEGIUM, vi. <5 6 eletee owes Seeles oele sien ore PLATYCERUS.

78 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

CC. Antenne not geniculate; anterior cox contiguous; size medium.
CERUCHUS.

BB. Body cylindrical; head much narrower than the thorax, and prolonged into

a horn in the male, and tubercled in the female; size medium.
SINODENDRON.

A A. Ligula broad, and filling the quadrangular notch of the mentum; antenne
not elbowed, first joint moderate; scutellum broad but indistinct, situated
on the peduncle; elytra parallel and deeply furrowed. Size very large. ’

PASSALUS.

Lucanus contains three N. American species; the Z. elaphus, a South-

ern species, the male varying in length from one and a half to more
[Hig. 33.] than two inches, with large

branching mandibles, larger
than the head and thorax; JZ.
dama, our common pinching
beetle, of a mahogany-brown
color, and from an inch to an
inch and a half long; and the
LL. placidus, an inch long, al-
most black, with the tooth of
the mandibles bifid at the tip.
Dorcus has but one generally

PAssALUS COXNUTUS:—a, larva; b, pupa; ¢c, beetle; d, knOWn species, the parallelus,
underside of thoracic joints, showing atrophied hind leg Z
of larva; e, same enlarged—after Riley. of Say, brownish-black, and
eight or nine-tenths of an inch in length. The Platycerus quercus, four-
tenths of an inch long, of a brownish-black color, is a widely distributed,
but nowhere a common species. Ceruchus piceus, dark brown, and half
an inch long, is occasionally found in considerable numbers in rotten
wood. Stnodendron is not known east of the Rocky Mountains. Pas-
salus cornutus, a large, oblong, depressed beetle, an inch and a quarter
long, of a shining black color, sometimes with a dark-reddish tint, and
with a short horn bent forwards, on the top of the head, is not an un-
common insect about the roots of decayed stumps and other similar
situations. The genus Passalus contains many species, most of which
inhabit S. America, but the P. cornutus is the only species found in the
United States. :

Meaning of generic terms :

Lucanus—the stag, alluding to the large branching mandibles of some
of the males.

Dorcus—the antelope. The males of some foreign species have large
toothed mandibles.

Platycerus—having wide antenne.

Ceruchus—bearing a horn.

Sinodendron—injuring trees.

Passalus—a post or peg, referring to the horn on the head of some
species.

STAG-BEETLES. 79

Fifth Sub-section, ILA ME LLICORN ES.
Antenne lamellate. Habits of the two tribes different.

This is the extensive and natural group of Coleopterous insects, gen-
erally known by their scientific name of Lamellicornes, or Lamellicorn-
beetles, and so called from the peculiar construction of their antenne,
which terminate in a club formed of moveable plates or leaves, which,
with a few exceptions, are three in number. In some of the insects of
the Clavicorn division, the club of the antenna is also composed of thin
flat joints, constituting what is known as the perfoliate antenna, but
here the axis of the antenna passes through the plates, which are im-
movable; but in the lamellate antenna, the plates are attached to the
axis by only one of their sides, which leaves them free to open and shut
like the leaves of a book. These plates are sometimes thin and similar ;
sometimes the first is thick and hollowed out to receive the other two,
and sometimes the two outer ones are thickened and enclose the inter-
mediate one. In the dead specimen these plates are generally closed
together. One of the most conspicuous and invariable characters’ of the
family is the form of the anterior tibie which are constructed for dig-
ging in the ground, being broad and compressed, and strongly toothed
and scalloped on their outer edge.

The larve are white, six-footed grubs, some of which are found in
manure and others in rotten wood. A few of the larger species have
been seriously injurious, both in Europe and in this country, by feeding
upon the roots of grasses and other plants. They are usually seen lying
upon one side in a curved position. They are gross feeders, and the
hinder part of their bodies is usually filled with black excrementitious
matter, which is partially visible through the semi-transparent walls of
the abdomen.

The common white grub, which is the larva of the May-beetle, is a
familiar example of these larvie.

With respect to their food habits these insects are divided into two
large, somewhat equal, and well marked tribes. They were all included
by Linnzeus in his genus Scarabeus.

Tribe 1st (or 7th of the whole series), Hxcrenentivora. Elytra (except
in the first family), covering the whole of the abdomen. Legs stout,
the hind legs set far back, behind the middle of the hind-body. Live
upon putrescent or decomposing matters, chiefly the excrement of
animals.

Families: Copride, Aphodiide, Geotrupide and Trogide.

Tribe 2d (or 8th), Herbivora. Tip of the abdomen always exposed.
Legs (except in the Dynastide) rather slender, and with the hind legs
attached at or before the middie of the hind body. Live upon fresh
vegetable food, either leaves or flowers.

Families: Dynastide, Rutelidee, Melolonthidze and Cetoniide.

80 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

TRIBE VII.
LAMELLICORN DUNG-BEETLES.

Hacrementivora lamellicornia. SAPROPHAGA, Macleay.

These beetles, as their name implies, are found almost exclusively in
the dung of animals, mostly that of horses and cows, upon which they
feed, and the decomposition of which they hasten, and thus constitute
an important wing of the great army of useful insect scavengers. The
tribe is composed of the four following families:

A. End of the abdomen exposed. Middle legs wider apart than the others; hind

tibiz with a single spur; antenne 8 or 9-jointed; size various...... CoPpRIDé.

A A. Abdomen wholly covered by elytra. Middle legs not wider apart than the
others; hind tibise with two spurs; antennze 9 to 11-jointed.

B. Abdomen with six ventral segments. Anterior thighs not dilated.

C. Antenne 9-jointed. Body almost cylindrical; size small...... APHODIIDA.
CC. Antenne 11-jointed. Mandibles robust and exposed; body oval or roun-
GeAESSI Ze WALIOUS tyr.< eeaertebtet ctevareretaiie oteeeera sel meyniore Bie ote GEOTRUPIDA.

B B. * Abdomen with five ventral segments. Anterior thighs greatly dilated; body
ROOM: Eze email TOMS OTEI TS 3 Spe :chele stesso Sitti» ete p cteeieehs cima TRoGcipa.

Sub-family XXVI. COPRIDA.

[Fig. 34.]

This family contains the lar-
gest species in this tribe of
Lamellicorns, the Copris Caro-
lina being upwards of an inch
in length, two-thirds of an inch
in width, and half an inch
in thickness. But it also con-
tains small species. The Che-
ridium capistratum, a shining,
mahogany-brown insect, is
scarcely a quarter of an inch
in length, and some of the
Onthophagi are still smaller.
Many of the males have a horn
or tubercle on the top of the
» *- head. In this division is the
ri ‘% common tumble-dung beetle,

Cornis Canorina, Linn.:—a, larval; b, a section of the (Canthon levis, Drury.) <A
hollow excrementitious ball in which the insect undergoes : . :
its transformations; ¢, pupa of C. MarcrvaTus (from De- Palr of these insects is often

haan) ; d, female beetle; e, the spiracle, or breathing pore of 5 ;
larva; f, the mandible; g, the antenna; hk, the labium, SC€N working in concert, and

with the rudimentary labial palpi; 7, the maxilla and . KePiy co
maxillary palpus; j, the swelling on the under side of the rolling a ball of manure in

anal segment—after Riley. search of some suitable pl ace

LAMELLICORN DUNG-BEETLES. 81

in which to bury it. Mr. Riley informs me that the common notion
that the egg is rolled up in the center of this ball is an erroneous one,
and that the egg is in reality deposited in a cavity at one side, made

for the purpose after the ball is sunk. The young feed upon the half.

decomposed matter of which the ball is composed. The species are
generally black, but some have rich metallic hues. The Copris (Pha-
neeus) carnifex, with its tints of burnished copper and green, is one of
our richest insects.

A. Middle and hind tibiw slender. Size medium ; color black...........-.-----.----- CANTHON, 17 sp.

A A. Middle and hind tibie enlarged at the end.
B. Labial palpi 3-jointed.

C. Anterior coxe strongly tranverse and depressed. Size small; color brown. ...-. CHG@RIDIUM, 3.
CC. Arterior cox large, conical and prominent. Size large or medium ; color black or metallic:
Coprris, 10.

BB. Labial palpi 2-jointed. Anterior cox large and conical; size small; color black:
ONTHOPHAGUS, 10.

Family XXVII. APHODIIDA.

These are small beetles found in great abundance in the fresh ma-
nure of horses and cows, into which they burrow almost as soon as
dropped from the animals. They never much exceed a quarter of an
inch in length, and are usually black, but sometimes with red or brown
elytra. Nearly a hundred N. A. species have been described, and divi-
ded into a number of sub-genera, but they may all be included in the
genus Aphodius of Uliger.

ae aa. | The following are among our most common species: The
A. fimetarius, Fab., nearly three-tenths of an inch long; head
and thorax shining black, and elytra red; the A. oblongus,
Say, is equally long, rather more slender, and wholly black;
the A. terminalis is less than two-tenths of an inch long, black
with the tip of the elytra and legs reddish; the A. serval,
Say, is of the same size, black, with the elytra dirty white,
Beeline: with three sub-quadrate black spots and a lateral double or
beetle ;2, an- triple irregular interrupted black stripe on each.

tenna— after
Westwood.

ei

Family XXVIII. GEOTRUPID®.

These are distinguished from the two preceding families by their ro-
bust horny mandibles which project visibly beyond the upper lip. Their
average size is above medium, but the Bolboceri fall considerably below
it. The Geotrupes (more correctly spelled Geotrypes) are very common
insects, found under cow-dung in pastures, often burrowing into the
ground beneath.

—Il1

82 _ THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

The following are the two principal genera:

A. Club of antennz small with the plates of equal thickness ; size medium or above; color dark me-
tallic'greenor purple, sometimes black.2 = Jon-ceesenc see oe atece osc esceeseee ee GEOTRYPES, 7.

A A. Club of antenns large and compact with the plates of unequal thickness; size below medium;
COlor PLOW ts asccn Caen oe suite rote R cea ano Nar cone eee ee Nae eee Reena BOLBOCERUS, 3.

[Fig. 36.] The G. splendidus, Fab., is our most common species,
usually about seven-tenths of an inch long, but varying
considerably in size, and varying also in color from dark
metallic green to purple. G. excrementi, Say, is a little
more than five-tenths of an inch in length, and of a
bronze-black color. G. opacus, Hald., is of a deep black
color, and varies in length from a little below to a little
above half an inch; it is much rarer than the other two
species. The elytra are not furrowed like the others, but
eae ie ouly marked with lines of minute punctures. The Bolbo-

beetle; 2, mandi- gerus farctus, Panzer, is half an inch long, brownish-yel-

bles; 3, antenna, - ; :
showing thelarge ow, with the hind margin of the thorax, the sutural

base ete ad line, and the broad tips of the elytra black. B. Lazarus,

Jeol Panzer, is four-tenths of an inch long, and wholly of a

after Westwood. mahogany-brown color. B. jilicornis, Say, three-tenths
of an inch long, of the same color as the last, and distinguished by a
slender horn on the top of the head of the males, whilst.the others have
only tubercles. The last species has been separated from the others
under the generic name of Odontwus. Itis also distinguished by having
the eyes completely divided by the lateral margins of the head.

\

Family XXIX. TROGIDA.

These insects are readily distinguished by their coarsely pitted thorax
and ridged elytra. The other characters given in the foregoing table
[ Fig. 37. ] are also very distinctive. They vary
in size from more than a half to less
than a quarter of an inch in length,
. and are of a uniform slate-black, or
\ brownish-black color. Their habits
are but little known, but they are usu-
ally found in sandy situations, and
ee ed tee caicel make ‘pig bua}, Sometimes upon the carcasses of dead
with palpi of larva enlarged—after Riley. animals. Mr. Riley breeds Troxr pus-
tulatus (Fig. 37.) from dead chickens. They are comparatively rare in-
sects. They are somewhat numerous in species, but are all included in
the genus Trox of Fabricius.

LEAF-CHAFERS. 83

The following three species may be taken as representatives of the
genus: rox porcatus, Say, nearly half an inch long, the elytra with
elevated, interrupted lines, and numerous transverse punctures on the
interstitial spaces; 7. terrestris, not quite quarter of an inch in length,
the elytra with raised obtuse lines on which are little fascicles of short
hairs ; and 7. striatulus, only three-twentieths of anineh in length, with
regular grooves between the ridges on the elytra.

TRIBE VIL.

LEAF-CHAFERS.
Herbivora lamellicornia. THALEROPHAGA, Macleay.

The Chaters, or leaf-eating lamellicorns, are easily distinguished from
the Dung-beetles, by the tips of their abdomens being always uncovered
by the wing-cases, by their usually more slender legs, and by their
lighter and often variegated colors. As we have seen above that the
Cicindelidw represent the lion and tiger amongst the higher animals,
so the present tribe may be regarded as representatives of the rumina-
ting quadrupeds, being, as a general rule, the most bulky of coleopte-
rous insects, and exclusively vegetable feeders.

They generally feed, when in the beetle state, upon the leaves of trees,
but many of the smaller species devour the petals and pollen of flowers.
The Anomal are particularly destructive to the foliage of the grape-
vine.

The larvee are found partly in rotten wood and partly in the earth,
where they feed upon the roots of grasses and other plants. The com-
mon white grub furnishes a familiar example.

Like the preceding tribe, they comprise four families, which can usu-'

ally be distinguished by their general aspect and coloration, but which

exhibit but few distinctive organic characters.

They may be tabulated thus :

A. Head or thorax, or both, almost always armed with one or two
horns or tubercles; upper lip concealed beneath the clypeus,
which is not separated from the front by a suture. Size gen-
erally large, or very large; color often black or blackish :

DYNASTID Ai.
A A. Head and thorax unarmed; labrum often partially visible in
front of the clypeus, which is separated from the front by a
transverse suture, (except Cetoniide.) Size various; color

never black, (except in a few Cetoniidie.)

a

84 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

B. Tarsal claws bifid, (except Hoplia); color usually uniformly
brown, sometimes varied with patches of whitish hairs or
seales ; the rows of abdominal spiracles nearly parallel :

MELOLONTHID 2.

BB. Tarsal claws simple; abdominal spiracles strongly divergent

posteriorly ; colors usually beautiful and often variegated.

C. Tarsal claws unequal ; anterior cox transversal and usually
depressed ; scutellum usually rounded behind :

RUTELID 4.

© C. Tarsal claws equal; anterior cox conical and prominent ;

scutellum usually triangular and pointed. ..CETONIID.&.

Family XXX. DYNASTIDA.

This name has the same origin as the English word dynasty, which
means sovereignty, and it has been given to these beetles on account of
(Fig. 38.] their generally large size and im-
4 posing aspect. The family con-
tains the largest insects in the
order of Coleoptera, some of the
tropical species being more than
two inches and a half long, and
more than an inch in thickness.
- We have one species in the
Southern States, the Dynastes Ti-
tyus, Linn. (Fig. 38), which is two
inches long, of a greenish-gray
color, with scattered black spots;
there is a long horn on the head
and another on the thorax, with
a smaller one each side of it;
the female has only a tubercle
on the head. ‘Another species,
Dynastes Tityus, Linn. :—after Riley. the Ayloryctes satyrus, Fab., an
inch or more in length and of a black color, and with an upright horn
on the head of the male, is not uncommon in the Northern and Middle
States. Its larvee are sometimes injurious to ash trees by feeding upon
their roots.

In the genus Ligyrus, Burm., the head has two very small tubercles,
and the general aspect is much like the common chafers, but they are
distinguished at once by their black color. The L. relictus, Say, is a
very common species. It is three-quarters of an inch long; its larva

LAMELLICORN DUNG-BEETLES. 85

is one of the white grubs, and is often found in old rotted manure. Cyclo-
cephala, Latr., forms a connecting link between this family and the Ru-
telidie, all the species being of medium size, of a light-yellowish color,
and with the head and thorax wholly unarmed. In its general aspect,
therefore, it resembles the latter; but it wants the inequality of the
‘tarsal claws, which is the most distinctive character of the Rutelide,
whilst the clypeus is almost consolidated with the front, and the labrum
is hidden beneath it as in the Dynastide.

Family XX XI. MELOLONTHIDA.

This is much the most numerous family of Lamellicorns in the North
American fauna. They can be easily distinguished, for the most part,
(Fig: 39. by their oblong, somewhat

cylindrical form, their uni-
formly brown color, and by
the hooks of the tarsi, which
are of equal length, and bifid
or forked at the extremity.
The genus Melolontha proper,
(Polyphylla, Harris,) differs
from all our other Lamelli-
corns in having seven leafets
in the club of the antenne of
the males, and five in those of
- the females, whilst almost all
‘i ma Lamellicorns have but three
PHYLLOPHAGA (LACHNOSTERNA) FUSCA, Frohl ; qUERCINA, in both sexes. They also dif-

d

Bie id back pote ees , larva; 3, 4, beetle, fan from the majority of Melo-
lonthides in being ornamented with spots or stripes which are produced
by prostrate white hairs. The species of the genus Hoplia are also
variegated with patches of minute white scales; avd Macrodactylus,
with scales of an ochreous color. The bifid tips of the hooks at the end
of the tarsi can be easily seen with a simple lens, and furnish one of
the most distinctive characters of this sub family. The tarsal hooks of
Hoplia, however, are anomalous. The hind feet have but a single
hook which is generally entire ; in the four anterior feet the hooks are
double as usual, but unequal, the outer one being larger and bifid at
the tips. This genus is also peculiar in having but one spur at the end
of the tibie. The remarkable genus Lichnanthe is regarded by some as

forming the type of a distinct sub-family.

86 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

The following table shows the principal N. American genera of Melo-
lonthides, east of the Rocky Mountains :

A. Elytra narrowed and sometimes separate at their tips ; tarsal claws equal and simple; whole body,

except elytra, covered with long dense hairs.......-.2......-2<22---s-coene-eeon- LICHNANTHE, 4.
A A. Elytra not dehiscent; some or all of the-tarsal claws bifid; body not conspicuously hairy.
B. ‘Tibiz with one spur, and hind tarsi with a single entire claw..-.---.--.--.--- ------ Hop.ta, 11-

BB. Tibize with two spurs ; all the tarsi with two bifid claws.
C. Club of antenne with seven leafets in the male and sixin the female; body spotted or stri-
ped with short, prostrate, whitish bairsis..2:+... 2222-222. seende> ce aeeee ee ee POLYVHYLLA, 7.
CC. Club of antennze with 3 leafets; color generally uniform.

D. Claws chelate or capable of being folded down upon the last tarsal joint, minutely cleft at
the end, the teeth lying side by side; body parallel and depressed ...DICHELONYCHA, 14.

DD. Claws not chelate, strongly bifid, one tooth above the other; body convex.
E. Anterior cox not prominent; ventral segments soldered together with their sutures

indistinct ; medium or large insects, usually more than half an inch in length:
PHYLLOPHAGA, 66.
EE. Anterior cox elongated and prominent; ventral segments distinct; small species ;
less than half an inch in length.

F. Body densely clothed with ochreous scales; tarsi very long. .-.. MACRODACTYLUS, 3-
FF. Body usually clothed with a fine silken pubescense; ventral segments six; hind
CORP IVE GY ADE OAC pete eee teers ae eee ee eet SERICA, 16.

! EE. Body naked; glabrous; ventral segments five; hind cox normal :
DIPLOTAXIS, 39.
Lichnanthe vulpina, Hentz, is a little more than half an inch long,
and is at once distinguished by its elytra being narrowed and separated
at their ends, and by the body being densely clothed with long rust-
yellow hairs. It is quite a rare insect.
The L. lupina, LeConte, found on the Atlantic coast, is much smaller
than the above, and less densely clothed with cinereous hairs. The ely-
tra in this species do not separate at the tip.

The Hoplia trifasciata, Say, is about a third of an inch long, reddish
brown, and more or less covered with whitish scales, which are so ar-
ranged on the elytra as to form three imperfect transverse bands,
fH, modesta, Hald., is smaller and paler, and the clothing of the elytra
resembles hairs more than scales. The other species are more rare, aud
several of them inhabit California. Two species of Polyphylla are
found in the Eastern States: P. occidentalis, Linn., in the Southern At-
lantic States—often more than an inch in length, with the white down
on the elytra arranged in regular stripes; and, P. variolosa, Hentz,
found in the Middle States, and as far North as Massachusetts—less
than an inch in length, and having the elytra irregularly spotted in-
stead of striped. The club of the antenne is much longer in the males |
than in the females, a character not peculiar, however, to this genus.

Dichelonycha, Kirby, is composed of a considerable number of small,
elongated, depressed species, usually having the elytra more or less ,
tinted with brassy-green, and often requiring a close examination to |
(distinguish one species from another. Our two common species are the
elongata, Fab., and the linearis of Gyllenhal. They differ slightly in

LEAF-CHAFERS. Si

color and in the form of the thorax; but as these characters are varia-
ble in both species, it would, perhaps, be more correct to regard them
only as varieties.

The genus Phyllophaga, Harris, (Lachnosterna, Hope,) is very numer-
ous in species, many of which, however, bear a close resemblance to
each other. It is emphatically, but not exclusively, a North American
genus, 66 of the 116 known species being found in this country. They
may be divided into five groups, according to the clothing of the body.
In the first and most numerous group, of which the common May-beetle,
P. fusca, may be taken as the type, the upper side is smooth and shin-
ing. ‘The second group contains but one species, the P. lanceolata, Say,
found mostly west of the Mississippi river, and remarkable for having
the body clothed with small lance-shaped cinereous scales. In the third
group the body is more or less clothed above with soft erect hairs. wo
species of this group are common in some localities, the P. hirticula,
Knoch, and the L. Georgicana, of Gyllenhal. Inthe former the hairs
on the elytra are arranged mostly in three rows, whilst in the latter
they are equally distributed. The fourth group contains a small num-
ber of large species, in which the whole upper surface is densely clothed
with short prostrate hairs or down. The P. ilicis, Knoch, is the type of
this group. The fifth group is composed of comparatively small spe-
cies, about half an inch in length, of a pale color, partly smooth above,
but with the thorax and base of the elytra densely clothed with long

hairs. The P. tristis, Fab., the same as the P. pilosicollis, Knoch, the

type of this group, is not uncommon, One other species is found in
Texas. There is also a number of small pale species, half an inch or
less in length, with the body glabrous, which might constitute a sixth
group. The P. longitarsis, Say, is the type of this group, remarkable,
as its name implies, for the length of the tarsi.

It must be remarked that all the species of this genus are densely
hairy on the under side of the breast, as indicated by the generic term

_ Lachnosterna, of Hope.

The common Rose-bug, (M. subspinosus, Fab.) is the type of the genus
Macrodactylus, Latr., a word meaning long tarsus. The Rose-bug is be-
tween three and a half and four-tenths of an inch in length, covered all
over with minute ochre-yellow scale-lie hairs, which are not distinctly
visible without the aid of a magnifier. The thorax is also somewhat

densely clothed with short upright hairs. A specimen from Georgia,
_ with the hairs more conspicuous, has been described by Dr. LeConte

under the name setulosus. Another species, the angustatus, Pal. de
Beauy., found in the Southern States, is distinguished by its longer
thorax, and the absence of the erect hairs. The genus is exclusively

88 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

American, but most of the species are found south of the Gulf of
Mexico. .

The genus Serica is distinguished by the soft silken pubescence with
which the body is covered, and which is beautifully iridescent, that is,
reflecting the colors of the rainbow. Where this character is deficient,
as it is in a few species, they can be readily determined by the remark-
able widening of the hind cox, which form a broad plate covering the
base of the abdomen, and which are at least as wide as any two ab-
dominal segments. The ground color is dark reddish-brown, or almost
black. We have three rather common species: the S. sericea, Iliger,
between three and four tenths of an inch in length, of a dark purple
tint; the S. tricolor, Say, scarcely three-tenths of an inch long, almost
black, and distinguished by the erect hairs with which the thorax is
clothed ; and the S. vespertina, Sch., of the same size as the sericea, but
destitute of the iridescent pubescence.

Diplotaxis, Kirby, Gontains a large number of small species, from
three to five-tenths of an inch long, and of a reddish brown or black
color, and often closely resembling each other. They resemble the
genus serica in general appearance, but are distinguished by the hind
coxe not being unusually dilated, and the want of pubescence; one
species, however, the sordida, Say, forms a connecting link, in this re-
spect, by being clothed with erect hairs.

Family XXXII. RUTELID.

(Fie. 40.|

The most distinetive charac-
ters of the Rutelides are their
unequal tarsal claws, and their
usually fine or brilliant colors.
But our most common species,
the Anomal, though glabrous,
are not brilliant, and might be
mistaken for Melolonthi ; but
the unequal and uneleft poste-
rior claws readily distinguish
Scie them. Most of the insects of this
eh sub-family are tropical. Nine-
Sr teen N. A. species are known,
m more than half of which belong
PELIDNOTA PUNCTATA, Linn.:—a, larva; e, its antenna ; to the genus Anomala. This

ff. leg i d, tip of abdomen; b, pupa, in its cell, the walls
of ch 5 sed of i Pow <cre- 5 ‘ . 7
of which are composed of particles of wood and excre sub-family, like the preceding

ment; c, beetle—after Riley.

LEAF-CHAFERS. 89
rere Ie EOS heh SET a A he 9 STR i ee | call a

one, contains a number of species which are seriously injurious to the
horticulturist by devouring the leaves of both ornamental and fruit
trees, and especially those of the grape vine.

The table of genera is as follows:

A. Elytra with a very narrow membraneous margin. One of the anterior and middle claws cleft.
Size below medium.
B. Elytra strongly furrowed, with a small notch at base. Thorax impressed, and hairy :
STRIGODERMA, 2
BB. Elytra puncto-striate, and without notch. Thorax plain, and nearly or quite hairless :
ANOMALA, 10
AA. Elytra without membrane. Claws all simple. Size above medium.
C. Clypeus separated from the front by a distinct suture._.................-.....----. COTALPA, 5
Cle elypausmotdistinetdrom the! front: 44545. 4: 2-a-20e8 eee eee PELIDNOYA, 2

The Strigoderma arboricola, Fab., is four-tenths of an inch long ; head,
disk of thorax, and tip of abdomen blackish; elytra and broad margin
of thorax yellowish-brown.

We have two common species of Anomala, the varians and the luci-
cola, of Fabricius, which have been much confounded by authors. <Ac-
cording to the diagnosis of Burmeister, probably founded, as Dr. Le-
Conte suggests, upon the Fabrician types, the species so common on
grape vines at the West, having the elytra faintly striate, and spotted
with black so as to form two imperfect bands, and with the mesosternum
only slightly carinate, is the true varians of Fabricius, whilst the lweicola
has deeply striate elytra without bands, and the mesosternum strongly
protuberant. But the lucicola usually has the vertex and dise of the
thorax black, and individuals of both species sometimes occur which
are wholly black.

The type of the genus Cotalpa is the common goldsmith beetle, Co-
talpa lanigera, of Linneus. The Pelidnota punctata, Linn., (Fig. 40) is
also a large and common species, found feeding upon the leaves of the
grape vine. It is nearly an inch long, of a bay color, with three black
spots on each wing-cover. Its larva, as Mr. Riley has ascertained, feeds
on the decaying roots and stumps of various trees.

Family XXXIII. CETONIIDZ.
(Fig. 41.]

: inn.: ; 3 stle; d, e, f, g, mandible, an-
iM? LLORHINA) NITIDA, Linn.:—a, larva; b, pupa; c, male beetle; d, e, J, 9,
ig ae fo leg and maxillary palpus of larva—after Riley.

—12

90 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

——=

In addition to the characters given in the table of families, the Ceto-
niide are distinguished by being somewhat flattened, or nearly level
on the back, whilst the Lamellicorns generally are regularly convex ;
the elytra are a little narrower at the tip than at the base, and in the
Cetoniides proper the side pieces of the mesothorax are continued up-
wards, so as to form a little piece which is easily seen at the shoulders,
between the thorax and the elytra. The scutellum is longer than it is
broad, and almost always triangular and pointed, whilst in both the
Melolonthides and Rutelides it is as broad as it is long, and rounded
behind. The Cetoniides proper are one of the most splendid groups of
Coleopterous insects, and some of the tropical species vie in magnitude
with the Dynastides. Indeed the Goliathus giganteus, of Lamark, from
the west coast of Africa, is probably the largest Coleopterous insect
known, being upwards of four inches in length, and two inches in
breadth. The Cetoniz do not raise their elytra in flying like other bee-
tles, but spread their wings out laterally from beneath them, the elytra
being a little hollowed behind the shoulders, to facilitate the operation.
These are pre-eminently flower-beetles, and the mouth organs are fur-
nished with a brush of hairs with which they collect the pollen. Many
of the Cetonix differ in their habits from the majority of herbivorous
Lamellicorns, by being actively diurnal, being often seen feeding upon
pollen, and flying from flower to flower, in the heat of the day. We
have in N. America eighteen species of Cetoniides proper, and twenty
species belonging to the aberrant genera.

Our species of Cetoniides form six genera, which are very unlike in
color and general appearance.

A. Side pieces of the mesothorax visible above; thorax somewhat triangular or trapezoidal, and
nearly as wide at base as the elytra. Cetoniides proper.

B. Thorax with a lobe behind representing and covering the scutellum..........-...-. GYMNETIS, 2

IBD.» CULL NM MISlINCh. s* eaef teases Mickie kee eee ca coc e niches see eee ae ee eee EvuRYOMIA, 14

A A. Side pieces scarcely or not visible above; thorax roundish or square, and decidedly narrower
than the elytra.
C. Body almost naked; color black.
D. Thorax square, with prominent angles. Clypeus turned up in front. Size medium:

CREMASTOCHILUS, 13
DD. Thorax roundish, with obtuse angles. Clypeus plane. Size very large:

‘ OSMODERMA, 3
CC. Body densely clothed with hairs or scales; colors various.

E. Hind coxw contiguous. Body hairy; colors variegated.................---. TrICHIUS, 5
EE. Hind cox wide apart. Body covered with minute scales ; ground color dark brown :

VALGUS, 3

The Gynnetis nitida, Linn., (Fig. 41) is a beautiful velvetty-green bee-
tle, three-quarters of an inch long, the bodies margined all around with
orange-yellow, found throughout the Eastern States. Its larva has been
found by Mr. Riley feeding on strawberry roots, and when out of the
ground crawls with ease on its back. The Huryomia fulgida, Fab., is a
glossy green species, two-thirds of an inch long; the elytra tinted with

LEAF-CHAFERS. 91

pale bronze, and with an irregular number of minute white points, and
four large white spots on the tip of the abdomen. It is found on flowering
shrubs, and is not uncommon at the west. The Hur. Inda, Linn., is our
most common species of Cetonia. It varies in length from half to two-
thirds of an inch; it is of a yellowish-brown color, the elytra sprinkled
all over with small irregular black spots. Itis sometimes troublesome by
burrowing into ripe fruit, and also by feeding upon sweet corn in the
milk. The larva, probably, like those of other known species, live in
rotten wood, as the perfect insects are often seen flying over chip-yards,
probably in search of a convenient nidus for their eggs. The H. melan-
cholica is a much smaller species, almost black, with irregular transverse
white lines on the elytra.

Cremastochilus, Knoch, contains a considerable number of rather rare
species, half an inch or a little less in length, of a deep black color,
sometimes with a few small white marks on the elytra. The mouth is
peculiarly constructed. The clypeus or anterior margin of the head
is thickened, and turned up, and the mentum is much enlarged, project-
ing forward so as to almost close the oral cavity, and its sides hang
down like two curtains, which suggested the generic name, which means
hanging lip. They have been found under stones beneath which were
ants’ nests ; but their natural history is imperfectly known.

Osmoderma contains three American and one European species. The
O. eremicola, Knoch, is upwards of an inch in length, black, with a
faint chestnut tint, and with a smooth shining surface. The O. scabra,
P. de B., is an inch long, black, the elytra being rough, with irregular,
coarsely punctured striw. Trichius, Fab., is composed of a number of
closely allied species or varieties, the type of which is the 7. lunulatus,
Fab., a very common and pretty insect, often seen upon flowers in our
gardens, basking in the hot sunshine, but readily taking to flight. It
is a little less than four-tenths of an inch in length; the thorax dark
brassy-green, the elytra more or less reddish on the dise, widely bor-
dered with black, and with two transverse white marks on the side of
each elytron. The under side is densely hairy.

Valgus contains three small brown species, densely covered with mi-
nute whitish scales. They are easily distinguished by their distant pos-
terior coxe, and their much shortened elytra.

Sixth Sub-section, SHRRICORNES.

i Antennz serrate or saw-toothed. Food-habits various.

This sub-section of beetles with five-jointed feet is primarily distin-
guished, as its name implies, by the serrate or saw-toothed character of
the antenne. The serrate antenna is similar to the filiform in being
slender, and usually of the same width throughout; but differs from it in

92 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

having each joint project more or less inwards, that is, towards the anten-
nv of the opposite side, so as to give it a saw-toothed appearance; and this
projection sometimes extends so far as to form what is called the pectinate
or comb-toothed antenna; and when these processes are nearly as long
as the antenna itself, they form what is called the flabellate, or branched
antenna. but in many of the insects which are naturally classed in this
sub-section this character of the antenne is either wholly wanting, or
so slightly developed that it can be scarcely distinguished from the fili-
form, and therefore it cannot be relied upon by the student without the
aid of other characters. The only other insects of the pentamerous
section, however, with which they could be confounded are the Filicornes
proper of the first subsection, comprising the predaceous Ground-beetles,
Cicindelide and Carabide, and the predaceous Water-beetles or Dytis-
cide. From the latter they are distinguished, not only by the want of
any general resemblance, but more definitely by their legs not being
fitted for swimming. And the ground beetles are distinguished by hav-
ing apparently six palpi, and more conspicuously by their large egg-
shaped posterior trochanters.

The Serricornes, as a whole, do not constitute a natural division,
being composed of two very dissimilar tribes, viz: the saw-horned
wood-beetles, comprising the families Buprestide and Elateridex, and
the soft-winged carnivorous beetles, Lampyridx, Telephoride, ete.; and
in addition to these a number of small groups (Ptinide, Lymexylonide,
Rhipiceride and Cupeside,) which do not strictly belong to either of
the leading tribes, but which are usually classed with one or the other
to avoid the creation of a great number of primary groups.* In accord-
ance with our plan of classifying insects, as nearly as possible, accord-
ing to their habits and the nature of their food, and at the same time
leaving the two large and natural tribes just referred to undisturbed by
discordant elements, we have adopted the expedient of throwing to-
gether a number of these small and heterogeneous families, under the
title of Aberrant Wood-beetles. Thus arranged the Serricorn Coleoptera
will form three tribes, which may be designated as follows:

1st Tribe. Saw-horned wood-beetles. STERNOXI, Latreille. Head in-
serted in the thorax as far as the eyes. Antenne serrate or filiform.
Pro-sternum advanced in front, and also prolonged behind into a point
which is received into a cavity of the meso-sternum. Body elongate,
or elliptical, moderately convex, and of a very hard consistency. Legs
short and retractile. Anterior and middle cox small and globulus.
Families: Buprestidae, Elateride and Cebrionide.

* “The creation of new families is a measure which should not be resorted to except at the last ex.
tremity.”—LACORDAIRE, Genera des Col., LV, 258.

SAW-HORNED WOOD BEETLES. 93

2d Tribe. Aberrant wood-beetles. XyLorRoGi partly, Latreille. Body
Short, with the head bent under the thorax, or elongate, with the head
free. Antenne various. Families: Ptinide, Lymexylonide, Rhipice-
ride and Cupeside.

3d Tribe. Soft-winged predaceous beetles. MALACODERMI, Latreille.
Head free, but often partly or wholly covered by the thin anterior mar-
gin of the thorax. Antenne serrate or filiform. Body more or less
elongated, and depressed, soft, and with flexible elytra. Anterior cox
conical and prominent, with large trochantins.* Families: Lampyride,
Telephoridx, Melyride, Cleride, Dascyllide.

~

TRIBE IX.

SAW-HORNED WOOD-BEETLES.
Lignivora serricornia. STERNOXI, Latreille.

The term Sternoxi, meaning sharp-breasted, given to these insects by
Latreille, refers to their most distinctive character, namely, the exten-
sion of the pro-sternum or front breast-plate, backwards in the form of
a sharp point, which is received into a corresponding notch or cavity in
the meso-sternum. The sternum is also much advanced in front, and
the fore legs are set remarkably far back from its anterior edge. The
anterior cox:e or hip-pieces are almost globular, but not prominent.
The antenne are rather short, sometimes distinctly serrate, and some-
times simply filiform. ‘The legs are short and capable of being con-
tracted closely upon the body. They are of an oblong form, and usually
of a very hard consistency. The larve will be described under their
respective families. They are vegetable feeders, and are generally found
in wood in a state of partial decay. The two first families are numerous
in species, but the Cebrionide are few and rare, and no species has
been found in the Northern States.

They comprise the three following families :
A. Body very firm; prosternal point elongated ; abdomen with five segments.
B. Prosternal point immovable; antenne finely serrate; anterior and middle legs
with trochantins; colors metallic .............--.---+++-ee:- BUPRESTID:.
BB. Prosternal point movable; antenne often filiform; legs without trochantins ;
colors generally brown or black, and with the surface usually finely pu-

Okan t Se ee ANIGe nooo OOD ORO DO GomaLO DOT SOC GO OC ELATERIDA.
A A. Body moderately firm; prosternal point short; abdomen with six segments :
CEBRIONIDA3.

* The trochantin is an additional or supernumerary joint between the cox and the thigh, giving
the latter the appearance of being composed of two pieces.

94 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Family XXXIV. BUPRESTID.

The name Buprestis was given by the ancients to some kind of noxi-
ous insects which cannot now be determined ; but it was subsequently
given by Linneus to the insects of the present
family. They might properly be called, in Eng-
\ylish, metallic beetles, in reference to their very
hard and inflexible bodies, and their metallic col-
oring. They are further distinguished by their
short, slender and finely but distinctly serrate
antenne, and the presence of trochantins in the
anterior and middle legs. They are usually of an
oblong elliptical form, and somewhat depressed
or flattened, but some of the smaller species are

either elongate, slender, and almost cylindrical,
Pape THRIS | FEMORATA, or short and ovate. The scutellum is very small
apple tree, and of the soft ma-, : shines ré 7 The R ‘estids are
ple a, latva: e head of larva, ant ones is Ww dass as mics me
after Riles. , pre-eminently a tropical family, and in those tor
rid regions they attain a large size, and reflect the light from their pol-
ished bodies with an almost dazzling brilliancy.

The larve present two very distinct forms. The usual form is at
once distinguished from all other Coleopterous larvie by the enormous
development of the first segment of the body, into which the head is
partly retractile. The other segments are narrow and slightly flattened.
This form of the larve has caused them to be compared with tadpoles,
and the French authors describe them as resembling a pestle. They
are wholly destitute of legs.

These larvee usually reside under the bark of trees in a state of inci-
pient decay, but some of them penetrate into the solid wood. Some of
the smaller species inhabit the stems of small trees or shrubs, causing
them to enlarge so as to resemble galls. An example of the former is
the flat-headed borer of the apple and soft maple trees; and an example
of the latter is the raspberry cane borer, or larve of the Agrilus rujicollis.

The other form of Buprestide larva is that of the Brachyides or short-
bodied Buprestidz. In these the first segment is not enlarged, the
body is slender and tapering, and each of the three first segments is
furnished with a pair of very small feet, placed wide apart. These spe-
cies are all very small, and such of them as are known are leaf-miners.
Tn an economical point of view, the Buprestidse occupy a peculiar po-
sition, intermediate between the genuine wood-borers (Cerambycide
and Scolytids), which bore into the solid wood of trees, and those kind
of wood-beetles which (like the Elaterids and many of the Heteromer-

SAW HORNED WOOD-BEETLES. 95

ous beetles) inhabit wood and bark in an advanced state of decay. In
accordance with this position, they are usually the first insects to attack

trees which have been injured by sun-scald, or which have otherwise
had their vitality weakened.

The following are the genera of Buprestide:

A. Hind coxal plates* much widened at their inner extremities. Body oblong and somewhat de-
pressed, and more or less elliptical or narrowed at the two extremities. Size usually large or
medium. (Buprestides proper.)
B. The epimera (or hinder side pieces) of the metasterrum triangular and exposed ; prosternum

acutely angulated behind.
C. Mesosternum and metasternum united without suture. First joint of the hind tarsi as long
as the second and third united. Size large or very large.-...........--.. CHALCOPHORA, 7 sp.

CC. Mesosternal suture distinct; size rather large or medium.
D. Elytra tapering to a point and slightly separated at their tips ; 1st joint of hind tarsi scarcely
HOME ORGAN 2 Meso a annie ae aasisie aeioe ej hoc aes nina he oe ae aOR arise eee DICERCA, 24 sp.
DD. Elytra moderately narrowed behind. 1st tarsal joint elongated.........- BUPRESTIS, 23 sp.
BB. Epimera of the metasternum partly covered by an anterior prolongation of the margin of the
abdomen. Prosternum acutely angulated behind.
K. Front with a pit or depression for the insertion of the antennze. Size moderate:
CURYSOBOTHRIS, 43 sp.
E. Front without pit. Size small.
F. Thorax waving at its junction with the elytra.......--...........-- MELANOPHILA, 10 sp.
Hany enborax: cub) Sirai ght) across: behind! << 3 5see ess. 42. sees cee ewe eee ANTHAXIA, 14.
A A. Hind coxal plates but little widened at their inner extremities. Size never above medium ;
usually small or very small.
G. Front without pitsfor the insertion of the antennze. Thorax straight behind: Scu-
tellum none. Body clothed with short erect hairs. Colors often variegated :
ACMAODERA, 23 sp.
GG. Front pitted for antennz. Thorax angulated behind. Scutellum distinct. Body not

hairy.
H. Body elongated, narrow, almost cylindrical. Prosternum without grooves for the
Teceptuoniot, the sNbeNn es am ses eee see e see aeee ence ee aep eee eee AGRILOS, 40 sp.
BH. Body short and broad. Prosternum with grooves for the antennw. Tarsi very
short.
I. Body ovate; scutellum small; tibiw slender..............---.----- BRACHYsS, 8 sp.”
II. Body sub-triangular ; scutel large; tibiw dilated...........-..-- METONIUS, 2 sp.

The largest N. A. species of Buprestis is the Chalcophora virginiensis
of Drury, nearly or quite an inch in length, of a dark coppery or black-
ish color, and a very uneven surface, caused by elevated lines and de-
pressed square-shaped spots. The larva inhabits the trunks of different
kinds of pine trees, and the perfect insects are to be found, therefore,
only in pine growing regions. The Dicerca divaricata, Say, is three-
quarters of an inch or more in length, copper colored, with a granulated
surface. It is distinguished at once by its tapering elytra, separated at
the tips. Its larva bores into the trunks of cherry and peach trees.
We have another, smaller and more obscure species, the D. lurida, Fab.,
the larva of which inhabits the hickory. The Chrysobothris femorata,
(Fig. 42) an obscure bronze-black species, rather less than half an inch
in length, is the parent of the well known jflat-headed borer, so injurious
to apple trees, and also to the soft maple.

* The hind coxal plates are the flat and narrow transverse pieces which border the under side of the
thorax behind, and are separated by a suture from the metasternum. They are marked C X P in
Fig. 3.

96 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

The genus Acmeodera, Esch., contains a number of small species of a
bronzed-brown color, sometimes with purple and green reflections, and
the elytra prettily spotted with yellow. The colors are somewhat ob-
secured by the surface being clothed with stiff erect hairs. The A. tubu-
lus, Fab., and the A. pulchella, Herbst, are the most common species.
They are often found in abundance on the flowers of the Coreopsis.

The genus Agrilus, Solier, is easily recognized by the elongate, slen-
der, and cylindrical form of the species. The raspberry borer, Agrilus
ruficolis, Fab., may be taken as the American type of this genus. It is
three-tenths of an inch long, black, with a coppery-red thorax.

Buprestis, including Anchylochira, Esch., is composed of species mostly
between a half and three-quarters of an inch in length, of a brassy-
green or a brassy-black color, and often ornamented with yellow spots
on the elytra; some also have yellow spots on the sides of the venter.

The species of Melanophila, Esch., are from three to five-tenths of an
inch in length, black, sometimes with obscure bronze or purple tints.
Some species have four yellow dots on each elytron.

The species of Anthaxia, Esch., are less than three-tenths of an inch
long, brassy-black, and without spots. The head and thorax are sculp-
tured with shallow punctures, with the intervening lines forming a fine
net-work.

We have two common species of Brachys, Sol., the ovata, Weber, and
the wrosa, Melsh., (terminans ? Fab.) ; and several rarer species, some
of which may be only varieties or races of the first. The 6. ovata is
two-tenths of an inch or more in length, of a bronze color, variegated
with spots and imperfect transverse waving bands of whitish and cop-
per colored pubesence. The B. terminans is smaller and less distinctly
variegated, but most readily distinguished by the pale tips of the elytra.
Metonius, Say, (Pachyscelus, Solier,) has two species, about an eighth of
an inch in length; the levigatus, Say, wholly black; and the purpurea,
Say, black, with dark-blue elytra.

Family XXXV. ELATERIDE.

The term elater applied to these insects by Linneeus, and the name
ship-jacks, sometimes given to them by English authors, have reference
Fig. 44. to their most striking peculiarity, that of having the faculty,
a when placed on their backs, of righting themselves by a
spasmodie jerk, by which they are thrown several inches
from the surface upon which they are placed. In this oper-
ation the sharp point which projects backwards from the
pro-sternum is thrown violently into the corresponding
socket in the meso-sternum.

ELATER.

SAW-HORNED WOOD-BEETLES. 97

They are distinguished from the allied Buprestide, not only by this
saltatory power, but also by the posterior angles of the thorax being
prolonged backwards toa point, so as to [Fig. 44]
embrace the base of the elytra, and by the
bases of the thorax and of the elytra slop- Gute ies
ing downwards towards each other, which, in addition to a slight sepa-
ration between them, permits the freedom of motion which these parts
have upon each other. The thighs moreover are almost or entirely des-
titute of the accessory joint at their base called the trochantin. The
elaters are also readily distinguished by their usually dull brown colors,
very rarely changing to black or red, and by their surface being almost
always clothed with a fine pubescence.

The larve are elongate, slender, of the same width throughout and of
a hard and almost horny consistency, and furnished with short legs.
The last segment is sometimes forked at the extremity, sometimes 3-
toothed, and sometimes entire. They bear a strong resemblance to the
meal-worms or larve of Tenebrio, but differ in the structure of their
mouths.

These larve go by the common name of wire-worms. With respect
to their food they may be divided into two classes: those which live in
rotten wood, being frequently found under the bark of decayed stumps
and prostrate logs, and sometimes, but rarely, penetrating into solid
wood* ; and those which feed upon the roots of grasses and of other
plants. The natural food of the larve of the latter division appears to
be the roots of grasses, both wild and cultivated, but from these they
spread to the roots of almost all kinds of cultivated plants, including
Indian corn and the small grains, and various kinds of garden vegeta-
bles. In some localities they rank amongst injurious insects of a very
serious character.

The Elateride constitute one of the most extensive, and one of the
most natural families of Coleoptera, but their division into minor groups
is very difficult, on account of the great numbers and the strong general
resemblance of the species. In treating upon this subject, Lacordaire
makes the following remark: ‘The classification of this family presents
extreme, and perhaps insurmountable difficulties. If we examine the
works of the most recent authors, Germar and Erichson, we shall see
that both of them despair of the classification of these insects. The
latter, indeed, has expressed the wish that some new characters may yet

*Mr. C. V. Riley has shown me a specimen of Hemirhipis facicularis, Fab., distinguished for its
beautifully pectinated antennze, which was reared by him from a larva which he found boring through
the heart wood of the Pecan Hickory, thus proving that some of the Elateride are genuine wood-borers
and corroborating the propriety of placing them in the same tribe with the wood-boring Buprestidie.
[Since the above was written, Mr. Riley informs me that he strongly suspects that the Hemirhipis
larva was preying on that of Clytus pictus which was boring the same tree, and not feeding on the
wood itself. ]

98 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

be found which will enable us to establish it upon rational bases; but
many months’ assiduous labor compels me to declare that such characters
do not exist, and that we shall search for them in vain. We must trust
therefore to tradition to supply the inadequacy of science.”

They comprise two well marked but very unequal sub-families, as
follows:

First Sub-family, Huenemides. Antenne inserted upon the front.
Head bent down upon the breast in repose.

Second Sub-family, Hlaterides. Antenne inserted under the margin of
the front. Head directed forwards.

Sub-family EUCNEMIDES.

This sub-family.is composed of a moderate number of small, compa-
ratively rare, black or brown insects, and more or less clothed with
minute yellow hairs. They resemble the Elaterides in their elongated
slender forms, but are distinguished by their vertical heads, the mouth
being inferior, and not anterior as in the Elaters. The antenne also,
as a general rule, are more strongly serrate, and in the males often pec-
tinate or even flabellate. The palpi are often terminated by a widened
or hatchet-shaped joint. Whilst the perfect insects strongly resemble
the Elaterides, such of their larve as are known have a striking resem-
blance to those of the preceding family of Buprestide, both in form and
habits, being abruptly enlarged at their anterior extremity, and being
found in wood in an incipient state of decay.

The following tables exhibit those genera which are most common or
most numerous in species :

A. Antenne inserted in pits on the front, at some distance apart; claws not serrate.
B. Maxillary palpitwith the last joint acute: -£t252 22.0 bee a ooo see eee oe aes aoe MELASIS, 4 sp.
BB. Maxillary palpi with the last joint dilated.
C. Grooves for the antenne under the margin of the thorax.

DD, Antennas, Serrate 2. c2cenci2een ce eee co acuisebelweae neseins accesses escemece cece EUCNEMIs, 3.

Di Ds? Antenne filiformitjo-t224)-: beers. eee eee, eas ee See eee eee Fornax, 14.

CC. Antennal’ grooves wanting.>.-- «so. .-—5s0.- - eeces ose anon scene gana teeeee NEMATODEs, 3.

AA. Antenne inserted close together on the front; claws serrate..............--.-- CEROPHYTUM, 2.

Sub-family ELATERIDES.

A. Sternum with deep grooves for the reception of the antennw...........-------.- ADELOCERA, 16 sp.
AA. Sternal grooves obsolete or wanting.
B. Mesosternum connate with the metasternum ; very large species clothed with whitish scales,
and; with twoeye-like spots on the thorax «6+ h. ee doe ce eee hee eae ALAUS, 4.
BB. Mesosternal suture distinct, and without the other above mentioned characters.
C. Hind coxal plates suddenly dilated inwards, and prolonged into a tooth at the posterior an-
gle; claws never pectinate. ~
D. Prosternal spine truucate; scutellum heart shaped ....-..-..---------- CARDIOPHORUS, 32.
DD. Pro-sternal spine acute; scute!lum oval.
E. Anterior margin of the front not elevated ; coxal plates moderately dilated ; large species
With distinetly serrate an tenn 1c.) een cre ame eetatale mie ete eters siete alate Sines Luvius, 5.

SAW HORNED WOOD-BEETLES. 99

EE. Anterior margin of the front slightly elevated, forming a transverse ridge which
separates the front from the upper lip. Size sometimes large, but usually medium or
small.

F. Prosternal sutures single and convex on the outer side; tarsi slender; size small:
CRYPTOHYPNUS, 31.
FF. Prosternal sutures double and straight, or concave on the outward side.

Gy arsivsimpleisi2-..o4 oc i= stad «9 ase seis hero oslo sates aaeee ee eee eee ELATER, 51.
G76. ehoOurtbitarsal joumtiOiloObeWs- 554986 tase esee eee eeceee cee. Monocrerivius, 15.
GIG Ga second and: third) yjomis lobedttecsceeeese- cose es sense ec eeee eee DICREPIDIUS, &.

CC. Hind coxal plates gradually and but slightly dilated inwardly and often without a sharp
posterior angle; claws sometimes pectinate.

Hep eH ront convex: smMOUbh wtenlOl- =. cee ses cme e elses see lee eeee ea eats AGRIOTES, 12.
HH. Front flattened, and with an elevated margin; mouth anterior.
I Claws pectinate: : <2. costs eS h Soe diocesan tek Saccee MELANOTUS, 47.

II. Claws simple.
K. Eyes prominent; 1st joint of hind tarsi as long as the 2d and 3d united :

. ATHOUS, 25.
KK. Eyes small; 1st joint of hind tarsi less elongated. .....-...---- LIMONIts, 39.
HAH. Front flattened, without elevated margin ; mouth anterior.
i. Sizelarge;; colorshining black... .-- 2. -.s22<.j.<-m6<-se0=5< 05 MELANACTES, 8.
olse | SiIZesmouerate;, COLOLS) VaALLOUS=- 95 - -ss-<eacce aeeeemeeecere CORYMBETES, 93.

The Elaterides proper constitute an extensive series of comparatively
homogeneous insects, the great majority of which are of a uniformly
[Fig. 45.] brown color, and varying in
TH length between one-quarter
: and three-quarters of an inch;
though there are a few large
or very large species. The de-
termination of the genera gud
species of this family requires,
therefore, an amount of study
and an aptness for observa-
tions of this kind, which can
scarcely be expected from
any but professed entomolo-
gists. We will only refer to
a few species which are re-
markable for their size, or
for their exceptionally varied
coloring.

Our largest and most strik-
ing species is the well known
Elater (Alaus) occulatus, of
Linnzeus. It is usually nearly

“1 i on inch and a-half in length,
MELANACTES pIcEUS, DeG.—a, supposed larva, as seen by though sidvaiduals PUM GELS.

day ; b, same as seen by night; ¢, beetle; d, enlarged head f
and parts; e, enlarged leg of same—after Riley. unfre qu ently seen which

a

il i } ij
" ] tag
ad

scarcely exceed an inch. Its gray color is produced by a dense sprink-
ling of small whitish spots and lines upon a black ground. These spots
are composed of minute whitish seale-like hairs. But its most conspic-

100 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

uous character is the two large eye-like spots on the top of the thorax,
which are expressed by the specific name. The larva inhabits partially
decayed wood, and is often found in the trunks of old apple trees. The
Elater rubricollis, Say, is a little more than half an inch long, black,
with a light-red thorax, bordered and pointed behind with black. The
Hlater sanguinipennts, Say, is black, with light-red elytra; three-tenths
of an inchin length. The H. apicatus, Say, is similar, but larger, being
nearly half an inch in length, and the elytra are tipt with black. The
FE. mgricollis, Say, varies from less than half to three-quarters of an
inch in length; black, with whitish elytra. The H. linteus, Say, resem-
bles the last, but is distinguished by having the suture and tip of the
elytra black. HE. scapularis, Say, is a little less than four-tenths of aw
inch long, greenish-black, with the base of the elytra and the hind
points of the thorax, clay-yellow. The tarsal joints are lobed beneath.
It is now included in the genus Athous. The Limonius armus, Say, is
also light-red on the shoulders of the elytra, but the thorax is wholly
black, the tarsi are simple, and the length is only a quarter of an inch.
Several species ot Corymbetes have the elytra brownish-yellow with
transverse zig-zag black bands. C. hieroglyphicus, Say, half an inch
long, has two bands; and C. hamatus, rather smaller, has but one band
near the tip.

The Melanotus jfissilis, Say, (cinereus, Weber?) and the M. communis,
Sch‘, plain brown species, usually about half an inch in length, but
subject to considerable variation in size, are amongst our most common
beetles. The two species closely resemble each other, but the latter is
a little smaller, and the thorax is proportionally longer and less convex.
They are distinguished from other and somewhat similar Elaters by
their pectinate claws. They are sometimes found under the bark of
dead trees, having probably recently emerged from the pupa state.
But they are also found upon the leaves of trees, to which their pecti-
nate claws enable them to adhere. We have repeatedly seen them. at
rest in the enclosure formed by the tying together of the leaves of the
black walnut, by the larvie of the little moth, Phycita juglandis, LeB. ;
but for what purpose was not apparent.

The Melanactes piceus, DeG., (Fig. 45) is a large glossy black species,
an inch or morein length. It is not uncommon in the latitude of south-
ern Illinois, where it is sometimes jarred from peach trees upon the
curculio-catcher. Mr. Riley has found and figured its supposed larva,
which is one of the most beautiful objects, and often attracts the atten-
tion of the curious in the southern part of the State, byits luminosity ;
the amimal glowing in the dark with a beautiful green light as repre-
sented in the figure.

ABERRANT WOOD-BEETLES. 101

TRIBE X.
ABERRANT WOOD-BEETLES.
Tignivora aberrantia.

Under the title of aberrant or exceptional Wood-beetles, as stated in
the general remarks upon the Serricornes, we have included, for the
sake of brevity and convenience, a number of small families, some of
which have but a remote relationship to the others, but which cannot
naturally be united with any of the larger tribes.

This tribe contains two very dissimilar groups. In the first, which is
composed of the family of Ptinidse, including the sub-family of Bostri-
chides, the body is rather short and thick, or moderately elongated and
cylindrical, and the head is bent down and mostly or wholly concealed
under the vaulted or hood-like thorax.

In the other group, which includes the small families of Lymexylo-
nide, Cupesidze and Lyctide, the body is much elongated and often
depressed, and the head is free and exposed, and sometimes attached
to the thorax by a short neck. These three families combined do not
contain more than a dozen known American species, most of which are
rare, and are found mostly under the bark of decaying trees. Many
authors include them in some one or other of the larger families.

Family XXXVI. PTINIDZ.

This is a family of moderate extent, composed of small insects, rarely
exceeding a quarter of an inch in length, and often only about half that
length, and usually of a cinnamon-brown color, sometimes black and some-

[Fig. 46.] times ornamented with patches
of whitish scales. Their most
\ distinctive character is the vault-
ed or hood-like form of the ante-
rior part of the thorax, the head
being bent under it or partly re-
tracted within it, so that it can
be scarcely or not at all seen
when the insect is viewed from
above. The antenne are gener-

a, MNOBIUM PANICEUM, Fab.: 6, its antennw; ¢, PTI- ally a bases
NUS BRUNNEUS, Dufs.—after Riley. 7” they terminate in three larger
joints. The tarsi are simple. The larve resemble those of the Lamelli-
corn beetles, in miniature, being soft and white, and usually lying in a
curved or semi-circular position. They have six legs, but do not use
them in crawling in the usual way, but draw themselves along upon

their sides.

102 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

The Ptini proper subsist upon substances in a state of incipient decay,
and are often found in cellars and out-buildings. The Anobdii are usually
found in wood more or less decayed; but the Bostrichi bore into solid
wood, and are often seriously injurious, more especially to forest trees.
Indeed, the last mentioned insects bear so striking a resemblance, both
in their short cylindrical forms and their eminently wood-boring habits,
to the short-horned wood-borers (Scolytide ), in the tetramerous section,
that one feels strongly tempted to place them in the latter tribe; but in
the details of their organization they are more closely allied to the more
highly organized Ptinide, especially in the more fully developed anten-
nal club, labrum, and maxillary palpi. The larvee also have six feet,
whilst those of the Scolytidz are footless.

The following are the principal genera:

A. Antenne filiform, sometimes branched. Tibial spurs very small or wanting; tarsi distinctly
5-jointed. ;
B. Head and thorax much narrower than the elytra; antennz filiform and simple and inserted upon
thetfront, and ‘about as lone asthe body. 22: f-ic--aehesia-2 Jae eee eee eee PTINUS, 8 sp.
BB. Form cylindrical or sub-globular. Antenne usually either branched or with the three last
joints longer than thé others, and inserted before the eyes.
C. Antenne simple, but with the three terminal joints elongated. ...........-------. ANOBIUM, 22.
CC. Antennz branched in the male, serrate in the female............-..----.-------- PTILINUS, 3.
A A. Antenne terminating in three larger and somewhat serrate joints; tibial spurs distinct; tarsi
apparently 4-jointed. Thorax asperous. Elytra often truncated and toothed behind :
BostRICHUS, 19.

The Ptinus fur, Linn., is three-twentieths of an inch long, light brown,
with two whitish bands across the elytra, interrupted in the middle. The
thorax is uneven, having a tubercle on each side and two on the back.
This insect feeds upon almost all kinds of dried animal matter, and is
often very injurious in museums of natural history. It was originally a
native of Europe, but, has become disseminated over the civilized world.
We have a very similar species in this country, the humeralis, of Say,
which is regarded by some as only a variety of the European species.
We have also another common species, often found in company with the
others, in cellars and out-buildings. This is the Ptinws brunneus, and is
distinguished at once from the others by being wholly of a light-brown
color, and destitute of the bands on the elytra.

Our most common species of Anobium is the A. tenuestriatum, Say,
scarcely three-twentieths of an inch in length, of a uniform, cinnamon-
brown color, with a microscopically fine silken pubescence, and the
elytra with fine impressed lines or strie. This species is also injurious
to cabinets and herbaria. It may often be caught upon the wing in or
about our houses.

The genus Bostrichus contains a number of small species, which, in
their larva state, are genuine wood-borers, and some of which are se-
riously injurious both to fruit and forest trees. The Bb. bicaudatus, a

ABERRANT WOOD-BEETLES. 103

[Fig. 47.] plain, grayish-brown species, three-
‘ * tenths of an inch, or a little more, in

length, with one tooth at the end of
each wing-cover, is very common at the
West, where it sometimes excites seri-
ous apprehensions in the spring, by bo-
. . ring into the twigs of apple trees; but
Bostricnus (SINOXYLON) BASILLARE, Say. : their injury is of a transient character.
Gas buena 5.0; beetle—atter Riley. | The B. basilaria: (Figy4 1) is two-temiks
of an inch in length, black, with reddish antennz, and each elytron with
a large red spot on the base, and three teeth at the end. The larva of
this species is usualy found in the shag-bark hickory, which it some-
times destroys, by riddling the solid trunk with innumerable holes. It
also sometimes infests fruit trees, and has been found in the grape vine.

Family XXXVII. LYMEXYLONIDA.

A small family of anomalous insects, founded upon the genus Lymexy-
lon, Fab., a term derived from the Greek lwme—a destroyer, and xulon—
wood. They are elongated narrow beetles, with free heads, and short
serrate antenne; the elytra sometimes remarkably shortened, and with
the maxillary palpi often furnished with long branching appendages.
We have but few N. A. species, all of which are rare. The Lymerylon
nivale is notorious for the extensive destruction sometimes produced by
its larve to the ship timber floating in the docks in the northern part
of Europe. At the suggestion of Linnzeus the timber was sunk under
water at the time of the year when the females deposit their eggs, and
was thus preserved from their attacks.

Family XXXVIII. CUPESID.

This is another small anomalous family, containing but four known
species, two of which inhabit N. America, one is found in Chili, and the
other in the Phillipine Islands. The form is elongate, the elytra are
strong, sculptured with longitudinal ribs and square depressions be-
tween them. The antenne are filiform, and the head is tuberculate be-
hind, and attached to the thorax bya distinct neck. The Cupes cinerea,
of Say, is widely distributed but of rare occurrence. Mr. Say, however,
speaks of it as being sometimes found in considerable numbers about
old frame buildings.

104 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

TRIBE XI.
SOFT-WINGED PREDACEOUS BEETLES.
Carnivora mollipennata. MALACODERMI, Latreille.

The insects of this tribe are distinguished from most other Coleoptera,
and from all others in the pentamerous section, by their soft bodies and
their thin and flexible elytra. The antenne are usually more or less
serrate; the palpi terminate in a widened triangular or hatchet-shaped
joint; the thorax is usually surrounded with a thin projecting margin ;
and the fourth-joint of the tarsi is more or less bi-lobed. The term
Malacodermi, meaning soft-skinned, given to these insects by Latreille,
expresses their most remarkable character, and is in general scientific
use.

They are exclusively carnivorous in their diet, both in the perfect and
the larva state, feeding upon small worms, larve and snails, and are
therefore one of the agencies for checking the excessive multiplication
of other insects. .

The larve are elongated, flattened, usually a little tapering toward
each end, of a tough or leathery texture, and of a brown or black color,
and often clothed with short hairs. They are furnished with slender,
sharp and projecting mandibles, with which they sieze their prey. They
are sometimes found on trees, but usually on the ground or under the
bark of dead trees, in search for small wood-eating larve. A few are
found in ants’ nests.

This tribe comprises the three following families:

A. Body and wing.-cases flexible; thorax almost level, with a thin margin all around.
Antenne not enlarged at the tip.

B. Antenne inserted upon the front or upon the base of the rostrum; front
without membraneous suture; 4th joint of tarsi more or less bi-lobed;
MaAlpINGlaviate’ cierstemiis ei lvchow lel eeiele mine jomevatareerrere overs avehelare olermtals LAMPYRIDA:.

BB. Antenne inserted laterally before the eyes; epistoma separated from the front
by amembraneous suture; tarsi entire; palpi usually filiform. MeLyRipé.

A A. Body rather firm; thorax convex, without a sharp margin or with a very nar-
row one, low down upon the side; antenne generally widened at the tip;
real e Mea wicktirete terete teretare here eretet stel/otalets (eeateneroteretciatare lata etetevsiicte a letter ..CLERIDA. -

Family XXXIX. LAMPYRIDA.

This family contains the well-known fire-flies, or lightning-beetles, and
the family name, from a Greek word meaning to shine, was intended to
express this quality. This property is possessed both by the larve and the
perfect insects, but only a small number of species are endowed with it.
Their principal characters have been given in the foregoing table and
in the general description of the tribe. They are usually medium sized,

SOFT-WINGED PREDACEOUS-BEETLES. 105

sometimes small, but rarely very small. They are mostly plain insects
without brilliant colors; usually black or brown, and many have the
thorax margined with red or yellow.

The Lampyrid comprise three sub-families, which may be character-
ized as follows:
A. Elytra reticulated; middle coxse separate; head partially covered by the ante-

premade in, Of the thoram.s.25.02 00 SEP aad, ae ks Seen LycIDES.

AA. Elytra not reticulated; middle coxe contiguous.

B. Head nearly or quite covered by the thorax; antenne usually approximate ;

side pieces of metasternum rather wide ...........--.-.e0ecc LAMPYRIDES.
BB. Head wholly uncovered by the thorax; antenne rather distant; side pieces
of metasternum tapering to a point behind .............. TELEPHORIDES.

Sub-family LYCIDES.

The Lycides are distinguished by their reticulated elytra, produced
by elevated lines and cross-lines. The genus Lycus, and some others,
have the head more or less prolonged in front in the form of a snout.

A. Head with a distinct beak ; antenn inserted in front of the eyes ; elytra usually widened behind :

LyYcus, 3 sp.

A A. Head without distinct beak; antenni inserted between the eyes.
iB. Hlytra widened behind ; thorax carinate .-..:--.------2----------csdeneccnccec ne CALOPTERON, 7.
Bibsatilyora parallel; Ghorax Not Gavinate = a). ents fe ce Sisacasnas es assis eden ce decee ste Eros, 16.

Iycus, Fab., including Dictyopterus, Latr., which differs only in hav-
ing the rostrum shorter and more robust, contains three known North
American species.

Calopteron, Guerin, contains a number of species, two of which at
least are rather common and conspicuous insects: the C. reticulatum,
Fab., five or six-tenths of an inch in length, yellow, with the middle of
the thorax, a broad band across the elytra, and a broad tip of the same,
black ; and the C. terminale, Say, of the same size and color, but with-
out the middle band on the elytra. A much smaller species, the C. di-
midiatum, Fab., (scapulare, Newman,) is blackish, with the margin of
the thorax, and the tips of the shoulders, yellow. The antennze are
strongly pectinate, or branched. It is the type of the genus Cwnia, of
Newman.

Eros, Newman, contains many species, the most conspicuous of which
is the EZ. eoccinatus, Say, four-tenths of an inch long, and of a bright
scarlet color.

Sub-family LAMPYRIDES.

The remarks made above upon the present tribe of soft-winged Car-
nivora, and upon the family of Lampyride, apply especially to the sub-
family of Lampyrides proper, and need not be here repeated. Their

—14

106 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

most distinctive character is the
extension of the thin thoracic
margin, which is narrow in the
other sub-families, but is here ex-
panded so as, in most cases, to
completely cover the head. It is
in this sub-family that we find
"etna ae speci remarkable for dhe
earthen cell; e, beetle—after Riley. ey, umimous or phosphorescent pro-
perty, which is possessed by no other insects except a few of the Elate-
ride.* This property is located in one or more of the segments on the
under side of the abdomen. The luminous power is intermittent, being
exhibited by flashes, and is evidently controlled by the will of the insect.
It is a vital phenomenon, and consequently ceases after death; but the
luminous segments can be distinguished in the dried specimen by their
uniformly yellow color.

The historic and poetic glow-worm is the wingless female of the Euro-
pean Lampyris noctiluca, Linn. But in most of our species both sexes
are furnished with wings.

The Lampyrides are nocturnal insects, being sluggish by day, and
found sometimes on the ground, and sometimes resting upon the foliage
of trees, or upon the palings of fences. But at night they launch out
upon the wing, sometimes in immense numbers, especially in low mea-
dews, which they illuminate with their multitudinous flashes of phos-
phoresence.

The following are the principal genera:

A. a bse complete, except in some wingless females; head wholly or partially covered by the
thorax.

B. One or more ventral segments, pale yellow, and luminous in the living insect.
C. Antenne dilated and compressed ; the abdominal segments of the males lobed at the sides; the
last sepmentionlyiluminous: 22 522228 72-2 3-4 cee hte te nedece aoe LUCIDOTA, 3 sp.
CC. Antenne slender; the abdominal segments simple; one to three last segments luminous :
PHOTINUS, 26.
A A. Elytra much abbreviated and attenuated ; head exposed; antennze branched ; phosphoresence
MUN COL pA oho ele st op aecis cede bine Sook aca net bole pepe aetetia eee a ee ee ee PHENGODES, 2.

The Lucidota atra, Fab., supposed to be the same as the laticornis
of the same author, is a common insect. It varies from three to four-
tenths of an inch in length, and is of a deep black color, with the mar-
gin of the thorax pale yellow. The genus Photinus, Laporte, contains
most of our lightning beetles. The P. pyralis, Linn., (Fig. 48,) is half
an inch or a little more in length, blackish, thorax with yellow margin
and red disk, with a blackish spot in the center; the elytra have a nar-

“We should perhaps also except the Fulgora lanternaria of S. America, and the F’. candelaria, and
the Buprestis ocellata of China, and a few other insects which have been reported to possess luminous
properties. But the testimony with regard to all of them is very conflicting, even with respect to the
first mentioned, the laminousness of which has been generally believed.

SOFT-WINGED PREDACEOUS-BEETLES. 107

row yellowish border, and suture. Mr. Riley has shown that it is lumin-
ous in the larva and pupa as well as the perfect state. It is common in
the latitude of Southern Mlinois; but farther north and east its place is
to a great extent supplied by a very similar but much smaller species,
the P. scintillans, Say. The P. angulata, Say, is as large as the pyralis,
and is distinguished by its generally paler color, the wider yellow mar-
gin of the elytra, and by the extreme margin of the thorax being clouded
with black. Certain species which (like the P. pensylvanica, of DeGeer),
have the head but partially covered by the thorax, were placed in a
separate group by Dejean, to which the name Photuris was subsequently
given by LeConte. The genus is retained by Lacordaire, but it is aban-
doned by Dr. LeConte himself, in his work on the Classification of the
Coleoptera.

The Lampyris plumosa, of Olivier, is the typeof the remarkable genus
Phengodes, Hoff. The antenne are beautifully plumose, and the elytra
are abruptly narrowed to a point, and do not extend more than a third
the length of the abdomen. It is half an inch long and of a brownish
color. Six other species are known which inhabit South America. La-
cordaire states that these insects possess luminous properties, but Le-
conte questions this, as none of the ventral segments exhibit the usual
sulphur-yellow color in the dried specimens. In the specimens in my
collection, the ventral segments are black in the middle, and fulvous or
tawny-yellow at the sides, with a narrowed portion at the base of each
segment of a lighter yellow color, and this may possibly be the seat of
the phosphoresence.

Sub-family TELEPHORIDES.

In this sub-family the head is usually wholly uncovered by the thorax,
and narrowed behind into a short neck. They are more active than the
other Lampyridx, and are often found upon flowers, or running over
the surface of leaves in search for their prey, which seems to consist
mostly of the soft larva of other insects.

A. Head partially covered by the thorax; maxilla elongated and extensile; elytra yellow with a large

black spot or stripe .-------------------------- 2 eee ener eee r eter CHAULIOGNATHUS, 9 sp,

AA. Head wholly uncovered ; maxille normal ; elytra black, sometimes with a narrow yellow border.
B. Head with a distinct neck; size various. -----.--------------------------------- TELEPHORUS, 72.
BB. Head without visible neck; size small. --.-------------------------------+--2022200-*> SILIs, 3.

The genus Chauliognathus, Hentz, is remarkable for the extensile
maxille, apparently analogous to the elongated maxille and labium of
bees, with which they lap the honey of flowers. Indeed, the perfect in-
sects are usually found upon flowers, especially those of the golden rod,
upon which they have been said to feed; in which case they form an
exception to the carnivorous habits of the family in which they are
placed. The beetles, however, are furnished with sharp curved mandi-
bles like other Telephorides, and the larve are known to be pre-emi-

108 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

nently carnivorous. We have two common species of the genus: the
C. pensylvanicus, DeGeer, (Fig. 49,) with a large oval black spot near
ie ae eas the end of each elytron; and the C.
4, marginatus, Fab., with a broad black

_ stripe through the middle of the ely-
A tron. Telephorus, Scheeffer, contains
many species, varying from less than
a quarter to more than half of an inch
CHAULIOGNATHUS PENSYLVANICUS, DeGearse length. They, are black, with the
a, larva; b, head of larva magnified, showing thorax usually partly or wholly red-

antenne, mandibles, and palpi. The small

fide, Bares suo tg same paris shill more qish-yellow. Silis, Megerle, contains a
few small species, less than a quarter of an inch in length, and colored
like Telephorus, from which they differ in having the head inserted in
the thorax, which is two or three times as wide as it is long, and with
a notch on the side and near the posterior angle, usually most conspicu-

ous in the males.

Family XL. MELYRIDA.

This is a family of small extent, and is composed mostly of small or
very small species. They bear a general resemblance to the preceding
fainily, but are usually smaller and differ in the palpi not being widened
at the tip, and in the fourth joint of the tarsi not being bilobed, in both
of which characters they differ from the great majority of the soft-
winged beetles. The species of the genus Malachius have the singular
power of protruding from the sides of their bodies a number of soft
orange-colored vesicles, the use of which is a matter of conjecture.
They are supposed to be instrumental in deterring their enemies. The
larvee are carnivorous, like those of the other Malacodermes; but the
perfect insects are generally found upon flowers, and are supposed to
feed upon their more tender parts. .

The two leading genera in our fauna are Malachius—which has been
divided into a number of sub-genera, all of which possess the extensile
vesicles—and Dasytes, in which the vesicles are wanting.

Family XLI. CLERIDA.

In this family the labial palpi terminate in a large hatchet-shaped
joint, and the fourth joint of the tarsi is bilobed; but the body is tole-
rably firm, and the antenne depart from the common serrate character
in being more or Jess widened towards the tip; but the enlargement
differs from the genuine clavate, in being more or less flattened, and
sometimes strongly serrate. They also differ from the Malacoderms
proper in having usually but five segments in the abdomen, whereas
the latter have seven, The Cleride are usually rather below the me-

SOFT-WINGED PREDACEOUS BEETLES. 109

dium size, often prettily colored with orange and blue, and their surface
is usually more or less pubescent or hairy. They are oblong in form,
and the thorax is considerably narrower than the elytra.

These insects are purely carnivorous. The larvee are sometimes found
under the bark of dead trees, in company with the small wood-eating
larvie, upon which they subsist. Others are found in the nests of ants,
and still others in the dried carcases of dead animals.

The genera of Cleridi is as follows:

A. Tarsi 5-jointed; thorax rounded at the sides, without a sharp margin.
B. First tarsal joint of ordinary length; body much elongated.

C. Antenne 10-jointed, the last very long and flat................-..-2------- ELASMOCERUS, 1 sp.
CC. Antenne 11-jointed ; serrate but little enlarged at tip.
Deb vestinely orandlatedis:s.o- scat ak ae okies bod cea kee cee ce uae mee eee ere ete Tiuus, 1-
Wa eb yes courselyoranulateds.-cc-c2ccccese cece coe ea ece cae cs nee ana eeeee CYMATODERA, 17.

BB. First tarsal joint usually small and concealed beneath the second; body moderately elongated.
EK. Eyes notched, and of moderate size; head not wider than thorax.
F. All the palpi enlarged at the tip; body coarsely punctured and very hairy ; antennal

clubutman tr alars ss.+ ees s ootecic See Sse Gee sae aac eee TRICHODES, 6-
FEF. Only the labial palpi enlarged; body moderately punctured and hairy; antennal
cluipilonp and! JOOSG Haass tosses = aairce ae tester n-ne ae anaes CLERUS, 29.
EE. Eyes very large and entire ; head much wider than the thorax.-......- HYDNOCERA, 22.
AA. Tarsi 4-jointed; thorax with a narrow but distinct lateral margin.
G. Antenne strongly serrate at the end........-..--....-...........--.- ENOPLIUM, 4.
GG. Antennx terminating in a 3-jointed flattened club. .-.-....--.----- NECROBIA, 5.

The genera Clerus and Hydnocera are the most numerous in species,
some of which are sufficiently common. Clerus, Geoffroy, with which
we include Thanasimus, Latr., and T'haneroclerus, Spin., contains a num-
ber of prettily marked species, which are sometimes seen running over
prostrate logs in the forest, in search probably of small wood-eating
larve. The Clerus dubius, Fab., is a little more than three-tenths of an
inch long, of a steel-blue color, the elytra crossed by three orange
bands. The C. nigrifrons, Say, is upwards of two-tenths, of a tawny
yellow color, the elytra cinereous behind, including a broad black
band; there is a black spot on the front, and the venter is black.
C. nigripes, Say, is very similar, but the frontal spot is wanting and the
venter is red. The C. sanguineus, Say, is of the same size as the last,
with the thorax brown and the elytra scarlet.

The Hydnocerz are small and obscure insects, less than a quarter of
an inch in length, but easily distinguished by their large prominent
eyes, which cause the head to be wider than the thorax. They are often
beaten from the leaves of forest trees.

The genus Trichodes, Herbst, contains a number of very hairy and
prettily banded species, the larvee of which devour the larve of certain
kinds of bees. Some are found in the nests of the mason-bees, and the
European 7. apiarius has been known to be very destructive to the hive-
bee.

The Necrobia violacea, Oliv., a small dark-blue or greenish beetle,
three-twentieths of an inch in length, has been imported from Europe.

110 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA,

It is sometimes found in houses, but more commonly on the careases,
and especially the bones, of dead animals. The have even been found
under the wrappings of Egyptian mummies. The J. (Corynetes) rufipes,
DeGeer, has also become spread over the whole globe.

Section Il. HETHEROMERA.

Five joints in the anterior and middle tarsi, and four joints in the hind tarsi, the joints being usually
slender and bare, or at most, sparsely haired or spinous.

The Heteromera constitute the second principal division of Coleopte-
rous insects, distinguished primarily, as the name implies, by the diverse
number of joints in their tarsi, or feet. This character is remarkably
uniform, only two or three exceptional cases having been detected in
all the known insects of this section; and as but few of them are of
very small size, the number of tarsal joints is usually easily determined.
It is also seen by the above formula that the tarsal joints in the insects
of this, as of the preceding section, are usually slender and clothed,
at most, with scattered hairs or bristles, thus strongly contrasting with
the dilated brush-like and bilobed tarsi of the two succeeding sections.

This section embraces an extensive series of beetles, though less
numerous than the first and third sections. Although most of them
are vegetable feeders, at least in the imago state, comparatively few
subsist upon growing plants, and but few, even of these, have been
known to increase to such an extent as to become injurious to cultivated
crops. The principal exceptions to this statement are the common meal-
worms belonging to the genus Tenebrio, and the Lyttz or Cantharides,
which are sometimes seriously destructive to the foliage of vegetables,
especially that of the potato.

The Heteromera comprise two very diverse groups of beetles, which
have, indeed, scarcely any characters in common except the number of
tarsal joints.

The first division, of which the well known Cantharides may be taken
as the leading type, is distinguished by having the head wider than the
anterior part of the thorax and attached to it by a short neck; by the
elytra being comparatively thin and flexible ; by their frequently diver-
sified colors; their active diurnal habits; and the parasitic character of
many of their larve.

The other section, which may be represented by the common black
Tenebrio or meal-beetle, is distinguished from the foregoing by having
the head partially immersed in the thorax; their hard and inflexible
elytra; their obscure and mostly black or brown colors; and by their
being vegetable feeders in both the perfect and the larva states.

The first of these divisions contains a considerable number of suffi-
ciently distinct and well marked families ; but many of the minor groups

PARASITIC-BEETLES. ab KS

of the second division are so intimately connected by intermediate
grades, that Lacordaire and other recent authors have united a large
proportion of them in one large family under the name of Tenebrionide.

In accordance with our plan of classif. ying insects as nearly as possi-
ble according to their habits and the nature of their food, we will divide
the Heteromera into four tribes, as follows :

A. Head as wide as the thorax, and attached to it by a visible neck.
Body rather soft and elytra flexible; anterior cox large, coni-
cal and contiguous; colors often diversified. Larvae mostly c¢ar-
nivorous and many of them parasitic :

Tribe Ist (or 12th), Parasitic beetles.

A A. Head without a distinct neck, narrower than the the thorax, and

more or less inserted in it; body firm ; coxee never very prom-
inent; colors usually black or brown; habits never carnivorous.
_B. Anterior coxee moderately prominent and nearly or quite contig-
uous; antenn slender and filiform ; color usually brown, some-

times black. Larvee live under bark of decayed trees :
Tribe 2d (or 13th.) Bark beetles.

BB. Anterior cox small, depressed and separate ; antennex usually
moniliform, or sub-clavate and perfoliate.

C. Antenne usually more or less moniliform, and often a little
thickened towards the tip, and as long as the head and tho-
rax. Color almost always black ; habits terrestrial :

Tribe 3d (or 14th.) Heteromerous ground-beetles.

CO. Antenne usually shorter than the head and thorax, and

strongly clavate and perfoliate; head of males often with
two horns. Colors brown or dark metallic, sometimes
black with red spots. Habits fungivorous :

Tribe 4th (or 5th.) Heteromerous fungus-beetles.

TRIBE NII.
PARASITIC-BEETLES.

Heteromera parasitica. 'TRACHELIDES, Latreille.

‘The name Trachelides, from a Greek word meaning a neck, was given
to these insects by Latreille to express their most striking character,
that of having the head attached to the thorax by a visible neck ; where-
as in most beetles the head is inserted in the thorax nearly or quite to
the eyes. .The exceptions to this rule, however, in the Coleopterous
order, are not very uncommon, of which the families of Telephoridx,
Lepturidx, and portions of the Carabidae, are some of the most conspic-
uous examples. But the name was intended to contrast them more par-
ticularly with the other beetles of the heteromerous section.

112 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

The antenne, in all the Trachelides are of nearly or the same width
throughout, sometimes simple or filiform, sometimes serrate, and some-
times pectinate or branched, especially in the males. The elongated
coxe permit great freedom of motion to the legs; and their frequently
bright or diversified colors show that they live exposed to the light of
the sun. Accordingly we find that in their matured state they are
active diurnal insects, often frequenting plants and flowers.

We have designated the insects of this tribe as parasitic beetles, a
title which preeminently, but not exclusively belongs to them. The
term parasite literally means one who sits at the table of another, and
lives at his expense, and is now very commonly applied to those insects
which either inhabit the nests of other insects and subsist upon the food
prepared by them, or which infest the bodies of other insects, feeding
upon their substance, and ultimately causing their.death. This para-
sitism is found to be very extensive in the insect world, and to consti-
tute one of the most efficient agencies by which the excessive increase of
many kinds of insects is kept in check. The great majority of parasitic
insects is found in the order of Hymenoptera, where they comprise some
of the most numerous of the families of insects. In the order of Coleop-
tera the parasitic species are comparatively few, and outside of the pres-
ent tribe, are mostly limited to a small number of minute species in the
families Staphylinide, Pselaphidse and Scydmenide. The parasitic
character is therefore the more distinctive of the present tribe, most of
the families of which are parasitic in their larva state; though it is pret
ty well determined that a few of them are lignivorous, and the larve
of some of the families are but little known. The Lagriidze and Anthi-
cid, from certain observations which have been made upon them, are
supposed to be carnivorous, and Latreille considered the latter to be par-
asitic. The Rhipiphoride, Stylophide, and Meloide, including the sub-
family of Horiides, are known to be parasitic. The larve of the Pyro-
chroidz and Mordellid are found in wood, upon which, therefore, they
are supposed to feed. Mr. Riley has found the Mordella 8-punctata,
and its larve, (ig. 50) in very rotten oak stumps, and he states there
can be no doubt of its lignivorous habits, as he has found the larvie in
their own burrows, extending through the wood in all directions. He
has likewise bred a smalier species from the green stems of ambrosia,
and other herbacious plants. Ina strict classification according to the
habits, therefore, the Pyrochroide and Mordellids would require to be
separated from the parasitic families, but there appear to be no organic
characters which these two families possess in common, which author-
izes us in placing them in a tribe by themselves.

It is one of the many remarkable facts in the natural history of insects
that the same species often differs greatly in its habits and the nature of
its food, in the different stages of its existence. We have had occasion

PARASITIC-BEETLES. 113

to refer to some of the most common instances of this change in the
introductory part of this work, and the same is strikingly illustrated
in the history of the present tribe, in which the same species is often
parasitic in its larva state, whilst it feeds upon the flowers or foliage of
plants in its perfect or imago state.

The following is a table of the families of the Trachelides:
A. Constriction of the neck gradual and slight; anterior coxal cavities closed behind.*

RUZ CRMC sre she see Sarg ete sthin ee Cea few ee sealer deteraieferetnaeiAt toby eae eke LAGRrim.

AA. Neck distinct and abrupt; anterior coxal cavities always open behind.

B. Thorax with a lateral margin; abdomen usually tapering to a long point; hind

fessilons and flats Sizersmmallits.<clrom.o2' 2c a. au cehee «0 os eres MoRDELLID.
BB. Thorax rounded at the sides; abdomen not pointed.
C. Tarsal claws deeply cleft. Size large or medium................- MELLOW.

CC. Tarsal claws entire.
D. Thorax narrower behind than the elytra.
EK. Antenne almost always filiform and simple. Size very small. ANTHICIDA:.
EE. Antenne usually branched in the male, serrate in the female. Size
VEE OC eT LN sew are)ata ose taleve tele tense ee eketaanetels PYROCHROIDAS.
DD. Thorax as wide behind as the elytra. Size small....... R#IPIPHORIDA.
AAA. Without visible neck—structure very abnormal. Size very small.SryLoPipa.

Family XLII. LAGRIID.

This family is comprised of a small number of medium sized beetles,
which furnish a connecting link between the Trachelides and the Tene-
brionide ; having an imperfect neck, and being rather soft and flexi-
ble like the former, but having the anterior coxal cavities closed behind,
like the latter. Mr. Westwood states that he has found the larva of the
European Lagria hirta on white thorn hedges; and Lyonet mentions
having discovered the same under dead leaves upon the ground.

There are but five N. A. species of this family. The Lagria (Ar-
thromacra) cnea, Say, is an elongate brassy-black beetle, nearly half an
inch in length, and easily recognized by the remarkably elongated ter-
minal joint of the antennie, which is as long as the four preceding
joints taken together.

Family XLII. MORDELLID.

This family contains a considerable number of small beetles, rarely
more, and usually less than a quarter of an inch in length, and distin-
guished by their elliptical and arched form, the head being bent down

SE en ea a eee ee

* The state of the anterior eoxal cavities as respects their being closed or open behind, is a charac-
ter of considerable importance in classifying the Coleoptera, especially the Heteromera. The coxal
cavities are the hollows in the sternum or breast plate in which the legsare inserted. The anterior cay-
ities are sometimes wholly surrounded by the crust of the sternum, when they are said to be closed ;
in other cases there is a deficiency of the sternum directly behind the anterior coxa, which is filled by
membrane, and the cavity is then said to be open.

—15

114 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

much below the level of the thorax, and by the abdomen usually termi-
nating in a considerably prolonged point. They are, moreover, the only
Trachelides which have the upper part of the thorax separated from
the lower, on the sides, by a prominent line or margin. The tarsal
claws are small, but when strongly magnified they are usually found
to be prettily serrated on their lower edge. Their colors are mostly
black or slate color, but some of them are slightly variegated with
whitish or rufous. The perfect insects are usually found upon flowers,
(Fig. 50.] and some of the species are

> very common. The larve

have been found in the rot-
ten wood, and in the pith of
various plants, upon which
they are therefore supposed
to feed ; and we have already
referred to Mr. Riley’s obser-

MORDELLA 8-PUNCTATA, Fab.:—a, larva; b, pupa; e, beetle, yalicne eee the daryip ia
outline side view of female; d, dorsal view of same; e, antenna; M. 8 - punctata, which he
f, the serrated tarsal claw of same, highly magnified—after 3
Riley. found in old oak stumps, un-
der circumstances which seemed to preclude the supposition of their
being otherwise than lignivorous in their diet.

It would seem, therefore, that in a natural classification of the Cole-
optera according to their food-habits, the Mordellide should be sepa-
rated from the parasitic Trachelides, and united with the heteromerous
bark-beetles, which they also resemble in some of their organic charac-
ters, such as their proportionally smaller heads, margined thorax, and
sombre colors. In this case their location would be adjoining the Ciste-
lide, which they resemble in the peculiar character of their serrated claws.

There are upwards of ninety described N. American species of this
family, most of which are contained in genera Anaspis and Mordella,
the former being distinguished by not having the abdomen prolonged
to a point.

Family XLIV. MELOIDA.

[Fig. 51.] This family contains the well-known Lytte
4 or Cantharides. They have elongated flexi-
ble bodies, with a very distinct neck, and
with the claws deeply cleft, the upper portion
being often pectinate, or comb-toothed. They
\. are rather large or medium-sized insects.
Our most common species are blackish or
ash-colored, but some are prettily striped,
and others are richly variegated with green

MeLoEe:—1, mal le; 2, larva— ie
after pockava ale beetles % larva— ond yellow. Thelarve, so far as known, are

PARASITIC-BEETLES. 115
—_—_—ee__—_—_—_—_—_—mXS-_——O_______——————_—_————————————

parasitic in the bodies or in the nests of bees. Their history was long
involved in obscurity, but the development of the larve of the genus
Meloe has been satisfactorily elucidated by Newport, Siebold and other
modern observers. It appears that the parent beetles deposit their

eggs in the nests of various kinds of bees, but especially those of the

—

humble-bees. The young larve are sometimes found in the nests, but

usually upon the bodies of the bees, from which they draw their nutri-

ment. Infested bees, observed in confinement, have been seen to be-

come exhausted by these larvee, thus proving them to be genuine parasites.

The following are the principal genera:

A. Elytra much shorter than the abdomen, separate at their tips, and usually lapping one upon the
OURGRIM tm DASOMemeci sm. ara iaats stele anes sede eantcn sea. stanton Ma. telsiaela sass sian MELOE, 14 sp.

A A. Elytra covering the abdomen.
B. Head large, front not prolonged beyond the base of the antennx ; frontal suture wanting :

Tort, 3.

BB. Head moderate, front somewhat prolonged, and with a distinct suture.
C. Mandibles long and acute; maxille greatly elongated........-..-.-.--- NEMOGNATHUS, 28.
CC. Mandibles short and obtuse; maxille norman......-...--...---.--.---------- LyTTA, 99.

The genus Meloe, Linn., is alluded to by Kirby as apparently forming
a connecting link between the Coleoptera and the Orthoptera, having
the head vertical, and the elytra lapping at base, but the resemblance
is very remote. The inferior or true wings are wanting, and these in-
sects are found on the ground, where they feed upon herbaceous plants,
mostly those of the genus Ranunculus. The females become so swollen
with eggs that they drag their abdomens with difficulty along the
ground. When captured they exude a yellow oily fluid from the joints
of their legs, whence they have received the popular name of oitl-beetles.
They vary in length from half an inch to an inch, and are either black
or of a dark violet-blue color. Our most common species is the Meloe
angustacollis, Say, of a violaceous color, the female upwards of three-
quarters of an inch in length; the male is considerably smaller, and has
the antenne remarkably swollen and knotted in the middle.

We have two species of the genus Horia, Fab., both of which are ex-
tremely rare. They are found in ants’ nests. The H. sanguinipennis,
Say, is four-tenths of an inch long, black, with light red elytra.

The genus Nemognatha, Iliger, is remarkable for the elongation of
the outer lobe of the maxille into a long setaceous proboscis, very simi-
lar in appearance to that of the honey-bees in the hymenopterous order.
These insects are found on flowers, the honey of which they probably
extract. We have seen a somewhat similar structure to exist in the
genus Chauliognathus, in the family of Telephoride; but here the organ
is soft and elastic, and capable of being retracted within the cavity of

the mouth.

116 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

[Fig. 52.]

The genus Iytta, of Fabricius, or Cantharis, of Geoffroy,
contains the blistering beetles of the shops, and also the
well-known ash-colored, black, and striped potato-beetles.
Some entomologists divide them into two groups or sub-
genera: Lytta proper, in which the antennz are almost mo- —
' niliform, and a little thicker towards the tip, and Hpicauta,

é » in which the antenne are filiform, or a little tapering, with
Lyrra virtata, the joints elongated. The latter group contains all our

Fabricius. <
common species.

Family XLV. ANTHICID.
This family, founded upon the genus Anthicus, a Greek word, meaning
TBE: 53.) variegated, is of moderate extent, and is composed of very

small, prettily colored béetles, never much exceeding
an eighth of an inch in length. They are readily dis-
tinguished from most other small beetles by their nar-
row necks. Some of them bear a striking resemblance
to ants, and others are remarkable for a prominent
horn on the top of the thorax. The larvie are unknown,
but some observations of Latreille led him to believe
that they are parasitic. The perfect insects are found

Noroxus :—1, beetle; on flowers and leaves.

2, front of body seen la-
terally ; 3,mandible; 4, | Most of our species are found in the three following

maxillary palpus ; 5, 6
tarsi—atter Westwood. Zenera :

A. Eyes notched, hairy, and coarsely granulated...........-------20----2+---c0--e- XYLOPHILUS, 6 sp.
A A. Eyes oblong and entire.
B. ‘Thorax prolonged over the head in the form of a horn.............----------------- Noroxus, 15.
Bas; SUD horsacavi chon bonne eee. ee oe ee ey ee te ee ANTHICUS, 50.

The curious little Votoxus monodon, Fab., is not an uncommon insect.
Itis of a brownish-yellow color, with a black band across the middle of —
the élytra, and two spots of the same at the base, and an obscure one
at the tip. The horn on the thorax projects forwards so as to cover the
head. Another, but less common species, is the NV. bicolor, Say. ‘The
head and thorax are yellowish, and the elytra are blue-black. The
genus Anthicus is much the most numerous in species.

Family XLVI. PYROCHROID A.

The species of this family are few in number, and are most conspicu-
ous for the usually branched antenne and their common style of colora-
tion, which is that of a red thorax contrasted with the black elytra.
They are of medium size, varying from one-third to three-fourths of an
inch in length. The name is derived from the genus Pyrochroa of Geof-

HETEROMEROUS BARK-BEETLES. 117

ORE Peal ea es froy, a word which means flame col-
p y ored, and which was obviously sug-
gested by the prevalence of red or
yellow in their coloration ; some of
the foreign species being almost
wholly red. An example of the lar-
vie is exhibited in the accompanying
figure of the larva of Dendroides.
DENDROIDES CANADENSIS, Latr.:—a, larva; b, pu- These lnrveire ue aimee
pa; c, beetle (female) ; d, enlarged anal horns; e, of decayed trees and stumps, and
Sete tilor a) antenna of male magni: aye supposed to be lignivorous.
The following are the three principal genera :

A. Antenne flabellate or pectinate.

IRBs Hiyes very large; nearly contiguous... -.-.-2+---2--2-=e--=-cen-n ee -- "= =--'= DENDROIDES, 4 sp.
Reb oeevesmoderateand distant... s5.-.255-s2sct-se8see-- ee een=nnr “ean PYROCHROA, 2.
NUP ACEPAUTI TOMI ETSI TMD Ole sac fst ats ceed So cae Sete em ce nie oe ee eae eee eerie eelaker ere eteera Prpiwus, 14.

The Pyrochroa flabellata, Fab., is from five to six-tenths of an inch
in length, of an elongated and somewhat flattened form with parallel
sides. The head and thorax are yellow, and the elytra blue-black.

The Denroides canadensis, Latr. (Fig. 54) is somewhat similar but a little
smaller and the elytra are of a dull or brownish-black color. Both of
these insects are rather common about decayed trees, under the bark
of which the larve reside. The antenne are flabellate in the males,
and pectinate in the females. The species of Pedilus are mostly between
two and three-tenths of an inch in length, and usually exhibit the red-
dish thorax and black elytra, so characteristic of the family.

Family XLVII. RHIPIPHORIDZ.

This is a small family the species of which are distinguished by hav-
ing the elytra usually shorter than the abdomen, and somewhat nar-
rowed and separated from each other behind. the thorax is narrowed
in front, but as wide at base as the elytra, in which they differ
from all the other Trachelides except the Mordellidé, with which they
are united by some authors. But the different habits of the larvee con-
firm the propriety of their separation. The perfect insects are found on
flowers. The larve are parasitic in the nests of wasps, and a foreign
species is known to infest the bodies of cockroaches.

Twenty-two N. A. species have been described.

Family XLVIIL. STYLOPIDA.

A family of minute insects of so anomalous a character that it is very
difficult to determine their proper location in the natural system. But
few species are known, all of which are parasitic in the bodies of bees.
Five genera have been described, two of which have been found in N,

118 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

America: Stylops, Kirby, with the antennee six-jointed ; and Xenos, Rossi,
having the antenn four-jointed. For a detailed description of these
insects the reader is referred to Westwood’s Introduction, Vol. 1, page
287; or to Packard’s Guide, page 481.

Tribe XII.
HETEROMEROUS BARK-BEETLES.

Heteromera corticicola. STENELYTRA partly, Latreille.

This tribe includes all the Stenelytra of Latreille except the family of
Helopidie, which are now united to the Ground-beetles. The word Sten-
elytra means having narrow wing-covers, and was given to these insects
on account of their more or less elongated and narrow forms. They are
distinguished from the parasitic beetles by the absence of a visible neck
and by the head being narrower than the thorax; and from the two
following tribes by the usually longer and more slender antennie, by
the anterior cox nearly or quite touching each other, and by their
coxal cavaties being open behind, except in Cistelidz: where they are
slightly closed. The larvee of all these insects are found under the bark
or in the decayed wood of trees which have been long dead. The per-
fect insects are generally found in the same situations, but some, especi-
ally the Cistelide, are often seen upon leaves or flowers.

The following are the families of bark-beetles:

A. Thorax rounded at the sides, or without a sharp lateral margin, narrower behind
than in front, and narrower at base than the elytra.
B. Head gradually narrowed behind, and usually somewhat prolonged in front;

last joint but one of tarsi slightly bilobed................. CEDEMERID 45.
BB. Head not narrowed behind; sometimes prolonged in front into a snout;
LARSTIEMEING Hay: See rver cde cecte Wore lore aieks ce vetsiobohaveiniieterevetae eae erate in eee PyYTHIDA.

A A. Thorax with a lateral margin, not narrowed behind, and usually as wide at
base as the elytra.
C. Maxillary palpi terminating in a hatchet-shaped joint; claws serrate:

CISTELIDA.

CC. Maxillary palpi usually long and pendulous, with all their joints more
Jy J g ) j

orslesstenlarred Melawsl simples. tetvecic lets serie <n ote MELANDRYID.

Family XLIX. GQ2DEMERID.

A small family of heteromerous beetles, with elongate, narrow bodies,
the head and thorax somewhat narrower than the elytra, and rather
long filiform antenne. The elytra in some of the foreign species are
narrowed and separated behind. Our most conspicuous species is the
Nacerdes melanura, which is more than half an inch in length, of a yel-
lowish-brown color, with the elytra tipped with black.

——

HETEROMEROUS BARK-BEETLES. 119
SS nn on a ane a re

Family L. PYTHIDA.

Another small family containing less than a dozen North American
species, the most remarkable of which belong to the genus Salpingus,
which differs from all other Coleoptera except the Curculionide, in hay-
ing the head prolonged in front in the form of a snout, sometimes of
considerable length. The two leading genera are Pytho, Latr., and
Salpingus, Uliger.

Family LI. CISTELIDA.

This is a family of considerable extent, and some of the species are

amongst our most common insects. They are smooth, oval beetles, of

[Fig. 55.] moderate or rather small size, and are generally

1 2_) Clothed with minute hairs, which give a silken gloss

on to the surface. Their most distinctive character is

3 the pectinate or comb-toothed claws at the end of the

j aN tarsi. This, like most other minute characters, can

e be best seen by holding the insect up against the

CistELA :—1, beetle; 2, light of a window and examining it through a lens.
tarsus ; 3, tarsal claw

—after Westwood. This character is very rare in the Coleoptera, and
therefore quite distinctive where it occurs. We have already seen it
to exist in the genus Lebia and afew other Carabide, and a modifica-
tion of it occurs in the families Meloide and Mordellide.

Our most common species of Cistelidee are plain, brownish beetles
without spots. Thirty-five species have been described, most of which
are contained in the genera Cistela* and Allecula of Fabricius; the
former having merely simple tarsi and the latter having the anterior
tarsi somewhat dilated, and all of them with the penultimate joint
bilobed.

Family LIT. MELANDRYIDZ.

[Fig. 56.|

The insects of this family were called Serropalpi
by Latreille, to express their most remarkable char-
47. acter: that of having the joints of the maxillary
2A palpi—which are usually long and pendulous—more
or less enlarged in the form of saw-teeth, the last
Meer 4, beetle; joint being the largest, and usually hatchet-shaped.
2, head of SeRROPALrUS T+ is a family of moderate extent, containing forty-

showing large size, and

deflexed nature of the poe NA, species. They never much exceed half

three terminal joints of

the maxillary palpi—af an inch in length, and some are less than half that

* This name—derived from the Greek kiste—a chest, appears to have been given originally by Geof-
froy to the insects of the genus Byrrhus, Linn., to the short and thick bodies of which it was not in-
applicable. But Linnwus having given the name Byrrhus te this genus, the name Cistela was trans-
ferred by Fabricius to the present group of heteromerous beetles, where it has now become established

by general acceptance and long usage.

120 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

length. Their colors are black or brown, and some of those of the lat-
ter color are ornamented with yellow markings.
The following are the principal genera:

A. Head without a neck.
B. Antenne with the four last joints abruptly enlarged. ...............-..-.-.-------. TETRATOMA.
BB. Antenne filiform or slightly and gradually enlarged.
C. Anterior cox contiguous.

D. Middle cox contiguous, with, distinct trochantins......-..-...-.-..--.------ MELANDRYA.
DD. Middle coxe separate, without trochantins....-...------------.---------- SERROPALPUS.
CC. Anterior coxe separate.
i. ‘Head horizontall.c&.£45-3-0- soem tees ldadec steerite be Sarees noe eee eee eee SYNCHROA.
OPK Tet la yGian tt bose cee ce spec scoconeags penagce EusTROPHUS, HALLOMENUS, ORCHESIA.
A A. Head with a short neck; eyes coarsely granulated and deeply notched. ---.-.----.--- SCRAPTIA.

We have space to refer to only a few of the most noticeable species.
We have two species of Tetratoma, which depart from the ordinary
habits of the family by being inhabitants of fungi. The Melandrya
striata, Say, is six-tenths of an inch long, pure black, the thorax with a
middle furrow, and a depression on each side, and the elytra deeply
striate and punctate. Serrepalpus 4-maculatus, Say, is a third of an
inch in length, of a deep brown color, with two angular yellow spots on
each elytron. Hypulus trifasciatus, Melsh, is quarter of an inch or less
in length, yellow, with three irregular brown bands across the elytron.
These, like the other species of the family, are found under the loose
bark of trees in an advanced state of decay. One of the most common
larvze found in such situations is that of the Synchroa punctata, Newm.,
a plain light-brown species about half an inch in length. This larva is
of an elongate cylindrical form, with six short legs, and two horny
points at the posterior extremity of the body.

The genus Penthe, of Newman, is placed in this family by LeConte,
but in the sub-family of Helopides by Lacordaire. The palpi are rather
long and robust, but not hatchet-shaped at the end like most of the
Serropalpi. It contains two rather large, oval, depressed beetles, up-
wards of half an inch in length, and of a deep black color: the P. obli-
quata, and the P. pimelia, of Fabricius; the former being distinguished
by having the scutellum clothed with rust-red hairs. They are common
species, being found under the bark of decayed trees and in rotten
stumps. Their sub-cortical habits furnish an argument for retaining
them in the present tribe.

TRIBE XIV. <

HETEROMEROUS GROUND-BEETLES.

Heteromera terricola. MELASOMA, Latreille.

This tribe contains a large and diverse assemblage of beetles, distin-
guished chiefly by their heteromerous tarsi, their usually slightly ¢la-

HETEROMEROUS GROUND-BEETLES. 121

vate and moniliform antenne, and their uniformly dark or black colora-
tion. The above name of Latreille, meaning black-bodied, is expressive
of this character. As a general rule they are rather large beetles, many
of them being above the medium size, and few much below it. They
are found almost exclusively upon the ground, and mostly in sandy situ-
ations. Scarcely any observations appear to have been made respect-
ing the food-habits of these beetles, with the exception of a few common
species which inhabit houses and granaries, the larvee of which are some-
times seriously injurious to flour and meal of different kinds. The larvze
of a few species have been found in rotten wood. All the known larvze
are very similar in form and structure, and are well represented by the
common meal-worm which is the larva of the Tenebrio molitor, Linn.
This is a long, slender, cylindrical grub, of a wax-yellow color, and a
hard consistency. In its motions it seems to drag its body along by
means of the six short legs attached to the three anterior segments, its
comparative inflexibility incapacitating it for the vermicular motion by
which the softer larve effect their progression.

A comparatively small proportion of the insects of this tribe inhabit
the northern and eastern sections of this country. Their geographical
center is in the tropics, and they constitute a leading feature in the in-
sect fauna of California, and other portions of the Pacific slope.

The several groups of which this tribe is composed are found to pass
so insensibly into each other, when the species from all parts of the
world are compared together, that Lacordaire, in his great work on the
genera of Coleoptera, unites them all in the one large family of Tene-
brionide, in which he also includes the fungus-beetles (Diaperide). In
this course he has been followed by our own distinguished coleopterist,
Dr. John L. LeConte, and more recently by Dr. George H. Horn, of
Philadelphia, who has published an elaborate monograph of the N. A.
species of this family.

In speaking of the unusual difficulties which are met with in classify-
ing this tribe of insects, M. Lacondaire makes some remarks which are
so pertinent to the case, and at the same time so comprehensive, that
we here introduce them :

‘Our classifications of insects are based, not upon isolated characters,
but upon combinations of characters. In order that they may admit of
easy application it is necessary that the characters thus combined shall
be neither too many nor too few. There are some families, such as the
Elateridz, where the latter is the case; they are too homogeneous.
Others, eyen more numerous, as the Carabide, for example, hold a just
medium in this respect; their species possessing a common basis of or-
ganization which is stable, or which varies but little. We here, there-
fore, have to deal with a restricted number of organs, which admit of

—16

122 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

only a moderate quantity of combinations. From this it results that
the groups superior to genera can be characterized in a few words, and
their limits are, in general, sufficiently well defined. With the Tenebri-
onidee, on the contrary, an instability without limit is the rule; not a
single organ, even the most insignificant, escapes. If, as we ought, we
take all of them into account, the number of combinations to which they
give rise is so great that it is impossible to bring any of them to the
front, and for each group we are obliged to pass in review almost the
entire organization. If to this we add the insensible transitions between
the forms of organs which are themselves equally unstable, we shall
understand how the groups thus constituted absolutely refuse to admit
of any precise definition.” Vol. V, p. 289.

But, notwithstanding the difficulty of dividing this tribe into minor
groups by any sharp lines of demarkation—a difficulty which we are
continually encountering, in a greater or less degree, in all our attempts
at generalization in natural history—they may still be arranged in sev-
eral divisions which will facilitate the determination of species. Thus
regarded, this tribe will constitute the family of Tenebrionidee, which
can be divided into several minor groups which will take the rank of
sub-families.

Family LIII. TENEBRIONID.

This family having been already sufficiently described in treating of
the tribe which it constitutes, we proceed to designate the sub-family
into which it may be divided:

A. Antenne longer than the head and thorax united, slender and of nearly or quite
the same width throughout; front separated from the labrum by a membra-
nous clypeus; body often with a metallic or brassy tint.......... HELOPIDES,

A A. Antenne usually about as long as the head and thorax united; gradually en-

larging towards the tip, and with the joints usually more or less round or
moniliform; front articulating directly with the labrum; color black:

TENEBRIONIDES.

AAA. Antenne usually shorter than the head and thorax united, with joints wider

than they are long, or more or less perfoliate; middle coxze without tro-

chantins; color generally bDrown...........---s-ee eee eeeee ULOMIDES.

Sub-family HELOPIDES.

The name Helops appears to have been originally given toa harmless
species of serpent, but was appropriated by Fabricius to a sub-division
of the coleopterous genus Tenebrio, of Linnzeus. We use the family
name here in a comprehensive way to include a considerable number of
species distinguished from the Tenebrionids proper by the characters
given in the foregoing table. The larvee resemble those of Tenebrio,

HETEROMEROUS GROUND-BEETLES. 123

and are found in rotten wood. The perfect insects are sometimes found
upon the ground. They are usually of a medium size. The following
are the principal genera:

A. Lateral and anterior margins of the front continuous ; body oval; sides of the breast beneath, often

Aira abedulon ribri cin allivin set en jo tai ea ime aaa do ele ae HELOps, 24 sp.

A A. Lateral margin of the front elevated, oblique, and abbreviated.
Bae bouyselon gated ssccsenssseaeye wes toes sead. Good Ue Se aac se seca ee STRONGYLIUM, 2.
EEE MOC va OLY CONVEX 2 cess on cee ann ect cauet eee cee eee thane bee ee MERACANTHA, 1.

Sub-family TENEBRIONIDES. Darkling beetles.

Founded upon the genus Tenebrio, of Linnzus, a name derived from
[Fig. 57.] the Latin tenebre, meaning darkness, and given to
these insects on account of their universally black
color. The family is very extensive, but, as former-
a \y remarked, the great majority of N. American
species inhabit the western slope of the continent,
but some species are found in great abundance upon
the arid plains which extend eastward from the
base of the Rocky mountains. The typical and most
common species is the Tenebrio molitor, a plain black

_ ac nwa b papas e bets, beetle, six-tenths of an inch in length, whose hard,
d, antenna of larva; ¢ max, wax-colored larva is often found upon the oe

ae f,labinm; g, termina ‘
sO ee eras. sds at where grain and meal are stored. Most of these in-
SEs Le sects are found on the ground, but some live under
the bark of fallen and decaying trees. The following are some of the
principal genera:

A. Ventral segments entirely horny ; tarsi spinous beneath.

Bae viddlecoxc without trochamiinses =p eee sepa ei ine aimtae diaiete lala ain alert cits tree maaaaie ZOPHERUS.
BB. Middle coxie with distinct trochantins.
C. Thorax transversal, its hind angles prominent and embracing the base of the elytra.. - -- ASIDA.
CC. Thorax heart-shaped, its hind angles not prolonged........-------.---------- PELECYPHORUS.

A.A. Ventral segments 3 and 4 with the hind margin membranous.
D. Elytra embracing widely the sides of the abdomen ; tarsi bristly beneath..BLAPS. ELEODES.
DD. Elytra not embracing widely the sides of the abdomen.

E. Eyes divided in two by the margin of the head ; tarsi bristly beneath... --.-.- BLAPSTINUS.
EE. Eyes not divided.
EF. Warsi with a silky golden pubescence beneath....---.-..-.---.----------------=---- UPIs.
HR eee arsi ew bhi COArses p WWCSCON CO. == asa eet ate lait =rm slut aimim impel ee alo TENEBRIO.

The general remarks made in describing the present tribe, apply par-
ticularly to the numerous species of this sub-family.

Sub-family ULOMIDES.

This subfamily includes a small number of heteromerous beetles,
which are closely allied to the Tenebrionides in their general characters,
but differ from them chiefly in their shorter and more or less perfoliate
antenne, the absence of trochantins in their middle legs, and their
usually reddish-brown color. The anterior tibie are more or less dila,
ted, and sometimes toothed on the outer edge, and the last tarsal joint

124 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

is often as long as all the others united. They are mostly found under
the bark of dead or decaying trees. The larve of some foreign species
of Uloma have been found in flour and in bake houses, like those of
Tenebrio proper. The species of the genus Hypophleus, as the name
implies, live under the bark of trees. These, which are our two most
common and typical genera, may be thus distinguished :

A. Labrum attached directly to the front; anterior tibz dilated and toothed on the outer edge; size

EN) aKuiog ies0Ye tebe hrtl 6” Sees oa ag ace S ps em cGoC OA Ob UaD On Gab TSU aoncbOSMSERSsoonas assoc. ULOMA.
A A. Labrum separated from the front by a membranous clypeus; anterior tibz somewhat widened
but-withoubitecth sizeismall!s. os 25e ose eec cre eeatsecea= ewer aea= ass sone nee HYPOPHL@US.

Uloma contains five N. American species. The U. impressa, Melsh,
is a common insect, found in old logs and stumps in an advanced stage
of decay. It is between four- and five-tenths of an inch in length, and
of a deep mahogany-brown color. It was formerly considered identical
with the U. culinaris of Europe. The U. imberbis and the U. punctulata,
Lec., are similar, but only about three-tenths of an inch long, and of a
lighter color. The former is distinguished by having the last joint of
the antennz obliquely truncated and pointed. The other two species
have not been found east of the Mississippiriver. Hypophloeus contains
three species. They resemble Uloma in form and color, but are only
about three-twentieths of an inch in length.

TRIBE XV.

HETEROMEROUS FUNGUS-BEETLES.

Heteromera fungicola. TAXICORNES mostly, Latreille.

The insects of this small tribe so closely resemble the heteromerous
ground beetles in their organic details, that they are merged by Lacor-
daire in his comprehensive family of Tenebrionide. They are, however,
usually easily distinguished by their general form and color, and their
short perfoliate antennz, besides the other characters mentioned in the
general description of the tribes of the heteromerous section. But they
are especially distinguished by their fungivorous habits. The only other
insects in this section which are known to us, in this country, haying
similar habits, are the two species of Tetratoma, in the family of Me-
landryide.

They are usually found, in all their stages, in the fungi which grow
upon trees; but they are sometimes found under decayed bark, where
they are supposed to feed upon the small fungi which grow in such sit-
uations. They comprise the family Diaperide.

—~=

~

HETEROMEROUS FUNGUS-BEETLES. - 125

Family LIV. DIAPERIDZ.

This small family is founded upon the genus
Diaperis, of Geoffroy, a term derived from a
. Greek word meaning to pass through, and
suggested probably by the perfoliate charac-
‘ter of the antennie, in which the axis appears
to pass through the dilated joints; or, the
name may have had reference to the habits
of the larve, in perforating the fungi upon

which they feed. The short and more or less

DIAPERIS HYDNI, Fabr.:—a, larva; : 5
b, beetle; ¢, underside of head of lar- perfoliate character of the antennz, distin-
va; d, leg of same; ¢é, antenna of a 5 2
beetle—after Riley. guishes these insects from all the other Heter-
omera except the sub-family of Ulomides. Their other leading charac-
ters have been already described in speaking of the tribe which they
constitute. The following are the principal genera:

A. Body somewhat square-shaped and rough. First joint of tarsivery short. (Sub-family Bolito-
PLD UCLOS) Bartels atare selcims ne nie cxothnaiaatatese MSCS & Abie ratersearejeToinia sto ere(en sisie sete BoLitopuacus, 4 sp.

A A. Body SOR wah smooth. First joint of tarsi usually longer than the second. (Sub-family Dia-
perides. ;

B. Antenne shorter than the thorax, and perfoliate. Last joint of maxillary palpi elongated.
C. Head unarmed. 1st joint of hind tarsi as long as the 2d. Length of body quarter of an inch or
upwards. Colors black, with reddish-yellow spots .....-..-..-.-.---------.----- DIAPERIS, 2.
CC. Head of the males usually with two horns or tubercles. ist joint of hind tarsi as long as 2d
and 3d united. Length less than 3 inch. Color black or bronzed green, without spots.
MranaxtSOme ulm CSpLCUs..< 5-6 sha saa se eis at eee ee ciin acne staat HOPLOCEP HALA, 2.
BB. Antenne longer than thorax, almost moniliform. Last joint of maxillary palpi triangular.

First joint of tarsi longer than 2d and 3d. Surface often pruinose or mealy ; usually without
PLATYDEMA, 14.

The Bolitophagus cornutus, Panzer, is one of our most remarkable in-
sects. It is a thick-bodied beetle of a dark wood-brown color, and a
rough or tuberculated surface, and varying from less than four to nearly
five-tenths of an inch in length. The male is distinguished by two flat-
tened horns on the top of the thorax, which curve forwards, and which
are clothed on the under side with an orange pubescense. It is often
found under the bark of old stumps and prostrate logs. The genus Di-
aperis proper is represented in this country by the D. hydni, Fab., (Fig.
58,) which is common throughout the Middle and Eastern States. One
other species, the D. rufipes, Horn, is found in Arizona. Hoplocephala,
a term meaning armed head, in allusion to the horns on the heads of the
males, contains two species: the bicornis, Oliv., wholly of a metallic-
green color, and the viridipennis, Fab., similar, but with a red thorax.
They are both a tenth of an inch long, or a little more. As the former
is described as sometimes having a brownish thorax, it is probable they
are only varieties of the same species. Platydema contains fourteen
species, as indicated in Dr. Horn’s Revision of N. A. Tenebrionidie, of
_which the four following are the most common : the americanum and

126 - THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

excavatum are shining black species, the latter being distinguished by
two short horns on the head of the male; the flavipes is known by its
bluish pruinose surface and yellow legs ; and the elipticum, common in
the Southern States, which is readily distinguished by the oblique red
spot on the anterior part of each elytron.

Section IJ. TETRAMERA.

Apparently four joints in all the tarsi; the joints dilated and brush-like beneath, with the
penultimate usually bi-lobed.

The structure of the tarsi in this section is very uniform, being always
composed of four distinct joints, with a faint rudiment of the missing
joint at the base of the last.: We have seen above that in some very
small species of the pentamerous section, one or more of the tarsal joints
are rudimental or wanting; but it is a curious fact, which may have
some important bearing in the classification of these insects, that in the
small Pentamera with deficient tarsi, it is usually the first joint which
is in a rudimental state, whilst in the genuine Tetramera it is always
the fourth joint that is undeveloped. The joints are dilated and cush-
ioned beneath with a dense brush of hairs (except the Scolytide), and
the last joint but one is almost always bi-lobed, with the last joint in-
serted between the lobes. But in some of the Chrysomelides proper,
the penultimate joint, though dilated as usual, is entire or only slightly
notched at the end. The dilated, cushioned and bi-lobed tarsi are pe-
culiar to the beetles of this section with a few exceptions, and therefore
serve readily to distinguish them, independently of the number of tarsal
joints. This structure of the feet, as we have elsewhere remarked, seems
to be specially adapted to enabling these insects to adhere to the sur-
face of leaves and smooth bark, and accordingly all the numerous spe-
cies of this section are vegetable feeders. Many of them feed upon
foliage, some bore into the trunks or branches of trees, and others feed
upon fruits or seeds. This section, therefore, embraces a greater number
of species injurious to the agriculturist, than all the other sections com-
bined.

The larvee vary considerably in the different tribes, and will be de-
scribed in their proper connections. It may be stated generally, that
in those which reside in wood or in fruits the feet are usually wanting,
or at most are merely rudimental, whilst those which live upon the sur-
face of leaves have six small but well developed feet.

The beetles with four-jointed feet are divided into four tribes, as fol-
lows: ,

Tribe 1st (or 16th of the whole number). Snout-beetles or Weevils.
Fructivora rostrata. RBYNCOPHORA, Latreille. Head more or less pro-

SNOUT-BEETLES OR WEEVILS. 127

longed into a snout. Antenne usually capitate, rarely serrate or fili-
form. Larve mostly fructivorous. Families: Bruchide, Anthribide,
Brenthidx, Curculionide.

Tribe 2d (or 17th). Shert-horned Wood-borers. Lignivora brevicornia.
XYLOPHAGA, Latreille. Head without snout; body short and eylindri-
cal; antenne clavate or capitate, but little longer than the head; larve
lignivorous. ITamily: Scolytide.

Tribe 3d (or 18th). Long-horned Wood-borers. Lignivora longicornia.
EUCERATA, Westwood. Body elongated; antenne long and tapering,
usually longer than head and thorax. Larve lignivorous. Family :
Cerambycide.

Tribe 4th (or 19th). Tetramerous Plant-beetles. Herbivora tetramera.
PHYTOPHAGA, Kirby. Body usually short and rounded; antennz fili-
form or slightly and gradually enlarged toward the end. Larvze herbi-
vorous. Family: Chrysomelide, including the sub-families Criocerides,
Galerucides, Eumolpides, Chrysomelides, Cryptocephalides, Hispides
and Cassidides.

TRIBE XVI.
SNOUT-BEETLES, OR WEEVILS.

Fructivora rostrata. RHYNCHOPHORA, Latreille.

This tribe of beetles, most of which are comprised in the family of
Curculionide, is supposed to be the most numerous in species, not only
in the class of insects, but in the whole animal kingdom. The only
question of the correctness of this estimate would be with respect to
some of the families of microscopic animalcula, but here the superiority
in number would probably be found to be in individuals only, and not
in distinct species. The number of species of Curculionide, specimens
of which actually exist in the collections of Europe and of this country,
does not vary much from 20,000. The number of North American spe-
cies enumerated in Mr. Crotch’s check list of 1873, is 414; and this cata-
logue undoubtedly falls far short of the whole number, especially of the
smaller species.

The prolongation of the head anteriorly, in the form of a slender
snout, generally serves to distinguish the beetles of this tribe from all
others. But in a considerable number the snout is so short and broad
as not to afford a very distinguishing feature. In cases of doubt, there-
fore, the student must take other characters into account. The most
important of these is the usually rudimental state of palpi, and the four-
jointed, cushioned, and bilobed tarsi. The antenne, in the great ma-
jority, are knobbed at the end, and geniculate or bent like an elbow near
the middle.

128 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

The Curculionids are generally small beetles, probably not averaging
more than a quarter of an inch in length, anda great number being less
than half this length. A few of the tropical species, however, are
amongst the giants of the beetle tribe, some of them attaining a length
of from one to two inches.

The larvee are soft, white, footless grubs, and almost always inhabit
the substance of plants, more especially the fruit in its various forms of
seeds, nuts, and pulpy fruits. The larve of a few foreign genera, how-
ever, (Hypera, Coniatus and Cionus,) live upon the surface of leaves,
the pulp of which they devour. These, living exposed to the light, pre-
sent somewhat variegated colors; and they have two or three simple
eyes, or ocelli, on each side of the head. When about to transform,
they attach themselves to a leaf or its petiole, and enclose themselves
in a thin gauze-like cocoon; a curious anomaly in the Coleopterous
order. The larve of some of the more minute species belong to the
class of leaf-miners, and others inhabit the stems of herbaceous plants,
causing them to enlarge into the excrescences known as galls, and
which bear a certain resemblance to unripe fruits. As a tribe, there-
fore, the snout-beetles are pre eminently the occupants and devourers
of fruits, and as other tribes of tetramerous beetles are known by the
Greek names of Xylophago, or wood-eaters, and Phytophaga, or plant-
eaters, the snout-beetles might be properly styled Carpophaga, or
fruit-eaters ; but we have retained the name by which they are generally
known, and which is so happily expressive of their most distinctive
character, namely: Rhynchophora, or snout-bearers.

This tribe of beetles comprises the four following families :

A. Labrum and palpi normally developed; antennze not elbowed; snout short and

thick.
Bi Antennes saw=toomneds:eyesinOtChed cacy. ii<lelsjafeinisich-fs icles es eieinieieias Brucuw”.
BB. Antenne clavate; eyes round or slightly sinuate............. ANTHRIBIDA.

A A. Labrum and palpi obsolete.
C. Antenne straight and filiform; proboscis pointing directly forwards; body

COMM ATCO aye. oi Rie ch a iater vetonhel = heer estes Gaels oie ate ae itee epee sie ee BRENTHIDA.
CC. Antenne clavate and usually elbowed; snout various..... CURCULIONID&.

Family LV. BRUCHIDA.

This is a small family of small-sized beetles, always less than a quar-
ter, and sometimes one-eighth of an inch in length. The only tetramer-
ous beetles with which they could be confounded are the Curculionide
and the Chrysomelide; but they differ from the former by having the
labrum and palpi of the ordinary form, and the head is but little pro-
longed anteriorly; and they differ from the great majority of the latter
in their short, serrate antenne, and in having the tip of the abdomen
uncovered by the elytra. But a few aberrant genera of Chrysomelids,

SNOUT-BEETLES OR WEEVILS. 129

(Babia, Saxinis and Coscinoptera,) resemble
them in these characters, thus showing the
close relationship between the two families.
The present family contains the well known
pea and bean weevils, which are often very
seriously injurious to these crops. The pea-
bugs make their appearance and deposit
their eggs in the early part of the summer,
and as they have but one brood in a sea-

Brucuus Pisi, Linn.: —a, beetle en- : 2
larged, the small outline showing Son, we can obtain sound seed by planting

natural size; b, a pea from which the 2 i

beetle has escaped—after Riley. peas as late as the first of June.

The family contains but a few genera, and all our injurious species
belong to the genus Bruchus, Linn.*

The most notorious species are the pea-weevil (Bruchus pisi, Linn.) ;
the bean-weevil (B. obsoletus, Say), and the grain-bruchus (B. granarius,
Linn.) The latter is a European species which has been imported in
small numbers into this country.

Family LVI. ANTHRIBIDZ.

This and the following family are really only sub-divisions of the great
Curculio family, from which it is distinguished by the presence of an
upper lip and palpi, and the straight antenne. The larve inhabit the
seeds and stems of plants, and some have short but well developed feet.
The larvee of the genus Brachytarsus, which is composed of very small
species, are found under the scales of bark-lice, and are supposed to be
parasitic, thus presenting a remarkable anomaly in this tribe of beetles.
The species are much more numerous than the Bruchide, but none of
them have proved injurious to cultivated crops. The name is derived
from the Greek anthos—a flower, and tribo—to destroy.

The following are the four principal genera:

A. Thorax with a transverse ridge in front of the posterior margin ..........-.-.-- TROPIDERES, 2 sp.
AA. Thorax without transverse ridge.
B. Body oblong oval; rostrum with parallel sides.
C. Anterior coxze rather widely separated; eyes small and finely granulated...... ANTHRIBUS, 2.
CC. Anterior coxe but slightly separated; eyes large and coarsely granulated...CRATOPARIS, 3.
BB. Body short; size small; rostrum cut obliquely.................----.------- BRACHYTARSUS, 5.

om

*In Mr. Crotch’s Check list the generic name Mylabris, of Geoffroy, is substituted for Bruchus, Linn.
The former term, derived from the Greek mu-le—a grain-mill, was applied by the Greeks to some kind
of insect found in mills and baking houses, and supposed by some to have been a species of Blatta, or
cockroach, and by others, the common meal-worm or larva of the Tenebrio motlitor ; but was applied by
Geoffroy to the beetles of the present family. A few years later, Linneus, having overlooked the
name given by Geoffroy, re-described these insects under the name of Bruchus, also an ancient Greek
name of some kind of insect, supposed to have been a species of locust, but which cannot now be deter-
mined with certainty. As these insects feed upon grain and other seeds, the name given by Geoffroy
has the claim of appropriateness, as well as of priority, but the term Bruehus has become established
by universal adoption and long continued usage, so that, like many other words, it may be said te
have acquired a meaning of its own, independent of its origin.

a

130 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA,

Family LVII. BRENTHID.

This, like the preceding family, might be regarded, more properly
perhaps, as one of the sub-families of the Curculionide. It agrees with
them in the important characters of the elongated snout, the undevel-
oped labrum and palpi, and the spongy and usually bilobed tarsi. It

[Fig. 60.] differs from the great majority of them
in its non-elbowed antennz, and the
’ uniform absence of the minute terminal
joint, which forms a twelfth or super-
numerary joint in the antenne of many
of the Curculionide ; and also in the
greatly elongated form of the body,
especially in some of the foreign spe-
cies. The family is considerably nu-

ty merous, upwards of six hundred species
: é i &4 being known to exist in cabinets, most
male beetle; @ head of male dor ff leg ana Of Which are found in tropical regions.
deel ee aneamies of body of Pups Indeed only a single species is known
to inhabit the continent of Europe, and but three species are found in
North America, north of Mexico, and of these only one inhabits the
more northern parts of the United States. This is the species com-
monly known as the Northern Brenthian, which is figured in all its stages
in the accompanying cuts. Much interest has become attached to this
species from its being the only one of the Brenthian family whose lar-
val history has been traced, and also from the uncertainty in which this
history has been involved. In a Report upon the Insects of Massachu-
setts, published in 1838, Dr. T. W. Harris gave a history of the habits
of this insect, together with a description of certain larvee found in com-
pany with the perfect insects, and communicated to him by the Rev. L.
W. Leonard of Dublin, New Hampshire. As these larvie were likewise
accompanied by pupe having the characteristic snout of the Brenthian,
bent down between the forelegs, it seemed to be almost demonstrated
that the insect in all its stages was here exhibited. But as these larve
departed widely from the Curculionide type, in having well developed legs,
and an anal proleg, subsequent authors have generally held the opinion
that some mistake must have occurred in the*matter. These doubts have
recently been cleared up in Mr. Riley’s Sixth Annual Report upon the
Insects of Missouri. It therein appears, from specimens communicated
to the author by Mr. Wm. R. Howard, of Forsyth, Missouri, that the
larve of Brenthus do not differ essentially from other Curculionide
larve. Mr. Riley concludes that the larve sent to Dr. Harris by Mr.
Leonard, must have appertained to some one of the Tenebrionid; sim-

SNOUT-BEETLES OR WEEVILS. Tan

ilar larvee having been found by himself in company with the Brenthi-
. ans, and which he conjectures to be those of the Strongylium tenuicolle,
Say.

The Northern Brenthus is frequently found under the bark of different
kinds of oak, in an incipient state of decay, but the larve are genuine
wood-borers penetrating into the heart wood, usually of dead, but some-
times of living trees. The beetles vary from one-third to two-thirds of
aninech in length. They are of a mahogony-brown color, withthe elytra
deeply grooved, and marked with linear spots of a tawny-yellow color.
The male and female differ remarkably in the shape of the snout, as
shown in the accompanying figures.

The species wasfirst described by Drury from a small specimen, under
the name of Brenthus minutus, and it is now included in the sub-genus
Eupsalis of Lacordaire, which the author admits to be scarcely distinct
from Arrhenodes, Sch. It has usually been referred to under the appro-
priate name of Brenthus (Arrhenodes) septentrionis, (or more properly,
septentrionalis) of Herbst, which is equivalent to the common name of
the Northern Brenthus.

Family LVIII. CURCULIONID.

This is the extensive family of snout-beetles, properly so called. The
statements made in describing the tribe of Rhynchophora, of which they
compose by far the larger part, had reference chiefly to the Curcu-
lionide, * and need not behete repeated. Their bodies are always of an
oval form, never being very much elongated or depressed. The snout
varies extremely, being sometimes short and broad, and sometimes as
long as the body and almost as slender as ahair. Their most important
organic character is the negative one of the absence of the labrum and
the rudimental condition of the palpi. Like all the plant-eating Tetra-
mera their tarsi are clothed with a dense brush of short stiff hair on the
under side, and the last joint but one is strongly bilobed. Another very
distinctive character is the bent or elbowed form of the antenne, which
is caused by the first joint being much longer than the others, and form-
ing an angle with them. The antenne are almost always knobbed at
the end. The larve are soft and white, slightly narrowed at each ex:
tremity, and usually lying in a curved position. They are always desti-
tute of feet, but in their place we often find little elevations or papille
which are sometimes surmounted by a coronet of fine bristles. They
always occupy the substance of plants, and therefore require but little
locomotion. Though they are emphatically the occupants of fruits and

* (Ourculio was the ancient name of some kind of corn-worm,

182 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

fruit-like galls, yet there is no part of a plant which is not inhabited by
the larvee of some one or other of their numerous species.

The snout-beetles consequently furnish a greater number of species
which are injurious to the agriculturist than any other family of beetles.
In depositing their eggs the females first puncture a hole with their
snouts, then drop an egg at the aperture, and lastly with the aid of the
proboscis push the egg to the bottom of the cavity. In harmony with
this mode of egg-deposit is the organic character observed in many spe-
cies, of the female having a proboscis considerably longer than that of the
male; of which our Apple-curculio (Anthonomus 4-gibbus) furnishes an
example. *

The classification of the Curculionide, on account of their great num-
bers and the small size of the great majority of them, taken in connec-
tion with the rudimental state of some of the organs, namely, the labrum
and the palpi, which, in other insects, often furnish valuable generic
characters, presents a difficult study which will tax both the patience
and the ingenuity of the student.

They are divided primarily into two large sections, according to the
length of the rostrum or snout, and the point of insertion of the anten-
nie, and designated as the Brevirostres or short-snouted Curculios, and
the Longirostres or long-snouted Curculios. These sections not being
sharply separated from each other in nature, Lacordaire has adopted,
as the basis of the primary division of the Curculionidae, the relative
position of certain parts of the mouth; but these parts are often so
minute and obscure that the characters derived from them are very diffi-

* In a paper on the systematic value of the Rhynchophora, read before the National Academy of
Sciences, at Washington, Jan. 24, 1867, Dr. LeConte adduces this habit ofthe Curculionide of pushing
their ova into the cavities prepared for them by means of the rostrum or beak, as an evidence of deg-
radation or inferiority of type. ‘‘It was reserved,” he says, “for the Rhynchophora to exhibit a degra-
dation of type, by which a function, peculiarly appropriate to the posterior extremity of the body, is
performed by the head: the elongated beak becoming in fact the ovipositor.”

Dr. George H. Horn, in an article upon the Curculionids, contributed to the American Philosophical
Society, Sept. 19, 1873, in describing the species of the genus Balaninus, states that the females have a
slender ovipositor, which they are capable of extending to half the length of their bodies, and that he
possesses a specimen with the ovipositor protruded, and an egg seized by its tip. From this he infers
that the Balanini, and probably other Curculionidz also, use their beaks only to make the perforation
into which the egg is to be deposited, but that the act of inserting the egg is done in the ordinary way
by the ovipositor.

The fact, however, that many, (if not all) of the Longirostres, or long-snouted Curculios, use their
beaks to force their ova to the bottom of the cavities prepared for them, is too well attested to admit
of question. Several species of Rhynchites and Anthonomus are described as thus ovipositing, in Kol-
lar’s Treatise, (page 238, et. seq.); and the common Plum-cureulio, (Conotrachelus nenuphar), is known
to practice the same method. (See Practical Entomologist, vol. 2, page 115.)

But the argument above stated to prove the relative inferiority of the Rhynchophora, appears to me
more fanciful than real. The great majority of Coleoptera have neither beak nor ovipositor, and simp]
deposit their eggs upon the surface of the substances upon which, or within which, their larve are to
reside. The additional precautions taken by the Rhynchophora to ensure the preservation of their
eggs and the welfare of their offspring, would seem to furnish a more certain proof of superiority of
instinct, than of any systematic degradation.

SNOUT-BEETLES OR WEEVILS. 133

cult of application. We have therefore followed the more popular class-
ification of Latreille and Scheenherr, so far as respects this primary
division.

Section 1. Brevirostres. Rostrum short and broad, never much longer
than the head ; scrobes extending to the end of the rostrum, and the an-
tennee inserted at or near their extremities. Anterior coxie contiguous.
Elytra covering the whole of the abdomen.

Section 2. Longirostres. Rostrum usually much longer than the
head, narrow and cylindrical; scobes very rarely reaching the end of
the rostrum, and the antenne usually inserted at a greater or less dis-
tance from its extremity, generally near the middle, and sometimes at
its base. Coxe and elytra various.

The Longirostres, which are much the most numerous, are divided by
Lacordaire, into two sub-sections accordingly as the anterior cox
touch each other, or stand more or less apart. The former he names
Synmerides, meaning thighs contiguous ; and the latter Apostasimerides,
(which we have contracted to Apomerides), meaning thighs separate.

The word scrobe, used in deseribing the Curculionids, is the name
given to the channel on each side of the rostrum for the reception of the
antenne. The term occular lobes refers to the form of the anterior and
lateral margins of the thorax, which, in this case, curve forwards so as
to touch or partly cover the eyes. Scape is the same as pedicel, and is
the name of the elongated first joint of the antenne. The rostral canal
is the name of the groove in the prosternum of some species for the re-
ception of the rostrom when it is bent under the breast in repose.

It is necessary to bear in mind that as the Curculionids are, for the
most part, small insects when compared with the Coleoptera in general,
the terms large and small, when applied to particular groups or spe-
cies, have a modified significance. A curculio half an inch or upwards
in length, is comparatively large ; one a quarter of an inch, is medium ;
and one an eighth of an inch or less, is small or very small.

The following tables exhibit the principal groups or sub-families into
which this extensive family has been divided :

Section 1 Brevirostres.

A Antenne straiolit; eC yes TOUMC ser. cian atcteratete rere sooo cinco leis etel= s/s ITH YCERIDES.
A A. Antenne slightly elbowed; eyes oblong, narrowed inferiorly..CLEONIDES.
AA A. Antenne strongly elbowed.
B. Eyes large, depressed, transverse, pointed at the lower OF atien Prothorax
with ocular lobes; scrobes directed inferiorly ..... eaeae LEPTOPSIDES.
BB. Eyes round or oval.
D. Prothorax without ocular lobes; eyes generally moderate— sometimes
round, sometimes oval,

134 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

E. Mentum large, concealing the maxille; sternum not hollowed in front.
F. Scrobes linear directed beneath the rostrum; scape rarely extending
beyond the posterior border of the eyes, often not reaching it:
BRACHYDERIDES.
FF. Scrobes often dilated, forming winglets (pterygia) on the sides of
the end of the rostrum, never linear and directed beneath; scape
extending beyond the eyes (except in Brachystylus,) :
OTIORHYNCHIDES.
EE. Mentum small, not concealing the maxille; sternum more or less hol-
lowed out in front to receive the rostrum.
G. Scrobes deep, linear, reaching the mouth.
H.' Scrobes reaching the eyes. Rather large insects, either glabrous

OL PUDESCENE hac. s se we ew oe eee sree tists MOLYTIDES.

H H. Scrobes various in length; small insects clothed with hairs or
AIS SCALES Asters Si TAIT Ne SOEs A ee HYPERIDES.

GiG. uScrobes short.curved: subspoasalese se eielies ee iene ATERPIDES.

DD. Prothorax with ocular lobes; eyes generally large, oval and transversal.
I. Tarsi hispid, not spongy beneath; third joint not dilated nor
POUIOW EG e's yetese hens ois copies ene eoc Ceecie ios BYRSOPSIDES.
II. Tarsi spongy; third joint bilobed.
K. Rostrum widened and hollowed triangularly at the end ;

scrobes confluent on the under side of rostrum:
PROMECOPIDES.

K K. Rostrum more or less enlarged, but not notched at the end;

scrobes shallow and incomplete posteriorly :
CYLINDRORHINIDES.

Section 2. Longirostres.
First Sub-section—Synmerides. Anterior coxve nearly or quite contiguous; never
with a groove between them for the reception of the rostrum.

A. Antenne elbowed, first joint much longer than the others.
B. Body oblong, cylindrical, covered with a fine powder; tarsal claws soldered to-
PECL TUT, PUMMUEISE «(ile us by avere brag aVay ara riatAaie gy chev ole alexeueve ive aiote aes fate eae event LIXIDES.
BB. Body not cylindrical and pulverulent; ungues free.
C. All the tibize terminated with a claw.
D. Thorax longer than wide, swollen anteriorly; narrowed behind ; eyes
MOU ese csticgs ie elepsiarans Cieakepsisi «eke iotews tcleialoltione tee teictei estates OTIDOCEPHALIDES.
DD. Thorax narrowest in front; eyes oval or oblong.
E. Body rough; eyes almost or quite contiguous above; abdominal sutures
VEEY ABE wee ssh Gone ee eee NAL ce PRIONOMERIDES.
EE. Body smooth, glabrous or pubescent.
F. Body elongate, sides parallel, glabrous, punctured; usually black or
Dole Shy es esiersicyseleler\eeeinia ch eee le cere aces MAGDALINIDES.
FF. Body oval; usually brownish and pubescent, and often variegated.
G. Tibiz slightly compressed and hollowed on the inner side; rather

lance amsecis’= imhabit Une tees « ariceiter eles ec = HYLOBUDES.
GG. Tibiz round; small insects; usually found on low plants:
ERIRHINIDES

CC. Tibie unarmed or simply mucronate at the end.

SNOUT-BEETLES OR WEEVILS. 135

H. Rostrum very long and slender; prosternum well advanced in

TERED 2 cle share eal 52) sina. oiNcheLe ac rdfetatad ets ested eae BALANINIDES.

HH. Rostrum not excessively long; prosternum very short in front
of anterior cox.

I. Eyes rather small, round; hind thighs not thickened:
ANTHONOMIDES.

II. Eyes contiguous above; hind thighs enlarged for jumping:
ORCHESTIDES.
A A. Antenne straight, first joint not much longer than the following ones; ante-
rior coxee elongated.
K. Rostrum short or moderate, more or less widened at the end;

Lip Of abdomen ie xpPOSe Oem seis ty yatta ATTELABIDES.
K K. Rostrum long and slender; abdomen wholly covered by
elytra, body pear-shaped: ss esters oleic: APIONIDES.

Second Sub-section—Apomerides. Anterior coxze more or less distant from each
other, and frequently with a groove, or rostral canal in the prosternum, between
them.

A. Capitulum of antenn ordinary, with transverse incisions; tarsi spongy beneath ;
third joint bilobed.
B. Anterior coxze exceptional, being nearly or quite contiguous; rostral canal
very short, but distinct; thighs often with a tooth.....CONOTRACHELIDES.
BB. Anterior coxe separate.
C. Antenne elbowed.
D. Hind margin of the abdominal segments straight.
E. Rostral canal wanting; anterior coxe large, sub-globular and wide apart;
tip of abdomen largely exposed)... . oc eigaa cae stn ono an LEMOSACIDES.
EE. Rostral canal distinct; anterior cox ordinary; tip of abdomen little
or not exposed.
F. Rostrum thickened at the end (ex. Analcis); abdomen ordinary; eyes

large, oval, not contiguous above........... CRYPTORHYNCHIDES.
F F. Rostrum slender; venter turned up behind; eyes contiguous:
ZYGOPIDES.

DD. Hind margin of second and sometimes third and fourth abdominal
segments arched or angulated.

G. Rostral canal short or wanting; scutellum indistinct or wanting ;

GOLOUS VY ATLOUS ace seers sets cts aeraie a ereieisiatste CrUTORHYNCHIDES.

GG. Rostrum often thickened and compressed at base; rostral canal

wanting; scutel distinct; color black or bronze. . BARIDIIDES.

| CC. Antenne straight, very short; first joint short and obconic; rostrum short.

H. Eyes on the front, sub-contiguous; hind legs very long ; hind
COM: Veby wide Aan, Jerarisalatee 11 ye cae sein © TACHYGONIDES.
HH. Eyes lateral; legs ordinary; tip of abdomen largely exposed:
| PTEROCOLIDES.
A A. Capitulum solid, globrous, with a spongy tip; tarsi entire, not, or but slightly,
spongy beneath.
I. Eyes large; tip of abdomen exposed; size medium or large:
CALANDRIDES.

if II. Eyes small or wanting; abdomen wholly covered by elytra;
small, black or brown, usually glabrous...... COSSONIDES,

136 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

We will add a few additional notes upon those sub-families which
are most common or most numerous in species, and which will therefore
be most likely to occur to the student:

Section Ist. Brevirostres.

(Fig. 61.]

Sub-family ITHYCERIDES.

This sub-family has been formed to receive
a single N. American species, the [thycerus novebora-
censis, or New York weevil, a comparatively large
and rather common species which is sometimes con-
siderably injurious to apple trees by devouring the
buds and bark of young twigs. It differs from
all other sbort-snouted weevils in not having the
antenn elbowed. The rostrum is robust, and the
scrobes very short and oblique. It is a bulky insect
five or six-tenths of an inch long, of a gray color,
with a few small black spots on the wing-covers.

The name is derived from the Greek :duc straight,

Iraycerus Novesoracen- and HEPUS antenne.
sis, Forster :—a, slit made in
oak twig by female for de-
positing her eggs; b, larve;
c, beetle—after Riley.

Sub-family CLEONIDES.

In these the antennz are but slightly elbowed, thus forming a trans-
itional group from the Ithycerides to those which follow. The rostrum
is rather robust and angular or carinated above, and longer than the
head; the scrobes are linear and deep, directed beneath, but not meet-
ing behind. The thorax is almost always furnished with ocular lobes.
The tibiz terminate’ in a dagger-like spine. These are large species
averaging about half an inch in length; oblong, cylindrical and pubes-
cent. The larvie of some are found in the stems of thistles. Six N. A.
species have been described, all belonging to the genus Cleonus of
Megerle.

Sub-family LEPTOPSIDES.

The most striking character of this group is the form of the eyes,
which are large and placed transversly or crosswise of the head, and
more or less narrowed and pointed at their lower extremity, whence,
in common with some others, they have been denominated by Lacordaire
Oxyopthalmes, meaning pointed eyes. We have two N. A. genera, Pan-
scopus, Sch., and Ophryastes, Sch.; the former contains but one species,
the P. erinaceus, Say, a sordid brown curculio, a little more than quar-

\—\ae tS ea

SNOUT-BEETLES OR WEEVILS. 137

ter of an inch in length, with a rough surface and clothed with short
stiff hairs. We have taken them abundantly in Michigan, under the
chips placed as traps for the Plum-curculio. Thirteen species of Ophry-
astes have been described, none of which have been found east of the
Mississippi river. They are large species covered with cinereous scales.
The eyes are partly covered by the prominent ocular lobes. The fam-
ily name is derived from Leptops, (meaning narrow eyed) a genus pecu-
liar to Australia.

Sub-family BRACHYDERIDES.

This sub-family comprises an extensive and considerably heterogene-
ous assemblage of insects, which, taken in connection with the Otiorhyn-
chides which follow, constitute the greater part of the division called,
by Lacordaire, Cyclopthalmes, meaning round eyes, and which are distir -
guished by the union of the three characters of short snouts, round eyes aiit
the maxille covered by the mentum. The Brachyderides are for tl:
most part comparatively large species, often clothed with fine scales ;
most of them are found upon the ground, but some upon herbaceous
plants. The sub-family contains the following N. A. genera, with the
number ef described species in each: Epicerus 7, Pandeleteius 1,
Polydrosus 2, Sitones 8, Tanymecus 5, Thalacites 1, Pachnzeus 2, Pary-
notus 1, Lachnopus 1, Platyomus 1, Strophosomus 1.

Sub-family OTIORHYNCHIDES.

This word literally means ear-snouted, and is intended to express the
most peculiar character of the sub-family, which consists in an ear-like
expansion on each side of the end of the rostrum, but some species are
included which have not this character. Another distinctive character
is the length of the scape, or first joint of the antennz, which, except in
the genus Brachystylus, always extends backwards beyond the eyes.
Many species are found under moss and grass. Such larve as are known
feed upon the roots of plants. N. A. genera: Otiorhynchus 3 species,
Agraphus 1, Tyloderes 1.

Sub-family CYLINDRORHINIDES,

Rostrum as long, at least, as the head, rather stout, and more or
less enlarged at the end. Scape reaching the eyes. Hyes oblong and
transversal. Thorax with ocular lobes, and imperfectly contiguous to
the elytra. This sub-family contains the genus Jistroderes, Sch., of
which seventeen N. A. species have been described. This genus forms
one of the transitional groups betwen the short-snouted and the long-
snouted Curculionid, the rostrum being usually nearly twice as long

—18

138 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

as the head. They can be distinguished from most allied groups by the
eyes being partly covered by the- ocular lobes, a character possessed by
very few N. A. Curculionide. The species vary from an eighth to a half
of an inch in length.

Section 2d. Longirostres.
Sub-family LIXIDES.

With this sub-family commences the section of Longirostres, the
snout being cylindrical and decidedly narrower and longer than the
head, but their transitional position is shown by the antenne being
inserted not very far from the end of the rostrum. The Lixides are
distinguished by their elongate, almost cylindrical bodies, which are
covered with a fine dust, like the bloom on a fresh plum or grape.
This bloom is sometimes bluish, sometimes orange, and is very easily
rubbed off, so that perfect specimens are rarely obtained; and for
this reason it is often difficult to identify the species. They are of
rather large size for this family, the species usually ranging from a third
to half an inch in length. Some of them inhabit water plants, and
some foreign species breed in the stems of thistles.

We have two genera: Lixvus, Fab., 13 species; and Larinus, Germar,
2sp. In the latter genus the scrobes, or grooves on the side of the ros-
trum, usually meet behind on the under side.

Sub-family OTIDOCEPHALIDES.

This name is derived from the Greek otis, a kind of owl, and kephale,
the head; the swollen anterior part of these insects having some fancied
resemblance to the head of an owl. The thorax is swollen before and
narrowed behind, a character not found, we believe, in any other Cur-
culionidz, and which has caused them to be compared with ants. The
antenne are inserted rather near the end of the rostrum. The sternum
is concave or hollowed in front.

The sub-family is composed of the single genus Otidocephalus, Chey-
rolat. The species are from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in length,
and usually of a shining black color. They are exclusively American.
Five species have been described which inhabit the United States.

SNOUT-BEETLES OR WEEVILS. 139

Sub-family MAGDALINIDES.

Rostrum rather long and cylindrical;

E scobes linear, commencing near the

middle, and reaching the base. Eyes

transverse, approximate above. Pro-

sternum not excavated. Small spe-

cies of an oblong parallel form, glab-

rous, usually black or blue, but

sometimes reddish. Thorax deeply

Seek ub thst larva; 2, pupa—after Dunetate. LElytra punctate and stri-

ate. The larvee depredate upon the pine, boring into the pith of the

smaller branches. A foreign species is said to have been reared from

a larva found in burrows under the bark of willow trees. The M. armi-

collis, Say, inhabits the elm. Nearly all the species belong to the typical

genus Magdalis, Germar, of which seven N. A. species have been de-
scribed.

[Fig. 62.]
¢ ei

Sub-family HYLOBIIDES.

[Fig. 63.]

Rostrum twice as long as the head, eylin-
drical, sometimes moderately robust;
scrobes deep, linear and oblique. Scape
clavate, nearly or quite reaching the eyes.

The anterior cox are somewhat separa-_,
ted. The tibizw usually compressed, often
curved, and terminated by a stout curved ,
spine. Tarsal claws elongated. Size pisopes srrosts—a, larva; & pupa—
rather large. Body oblong and pubescent. after Packard.

The larve gnaw galaries under the bark of trees, chiefly the pines,
often doing much injury, This habit is expressed by the family name,
which means, living in wood.

The sub-family contains the following N. A. genera: Hylobius, Ger-
mar, 3 species. Hudocimus, Sch., 1. Pissodes, Germ., 5. Heilipus, Germ.,
3. Lepyrus, Germ., 3.

Sub-family ERIRHINIDES.

From the Greek py, piwvos, the nose or snout, with the intensifying
prefix ep: Rostrum long and slender. Scrobes commencing at a
distance from the mouth and reaching the eyes. Antenne long and
slender. Scape sub-clavate. Tibi slender, not compressed, and usu-
ally with a spine or claw at the end. These are distinguished from
the Hylobiides chiefly by the form of the tibiz; but they embrace a
number of groups, each of which has some remarkable peculiarity.

140 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

In the group Cryptoplides, containing the genera Hndalus, Brachy-
bamus, and Smicronyx, the fourth joint of the tarsi scarcely extends
beyond the lobes of the third. In the group Hydronomides, repre-
sented in this country by the genus Bagous, Sch., the tarsi differ from
the common type of the Curculionide in being slender, and not spongy
beneath, and the third joint not bilobed; the fourth joint is elongated.
The species of this group are found on aquatic plants, and their bodies
are covered with minute scales which shed the water.

The species of this sub-family are all small, ranging from a quarter
to a tenth of an inch in length. The described N. A. species are as fol-
lows: Hrirhinus, Sch., 10 species. ndalus, DeCasteln, 4. Brachyba-
mus, Sch., 2. Bagous, Sch., 2.

Sub-family BALANINIDES.

[Mig. 64.| From Batavos, a nut or acorn, in which the larvee reside.
' Head globular. Rostrum very long, slender and filiform.
Scrobes linear, commencing a little beyond the middle of
rostrum and reaching the base. Antenne slender. Eyes
large. End of abdomen slightly exposed. Distinguished
at once by their long, slender rostrum, almost as fine and
_ glossy as a hair. The larve inhabit nuts and fruit, and
> sometimes the galls made by other insects. The female
pierces a hole with her rostrum for the deposition of her
Batanmus—after ©2825: They enter the ground to transform. The species
Rye. are, for the most part, of medium size, and of a mottled
brownish color. The sub family is composed of the genus Balaninus,
Germar, of which 8 N. A. species have been described.

Sub-family ANTHONOMIDES.

Head somewhat conical. Rostrum slen-
der and projecting forwards, and varying
in length in different species, and some-
times in the two sexes of the same. Scrobes
linear, commencing near the middle of the
rostrum and reaching the base. Eyes ap-
proximate above. End of abdomen little
or not at all exposed. These are small,
somewhat pear-shaped curculio, without iS
any very strongly marked characters. ee ie Adecco

They are a very important sub-family, in Curenlio; a, natural size; b, ¢, side and

: . : back view, enlarged—after Riley.
an economic point of view, many of them

(Fig. 65.]

-

=

_

SNOUT-BEETLES OR WEEVILS. 141

[Fig. 66.] being injurious to fruits. Kollar has de-
scribed the habits of two European spe-
ee the Apne weevil, A. ONT

© lar Sach oe fein, eggs in i
fruit buds of these trees. The Apple
curculio, A. quadrigibbus, of Say, (Fig.
65) and the Plum-gouger, A. prunicida,

AntTHoNomus, 4-cmepus, Say:—a, pupa; », Of Walsh, are well known American spe-
larva, enlarged—after Riley. cies. Both of these deposit their eggs
in the fruit. The larve of these insects do not go into the ground to
pupate, like the common Plum-cureulio and many others, but go through
all their stages in the buds or the fruit which they infest. All the N. A.
insects of this sub-family belong to the genus Anthonomus, Germ., of
which 15 species have been described.

Sub-family ORCHESTIDES.

From opyynoryc, a dancer or jumper. These resemble the Anthonomides
in most of their characters, but differ in having the hind thighs much
swollen, with a corresponding muscular development which gives to them
the power of jumping. The prosternum is very short, permitting the
rostrum to be bent beneath in repose. Eyes large, oval, and nearly
meeting above. This little group is very remarkable for the structure
and habits of the larve. They are somewhat flattened, and pointed
behind, and furnished with six feet, a remarkable departure from the
apodal character of other curculionide larve. But the most anomalous
circumstance is that these larve are leaf-miners, a habit of which there
are but few examples* in the order of Coleoptera, and exhibiting a curi-
ous analogy to the larvee of many of the Micro-Lepidoptera; and this
analogy is carried out by the larve when fully grown and about to
change to pupz, enclosing themselves in silken cocoons. Two N. A.
species have been described by Mr. Say belonging tothe genus Orchestes,
Illiger. They are only about a tenth of an inch in length.

Sub-family ATTELABIDES.

Rostrum more or less robust and enlarged at the extremity ; scrobes

[Pig.:67.] superior, large and pit-shaped. Antenne straight, or not
: ’ elbowed, the first joint being but little longer than the
following ones. This character readily distinguishes this
and the following sub family from the great majority of
Cureulionide. They are divided into two groups: the
_ <Attelabides proper, with short, thick bodies, tibize un-
Arrerasus. guiculate at the end, and claws soldered together; and

* Other examples are found in Hispa and Haltica.

142 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

the Rhynchitides, more elongate and depressed, with unarmed tibie,
and free, usually bifid claws.

The females roll up leaves and deposit their eggs singly in the eavi-
ties thus made. The larva inhabits this cavity, and, when fully grown,
leaves it and goes into the ground to transform. N. A. genera: Attela-
bus, Linn., 5 species; Rhynchites, Herbst, 8; Hugnamptus, Sch., 2.

Sub-family APIONIDES.

From azoy, a pear. Rostrum long, curved, cylindric or subulate ;
scrobes foreiform or pit-shaped. Antenne not elbowed. Size small or
very small; body ‘pear-shaped, usually glabrous, and without wings.
Habits of the larve various. Some live in seeds, especially those of the
leguminose. Some form galls on the stems and leaves of plants. Some
bore into the pith of certain plants and form a kind of cocoon of the
detritus or gnawed particles. Finally, some inhabit knots which they
form upon the roots of plants. Twenty-one N. A. species of the genus
Apion, Herbst, have been described.

Sub-family CONOTRACHELIDES.

Meaning having a conical thorax. With this sub-family we pass to
the sub-section of Apomerides (Apostasimerides, Lacordaire,) a term
__[Fig. 68.] derived from the Greek apo—apart, and

a _ meros—the thigh, in allusion to the greater
or less separation from each other of the
anterior coxze ; whereas in all the preced-
ing sub-families these parts stand nearly
or quite in contact. The present is a
transitional group in this respect, the an-
terior cox being but slightly separated.
The rostrum is various as to length; the
: scrobes turn rapidly beneath, and are con-
{Cee re fluent behind, being imperfectly visible on
pupa; ¢ beetle; d, a plum, showing the the sides. The ocular lobes are advanced
depositing her egg—after Riley. so as to nearly or quite cover the eyes
when the rostrum is bent down. Thighs usually with a tooth on the
under side. Size small, or medium; colors generally obscure. The
sub-family is exclusively American. Fourteen N. A. species have
been described. The notorious Plum-curculio, Conotrachelus nonuphar,
Herbst (Fig. 68), may be taken as an example of the genus aud its larvee.

Sub-family CRYPTORHYNCHIDES.

Rostrum varying in length, usually somewhat enlarged both at base
and tip (attenuated in Analcis.) Scrobes oblique. Antenne far from

SNOUT-BEETLES OR WEEVILS. 143

base of rostrum ; scope at most reaching the eyes. Rostral canal ex-
tending onto the mesosternum. LEHyes large, pointed inferiorly. Ocular

[Fig. 69.] lobes more or less prominent.
Thighs sometimes toothed beneath.
Tibiz spined attheend. In Cryp-
torhynchus proper the tibize have
a band of rigid hairs near the ex-
tremity, usually bright yellow, but
sometimes black. These are small
f species found on plants. The body
ee assign eae) nous form and
of beetle—after Riley. clothed with scales. The family
name signifies having a concealed snout, and has reference to the rostrum
being bent under the breast, and lying in the groove called the rostral
canal. N.A. species: Cryptorhynchus, Mliger, 11; Acalles, Sch., 3; Pseu-
domus, Sch., 1; Analcis, Sch., 4.

Sub-family CEUTORHYNCHIDES.

Rostrum cylindric, not thickened at base; scrobes lying along the
inferior edge of the rostrum, rarely very oblique. The rostral canal
varies in the different groups, as shown below. Scutellum wanting or
indistinct. The three intermediate segments of the abdomen strongly
arched. Tibize unarmed. The name means the same as that of the
preceding sub-family, and implies that the rgstrum is more or less con-
cealed, but the prosternal groove is here usually less distinct, and some-
times wanting. They are chiefly distinguished from the Cryptorhyn-
chides by the absence of scutellum, and of points at the end of the
tibia, and by the abdominal segments strongly arched behind. They
are small insects, found mostly on low herbage in wet places. The
habits of the larve are various, some inhabiting seeds, and others the
stems or roots of plants. The Mononychi transform on the plant, whilst
the Ceutorynchi go into the ground and enclose themselves in cocoons.
The species are numerous, and are divided by Lacordaire into three
groups, as follows:

A. Eyes covered, at least partly, by the thorax.
B. Rostral canal extending onto the mesosternum, and sometimes the metasternum. -..CdsLIODIDES.
BB. Rostral canal not extending beyond the anterior cox@..-..--------- CEUTORHYNCHIDES proper.
A A. Eyes exposed. Rostral canal indistinct or wanting.-.-..--.---------------------- PHYTOBIIDES.

In the first group we have one species of the genus Mononychus, Ger-
mar, the M. vulpeculus, Fab., found on the flowers of the wild Iris, and
five species of Cwliodes, Sch. In the second group, Cewtorhynchus,
Germar, 5 species. In the third group, Phytobius, Sch., 3 species ;
Celogaster, Sch., 1 species ; and Rhinoncus, Sch., 1 species.

144 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Sub-family BARIDITDES.

Rostrum various, often compressed and thickened at base; scrobes
commencing near the middle, and turning rapidly beneath. Scutellum
distinct. Rostral canal wanting; but in Centrinus there is an excava-
tion between the cox, which, in the male, often has a spine on each
side. Intermediate segments of the abdomen usually arched or angu-
lated behind. The eyes are finely granulated, and partly covered by
the thorax. The tibse are usually mucronate or pointed at the ex-
tremity. Size medium or small; of elliptical or rhomboidal form;
usually black or brown, sometimes with reddish spots. The larve live
in the stems or roots of plants, and are sometimes very injurious to cul-
tivated crops. They undergo their transformations in the detritus
which they have made, and with which they construct a kind of cocoon.

N. A. genera: Centrinus, Sch., (body short and rhomboidal), 11 spe-
cies; Baridius, Sch., (body oblong or oval), 30 species; Madarus, Sch.,
(body oblong rhomboidal), 2 species.

Sub-family CALANDRIDES.

Rostrum more or less elongated; scrobes short. Antenne basal;
scape usually reaching far onto the thorax; knob without joints, horny
[Fig. 70.] _ and shining at base, with a spongy extremity.

4 y Hyes finely granulated, large, depressed and ap-
proximate below. Tip of abdomen exposed. Tarsi
not spongy beneath, 3d joint not bilobed. Size
sometimes small, but usually medium or large;
some tropical species very large. Color black or
reddish. The larve of the larger species inhabit
the stems of plants, whilst the smaller are usually
SPHENOPHORUS 13-PuNcra. Aestructive to grain and seeds. When about to
Tus, Illiger :—a, variety pul- transform they construct a coarse kind of cocoon

chellus, Sch., in which the two

spots at the end of each elyt- from the materials in which they live.

ron are enlarged and coalesce

BS Se tee aie We have three genera: Rhyncophorus, Herbst,

of large size, and distinguished for the excessive development of the
side pieces of the metasternum, 2 species; Sphenophorus, Sch., of me-
dium or rather large size, usually between a quarter and a half of an
inch in length, 42 species; and Calandra, Clairville, (Sitophilus, Sch.,)
less than a quarter of an inch in length, 5 species.

Sub-family COSSONIDES.

Rostrum usually rather long; scrobes short, commencing at or beyond
the middle. Antenne short. Eyes small or wanting. Tip of abdomen not
exposed. Tarsi short, filiform, not spongy beneath, 3d joint rarely bi-

SHORT-HORNED WOOD-BORERS. 145

lobed. Small insects, of an oblong linear form, with puncto-striate
elytra, and usually of a shining black or brown color.. They form a
connecting link between the Curculionide and the Scolytide, being
mostly sub-cortical and lignivorous in their habits. The five following
genera are represented in the N. A. fauna: Cossonus, Clair., 6 species;
Rhyncolus, Creutz, 7 species ; Dryopthorus, Schupp, 1 species ; Lymantis,
Gyll., 1 species, and Phlwophagus, Sch., 1 species.

TRIBE XVII.
SHORT-HORNED WOOD-BORERS.
Lignivora brevicornia. XYLOPHAGA, Latreille.

This tribe is composed of small beetles of a short and nearly cylindri-
cal form, and of a brown or blackish color. The antenne are very short,
often not much longer than the head, slightly elbowed, and always ter-
minating in a knob. In many species the abdomen is truncated, or cut
off obliquely behind, and terminated with a coronet of short spines.
The larvee are scarcely distinguishable from those of the Curculionide,
being soft, white, footless grubs, usually lying in a curved position.
They differ, however, from the great majority of the larve of the Cur-
culios in their wood-boring habits. Indeed, they are pre-eminently the
wood-borers of the whole order of Coleoptera, no other tribe vying with
them in this respect except the Long-horned borers, to be hereafter de-
scribed. Though small in size, rarely exceeding a quarter of an inch in
Jength, and often less than half that length, they are tolerably numer-
ous in species, and often excessively abundant in individuals. They in-
habit various kinds of trees, but mostly the pines, which they have been
known to damage considerably in this country, whilst in some parts of
Europe they have destroyed whole forests by their enormous multipli-
cation. They are comprised in the single family of Scolytide.

Family LIX. SCOLYTID£i.

Named from the genus Scolytus, Geoff., derived from the Greek sko-
lupto—to denude or lacerate.

—19

146 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

ie. A This family is co-extensive
‘i with the tribe of short-horned
| borers which we have just de-
scribed. They are usually re-
garded as closely allied to the
' Curculionide ; but, as we have
| stated above, they differ great-
|; ly from the latter in théir food-
f i habits, and also in the details
I || of their organization. In ad-
dition to the characters given
' above, we may add that they
differ from the great majority
of the tetramerous beetles, in-
4 cluding the Curculionide, in
) having simple tarsi, not spongy
beneath, and with the last joint
~ but one not at all, or but very
7 | slightly, bilobed. In Dr. Le-
Conte’s sketch of this family in
the 2d Vol. of Trans. of Am.

schurrows of ihe lucvey betwoon the bark and ieee Ht. Society, one hundred and
growing wider as they diverge from the line where the three N. A. species are enu-

peau are deposited 2: another view of ae same, phowing

the hole made by the exit of the beetle; 3, beetle, bot ; i ; ioh-

magnified and natural size; 4, larva, the same; 5, pupa merated, distributed in eigh
magnified—after Riley. teen genera or sub-genera.

But all the more common species may be included in the six following

genera:

A. Head free; 1st joint of the tarsi as long as the others united.........------------------- PLATYPUS-
A A. Head deeply inserted in thorax; first joint of tarsi much shorter than the others united.
B. Abdomen of the usual form.
C. Head not globular, visible from above; 3d joint of the tarsi slightly bilobed.
D. Knob of the antenne sub-globular.

E. Six jointsin the antenne before the knob. ..........---.-2.s-0---e-eee+---e--e- HYLURGUS.

EE. Seven joints in the antennz before the knob..-........--....-.-------------- HIYLASTES.

DD. Knob of the antennz as long as the preceding joints united.................-- HYLESINUS.
CC. Head globular, invisible from above; 3d joint of tarsi not bilobed..............-- - ToMICUS.
BB... Venter turned up behind -<26_¢) 2:62. 52 38). Sd ey ccc eee ScoLyTus.

The Platypus compositus, Say, may be taken as a type of this genus in
this country. It is one-fifth of an inch long, of a reddish-brown color,
and each elytron has a three-toothed elongation at its extremity. Dr.
Chapuis, in his monograph of this genus, describes nine N. American
species, none of which are very common.

Hylurgus, Latreille, contains a number of well known species, the
largest and most common of which is the H. terebrans, Oliv., of a reddish-
brown color, with the thorax deeply punctured, and quarter of an inch
in length. This insect is often seriously injurious to pine trees. An

SHORT-HORNED WOOD-BORERS. 147

account of its habits is given in Dr. Harris’ Treatise. A much smaller
species, the H. dentatus, Say, often bores innumerables holes in the red
cedar.

We have ten described species of Hylesinus, Fab. Whilst the species
of Hylurgus and Tomicus are found in evergreens, and especially in the
different kinds of pine, the species of Hylesinus and Scolytus inhabit
mostly, if not exclusively, the hard-wooded deciduous trees. The most
common species is the H. aculeatus, Say. The specific name means
prickly, and has reference to minute elevated points on the elytra. It is
a tenth of an inch in length, or a little more, of a blackish-brown ground
color, but largely varied with ash color, produced by microscopically
minute scales. The top of the thorax is bare, leaving a large elliptical
blackish spot. The antenne are reddish. This little insect is often seen
in the first warm days of spring sunning itself upon stumps or fences
which run through timbered land. I have found it abundantly in wood
which appeared to be that of some species of poplar.

In Tomicus, Latr., the tip of the abdomen is cut off obliquely and sur-
rounded with a number of short spines. Théy are all of a reddish or
chestnut color. Three of the species are frequently met with in pine
forests, all of which were originally described and named by Mr. Say.
They are the T. exesus, upwards of two-tenths of an inch in length, with
six or eight points at the tip of each elytron; the T. pini, three-twen-
tieths of an inch long, the tip of each elytron about four-toothed; and
the T. xylographus, but little more than a tenth of anincb long, the ely-
tra but slightly truncated, puncto-striate, with minute points on the pos-
terior declivity, between the punctures.

Scolytus, Geoffroy, is distinguished by the singular formation of the
abdomen, which is abruptly turned upwards on the under or ventral
side, beyond the first segment. The head is usually flattened, and either
striated or roughly punctured on top, and surrounded with a coronet of
incurved hairs. They inhabit, as we have above stated, the hard-wooded
trees. European species live in the oak, the elm, the ash, and the plum.
The different kinds of hickory, including the shell-bark, the bitter-nut,
and the pecan, are extensively damaged by the Scolytus 4-spinosus, Say,
so-called on account of four short spines at the tip of the abdomen of
the males. The turned up portion of the venter is moreover deeply con-
cave in this sex, and divided down the middle by a carina, orridge. It
is nearly two-tenths of an inch in length, sometimes wholly black, but
the elytra are often reddish-brown. The females are about a quarter
part smaller, and the venter is but slightly concave, and without either
spines or carina. In many groves of timber in Northern Illinois, the
bitter-nut hickories have been completely destroyed by the larve of
these little beetles. They work between the bark and the wood, cutting
divergent furrows, as shown in the accompanying figure, and finally

148 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

emerging, in the beetle-form, through round holes about large enough
to admit a common knitting needle, and giving the tree the appearance,
as Mr, Riley aptly remarks, of having been peppered with fine shot.*

TRIBE XVIII.
LONG-HORNED WOOD-BORERS.
Tignivora longicornia. EUCERATA, Westwood.

This large and conspicuous tribe of beetles is usually designated by
the Latin word Longicornes, meaning long horns, in reference to their
most striking character, namely, the great length of their antenne,
which, with a very few exceptions, are considerably longer than the
head and thorax combined, and frequently longer than the whole body.
They are sometimes strictly filiform, but usually setaceous, or tapering.
Notwithstanding their great length, they very rarely have more than
the normal number of joints, which, in the Coleopterous order of insects,
is eleven. The genus Prionus, however, furnishes a remarkable excep-
tion in this respect, some of the species having as many as thirty joints
in their antenne. The tarsi are always four jointed, spongy beneath,
and the third joint strongly bilobed, characters which readily distin-
guish them from the predaceous ground-beetles which also have the an-
tennz slender and considerably elongated.

A few of them have the wing-cases either much shorter, or much nar-
rower than the abdomen, but in these instances, the wings are not folded
up under them, as in the short-winged Staphylinidz, but lie extended
and exposed upon the abdomen. They are strong flyers, but do not
readily take to flight, and are, therefore, easily captured, though they
run with considerable rapidity, their legs being in harmony with the
general elongation of their bodies and their antenne. The thighs are
very commonly clavate or enlarged at the end, giving room for an un-
usual development of the muscles of locomotion.

Many of these beetles, when captured, make a squeaking sound, called
stridulation, by rapidly moving the prothorax upon the mesothorax.
This faculty seems to be possessed by all of the sub-family of Lamiides,
and by many of the Cerambycides, but to be absent in the Prionides.

Many of these insects are known to be nocturnal in their habits, and
are sometimes seen flying about our lamps in the evening; but others,

* This insect has been described by Mr. Riley under the specific name carye; but I can find no suf-
ficient grounds for regarding it as distinct from the 4-spinosus, of Say. The only positive difference
stated is the absence of denticulations at the tip of the elytra, and these, though very minute, are dis-
tinct in the specimens which I have examined, of both sexes. The absence of certain details in Mr.
Say’s description can scarcely be adduced in proof of difference of species, since it was evidently Mr.
Say’s rule to practice the greatest brevity in his descriptions, consistent with what he deemed a sufli-
cient identification of the species.

LONG-HORNED WOOD-BORERS. 149

especially the Lepturides, are found upon flowers in the day time, and
in the full light of the sun.

The larve are oblong, straight, moderately firm, sordid or yellowish-
white grubs, chiefly distinguished by the depth of the incisions between
the segments of the body, giving to them a strongly crenulated or
wrinkled appearance. They are usually a little tapering from before
backward, the first or prothoracic segment being larger than the others,
but never excessively developed as in some of the wood-boring larvee of
the Buprestidee.

The head is small and more or less sunken in the prothorax, but the
larvee of the Lepturides are exceptional in this respect, their heads being
large and flattened and as broad as the pro-thorax.

The majority have six very small feet, which, in some, are scarcely
more than rudimental, and the larve of the sub-family of Lamiides are
distinguished from nearly all the others by being wholly footless—the
place of feet being supplied by little callosities.

These larvee, together with those of the short-horned tribe last de-
scribed, constitute pre-eminently the wood-borers of the Coleopterous
order. Though vastly surpassing the former in size and in the number
of species, they would seem to be much inferior to them in the number
of individuals, and, therefore, though a few of them have been very in-
jurious to cultivated or ornamental trees, they have never been known
to produce such extensive destruction of timber as has been effected by
the larvie of the diminutive but prolific Scolytide. A remarkable ex-
ception, however, to this statement occurred a number of years ago, in
the almost total destruction of the locust tree (Robinia pseudacacia)
throughout all the Northern States, by the larve of the Locust-borer,
Clytus robime, of Forster. This destruction did not occur in all places
at the same time, but was extended mostly over the ten years between
1855 and 1865.

Upwards of 8000 species of longicorn beetles are known to exist in
European cabinets. The Smithsonian catalogue of the year 1853 con-
tains the names of 431 N. American species. In Dr. LeConte’s New
Species of N. A. Coleoptera, published in 1873, eighty-nine additional
species are described, and in the intervening twenty years a considerable
number of N. A. species had been described by Dr. LeConte and others,
both in this country and in Europe.

Some of the characters in the following tables may require explana-
tion. It will be seen that some of the largest Lamiides are distinguished
by a cicatrix or scar at the end of the first joint of the antenne. In
these species the pedicel, or stout basal joint, appears as if cut off ob-
liquely at the end, and this sloping part is enclosed by a little ridge or
carina, and its surface differs from that of the surrounding parts by be-

150 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

ing covered with little elevated points or granulations. This is the part
to which the term cicatrix is applied. Another character, valuable for
its permanency, is the openness, or the closure, of the middle cotyloid
cavity. The cotyloid cavity is the hollow in which the coxa is situated.

In some of the longicornes the posterior angle of the mesosternum is
prolonged backwards till it nearly touches the anterior angle of the
metasternum, and thus closes the cotyloid cavity on its outer side. In
this case the epimeron of the mesothorax is usually narrow, and does
not reach the cotyloid cavity. In others, the posterior angle of the
mesosternum is but slightly prolonged backwards, leaving the cotyloid
cavity open on the outer side. In this case the epimeron of the meso.
thorax is larger and extends inwards, so that its inner extremity, which
is often somewhat widened, fills the gap between the angles of the meso-
and metasterna. This description will be better uuderstood by referring
to the figure of Harpalus, on page 27.

Family LX. CERAMBYCIDA.

The long-horned wood-borers constitute one large natural family of
beetles, named after the genus Cerambyx, an ancient Greek name for
some kind of long horned beetle, and applied by Linnzeus to the insects
of this family.

They are divisible into four sub-families, which may be distinguished
as follows:

A. Head horizontal or inclined; last joint of palpi not long and pointed; anterior
tibee without furrow. Larvie six footed.

B. Head inserted in the thorax; eyes deeply notched or horse-shoe shaped; ante-
rior coxee not prominent. Larvee with the head narrower than the body, and
retractile.

C. Thorax somewhat square-shaped, with a sharp lateral margin, which is usual-
ly from one to three-toothed; anterior cox strongly transversal. Body
generally large and depressed; colors black or brown......... PRIONIDES.

© C. Thorax rounded at the sides and without salient margin, sometimes with

one spine or tubercle on each side. Size various; colors often bright and

GUVETSUTCOES TE 58 te) hod. a thee Riatete other. cen dovetond theta Soma ovcho tere CERAMBYCIDES.

BB. Head attached to the thorax by a neck; eyes nearly or quite round; anterior
cox angular and prominent; elytra generally narrowed behind. Larvee

withthe headiasswideras\theybodiy:. 2205 -retele ecto ee eee LEPTURIDES.

AA. Head vertical; last joint of palpi cylindrical and pointed ; anterior tibiw usually
-with a furrow on the inner side. Larvee footless.........,..,---- LAMIIDES.

—

LONG-HORNED WOOD-BORERS. 151

Sub-family PRIONIDES.

[Fig. 72.] The Prionides are generally large, slow-mov-
oes, ing insects, flying only in the evening, and
- usually of uniform black or brown colors. They
are distingushed from the other Longicornes
chiefly by their sub-quadrate thorax, the sides
of which form a sharp margin, which is usually
divided into two or three teeth. The thighs
are never clavate or suddenly enlarged at the
end, as they are in many of the species of the
other sub-families. The eyes are usually coarse-
ly granulated, and the middle cotyloid cavities
are widely open on the outer side. Some of
the tropical species are of gigantic size, being
PRIONIs LATICOLLIS, Drury: fe. five or six inches in length. The larve are
hid chit anil broad and somewhat flattened, and have six
very small but distinct feet. They inhabit the trunks and roots of trees.
The sub-family is named after the genus Prionus, of [Fis i’
Geoffroy, a term derived from a Greek word meaning a anys
saw, and applied to these insects on account of the long
saw-toothed antenne vf many of the species, especially of
the males.

at

Pupa of PRoNus—-
Larva of Prionus—after Riley. after Riley.

The following are the principal N. American genera:

A. Antenne not longer than the thorax; thoracic margin without teeth; tarsi simple. ..-.PARANDRA.
A A. Antenne much longer than the thorax; tarsi spongy beneath, with the third joint bilobed.
B. Eyes coarsely granulated; colors uniform.
C. Thoracic margin prominent; side pieces of the metasternum parallel. %
D. Eyes not closely approximate; antennal joints imbricate; teeth of the thoracic margin short

andi flattened sy Bodygto bustier case sere ee sects oe = eaten anne eee ces « saab ee PRIONUS.

DD. Eyes very large, approximate above and below; thoracic teeth spine-shaped. Body elon.
gate.

E. Thorax much narrowed behind; margin three spined, the anterior spine shortest. 3d joint

of the antenne as long as the 4th and 5th united_.._..............2..2.... DEROBRACHUS.

EE. Thorax nearly square; margin 3-spined, the hindermost spine shortest ; 3d joint of an-

tenns: but littlelonger thant -the'éth\&* 2255 329. 3222. S252 ge Be ORTHOSOMA.

DDD. Eyes very wide apart, but slightly notched; size very large; thoracic margin usually

many toothed.

F. First joint of antepnz much shorter than the third..................2.......... ERGATES,

152 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

FF. First joint of antenne at least as long as the third............-..--..-.---- MALLODON.
CC. Thoracic margin almost wanting, with a short spine; side pieces triangular; head verti-
(or RS = ee Be SS. hous Soa joee Sessa Ones chasse ee Seno soeeee esac aee TRAGOSOMA.

BB. Eyes finely granulated ; colors variegated ; thorax rough, without lateral spine. SPHENOSTETHUS.

Parandra, Latr., contains two species, one of which, the P. brunnea,
Fab., is common. It is about seven-tenths of an inch long, and of a
glossy mahogany-brown color. ‘The other species, P. polita, Say, is
much more rare. It closely resembles the other, but can be distinguished
by its head being as wide as the thorax.

Prionus, Geoff., contains many species. The two most common are
the P. imbricornis of Linnzeus, less than an inch long, of a mahogany-
brown color, with long imbricated antenne, the joints lapping one
upon another; and the P. brevicornis, or short-horned Prionus, of Fab-
ricius; the antennze of the female are scarcely a third as long as the
body, but those of the male are much longer. This species is black,
the male an inch and a quarter, and the female an inch and a half or
more in length.

Derobrachus, Serv., contains one large brownish-yellow species found
in the Middle and Southern States.

Orthosoma, Serv., contains one common species, the 0. cylindricum,
Fab., along, narrow, brown insect, an inch and a quarter in length. |

Eirgates, Serv., has but one species, from California, originally de-
seribed by Dr. LeConte under the name of Trichoanemis spiculatus.

Matllodon, Serv., contains several species, none of which are common.

Tragosoma, Serv., contains but one species, the 7. Harrisii, Lee.

Sphenostethus, Hald., contains but one species, the S. serripennis, Hal-
deman, but previously described by Buquet under the name of Solenop-
era Tasleit. It is of medium size, of a blackish-brown color, and inhab-
its the Middle and Southern States, but is nowhere common.

Sub-family CERAMBYCIDES.

The Cerambycides are much more numerous and diversified than the
Prionides, and are often ornamented with bright and variegated colors.
They differ from the Prionides chiefly in having the sides of the thorax

[teas rounded, without a salient margin, but
= sometimes furnished with a single spine
or tubercle on each side, and from the
Lamiides in haying the head sometimes
horizontal, but usually more or less in-
clined, whereas in the Lamiides it is ver-
ticle.
; It must be remarked however that the
ELIPHIDION PARALLELUM, Newm.:— a, : ie 3
late b, twig split open, showing the en. face May assume a vertical position in the
closed pupa; k, the severed end of the twig; re: ie .
cl pautle rs basal joints of the antennz, Cerambycides, when the head is bent
showing the characteristic spines at the tip «4s
of the 3d_ and 4th joints; j. tip of elytron; strongly downwards, but the transition

d, e, f, g, h, head, maxilla, labium, mandible, ns 2
and antenna of larva—after Riley. from the occiput to the face is here usu-

LONG-HORNED WOOD-BORERS. 153

ally more gradual and rounded, and in the Lamiides sharper or more
abrupt. The face is also rather convex in the Cerambycides, and flat
in the Lamiides. This distinction, however, is sometimes unreliable,
and the more definite characters stated in the table of sub-families,
must be resorted to in cases of doubt. But the minor groups can often
be distinguished by their style of coloration, as hereafter specified.

The Cerambycides are often seen resting upon the trunks of trees in
crevices of which the females lay their eggs. Some of the smaller spe-
cies are found upon flowers. Many of them possess the stridulating
power described in the general remarks upon this family. The larve
resemble those of the Prionides in having six very small legs, but they
are more cylindrical in their form, and the incisions between the seg-
ments are more deeply impressed.

The sub-family of Cerambycides is divided by Lacordaire into two
groups, which are primarily distinguished by the difference in the facets
or granulations of the eyes. In the first group the granulations are
comparatively coarse and the lines between the facets are deeply im-
pressed. In the second group the granulations are much finer, and in
many genera the surface of the eyes, unless strongly magnified, appears
to be almost plane. But this distinction is only comparative, and can
only be appreciated by an actual examination of some of the species in
the two divisions.

In the following table we have first separated the group of Asemini,
upon the more definite character of the form of the eyes, and then di-
vided the remainder in accordance with the difference in the granula-
tions.

The following is a table of the groups of Cerambycides :

A. Eyes oval, almost entire, or but little hollowed on the inner side (except Tetropium); second joint

of antennz at least half as long as the third ; form somewhat depressed ; colors obscure :
ASEMINI.

A A. Eyes with a deep notch or sinus; second joint of antennz not half as long as the third.
B. Eyes coarsely granulated. Form moderately convex; antennz usually as long at least as the

body, often much longer in the males; thighs usually slender; colors gray or brown.
CERAMBYCINI.
BB. Eyes finely granulated.

C. Form more or less depressed; thighs usually strongly clubbed; colors various. ..-- CALLIDUNI,
CC. Form convex; thighs usually slender or moderately and gradually thickened.
D. Scutellum rounded; size various; colors usually black or brown with transverse yellow or

wiltitish) bangs 225s 32e -cjrissch eben. p45- ce MS Sone 2s LER oman Cees cess ote CLYTINL
DD. Scutellum triangular and pointed; size large or medium ; colors usually black and red:
STENASPINI.

The group of ASEMINI contains two principal genera, Asemum, Esch.,
(from the Greek asemos—obscure) containing six species of a size a little
above medium, with small, hairy, and finely granulated eyes, and Crio-
cephalus, Muls., (from krios—a ram ; and kephale—the head) containing
nine species of large size, most of them being about an inch in length,
with large and less finely granulated eyes, and having from two to four
large shallow depressions on the disk of the thorax,

—20

154 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

The CERAMBYCINI comprise many genera and species, but the three
principal genera east of the Rocky Mountains are Chion, Newman, and
Eburia and Elaphidion, Serville. Chion contains only the cinctus, Drury,
and the garganicus, Fab., which are now regarded as one species. It is
nearly an inch long, of a grayish-brown color, with an irregular oblique
yellow band across each elytron, and a sharp spine at the side of the
thorax. Its larva inhabits the hickory. The name Hburia is derived
from the Latin ebur—ivory, in allusion to the ivory-like callosities on the
elytra. We have ten species, the most common of which is the HZ. quad-
rigeminata, of Say, an elegant fawn-colored beetle more than three-quar-
ters of an inch in length, with two double ivory-like spots on each ely-
tron. Its larva lives in the honey-locust ( Gleditschia triacanthos, Linn).
Elaphidion, (from elaphus—a stag, on account of its long horns or anten-
nz) contains thirty-five plain brownish-gray species, which have been
distributed in a number of sub-genera. The larve are the well known
twig-pruners of the oak, the maple and other trees. The genus is dis-
tinguished by having several of the basal joints of the antennz pro-
Jonged into spines at the tip.

The CALLIDIINI are also considerably numerous in species, most of
which may be included in the genus Callidium, Fab., a name derived
from a Greek word meaning beautiful, many of the species being
prettily colored. The genus Hylotrupes, Serv., meaning a wood-borer,
is distinguished form Callidium by having the antennz less than half
as long as the body, and by having the thorax densely clothed with
Short whitish hairs. Its type is the H. bajulus, Linn., a dull blackish
beetle about two-thirds of an inch in length, which has been imported
into this country from Europe. Its larve are sometimes seriously in-
jurious to fir, spruce and hemlock lumber, and they have been known
to gnaw through sheets of lead when these come in their way. Two
beautiful species, one red and the other purple, and both with ivory-
like stripes on the elytra, have been set apart in the genus Physoene-
mum, of Haldeman, (Dularias, Thomson). Callidiwm proper, (includ-
ing Phymatodes) contains twenty N. A. species.

The CLYTINI constitute a very numerous group which has been divi-
ded into many genera, but most of which might be included in the
genus Clytus. This name, usually attributed to Fabricius, is said by
M. Mulsant to have been originated by Laichtining, in a work upon ‘
Tyrolese insects. It is derived from the Greek lutos—sonorous, or
noisy—having reference to the squeaking noise made by these insects
when captured. The sugar-maple borer (Clytus speciosus, Say), the
locust borer, (C. robinie, Forster), and the ash-tree borer (0. capree,
Say,) belong to this group, which contains many of our most beautiful
species.

LONG-HORNED WOOD-BORERS. 155

The STENASPINI resemble the Clytini in their convex form, the tho-
rax in both groups being almost globular, but are readily distinguished
by their pointed scutellum and their style of coloration, being some-
times velvety-black, with a few large red spots, and sometimes almost
wholly red or purple, but with the legs and antenne black. The group
is named from the genus Stenaspis, Sery., a word expressive of the nar-
row and pointed form of the scutellum. The species are usually of
rather large size; but one of the most common, the Batyle suturalis,
Say, is less than half of an inch in length, almost wholly red, and
clothed with short erect hairs. The group contains about thirty spe-
cies, many of which, however, are not found north of Texas.

Sub-family LEPTURIDES.

The Lepturides are named after the genus Leptura, of Linneus, a
term derived from the Greek Aexroc—slender or attenuated, in aliusion to
the slender and tapering form of most of the species.

They are distinguished from the other Longicornes by their round
eyes, Sometimes entire, but usually with a small notch or indentation ;
by the head narrowed behind the eyes, and the thorax narrowed in
front, the union of these two parts giving the appearance of a neck of
greater or less length; and by the anterior cox being of an angular
form and projecting below the level of the breast.
The base of the elytra is usually more or less elevated
above the level of the thorax. The middle cotyloid
cavities are always open, and the eyes are almost
always finely granulated. Their form is usually some-
what tapering behind, and as a general rule they are
smaller and more active than the other Longicorns,

Y and many of them fly by day, whereas most of the

STW eaeHeod. Longicorn beetles are crepuscular. Whilst most
Longicorns are found upon the trunks of trees, and often near the roots,
many of the Lepturides frequent flowers, especially those of umbellife-
rous plants.

It is in this sub-family that the species occur, which have very short
or very narrow elytra. But in these cases the wings are not folded
under them, as they are in the short-winged Staphylinide, but lie at
their full length upon the abdomen. ‘The larve differ from those of
other Longicorns in having the head as wide as the body.

This group is usually placed at the end of the Longicornes, but we
retain them here on account of their close alliance with the preceding
sub-family of Cerambycides, with which they are united by Lacordaire,

156 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

The following are the genera of Lepturides:

A. Wing-cases of ordinary length.
B. Antennz knotted, each joint being abruptly enlarged atits extremity......-...... DESMOCERUS-
BB. Antenne uniform.
C. Kyes entire. Antennx approximate, and at some distance from the eyes.

D. Body oblong, depressed, parallel; elytra with elevated lines........-.-------.----- RHAGIUM.

DD. Body short and broad, mesosternum prominent, elytra blue..........---------- GAUROTES.

DDD. Body oblong and moderately tapering ; thorax without tubercles on the sides:
ACMZOPS.

CC. Eyes with a very shallow notch.
E. Hind tibie with a square excavation at the extremity, and with two long spurs at the up-

per angle. Shoulders much elevated, elytra tapering..............---------- TOXoTUS.
EE. Tibial spurs moderate and terminal, or sub-terminal. Thorax with obtuse tubercles on
thejsides. Body moderately tapering:.../....25....-. 22. shi ac eee eee kee cecens PACHYTA.
EEE. Body elongate slender. parallel; color blue...............--.-..----------- ENCYCLOPS.

CCC. Eyes with a distinct notch; antenne inserted close to the eyes. Thorax bell-shaped and
without tubercles on the sides. First joint of hind tarsi without brush beneath.

FR, )cbody. moderately, elongatedi:2. s.cus sents ote Bee ted hea LEPTURA.
F. Body much elongated; abdomen much narrowed at its extremity....-....-. STRANGALIA.
A A. Wing-cases imperfect.
Gx) Wing-casesivery shorts ie: is see ss aie de aed EES oa MULORCHUS.
GG. Wing-cases nearly as long as abdomen, but slender and separated at their extremi-
BIOS HI 2 sh hii as see ck Sd bess nae heacea cee ca lh oe eeemaee ae Cee ane eas STENOPTERUS.

Desmocerus, Sery., contains two species, found on the blossoms of
elder, one of which inhabits the Eastern States, and the other is found
on the Pacific slope. The former is the D. palliatus, of Forster, a beau-
tiful blue insect, eight or nine-tenths of an inch in length, with the
basal third of the elytra a light buff-yellow, suggesting the idea of a
cloak thrown over the shoulders, and expressed by the specific name
palliatus. Acmcops, Le., contains thirty-two described species ; Toxo-
tus, Serv., nine; Pachyta, Serv., eleven; Strangalia, Serv., seven; and
Leptura, Linn., seventy-six, besides eleven other species separated by
LeConte under the generic name Typocerus. The other genera contain
but few species each. The Khagiwm lineatum, Oliv., is five or six-tenths
of an inch long, and of a grayish color. The larve burrow between the
bark and the wood of the pitch-pine. Garrotes cyanipennis, Say, is be-
tween four and five-tenths of an inch long. The head and thorax are
brownish-black, with an obscure tint of purple; the elytra are much
broader than the thorax, and of a metallic greenish-blue color. The
Encyclops ceruleus, Say, is.a small, narrow, linear species, of a dark-
blueish color, with reddish eyes. The eyes, as implied by the generic
name, are perfectly round and without notch.

Sub-family LAMIIDES.

This sub-family is named from the genus Lamia, of Fabricius, a Greek
word used to express some kind of bugbear, and suggested as the name
of these insects, probably, on account of the menacing aspect of some

LONG-HORNED WOOD-BORERS. 157

of the larger species. They differ from all the other Longicorn beetles,
(with a few rare exceptions,) in having their heads vertical, the front

(Fig. 77.]

SAPERDA BIVITTATA, Say ; the Round-headed apple-tree borer :—a, larva; b, pupa; c, beetle—after Riley.

or forehead presenting a prominent angle, and the face falling perpen-
dicularly below it, so that when viewed directly from above the face
cannot be seen. This position of the head, in connection with their
long curved horns, gives to these beetles a fanciful resemblance to a
goat, and terms indicative of this similarity often occur in their nomen-
clature. They are also distinguished by the rather long and spindle-
shaped last joint of their palpi, especially the maxillaries, and by a
little groove almost always found on the inner face of their tibizx. The
granulations of the eyes, which are usually coarse in the Prionides and
fine in the Lepturides, and which serve to separate the Cerambycides
into two nearly equal sections, are so variable in the Lamiides as to be
of but little value in classification.

These insects generally remain stationary by day upon the trunks
and branches of trees, and often escape detection by the resemblance
which they bear, in the hues and sculpture of their bodies, to the color
and inequalities of the bark on which they repose. Their colors are
therefore, as a general rule, less vivid than those of the Cerambycides,
their prevailing tints being brown and gray.

This is the most numerous sub-family of Longicornes, and is said to
contain aS Many genera and species as the other three sub-families
united ; but in this country they do not appear to be more numerous
than the Cerambycides.

The larve resemble those of the Cerambycides in being of a nearly
cylindrical form, but a little tapering behind, and considerably swollen
at the anterior extremity, with a small head, which is retractile within
the enlarged anterior segment. These larve differ, however, from those
of nearly all other Longicorns in being wholly destitute of legs.

158 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

A. Tarsal claws simple; body usually moderately elongated.
B. Pedicel, or first joint of the antenne, cicatrised at the end; size large, usually an inch or more
rhe hers Fe eS oe poe eet oe se onse soe e sees te ae MOoONOHAMMUS.
BB. Pedicel without cicatrix or scar.
C. Middle cotyloid cavities open on the outer side; thorax usually unarmed, or, at most, with an
obtuse tubercle at the side; thighs not at all, or but slightly clavate; size usually about

medium.
D. Antenne two or three times as long as the body, at least in the males; thorax longer than
wide.
E. Antenne naked; thighs linear, the hinder,ones nearly as long as the abdomen :
DoRCHASCHEMA.
EE. Antenne hairy; hind thighs sub-fusiform, et reaching beyond the 2d abdominal seg-
BT OLS) 51 eee ae a ee Ane Sea el ne See Sci ee ee Hipporsis.

DD. Antennz never much longer, sometimes shorter, than the body; thorax not longer than
wide, (except Adetus.)
F. Body ornamented with tufts of long hairs; thorax with a tubercle at the side ; thighs
SUD-ClAV ah@h= eee rs ante oe ae Ne ene na mic Danas 2) ne erence DESMIPIORA.
FF. Body without tufts of hair.
G. Head very prominent; upper lobes of the eyes separate or wanting; legs very short:
SPALACOPSIS.
GG. Head and eyes ordinary.
H. Legs rather long, thighs linear, the hind ones reaching the end of the 4th abdominal
segment. Often rather large species..--...--.-.-..--------=---.----- SAPERDA, 13.
HH. Legs short; thighs sub-clavate or fusiform, not reaching at most beyond the 3d
abdominal segment.
I. Body robust; antenn longer than the body; lower lobes of the eyes elongated :
ONCIDERES.
II. Body more or less elongated; eyes ordinary.
K. Head retractile; thorax longer than wide; antennze much shorter than the

pedy= eyes deeply notched: =r. one sae aeen ee sere -e rr eee eee ADETUS.
KK. None of the above characters. :
L. Eyes coarsely granulated; size medium.-..-....-..---.--.-.----------- ATAXIA.
LL. Eyes finely granulated ; size small.
M. Antenne hairy ; elytra plane.........-.---...-...- eee Ree 2 EUPOGONIUS.
MM. Antenne not hairy; elytra with a rounded elevation at the base:
PsSENOCERUS,

CC. Middle cotyloid cavities closed; thorax usually with a small spine or tubercle at the sides ;
antenne longer than the body; hind thighs clavate, and reaching nearly to the end of
the abdomen. Size usually below medium.

N. Size about medium; thorax with a spine at the middle of the sides.

O. First joint of antenne rather short, and pear-shaped ; female without ovipositor :
ACANTHODERES.
OO. First joint of antenne elongate obconic ; female with an exserted ovipositor :
GRAPHISURUS.

NN. Size below medium ; body rather short and thick, thoracic tubercle obsolete:
LEPTOSTYLUS, 10.

NNN. Size much below medium; thoracic spine behind the middle of thorax..-..--. LEIOPUS.

A A. Tarsal claws bifid at the end, or with a tooth near the base; body et elongated and slen-
der ; antennz about as long as, or shorter than the body.

P. Eyes completely divided; three intermediate segments of the eeacnien shorter than

the others.
QO: (Claws bifid: body stout; size mediom=—-. 2! ae... cena es ate eee TETRAOPES.
QQ. Claws toothed at base; body slender; size small. -.-..--- Se cS ee, TEYROPS.

PP. Eyes not divided; body elongated, slender, and parallei.
R. Four first abdominal segments equal, or gradually decreasing.
S. Claws bifid.
T. Hind legs elongated, thighs reaching the end of the 4th abdominal segment :

STENOSTOLA.
tT. Legs moderate, hind thighs not reaching the end of the 3d abdominal seg-
NTT Hare - Sat S CRP CEHaMOUn SAB STE OS oer becicoe ston sagas ao aradCee PHYTECIA.
SS. Claws toothed at base; legs short..........-...-.----2--------------- OBEREA, 13.

RR. Three intermediate segments of abdomen shorter than the others; head retrac-
(te Bes Senger ao SHS SR RAE SbamacoassnnactiaS Upegen gost 2os8ssS555e AMPHIONYCHA.

LONG-HORNED WOOD-BORERS. 159

Monohammus, Serv., contains ten described species. The antennz of
the males are about twice as long as the body, and in some species more
than this, and the anterior legs are longer than the others, and their
tarsi are strongly fringed with hairs. Certain species with sherter an-
tenn, and with the fore-legs of the males not elongated, have been sep-
arated by LeConte in the genus or sub-genus Goes. The genus Ptycho-
des, Serv., not given in the table, has most of the characters of Mono-
hammus, but the thorax is rounded at the sides and without a lateral
spine; but one species inhabits the United States; two others are found
in Mexico and Central America. The genus Saperda, Fab., contains
thirteen N. A. species, including the well known round-headed borer of
the apple tree. Leptostylus, LeC., contains ten species, the most com-
mon of which is the L. aculifer us, Say, between three and four-tenths of
an inch long, and of a gray color; thorax uneven; elytra rough with
elevated points, with a brownish tip which is separated from the gray
portion by a transverse whitish band. Jiopus, Serv., contains many
small species not averaging more than a quarter of an inch in length.
Dr. LeConte makes the discriminative remark that in this genus and its
allies, the lateral tubercle of the thorax becomes more acute and spini-

[Fig 78] form the farther back it is situated. The genus Oberea,

ij. ji) Mulsant, contains thirteen species in our fauna, some of

which are injurious to the raspberry, in their larva state.
e The other genera given in the preceding table contain but
“J few species. Oncideres, Serv., contains three North Amer-
.. ican and many South American species. The only spe-
cies found east of the Mississippi river is the 0. cingula-
_tus, Say, commonly known as the Twig-girdler, from the
habit of the female of girdling twigs below the point where
she has deposited her eggs. It usually breeds in the hick-
ory, but it has been known to girdle the twigs of the ap-
= ple, the pear, and the persimmon. We have referred
ON ae above to the twig-pruning habits of the species of Elaphi-

TUS, Say

Twig-girdler; >,dion among the Cerambycides; but in that case, the
hole made in de- ?

Date ee pruning is done by the larvee, whereas the amputation of
size—after Riley. the Oncideres is performed by the parent insect. Tetrao-
pes, Dalman, contains the well known brick-red beetles with black spots,
found on different species of Asclepias, or milk-weed. They are pecu-
liarly N. American, the species being widely distributed from the Atlan-

tic States to California.

160 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

TRIBE XIX.
TETRAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES.

Herbivora tetramera. PHYTOPHAGA, Kirby.

This tribe embraces an extensive series of beetles, mostly of small
size, not averaging much above a quarter of an inch in length, and
rarely exceeding half an inch, and usually adorned with beautiful and
often variegated colors. Like most other beetles of the tetramerous
section, the tarsi are clothed with a brush of hairs beneath, and the
third, or last joint but one, is usually more or less deeply bilobed. They
are distinguished from the snout-beetles in the same section, by the ab-
sence of a rostrum or beak; from the short-horned borers, by their
strongly dilated and bilobed tarsi, and from both by the antennz not
being knobbed at the end. They differ from the other family of tetra-
merous beetles—the long-horned wood-borers—in the comparative short-
ness of their bodies and of all their members, especially the antenne,
which are never tapering as they are in most of the Cerambycide, but
are either filiform or slightly and gradually enlarged towards the tip.
Some of the Cerambycide, however, have filiform antennz, and there
seems to be no character by which these two tribes can be absolutely
distinguished from each other; and the genus Donacia occupies so in-
termediate a position between them that it has been placed sometimes
in one, and sometimes in the other. But notwithstanding their close
approach in a few of the connecting genera, scarcely any families of
beetles are ordinarily more easily distinguished by their general form
and aspect. The insects of the present tribe are pre-eminently phyto-
phagous or plant-eating in their habits, both in the larva and imago
states. The only beetles which can be compared with them in this re-
spect are the chafers or leaf-eating Lamellicorns in the pentamerous
section. We have had occasion, in the introductory part of this work,
to state some of the differences in the habits of these two plant-eating
tribes.

The Lamellicorns are, for the most part, much larger insects. They
feed mostly upon the foliage of trees, in the beetle form, whilst their
larvee live under ground upon the roots of grasses and other plants; and
they feed in the evening, clinging to the leaves by means of their long,
sharp claws.

The tetramerous plant-beetles, on the contrary, are comparatively
small insects; they feed mostly upon herbaceous plants, both in the
larva and beetle state ; they are diurnal in their habits, and move slowly
over the surface of plants, to which they adhere by means of the dense
brush of hairs on the under side of their feet.

TETRAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES. 161

The larve are for the most part short, fleshy, convex or hump-backed
grubs, usually living upon the surface of the leaves upon which they
feed, often in company with the mature insects. They have six thoracic
legs, and usually a fleshy terminal proleg. Living exposed to the light
they differ from the great majority of Coleopterous larve in being more
or less highly colored. Some of them have the singular habit of pro-
tecting themselves by a covering of their own excrement, which will be
described more fully in treating of the sub-family of Cassidides. But a
considerable proportion of them are internal feeders. Some are leaf-
miners; others inhabit the roots of herbaceous plants; and the larve
of Donacia live concealed in the stems of water-plants, thus confirming
their affinity with the preceding wood-boring tribe. These Jast men-
tioned larve exhibit a habit extremely rare amongst the Coleoptera, but
which we have seen to be possessed by afew of the Curculionidae, that of
enclosing themselves in silken cocoons, when about to change to the pupa
state. These cocoons are sometimes found fastened in a row to the
stems of the aquatie plants in which the larve reside. Some phytopba-
gous larve change to pupe, attached to the leaves, but many of them
go into the ground.

Being, as their name implies, pre-eminently plant-eaters, this tribe of
beetles occupies a prominent place in practical entomology, on account
of the many species which are injurious to the agriculturalist. Among
‘these are the Striped cucumber-beetle, and its root-boring larve; the
cabbage and turnip flea-beetles; the flea-beetle of the vine; and the
tortoise-beetles which feed upon aie sweet potato.

When danger threatens, the Chrysomelide do not usually een
to escape either by running or flying, but, like the Curculionide, seek
safety by contracting their limbs and falling to the ground.

With regard to the size of these insects, as compared with the Coleop-
tera in general, the same statement is applicable which we made above
in treating of the Curculionide, and the terms large and small must be
understood as being similarly modified ; that is to say, half of an inch,
which is about the medium length of beetles in general, is large when ap-
plied to the insects of these two families, quarter of an inch is mediwn,
and an eighth of an inch or less is small or very small.

Family LXI. CHRYSOMELIDA.

This family, as here constituted, comprises the whole of the tribe of te-
tramerous plant-beetles. It is made up of several groups, some of which
are sufficiently distinct, whilst others are more closely allied, thus ren-
dering a natural classification of them indefinite, from the doubt whether
certain groups should, or should not, be raised to the rank of sub-fami-

ae

162 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

lies; and accordingly authors have differed much as to the number of
primary divisions. Linneus, having included Donacia in the long-
horned genus Leptura, described the remainder of the present tribe un-
der the three genera, Hispa, Cassida and Chrysomela. And if we take
these, as we do most of the Linnean genera, as types of families, it may
well be questioned whether any more obvious or natural classification
of these insects can be suggested to-day.

Latreille, in the Regne Animal, divided them into two families, which
he designated by the names Hupoda, signifying largely developed legs ;
and Cyclica, in allusion to the circular or rounded form of most of the
species. The former includes Donacia, Crioceris and the exotic genus
Sagra. The more extensive family of Cyclica he divided into three
tribes, which are equivalent to our sub-families, viz: the Cassidarie,
the Chrysomeline, and the Galerucite. These divisions he founds
partly upon the habits of the larvee, which he divides into four kinds:
1st, those which cover their bodies with their excrement, (Cassidariz) ;
2d, those which live exposed on leaves, (Chrysomelinz proper); 3d,
those which inhabit tubes which they drag about with them, (Cryptoce-
phalus and certain other genera of Chrysomelinz) ; and 4th, those which
live concealed in the interior of leaves, feeding on their parenchyma,
(Haltica, and its sub-genera, among the Galerucite).

This arrangement of Latreille seems to us much less natural and sat-
isfactory than are usually the classifications of this eminent entomolo-
gist. By it the small division of Eupoda is made to hold a rank equiva-
lent to all the rest of the Chrysomelide combined, and yet its most com-
mon and numerous genera (Crioceris, Orsodacna, ete.), bear aclose resem-
blance to some of the Galerucides, and do not differ from many of the
Cyclica, either in form or the habits of their larvee, so much as the sub-
family of Hispides. Moreover, the family name of Eupoda applies with
but little force to many of these common species, though it is very ap-
propriate to some of the foreign genera. With respect to the habits of
the larvee, however interesting in, themselves, they furnish a very imper-
fect basis of classification, since most of the habits above referred to are
common to several of the sub-families.

Mr. Westwood admits four primary divisions, which he raises to the
rank of families, viz: Crioceride, Cassidide, Galerucide, and Chryso-
melidz. Dr. LeConte has published a number of able papers upon the
Chrysomelidz of North America, but being scattered through various
scientific periodicals, they are not very accessible to the general student.

In a recent volume of the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Sciences, of Philadelphia, Mr. G. R. Crotch, with the assistance of Drs.
LeConte and Horn, and with the aid of their extensive cabinets, has
published a pretty full synopsis of the Phytophaga of the United States,

TETRAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES. 163

which I have found of much use in preparing the following tables of
genera. Mr. Crotch unites all the Phytophaga in the family of Chry-
somelidz, which he divides into ten sub-families, as follows: Donaciides,
Orsodacnides, Criocerides, Melolonthides, Cryptocephalides, Chrysome-
lides, Eumolpides, Galerucides, Hispides and Cassidides.

The Orsodacnides do not seem to us to be sufficiently distinct from
the Criocerides, nor the Melolonthides (questionably so called) from the
Crytocephalides, nor the Eumolpides from the Chrysomelides, to be re-
tained as of equal rank. We will therefore divide the Chrysomelids
into the seven following sub-families. The accompanying tables of the
minor groups exhibit a pretty full synopsis of N. American genera, ex-
cepting a few which are composed of but one or two rare species, usually
from the remote West:

A. Body elongated; thorax not margined at the sides; head slightly constricted be-
hind the eyes; eyes prominent; thighs usually more or less thickened.
B. Body much elongated ;, first ventral segment very long; larve live in the stems

Glin) DENT RE CrerBane a aoe DS uN Sono aOOOREn EEO cune Ope UO See DONACIIDES.

BB. Body moderately elongated; first ventral segment not much longer than the
others; larve live on the leaves of plants, sometimes cover themselves with
EGRETCMIED G1) UE. Aicae cette iets oi ae Si ~ hale clatay« uke Sep ohelaltnsorofate CRIOCERIDES.

A A. Body more or less rounded (except Hispides); thorax almost always margined ;
head not constricted; eyes not prominent; thighs not swollen (except in

Haltica and its sub-genera.)

C. Antenne distant, being wider apart at base than the length of the first joint.

D. Body oval; abdomen wholly covered by elytra; larve live exposed on

ISAS Baa cdn + Gomadn taco peered ade aeoUroo Dory piciprieet CHRYSOMELIDES.

DD. Body usually short and sub-cylindrical; tip of abdomen vertical and

uncovered ; larvee live on leaves, in portable cases. CRYPTOCEPHALIDES.

CC. Antenne approximate, being rarely wider apart than the length of the first
joint.

E. Antenne filiform and at least half as long as the body; hind thighs, in
one division, enlarged for jumping; larvee live on leaves or between
elven; Varney eae ctencioys, + lalate ke eek ote tatatet separa tate aie ele oteiel cpa GALERUCIDES.

EE. Antenne less than half as long as the body, and more or less thickened

towards the tip.

F. Head exposed; form oblong and usually sub-quadrate; surface usually
strongly pitted or reticulated; larve live between the lamin of
LEAVES ber sarecampenc rs vacrersiccc ots cheba Nate « araererdetoeisia a o/sints, ciaistar HISPIDES.

FF. Head concealed under the thorax; form hemispherical; surface

usually smooth; larvee live on leaves, covered by excrement:
CASSIDIDES.

Sub-family DONACITDES.

This sub-family, composed mostly of the genus Donacia, Fab., forms

a connecting link between the Lepturides of the preceding family and

) the Criocerides of the present. Their form is considerably elongated,
- and they can be distinguished with certainty by the unusual prolouga-

4

164 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

tion of the first ventral segment, which is as long as all the others com-
bined. They are between a quarter and half of an inch in length, and
with a dark metallic lustre, of a greenish, bronze or purplish hue. The
under side is paler, and clothed all over with an extremely fine silken
prostrate pubescence, which enables them to shed the water, when the
aquatic plants upon which they reside happen to be submerged. The
species often closely resemble each other, rendering it difficult to draw
the line between species and varieties. The larve inhabit the stems of
aquatic plants. When about to transform, they enclose themselves in
silken cocoons, which are sometimes attached in rows upon the outside
of the plants.

Mr. Crotch enumerates twenty-five species as inhabiting the United
States, two of which he describes as new, and refers the reader for a
full description of the others to Dr. LeConte’s Synopsis in the Proce.
Acad. Nat. Se., of Philadelphia, for the year 1852.

Sub-family CRIOCERIDES.

This sub-family takes its name from the genus Crioceris,
of Geoffroy, a word which literally means a ram’s horn, but
which is not especially appropriate to these insects, unless it
be by way of expressing their relationship to the preceding
family of Cerambycide, in which the resemblance of the an-
> tenn to the horns of the ram and the goat is much more
ay eR striking. Like them, also, some of the beetles of the present

nae sub-family have the faculty of making a squeaking noise, by
the friction of one part of their bodies upon another. The Criocerides
differ from the great majority of Chrysomelids, in having the thorax
almost cylindrical and without a lateral [Fig. 80.]
margin, and more decidedly narrower
than the abdomen. The antennz are
somewhat moniliform, of the same
width throughout, and about half as
long as the body. The larve live ex-
posed on the leaves upon which they
feed ; but some of them, of which the
common Three-lined potato-beetle is an
example, have the remarkable habit P aa TRILINEATA, Oliv.:—aa, larve ; ¢, pupa;
protecting themselves by a covering of 4,028; two, jast, segments, of the larva
their own excrement. To enable them ™ ‘® !#8t sezment—after Riley.
to accomplish this purpose, the anal opening is upon the upper side of
the last segment, and the excrement is pushed forwards upon the back
by the pressure of that which is subsequently evacuated. The Crioce-
rides of this country are contained in two leading genera:

TETRAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES. 165

A. Last joint of palpi widened and truncated ; claws toothed......-.-.-.-...------------- ORSODACNA.
A A. Last joint of palpi not wider than the others and pointed ; claws simple..--.----.------ CRIOCERIS.

Orsodacna, a name taken from the Greek and meaning a bud-gnavwer,
was originally applied to some insect now unknown, which was injuri-
ous to fruit trees. It includes three sub-genera: Orsodacna, Latr., having
the thorax uniform and the eyes entire ; Zeugophora, Kunze, having the
eyes notched and the thorax with a lateral tubercle ; and Syneta, Esch.,
with several short teeth at the sides of the thorax. The species are of
moderate size, and either blackish or dull yellow, but more commonly
with both of these colors combined. We have twelve species, some of
which are very variable, and have been described under different names.
The only species of Crioceris proper found in the United States, is the
imported asparagus beetle, Crioceris asparagi, Linn., which has become
naturalized in some of the Eastern States. Mostof our species are now
placed in the sub-genus Lema, Fabr., as restricted by Lacordaire, and
distinguished by having the thorax constricted or narrowed a little be-
hind the middle. The most common species is the Lema trilineata, Oli-
vier, or the Three-lined potato-beetle, a quarter of an inch long, yellow,
with three black stripes on the elytra. Mr. Crotch enumerates twelve
other species, most of which inhabit the Southern States.

Sub-family CHRYSOMELIDES.

This sub-family is founded upon the typical genus Chrysomela, of Lin-
neus, a word which literally means a golden apple, and which was ob-
viously given to these insects in allusion to their rounded form and

[Fig. 81.] beautiful colors, which not un-
frequently exhibit a golden hue.
Their most distinctive scientific
character, as compared with the
other sub-families of this tribe,
is the distance from each other
j/ of the antenne at their points of

attachment, being always farther

apart than the length of the first
, CiunTeoMnLA OrrocoRNNA) roxoTs. Germar—a *88°; joint, and often two or three
ae Hey: times as far, taken in connection
with the gradual but slight enlargement of these organs towards the
tip. The sub-family comprises two well-marked groups, which are re-
garded by some entomologists as distinct sub-families, and which may
be designated by the terms of Chrysomelini and Eumolpini. In the
former the thorax is transversal, that is, wider than it is long, strongly
margined, and as wide at base as the elytra; the antennex are moder-
ately robust, sub-moniliform, and almost always less than half as long
as the body ; the anterior cox are transverse; the 3d joint of the tarsi

166 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

is scarcely bilobed, and the claws are usually simple. In the latter, the
thorax is very convex, narrower than the abdomen, and with the mar-
gin indistinct or wanting; the antenne are slender, almost filiform, and
about half as long as the body; anterior coxe globose; the third joint
of the tarsi is deeply bilobed, and the claws are bifid.

The larve live exposed on the leaves of herbaceous plants, upon which
they feed. We do not know of any larva in this sub-family which covers
itself with excrement, unless we admit into it the intermediate genus
Blepharida, which we have preferred to unite with the other saltatory
species.

The following are the genera of Chrysomelini :

A. Third joint of tarsi entire or slightly notched at the end; posterior episterna usually narrowed

behind.
B. Form regularly oval and strongly convex; tarsi entire; color usnally yellow, with darker stripes
or spots; length between a quarter and a half of an inch........--..----.----.---. CHRYSOMELA,
BB. Form oval or oblong oval, convex; third joint of tarsi notched; color metallic-green or blue;
lens thilessithan iquarter of antinch ss sino!) Se 2 Sasa see eed Seek bee cee GASTROPHYSA.
BBB. Form short and round or sub-globuse; dark metallic without spots; length much less than
UAT GOT OTE T or se eteiee oe ete = ale at eel saiate ache ea chat eis (ereietetaa tet atest ate ere = aera PHEDON.
BBBB. Form oblong, narrow, parallel, depressed; antennz strongly clavate; dark metallic, with
afew yellow stripes; length much less than quarter of an inch ..-....-...-. PRASOCURIS.
A A. Third joint of tarsi deeply bilobed; posterior episterna parallel; form oblong oval and depressed ;
colors various; size same.as Chrysomela:-.-.. 2-22-22. - ese ecco ee ccc n ce ccnnee PLAGIODERA.

The following are the genera of Humolpini :
A. Body smooth and shining.
B. Thorax lobed behind the eyes.
C. Elytra irregularly punctured; claws with a tooth beneath.
D. Antennz robust, somewhat clavate; color golden-green or blue; length a third of an inch or

HOY) ins Ge aoc GE SO SOE OR ARO SODROBone sda ceigigs4 376 saObnsSoodds aSocbdeH SS Bsesiackace CuHRYSOCHUS.

DD. Antenne long and filiform; color golden-green or bronze ; length a quarter of an inch or
HERG esa s-56956 sensgssssso5sco sssosassedsoccass ss0as8Ge $5 -coe se douse Sacsace TYPOPHORUS.

CC. Elytra punctured in rows; claws bifid; size small; color brown with black spots, rarely
wholly) blacks 22.27 eek ihe el oeip et a.qtice emer ate ara emietsin slants = oles = suis apeee aateeiaar PARI,

BB. Thorax not lobed behind the eyes.

E. Second joint of the antennz shorter than the third; elytra densely but irregularly punc-
UG eid aaa betes So SAS AHEAD GSAS Seb So ae d.ac (GOR EAageE. eS On ESSE. Sasa osandebnoce COLaAsPIs.
EE. Second and third joints of antennz equal; elytra punctured in rows....-- METACHROMA.

A A. Body more or less clothed with hair or scales.

F. Thorax without a margin at the sides.
G. Body shining, bronze, rarely green; punctures indistinct; sparsely haired. . HETERASPIS.

GG. Body obscure, brown, coarsely punctured.

H. Thorax longer than wide; body densely haired ; size about medium .....-.--. Fipvia.
HH. Thorax wider than long; body moderately haired; size small........ XXANTHONIA.

The genus Chrysomela has been divided into a number of sub-genera
which can generally be distinguished by their style of coloration, as
follows: Labidomera, Chevr., dark-yellow, with a few large blue-black
spots; Myocoryna, Stil, usually with the elytra pale-yellow, with four
or five darker stripes on each ; Zygogramma, Chevr., elytra with two or
three stripes more or less united; Calligrapha, Chevr., elytra with
numerous irregular lines and dots; and Chrysomela, Linn., blackish or
golden, without stripes; but there are some exceptions to these general

=

_—

TERAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES. 167

rules which we shall notice below. JLabidomera contains one common
species, the L. trimaculata, Fab., found on milk-weed. Myocoryna con-
tains the destructive potato-beetle commonly known as the Doryphora
10-lineata, and the allied but much less common species D. juncta, and
two other similar species found in Texas and Mexico. The generic
name Doryphora, means a spear-bearer, in allusion to the pointed ante-
rior prominence of the mesosternum, and was originally applied by
Illiger to a similar group of insects from South America. But in our
species the mesosternum is not produced to a point, and therefore M.
Stil, a Sweedish entomologist, has formed a new genus for them under
the name of Myocoryna, from the Greek mus—to compress, and koruna,
a club—the club of the antennz being slightly flattened.

This is one of the exceptional genera with respect to color, being
usually striped, but one species is wholly blue, and another is wholly
red. Zygogramma, implying literally that the stripes are united or
yoked together, contains a number of common species which are subject
to considerable variation. Oalligrapha, meaning beautiful writing, con-
tains some of our most elegant beetles, distinguished by the numerous
metallic marks and dots on their almost white elytra. The species are
numerous and often variable. Mr. Crotch admits thirteen species as
inhabiting the United States; a few of them depart from the normal
style of coloring, and resemble Zygogramma. The organic distinction
between the two genera is, that in Zygogramma the claws are approxi-
mate and the claw joint toothed beneath; and in Calligrapha, the claws
are distant and the claw joint simple.* Chrysomela proper is now re-
stricted to a small number of dark colored species, some of which have
a golden lustre. One species from Colorado and the neighboring States
is black, with a yellow border to the elytra.

Gastrophyza, Chev.,—meaning abdomen inflated—alludes to the re-
markably swollen condition of the abdomen of the females when filled
with eggs. It contains one of our prettiest and most common beetles:
the G. polygoni, Linn., common to both Europe and this country. It is
three-twentieths of an inch long, of a brilliant blue-green color, with a
yellow thorax. It feeds upon the common knot-weed (Polygonum avicu-
lare.) Mr. Say described it as a rare insect under the name of Chryso-

*It is a question whether in grouping certain insects—such, for example, as the Chrysomelides—the
plan of coloration should not have more weight, in comparison with slight organic characters. It is
evidently unnatural to separate such species, with striped elytra, as elegans, Olivier, and similis,
Rogers, from the similarly marked Zygrogramma pulchra and exclamationis, Fab., and conjwncta,
Rogers, and unite them with the dissimilar and dotted group of Calligrapha, upon a character so
variable, and therefore unimportant, as is the structure of the tarsal claws, in the whole family of
Chrvysomelidee.

But we have been gratified to see, since the above was written, that Mr. Crotch, in his recent Check-
list of Coleoptera, has suppressed all these sub-genera, and recognized them only as sections of the
original genus Chrysomela, of Linnzus; a course which, it seems to us, might be profitably adopted
with respect to many modern genera,

168 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

mela ceruleipennis. Say also described two other and similar species,
but without the yellow thorax, which he accredits to the Missouri terri-
tory. Phadon, Chev., contains a few small species, the type of which
is the P. viride, of Melsheimer. Prasocuris, Latr., contains three spe-
cies, none of which are common. Plagiodera, Chev., is composed of a
number of species of very variable color, and even the same species, as
in the cases of the not uncommon P. scripta and P. interrupta, which
are ordinarily yellow with blackish spots, are sometimes found wholly
blue-black or green. This genus was formerly known as Melasoma,
Dillwyn ; but the name is not properly applicable to the species, and
besides was pre-occupied by Latreille—as we have seen in a former
part of this work—as the general name of the black-bodied heteromera.
It has been therefore replaced by Plagiodera, Chevrolat, meaning trans-
VEFSE thorax, and applied to them because the thorax is much wider
than it is long.

Chrysochus, Chev., in the group of Eumolpini, meaning literally a
goldsmith, isthe generic name of the beautiful golden-green beetle, about
four-tenths of an inch long, found on the dogs-bane and other species of
Apocynum. It has usually been referred to the genus Eumolpus, but is
now known as the Chrysochus auratus, Fabr. It is common throughout
both the Eastern and Western States, and has been found as far
west as Arizona. Another similar species, but usually a little larger
and of a deep blue-green color, has been found in Oregon and Califor-
nia. It is the Ch. cobaltinus, of LeConte. Typophorus, Chev., contains
three closely allied species, the type of which is the 7. tricolor, Fab.,
found in the Middle and Southern States. The next five genera— Paria,
Colaspis, Metachroma, Heteraspis and Xanthonia—contain a large num-
ber of small, brown insects, though some species of Colaspis have a
metallic lustre. Paria is distinguished from the others by the ear-like
lobes on the anterior margin of the thorax, which partly cover the eyes.
The same lobes exist in Chrysochus, but are situated lower down. The
genus Fidia, of Dejean, is composed of a somewhat larger species, of a
dark chestnut or blackish color, but with a mealy surface produced by
dense, short, prostrate hairs. The insects of this genus have an econo-
mic interest in consequence of damage done by them to the leaves of
the grape-vine. The leading type is the F. viticida, Walsh. Dr. Le-
Conte regards the longipes, Mels., and the viticola, Uhler, as only varie-
ties of this species.

Sub-family CRYP'TOCEPHALIDES.

This group is founded upon the genus Cryptocephalus, of Geoftroy, a
term meaning concealed head, and given to these insects because the
head is so deeply immersed in the strongly convex thorax that it can
be scarcely or not at all seen when viewed from above. The pygidium

-

=

=_—

{ETRAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES. 169

[Fig. 82.] or last segment of the abdomen is
bent vertically downwards, and left
uncovered by the elytra, furnishing
an easily distinguishable character
which is common to nearly all the
species, except those specified in the
following synopsis, and which is found
in none of the other sub-families. The
antenne are rather distant at their in-
CoscINOPTERA DOMINICANA:—a, larva extracted Sertion, Sometimes short and serrate,

from case; b, do. with case; c, beetle showing ; pos
punctures ; d, same natural size ; e, egg enlarged; but in the majority at least half as

J, head of larva, under side; g, head of male 4
beetle; h, jaw of same; i, eggs natural size; j, long as the body, and very slender

oe EA B.jaw of same; | maxilla of same and filiform...\Che, third. joint ofthe
tarsi is always deeply bilobed. They are all small insects, rarely
attaining a quarter of an inch in length. All the larvee, we believe, so
far as known, live upon the surface of leaves, and have the curious
habit of enclosing themselves in compact cases, composed of their own
excrement, which they mould into shape by means of their mandibles.
The same habit of economizing the particles of excrement is practiced
by many of the small caterpillars belonging to the lepidopterous family
of Tineide. The larve carry their cases about with them, by protru-
ding the anterior part of their bodies through the open extremity.
When about to transform they attach their cases to the twigs, and close
the opening, thus making them answer the purpose of a cocoon.

A. Antenne serrate or sub-clavate, and shorter than the head and thorax.
B. Body elongate; abdomen wholly covered by elytra; antenne serrate...-.------------- ANOMGA.
BB. Body short, oval or subcylindric ; tip of abdomen exposed.
C. Body short, thick and tuberculous; antennz small, sub-clavate and sub-serrate; legs closely
contractile: a9. Ache ae eee eee re Sees eee cnaacaceeale We ats nee: CHLAMYS.
CC, Body not tnberculous ; antennz free; legs not contractile.
D. Tip of abdomen scarcely exposed; elytra smooth and shining, finely punctured; antenna
SUD-SOLTATC «aca: Soca ee ta ee ne a eee aoe ec mines datetce meee a nase 2 Cale =---BaABIA.
DD. Tip of abdomen fully exposed; elytra coarsely punctured or pubescent.
E. Antenne sub-serrate; elytra densely punctured.........-..-.--.---------------=- SAXINIS.
EE. Antenne serrate; elytra irregularly punctured and pubescent ; mandibles large:
COSCINOPTERA.
A A. Antenne slender and filiform, and longer than the head and thorax. --......- CRYPTOCEPHALUS.

The genus Anomea, Lacord., has for its type the common A. laticlavia,
Forster, from a quarter to a third of an inch in length, and of a clay-
yellow color, with the suture and margin of the elytra black. The gene-
ric name means dissimilar, in allusion to the departure of the species
from the ordinary characters of the sub-family, but their place here is
determined by the serrate antennz, and more especially by the case-
bearing habit of their larvae. Another species very differently colored
is found in Texas. The species of Chlamys, Knoch, are of a dark brown
color, and when their limbs are contracted they resemble little rough
balls of inanimate matter. The most common species is the C. plicata,

_—22

170 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Fab., three-twentieths of an inch long. A much smaller species, the
C. dispar, Lacord., has been placed in the sub-genus Exema. Babia,
Chev., is founded upon the B. biguttata, Oliv., and its varieties. It is
about three twentieths of an inch long, blue-black, with a fulvous spot
on the shoulder, and another at the tip of each elytra. It differs from
the great majority of Cryptocephalides in having the tip of the abdo-
men but slightly, and in many specimens not at all exposed. Sawxinis
omogera, Lacord., resembles the last mentioned insect in size and color,
except that there is no spot at the end of the elytra. It is found in the
Southern States and Texas. The genus contains but one other North
American species. The type of the genus Coscinoptera, Lacord., is the
C. dominicana, Fab. (Fig. 82), two-tenths of an inch long, or a little more,
black, rather densely covered with a fine ash-colored pubescence. Several
other species have been found in the remote Western States. The 0.
vittigera, LeC., found in Kansas, is more oblong, and each elytra has a
fulvous stripe, which is bent up like a hook atthe end. The generic
name comes from koskinos—a sieve, and ptera—wings, referring to the
irregularly distributed punctures, somewhat like the holes in a sieve.
The genus Oryptocephalus contains many more species than all the
others combined. It has been divided into a considerable number of
sub-genera, mostly upon slight or obscure characters. A more conve-
nient distribution, for the purpose of identification of species, could be
made in accordance with their colors. The majority are brown, with
yellow stripes or spots; a considerable number are blue-black, with ru-
fous or orange spots; and some of the smallest species are wholly blue-
black or brown.

Sub-family GALERUCIDES.

(Fig. 83.) Named after the genus Galeruca, rey Fe

of Geoffroy. They are distinguished
primarily from the other Chrysome-
lide by the approximation of* the
antenne at their points of insertion,
Nees) being rarely farther apart than the
‘The Striped length of the first joint, and from
cnet yrile, the Chrysomelides proper by having
the antenne perfectly filiform, or not enlarged
towards the tip. The thorax is narrower than
the elytra, which, together with a similarity
of coloring, gives to some of the species a
strong resemblance to the Criocerides, but 1 |
they can always be distinguished by the tho- pyasromca —virrata :—Larva

: Maree : tl ified. the side lines
rax having a distinct lateral margin or edge. Showine the length of the fully

= S 5 * 0 a ri ; 2,
It is in this sub-family that we find a large Sac view—atter Riley. kia)

TETRAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES. 171

proportion of the injurious Chrysomelide, such as the Striped cucum-
ber-beetle, and the various species of flea-beetles, so injurious to the
vine, the cucumber, and the Crucifere, or plants of the cabbage and
turnip family; and they furnish a remarkable exception to noxious in-
sects in general by being usually most injurious in the perfect or beetle
form. Butsome of them, like the Cucumber-beetle, (Diabrotica vittata, )
also cause the death of the plants by burrowing into the roots in their
larva state. Some of the species, like the European Galeruca calmari-
ensis, and the little bronze flea-beetle, Haltica helxines, which is common
[Fig. 85.] to Europe and this country, depart from the usual
habits of the family in devouring the foliage of trees,
whereas the great majority of Chrysomelide feed *
upon herbaceous plants. The habits of the larve
are various, those of Galeruca feeding exposed upon
: the surface of leaves; those of Diabrotica boring
Sas ie ener gr ea into roots, and those of Haltica sometimes feeding
sal view—atter Riley. pon roots, but usually mining between the lamin
of leaves.

The sub-family is divided into two distinct groups: the Galerucini,
with the thighs not thickened, and the anterior cox not separated by
the prosternum; and the Halticini, having the anterior cox separated
by a projection of the sternum, and the hind thighs greatly enlarged,
which gives them the power of jumping, and from which the name of
flea-beetles is derived. The following are the principal genera :

A. Hind thighs not thickened. (Galerucini.)
B. Thorax wider than long; first joint of antenne shorter than the second and third united ; color

rt

usually dull brownish, sometimes with black stripes...---..--.------------------- GALERUCA.
BB. Thorax almost square, with rounded corners; first joint of antennz as long as second and
third united; colors usually yellow and black combined. -.-...-...--------------- DIABROTICA.
BBB. Thorax usually a little wider than long; second and third joints of antenn# about equal ;
size small; color brown or metallic black, or blue, and without spots. -..-------- LUPERUS.

AA. Hind thighs enlarged for jumping. (Halticini.)
C. Antenne distant, slightly thickened towards the tip; claws bifid.....-..-.------ BLEPHARIDA.

CC. Antennz approximate, filiform, claws simple or dentate.
D. Last joint of hind tarsi swollen.
E. Elvtra glabrous; size about medium ; colors various..-.-..------------------ CEDIONYCHIS.
EE. Elytra hairy; size small; color brown.......---.--------------------------- HYPOLAMPIS.
DD. Last joint of hind tarsi not inflated.
F. Elytrairregularly and finely punctured; size medium or small.
G. Body oval; thorax wider than long.

H. ‘Thorax with an impressed transverse line before the base; color blue-black :
GRAPTODERA.

HH. Thorax without impression.
I. Tarsi of ordinary form.
K. Second joint of antenne shorter than the third; size medium ; colors various :

DISONYCHA.

K K. Second and third joints of antenne equal; size small; color dark metallic ;
elytra usually with one yellow stripe. -.......-...-.-.--..------ ORCHESTRIB.

ITI. First joint of hind tarsi as long as the others united, size very small; color
Ly MEP or Sra ene cote Care Je ee peppers Oe Sane Ceebice SOOCCE men LONGITARSUS.

GG. Body elongate; thorax about as long as wide; size small; color black, sometimes
Striped wills yellow e==s- sca Nae ens eee eee tenis Be Beware. costsoes SYSTENA,

172 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

FF. Elytra punctured in rows; size very small, without spots or stripes.
L. Antenne with eleven joints; hind tarsi normal.

M. Hind tibie robust, and terminated by a bifid spur; body perfectly oval; head
deeply immersed in the thorax; size small; color brassy-black...DrBo1ia
MM. Hind tibia toothed and furrowed on the outer side ; very small; blue or
IDEA SRY Ore so 255. 8 see oe atic sae ceg Sees ee CHA TOCNEMA.
MMM. Hind tibia normal; thorax with a deep impression near the base ; color
dark metallic or reddish.......-...---.-- J ISSR REG CREPIDODERA.

LL. Antenne ten-jointed ; hind tarsi attached to the side of the tibia:
PSYLLIODES.

Galeruca, Geoff., contains a considerable number of species, some of
which are common but inconspicuous. Diabrotica, Chevr., has been
divided into a number of sub-genera, agreeing in size and form, but the

emore common species are readily distinguished by their color, Diabro-
tica proper being usually pale yellow with black spots or stripes, Phyl-
lobrotica, Dej., being tawny or orange with black spots or stripes, and
Phyllecthrus being blue black with a yellow thorax. Diabrotica means
one that gnaws through; Phyllobrotica, a leaf-gnawer; and Phyllee-
thrus, a leaf-enemy ; all of which terms have reference to their leaf-eating
and often destructive habits.

The Striped cucumber-beetle is the D. vittata, Fab. Luperus, Geoffr.,
also meaning injurious, contains a few small species, some of which are
of rich metallic colors ; but none of our species are sufficiently numerous
to be injurious. Blepharida, Chev., forms a connecting link between
Haltica and Chrysomela, having the oval form and distant antenne of
the latter, and the enlarged thighs of the former. It contains but two
species, one of which is the B. rhois, of Forster, a mottled reddish beetle,
quarter of an inch long, found abundantlyon the sumach. (Mdionychis,
Latr., contains many species, most of which do not vary much from a
quarter of an inch in length. The most common style of coloration is
that of a yellow thorax and dark metallic elytra, but some are brown
or yellow with black stripes. In these, as in all the larger Halticini, the
elytra are irregularly punctured, whilst in most of the small species
they are punctured in rows. The generic name is expressive of the
swollen claw-joint.

Hypolampsus, Clark, contains three N. A. species, the most common
of which is the H. pilosa, of Illiger. Graptodera, Chevr., is composed
of a number of dark blue species, one of which is the Haltica (Grapto-
dera) chalybea, Nllig., the destructive steel-blue flea-beetle of the grape
vine. Disonycha, Chev., is scarcely distinguishable from Cidionychis
except in the hind claw joint not being swollen. The species of the two
genera, or more properly sub-genera, often closely resemble each other
in size and color, but in Disonycha the style of coloration is most common
which is exceptional in Gidionychis, namely, yellow with black stripes ;
but the most common species is black with a yellow thorax, on which are

TETRAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES. 173

[iig. 86.) three black dots arranged in a
triangle; length a quarter of an
inch; this is the D. triangularis,
Say. Another species liable to
be confounded with this is the
D. collaris, Fab., but in this the
thorax is yellow without spots,
and the under side of the ab-
domen is dull yellow. Orches-
tris, Kirby, is the genus which
contains the common cabbage
and turnip flea-beetle, and its
allies. They are about one-tenth
“ of an inch long, black, with a
\.. broad waving yellow stripe
along the middle of each wing-
cover. Species closely resem-

F HALTICA (GRAPTODERA) CHALYBEA, Iliger:—The Grape-

vine flea-beetle ; a, grape leaf eaten by young larve; b, bling each other are equally

larva, magnified ; ce, earthen cell, in which the insect ; ;
transforms; d, beetle—after Riley. __ abundant and destructive in

Europe and in this country. The generic name means a dancer or
jumper. Longitarsus, Latr., contains many small and closely allied spe-

cies of a brownish color, and distinguished as the name implies by the
[Fig. 87.]

greatly elongated first joint of the hind tarsi. Systena, Chev.,
is most readily distinguished by the elongate, narrow form of
the species. The Systena blanda, Melsh., an eighth of an inch
long, pale yellow with three darker stripes, has been found to
be destructive to young corn, in the Middle States. The other j
genera in the table are composed of very small species, distin- Hanmcacma-
guished from the foregoing by having the elytra punctured showing “the
in rows. Dibolia, Chev., contains but one known species, the erenohe
D. aerea, Melsh., or brassy Dibolia, a tenth of an inch or a little morein
length and of a brassy black color; found in the Middle and Southern
States. The species of Chetocnema, Stephens, are found mostly in the
Southern States and Texas. Orepidodera, Chev., contains many very
small, usually black or reddish species; but one of the most common,
the C. helxines, Linn., is sometimes purple and at others brassy green.
This little species is said to be common to Europe and this country. The
little Cucumber flea-beetle, Haltica cucumeris, of Harris, has been placed,
in company with a few others, in a separate sub-genus Epitrix, Foudr.,
on account of their pubescent surface. But few species of the little
genus Psylliodes, Latr., have been observed. Dr. Fitch refers to‘one of
them, the P. punctulata, Melsh., as being somewhat injurious to the

leaves of several kinds of garden vegetables. The generic name is de-

174 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

rived from a Greek word meaning a flea, in allusion to their power of
leaping.

Sub-family HISPIDES.

[Hig. 88.) This sub-family is founded upon the genus Hispa, of -
Linnzeus, a contraction of the Latin word hispida, meaning
rough, in allusion to the deep sculpturing of the elytra,
which usually consists in a number of elevated ribs with
a double series of deep punctures between them. The an-
tenn are short, straight, compact, closely approximate

Hispa :—a, 1
i beetle-after ab base and rooney divergent at tip. These characters,

Westwood. together with their oblong and usually somewhat quadrate

form, renders them one of the more easily recognizable groups in the
whole order of Coleoptera. They are usually about a quarter of an inch
in length or a little less, and their colors are black and red, either singly
or combined. They seem to be a good deal confined to particular locali-
ties, and therefore are not very commonly met with. The larve are leaf-
ininers, feeding between the upper and lower laminz. They differ in
form from other Chrysomelide larve, and resemble more the larve of
the Cerambycidz, the head being much narrower than the body, and
the three first segments being wider than the following ones. Their
form and habits were first described by Dr. T. W. Harris, from speciés
found upon the Oak, the Apple and the Locust.

The Hispides present two strongly marked genera: Hispa, moderately
elongated and with strongly sculptured elytra, and Stenispa, much elon-
gated and narrow, and with the elytra smooth and shining, and very
faintly puncto-striate. The latter contains but two known species: the
metallica, Fab., of a shining brassy black color, not quite a quarter of
an inch long; and the collaris, of Baly, similar but having the thorax
red. The former is widely distributed, and the latter inhabits the Indian
Territory.

Hispa proper is limited to the small black European species, originally
described by Linnzeus, to which the term hispid is peculiarly appropriate,
being beset with minute spines. The American species have been divi.
ded into two genera :

A. Antenne 11-jointed; sculpture regular and distinct. ........-....-----.------+--------- ODONTOTA.
AA. Antenne 8-jointed; sculpture usually irregular or imperfect.--..-....-------- MICRORHOPALA.

The regular sculpturing consists of deep punctures upon the thorax,
and elevated ribs (coste) upon the elytra, with a double row of numer-
ous punctures between them. The species of Odontota, Chev., (same as
Anoplitis, Kirby,) may be arranged according to their color, as follows.
The length of each species is added in decimals of an inch; thus 0.24
expresses twenty-four hundredths of an inch.

TETRAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES. 175

Wholly black: nigrita, Oliv., 0.16.
Black varied with red :

Thorax red and elytra black: bicolor, Oliv., 0.25: Ariadne, Newm., 0.18: Walshii, Crotch, 0.14:
Lecontei, Baly, 0.20.

Thorax red only at the sides, elytra black: notata, Oliv., 0.24.

Sides of thorax and shoulders of elytra red: scapularis, Oliv., 0.25: omogera, Crotch., 0-31.
Wholly or mostly red :

Wholly red: rubra, Weber, 0.20.
Red with a black suture: Harristi, Crotch, 0.24. .
Red usually with obscure brown or blackish spots: quadrate, Fab., 0.24: rosea, Web., 0.15.

Microrhopala, Chev., (meaning a little club,) is distinguished by having
the antennz apparently 8-jointed, the four Jast joints being consolidated,
to which the generic name refers. The sculpture is usually either irreg-
ular or imperfect, as expressed in the following table of species:

Ribs of elytra indistinct, and with fewer punctures.
Thorax and stripe on base of elytra red: vittata, Fab., and variety letula, Lec., 0.23.
Sides only of thorax and stripe on elytrared: xerene, Newm., 0.17.
Ribs more or less confounded with the few and large punctures:
Punctures moderate and somewhat regular, color blue: cyanea, Say, 0.23.
Punctures very large and confluent, color black: excavata, Oliv., 0.20.
Surface rugulose in all directions ; black with front of thorax; scutellum and base of antenns
orange: plicatula, Fab., 0.20.
Ribs and punctures regular and distinct :
Color black: porcata, Melsh., 0.13.
Color red with obscure spots: Melsheimeri, Crotch, 0. 13-

Most of these species are widely distributed east of the Mississippi
river, but afew of them, (nigrita, notata, and plicatula) have as yet been
observed only in the Southern States.

Sub-family CASSIDIDES.

This sub-family is founded upon the genus Cassida of Linnzeus, a term
derived apparently from the Latin cassida—a helmet. They are easily
[Fig. 89.] recognized by their rounded and usually

as more or less flattened form, the thorax and
elytra being dilated into a broad thin mar-
gin, beneath which the head and limbs are
retractile so as to be sometimes’ partially,
but usually wholly concealed. In this re-

spect some of them bear a close resemblance
CASssIDA BIVITTATA, Say:—2, larva; 3,

pupa; 4, beetle—after Riley. to some of the genera of scavenger beetles,
such as Peltis, Thymalus and Nitidula, but from these they can be read-
ily distinguished by their strongly dilated and deeply bilobed tarsi, and
their antenne not abruptly enlarged at the tip. They are of medium
or rather large size, and are often prettily colored. A few species are
extremely brilliant, resembling drops of burnished gold, but this bril-
lianey appears to be in some way dependent upon the vital functions,
as it disappears immediately after death. The larve are oval, flattened,
prickly grubs, feeding upon the surface of leaves, often in company
with the perfect insects. Many of the foreign species feed upon thistles

176 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

and other plants of the composite family, but most of the American
species are found on different species of convolvulus, especially the
morning-glory and the sweet-potatoe, both of which belong to this genus
of plants. The leaves of these plants are often riddled yee holes, and
seriously injured by these insects.

It is in this family that the habit of the larve of covering themselves .
with their own excrement is most conspicuous and universal. Other
larvee (Crioceris and Blepharida), which have this habit, void their ex-
crement directly upon their backs, but the larve of Cassida support
their excrement on a long forked process which issues from the body
just above the anal aperture, and is directed forwards over the body
like a parasol. The object of this singular habit is supposed to be to
protect the insects either from birds and other natural enemies, or from
the direct rays of the sun. The former is probably the true explanation.
That it can not be the latter, seems to be proved by the practice of
most of these larvee of feeding upon the under side of the leaves where
the direct rays of the sun cannot reach them. Mr. Riley has stated
this to be the habit of the larvee of many of the Cassidides, and I have
observed the same to be true of the larve of Blepharida rhois.

The Cassidides present four well marked genera as follows:

A. Head prominent, visible; size below medium; color blue ....-.........-..--------- PORPHYRASPIS.
A A. Head partially visible ; prosternum advanced; size large; red spotted with black..CHELYMORPHA.
AAA. Head completeiy concealed.

B. Body oblong oval, convex; size large; color dull greenish brown...-.....-..--.----- PHYSONOTA.
BB. Body oval or orbicular, moderately convex or depressed ; size abont medium ; colors
VATIOUS sisi te eine = eet ee a ae cag heehee ee eas Re CASSIDA.

Porphyraspis, Boheman, meaning a purple shield, is founded upon the
Cassida cyanea of Say, found in the Southern States. Chelymorpha,
Chev., signifies literally tortoise shape. It has for its type the C. cassidea,
Fabr., subsequently named cribraria, by the same author. It is also the
C. argus of Herbst. It is about four-tenths of an inch long, of an ob-
long oval, convex form, brick-red, with four or six black dots on the
thorax, and six on each elytron. The larva is said to feed upon the
milkweed. Physonota, Boh., meaning swollen or convex back, contains
the P. unipunctata, Say, of about the same form and size as the preced-
ing species, but the head is completely hidden under the anterior
margin of the thorax. Itis of adull greenish or yellowish-brown color,
with one, three, or five black dots on the thorax. Cassida tas been di-
vided into two sub-genera, Cassida proper having the antenne not
longer than the thorax, and usually of a sub-convex, oval form; and
Coptocycla, with the antennz longer than the thorax, ,and usually of an
orbicular and depressed form. . The species which occur in this section
of country may be tabulated as follows:

TETRAMEROUS PLANT-BEETLES. 177

Cassida proper.
nigripes, Oliv.; length one-fourth inch or less; dull red, with three obscure black dots on each ely-
tron, in a triangle; puncto-striate. The pallida, Herbst, is probably a pale variety of this.
bivittata, Say ; length two-tenth inch; thoraxdull red; elytra yellow, with a black suture and two
black stripes on each; puncto-striate. ae
thoracica, Boh.; length three-tenth inch ; pal een, region of the scutellum obscure brownish ; ir-
regularly punctate.

Coptocycla.
aurichalcea, Fab.; length less than one-fourth, inch ; golden yellow, pale yellow after death, puncto-
striate. soars

clavata, Fab.; length more than one-fourth inch; uneven, dark brown; margin of thorax and middle
and tip of margin of elytra, pale transparent.

guttata, Oliv.; length less than one-fourth inch; varying from pale brown to blackish brown, some-
times spotted with yellow; the whole margin, except the shoulders of elytra, pale transparent.

purpurata, Boh.; less than one-fourth inch; brownish red with a lateral triangular transparent
patch; rare.

Section IV. TRIMERA.

Apparently three joints in all the tarsi, except the Hrotylide, which have four or jive; the joints
dilated and brush-like beneath, with the penultimate usually bilobed.

This, like the other primary sections of the Coleoptera, is based upon

the apparent number of joints in the tarsi. We have stated in the in-
troductory part of this treatise that the highest, and what may there-
fore be called the normal or typical number of joints in the feet of the
Coleoptera, is five, and that whenever there appears to be a lesser num-
ber the rudiments of the deficient joints, or a part of them, can usually
be detected by close inspection. The present, or trimerous section, is
less perfect or more exceptional in proportion to the number of the spe-
cies, than any of the preceding sections, that is to say, a considerable
number of genera and species which require to be associated with the
trimerous beetles in consideration of their general structure, have four
distinct joints in their tarsi, besides the indistinct rudiment of the miss-
ing and penultimate joint.
” The antennex are almost always clubbed at the end and the tarsi are
dilated, bilobed, and with a brush of hairs on the under side. ‘The first
of these characters allies them to the club-horned scavengers and dis-
tinguishes them from the Chrysomelide, whilst the latter character
allies them to the last named family and at the same time distinguishes
them from the Clavicornes proper. The great majority of them are re-
markable for the very wide terminal joint of the maxillary palpi. They
are almost always of small or moderate size.

This section is much smaller than the others, and contains but two
tribes, which bear but little resemblance to each other in form, and are
wholly unlike in their habits.

=28

178 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

Tribe 1st (or 20th). Trimerous fungus-beetles. Trimera fungivora.
BOLITOPHAGA.

Body oval or oblong; antennz exposed and often nearly or quite as
long as the head and thorax; colors red and black, usually combined ;
habits fungivorous. Pushin Erotylide, Tigo wiv Ohidees

Tribe 2d (or 21st). Plant-louse eating beetles. Trimera carnivora.
APHIDIPHAGA, Latreille. Py

Body hemispherical; antenne very 8 ort and usually concealed be-
neath the margin of the thorax; elytra usually red with black dots,
sometimes the reverse; feed shen plant-lice. Family: Coccinellide.

TRIBE XX.
TRIMEROUS FUNGUS-BEETLES.

Trimera fungivora. BOLITOPHAGA.

This is a tribe of moderate extent, and is composed of the families
Erotylide and Endomychide. The former were designated by La-
treille by the name Clavipalpi, on account of the large half-moon shaped
joint with which the maxillary palpi are usually terminated, and were
placed by him in the tetramerous section in deference to the tarsal sys-.
tem of classification, inasmuch as four distinct joints are usually pres-
ent in the tarsi, besides the rudimental penultimate joint. But their
general resemblance to the Endomychide in size, color and habits, as
well as in several important organic characters, has induced all recent
systematists to place the two families in the same general division. It
is a much more difficult question to decide whether these insects should
be retained as a distinct tribe near the end of the order, between the
Chrysomelidz and the Coccinellide, or be merged in the extensive series
of club-horned scavengers, or Clavicornes proper, with which they agree
in their clavate antennz, and also with some of them in their fungivor-
ous habits. Mr. Westwood, whilst he retains them in the former posi-
tion, expresses a doubt whether they should not be placed in the necroph-
agous or scavenger series, a8 Mr. Stephens previously, and Mr. Thomson
more recently has done; and Mr. Crotch, in his recent revision of these
families, expresses the opinion that the Erotylide# should immediately
follow Cryptophagide, and that the Endomychid should succeed the
Mycetophagid. Other authors, whilst leaving the families in general
undisturbed, have contented themselves with removing from them cer-
tain genera, which are usually associated with them; Mr. MacLeay, for
example, having removed Languria to the family of Engide, corres-
ponding nearly to our two families of Trogositide and Cucujide, whilst
Mr. Stephens has placed Tritoma in the family of Anisotomide. If the
number of joints in the tarsi were the only character which distinguishes

TRIMEROUS FUNGUS-BEETLES. 179

these tribes, their separation, probably, would never have taken place,
since, aS we have seen, the number of these joints is subject to much
variation in the smaller species of Clavicornes. But a much more im-
portant distinctive character is the structrre of the tarsal joints ; being
dilated, evenly cushioned beneath, and with the penultimate joint often
deeply bilobed, thus allying them to the Phytophaga, whilst it sepa-
rates them from the pentamerous Clavicornes, which, though they usu-
ally have the tarsi more or less garnished with hairs, never, we believe,
exhibit the dense and even brush of hair-like papille which is so char-
acteristic of the genuine Tetramera; and in the few instances in which
any dilatation of the tarsi occurs among the Clavicornes, it is small in
extent and limited to the anterior feet of the males, being a sexual dis-
tinction. It is also worthy of note that the important and rudimental
joints in the present tribe are uniformly the penultimate, as in the tetfa-
merous section, whilst in the imperfectly developed tarsi of the small
pentamera, it is usually the first, or first and second joints that are de
_ ficient.

The characters of the few known larve of this tribe do not afford any
clear indications of their systematic position ; for whilst the larva first
‘described by Fischer and copied by Westwood, and supposed to be that
of Tritoma, strikingly resembles the larve of the Chrysomelide in its
thick fleshy and spotted body, the larva of Triplax, figured by the last
named author, bears, as he remarks, a strong resemblance to that of the
genus Colydium, which we have placed in our aberrant group of Sub-
clavicornes ; and the larve of Endomychus have been compared both
to those of Silpha and Lampyris. Thus it appears that the position of
these families, separate and remote from the pentamerous Clavicornes,
first assigned to them by Latreille, rests upon strong considerations ;
and we may add that Lacordaire, one of the latest and highest author-
ities upon the classification of this order, has virtually given his sanc-
tion to this arrangement. For though his work had not reached the
trimerous section, at the time of his death, it is evident, from his not
including them in the pentamerous series, that he had reserved them
for this position.

It is worthy of remark that the dilated and cushioned tarsi of these
insects would seem to indicate a decided diversity of habit as compared
with other fungus beetles which have simple tarsi. The most obvious
explanation is that this structure of the feet enables them to adhere to
the smooth surface of the boleti upon which they deposit their eggs and
in which their larvee reside, whilst those beetles which subsist mostly
upon the fungi which grow beneath the bark of decaying trees, require
no such provision.

180 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

The following table gives the principal distinctive characters of the
two families of this tribe :
A. Tarsi apparently 4jointed, sometimes 5-jointed; antennze usually shorter than

the head and thorax, and with a club of from three to six joints; maxillary

palpi usually terminated by a wide securiform joint. Thorax convex:
EROTYLID&.

A A. Tarsi apparently 3-jointed, sometimes 4jointed. Antenne usually as long as
the head and thorax, or longer, with the two or three terminal joints slightly
enlarged; maxillary palpi nearly cylindrical, labials sometimes enlarged at
the end. Thorax usually with three depressions at the base, and with a
pana Laken rey e S MR ea sa Ae eS ge A ES RR i a eo ee ENDOMYCHID2.

» Family LXII. EROTYLIDZ.

. This isa family of moderate extent founded upon the genus Hrotylus,
of Fabricius, a term borrowed directly from the Greek, and meaning
Sriendly or pleasing—probably in allusion to the contrasted colors of
many of the species. They are of moderate or small size, only a few
species of Dacne and Erotylus proper attaining to half an inch in
length, whilst the great majority are less than a quarter. The most
common coloration is a red thorax with black, or black and red elytra,
or the reverse; but some species are unicolorous.

[Fig. 90.]

CYPHEROTYLUS BOISDUVALI, Chev.:—a, b, larva, side and back views; ¢, d, pupa, under and upper
sides ; ¢, beetle, natural size ; 7, antenna; j, palpus; g, tarsus from below; h, terminal joint of
same from above—after Riley.

The leading characters have been given in the preceding table and in
the general description of the tribe. We will only repeat here that the
two principal characters by which they are distinguished from other
fungus-eating beetles are their widened tarsi, covered beneath with a
dense brush of hair-like papillae, with the last joint but one usually
bilobed, and the form of the terminal joint of the maxillary palpi—
which with a few exceptions is broadly triangular, whilst the pentame-
rous and heteromerous fungivorous beetles have slender tarsi, at most
loosely haired on the under side, and the palpi of the same width
throughout, or, in some of the Diaperide, a little widened at the end.
These insects usually inhabit the fungi which grow upon trees, but we

have found several species of Languria upon flowers, especially the
umbellifera.

TRIMEROUS FUNGUS-BEETLES. 181

A. Body elongate and parallel; club of antennz 5 or 6-jointed; tarsi 4-jointed; palpi not dilated ;

eyes finely granulated..-..........-.--.--- jonbGensesoasseeteseecectectesseecerssebecot LANGURIA.
A A. Body oval; club of antenns 3-jointed, rarely 4-jointed.
B. Tarsi 5 jointed; palpi not dilated; form oblong oval...........-.....---.---.2...5-------- DACNE.
BB. Tarsi 4-jointed ; 3d joint of maxillary palpi strongly dilated; form oval or short oval.
Comtyesilarpetand\coarsely/eranulstedss-4)20s.5- sat ceneaue bs sees Soca ee eae se seen eer IscHYRUS.
CC. Eyes moderate, finely granulated ; size small..._.....-..----------22---- eee eee e eee TRIPLAX.

Languria, Latr., contains about a dozen N. A. species. The most com-
mon is the L. bicolor, Fab., upwards of a third of an inch in length,
blue-black except the thorax, which is dull-red with a black spot on the
middle. The L. Mozardi, Latr., is similar but smaller; the elytra have
a greenish tint, the antenne and thighs are reddish at base, and the
thorax is without the black spot on the disk. Dacne, Latr., contains
five species of very unequal size. The name is derived from the Greek
dakno—to corrode. The Dacne heros, of Say, is two-thirds of an inch in
length or upwards, black with two broad, dull-red bands across the ely-
tra. The D. fasciata, Fab., is similar, but only about half an inch long,
and the bands are of a lighter and brighter color. The D. 4-maculata,
Say, is only about one-tenth of an inch long, black, with two red spots
on each elytron. Ischyrus, Lacord.,—a term meaning robust—contains
three species, the largest of which, the I. 4-punctatus, Oliv., is not
uncommon. It is about a third of an inch long, light orange-red varied
with black, and with a transverse series of four black dots on the
thorax.

The genus Triplax, of Paykull,—a term meaning three-fold, in
allusion probably to the three-jointed club of the antenne—is much
more numerous in species than the others. Mr. Crotch enumerates
eighteen species, a part of which he has placed separately under the
generic term Cyrtotriplaxv—the prefix meaning conver—on account of
their short ovate form, and the body not strongly punctured beneath.
_ This distinction had already been made by Fabricius, who gave to those
short convex species the name Tritoma, which seems to have been
abandoned on account of its confused synonomy. The species of Tri-
plax are all small, being between one-eighth and two-tenths of an inch
in length, and variegated with black and red. Cypherotylus, Cr., con-
tains a single large and striking species, the Boisduvali, Chev. (Fig. 90),
tolerably common in the Rocky mountain region of Colorado, where Mr.
Riley has found its larva feeding on tree-fungi.

Some of the species indicated are closely allied and are perhaps only
varieties.

Family LXIII. ENDOMYCHID.
=

This is a family of small extent, named from the genus Endomychus,
Paykull, a name derived from the Greek endon—within; and muchos—a
concealed place—probably referring to the concealed habitations of these

182 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

[Fig.91] insects and their larve in the substance of [Fig. 92
boteli or tree-fungi. The most remarkable

character of this family, as compared with

the Coleoptera in general, is the diminution >

in the number of the joints of the tarsi, but die
three joints being visible even in species of considerable
Size, with a scarcely perceptible rudiment of another joint

at the base of the last; all the joints except the last

ENDOMYCHUS :— : ‘
After Rye. being dilated and cushioned beneath, and the second

joint deeply bilobed. The antennz are usually longer than the head
and thorax combined, and with the two or three last joints slightly en-
larged. The thorax is almost square, and in most of the genera has a
wide thin margin, which is slightly turned upwards at the sides.

A. Tarsi 3-jointed. Length from one to two-sixths of an inch.
B. Palpi clavate, thorax a little wider behind; antennal club of three equal joints... ENDOMYCHUS.
BB. Palpi cylindrical; thorax a little narrower behind; antennal club indistinct, the last joint
somewhat dilated and comproesseds-:. 52 22-825- ss. e22 pe Sescee eee eee LYCOPERDINA-
A A. Tarsi 4 or 5-jointed. Length less than one-sixth of an inch.
C. Thorax about square; tarsi 4-jointed.

Ds seAnLOMOn CORD CONMOMOUS=+- sae) sete ee -he eh at ree aceine ee inn ee atone a eae RHANIS.
DD. Coxe separated by the prosternum ; antennal club enormously dilated in the males:
PHYMAPHORA
CC. Thorax wider than long; size very small.
iy eATibenns tl ointed : tOrm oval body. baityen- oor once. Soe ae eee nee eee MYcET@mA.
EE. Antenne 10-jointed ; form globose; tarsi 5-jointed....-.-...--..--.------------- ALEXIA.

Endomychus proper contains but one N. A. species which closely re-
sembles the H. coccineus of Europe. It is the HE. biguttatus, Say—one-
sixth of an inch long, black, with the elytra bright-red, with two black
spots on each, the larger one near the tip. JLycoperdina, Latr., derived

from Lycoperdon, a genus of fungi—contains many species which have |

been divided into several genera, or sub-genera, by more recent authors.
The most common species is the L. vitatta, Fab., (or lineata, Olivier;) a
quarter of an inch long, with three broad stripes on the elytra, the mid-
dle one being common to both. The L. ferruginea, LeC., is a little
smaller, of a piceous or reddish-black color, with the head, legs and
margins of the thorax and elytra brownish-red. The other genera con-
tain but one or two species each. The two last genera are anomalous,
and do not strictly belong in this family.

TRIBE XXII,
PLANT-LOUSE BEETLES.

Trimera carnivora. APHIDIPAGA, Latreille.
The rounded or hemispherical form of these insects, commonly known

by the name of lady-birds, and their dotted coloration, render them one
of the most easily recognized of all the families of Coleoptera. Their

PLANT-LOUSE BEETLES. 183

three-jointed tarsi, and the broad hatchet-shaped terminal joint of the
maxillary palpi, are their most distinctive organic characters. The tar-
sal joints are always dilated and cushioned beneath, and the second
joint is deeply bilobed.

These insects seem to be specially appropriated to keeping in check
the extensive families of plant-lice, both the leaf-lice (Aphides), and the
bark-lice (Coccides), upon which they feed voraciously, in both the imago
and the larva states; and they are also known to devour the eggs of
other insects. Mr. Westwood refers to some observations which go to
show that they must sometimes subsist upon vegetable food, and I have
seen the Coccinella 15-punctata, Oliv., with its head deeply immersed in
a ripe raspberry, implying that they sometimes feed upon the juices of
ripe and succulent fruits; but such cases are rare and exceptional to
their general habits. It is not uncommon to find branches of trees
thickly covered with the scales of bark-lice, almost every one of which
has been torn open and its occupant destroyed by these predaceous in-
sects.

The larve are oblong, blackish grubs, and are usually thickly beset
with spines, which are also furnished with smaller spines or prickles,
giving them, when magnified, a formidable appearance. These, as is
the case with other larve, are much more voracious than the perfect in-
sects. When about to pupate they suspend themselves by the tail to a
leaf or branch, and either push the larval skin upwards, where it re-
mains shrivelled about the point of attachment, or remain within it till
they emerge in the beetle form, when it bursts open upon the back and
permits the enclosed insect to escape. This tribe of beetles is composed
of the single family of Coccinellide.

Family LXIV. COCCINELLIDA.

As this family is co-extensive with the tribe to which it belongs, we
have only, in treating of it, to refer back to the remarks already made.
[ Fig. 93. | In a systematic point of view the Coccinellide occupy

a remarkably anomalous and isolated position, in con-
sequence of the apparent heterogeneousness of their

- organic characters. Whilst having the rounded form
, of the plant-beetles, the clavate antenne of the scav-
eugers, and the dilated palpi of the fungus-beetles,
\ they agree in food and habits with none of these, but
N resemble, in their predaceous habits, the pentamerous
| eeepeene etiam ground-beetles, and the soft-winged carnivora, all of
i taacillery pal which have their bodies more or less elongated, their
estwood. antenne filiform, and their palpi slender or but mode-
rately dilated. Moreover, the reduction in the number of their tarsal

184 THE ORDER OF COLEOPTERA.

joints evidently places them at the extreme end of the order, whilst their
predaceous habits ally them to the pentamerous carnivora which occupy
the first rank in the perfection of their organization.

The name Coccinella is derived from the Coccus which produces the
cochineal dye, and was suggested by the prevalence of bright red in the
coloration of these insects.

A. Antenns nearly aslong as the head and thorax; elytra almost always red dotted with black ;
length mure than a sixth of an inch.
B. Body somewhat oblong; anterior margin of the thorax nearly or quite straight. ... HIPPODAMIA.

BB. Body hemispherical ; anterior margin of the thorax more or less concave....----- COCCINELLA.
AA. Antenne usually very short; elytra never red; length almost always less than a sixth of an
inch.

C. Thorax deeply hollowed in front s0 as to embrace the head; color black, usually dotted or
varied with red or white.
D. Surface glabrous; black, dotted with red, or whitish.

E. Margin of elytra wide and entire; size various..-.........----.-.--..-------- CHILOCORUS.
EE. Margin of elytra narrow and pitted, for the reception of the tips of the thighs; size
Small asso sceies eects ce ttt ch ec aeeare ss See bet ee Ts. eee ese e Ns 2s eeeee HYPERASPIS.

DD. Surface pubescent; black, sometimes varied or tipt with red..-..........-.---.- ScyMnus.

CC. Anterior margin of thorax nearly straight.
F. Margin of elytra entire; prosternum not advanced ; color white with black dots:

PsSYLLOBORA.
FF. Margin of elytra pitted ; prosternum advanced so as to conceal the mouth; color black
Withontispots!- WZ WINULS to. 2- sew se eee ciooe elses cine enise ee aa tee CENEIs.

Hippodamia, Chev., has for its type the H. maculata, of DeGeer, the
most common of ail our Coccinellidw; nearly a quarter of an inch in
length; scarlet-red with six large black dots on each elytron, two of
which join those on the other elytron at the suture. About fifteen other

[ Fig. 94. ] species have been indicated, most of which exhibit a
tendency to follow this type of coloration. Upwards
x of twenty N. A. species of Coccinella, Linn., have been
3 described and distributed in a number of sub-genera,

; ! founded for the most part upon obscure or unimpor-
Hirropamia convercens: tant characters. Chilocorus, Leach, contains the com-

—Larva, pupa and bee- " é

tle—after Riley. mon C. bivulnerus, Muls., two-tenths of an inch long,
black, with a red dot on the middle of each wing-cover, so useful in de-
stroying the bark-lice of the apple tree, and of the pine leaf. The C.
(Hxochomus, Redt.) tripustulatus, DeG., is similar but larger, with a red
spot on each shoulder, and a spot on the suture behind the middle.
Hyperaspis, Redt., meaning literally covered by a shield, contains many
species readily distinguished by their small size and their black color,
dotted with red, or whitish. Brachyacantha, Muls., differs from Hype-
raspis only in the presence of a minute spine on the outer margin of the
anterior tibie.*

ii

|
si

* The separation of Megilla and OCeratomegilla from Hippodamia ; of Mysia and Oycloneda from Ooe-
einella ; of Exochomus from Ohilochorus ; and of Brachyacantha from Hyperaspis, under distinct gene-
ric names, are examples of the modern tendency to the excessive multiplication of genera, often found-
ed upon the most trivial characters.

a

PLANT-LOUSE BEETLES. 185

Scymnus, Herbst, contains a considerable number of very small black
species, easily recognized by their downy surface, and the usually tawny
tips of the elytra, or margins of the thorax, characters which appear to
have suggested the generic name, which literally means a young lion ;
a name, however, which had already been given by Cuvier to a genus
of fishes of the shark family. Pysllobora, Chev., contains the P. 20-mac-
ulata, Say, a little species a tenth of an inch or less in length, readily
distinguished from all our other Coccinellidz by its white color densely
sprinkled with black dots. Two other and similar species have been
described, which perhaps are only varieties. Mineis, Mulsant, is repre-
sented by the minute MW. pusilla, LeC., only a fifteenth of an inch in
length, almost globular in form, and of ashining black color. The male
has the head, sides of thorax and legs yellow.

—24

CATALOGUE OF THE PRINCIPAL AUTHORS

Who have written upon the Coleoptera, with speciat reference to the deseri-
bers of N. American species, or of their Natural History, and with
the ordinary abbreviations of their names prefixed.

Avs. Dr. Charles Aube, a French entomologist; author of a general work upon the water-beetles,
and of a Monograph of the Pselaphide, 1834, and a Revision of the same, 1844.

Aub. Jean Victor Audouin, M. D., Librarian to the Institute of France, and one of the Curators
of the Jardin du Roi. An eminent French naturalist and comparative anatomist. Author of many
works from 1818 to 1830, Some of his most valuable writings are his Memoires upon the anatomy and
physiology of Insects and other Articulata.

Beavy. or Pal de B. Palisot, Baron de Beauvois, a French entomologist. Author of a descriptive
work upon insects collected in Africa and in America—1805 and subsequently.

BuiancH. Emile Blanchard, author of a Catalogue of the Entomological Collection in the Museum
of Nat. History of Paris, 1850, and of a large illustrated work upon the Metamorphoses of Insects.

Buanp. James H. B. Bland, describer of a number of N. A. Coleoptera in the Proceedings of the
Ent. Soc. of Philadelphia.

Bou. C. H. Boheman, author of a Monograph of the Cassididee—1850-62—and descriptions of New
Species of Coleoptera. N. Mem., Natur., Moscow.

Bon. Francisco Bonelli, professor of Zoology at Turin. An Italian Naturalist. His principal
entomological work was a Memoir upon the Carabidew. 1811.

BrEND. Emil Brendel, M. D., of Peoria, linois. Author of several papers upon the Pselaphida,
with descriptions of new species, in the Proceedings of the Ent. Soc. of Philadelphia, 1865-66.

Burm. H. Burmeister, a learned German entomologist. His principal work is the Handbook of
Entomology, in 6 vols., 8-vo, 1832-47. The elementary part of this work has been translated into Eng-
lish by W. E. Shukard, 1 vol., 8-vo, 654 pages, London, 1836. ;

CuauD. Baron M. de Chaudoir, a Russian entomologist. Author of several memoirs upon the
Caribidss, in which a number of N. American species are described. 1842-7.

Cuey. A. Chevrolat, a French entomologist. Author of the Coleoptera of Mexico, and other writ-
ings upon the insects of this order.

Crotcu, G. R., Cambridge. Mass. Author of Synopsis of the Dytiscidw, Chrysomelide, Erotylida,
Endomychide and Coccinellide of the U.S., published in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, of Philadel-
phia, and in the Trans. Am. Ent. Society, 1873; and ofa Check List of N A. Coleoptera, 1874.

Datm. Jobn Wm. Dalman, director of the museum at Stockholm. Author of various works upon
different orders of insects. 1823-6.

Dec. Baron Charles DeGeer, marshal of the Court of the Queen of Sweden, born 1720, died 1778.
Author of a History of Insects, in 7 vols., 4-to, with plates, 1752-78. A work replete with accurate de-
tails of the habits of insects, and forming a fit sequel to the similar work of Reaumur, the last volume
of which was published ten years before the work of DeGeer was commenced.

Des. Count Dejean, peer of France and lieut.-general in the French army. Author of a catalogue
of the Coleoptera in his own extensive collection; and of a general descriptive work in several volumes,
from 1825 to 1831, which contains descriptions of many N. American species.

Drur. Drury, an English goldsmith. Author of a finely illustrated work, in 3 vols., 4-to, con-
taining upwards of six hundred and fifty colored figures of the rarer insects in his own cabinet, amongst
which are many American species. 1770-82. Enlarged by Mr. Westwood in 1837.

CATALOGUE OF AUTHORS. 187

Dur. Leon Dufour, a French physician and comparative anatomist. One of the principal authori-
ties upon the internal structure of insects.

Dum. Constant Dumeril, professor to the Faculty of Medicine and to the Jardin du Roi. An
eminent French naturalist and comparative anatomist ; born at Amiens, 1774. Authorof many works
in different departments of natural history, among which was a work entitled General Considerations
upon the Class of Insects. His works date from 1806 to 1830.

Er. or Extous. William F. Erichson, of Berlin, in Prussia, lately deceased, one of the ablest writers
of recent times upon the Coleoptera. His works are written in the German language. There is an-
other author of the same name, G. F. Erichson, also of Berlin, author of the genera and species of the
Staphylinide.

Escu. Friedrich Eschscholtz, a Prussian entomologist. Author of a zoological atlas, 1829, and a
work entitled Eutomographien, in the German language.

Fas. or Fasr. John Christian Fabricius, professor of natural history at Kiel,in Denmark. A pupil
of Linnzus, and one of the most eminent and voluminous writers upon insects; born 1742, died 1807.
Author of many works, and the original describer of a large proportion of the American insects known
at that time.

Fiscu. Gotthelf Fischer de Waldheim, director of the imperial museum at Moscow, Russia. Au-
thor of numerous works, from 1801 to 1824. His principal work was the Entomography of the Russian
Empire, in 2 vols., 4-to, with splendid engravings. 1320-22.

Fitcu. Asa Fitch, M.D, entomologist to the Agricultural Society of New York. Author of
thirteen annual reports upon insects of New York, chiefly those injurious to agriculture. First report
published in 1856. Dr. Fitch’s writings have contributed greatly to the dissemination of useful infor-
tion upon the injurious insects of the United States.

Forst. Dr. John Reinhold Forster. Author ofa description of a Hundred New Species of Insects,
London, 1771, among which were a few N. American Coleoptera.

Grorr. M. Geoffroy, a celebrated French physician and entomologist. Author of an Abridged
History of Insects, 2 vols., 8-vo, with plates, 1764, and of a Description of the Insects in the Environs
of Paris. Many genera of Coleoptera were first defined in these works. °

GuLover. Townend Glover, entomologist to the Department of Agriculture, at Washington. An-
thor of numerous brief monthly reports upon injurious insects, and of an extensive series of plates,
illustrative of North American insects in all the orders, but of which only those appertaining to, the
Orthoptera have yet been published.

Gm. or GerM. E. Francis Germar, professor of mineralogy at Halle, in Prussian Saxony. Editor
of the “Magazin der Entomologie,” 4 vols., 8-vo, 1813-21, and of the “Insectorum Species Nove,” 1vol.,
1824—an accurate describer of many genera and species of Coleoptera.

Gray. J. L.C Gravenhorst, a German entomologist. Author of a Monograph of the Staphylinida,
1806, and of a Nosology of the genus Ichneumon, 1814—a standard authority upon these two families
of insects.

GuER. M. Guerin-Meneville, a distinguished French entomologist. Author of Species and Genera
of the Articulated Animals, 1843 and subsequently; and editor of the Magazine of Zoology, and of the
Zoological Review.

Gyutu. L. Gyllenhal, a Swedish naturalist. An original describer of some of the genera which con-
tain American species. Author of “Insecta Suecica,’’ 1827.

Hap. 8.58. Haldeman, an American naturalist. Author of a large number of memoirs in various
branches of natural history, and original describer of many N. American Coleoptera, mostly between
the years 1842 and 1852.

Harr. Thaddeus Wm. Harris, M. D., librarian of Harvard University, in Cambridge, Massachu-
setts, a distinguished American entomologist. Author of a Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation,
ist edition 1852, 2nd ed. 1862, and author of many other valuable contributions to American entomology;
born 1795, died 1856. It is a matter of lasting regret that the exacting requirements of his office of
librarian prevented Dr. Harris from giving to the world, in a connected and systematic form, the re-
sults of his long and enthusiastic study of insects in all their orders.

Hentz. N. M. Hentz, professor at Chapel Hill University, North Carolina. Author of a Mono-
graph of the Spiders of the United States, published in the 2ist volume of the American Journal of
Science, 1833, and describer of a number of N. American Coleoptera.

Hest. J. F. W. Herbst, originally a preacher at Berlin, Prussia, born 1743. A voluminous writer
upon insects. One work, in 10 volumes, was devoted wholly to the Coleoptera, 1785 to 1806. Another
of his works is a Monograph of the genus Papilio. All his works were illustrated by colored plates.

Horree, Count Hoffmansegg, a learned naturalist of Saxony, and a zealous patron of the sciences.
Author of various memoirs in Iliger’s Magazine and elsewhere.

‘

188 CATALOGUE OF AUTHORS.
ee

Horr. Rev. F. W. Hope, an English entomologist, possessor of a fine cabinet of insects. Author
of the Coleopterist’s Manual, 1837. Most of his original descriptions are in the family of Lamellicorn
beetles. et aes

Horn. George H. Horn, M. D., of Philadelphia. Author of a Revision of the Tenebrionide of
America, north of Mexico, 1870, and of Synopses of the Histeridz and Bruchidz of the U.§8., 1873, and
other memoirs upon N. American Coleoptera.

Inuc. I.C.G. Illiger, professor at Berlin, an eminent naturalist, second only to Linnaeus in the
felicity and elegance of his nomenclature. Though he died in middle life, his works extended to 13
vols., 8-vo, embracing all departments of natural history. His most extensive work is his Magazine of
Entomology, in 7 vols., 8-vo, 1801-1807

Kirs. Rey. Wm. Kirby, reetor of Barham, England, an eminent English entomologist. Author of
various works upon different orders of insects. His most important work was an Introduction to En-
tomology, in 4 vols., 8-vo., by Wm. Kirby and Wm. Spence, Ist edition in 1815. This was for many
years the principal elementary work upon insects in the English language. Mr. Kirby was also author
of that part of the Fauna Boreali-Americana which treats of insects, 1 vol., 4-to, 1837, in which many
N. American insects, chiefly Coleoptera, are described.

Knocu. A. G. Knoch, a German entomologist. Author of the Neue Beitrege zur Insectenkunde,
1 vol., 8-vo, 1801.

LACORD. Theodore Lacordaire, professor of zoology and comparative anatomy in the University of
Liege, and chevalier of the Order of Leopold. A very eminent French naturalist and entomologist,
recently deceased. His works extend over a period of upwards of forty years, among which was an
Introduction to Entomology, published as a part of the Suites a Buffon, 2 vols., 8-vo, 1834-38. But the
crowning work of his life was the Genera des Coleoptéres, in 10 vols., 8-vo, the last volume of which
was not completed at the time of the author’s death, on the 18th of July, 1870.

Lar. M. de LaFerte-Senecterre, a French entomologist. Author of an elaborate monograph of
Anthicus and allied genera, 1848.

Lap. F.L. de Laporte, a French entomologist. Author of Etudes Entomologiques, 1835, and other
works ; original deseriber of a number of genera and species of N. A. Coleoptera.

‘Lat. or Laver. Pierre Andre Latreille, professor of the museum of natural history, in Paris; born
at Brives, France, in 1762. A very eminent French naturalist, sometimes styled the prince of entomo-
logists. The genius of this celebrated author illuminated every department of the science of entomo-
logy, embracing all the classes of articulated animals. His labors extended through a period of about
thirty years. The first of his numerous publications bears the date of 1800. His three principal works
are: a Natural History of Crustacea and Insects, 6 vols., 8-vo, 1802-5; Genera of Crustacea and Insects,
4 vols., 8-vo, 1806-7; and the department of Crustacea, Arachnida and Insects, in Cuvier’s Animal King-
dom, 2d edit., 1828.

Lracu. W. E. Leach, an English physician and naturalist, one of the curators of the British mu-
seum. Author of numerous memoirs upon all the classes of the Articulata, and editor of the Zoological
Miscellany, 3 vols., 8-vo, 1817.

LeC. John L. LeConte, M. D., of Philadelphia—the principal American authority upon North-
American Coleoptera. Author of a classification of the Coleoptera of North America, 1 vol. 8vo.
1861-1873 ; and of many articles upon the different families of Coleoptera, from 1844 to the present
time ; and original describer of a large proportion of the North American species in this order of in
sects. Dr. LeConte’s father, Major John LeConte, was also a zealous entomologist, joint author with
Boisduval of a General History of North American Lepidoptera and their Caterpillars, of which but
one volume was published, in Paris, 1833; and author of a monograph of North American Histeride,
in the Boston Journal of Natural History, 1845.

Linn. Charles de Linne, usually written in the Latinized form of Linneus. Professor of Natural
History at Upsal, in Sweden. Born in 1707, died 1778. One of the most eminent of naturalists, and
founder of the modern system of nomenclature, both in Natural History and Botany. His name is
stamped upon almost every page in the nomenclature of plants and of every department of animated
nature. He was the author of nineteen distinct works, the principal of which were the ‘Species
Plantarum,” and the “Systema Nature.’ First edition 1735; 13th edit. 7 vols 8vo. 1788.

Mach. W.S. MacLeay, an English entomologist, a learned and philosophical writer upon in-
sects and their classification. Author of the Hore Entomologice, 1 vol. 8vo. 1819, and other works.

Mann. C. G. Mannerheim, Counsellor to the Emperor of Russia. Author of a monograph of the
Enconemide, 1823, and of a New Classification of the Staphylinide, 1830, and of several memoirs in
the Bulletin of the Imperial Society of Naturalists of Moscow, in which species from Sitka and Cali-
fornia are described, 1843-46.

Mars. §. A. de Marseul, a French Entomologist. Author of an elaborate monograph of the Histe-
ride, 1853-1860; and of a catalogue of the Coleoptera of Europe, 1866.

=

CATALOGUE OF AUTHORS. 189

MEtsH. Friedrich Ernst Melsheimer, M. D., a zealous contributor to American Entomology;
died recently at Davidsburg, in Pennsylvania, March 10, 1873, at the advanced age of nearly ninety-
one years. Author of the first general catalogue of Coleoptera published in the United States, 1806,
which was revised and enlarged by LeConte and Haldeman in 1853. Also, author of many papers in
the 2d and 3d volumes of the Proceedings of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia, in which
upwards of four hundred and fifty species of N. A. Coleoptera were first described. His father. Rev.
KE. F. Melsheimer, was also an enthusiastic entomologist and a co-laborer with Thomas Say, the foun-
der of descriptive entomology in the U.S.

Mots. Victor de Motschulsky, a Russian entomologist. Author of Etudes Entomologiques, 2
vols. 8vo. 1853-61; and of a work on the Coleoptera of Siberia.

Muts. E. Mulsant, a French entomologist. Author of a monograph of the Coccinellida, 1850,
and other works. ®

NeEwM. Edward Newman, an English entomologist. Author of a Grammar of Entomology, 1835;
and of an Illustrated Natural History of British Moths, 1869, and editor of the Entomological Maga-
zine, in which a considerable number of American Coleoptera are described.

Outv. Antoine G. Olivier, Professor of Zoology to the Veterinary School of Alfort, in France,
born 1756, died 1814, a distinguished French naturalist Author of a Natural History of Insécts, 5
vols. folio with colored plates, confined to the Coleoptera, 1789-1808 ; also of the department of insects
in the Encyclopedie Methodique, 5 volumes, and other works; the original describer of many North
American Coleoptera.

Pack. A.S§. Packard, Jr., M. D., of Salem, Massachusetts. Author of a Guide to the Study of In-
sects. 1 vol. 8vo. 715 pages. Ist edition 1869, 3d ed. 1873; and author of various papers upon North
American insects in the different orders.

Panz. G. W. F. Panzer, a physician of Nuremberg, and a learned entomologist, born in 1755.
Author of various works upon different orders of insects, published between the years 1796 and 1813;
useful works of reference at the present day on account of the accuracy of the colored figures.

Payk. Gustavus Paykull, counsellor to the King of Sweden, an able and accurate entomologist.
Author of a Fauna of Sweden, 3 vols. 8vo. 1800, confined to the Coleoptera, and author of various
memoirs upon insects, and also upon birds.

Peck. William Peck, Professor of Botany in Harvard University. Prof. Peck was the author of
several papers upon the natural history of certain species of injurious beetles and other insects in the
Mass. Agric. Repository and Journal, 1819, and elsewhere.

Putz. J. Putzeys, a French entomologist. Author of a monograph of Clivina and allied genera,
1846, and other memoirs.

Ranpd. John W. Randall, author of two papers on Coleoptera in the 2d volume of the Boston
Journal of Natural History.

Reaum. R. A. Ferchault de Reaumur, one of the most eminent of the older French naturalists ;
born 1683, died 1757. His labors were directed to many different departments of science, but his most
important work and that which makes his name familiar to the entomologists of the present day is
his memoirs upon the Natural History of Insects, 6 vols. 4to, with plates, 1734-42. This admirable
work is a treasury of interesting and accurate observations upon the natural history of insects, from
which all subsequent authors have freely drawn.

Ritey. Charles V. Riley, State Entomologist of the State of Missouri. Author of a series of val-
uable illustrated annual reports upon insects, chiefly those injurious to vegetation. First report pub-
lished in 1869; the sixth report published in 1874. Also joint editor with Mr. B. D. Walsh of the
American Entomologist, 1868-69, which was continued by Mr. Riley after Mr. Walsh’s death to De-
cember, 1870.

Rog. W. F. Rogers, of Philadelphia. Author of a synopsis of North American Chrysomelides,
1854 ; ‘since deceased.

Say. Thomas Say, a distinguished American naturalist, and founder of descriptive entomology in
the United States ; born 1787, died 1834. Author of the American Entomology, 1 vol. 8vo. illustrated
by colored figures, executed by his wife; and of many descriptive memoirs upon North American in-
sects in all the orders. These papers have been collected and edited by Dr. J. L. LeConte, in 2 vols.
8vo. 1859. -

Scu. or Scua@n. C.J. Scheenherr, a learned Swedish entomologist. Author of an extensive work
on the synonyms of insects, in many volumes from 1806 to 1817. Also author of an elaborate work on
the Genera and Species of the Curculionide, in which many American species were first described ;
one of the leading authorities in this extensive family.

Suimer. Dr. Henry Shimer, of Mount Carroll, Mlinois. Author of several papers upon Coleop-
tera and other insects, in the American Naturalist, and in the Trans. of the Am. Ent. Society.

Sou. M. Solier, a French entomologist. Author of several essays and memoirs upon the Coleoptera,
published mostly in the annals of the Entomological Society of France, 1840-48.

190 CATALOGUE OF AUTHORS.

STAL. C. Stil, a Swedish entomologist. Author of a recent review of American Chrysomelides,
in the Transactions of the Swedish Academy.

Unter. P. R. Ubler, Assistant Librarian of the Peabody Institute, Baltimore. Author of descrip-
tions of a few species of Coleoptera, but chiefly known as a writer upon the Hemiptera and Orthop-
tera.

WaALsH. Benj. D. Walsh, State Entomologist of the State of Illinois, for the years 1868 and 12869.
He died from a railroad accident on the 128th of November, 1869. Author of one official report, in 1868.
Editor of the Practical Entomologist, 1865-67, and joint editor with Mr. C. V. Riley, of the American
Entomologist, 1868-69 ; and author of various papers upon insects in scientific periodicals. Mr. Walsh
was an able and enthusiastic entomologist.

Wes. Frederick Weber, a German naturalist, Professor at Kiel. Author of ‘‘Observationes En-
tomologicz,”’ 1 vol. 8vo. 1801. His name appears as the original describer of a small number of North
American Coleoptera.

Westw. J. O. Westwood. Prof. of Entomology in Oxford University, England; one of the most
eminent entomologists of the present day. Author of many able works and memoirs upon insects in
all the orders, many of which are illustrated by colored drawings. His most valuable work is the In-
troduction to the Modern Classification of Insects, in 2 vols. 8vo., pages 462 and 745, with 133 blocks of
figures inserted in the text, each containing about twenty outline cuts, illustrating all the orders of
insects and the details of their structure. This admirable work, which was published in 1839-40, is
now out of print, and copies are difficult to be obtained.

Zieci. Rey. David Ziegler, author of descriptions of New Species of Coleoptera, in the Proceed--

ings of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences, of Philadelphia, for the year 1844.

Zimm. Christian Zimmerman, M. D., an able and accurate entomologist, who came to this country
from Germany about the year1332. He left many valuable notes upon the Coleoptera, in manuscript,
but most of his descriptions of species have been superseded by more recent publications. Some of
these papers have been recently published, with annotations, by Dr. LeConte, in the Transactions of
the American Eutomological Society, for the year 1868.

a

=

GLOSSARY,

OR DEFINITION OF THE TERMS MOST COMMONLY USED
IN DESCRIBING INSECTS.

Abbreviated, shortened ; not reaching the end of a given part,

Abdomen, the hindermost division of the body. See page 14.

Abnormal, irregular, exceptional.

Abrupt, sudden, not gradual.

Acicular, needle-shaped.

Aculeate, prickly.

Acute, sharp-pointed.

Adephagous, ravenous, predaceous.

Annulate, furnished with rings.

Antenna, (plural antenne), appendages to the head, commonly called the horns. See page 10.
Apex, the terminal point.

Approximate, near to, or near together.

Apterous, without wings.

Articulate, divided into joints.

Attenuated, tapering.

Base, the part furthest from the apex ; the base of the thorax is the part where it joins the elytra.
Bijfid, cleft ; cloven in two.

Bilobate, divided into two lobes.

Capitate, terminating in a little head or knob.

Oarinate, furnished with a keel or ridge.

Cinereous, ash-colored.

OClavate, club-shaped, enlarged towards the end.

Claws, the pair of hooks at the end of the feet.

Olypeus, the anterior margin of the head.

Oompressed, flattened laterally.

Confluent, running into one another.

Contiguous, touching each other.

Coriaceous, like leather, hard, but flexible.

Corrugated, wrinkled.

Coxa, the basal joint of the leg, (plural cove.) See pages 14 and 27.
Orenate, scalloped.

Oylindrveal, long and round, of the same thickness throughout.
Decumbent, bending down.

Deflected, bent down.

Dehiscent, gaping, separated at the tips.

Dense, thickly crowded.

Dentate, furnished with acute teeth.

Depressed, flattened downwards. Compare with compressed.
Diffuse, spreading, not distinctly circumscribed.

Digitate, finger-like, divided like the fingers neurly to the base.
Disk, the upper middle part of a given surface.

Distant, standing considerably apart. Compare with remote.
Divaricate, spreading apart,

192 GLOSSARY.

LL

Dorsal, relating to the back.

Elliptical, elongate-oval.

Elytra, the wing-cases.

Emarginate, notched.

Entire, whole, not indented at the end or margin.

Explanate, spread out, flattened, with a broad, thin margin.

Exserted, protruded, exposed to view.

Exterior, outer, outside of.

Exuvice the cast-off skin.

Falecate, sickle-shaped.

Fascia, a colored band, running croswise.

Fascicle, a bundle.

Femur, (plural femora,) the thigh. See pages 14 and 27.

Ferruginous, yellowish-red, like the rust of iron.

Filiform, thread-like, slender, and of equal thickness.

Flexvous, waving, zig-zag.

Fulvous, tawny, reddish-yellow.

Fuscous, dark grayish-brown.

Fusiform, spindle-shaped, tapering at both ends.

Geniculate, elbowed, bent abruptly.

Genus, an assemblage of species, or sometimes a single species, possessing peculiar and distin-
guishing organic characters.

Glabrous, smooth, without hair or down.

Granulated, covered with small grains or minute rounded elevations.

Gregarious, living in society or flocks. |

Habit, in the singular number is used scientifically to express the general aspect of an insect, in-
dependently of particular characters; but in the plural, habits, it has the ordinary signiti-
cation of manners or modes of life.

Heteromerous, having five joints in the anterior and middle tarsi, and four joints in the hind ones.

Hirsute, clothed with stilt, erect hairs.

Humerus, the anterior and outer angle of the elytra.

Hyaline, transparent.

Imago, the perfect insect, after it has passed through its preparatory transformations. See page 8.

Imbricate, lapping over like the shingles on a roof.

Immaculate, without spots.

Immarginate, without an elevated rim or margin.

Incision, the line of separation between the segments of the abdomen.

Incrassated, thickened.

Incumbent, lying upon.

Interrupted, broken, not continuous. \

Involute, rolled inwards. ’

Trrorate, marked with minute points.

Labial palpus, the little jointed appendage attached to the labium. See pages 12 and 27.

Labiwm, the lower or posterior lip. See page 11.

Labrum, the upper or anterior lip. See page 11.

Lamella, a thin plate; lamellate. See page 11.

Larva, literally a mask, the state of an insect next following the egg state. See page 8.

Lateral, on the side.

Laterally, side-ways.

Lateritious, brick-colored.

Ligula, the tongue. See page 12.

Tine, in measurement, the twelfth of an inch; in marking, a very narrow stripe.

Linear, long and narrow, and of equal width.

Longitudinal, lengthwise.

Lunate, half-moon shaped.

Inuteous, deep yellow, like the yolk of an egg.

Macula, a colored spot.

Mandibles, the upper or anterior jaws. See pages 11 and 27.

Maxille, the lower or posterior jaws. See pages 11 and 27.

Maxillary palpus, the little jointed appendage attached to the maxilla. See pages 12 and 27.
Mentum, the chin.

GLOSSARY. g 193

Mesosternum, that part of the breast to which the middle legs are attached. See figure on page 27.

Metasternum, the hindermost section of the breast, to which the hind legs are attached. See
figure on page 27.

Moniliform, like a string of beads.

Mucronate, terminated abruptly in an acute point.

Necrophagous, feeding on dead animals or carrion.

Normat, of the usual form, not exceptional.

Ob, prefixed to a word reverses the position.

Obcordate, inversely heart-shaped, that is, heart-shaped, with the point directed downward or
backward.

Obovate, inversely egg-shaped. See Obcordate.

Obsolete. undeveloped, indistinet.

Obtuse, blunt.

Occiput, the hinder part of the head.

Ocelli, the single eyes. See page 5.

Oculi, the compound eyes. See page 6.

Orbicular, round and flat, applied to a surface.

Oval, somewhat egg-shaped, but with the two ends alike.

Ovaie, egg-shaped, one end being narrower than the other.

Oviduet, the instrument for depositing the eggs.

Ovum, plural ova, an egg.

Palmate, hand-shaped, cut in about half way to the base, like the fingers of the hand.

Palpus, plural palpi, little jointed appendages to the mouth. See pages 12 and 27.

Parallel, having parallel sides of equal width throughout.

Parasitic, inhabiting another animal, or living at its expense. .

Pectinate, comb-toothed.

Pectus, the breast.

Pedunele, a stalk or petiole.

Pedunculated, attached at the end of a peduncle.

Pentamerous, having five joints in all the tarsi.

Penultimate, the last but one.

Perfoliate, composed of transverse flattened joints, with the axis passing through the center.

Petiolated. See pedunculated.

Piceous, pitch-colored, reddish black.

Pilose, clothed with long flexible hairs. Compare with hirsute.

Poisers, or halteres. See page 13.

Proboscis, the sucker.

Procumbent, lying flat. Compare with decwmbent and incumbent.

Prosternum, the fore part of the breast, to which the anterior legs are attached. See page 27.

Pubescent, downy, coated with almost microscopically fine hair or down.

Punetured, marked with small impressed points or dots.

Pupa, an insect in the chrysalis state, or that following the larva.

Quadrate, square-shaped or nearly so.

Remote, standing far apart.

Reniform, kidney-shaped.

Reticulate, like net-work.

Rostrum, a beak, or prolongation of the head.

Rufous, light-reddish.

Rugose, wrinkled.

Rypophagous, filth-eating.

Salient, projecting, prominent.

Saltatory, leaping.

Scrobe, the furrow onthe side of the rostrum of the snout-beetles for the reception of the antenne.

Scutellum or Scutel, the top of the mesothorax, forming in the Coleoptera the small triangular piece
between the bases of the eiytra.

Securiform, hatchet-shaped, broadly triangular.

Sericeous, clothed with a fine silken pubescence. See Pubescent.

Serrate, saw-toothed. See page 11.

Sessile, attached by the whole width, not pedunculate.

Seta, a bristle.

Setaceous, bristle-like, slender and tapering.

—25

194 GLOSSARY.

Sinus, a hollow; arounded notch.

Sparse, scattered, opposed to dense.

Spinous, armed with spines.

Spiracle, a breathing pore.

Sternum, the breast, or under side of the thorax.

Stria, plural Strie, an impressed or sunken line.

Striate, marked with striz.

Sub, prefixed to a word diminishes its meaning, equivalent to somewhat.

Sub-clavate, somewhat or moderately club-shaped.

Sub-cortical, living under bark.

Subulate, awl-shaped.

Sulcated, grooved.

Tarsus, the jointed foot of insects. See page 14.

Tergum, the upper side of the abdomen.

Terminal, situated at the extremity.

Tessellated, chequered.

Testaceous, pale brick-colored.

Tetramerous, having four joints in all the tarsi.

Thorax, the middle division of the body.

Tibia, the shank, that part of the leg between the thigh and the tarsus.

Tomentose, clothed with matted hair.

Transverse, cross-wise.

Transversal, having the width greater than the length.

Trimerous, having three joints in all the tarsi.

Trochanter, an appendage to the base of the thigh. See page 27.

Trochantin, 2 small accessory or supernumerary joint sometimes interposed between the coxa and
the femur, in the anterior and middle legs.

Truncate, cut off square at the tip.

Tubercle, a little swelling or prominence.

Venter, the under side of the abdomen. '

Villose, or villous, clothed with long soft hair.

Vitta, a colored stripe running lengthwise. Compare with fascia.

a

PN Dx

OF

FAMILIES, SUB-FAMILIES AND GENERA.

IAGO OS oe ane Soe ee ere eee 143
PA OMMENOGOLOS ce-ceilce: season ee ces esos 158
ENGIN TIC SERB Pe SIS ARE Ra re enn ce 51
JNGTTED GENE eased Seer SSeS SHAE ESE HE Se EDoAE Le 95
LACIE RODS ot obo bodocedswoneedassr daceeccasacc 156
IAG C iD Es ae eee oe Bee ae eee epee 98
JNO TE SE Soe ein ea eee Arey een eee 158
ANCEN SITES RE = Se ents ore ean een ey en ast 51
PRP ATOIOTUIN ce =.= cscs ccc cece cee se clenaecoues 63
PAS ONOO CLUS eee eee ce atten eae eee 48
PROTAD MMSE ass nis satcniciee css voles aeacaseccener 137
PR OTINES Ree nae eae ane cen cen nee te ene 95
PAISTIOUON enceic cists sme cictuukeocsescs fe ekeaels 99
JNIETRE SOA ee Sees Ue AEN es Se eerie SRN Hs 98
ENIGG OIE NE SSS Sees ape eyes eit Be a he a 73
TAGUNOC LAID IS Sanaa eat © cise cen cenisnene nem cece 72
NIUE O SCTE Ne Se ane eee ae Reg Reh SE SRM irae fy A 182
PAG CUA aoe hemes pees atte soc soon notaee 119
PANIED Hy amie rule sin cine ie mine ceeam ale ssw neceumea gee 48
BAUD NIOTNy Chaicterter te asec eee coe ea ce cme ae 158
PATI AL GIS ieee cea ee ee Moe nn eat enes ee 143
PAIRS DIS - sboccin Aue yo ctucieite etna dajesee ones ee 114
PATRI GEN rR AIT eh se re ee eee Se 48
ATARI OnT CBG SACHA U RR Os ae Bee he SER eee ae 63
PACN IS OD OMAN AR oe ee ana aae me eee aay Se 63
VASE) OyI Tyee RA a Ts Be 8 os a 102
FACHO Mall Bema aca actte Seite ae ere ns coisas ese 89
PANO TAOS a. Na nso Satan Sa ee Eee wos a winjeim erates 169
JNU Se EA PSR ae ae Oe pre Oe ae ee ee 95
PRON CHA CRD Aya eae e a eeeee nee ea 116
PACTUEITG US sere ore reeset epee teeta ee nee erchtve. 116
PANTO DVMED) bet ane tere eee Hie he Re ee ne stele eo
PAUNIREFON@ MIEDEG aa ata so eee eae erninecs oe icc occas 140
PARNER ONOMUA Senin en eee eee ae cess cee ke 140
JAGR) GENET E Be Oe Aa Ae er 75
JAG HOTT SUIS tere cS Ser Dan HCG ae ae 60
AN THRIBEDIAN 2-222 2 oe BORE aoe 129
Anthribus..... Seba eG Sen RB ee 129
APHODIID A

PATI HOUUN See ea eee epee SL ok car
JANOS See eS Ag erels not cae Bp Ace eee EB
ZNTEVO SHAD) CTE pel, Sian OE ee
BATS OXON Se, 5 ae oe Seep eee ° SERRE eee 153
PNB OS Se lige 8 Oe Jo ee ee eee
PAU EERIE ae ete Sena eam ee i aes
ANIC TIGGER MRS a 2504-5 eae Oe ae ee eee ee
PATRONS seas a cmecae

PASAT ENU Ses ease sre nae tea sas os

ATTELABIDES

ENF SUG CS es Ae ne a ee po ee
PAEGTIENITIMAT RE EER S fh, LN rah! Stee a See,

TS OG Sas 5 Sci re Ee ore er tie eS
BHI Be

PAGE.
IBALANINIDES §..\ =/sa2 \-o2se>ceutn chee 140
IBAlanINUS: 32-50 sc cone eeeisane ceceeee EE eee 140
BARIDIIDES
Bary NOLS 6 2 a 52z/s <:5<is[1 s/s s sec eee
Baris, 2 2 cis. s\schic Acimaeiersn Senco oo ee
WB AU YN Oa -- ie. omectomiaimis \ey= nice ee ee
BEMBIDIIDES
IBELOSUS a5 5.450165 ateiyewinee donee ee
IBIAS setts n melanie’ ae cicia's <'ge nce cece eee
Blapstinus
IBIGUUOSE son oem eee Sea eessiesl seen ae
Blepharida
IBOINOGELUS ssa) ees .cs sscoscce ose eee 82
IBOLETODIUS'.,..-dciren ewes ane cote eee ee ee 74
IBolitophaguss -c.505 020-62 222 see ee 125
PBOSEMGOIUS <He s-ccjonq05 canis see aclelspeeeemen Be ett t--
ISRACHINIDES: --.--cmaaae acces cave se tee eee
IBrachinuse== <\< caine «sek oe see eee eee
Brachyacantha
IBrachybamus =) - 0-5 comic siee es eee eee
IBTACRY She ccs oviasaend dcceaqcesea eee eee eee
IBTACHYATSUS ss 2m a c(5 soe om oe cine
IBTAdiGelluss, see ons =o, 4i) <i ow ets Saree eee
BRACHYDEREDES
BRENTHIDA
IBYONG OMS ee se see ce wie eis
IBIONLeS eens nic Seine ences «sos 4a ee
32447] OK 0) 3 8G DUG Deeg ee em tat tery t
IBTUGDUS! jeiekiciocn= ataancaecas dae. aauee eee
BUPRESTIDA
IBUPLestis 7-5 -.-2- pina sain tes bese acon eee
IBY RR ELIDA SW <2 s-eicc aces 2 aeeee re eee eee
Byles: jefe. neon 3 oe ee

C

Calandracecaseas acanedee sees eee ae eae ee 144
CAGANDRIDES Res - 2 ses node cen sana mr eee 144
Calathus sso) 3252s a ee eee eee 48
Calleidas: 235225 ess oss este 44
Callidiam)..03of3-5) oo Je eee 154
Calliigmap hater seco se ee caemcaiese sea ee eae 166
Calo Pieroni = asa sess asc a) eels eae ee 105
Calosoman.22423 cee Le eee ee 43
Canthonte2-* e422 2 58552 a2. sens eee eee 80, 81
CARASB ED ANE Sc siel- ase aoe eee eee eee 39
@ARABIDEG Sasa cet ceeds sel ose ee 42
Carabuss.2s 25421. A423 S325 see ei sae 43
Cardiophorusie222 52 2 222= ethers neee eee eee 98
Carpophilus): 22-02 2 eee e eee een eee 59
Casn ona is 558 2a ee ales at ee 44
@assid ase este hs acvales ie Selena el oe eee 176
CABSIDIDES Sanches ist Sane ease ce yee ee 175
@aitOBenUSt hacen wens act cc -mibactine on suse eee 65
WEtOP Ree ele isaac aches amiaeasis o/c eae 57
Wen tins). ee Aa soiaie os eee re ae ee
CERAMBYCID
CERAMBYCIDES
Cerop ly bUM sess aan ame seaceeias pie eee 98

196 INDEX TO FAMILIES, ETC.
PAGE PAGE.
(COSSi Te) UT 1 ESO ME ORe Oe ee oa es sess oee see 4% | Derobrachws. i.) <.-<2c.cseee eae ee 151
(GION. OUD Vs ORS ec sae eno ooo seen oe oo 89 | Desmocerus, --22~-.c- se ote. ee ee eee 1.156
CrMmrGRAYNCHIDES. -c-22oceee -ncosenceneeears 143 Desmophoray <a. 2052-02. 0054 - ace eee 158
(Clove) 1G peeegeons Eoaebooseebsosoos= sear 143 DiahbTrotica. Gc baco sb esose rials ae eee 171
(CRRA eee Sane e OO= cen aa stead osos a= 172 DTAP ERED Alec: vec chase case 22-2 eee 125
Re Tenis NOTE i eee see cam eee ee eee 95 Diaperisecsstc..5 locos seh ee eee 125
[eramuopnathus-o.— seach ree Re ee eee see seeene 107 Diboliancc2t scence coca oace ene eos 172
(CLag iaing a eA Ye oe Ash Seok soo sees cee sate 176 DiewWis 2222 sascece se oes eee eee eee 46
ROMS LOGOLUS 2 cee ee eee ie oe ree eae es i Al Dicercay,. Uo eer eceae oe ee Ses eee ee 22095
SHON ss ees ee en eee re aoe eee ee eee mae 154 Michelomyes seoesae coe ee cee eee ee Broo
(OHLASNITDES © Se ie-iceeeiseenien eae ee melee aera 45 Dicrepidins: 222-5. la ec ee eee eee eee 99
Chiltentugiccecec set aoe c eee eee ee eeene 46 Diplocheilas 2 oss. see ee eee eee 46
Ohl amyien ee cose eee eae ee ate mae 169 Wiplotaxig’ 55 aise ce eeeee eee eee 87
hipsridivgn-cedecemeeavi.so bo ckecemeeetae seen By) toma. 2.2). oes eae: ee 66
Chrysobosnviss- aes eee ee Seneca 95 DM OVACIA sae ets sce oa eee ee 163
(GHinag Hib oo tae taker epeccE sana as Seeereoe 166 IDONACHIDEB 222 S555 Soe sosae et eee oe eee 163
CHEV AGMe lanes face eae een eee ae eee 166 Worchaschema: 242 22-0 ose. een ee eee 158
(GUEDMSASOUN OO) LOD Veo ee oo Be oes Spe se oases 161 IDPNCUS ses eee cee pee renee 7
CHE YSOMIt IDM oe arcmin io enamels eo 165 )|; Doryphoras- 226-42. ceees eae eee 167
CTCDNID END Ale oe soon nc he vise = see 38 PO TOMINSLs Bo. ee ee Seg ee eee 44
(ies iy GE 4 ea esses ase SS semesdecca oe 38 Wry OpthOruss.2o5 cso oe eee eee ee eee 145
Ss tel ae tee resets ce ie eee mise mics Sioa wine Norma 119 DVHAStCS. <= sees bei. swe ee eee ke eee ee ee 84
(QUISMM DIET UD Mig eos 5 2oe rsa ae ee es 119 DY NAS TED AG oovsce see ce ce ecs to tater 84
CEO ND Ee ere a ote lalie 136 Wy Schiviues- coset fae seen ee ee 43
OASIS) 5 ae coches eo sdaesecssescoosctoncseces= 136 WV SONy CD agrees shu. ae eee eee eee eeeealza!
(OND) Si) 0 DS (ee sen no conoas yess sods soeee 108 DW DISC ED A-scan. oa eeaee See e Fos 50
OG Ross cos stage ee oseeeoiag SoSkotoctiede LOD! |, MDYISCUS cc =o acne oe ane we eee tee eee 51
Sliganigce tee e eco Nee ee eee See mee meena 43
Gly tudeecccciscetic see eree neces oe clam onetpemaemats 154
@occinella sc -as-.n ee eee ees nee no ee eee ees 183
COCCINELLIDZ.. 181 E
(C(O) UIC) Oa} SES BAe Sos eaaeoes beeen sosorsracscee 143 vi
pa ceaster SS oe aCe a tesa ee sates Va
olaspis------------+----++--++----+---+-++----- OH OMIa is) oat ost See eee cee 154
Tite Alt UU CY: ae Ra aR YF CC! Bol \anaghidicn 206 se 154
Colydium......-------- SSO SIS STATS es 66 I ApDTUS: oh casemate she ee tects a eetiee Joe tas
Colymbetes..-.------------+-+++--+eee+22+ 22+ 51 Mlasmocerus:--'-- 2... <2 ss~ 2528s eee 109
SS ONIDRON aero ee aloe eel eo te = relies 74 Water. 41 ie so elas avon) 6) 99
(CONGTRACHEDIDES ccc enn riewe loco eects meats 142 TAC ROL Ad Ss 2 set soe ee eee 96
Conotrachelus Ted es kd oN doe a 423
COPRIDA.....---.-------.------ Wilaip co ee eet tk aoe 52
Copris.--- ------------+-- +0022 eee eee rere reese ENC Y COPS sos s 6 ci-col ee ie a 156
Corymbetes......-.--------------++---+-----+-- Hudalns) 2 2s2.22c2% te oe ee 140
Coscinoptera. -.-.-.------+-+-+. -++2+++2ee++- TON DOMVOCHUD AR ooscc40.0 oe eee 181
COSSONIDES. -----------+ -+-+-+2+-00eee ee erro Mardomy GHUS!.0--\ wees see eee aes 182
Cossonus Yop PRR ue esse ees Joa Ossoeo al Gec nop liumeece=: ce ees pees e oe ee ee eee 109
Cotalpa..----.----- ---+++-+-++++-2+ 2222222 MH PIGS LUSS Sheen kee enone ee oe ae ae eee 137
Cratoparis..-. . ..--------------------------- Mrraves- bss: os esc ne se ecb eee See eee 151
Cremastochilus.-..--.------------------------ 90 WORIRMINGDES 223225 seecee cee Se ees ea Le 139
Creophilus. .-..----- -----+---+-----+++-++---+- 69 Brinhinnsssu os. 2oe ben seeckset oe eee eee 140
emODIOGUCT Ar eer. eros = eee aera ene ee 172 PG a Ro a Wenn ein Resan elib ab Sean ene 105
Criocephalus...---.--. ----------------------- 153 | PROTYLID®....---- yd ies ae 180
iC RIOCWRIDERG en cee cree eee ee eee eee eee eee 164 BUGNEMIDES: .20 00 Lee oes ee 98
Crioceris..---------- ------++----++---+5---+-- 165 Hnenemist: 2222 tise ssi sssssdsce Jose eee 98
Cryptobium..-.....---.------------------+---- 171 WMndocemus. 4222222 seo bceccnes cane eee eee 139
PRVPTOCEPRHALIDES seeco= = cece: «seem oe eereeee 168 Mapaamiptus {oa csn5 540, 2e- 2st See eee 142
Cryptocephalus.......----.--.---------------- 169 Eupogonius BA Se Be FOE ne ot te eae ne ee 158
Cryptohypnus..-.-..--..-...---- ---+---+---- 99 Wuaryomiass sos. ss Bele = ee ee 90
CRYPTOPHAGIDA..--.. ..-....---.-.----- 62 WxOChOMUS (Ck. 2 ee ote Leet eee ee 184
Cryptophagus. -....-..- SSO sO Dee ano geese re 62
CRY PTORAYNOBTOES: oer -sie = se eens oa 142
Cry pionliynenus. = 62 ssee ccs enone ee eee reas 143
pee, AD AG ee ne ae ete fea a eee 65
(WEE ita 2al mean any acon gcnaacace S20 mae 65
Crips Contiethwetanecececceeecie sues spe eamedat 103 F
CUPESDD Alsi tac2-seces sdzvesusccessctenee nes 103
CURCUMIONED AM ee 22 2-cosccs che eee 131 Mal aorigs- snc cones oe occ anecee =e ee 73
Gy DISCEr soe se cee ne see cee e cote tetas eaters 51 NGI a.. 2 = 2-2 ao = ain nena nn ee enim see 166
VCHLAIUB: seh nee cee ese bse ee ee ae ee BG) | Shornaxes2 22 sess ann 2 08s ome =e ee 98
(yebrus!= 5-5-5 5.206 sos osieae sees eee 43
Cyclocephala..... .....2-.555 pet aiafms Sap ewes 85
(OXMINDRORHINIDES = tccee cm sia tee ae eee = 137
YINAWOUERA.= 2 e.oten bee mates sams cil aee eee 109 (+
Cymindisths.~ ees ee aan oa Seca eee 44
Galerita.. ....2 2-0 ssc sername saan = nani 44
| Galenncase. ees eee ee eee 171
GALERUCIDES. -....-----------------------+---- 170
D | Gastrophysa..-----------------+-------------- 166
. ) Gear O LOR is eee le eee oa 156
Daene.._._..- eg dep ieelibiesicsd | on Spee 18105]; (Geopinus:cesaee eee Bera a ee 48
Dany tenis ieee Ar a eta ee oa ee 108 | Geotrupes...- -------------------------------- 82
DOD ROWERS sree. eee eee AL A Ge eee 117 | GHOTRUPIDA 31
Dermestes2 22522235545 0252 553514. 59 SO 60 | Graphisurus....--.------ 158
DP RMESDTID AD: :2..225.2222s202s0 be dencee de 60) | (Graptodera. -. 2.2022 amnnmewne = cee n ewe cocina v1

INDEX TO FAMILIES, ETC.

197

PAGE. PAGE.
(ERP IMECHE oe oad Beeeos Scone cea ees Ase eroe 90 HiGhnanthey eto 5 santas sone) se ete 87
EVGA RO DU Steere eeetae esate ae teen eset 48" | ALA SY PUB) 2. ae ce5 aeeasi ai sce erased at oe eee 84
(EVAR O10 D6 BS son escd oocuopne pe Seboeosecace 51 EIMONIUS'. = 2.os 5 necnenccseaeacecateces eae eee 99
(Gaui Goce ab ccds Soc ooe cour Et GUS Deep ECS dacen 51 Wistroderes .3\2o522 252 docs epee eee 137
(ROOTES 65 obanees sooncoc coe deepepeeregees 73: palaithocharis? 452. 4 a2 bole eee
TETRED ES So alse sysoe aictna aa ge ae eee eee
TESS ye 22s sacle segues sdeesseere
H Longitarsus
EUCANID A sm USS et Betaoe see SE Sas pear ee V7
. LCBO BS). 5 alata ice epcistas ys setae ale i oe 77
Haliplus. -..-----..---------++22--2+2-+2-2+-+- BL RAGGA oe ee 106
lsU WRN IRL oobesonceconcbe ace or peboe 2eS0C0e Tdi aoe Si a lk ean oe 9R
iar palus Seminars Aree ges ig er ee 8 ae aperus.=|st2esescesse hesceee: ee ese eeee eee 171
oleate air Iycoperdina):.. 2552... os scasauss oss eee 182
Helluomorpha Texvcrpns 105
HCLOPNONUS Han = sclascigaie ci: 5-55 scss se teieieetcies TES OTR ce ae le on 105
FIR EORIDES S252 ede secestio=ssce- ssleesasc seer. 122 Wmantos. co loco ce da 145
IHGIODS eases ese nas = cesar cakeseetecen 123 QAM GOSs = 5 Scie 5 Siac + 2 esos rise Aeron *
Hot : gg | VYMEXYLONIDH............2-.2---------- 103
He CROC Sean oEer re CECE det cumbia ie ced a a TYMOxVlOns «=e Se se/a cle s=- eee eee 103
BUSKOCOMN sae es a aigs sense se ene eect ae 52 Lytta 115
EI ppodamMiae- cess | cee sca ceases seek ceed 184 Sipe ETN he iO EA eae aie ea a see
EHP ODSIN Vente seers e aac au me scion toe 158
ELIS BID US meets selene tei site eroisin aitcisiae nent 174
BURIOI, 33 cope Secaots pono OCR EE COEDS DOMonSesse 59
TSO GSHLE) 09 ga) O DY Ope Ba eee a ae ane 58 M
FEVOLONG pikes aa senice ote eNews se cia sns lenileaes es 59
Omal Glass aa taees asses ieee ee soca seee 73 Macrodactylus® 2 cescese se occ ae eee 87
DEG lage inc oe ose elec soe enone ae 87 Maid arig eee ec seme sccinae ce oe sinnine eer eae 144
Hoplocephalaseca 2 scsce00 S55 teense eto nee 125 IMAG ATHINID RS $2) te eines cies setae clare eee 138
Guar ee eee ea wet tse. Sollee eae tel eee 115 Magdalinus=.o2)/s 5 jseecince= = Jo cee se cee eae 139
FERVOR GHEY esa gece Seager tees eek bewe aes oe 51 Malachitiss: '2 225.5 tewies soa Saeence vas eee neree 108
Pay AMOCOLaH. == ccs ce seer bec ense see ouenens 109 IMallodonices 2sccccscoaceneeceee. peceeeaeeeeeee 151
Hig TOONS assem cease aad e ane Coenen eae 54 MISlaNACTES gsc cis cee eeean es ee ce eee eee 99
EYED IO PO) Aare 2 oases seeian cera arts 53 Moelandinvais coaee ce see os oe ele eee cee eee 120
Ev nropnilug= 22 <:2 Socios db ae emieeee eaeee 54 IND CYNON A CD20 SS Soe osacudssdacn] ssoccs 119
by ATO POLUSs so sce enie ss see ee ee Seco 51 Melanophilaw. et scetesee dora oe seen eee aes 95
NAVI BSUS! 32) sio:. wassds ois's = cates ss aekleep ee eee 146 MLGLANOTUS Caos ls seueec ceri = wes sae eee aes 99
IVIOSIN US! sooo 5. Ba od ee ns Jats so4gnse oo es 146 IMIGTASYRe rat si cc ecient ani tse ee eee eee eee 98
LYE OBUDHB |e So lae tee tiscceaan ee coee ese eee 139 WIGS) Oye) 355 Sooo pene score depos eperonoEenonesSeobp 115
HV ODIUSES Soe Sa ehthale ctseis ee See Soe Soe ee ees 139 VGH OUDIAN: rece cnosee nace cites seesecee eee 114
FEL VLOUREIP ES ae eee terete octoee ceeetoinere eee 154 EH EO EO NTU AN 2am eens eee eee 86
Ly Lupa ssc Sasa acs alsin e se acae oes 146 WOSJUM AR ODO Ree eae oo so eee conse sesie2 108
ELV PONasPiseit ese citciee cre cece eons 184 iMieracam thane. nest seo ccises\seice ce cess eee 123
Hypocyptus. .-.. Nodacises Be Sled st ees eaco Hees 74 IMetachromaic cos =< cena eae ee eee ete 166
Hy POlAIM PIS ssa aesenee secon see ce se eeNe eee Oe 171 WG TOMTUS ts ose ajar eee eee meet eee 95
Ey POphlceuss 22-5 Jai seecisiweseece eee sess ae 124 Micronbopalaeessesec ee eee eee tee 174
NOLORGHUS keep oo cca aee ee eee eee 156
IMonOCrepidinss!-<-.4s25- <== -6- eo cee eeeenes 99
I Mono hamimMu sie ae eee o os ae ere ae ee eet 158
IMIGHODIY CHUSs see = liars ss a eels eee eres 143
WG GSM Ee Sepa nap dependences ao ado Sete 114
TpB-.--- + 222-2 eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee MORDELTEMA. 5.20.7. s/o 113
Ischyrus MeF Aree s ohis/acisiesteieee's My Calaeieaiet: Soe halo ca cet oa eae 182
Tthycerus. -. MY CHTOPMAGIDA:; <-...254-4cceeccepeee 61
IGEN Me IMO oH Beh oor aoe comsenorocee- batons Sex 136 My CGLOPHACUS. 4. c1)- 6 se saserce woe tee 61
IWR VOSE COREE E oo wes eguoooddice Scibsnoseobreto= 74
MOAR 2o-koesotsiseooscetoedaseesoseedockec 129
15 WA GCOr ln Go Ankunbeennsconad Oodespeonese sec 167
WEE) sESodoocaceodone SeaeedoRcosacosesoncsceT 184
NRA DICOM OL aie ene eee science siaotnea ator 167
Oey HOy NaTIY <a doe ah asoocesteeseeetesooseacce 51
LAGI NT). ~-sankisbragosbeiosoestecdeeencscecs 137
Earnie. ee oe ete cere tose erates tales ay
Lzemophloeus, -------------------------------- | RANE este yak nay wea Le 2 i ed
TIN (i009. Tce NRE toe a a Ret EM Pe eae ae
PST ails sng mace ca haat as NacropEs
: M WS = = - eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee em eee Jeer orus
LAMPYRIDA Nowapades je cae edopb oso cooaSSeSEpaoesosoeisgise
LAMPYRIDES.-------- Nemornaghusi- a rcer tse. s=scen ena eee eee 115
pecans SOG Gic eon cle aoa aeievae Coan Geo Sse Nitidula . Se ees e
LAID Cae peenar <6 seeodobs soe seconde seeioe: INCA BIC BYLOP) CO DY: Sea ee NTE TRI See
wo ETD IED As INO HMR Ao Gocceosaecbbercsssce castes sae : be
SU ENEEU OUTTA Sy Soe Ste eis rsicte sata yassiova nists /amitlarein ctely si OOU UIIMENT AT craic (a a laUh is oe Cune Gtk al aka el pul
Wea HO Ditties. casera coe eee meet Ie eo
ILGING..- uae Ab PoC CURE DRE Babes osnid She SoeeSaee
LEGION TIS) 2.5 sec eeer a mEeO Obed cero ue Se seoanaaame O
ICIS TTR NAVE shaneeBe abcs Sboooeue aeocteacac :
IUGR. 2c) he pao 6 DE eB Be Ee RED SReo cpaconcc oan
IUPASIUGTE THOS ee ee eee ne errs a. 136 (C}i@uGh) Sade cease ener aocesoedecsnceesecec= -eese- 158
JGGy anol ollie ee ee eee see 158 (OY MORE Sabccbedok se psec csosgedtaesccosncosss: 69
We piptnae@he lis snesee< <.scnbs= =e ere== cee nee 44 Odontotare seers eee ea FgoudIose = oa ses5t 174
TA UEIRD 2 Go oe ee eee cea 156 BING Glasses ele ee ee a eee 118
LENE OOS Se ere BrEAee ricci arise 155 CEDEMERID 4s. .......--..--------------+--- 118
STW RUS setts ore of icieysneicteieseenine ss nyataeecad 139 | Qidionychis.....-..------.---+---++-+--++--++- 171
JEEVES ooo Gon Bn O ROC BER ORE OOS EOSSeo sera soe (Gy | (CORRES epee ene Sescaceeeedos Sess Ze 184

198

INDEX TO FAMILIES, ETC.

PAGE
OlophANty seo. oe oho ateateietnaio- Cees eres 75
AP RCATED HIG. aie wix'c | <x 0 eta lwln pow sloielet ei toioie Se eee oie 75
Omallom iss. i052 oo see sets ease Oe eee 75
ra PUT ON =. 7a )-= =e eee eee a pelea eee 43
OMOLUSLES. 2 ob biecieme ed eWameneie ener ee 158
Onthopha ens ste. ceses ae eesti eae 81
ANOS Fano Bas aie ime iinet dors toe aisote ae 46
(QUI Ei oe Se ooh Seo ee berisososoesee 137
ORCR OSI A 5-155) pacioiinnael nis S ioratcte's See Meme 120
Orchestes cc Ueda estat seca wicmeceeun oes oeee 141
ORCHESTIDES 3245 sete eccco ceete eee ceeeenees 144
Orches tris: j3s2snss ass s cae toe ooo ascent 171
Orsodacna: (= ci saesacies sue us soso. SS 165
Orthosomaizensise sass e as-is se ee ee 151
OSMOGEIMS 32/5 acaws ease sees ee 90
OSOTINS sso 3s stone Scenes Noe ee 71
OTMOCHEWALIDES 6 cxcw ase casses= see ete eee 138
Otidocephalus:: cc. - 525.5. <t25os-555-u see sees 138
OTIORDYNCHIDES -5 ja)-1% -2)-j see maeeeehanstee ae 137
GSR DN CHUSS abs secodetos asec aoe aoe 137
OA POCUBE = eo ce 266 ote alata oacim Jo's oie bs oisi es 69
GORVIBEIDES So ss ecae caclemc Cera ecinee oawaene 70
ORytelue op ooo is aie macnn pace eivae eels 71
ONL ASIN Liao Sete ee ee ee eS 137
PAGINA a eros inte plaveic'o'teisinte's slee's se Sere cinee ome 156
Pesdluranee etc es ees ener one Oeme ee 71
1245) Dy rah WOT Sis Geter eet ep oe nee See Oe ears ae |e a 71
PAM ess Skee eck so gee ee ce eee meee 46
PANG OLeveIn Ss ee ae sae eee eee 137
SEPATIN COD ALB eee eee ee een CE aoe eee 136
EEL G I TGV IGD ei Ce eet al oy E aia Beri aioe by th oe 151
eee Sak meee Ae AN ie oe, Lh tt Oe ee 166
12aNG N/a ee ee ee a kL 52
RPT ert eee CEE eee LEA ee ee ees 52
LERENSTIPea eo) 00 fe Sel i Seen ye ea I nen ee a A 43
PRECISE SE eter te tee Se ket gee 78
EUG Se eee ae ee Me eee) tee eke Pen eee tes 48
Desh U ALPE GA U1 ac ee estes ae eS ee pao A 71
LEPSYEY = 7 0s | Ee rere ema hee a ge | ee 71
PELE Dt OT, SV Aa RSM gl Rt seal ial gS MB ey Oe i Sasa ie tn 117
RELGG yO NOMUM tee a Nees 2S ee eee 123
OMMO Tae o eee eee ek Gee te eee ee ne 89
PEROT Oe Pee eee ee ore teers ete 120
DeATPE(E trial loping tag ak cab eaties gi tie Mt ale be 166
1291S Wal bY. u G22) 0 Ds 0 gem ee, Sane eee eee 63
TLC iy iol keeps ep ey pee eee oa earn eee ra ate aN 63
LET TDN pets ere pe SA eS een ee SEE mee ted: 106
PEVMONTIUS 2 ore ee ee eet aon 69
BHI GOD UACTIST meta oe tn ams renee meee een ee 145
PETG RITAN Saco rte ee nee Peele ie eee ee 106
Je 2aVy TUOb LISP Bere Reger f cman Sera tay aL ARR Ne hay, S eeb AE 106
py ioprotitae secs eestor: ec te tee ne ea ee 172
Bhvsochtemunt.ces = scecccscc ak eee mene eaee 154
Dy pOUO tHe heen ste se memet en hehe er eee ve 176
PB LOUMUN A. Soon its Soc aac aoe enon Ae ee teen 143
hiv bop Claleee es tecps esa ate oe aces 158
ISSA OSE oes Mee ee ee ese ean 139
IPTa C100 ORane-eseie case a sates ool siocees noes a cee 166
PAT VG Arnis seas sos eee see Shee ee ee eee figs
aie Ma eect ee ae cee nan cen sec nee ee 125
Bet yminsiee: ase Ste he a em 48
SPT OTTts oe eet oe Na, Seen ate PEA SY
Lalbiny OTE = aabice lemearcs cele eeRemna saree a seme ae 146
TETOEIO) dN Soh ed en ene ee SC OE ae iiseeaee moet 438
IDOI aU SHS ese aa ate os = eee oa oantes 137
12) yoy dd EES See en Ree ee eee Ee eras 87
IROnP EY EAS DISS 2 coc.tcleenes foc cee eee saes 176
TAS OURS eect acess nie Sete a ree ane 166
FRTONTD ES Sec ye nan ae a es eee 151
REE OTN TEM eet es ye ea ne aed FE 151
IPS ACPD ts a2) Si OA es ne Ben oats ore 76
PSBIAPHUS. ooo: a jactene ake Uauies yeh sutelbe see eee 76
ERBDOCELUR tres ee series cs cies eine bine merece 158
PRON ODMIS Hs vest Renee eee ee ee ee een 143
Psvillodes.esst si. =-22secee'e cena eee aeeoeeeee 172
PSVILO BORE: cect ent ccmeeee wees ce eho eee 184
Peenestiohus.<---2-s5.-4ceeer speeches een 48
PALIN gh 48 = Jo fast dacind ceean eee 102
BEN RD AR 2 det ey eae ee cene eee ee eee 101

PAGE.
PHINUS 37s dared te Jssecccoes dase eee 102
IPYTOCHYOR soos ison otra cep Pee ee 117
PY ROC HRODED Al. W000. cteteteeers eee 116
Py thi ee bs vasator sess at cael tepeeeee +s eee 119
Py then onoccnseiiecianie wie aoe au 119
Rasta Seo cse ere aloe eee ees eee eee 156
RUN AMIS toot oud acto ne sees 182
Rhinon Cus.) i= - so sns 2 kon eee ee 143
RELPEP HO RID Al oe tora rica e Cee eee 117
Rhipophorus:-)-2_2-se <i -ece eee 117
Bhizophagus. 2d. nce eee See eee ee 52
Rhy Mapnorgy.-.ck ios Iga eas eee 182
RU yNCHItes. 28 See cere) cee ee 142
Rhynchophorusy-3o5- coos. cece eae ee 144
RN YNCOMS oct <ca-. te ce so se aa se eee 145
RU LE GID AG) cig ssc ee ee 88

a
S

SallpIN US pa. nce ase ene eae eee eee 119
Saperde =o. - esse see os sec eee eee eee 158
NSDPEUMIG se os oa coarse eee oe ei ae One ee ee ee /59
IASINNG 5 otis pee mnie cia ee cml See cee ne ee 169
SC AP AED LD Ay. 222 sate 2aeerce ne eee 58
Scaphidvam: 22 o-oo oc hee a eee eee 58
SCarives)2.- 6c s20- 220300 eae ae eee 43
NCARMNIDES concer ees ee eee 43
SY OCO VENA 8) 02 OI ee Ee amen aes roe ktan. 145
Scolytus:.- 2252-1 2-)\s020 =n asses Soe eee 146
Scrap tiasdeee ccete. Serene Mo sna soe 120
SC WOM AINTDA: 20s dO ne eee 64
SCV AIMS NS = loca sic eee ae ee 64
Scymnus .-..--.-.....---.-.---2+----- 02 esee 184
Siele (2 eee Sepiec Jone estes che St se cease rc S2e- 87
NEnCOD AIP US se eens eee eet eee at Seog age S6052- 120
RUSE Retae amisein stereo ce - aoe ee 107
Sill eee besbockeaee Janae secon beer none eetee 5 57
LEP BLD A ccc lo name's snes eo een eee eee 57
SVEN ROS ee Geepcee Deron ae caaescaetnose. maar: 65
IMOGENATON. - 1-8 eso scmien see e eee eee ee eee 78
Sitones..--..-/-- pote seer Se ac (oan a eee 137
Spalacopsis. ....-- 22 58 Sessa SS Sa2OS2-cSSs255: 158
SPHCNOPNOLUS! Se ececr = See eee ee Loeeced 144
PRENOSEORHUB ce oan ooo. faiaewiaoees amie ee 151
lolli ahah) Alo sere eaqeennemesonene ees sacis< 54
SITAR HY LENED AD: ¢2c5<eemceecsee Sone eee 67
Sti) ep A phe tt: Pete sone eer ems e ee sh aS. 69
DUCDASPIS' eo. oso 2s a einin sane Same See eee 155
SUNOS OU G SS SE Soe Bese reine meonoencs tenooscs 72
SUCHUISD Siecle = oan a ee eel sas eieteels aan ee tee 174
SLOHOLODNUS «=o - eee se an ener Seem een 48
Stenopterus....- =~ -)s2.2--..525-5 soca ceeeaeseeeee 156
DHCROS LOLA coe ccteeri ees eee ee ee eee ee 158
MUCHES eels sano anise wine step anaes aictnee a oe ome 72
Siilicuse TS sol ee eae eee eee ee 71
Stranvalia! 22.522 5 So Scan sos eee eee 156
Stripodennia 2-25... 4 See toile eee 89
BUrGne ylitMy 25 Se Lote s sei ces eee eee 123
Strophosomis. 2502222252. 325-5506 see eee 137
SY RORLD AY. Scccacae ose besos ae eee eee 117
SUVIGDS! ase cio e Sac iaiial ae Slate toe =e 118
SUEY 1 Pee SNORE Roma pasos sae Soot estos 7
Synebitars = <2s.00 so. t eos ee eee eens 66
Syehroa. sn. -=-50/2 2s. ash a aee ee eee ereeer 120
Synotaec-22 2s 6ak seth 8 ee nee nes 165
SAVsIIGIC) Aes oleic Sogcona5 26 Soociseeesteas 171
Pachinug 232522 Scc stew eee see ecm SS eee 74
PACH YP ORIDES es ee eeemeteecie= a = acs aleeta » See 74
Wachy HOLS soe seer eee eee Renee wee eee 7
ach yUSae—a=semmew~ teense s\n wie ene aes 73
Tanymechus «..-----+--------- 222+ -2--se0eet 137
SRO UR PHOREDESS seen gem mmm x eee = sign sic eee 107

ie

=

INDEX TO FAMILIES, ETC.

PAGE. PAGE.
PMelophOrHs: ao. 2es soemieectietee tat aneeccosaa: 107 U
Rene bri Otel ee eee ie cists, ae siele oiaezsieias wa 123
LENE BRION DAN) S55 Sentiais sli= betas = =e 122
Tet raopes Wilomais 2 /jse2 os 2o8 es seek bas eee 124
MeErahO Maes elses oe eee a ene I 120 WIROMIDES 2220 20022 see an ane 123
Tetropium UPIS eo o ao he oher deena ea enone 123
FROLEOPS seas cee ane sae ctinmne
PAC MUE SE <cltns ese OSS Seniesa ctuis one ainbere Setes 137
a TS easeite rn SNe Cero sarees canna aiid cise ena 109 V

OMICUSSees eee See 8 ae a liegueesbeEpacuooees 146 O°
BRO O DSR Ne meine Neel mine inet 2 ees be 156 Nn a aoe ooa pa crac botnets r =< oA
PEGA OSONIAp ease wee ee ere emia Ashiya 151
Id EITRYES a RO FA ek ah ne ye Ue or ara ga ema 48 DG
BINT G UNIS ees aye slaw ole cay fine eine cee rsicisaio ne 90 : a
Mini Cho des etc nels eee we avons dicts Acro a Sue ANE), ||) PCa Ob Eee eps oe be seoraabene Hromecicicnd onc 69
FORCE OIE BRAY Gl) Ai see oc eece ene cee: 63 Damthoniay- 522s 0o-).2 2s neesees eee see eee 166
PR CHODUCRY Kon ener cee eee enh G30) PCNOS eee ele eines = eee ee ee eee 118
AErip ascents sade Cae itis Ae 1st |) exXylophiluss.: 2 Vel ae ease roe eee 116
THROVGH OVD a NG De Oe eee eae ene B3i | weeny etes!<< 220. 2-22. .2 25s kek ee 84
LURTSG Nios Ue, Can ere ee RMR ORGIES Ser Em nOnee me 64
PRO GCUOSETMWAL 2 20 27s censawes eta vass suse moe 64 r
BROIL OLON see see ans te et were ee oe 129 Zi
MOM oes eine temas hae mise oe enie sacle pemens a 3 83 y
AES) Sie Sees Sr ee A ee 137 Beupopho Bre canoe ote Fa "F iam ae
HUY POD HROLUNS weer el sartanm en mec eines ate ceeene es 166 Le ae Ce a lal onlay oo
ZY FOSTADIMNG fei oss o me sists ans 2 eee 166

t

ERRATA.

Page 86, for ‘“‘leafets” read ‘‘leaflets,”’ wherever it occurs.

Page 117, for “HETEROMEROUS BARK-BEETLES” read “PARASITIC-BEETLES,”’ in the heading.

Page 156, for ‘“MuLorcHus” read ‘“Motorcuus,” in the table.

Page VIL, for ‘Coleopteras” read “Coleopteres,” in the note,

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