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ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
ANGOLA |
BY
WILFRID D. HAMBLY
CURATOR, AFRICAN ETHNOLOGY
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j ‘VOLUME: XXV, NUMBER 2
| SEPTEMBER 30, 1938
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ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
ANGOLA
BY
WILFRID D. HAMBLY
CURATOR, AFRICAN ETHNOLOGY
MU
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& HISTORY
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FOUNDED BY MAaanDeE. FIELD
THE LIBRARY OF THE
OCT 12 1938
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINGIS
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
VOLUME XXV, NUMBER 2
SEPTEMBER 30, 1938
PUBLICATION 426
i ll ll, le a ee ee
aS ST ee ee
¥i25
CONTENTS
PAGE
Rae SP DURANT OAT TONNES 600. ia Lente taal wr Sr) por Pres Mehaes Meee ee 25
MURS dre Stra Ce ee SEA ee bee eal ae Sal rca ppm Cue 27
DEE a tS eee Kg gn, a kone tak fe WOR StS Sargent 29
SE RII 5 3 So ce yak ok 3 Eager Pee ee ote 29
Ye Pus MURINE 80 ot rf tog So ee ee LO 29
vn GUE PCLT ONION oo ek oe a Sor an Cong Rec ee a 29
- Nr RIPON tas a, Wie eon is, ee oe pa ip are Casals a 29
bs i PEOMMUINUIEN oc er eV gad tp aidow teed oe Rr eee 30
Foxy PINCUS RAM Fre tc nire ae es eek tks oe, a BR es Ra OS 30
~ PIG OCES AN POCHMIGUE Fe AE ies eS Se ee ek a alae aha Nog 30
II. OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS ON FIFTY-THREE OVIMBUNDU MALES
ig CE ABEMES EAP E ee oe fo ao oe, Seek Se ee hg, Be ee Gm I 32
cpaneral (near vacsnn tree. set ee ay See, Cc a ne ee ual eae 32
PRROMPOTRTED GIN TROIOE fot. fe eles: 5 ea Ho ee, a ee 33
PUI fer) obs as eee R Dokl eae brah bce Se eo S ER ned ee ce 33
FIORE en FL eee ie ORG yee eG Mere fein SST AG te hod GE OL ae eal serio 33
PI acre ier ay eee a, al erieen yan A nana gs eRe On SMR. em tee 37
PROB ois ns EET ie a hk et tea de AR a 8, Ue ee 38
YT go oe rete 2 a ate ge ian ie annie eet tr aaa EMR re Neh Ap a me Cig 38
MMU ET MRIG So 6 ee art ch ae ees eb ek ah ee eg fa Alliage NaT aeee 39
do III. COMPARISON OF THE OVIMBUNDU WITH OTHER TRIBES OF ANGOLA
oe) CE RMEIE SOR WEE carer cre eae EES 8S ae ales x 51
~ UR LANTOS ee ee ores Meare. Oe Cera e re til tk, feet im ime oe te 51
as eens, Ten Pe rN se) oa pat ae ay eee 53
SRN SANCASOIOEE ess che eh ot Pele: gett wy we 5 nee egw hoes 53
ESD AE TRS Se Iie are ear Raat Sk ee pe HEPA a RN os CR Wig SAS RPO Ea 54
d IV. COMPARISON OF THE OVIMBUNDU WITH 1 NEGRO TRIBES OUTSIDE ANGOLA
iv CP aae SEE ARIES coc ee ak. ee g oie ek ones 56
*: pS OCP ee ee ers ba eer ae © ae aT ge hava a 56
- Statistical Comparison of Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Dahomeans.. .. 57
Comparative Variability of Ovimbundu Traits and Those of Other
WRAL ATIOMID INCITING at lie See A TE ish LO eee 60
% PE Pae aon RUIN 05 fe ol Sh es OD oe! MEO AD om pee LP AS Sh BOTS 61
PANS C4 le Gane Sei eal oe ae muir On ee Pe Sen Pe Sea 62
* SUG ITSO eh ted ge SoG es Me els Dito Wedd Sub & sienna ce) Ge Mein Cee 62
3 LANNE Gan sy paar US ga ae gh aa Ge a's) eo teeiner beng sat Mile RD ee 63
V. SIZE OF FAMILIES AMONG THE OVIMBUNDU CPAMBIRY oso ae Reem 65
URANIUM hag aE ig SS See ww Daioh eh eee 65
O° BiQuers an Seeere GL WNAOFMANGS sk 8 re we ie He 65
i" CR EE ES So a era ee ee ee 68
sy CRIm es Aree Mtoe. Se. a eh el ey sl oe, tel dee 69
23
~s)
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24 CONTENTS
VI. SCARIFICATION AND DENTAL MUTILATION .
Introduction ae
Notes on Scarification .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
. 72
pari PA
. 72
. 74
. 76
—_—“« eo ee
Siete
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES
I-IX. Front and side views, Ovimbundu males.
X-XII. Front views, Ovimbundu males.
XIII-XV. Side views, Ovimbundu males.
XVI-XVIII. Back views, Ovimbundu males.
XIX. Dental deformation. Left: central upper incisors considerably
mutilated. Right: central upper incisors slightly mutilated.
XX. Dental deformation. Upper left: slight mutilation of central upper
incisors; upper right: no mutilation. Lower: mutilation of central
upper incisors into chisel form.
XXI-XXX. Scarification. Plates described in detail in Chapter VI, “‘Scarifica-
COAR AS
tion and Dental Mutilation.”
TEXT FIGURES
Graphs of Frequency Distributions
PAGE
PEC ree MC BILLING NEISNTS i Oe en lee ees ven Ege a ee ead ac ORT 43
. Sitting height as a percentage of standing height . .......... 44
Chest girths, and chest girths as a percentage ofsitting heights ..... 45
ee OMCLUED MIME PURO WOMENS. 8 a eo eo cc ra Te eee 46
. Bizygomatic and minimum frontal measurements .......... 47
BEG RO 8a ga eI ie nese cs RO kT Ea a we 48
aN ININIRUN (00, 5 eae Se Rae) (es Sigua os kp vay alle muni a SRS 49
Cees RUN ONE DORE ea Sa ct a Wa tak we was 50
25
PREFACE
The data presented in this publication were collected in the year
1929 by the Frederick H. Rawson-Field Museum Ethnological
Expedition to West Africa. The expedition was concerned primarily
with study of material cultures of Angola and the assembly of a
representative collection of objects from the Ovimbundu, Vakwan-
yama, and Vachokwe tribes.
Nevertheless, some time was devoted to a study of social organi-
zation, religion, and other subjects that have been discussed in a
previous publication (Hambly, 1934). At the end of the expedition-
ary period an effort was made to measure a sample of 100 Ovimbundu,
at Elende, and to record some data bearing on size of families and
mortality. Unfortunately, this object could not be achieved in the
time available, but the data recorded for 53 adult males are valuable,
owing to the great paucity of information. There are, I believe,
no anthropometric measurements of the Ovimbundu available for
comparison with my own data, but fortunately we have statistics
for four adjacent tribes (Cardoso and Corréa, 1916).
The object of this publication is to give a correct impression of
the physique of Ovimbundu males by means of anthropometric
measurements and photographs, and to compare these data with
records for adjacent tribes. It is desirable also to contrast the
somatological characters of the Ovimbundu with some Negro tribes
of Africa, outside Angola. A few notes on corporal marks and
dental deformation of the Ovimbundu are added, and a record of
the size of families is given. The data were obtained by questioning
subjects respecting the survival of their brothers and sisters, and
the survival of their children.
The drawings were made by Staff Illustrator Carl F. Gronemann.
WILFRID Dyson HAMBLY
27
Apa
Ces,
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Sa
ath
ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
ANGOLA
I. TECHNIQUE
The measurements recorded (Table 1) were based on instructions
given in the Report of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science (Cunningham, 1909). The instructions are as follows:
HEAD MEASUREMENTS
Maximum Length—From the most prominent point of the
glabella to the most distant point in the middle line on the back of
the head, known as the occipital point.
Maximum Breadth.—Measured wherever it can be found above
the plane of the ear-holes. The callipers should be held in a vertical
transverse plane and moved about until the maximum diameter is
ascertained.
Minimum Frontal Diameter.—From one frontal crest to the other
across the narrowest part of the forehead. For recent discussion of
these measurements see Tildesley (1938).
FACIAL MEASUREMENTS
Upper Face Length.—From nasion to the edge of the gum between
the two upper central incisor teeth.
Total Face Length.—From nasion to the lower edge of the point
of the chin.
Maximum Interzygomatic Breadth—The maximum diameter
between corresponding points on the opposite zygomatic arches.
Gonial Breadth.—The diameter between the extreme outer points
of the angles of the lower jaw.
NASAL MEASUREMENTS
Nasal Height.—From nasion to the subnasal point.
Nasal Breadth—The greatest diameter, measured without
pressure, between the wings of the nose.
EAR MEASUREMENTS
Greatest Length of the Ear—From the highest to the lowest point
of the auricle.
29
380 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
Greatest Breadth of the Ear.—The maximum diameter at right
angles to the length-line, from the ear basis to the hinder border of
the auricle.
TRUNK MEASUREMENTS
Stature.—The subject is to be measured in the erect attitude, with
his eyes directed to the horizon, his heels firmly planted, and the
balls of the toes in contact with the ground. It is absolutely necessary
that the subject should be symmetrically placed so that the mesial
plane of the body is in every respect vertical.
Height of the Ear-hole-—Measured from the ground.
Height of the Acromion.—Measured from the ground.
Height Sitting—This is the length of the trunk from the vertex
of the head to the lowest points of the ischial tuberosities (height
from seat).
Chest Circumference.—Ask the subject to raise his arms. Pass
the tape horizontally round the chest at the level of the junction of the
fourth rib-cartilage with the sternum or breast-bone, then lower
the arms and hold the tape tightly. The measurement was made
at the end of an expiration of the tidal air. There was no conscious
effort on the part of the subject to inflate or deflate his chest.
INSTRUMENTS USED
The instruments used were those illustrated by Martin (1928,
vol. 1). The callipers (Tasterzirkel) with blunt oval ends are shown
on page 125 (Fig. 48). The Gleitzirkel are callipers with pointed ends,
pictured on page 127 (Fig. 49). The use of the height-measuring
instrument is recorded on page 1538 (Fig. 66). For measuring the
sitting height a box was used. This was squarely placed on perfectly
level ground. The exact height of the seat was recorded and later
subtracted from the total sitting height, which was measured from
the ground. SS
DEFECTS IN TECHNIQUE
Table I indicates that measurements from the ground to the
acromion were abandoned after 25 subjects had been measured,
and the same is true for measurements from the ground to the ear-
hole. These records were abandoned partly to save time for more
important measurements, and to allow more opportunity for photog-
raphy. Moreover, I felt uncertain as to the accuracy of calculating
the height of the head in this way. The head-height calculation is
made by subtracting from the total sitting height the sitting height
TECHNIQUE 31
measured to the middle of the auditory meatus. The slightest
deviation from a rigid upright posture during the recording of the
two measurements causes a serious error. Yet, despite this objection
to the technique, the measurements obtained for head height are
what one might reasonably expect, with perhaps the exception of
No. 2 (170 mm.) and No. 3 (160 mm.), which seem excessively high.
The uncertainties entering into measurement of nasal heights, facial
heights, and bigonial widths will be mentioned later when describing
the variability of these traits.
Even if we discard the incomplete series of measurements for
acromial height and head height, we have sufficient data to give a
clear impression of head, face, and trunk. Our data for the cephalic
index, the nasal index, and the stature enable us to make a compari-
son with those three characters as recorded by Cardoso and Corréa
(1916) for four tribes adjacent to the Ovimbundu.
Cardoso says little about technique, neither does he give individ-
ual measurements; he presents averages and ranges. But we have no
choice in our selection of comparative anthropometrical data, for so
far as I am aware no figures other than those of Cardoso are available
for Angolan tribes.
II. OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS ON
FIFTY-THREE OVIMBUNDU MALES
(Tables I, II)
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
Skin Color.—All were brown, and only four approached a shade
that bordered on black. At the lighter end of the scale there were
four subjects who might be described as “light brown+.”’ The mode
of the color distribution shows 19 individuals described as dark
brown. The 46 observations on skin color are tabulated below:
Light+-+ Light+ Light Dark Dark+ Dark++
0 4 8 19 11 4
Reference to the skin color scheme of Martin (1928, vol. 2, p. 206)
suggests that my “dark+-+” people are Martin’s grauschwarz
division. My “dark+” division is Martin’s schwarzbraun class. The
major “dark’’ division of 19 men is Martin’s dunkelbraun class. Our
“light brown” and “light+’’ are somewhat like Martin’s reinbraun
people, perhaps not quite so light. The color range of the Ovimbundu
is distinctly lighter than among the west African Kru or Ibo, or
among the Nilotic Dinka; and the general impression is one of
medium to dark brown, with the lighter shades predominating
among females.
Eyes.—All were dark brown, almost black, of tint No. 16, which
is the darkest shown in the Augenfarben-Tafel of R. Martin and
B. K. Schultz. |
Hair.—All subjects had typical Negro hair. The facial hair
was sparse even when allowed to develop to full growth. The most
hirsute man observed is shown on Plate III. He had a well-devel-
oped moustache and chin tuft. There is little sign of hair on the
chest, with the exception of the man shown on Plate X, No. 34.
Teeth.—Teeth are in good condition. See Plates XIX, XX, and
Chapter VI, for notes on mutilation.
Scarification.—See Plates XXI-X XX, and Chapter VI, for notes
on scarification.
Ear Lobes.—One man in three had his ear lobes completely joined
to the cheeks. This isa Bushman trait, and since the Bushmen were
at one time more numerous in Angola, and farther north than at
present, the trait may have been derived from ancient admixture
of stocks.
32
OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS 38
MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES
THE TRUNK
Standing Height (Fig. 4).—The average height is 1687.1 mm.,
which, according to the classification recommended by C. G. Selig-
man (1930, pp. 14-15), places the Ovimbundu just within the tall
class characterized by a stature of 1680-1720 mm. One individual is
of pygmy stature (1406 mm.) but he has no deformity. There are
21 men, nearly one-half the sample, of medium height (1580-1680
mm.). ‘The mode lies at 1630-1722 mm., with 27 individuals in that
class. If a height of more than 1720 mm. may be considered as
“‘very tall’ (Seligman), then 17 men, that is, about one-third of our
sample, are in that class. Generally speaking, the population is
“tall” to “very tall.”’
Sitting Height (Figs. 4, 5).—The average is 848.8 mm. The mode
is 825-845 mm. The majority of the observations, namely, 36 out
of 51, are in the range 825-885 mm. The average index of 50.3
indicates that the sitting height is half the standing height, and the
form of the graph indicates that this relationship has only slight
variability.
Chest Girth (Fig. 6).—The average chest girth is 828.0 mm.
and the relationship (index) between chest girth and sitting
height is 97.3 on the average. In other words the circumference of
the chest is about equal to the sitting height. The majority of the
indices (25 out of 47) lie in the range 95-100.
THE HEAD
Maximum Length (Fig. 7).—The average length is 187.3 mm.,
and the mode is the range between 182 mm. and 186 mm.
Maximum Breadth (Fig. 7).—The average breadth is 136.8 mm.,
and a frequency distribution of breadths shows the modal value
between 132 mm. and 138 mm.
Cephalic Index.—The average cephalic index is 73.1, which brings
our sample definitely within the dolichocephalic class, with index
below 75. The frequency distribution of cephalic indices is of great
value in showing that 77.3 per cent of our sample have cephalic
indices between 70-75. The Ovimbundu are decidedly long-headed,
only 22.6 per cent of the population having an index over 76.
Head Height.—For a sample of 25 measurements the average
height is 185 mm.
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36
OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS 87
Cranial Capacity —We have now the data for calculating cranial
capacity from a formula. The dimensions of the living head of the
Ovimbundu are 187.3 (length), 186.8 (breadth), and 135.0 (height).
According to Isserlis (1914) the capacity of the Negro skull is
.0003849 X HLB +65 / VN.
If we allow 8 mm. reduction in length, 4 mm. reduction in height,
and 15 mm. reduction in breadth, to allow for the flesh, our dimen-
sions become 179.8 mm., 121.8 mm., and 131.0 mm. for the length,
breadth, and height, respectively. Then, according to the formula,
the cranial capacity is 1101+8.9 cc., which seems somewhat low.
The inter-racial formula of Pearson (1904) is given as
.000337 X HLB +406.01.
This yields a more likely result of 1370 cc. as the cranial capacity.
Hooke’s formula (1926) reads
.000366 H’LB+198.9+45.8/VN_
and gives a capacity of 1246+6.3.
If we take the figures of cranial capacity assembled by Kitson
(1931, Table IV, p. 292), the Teita skulls, 30 in number, are found
to have a mean cranial capacity of 1316 cc., and 37 males of Tan-
ganyika have a mean skull capacity of 1299.3 cc. Pearson’s formula
gives for the Ovimbundu a skull capacity compatible with all
the figures quoted by Kitson. According to Pearson’s formula the
average cranial capacity of Ovimbundu males is 1370 cc., and the
ranges of averages given by Kitson for various Negro samples of
east, west, and south Africa is 1299-1422 ce.
THE FACE
Minimum Frontal Diameter (Fig. 8).—The average is 103.8 mm.
The range of this measurement is from 90-118 mm., and 44 out of
53 measurements lie in the interval 99 mm. to 108 mm., so indicating
a fairly low variability.
Bizygomatic Width (Fig. 8).—The average is 122.8 mm. The
range of measurements, namely, 102-140 mm., is somewhat greater
than that for the minimum frontal diameter. But 32 cases out of 53
lie in the interval 120-124 mm., and the distribution is therefore
well concentrated in the small interval of 4 mm.
Bigonial Breadth (Fig. 10).—The average distance between the
gonial angles is 97.6 mm., but the measurements are not closely
concentrated. Out of 53 measurements 46 lie between 90-100 mm.
38 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
The extremes of the distribution are 88 mm. and 130 mm., a some-
what wide range.
Total Facial Height (Fig. 9).—The average is 114.2 mm. The
range, 102-126 mm., and the distribution are rather widely scattered.
Yet there is a definite modal value of 22 measurements out of 53.
Nearly half the distribution is within the small range of 115-118 mm.
Upper Facial Height (Fig. 9).—The average is 68.2 mm., and
the range is 57-80 mm. The distribution of measurements is not
well concentrated.
Facial Indices.—The relationship of the upper facial height to
the bizygomatic width is 55.9, and for the total facial height com-
pared with the bizygomatic the index is 93.7. The jugomandibular
index, which shows the proportion of the bigonial width to the
bizygomatic, is 79.9. The jugofrontal index, expressing the minimum
frontal diameter as a percentage of the bizygomatic, is 85.0.
THE NOSE
Nasal Height (Fig. 11).—The average is 48.8 mm., and the range
is 39-56 mm. The distribution is fairly closely concentrated, since
38 measurements out of 53 lie in the small range of 44-50 mm., that
is, within the compass of 6 mm.
Nasal Width (Fig. 11).—The average is 42.7 mm., and the range
is 33-50 mm. The concentration of the distribution is within the
small range of 4 mm. There are 43 out of 53 measurements lying
between the values 40-44 mm.
Nasal Index.—The average nasal index is 87.9. If we consider
55-70 as leptorrhine values, 71-85 as mesorrhine, and 86-100 as
platyrrhine, our average index (87.9) is just within the platyrrhine
group. If the index had been two points lower, our sample of Ovim-
bundu would have been at the upper limit of the mesorrhine group.
When we come to a comparison of our sample with other Negro
tribes we shall probably find that the Ovimbundu have relatively
narrow noses. With regard to the distribution of 53 nasal indices,
35.8 per cent of our men are mesorrhine, 58.5 per cent are platyrrhine,
and only 5.7 per cent are hyperplatyrrhine (index 100+). Measure-
ments on the nose show high variability.
THE EAR
Length.—The average length is 53.9 mm. The distribution is
concentrated between 49-57 mm., and within this range of 8 mm.
44 out of the 53 observations lie.
OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS 39
Breadth.—The average breadth is 29.1 mm. The breadths are,
however, more variable than the lengths; the mode lies at 31.0 mm.,
and 35 out of 53 observations are in the range 28-31 mm.
Index.—The average index is 54.0, so indicating that the width
of ears is a little more than half their length. The mode of the
distribution is close to an index of 50. The distribution is, however,
somewhat scattered, the total range of the ear index being from
45-66. Out of 53 indices 37 range from 50-58.
VARIABILITY
If we ask which traits of the Ovimbundu are most variable, and
which seem to be the most constant and well entrenched, the question
can be answered by consulting the coefficients of variation for traits
and indices (Tables I, II). We are comparing traits of the Ovim-
bundu inter se and without reference to the variability of correspond-
ing traits in other Negro groups. The probable errors of the coeffi-
cients of variation are given in the tables, but here, for practical
purposes, we may use only the coefficients. If these are placed in
ascending order of magnitude the following arrangement results:
COEFFICIENTS OF VARIATION
A: FeOee Bresathis. wscc cds oso 3. 27> S182: Chest girth -«..2 22. ae eee 5.56
2. Sittingheight-standing height 14; Bisyeomatic oc. 05.562k ek 5.60
MMIOE i SON ia eee ee Sak 1b: Nasal width... orsscca etek 6.93
8. Cephalic index............. 3.45 16. Total facial height—bizygo-
a, FOO POON ae a5 oe ee ee 3.87 matic Index... o46. 123 os 7.07
5. Standing height............ O29: — 175 Bar ene, «eae heeds 7.09
6. Minimum frontal diameter— 18. Upper facial height......... T.18
head breadth index...... * 40-19; Nasal netont: 3-065 sy ccecek 7.29
7. Minimum frontal diameter— 20s BIgOnIal WIGGN::-- «sts sks 8.26
bizygomatic index....... O205 421.) EAT RORGRLD ses eees 8.59
8. Minimum frontal diameter... 5.00 22. Head height............... 8.81
9. Total facial height.......... 5.18 23. Bigonial-bizygomatic index. 9.05
10. Acromion to sole........... Be) sos INMRAL INGCR acces cs ee cle sO) 9.15
11. Chest girth-sitting height 20s: RP MOOR Sos Sas cea oh os 9.40
io)! ily I eC ee 5.39 26. Upper facial height—bizygo-
TS. bet hele oc es bs ses 5.44 WAGIC TNGOK: ose cdee sas 9.53
For constancy in measurement head breadth stands first, with a
low coefficient of variability, 3.27. Head length is almost as constant,
and the cephalic index has also a low variability. The relationship
of the sitting height to the standing height appears to be very
constant (V=3.34).
In the group of coefficients of variation ranging from values 4 to
5 are standing height, minimum frontal diameter, and the indices
derived therefrom. Of all facial measurements the minimum frontal
diameter is the one most likely to be free from error, since the
measurement is made between two well-defined bony crests over
40 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
TABLE II
INDICES FROM MEASUREMENTS OF FIFTY-THREE ADULT MALES OF THE
OVIMBUNDU TRIBE, ELENDE, ANGOLA
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ‘4 8 9 10
1 61.5-. 94.0 °-72:8 62.8. “91.9 61.5 <81.35 76:2 ~°89-6.. 56,0
2 49.4 92.8 66.7 50.8 87.5 75.0 81.7 74.2 95.6 62.7
3 61.3. 92.7 030 47.7% 86.1 18.2) 80.8 16.1". 87,5 60:0
4 49.8 100.7 73.2 64.1 91.7 16.2. 76.2 69:0 97,8 52:4
5 bleed. «92.0 T.2. 40.7 (258 (sk: 78.6) 1720 T10.2> 50.8
6 47.4 96.0 74.9 56.8 96.0 76.0 84.0 71.9 88.7 45.6
7 b2.6 98.8. 72.2: ‘60.9. 300.9 86.9. 38.7 (2-8: O98. .48.4
8 62.0. 96.4 73:0 b3.8 94.6: 71.7 30.8" 77,8 Sl. S876
9 AQ. (87,8. 1726" 52.0. :91:7 :83.8: 97. 172h. 3820: 50.9
10 49:6 -99.4 74.5. 51.9: 85.0 T1.4 °85.0' 380.7 (97:9 57.1
11 50.4 1083.3 72.2 62.0 90.5 92.9 92.9 84.8 100.0 66.1
12 49.7 99.0 71.1 60.0 103.3 108.3 79.2 68.8 74.5 50.0
13 50.5 938.5 77.4 58.4 95.2. 72.0 80.0 70.9 80.3 52.5
14 60.5 100.7 74.3 65.0 90.0 97.5 86.7 78.2 95.7 46.5
15 50.5 100.9 72.5 47.7 84.6 76.9 84.6 78.6 97.8 54.5
16 6054 101.2 68.3: O11. 86.2) 1236- 280.0> Tied 2th bl 7,
ba bS.6- COT! .TL.S 62.0. $9.0) 83.8. Sh 14.) 80.7 60.0
18 olv9 10020. 771 62.6" SL. 79.2" 330.8 76.8" 100.0 4950
19 61.8 101.6..%73.7 62.8 88.8: 72.0. -84:0 976.0 «87.5: 48,2
20 SLO) 10864 Tt 2, BOst 98 cdr 1920) Shee eel O0.d 6020
21 60.7 96.6 (8.1) 64.2°°: 36.7 83-3. 83:3 71.9 —93.0° 68.8
22 51.6:.--96.9° 69.8 -68,3:.. 8658. 79.2 38828-7827 -* 89.1 66,3
23 63.3. 98.7. 76:3. 64.6. $0.8. 76.9. 80°58 .76:6> <95.7% °50.0
24 Meas of es 75.4 49.6 85.2 74.1 79.2 75.9 84.0 60.0
25 50.8. 89.3. 41.3 68.3 938.9 °82.6° 86-9: 74:6. “76:0: 49.1
26 68.0: = O92 “U1.0: JOU © 98-8) (80.2 Bind: lace! sebse OO. t
27 51.3 100.9 77.8 64.3 104.3 86.9 86.9 69.4 78.7 58.8
28 Ce en TS GOOCH BOS: VOR OLD A sO, Oece
29 AOS. cis, 10.70 59.2) 93.6: 92.0 “83:2 “TAS 12:7 3|-8622
30 61.9% 98:8 F651 42.5: 114.7 98.1 Obl > 74.6. 58220. 50.0
31 49.7 100.0. 73.4: °b4.2° -91.7 —83.3: 85.0: 72.3 “95.7 68.8
32 60.3". 96.6. 70:5 62.0 -91.2- 80.0 °84.0 7823 “-86.3° 60.0
33 51.3 99.5 70.7 54.4 92.0 74.4 84.0 77.8 86.5 55.8
34 AT2 «98.0: 71.4: 60.9: 04.5: “B18 61.8 (72.0. “98.1. 60.0
35 48.1 98.1 71.9 61.0 100.0 78.0 89.0 78.9 85.4 56.4
36 SO eT «3 Lote 73.7 48.0 838.2 76.0 94.4 84.3 95.5 63.0
37 52.0 96.2 72.7 59.2 94.4 89.6 85.6 75.9 82.7 56.4
38 60:0". «8272 10.7 -56.0.° 99°) 776: 89.6 18.2 018507 54.5
39 49.1 103.8 69.6 56.8 96.0 76.0 80.0 74.1 84.9 -47.0
40 60-:7-—97:.0 “71.8: 63.9 98:0 (78:3 :86-9 75.7 93.2. 46.8
41 45.7 109.7 71.0 62.8 92.0 80.0 85.6 79.2 938.7 68.2
42 5 she? tide evades (168: 60.2) | 94:8: 11756--86.2° 44.8) 232.0. 53.8
om
which the flesh is thin. The bizygomatic also gives well-defined
eminences; consequently, these measurements and the indices into
which they enter are not likely to have a high variability because
of difficulties of technique in measurement.
On the contrary, the bigonial width (V=8.26) may have a high
variability because of the range of measurements resulting from a
more or less fleshy jaw. It is difficult to say how accurately we are
measuring the width between the bony gonial angles. Inspection
of photographs (Plates I-XV) proves, however, that our figures of
OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS 41
TABLE II—Concluded
INDICES FROM MEASUREMENTS OF FIFTY-THREE ADULT MALES OF THE
OVIMBUNDU TRIBE, ELENDE, ANGOLA
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
43 50.7 92.6 74.0 64.0 100.8 84.0 88.0 74.3 81.8 56.1
44 45.8 107.9 76.1 47.5 90.2 77.9 90.2: 80.3 70.2 57.4
45 - 61.5 91.5 74.2 59.2 938.3 79.2 88.3 74.1 86.0 46.4
46 60.9 94.0 72.38 60.0 96.7 75.0 85.0 76.7 87.2 67.8
47 51.4 90.2 74.3 65.0 101.7 79.2 83.3 76.9 87.0 54.0
48 So.4 + °O7:8 FAG 36.7 101.7 “79.2. 87.5 75.0 89.45.6159
49 47.9 107.5 74.1 61.6 94.4 76.0 89.6 80.0 84.6 61.2
50 na) ht ee 75.6 56.5 100.0 78.3 82.6 73.1 89.4 58.8
51 50.7 94.1 72.4 52.4 95.9 82.0 82.8 75.4 88.9 62.0
52 50.5 96.9 71.6 58.4 100.8 72.0 84.0 74.5 75.9 55.5
53 51.4 98.4 71.3 61.3 100.8 75.6 84.0 75.7 78.0 52.9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(51)* (47) (53) (58) = (53) (53) (53) (58) (58) (53)
moore 50.3 97.8 73.1 55.9 93.7 79.9 85.0 75.9 87.9 54.0
errors | £0-16 +£0.52 +0.23 +0.49 +0.61 +£0.67 +0.38 40.31 +0.74 +£5.08
of V. | +0.22 +0.37 +0.23 +0.62 +0.46 +0.59 +0.32 +0.29 +0.60 +0.55
Std. 1.68 5.26 2.52 5.33 663 7.23 4.11 3.384 8.04 5.08
dev. | +0.11 +0.36 +0.16 +0.44 +0.43 +0.47 +0.27 +0.22 +0.53 +0.33
*Figures in parentheses indicate the number of men measured.
ra 3.34 5.39 3.45 9.53 7.07 9.05 4.83 440 9.15 9.40
$i Sitting height 100 ma BigonialX 100
= Standing height i Bizygomatic
(Jugomandibular)
ee Chest girthx 100 t= Minimum frontal diameterx 100
Sitting height Bizygomatic
(Jugofrontal)
ee Head breadthx 100 es Minimum frontal diameterx 100
= Head length - Head breadth
P Upper facial height 100 as Breadth of nosex 100
= Bizygomatic cs Length of nose
5 Total facial heightx 100 ‘Be: Width of earX100
=F Bizygomatic $5 Length of ear
variability in facial measurements are no doubt genuine records
of variability. There are many differences of facial contour, and the
conclusion is that constancy of head form is accompanied by fairly
high variability of facial measurements. The nasal index is in the
highest ranges of variability (V=9+). On the whole the most
entrenched features are proved to be head-form, stature, and the
proportion of the trunk to the lower limbs.
A comparison of coefficients of variation is aided by inspection
of Figures 4 toll. These are graphs showing the frequency distribu-
42 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
tion of some of our measurements and indices. Compactness of a
curve, which rests on a small base and rises to a peak without
irregularities, is an indication of uniformity in the measurements,
while, on the contrary, a straggling graph with a broad base, many
irregularities, and a poorly defined modal peak indicates high varia-
bility in the measurements. Owing to paucity of data, class
intervals are few and the curves show no more than general trends
and modal values.
Considering that only 53 men were measured, one might suppose
that the frequency distributions for all the traits would be somewhat
irregular. On the contrary the curves are fairly compact, and those
for distributions having a coefficient of variability of 3-4 are particu-
larly well defined.
We are dealing with a sample from a restricted area in and
about the small village of Elende, and, so far as the notes go, only
one man married a woman from a distant place.
Only three men measured have brothers who were measured, and
only four men have cousins (on their father’s side) who were
measured. I believe, therefore, that our sample, though perhaps
tending to uniformity through local selection in marriage, is not
appreciably influenced by measuring men who have a blood
relationship.
Portuguese records show that the Ovimbundu have inhabited
the high plateaus of central Angola during three centuries. The
nature of the country tends to isolation, which would be an important
factor in producing a uniform type. It is true that the Ovimbundu
were caravan people who made long journeys eastward from central
Angola; but the slaves, together with the ivory derived from these
trading expeditions, were sold to the Portuguese, and in all probability
there was little marital miscegenation of the Ovimbundu with slaves
from far away.
We may, I believe, regard our sample as-fairly representative of
the Ovimbundu, who are tall, slim, dolichocephalic, Bantu-speaking
Negroes. They are only moderately platyrrhine, and the skin colors
range in the values medium brown to dark brown.
The anthropometric measurements of the Ovimbundu may now
be compared with those taken by Cardoso (1916) among four neigh-
boring tribes of eastern Angola.
Pere ey a
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Frequency
Sitting height, percent
of standing height
O } l | | ] | | ! ]
45 46 47 48 49 50 57 S2 55
Fic. 5. Frequency distribution of sitting height as a percentage of standing
height.
44
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Frequency
Bigonial width
; ; | | L ; |
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130
Fic. 10. Frequency distribution of bigonial widths.
49
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50
III. COMPARISON OF THE OVIMBUNDU
WITH OTHER TRIBES OF ANGOLA
(Tables III-V1I)
The only figures available for comparative study are those of
Cardoso (1916), whose observations and measurements on males
may be classified as follows:
Tribe and number
measured Habitat
Vachokwe (90)........... 8°-13° S. Lat. and 18.5°-22.5° E. Long.
Battie (62) ote s os oS as East of Kwanza River, between 11°-12° S. Lat.
and 17°-18° E. Long.
Pane (161 Sec ce 11°-12.5° S. Lat. and 20°-23° E. Long.
Eatchaze (46). ..5.5....... About junction of meridians 19°-21° E. Long.
and parallel 12.5° S. Lat.
Hambly (1934) gives a map showing the location of these tribes,
as does Cardoso (1916, p. 256). The Ovimbundu are centrally
situated, and the other tribes mentioned inhabit territory to the
northeast, east, and southeast of the Ovimbundu.
The number measured is smallest for the Luchaze (46), then for
the Ovimbundu, with observations on 53 men. The samples for
the Vachokwe (90), the Luena (101) and the Luimbe (82) are more
satisfactory. The series is, however, the only one available, so we
are obliged either to reject the data, or to accept them with whatever
defects there may be. Anthropometric measurements for the Ovim-
bundu are given in Table I and the indices for these measurements
in Table II. The four tables for comparative study of the data
collected for these tribes are Nos. III-VI.
STATURES
(Tables III, IV)
The tallest people are the Luchaze, with an average height of
1704 mm. The Vachokwe are next, with a stature of 1695 mm.,
only 9 mm. less than the Luchaze. The Ovimbundu rank third,
with an average height of 1687 mm., which is almost identical with
the average stature for the Luena, namely, 1685 mm. The Luimbe
are shortest, with a height of 1671 mm. With the exception of the
Luimbe, whose stature is in the highest range of “‘medium”’ height,
all the tribes are “‘tall,’’ according to Seligman (1930, p. 12), who
follows the system of grading and nomenclature adopted by
A. C. Haddon.
51
52 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
TABLE III
COMPARISON OF AVERAGE MEASUREMENTS OF ANGOLAN TRIBES
(In millimeters)
Cephalic Nasal
Tribe Stature index index
Ovimbundu’. .....%.. 1687 fever 87.9
Wachokwesast300o 1695 Wek 96.6
EAU DE: cc 3 chee: 1671 75.6 98.6
TAICN AA on oe cmarour 1685 (i a, 97.4
ENUCHaze) Ses oe 1704 f five! 98.5
The frequency distribution of the statures for five tribes is given
in Table IV. This distribution has to follow the scheme of class
intervals adopted by Cardoso, since he does not give measurements
for individuals. If he had done so, we could have made our own
class intervals.
All the tribes have a very small percentage of men in the class
below 1600 mm., the range being 3.0 per cent for the Luena to 6.5
for the Luchaze. The class intervals, 1600-1649 mm., 1650-1699
mm., and 1700 mm. +, emphasize the superior height of the Luchaze,
for whom more than half the sample is taller than 1700 mm. The
Luimbe, who have the shortest average stature, show, as we might
expect, the greatest number of individuals in the classes 1600-1699
mm. (medium height).
TABLE IV
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF STATURES
TRIBES
Cass INTERVAL — a —
Ovimbundu Vachokwe Luimbe Luena Luchaze
Less than 1600......... SiS 3.3 6.1 3.0 6.5
1600-1649......... 22-06 16.7 ARES 23.8 19.6
1650-1699 :......3.0. 2: 34.0 35.6 31.9 29:37 19.6
BQO SES is vee eas 39.6 44.4 36338 Asie 54.3
The testimony of the distribution on the whole bears out the
significance of the averages. The order of tallness is as follows:
According According to
to averages requency distribution
Luchaze (tallest) Luchaze
Vachokwe Vachokwe
Ovimbundu Luena
Luena Ovimbundu
Luimbe Luimbe
The only difference in the grading is that for the Ovimbundu and
the Luena. According to averages the former (1687 mm.) are
practically the same height as the latter (1685 mm.). There are,
however, for the Luena 48.5 per cent in the tall class, but for the
Ovimbundu only 39.6 per cent in that class. There are in the
ANGOLAN TRIBES COMPARED 53
Ovimbundu sample a few tall men whose exceptional height raises
the average, but when classified according to stature frequencies
there are not so many tall Ovimbundu as Luena.
CEPHALIC INDICES
(Tables III, V)
In comparative tribal study of this trait we have to recognize
distinct differences of head form. Taking first the averages, the
Ovimbundu with an average C.I. of 73.1 are decidedly the most
dolichocephalic of our samples. Next come the Luimbe and the
Luchaze, also dolichocephalic, with indices 75.6 and 75.1, respec-
tively. These three tribes constitute a dolichocephalic group.
The remaining tribes, Vachokwe and Luena, have cephalic
indices that are almost identical, 77.1 and 77.0 respectively; both
are in the range of mesaticephaly.
The frequency distribution of cephalic indices (Table V) supports
the inferences drawn from a study of averages. In the long-headed
class (index 69-75) there are 77.3 per cent of the Ovimbundu sample,
but less than half that number of the broader-headed Vachokwe and
Luena. On the contrary, when we come to consider the tribal dis-
tribution in the mesaticephalic class interval 76-80 we find that the
number of Ovimbundu in that class is only 22.6 per cent, while nearly
three times as many (about 60 per cent) of the Vachokwe and
Luena are in that class.
Again, in the class of broadest heads (index 81-85) there are no
Ovimbundu whatsoever, but there are 10.9 per cent of Luena
tribesmen, 8.9 per cent of Vachokwe, and 8.5 per cent of Luimbe.
Every tribe except the Ovimbundu has representatives in the round-
headed class.
TABLE V
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF CEPHALIC INDICES
TRIBES
CLAss INTERVAL cr ‘
Ovimbundu Vachokwe Luimbe Luena Luchaze
BURA 10 cit cucu ee 77.3 30.0 50.0 29.7 54.3
90-0 8 Oe 22.6 61.1 41.5 59.4 39.1
ot | a a Rare oF ate pa eae 8.9 8.5 10.9 6.5
NASAL INDICES
(Tables III, VI)
The list of average nasal indices for the five tribes (Table III)
clearly indicates that our sample of Ovimbundu is distinctly more
mesorrhine than any other tribal group. The average nasal indices
for four tribes have a very small range, namely, from 96.6 for the
54 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
Vachokwe to 98.6 for the Luimbe. The nasal index for the Luchaze
(98.5) is almost identical with that of the Luimbe, and the index
for the Luena (97.4) is very close. So we have a homogeneous group
of high nasal indices (96.6—98.6) for eastern Angolan tribes, but for
the central Ovimbundu an index of only 87.9, about 10 points lower.
The frequency distribution (Table VI) brings out still more
clearly the comparative narrowness of the nose in the Ovimbundu
sample. In the mesorrhine class (N.I. 70-85) there are 35.8 per cent
of the Ovimbundu sample, that is, five times as many as the
Vachokwe, and seventeen times as many as the Luchaze, which
have only 2.2 per cent of their sample in the mesorrhine class.
When we turn to the hyperplatyrrhine class interval (index
100+) we find only 5.7 per cent of the Ovimbundu sample present;
but 50.0 per cent of the Luimbe, 53.3 per cent of the Luchaze, and
similarly large numbers of the Vachokwe and the Luena are in the
hyperplatyrrhine class.
TABLE VI
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF NASAL INDICES OF ANGOLAN TRIBES
TRIBES
CLass INTERVAL y, A— \
Ovimbundu Vachokwe Luimbe Luena Luchaze
Tees than 70.05.2346 S24). ‘ney abet sabi alts Janus
LOBED aisle din tex 3" 35.8 6.7 4.9 6.0 2.2
$5-99 9. yo e 58.5 55.5 45.1 51.5 44.4
SOO 2 Sis ata of 0-0 Sa eles 5.7 37.8 50.0 42.5 53.3
CONCLUSION
In stature the Ovimbundu are not greatly removed from tribes-
men of eastern Angola. But, on the contrary, distinct differences of
undoubted significance are seen in the cephalic and nasal indices.
The Ovimbundu are decidedly long-headed and mesorrhine, when
compared with their eastern neighbors.
The explanation of these differences may be geographical, his-
torical, or biological. The central highlands, which are from 3,000
to 5,000 feet in elevation, have PEIRCE le lower than those in
surrounding country. Therefore the nasal index of the Ovimbundu
inhabitants may be lower on this account (A. Thomson and L. H. D.
Buxton, 1923). Moreover, isolation, leading to fixation of type, for
both nose and head form, may be in some measure responsible for
the distinctive characters of the Ovimbundu.
From tribal traditions, and from Portuguese sources, we know
that the Ovimbundu have built up a strong isolated confederacy,
which was at war with surrounding tribes for several centuries. The
ANGOLAN TRIBES COMPARED 55
Vachokwe, on the contrary, are known to have migrated from the
southwest Congo region.
The historical evidence, together with the topographical con-
ditions, points to close association of the four tribes—Vachokwe,
Luimbe, Luena, and Luchaze—whose mesaticephaly and platyrrhiny
are widely distributed traits of the Congo region. We have, there-
fore, in our samples: (1) A relatively round-headed, decidedly
platyrrhine Congo group. This group consists of four tribes living
close together in country offering no barriers to miscegenation.
(2) A central, highland group of Ovimbundu, established earlier
than the eastern tribes. These people have head form and a nasal
index distinct from the eastern group of tribes.
IV. COMPARISON OF THE OVIMBUNDU WITH
NEGRO TRIBES OUTSIDE ANGOLA
WEST AFRICA
(Tables VII, VIII)
The main samples for comparison are those of 100 west African
Negroes measured by Weninger (1927), 100 Hausa measured by
Tremearne (1911), and samples given by Herskovits (1937). Wen-
inger’s sample, though derived from several tribes, may be taken as
representative of Negroes of Sudanic speech in the far west. The
Hausa are a linguistic division of Negro affinities, but with some
somatic modification. Their language is classed as Hamitic with
Sudanic Negro elements. Compared with west African Negroes the
Hausa show a refinement of features, including reduction in thickness
of lips and width of nose.
Tremearne does not describe his technique, but he probably
followed that of D. J. Cunningham (1909). Weninger adopted the
technique of R. Martin (1928); so also did Herskovits, with certain
modifications which he carefully describes (19380, pp. 19-89). I
would say that the methods followed make comparisons permissible;
but, even if objections are raised, we have no alternative data col-
lected by the same observer using absolutely constant technique.
In stature, the Ovimbundu (1687 mm.) are almost identical with
Weninger’s sample, for which the average height is 1688 mm., a
difference of only one millimeter. Tremearne’s Hausa have an
average height of 1684 mm., which differs very little from that of the
Ovimbundu and Weninger’s west African Negroes. The Ovimbundu
are 45 mm. taller than the 48 Ashanti Negroes measured by Rattray
(1928, p. 335).
Cephalic Index.—The Ovimbundu (index 73.1) are a little more
dolichocephalic than Weninger’s west African Negroes, whose
index is 74.6, and a trifle higher still is the Hausa index of 75.4. The
range for three tribes under comparison is therefore small, namely,
73.1-75.4. But Rattray’s Ashanti have an index of 77.5 and are
therefore distinctly more round-headed than the Ovimbundu.
Nasal Index.—The Ovimbundu (index 87.9) are definitely less
platyrrhine than Weninger’s west African Negroes, whose average
N.I. is 92.9. With regard to the frequency distribution of nasal
indices, only 5.7 per cent of the Ovimbundu are hyperplatyrrhine
with an index of more than 100, but 27 per cent of Weninger’s west
56
AFRICAN NEGRO TRIBES COMPARED 57
African Negro sample is hyperplatyrrhine. The Hausa, also, with
an average N.I. of 90.0, are slightly more platyrrhine than the Ovim-
bundu. The nasal index of Rattray’s Ashanti is 95. 2, that is, 7.3
points higher than that of the Ovimbundu.
STATISTICAL COMPARISONS OF OVIMBUNDU, ASHANTI,
AND DAHOMEANS
More precision can be given to comparative methods by determin-
ing whether the difference between the means is greater than three
times the square root of the sum of the squares of the probable
errors of the two averages:
M:-M: > 3¥ (PEi)?+(PE2)?
Only in this case is the difference between the two means significant;
otherwise, the difference might have arisen from random sampling.
TABLE VII
AVERAGE MEASUREMENTS OF THE OVIMBUNDU COMPARED WITH THOSE OF
DAHOMEANS, ASHANTI, NIGERIANS,
AND HERSKOVITS’ “TOTAL WEST AFRICAN SERIES”
Traits oe Ovimbundu Ovimoundu a Pie amg 4
omeans an igerlans est rican series
OU esgic ate, Geet ads +1.4 +34.2* +15.9 +11.7
eres sn ee PRney were +e . +4.9 wae
et —6. ath —4,
Head breadth.......... —9.7* —12.4* as —10.9*
Cephalic index......... —2.7* —5.7* ee —4.0*
Upper facial height..... +1.3 +3.2* ens +0.9
Total facial height..... —4.6* —4.4* SER. —4.5*
Bizygomatic........... —18.9* —16.3* ote es —17.7*
Height of nose......... —1.8* —3.9* Spee —2.8*
Width of nose......... —1.2* —2.0* —0.8 —1.3*
Height of ear.......... —4.6* —3.1* Soe —3.9*
Width of ear.......... —4.7* —5.1* pao —4.9*
A=difference * averages. *=differences found to be significant. All phe in millimeters.
Sign + or — to be read with the word Ovimbundu in front of it
Table VII gives average measurements of 53 Ovimbundu com-
pared with averages of corresponding traits of 77 Ashanti and of 93
Dahomeans measured by Herskovits (1937). The significant
differences are marked with an asterisk. R. A. Fisher (1932, p. 45)
recommends the use of the standard error instead of the probable
error. Students wishing to follow this system will divide the
probable errors by 0.67449 to convert them to standard errors.
Ovimbundu and Dahomeans.—Nine of the twelve traits compared
show a significant difference. The very small difference of 1.4 mm.
in stature indicates that the Ovimbundu are almost exactly the same
58 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
average height as the Dahomeans. The differences in sitting height
and in upper facial height are possibly real differences, though they
are not proved to be so by the statistical methods we have used.
The head form of the Dahomeans is different from that of the
Ovimbundu in three respects, namely, length, breadth, and cephalic
index. The heads of the Ovimbundu are shorter, narrower (abso-
lutely), and definitely more dolichocephalic than the heads of the
Dahomeans.
The difference in bizygomatic breadth is significant; so also is the
difference in total facial height, the dimensions of the nose, and the
size of the ears. The Ovimbundu have narrower, smaller faces than
the Dahomeans, their noses are narrower, and their ears are shorter
and narrower.
Ovimbundu and Ashanti.—Ten out of twelve traits compared are
significantly different. The Ovimbundu are very definitely taller
than the Ashanti, and probably they have a greater sitting height,
though the difference of 12.6 mm. is not demonstrably significant.
Neither can we be sure that there is any real difference in head
length, but we can be satisfied that the heads of the Ovimbundu are
narrower (absolutely) and more dolichocephalic than those of the
Ashanti. The Ovimbundu have a C.I. of 78.1, which is 5.7 units
less than that of the Ashanti.
Herskovits (1937, p. 495) states that the Ashanti shape the skulls
of infants to shorten them. This statement seems plausible because
the Ashanti are round-headed, but it conflicts with the evidence
given by Dingwall (1931, p. 113), whose collated references all men-
tion elongation of the Ashanti head by artificial means.
The facial heights, both upper and total, are different in the
Ovimbundu, who have also a significantly smaller bizygomatic
width than the Ashanti. The Ovimbundu have ears that are defi-
nitely smaller than those of the Ashanti. In fact, the physiognomy
of the two tribes is undoubtedly different. ~
Ovimbundu and West Africans.—Herskovits compounds his data
for Dahomeans, Ashanti, and Nigerians into a “total west African
series.’ In view of the significant differences, for example, in the
head form of the Ashanti and Dahomeans, and because of the small
number of groups, the compounding of traits may not be statistically
permissible. There are few data for the Nigerians, and the ‘“‘total
west African series’ results mainly from the averaging of measure-
ments from only two units. The method is rather like averaging
AFRICAN NEGRO TRIBES COMPARED a:)
the stature of two brothers, one of whom is 72 inches tall, the other
24 inches. The average height of the boys in the family is 48 inches.
It is desirable, of course, to have a general statistical basis for
African Negroes, prepared from study of many groups whose average
measurements are finely graded, as they might be if enough groups
were measured. But, owing to paucity of data, perhaps the com-
pounding of the few figures we have is permissible. In defense of
averaging the data we may say that the three groups—Dahomeans,
Ashanti, and Nigerians—are topographically close.
Differences between the average measurements of the Ovimbundu
and the “total west African series’ are given in the right-hand
column of Table VII. In nine out of twelve instances of comparison
the traits of the Ovimbundu are shown to be significantly different
from corresponding traits of the west Africans. Possibly the Ovim-
bundu are taller than the west Africans, and the former may have
the greater sitting height and upper facial height, though the plus
values for the Ovimbundu are not demonstrably greater.
Summary.—In assessing the differences between somatic traits of
the Ovimbundu and west Africans our consideration need not be
entirely dependent on a mathematical test, though it is true that out
of 39 calculations which test the differences of means, 28 are shown
to be differences not likely to have arisen from comparison of small
samples. In other words, they are probably real somatic differences.
But apart from such tests we may glance across the stature
columns of Table VII and note that the Ovimbundu have always
plus values in stature and sitting height. In every instance of com-
parison, the Ovimbundu have the shorter, the narrower, and the
more dolichocephalic heads.
Upper facial height is always a plus value for the Ovimbundu,
but the total facial height is always a minus value. These differences
clearly indicate a difference in facial proportions, and this is further
attested by the comparatively small bizygomatic width of the Ovim-
bundu. We have to admit, however, that measurements of facial
heights, owing to poor definition of the points of measurement, are
particularly liable to discrepancies when several different persons
make the measurements.
A glance across the column giving dimensions of noses and ears
shows these features to be smallest in the Ovimbundu.
Statistical data confirm photographic evidence in showing the
Ovimbundu as a Negro type, but with modifications that distinguish
them definitely from typical Negroes of far west Africa.
60 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
COMPARATIVE VARIABILITY OF OVIMBUNDU TRAITS AND
THOSE OF OTHER WEST AFRICAN NEGROES
Table VIII has been prepared to facilitate comparison of varia-
bilities. L. H. D. Buxton’s figures in Rattray’s ‘‘Ashanti’” (1923)
give coefficients of variation for traits of a small sample of 48 Ashanti.
Herskovits (1937) gives standard deviations for measurements of
77 Ashanti and 98 Dahomeans. From the standard deviations,
coefficients of variation have been worked out from the formula:
vy 1008
~ M
The standard error of V is
V
V2N
which is converted to the probable error by multiplying by
0.674489.
The table should be consulted by glancing across from left to
right. Evidently the variabilities of statures for the Ovimbundu,
two groups of Ashanti independently measured, and the Dahomeans,
are very close, all being within the zone V=3.37 to 4.29.
Sitting heights are a little more variable than statures but the
coefficients are by no means high.
The head form in each tribal group has a low variability, and the
variabilities are about the same for the four tribal groups considered.
The dimensions of the head, likewise the cephalic indices, seem to be
well-stabilized traits.
TABLE VIII
COEFFICIENTS OF VARIATION AND THEIR PROBABLE ERRORS, OF OVIMBUNDU
TRAITS COMPARED WITH THOSE OF ASHANTI AND DAHOMEANS
48 Ashanti 77 Ashanti 93 Dahomeans
Traits 53 Ovimbundu (Rattray) (Herskovits) (Herskovits)
SSEAGLINO yea Fecee tree biecs sisal 4.29+0.28 3.37+0.23 3.6740.20 3.80+0.19
Sittin’ heights. ances. 5 ok 5.44+0.36 ye: 4.02+0.22 4.14+0.20
fi6ad length... eh Ses 3.87+40.25 2.49+0.17 *3.02+40.16 3.61+0.17
Head breadth............ 3.2740.21 3.04+40.21 3.386+0.11 3.25+0.16
Minimum frontal diameter. 5.00+0.33 3.78+0.26 Paes oie
Bizygomatie elo... 5.60+0.387 3.18+0.22 4.06+0.22 3.40+0.17
Bigonial breadth......... 8.26+0.54 5.16+0.36 ciatece pease
Upper facial height....... 7.18+0.47 7.47+40.52 6.4440.35 6.21+0.30
Total facial height....... 5.18+0.84 5.42+0.41 4.82+0.26 5.50+40.27
Nasal:heighten): sac. Gas. 7.29+0.48 5.49+0.88 7.62+0.41 7.380+0.36
Nasal breadth........... 6.39+0.45 7.54+0.52 7.16+0.39 7.42+0.36
Har: breadth .%.. kick 8.59-+0.56 bya! 7.87+40.40 6.92+0.34
Wardengtys 2. aces acd: 7.09+0.46 ey 7.03+0.38 7.68+0.38
Cephalic index........... 8.45+0.23 3.18+40.22 3.18+40.17 4.34+0.21
NaSah OS eM ateroh nis 9.15+0.60 9.87+0.69 eae ee
Upper facial index........ 9.538+40.62 7.03+0.49
Total facial index. ....... 7.07+0.46 5.07+0.35
AFRICAN NEGRO TRIBES COMPARED 61
The highest variabilities are shown in the nasal index and the
upper facial index; for the former the V value is in the 9+ zone.
On the whole, the conclusion must be that despite real differences
in absolute measurements, the variabilities of the traits for different
tribal groups are remarkably close, trait for trait. We are dealing
with distinct somatic types and tribal differences. But the groups are
equally well stabilized, and in each tribal group head form and stature
seem to be the physical features which are most strongly entrenched
and least variable.
THE CONGO REGION
Stature—Figures collated by Montandon (1928, pp. 248, 264,
276) and by Hambly (1937, p. 173) show that most of the Congo
tribes are of medium stature, that is, somewhat shorter than the
Ovimbundu, who are upper medium to tall. Yet the Ovimbundu
(1687 mm.) are shorter than the Bushongo (1747 mm.) and also
shorter than the Azande (1701 mm.).
Cephalic Index.—The data for head form (Struck, 1922) are more
convincing. Negroes of the Congo are definitely in the higher
ranges of mesaticephaly with indices from 77 to 80, whereas the
Ovimbundu are decidedly dolichocephalic (index 73.1).
Nasal Index.—From the same collations of statistics, though these
are not as reliable as one might wish, one may make some compari-
sons with tribes in the Congo region. Montandon (1928, p. 248)
gives 47 averages of nasal indices for different tribes. The averages
do not carry equal weight, for they are not based on equal numbers
of observations. In some samples there is paucity of data; neither
can we be sure of the technique of the many observers whose results
are collated by Montandon.
Nevertheless, the frequency distribution of the 47 average indices
shows that 16 of them have a value from 90-105. That is to say,
one-third of the samples from the Congo are definitely platyrrhine
and hyperplatyrrhine. About one-third of the Congo samples fall
in the class interval 85-90, and to this value the N.I. 87.9 of the
Ovimbundu conforms. Montandon’s collation shows 10 of the 47
average indices to lie in the range 80-85, which is somewhat more
mesorrhine than the value for the Ovimbundu.
Apparently, when the nasal index for the Ovimbundu is compared
with a series of 47 average nasal indices for Congo tribes the N.I.
of the Ovimbundu occupies an intermediate position. One-third of
the Congo samples are more platyrrhine than the Ovimbundu, one-
62 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
third have about the same degree of platyrrhiny, and one-third are
less platyrrhine than the Ovimbundu.
We have, however, only one definite and reliable fact emerging
from comparison of the Ovimbundu with the Congo tribes; namely,
the dolichocephaly of the Ovimbundu and the high mesaticephaly
of most Congo tribes. Undoubtedly the Congo region was formerly
more widely and more densely populated with Pygmy tribes than
at present. Miscegenation of Negroes and Pygmies takes place
today, and this process, continued over many generations, probably
accounts for the low-medium stature and the comparatively round-
headed form of many Negro tribes of the Congo region.
SouTH AFRICA
Stature—Dr. C. G. Seligman (1930, p. 189), quoting from a
manuscript by Turner in the Royal Anthropological Institute,
London, states that a miscellaneous group of 4,098 Negro mine
laborers of adult age had an average stature of 1670 mm. This
is 17 mm. less than the average stature of our sample of Ovimbundu.
Stayt (1931, pp. 11, 368-871) shows the average stature of
168 Bavenda males to be 1676 mm., which is 11 mm. shorter than
the average for the Ovimbundu. But the 39 Zulu (1696 mm.) and
the 23 Batonga (1712 mm.), measured by Cipriani (1930-31), are
both appreciably taller than the Ovimbundu.
Cephalic Index.—Consulting the same sources, we find that the
C.I. for 168 Bavenda is 75.2; that is, two points higher than the head
index for the Ovimbundu. The index for the Zulu is 75.4, again
just a little higher than that of the Ovimbundu. The 23 Batonga
have a C.I. of 72.3. They are just a trifle more dolichocephalic
than the Ovimbundu. Yet, on the whole, the C.I. of 73.1 for the
Ovimbundu makes a good fit with the indices for the Bavenda, the
Batonga, and the Zulu.
Nasal Index.—All the average nasal indieés given by Stayt, and
by Cipriani, are higher than the index of 87.9 for the Ovimbundu.
The Bavenda have an index of 92.3, the Zulu 92.0, and the Batonga
90.9. The Ovimbundu are less platyrrhine than these samples of
southeastern Negroes.
East AFRICA
Stature—Samples of measurements from east Africa are numer-
ous (Hambly, 1937, p. 178) but open to the objections previously
stated. Roscoe (1911, p. 520) gives the average height of 288
Baganda as 1673:mm. That is 14 mm. shorter than the average for
AFRICAN NEGRO TRIBES COMPARED 63
the Ovimbundu. Scanning down a list of statures of 16 tribes
(Hambly’s compilation) shows the Ovimbundu to have the highest
average. The 101 Wanyamwezi of Leys and Joyce (1913) have an
average stature of 1675 mm., almost the same as that of the Baganda,
but 12 mm. shorter than the average for the Ovimbundu.
Cephalic Index.—The C.I. of the Ovimbundu (73.1) is almost
identical with that of 288 Baganda, who have an average index of
73.4. The index for the Ovimbundu agrees well with the samples
of average indices for east African Negroes. These samples have
a small range of averages, the extremes being 72.6 to 77.6, and the
modal value of the averages is about 74.0.
Nasal Index.—Roscoe’s 288 Baganda have an average N.I. of
85.4, slightly less platyrrhine than the index of 87.9 for the Ovim-
bundu. The 128 Akamba measured by Leys and Joyce (1913) have
an index of 86.5, which is between that of the Baganda and the
Ovimbundu, but all three indices are in a very small range. Hambly’s
“Source Book’ (1937, p. 178) shows that the average nasal indices
for tribes in lower east Africa range from 89.4 to 101.1. All the
samples, eleven in number, are appreciably more platyrrhine than
the Ovimbundu.
CONCLUSION
In stature the Ovimbundu may be matched by many Negro
tribes. The cephalic index of 73.1 is of a dolichocephalic type that
is common, except in the central Congo and part of Cameroons, where
high mesaticephaly prevails. The Nilotic Negroes are definitely
taller than the Ovimbundu, more dolichocephalic, with an index
about 70-72, and decidedly more platyrrhine.
The Ovimbundu agree well in stature with tribes of eastern
Angola but are definitely less platyrrhine and more dolichocephalic.
The most interesting feature recorded for the Ovimbundu is the
nasal index, which is in close agreement with the indices of adequate
samples of the northeastern Bantu, namely, Baganda and Akamba.
The series of photographs (Plates I-XX) shows the slim build
of the Ovimbundu as compared with typical west African Negroes.
In comparative narrowness of nose, reduced width of face, reduced
thickness of lips, modified prognathism, and comparatively light
skin color the Ovimbundu must be regarded as a modification of the
true Negro of the Kru and Ibo type.
The general build and physiognomy of the Ovimbundu together
with the nasal index suggests a contact, perhaps very remote in time,
64 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
with that northeast African element that is usually described as
Hamitic. But perhaps the modified Negro characters of the Ovim-
bundu may be due, not to interbreeding of types, but to isolation
under definite environmental conditions.
V. SIZE OF FAMILIES AMONG THE OVIMBUNDU
(Table IX)
DIFFICULTIES OF INQUIRY
An effort to discover the age of each speaker, the age at which
he was married, and the number of years married was a failure.
Ngonga, the interpreter, also Dr. M. W. Ennis and Dr. Hollenbeck,
made estimates for a few individuals who were well known to them,
but the information obtainable was too uncertain to be used statis-
tically. There did seem, however, to be some indication that a
youth marries at the age of about twenty-two to twenty-five years.
Subjects seemed willing to answer, but some had evidently forgotten
the exact number of their brothers and sisters, since some of these
had died in very early infancy. Aversion to speaking of the dead
may have made our estimated death rate too low. The range of
ages may be considered to be from twenty to forty-five years, and this
point is of importance when considering the incidence of mortality.
BROTHERS AND SISTERS OF THE INFORMANTS
To carry out this inquiry satisfactorily the investigator would
have to know not only the number of brothers and sisters, living and
dead, but many more details of the family structure. Was the family
polygynous? If so how many wives constituted the family? How
many children of each sex did each wife bear? What was the survival
among these children? Was one father responsible for the parentage
of all the children enumerated by the speaker? A few inquiries
showed that such a questionnaire was far too ambitious, and the
only information obtained was that tabulated in Table IX, showing
brothers living and dead, sisters surviving and dead, together with
totals. These figures I believe to be sufficiently reliable for considera-
tion, yet any inferences we draw are only approximations to the truth.
For example, a subject of twenty-two years may have a father who
is still young enough to beget children by existing wives or by newly
acquired spouses. Therefore, by recording the present size of the
family we may be underestimating. We must not forget, of course,
to add the speaker himself to the number of brothers and sisters he
enumerates. The difficulties of inquiry are such that the technique
demanded in communities where written records are kept cannot
be applied to the Ovimbundu.
Brothers.—Fifty informants claim 83 living brothers, so making
a total of 133 males, that is, 2.7 living males for each family. For
65
TABLE IX
SIZE OF FAMILIES
CHILDREN
Girls
Living | Dead | Living | Dead | Total
Boys and girls
Boys
Living | Dead
ASD FI ES AOD SOO BAO MO MOMAS SOM ASSN AOS S
OA AE UCSB OFS rt FCS ND Oe Sw SS Fh EPS BIO CLS RON OF ONS.
SOCCCOCOMMOOCONNMONOCHOnnAOCOCONCCCCOCOSCSOS
SMA HAAANOOANHOSCOSCOCNRNMNOSCOCOMNHROnRANDMHS
WOnMNOMMMOOCOMNOCCOCOCONnMooCoConooconNooo
Reser HOSOMNA NNO COMOOOCOCONCMOMNHOMMS
BROTHERS AND SISTERS
Brothers and sisters
| Dead | Total
iving
:
L
Sisters
Brothers
Living | Dead | Living | Dead
DN Oe DH ANM PAM OAM MAM AH MMO SH He BD HHS
= =
WDD QV re SH HO HO LOR N OO HAIN He OD OD rH 1 1D 4 OD HILO
ANS OPO OADM ROMO ONSMDOONW MAM OOo OW Os
’
MMASANS ANOS OOMONMMAHANANNMHOMHAMMeOONOnr
MH HONGC CONNOOCHROCHOHOOCHONAN HO HOM rir
ANSON ANAO HOOP HO COONHMOOCHNOOCS MMi!
AAMONSCHATMHAOCOCCHONCOCOHMNHANHAANSG OMONS
MARRIAGE
Probable
Years
married
age at
marriage
Hehe Oe Oe Oe roe ‘egies Sh
1
2
5
20
3
5
25
?
married
unmarried
not long married
married
unmarried
=
(
Age*
No.
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1810} B SaATZ sJUBUIOJUI QS ey} SNid (09%) Joquinu sI4y, *(p¥ep pus BUIAT]) S194SIS PUB SIOYIOIG 09Z WIE] SJUBUUIOJUT OG ‘3J2] OY} WOIJ USAES UUINIOO UF APES
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“epun’y Woly ot |b
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*r9MSUB 03 BIQuUy 4
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(OTS) ($8) ($81)
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67
68 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
each of these families there are 1.3 deceased males, so making a
total male progeny of 4.0 per family. Since the male issue is 133
living, and 63 dead, the total male progeny is 196, which gives a
death rate of 32.1 per cent for males.
Sisters.—The group of 50 informants has 52 living sisters, which
gives an average of 1.0 living girls per family, and since 62 girls
have died there is a death rate of 1.2 girls per family. Out of a total
of 114 girls born, 62 died, so giving a death rate of 54.4 per cent as
compared with a death rate of 32.1 per cent for boys. More boys
than girls are born, according to these family records, and the males
survive better. Death rates should, of course, be given in age groups.
All we can say is that our informants varied from 20 to about 45
years, and that the deaths recorded are those of individuals from
infancy to about 45 years of age.
We must remember that our vital statistics are not dealing with
mortality in infancy or childhood only. In fact, an informant
usually forgets the infantile mortality, but he remembers his contem-
poraries, and his figures certainly include those of his sisters who
died in childbirth. Probably deaths in childbirth account for the
higher mortality among females.
Brothers and Sisters——Our informants represent a total family
strength of 310 children living and dead, that is, about 6.2 children
per family. The word family is used in the restricted sense to mean
the father, his wife or wives, and their children. In polygynous
families each wife has her own hut in the family compound, and in
this hut she resides with her children. There she keeps house and
is visited by her husband in a four-night cycle. We have, there-
fore, a picture of the father and mother (or mothers) with an average
of 6.2 children to the family compound. This is, of course, a high
average compared with European standards.
Of these 310 children 185 survived and 125 died, which gives
a high death rate of 40.3 per cent. Considering that we have not
included infants who died very young, and whose numbers are not
remembered by the informants, the mortality is probably higher
than our data suggest.
CHILDREN OF INFORMANTS
Examination of the section of Table IX dealing with children
of the informants should provide a check on the conclusions derived
from that part of the same table which gives statistics for brothers
and sisters.
SIZE OF FAMILIES 69
We are dealing now with the families of 43 married men, but the
total number of children per family will not be strictly comparable
with the family strength as revealed by an inquiry about brothers
and sisters. Many of our married subjects are in the early twenties,
and we cannot forecast the number of their progeny. Some inform-
ants have been married only a year or two. On the contrary,
when our informants speak of their brothers and sisters, they are
giving a fairly complete and reliable idea of family strength, for
each informant is of adult age. This explanation perhaps accounts
for the fact that the family, judged from the number of brothers
and sisters, was 6.2, and only 3.7 as judged from the number of
children of the informants.
Male Children Surviving.—The informants have a male progeny
of 79, of whom 35 have died. The death rate for boys is therefore
44.3 per cent, or somewhat higher than the 32.1 per cent calculated
from information respecting births and deaths of brothers.
Female Children Surviving.—The informants have a female issue
of 79, which is exactly the same as the male progeny. Of the 79
females born, 26 died, so giving a mortality rate of 32.9 per cent.
This is appreciably less than the 54.4 per cent death rate calculated
from information respecting brothers and sisters.
Male and Female Children Surviving—The total number of
children begotten by our 43 informants is 158, of whom 61 have
died, so giving a death rate of 38.6 per cent. This is a close approxi-
mation to the 40.3 per cent death rate arrived at by studying deaths
of brothers and sisters.
CONCLUSION
The only permissible inferences are:
(1) That, judged by European standards, the families are large.
(2) That, though the birth rate is high, this is balanced by a
high death rate. The death rate for the brothers and sisters of
the informants was 40.3 per cent of all births, and for children of the
informants the general death rate was 38.6. These figures are in
close agreement, and since the data are derived from two independent
methods of inquiry I think we may be fairly confident that the
death rate is about 40 per cent. The difference of —1.7 per cent
in the death rate of children as compared with those of the older
generation (brothers and sisters columns, Table IX) may be the
result of an improvement in medical attention following the erection
of government hospitals and missionary medical stations. The
70 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
difference is so small, however, that it might arise fortuitously from
the crude methods of our census.
(8) Data relating to the children of our informants indicate that
the birth rates for boys and girls are exactly equal. Our 43 informants
sired 79 boys and 79 girls. But the inquiry respecting brothers and
sisters indicates a definite preponderance of male births. The figures
indicate a change in sex ratio at birth, from one generation to the next.
(4) Evidence respecting the relative survival of boys and girls
is contradictory. The brothers and sisters inquiry shows the death
rate of girls as 54.4 per cent, and that for boys as 32.1 per cent. On
the contrary, among children born to our informants the death rate
for boys is 44.3 per cent, and that for girls is 32.9 per cent. The
death rates for both sexes together are, however, very close, namely,
40.3 per cent for the brothers and sisters generation, and 38.6 for
the children of our informants.
(5) Students wishing to make further study of sex ratios and
death rates of males and females at all ages will find a bibliography
of sources in Hambly’s compilation (1937, pp. 691-694). L. W. G.
Malcolm (1924, pp. 454-478) adduces some evidence to show that
masculinity can be higher at birth and in early years among Negroes,
for example, the Ibo and the Edo. We have, however, to beware of
errors that might arise from a discriminating infanticide that favored
the preservation of boys. And when dealing with adults there is a
discriminatory emigration to be reckoned with. The subject of
census returns is full of pitfalls.
P. Ryckmans (1938, pp. 242-258) adduces some evidence to
show a preponderance of males at birth in one of the Congo regions,
but the number of females is usually in excess of the number of males
at birth. Except in one province, the females of the first year sur-
vive better than the males.
Ryckmans points out that boys of fifteen years of age are more
numerous than girls in the provinces studied. But, in the absence
of written records and accurate time-keeping, the age of fifteen has
to be judged by the investigator. There is a definite tendency to
bias the results by classing well-developed girls as adult women even
though they may be only fifteen years of age or under. The same
error is not so likely to be made when judging the age of boys. The
tendency, therefore, is to get too many boys, and too few girls in the
fifteen-year age group.
The sex ratio data collated for the Ovimbundu are not incom-
patible with some of the statistics recorded for other Negro tribes,
SIZE OF FAMILIES 71
but the technique and results are all too uncertain to allow of clear
and definite census statements.
(6) The undoubtedly high death rate of 40 per cent demands
further attention. Evidently there is urgent need for more care of
mothers during pregnancy and delivery, for increased attention to
infant welfare, and for extension of clinical treatment for people
of all ages.
VI. SCARIFICATION AND DENTAL MUTILATION
INTRODUCTION
Searification is practiced only to a slight extent among the
Ovimbundu, the reasons for the mutilations being therapeutic and
esthetic. The following notes give all the information which was
available. The data indicate that therapeutic scarification consists
of a series of small cuts made over the affected region; no coloring
matter is introduced. On the contrary, esthetic scarification, which
is adopted chiefly by women, consists of cutting or pricking designs
with the point of a knife and rubbing burnt rubber into the cuts.
For details of persons scarified and dentally mutilated see Table I.
Of the men measured, only one in six had the typical dental mutila-
tion of the Ovimbundu; namely, a V-shaped notch between the upper
central incisors. Only one man in eleven was scarified, and the
marking is not heavy. General observation suggests that mutilation
of the teeth is less frequent among females than among males, and
that the custom is decadent with both sexes.
NOTES ON SCARIFICATION
Plate XXI, Left: Subject No. 17.—The marks were made when
the subject was ten or twelve years of age. A male operator passed
a needle under the skin and cut along the direction of the needle.
Plate XXI, Right: Subject No. 24.—A woman made the scarifica-
tion when the boy was a child.
Plate XXII, Left: Subject No. 40.—The marks were made by a
male when the subject was a child. The point of a knife was used
and burnt rubber was introduced into the cuts, so giving a dark blue
appearance to the cicatrice.
Plate XXII, Right: Subject No. 37.—The marks were made by a
man when the subject was a child. The appearance of the scar
indicates that burnt rubber was introduced into the cuts.
Plate XXIII, Left-—The scar, into which burnt rubber was
introduced, was made by a male operator when the subject (a male)
was a child ten years of age. The scars were made for ornament.
Plate XXIII, Right.—Information for right figure is the same as
for left figure. The scar shown on the left figure is on the right cheek,
the scar shown on the right figure is on the left cheek. The forehead
design, which is ornamental, and the abdominal scarification to cure a
painful spleen are shown in Plate XXX (right).
72
SCARIFICATION AND DENTAL MUTILATION 73
Plate XXIV.—Two male operators made these designs when the
subject (a male) was a boy about thirteen years of age. Each
operator made one design. The boy also had his teeth chipped when
he was about eight years of age. This subject stated that only
males perform tooth mutilation, but either a man or a woman may
searify. The subject paid for this treatment by working half a day
for each operator.
Plate XXV: Subject No. 43.—The marks are ornamental, and
they show a distinctly blue tinge under the skin. A man was paid
for making the marks when the subject was a child.
Plate XX VI: Subject No.32.—The blue cicatrices are ornamental.
No further information was given.
Plate XX VII, Left.—The subject was a woman who stated that
the designs were made by her mother’s brother when she was a child.
The cicatrices were faint and dark blue in color.
Plate X X VII, Right.—Ornamental scars under the eye of a woman.
Burnt rubber had been introduced.
Plate XXVIII, Left.—The subject was a woman. The forehead
design was made by cutting with a knife, and the other designs by
pricking with needles obtained from a white man. The needles were
made into a bundle. The operator was her mother’s brother, whom
she described as omesali (expert). This woman stated that the
marking of girls was at one time very common. The girls preferred
different designs, but two or more girls could have the same design
if they wished.
PlateX X VIII, Right.—This lozenge design was made on a woman.
A knife was used for making discontinuous cuts, but no coloring
matter was rubbed in.
Plate XXIX.—These designs were made when the subject was a
young girl. Her mother’s brother was the operator. The marks
are of bluish color, and the scar tissue is small. The scar on the left
cheek was hardly visible in front view.
Plate XXX, Left: Subject No. 13.—The cuts were made during a
cupping (bleeding) operation to cure a pain in the chest.
Plate XXX, Right.—The forehead design of this male is of the
ornamental type, namely, a faint scar of bluish color. The abdominal
searification resulted from cupping to cure pain.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abbreviations
AnAn Anthropologischer Anzeiger
JRAI Journal Royal Anthropological Institute
MAG Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien
ZFE Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie
CarRpboso, F. and Corrfia, A. A. M.
1916. Antropologia angolense, Quiocos, Luimbes, Luenas, e Lutchazes. Arquivo
oe phase e de Antropologia. Institut d’Anatomie, vol. 2, pp. 323-356.
isbon.
1918. Ibid, vol. 4, pp. 283-321.
CIPRIANI, L.
1930-31. Osservazioni antropometriche su indigeni asiatici e africani. Archivo
per Antropologie e la Etnologia, vols. 60 and 61. Yemen Arabs, pp. 136-
163; Mozambico, pp. 166-188; Zulu and Batonga, pp. 189-286.
CUNNINGHAM, D. J. (and others)
1909. Anthropometric investigation in the British Isles. Report of the Com-
mittee. London.
DENIKER, J. and LALoy, L.
1890. Les races exotiques a l’exposition universelle de 1889. L’Anthropologie,
vol. 1, pp. 257-293.
DINGWALL, E. J.
1931. Artificial cranial deformation. London. Ashanti, p. 1138.
FISHER, R. A.
1932. Statistical methods for research workers. London.
HAMBLY, W. D.
1934. The Ovimbundu of Angola. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Anthr. Ser., vol. 21,
No. 2. Chicago.
1937. Source Book for African Anthropology. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Anthr.
Ser., vol. 26. Chicago. Anthropometry of Negroes, Part I, pp. 168-170,
173, 176.
HERSKOVITS, M. J.
1930. The Anthropometry of the American Negro. New York, Columbia
University Press. Technique described, pp. 19-39.
1937. Physical types of west African Negroes. Human Biology, vol. 9, pp.
483-497.
Hooks, B. G. E. —
1926. A third study of the English skull with special reference to the Farrington
Street crania. Biometrika, vol. 18, pp. 1-55.
ISSERLIS, L. «
1914. Formulae for the determination of the capacity of Negro skulls from
external measurements. Biometrika, vol. 10, pp. 188-192.
Kitson, E. ‘
1931. A study of the Negro skull with special reference to the crania from
Kenya Colony. Biometrika, vol. 23, pp. 271-314.
Leys, N. M. and Joycn, T. A.
1913. Notes on a series of physical measurements from east Africa. JRAI,
vol. 48, pp. 195-267.
74
BIBLIOGRAPHY 75
MALCOLM, L. W. G.
1924. Sex ratios in African people. AA, vol. 26, pp. 454-473.
MARTIN, R.
1928. Lehrbuch der Anthropologie. 2nd ed., 3 vols. Jena.
MONTANDON, G.
1928. L’ologenése humaine. Paris. Measurements of Negroes, pp. 58, 174,
230-240.
PEARSON, K.
1904. On the measurements of internal capacity from cranial circumferences.
Biometrika, vol. 3, pp. 366-397.
RaTTrRAy, R. S.
1923. Ashanti. Oxford. Table of measurements, p. 335.
Roscoe, J.
1911. The Baganda. London. Tables of measurements, pp. 493-522.
RYCKMANS, P.
1933. Démographie congolaise. Africa, vol. 6, pp. 242-258.
SELIGMAN, C. G.
1930. Races of Africa. London.
StayT, H. A.
1931. The Bavenda. London. Tables of measurements, Appendix II, pp.
368-371.
STRUCK, B.
1922. boner einer Karte des Kopfindex im mittleren Afrika. ZFE, vol. 54,
pp. 51-113.
THOMSON, A. and BuxToN, L. H. D.
1923. Man’s nasal index in relation to certain climatic conditions. JRAI, vol.
53, pp. 92-122.
TILDESLEY, M. L.
1938. Measurements of head length and breadth. The systems of Broca,
Topinard, Monaco agreement, British Association, Martin, compared.
Man, No. 103.
TREMEARNE, A. J. N.
1911. Tribal marks of Nigeria (and measurements on 100 Hausa). JRAI,
vol. 41, pp. 162-171.
WENINGER, J.
1927. Eine morphologisch-anthropologisch Studie durchgefuhrt an 100 west-
afrikanischen Negern. MAG, Wien. See also R. Routil, AnAn, vol. 8,
pp. 270-279, 1932, for a review of Weninger’s data.
INDEX
Acromion from sole, height of, Ovim-
bundu, 30, 34-86, variation of, 39
Ages, of the Ovimbundu who were
measured, 65
Akamba, stature compared with that of
Ovimbundu, 63
American Negro, anthropometry of, 74
Angola, measurements of tribes, by Car-
doso and Corréa, 31; see Ovimbundu
Ashanti, measurements of, 75; com-
pared with Ovimbundu, 57; Negroes
measured, 56
Averages, comparison of significant dif-
ferences of, for Ashanti, Dahomeans,
Ovimbundu, 57; of measurements of
Ovimbundu, 36
Azande, tall Congo Negroes, 61
Baganda, cephalic index, nasal index,
and stature of, compared with Ovim-
bundu, 638; measurements of, 75
Bavenda, cephalic index, nasal index,
and stature of, compared with Ovim-
bundu, 62; measurements of, 75
Bibliography, 74, 75
Bigonial, -bizygomatic index, Ovim-
bundu, variation of, 39; breadth, coef-
ficients of variation for Ovimbundu,
Ashanti, and Dahomeans compared,
60; of Ovimbundu, 34-36, 37, varia-
tion of, 39
Birth rate, 69
Bizygomatic, coefficients of variation
for Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Daho-
means compared, 60; of Ovimbundu,
34-36, compared with Dahomeans,
Ashanti, and other W. Africans, 57;
variation of, 39; width of, for Ovim-
bundu, 37
Bleeding, scars left by, 73
Brachycephaly, see Cephalic indices
Brothers, of Ovimbundu men who were
measured, 65, Table IX, 66, 67
Ben. ear lobes of, joined to cheeks,
Bushongo, tallest of Congo Negroes, 61
Callipers, types used, 30
Census returns, difficulties of, 70
Cephalic indices, 40; of Angolan tribes
compared, Table V, 538; coefficients
of variation for Ovimbundu, Ashanti,
and Dahomeans compared, 60; of
76
Negroes of Congo compared with
Ovimbundu, 61; of Ovimbundu, 33,
compared with Dahomeans, Ashanti,
and other W. Africans, 57, variation
of, 39; study of, by Struck, 75
Chest girth, of Ovimbundu, 33, 34-36,
variation of, 39; -sitting-height index,
41, Ovimbundu, variation of, 39;
technique followed in measuring, 30
Children of Ovimbundu, survival of, 69,
Table IX, 66-67
Climate, and nasal index, 54
Coefficients of variation, of Ovimbundu,
Table I, 36, 39, for indices of measure-
ments, 41
Congo region, Ovimbundu compared
with Negroes of, 61, 62; sex ratio of
tribes in, 70; Vachokwe migrated
from, 55
Cranial capacities, methods of estimat-
ing, bibliographical references, 74, 75;
various formulae for estimating, 37
Cranial deformation, 58, 74
Cupping, scars left by, 73
Curves, of frequency distribution, 42-
50
Dahomeans, measurements of,
pared with Ovimbundu, 57
Death rates, 65-71
Dolichocephaly, see Cephalic indices,
Head measurements
com-
Ear breadth, coefficients of variation
of Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Daho-
means compared, 60; Ovimbundu,
variation of, 39
Ear index, 40, 41; Ovimbundu, varia-
tion of, 39
Ear length, coefficients of variation for
Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Daho-
means compared, 60; Ovimbundu,
variation of, 39
Ear lobes, of Ovimbundu joined to
cheeks, 82; see remarks column,
Table I, 34-86
Ear measurements, of Ovimbundu, 38,
89; technique followed, 29
East Africa, cephalic indices, height,
nasal indices of Negroes, compared
with those of Ovimbundu, 62, 63;
physical measurements of Negroes in,
74
Edo, masculinity in, 70
ee a
INDEX vf
Elende, Ovimbundu measured at, 42
Entrenched traits, see Coefficients of
variation, Variability
Errors (probable) for coefficients of
variation of various tribes, 60; for
measurements of Ovimbundu and for
indices of these measurements, 41;
Table I, 36
Eyes, Ovimbundu, color of, 32
Facial height, of Ovimbundu, total and
upper, 34-36, 38
Facial indices, 40
Facial measurements, of Ovimbundu,
37, 38, and W. African Negroes com-
pared, 57; technique followed, 29
Families of Ovimbundu, compound and
houses of, 68; size of, 65-71; size of,
compared with European families, 69
Frequency distribution, and cephalic
indices of Angolan tribes, 53; curves
of, 42-50; and nasal indices of An-
golan tribes, 54; and statures of
Angolan tribes, Table IV, 52
Hair, Ovimbundu, color and texture of,
32, on face and body, see remarks
column, Table I, 34-36
Hausa tribe, measurements compared
with those of Ovimbundu, 56
Head breadth, coefficients of variation
of Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Daho-
means compared, 60; of Ovimbundu,
34-36, compared with Dahomeans,
Ashanti, and other W. Africans, 57;
variation of, 39
Head height, Ovimbundu, 33, 34-36,
variation of, 39
Head length, coefficients of variation for
Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Dahomeans
compared, 60; of Ovimbundu, 33,
34-36, compared with Dahomeans,
Ashanti, and other W. Africans, 57;
variation of, 39
Head measurements, of Ovimbundu
and W. African Negroes compared,
57; technique followed, 29; see Ce-
phalic indices
Height, of Angolan tribes compared,
Table III, 52; coefficients of variation
of Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Daho-
means, compared, 60; Negroes of
Congo compared with Ovimbundu,
61; of Ovimbundu, 33, Table I,
34-36, compared with Dahomeans,
Ashanti, and other W. Africans, 57;
sitting-standing index, 41
Height of ear, of Ovimbundu, compared
with Dahomeans, Ashanti, and other
W. Africans, 57
Height of face, of Ovimbundu, 38
Height of nose, of Ovimbundu, com-
pared with Dahomeans, Ashanti, and
other W. Africans, 57
Ibo tribe, masculinity in, 70
Indices, Tables of, 40, 41; see under
separate items, Cephalic indices, Nasal
index, and similar terms.
Individual measurements, Ovimbundu,
Table of, 34-36
Instruments used, 30
Ivory, traded by Ovimbundu, 42
Jugofrontal index, Ovimbundu, 41
Jugomandibular index, 41
Keloids, see Scarification
Kenya Colony, study of skulls from, 74
Knife, used in scarification, 72, 73
Kwanza River, tribes situated near, 51
Luchaze, habitat, number measured, 51
Luena, habitat, number measured, 51
Luimbe, habitat, number measured, 51
Marriage, Ovimbundu, probable age at,
65
Maternal uncle, scarifies his sisters’
daughters, 73
Medical attention, 69, 71
Mesaticephaly, see Cephalic indices
Mine laborers, S. Africa, stature of, 62
Minimum frontal diameter, -bizygo-
matic index, of Ovimbundu, varia-
tion of, 39; coefficients of variation
of Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Daho-
means compared, 60; -head-breadth
index, of Ovimbundu, variation of,
39; Ovimbundu, 34-36, 37
Missionaries, medical, 69, 71
Nasal breadth, coefficients of variation
for Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Daho-
means compared, 60; of Ovimbundu,
34-36, variation of, 39
Nasal height, coefficients of variation
for Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Daho-
means compared, 60; Ovimbundu,
34-36, variation of, 39
Nasal index, of Angolan tribes com-
pared, Table VI, 54; and climate, 54;
coefficients of variation for Ovim-
78 ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE OVIMBUNDU
bundu, Ashanti, and Dahomeans
compared, 60; Negroes of Congo com-
pared with Ovimbundu, 61; Ovim-
bundu, measurements of, 38, varia-
tion of, 39, and W. African Negroes
compared, 56; theory of Thomson
and Buxton, 75
Nasal measurements,
lowed, 29
Needle, used in scarification, 72, 73
Nigeria, measurements of Hausa in, 75
technique fol-
Ornament, personal, see Scarification
Ovimbundu, comparison with other
tribes of Angola, 51-55; families, size
of, 65-71; further comparison with
tribes outside Angola, 56-64; scari-
fication and dental mutilation of, 72,
783; study of individual traits, 29-49;
traits compared with those of other
Negroes, summary of, 63
Pain, cured by scarification, 72, 73
Platyrrhiny, degrees of, Angolan tribes
compared, 54; see Nasal index
Polygynous family, 65
Portuguese, relations with Ovimbundu,
42, 54
Pygmy tribes of Congo, mixture with
Negroes, 62
Rubber, burnt and Pubbed in sears, 72,
73
Searification, 72, 73
Sears, see Scarification
er iia 65-71; studied by Malcolm,
T \
Sisters, of Ovimbundu men who were
measured, 65; Table IX, 66, 67
Sitting-height—chest-girth index, 41
Sitting height, coefficients of variation
for Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and Daho-
means compared, 60; of Ovimbundu,
33, 34-86, compared with Daho-
means, Ashanti, and other W. Afri-
ee 57, variation of, 39; technique
ol,
Sitting-height-standing-height
variation of, 39
Skin color, of Ovimbundu, 32
Slaves, sold by Ovimbundu, 42
South Africa, cephalic indices, heights,
and nasal indices of Negroes, com-
pared with those of Ovimbundu, 62
Standard deviations, of indices for
Ovimbundu, 41, of measurements of
Ovimbundu, 36
index,
Statistical method, bibliography, 74
Statures, of Angolan tribes compared,
Table III, 52; see Height
Sudanic Negroes, of W. Africa, meas-
urements compared with Ovimbundu,
Tables, I, individual measurements of
Ovimbundu with averages, coeffi-
cients of variation, standard devia-
tions, 34-36; II, indices of these
measurements, 40, 41; III, IV, V, VI,
comparing cephalic indices, nasal
indices, and statures of Ovimbundu
with other tribes of Angola, 52-54;
VII, comparing measurements of
Ovimbundu with various W. African
tribes, 57; VIII, coefficients of varia-
tion for measurements of Ovimbundu,
compared with Ashanti and Daho-
means, 60; IX, size of families of
-Ovimbundu, 66-67
Technique, of census returns, 65-70;
difficult, 40, 41; particulars of, 29-31;
recent discussion of, Tildesley, 75
Teeth, of Ovimbundu, mutilation and
condition of, 32; see notes in remarks
column, Table I, 34-36
Teita skulls, estimating capacity of, 37
Total facial height, -bizygomatic index,
Ovimbundu, variation of, 39; coeffi-
cients of variation of Ovimbundu,
Ashanti, and Dahomeans compared,
60; Ovimbundu, compared with Da-
homeans, Ashanti, and other W.
Africans, 57, variation of, 39
Total facial index, coefficients of varia-
tion of Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and
Dahomeans compared, 60
Trunk measurements, technique fol-
lowed, 30; of Ovimbundu, 338; see
Chest girth, Sitting height.
Upper facial height, -bizygomatic index,
Ovimbundu, variation of, 39; coeffi-
cients of variation for Ovimbundu,
Ashanti, and Dahomeans compared,
60; Ovimbundu, 38, compared with
Dahomeans, Ashanti, and other W.
Africans, 57, variation of, 39
Upper facial index, coefficients of varia-
tion of Ovimbundu, Ashanti, and
Dahomeans compared, 60
Vachokwe, habitat, number measured,
51; see Tables III-VI
Variability, coefficients of, for measure-
ments on Ovimbundu, 36; comparison
INDEX 79
of Ovimbundu traits, 39; of Ovim- Width of ear, Ovimbundu compared
bundu and several W. African tribes with Dahomeans, Ashanti, and other
compared, 57-60 W. Africans, 57
Width of nose, Ovimbundu compared
Wanyamwezi, stature compared with with Dahomeans, Ashanti, and other
that of Ovimbundu, 63 W. Africans, 57
West Africa, Negro tribes compared Zulu, stature, cephalic, and nasal index
with Ovimbundu, 56-61 of, compared with Ovimbundu, 62
THE LIBRARY OF THE
OCT 12 1938
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. X XV, Plate I
No. 2 No. 5
No. 2 No. 5
FRONT AND SIDE VIEWS, OVIMBUNDU MALES
Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate II
wi»
No. 10 No. 12
No. 10 No. 12
FRONT AND SIDE VIEWS, OVIMBUNDU MALES
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Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate XVI
No. 12 No. 10
No. 2 No. 5
BACK VIEWS, OVIMBUNDU MALES
See also Plates I and II
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