THE
ANTIQUARY:
A MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE STUDY OF THE PAST.
Instructed by the Antiquary times, He must, he is, he cannot but be wise.
Troilus and Cressida, Act ii. sc. 3.
VOL. XIV.
J U L Y— D E C E M B E R.
London : ELLIOT STOCK, 62, Paternoster Row.
New York: DAVID G. FRANCIS, 17, Astor Place.
1886.
THE GETTY CENTER LIBRARV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Quaint Conceits in Pottery Portion of Old Castle, Plymouth Specimens of Old Plymouth China Autograph of Sir Francis Drake Plymouth Ducking Chairs . Plymouth Borough Arms Hoe Gate, Plymouth ....
Ancient Tapestry
Penelope's Loom, from an Antique Vase found
Ancient Tapestry found at Bitten
The Arms of O'Meagher
Ruins of Clonyne Castle .
The Fortune Playhouse
The Red Bull Theatre
The First Silk Mill in England
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SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES I.
The Antiquary.
JULY, 1886.
^ome Oi0itot0 to 15atf) During tfje iaeirrn of 3lame.s 31-
By Austin J. King and B. H. Watts.
|HE feature which must be borne in mind by those who seek to under- stand the history of Bath during the early part of the seventeenth century, is that the city was in a state of transition. In the period of Roman domina- tion the Thermce formed the city ; but when, after for several centuries lying ruined and deserted, Bath was again rebuilt, the hot mineral waters played quite a secondary part in its history. We find, of course, occasional mention of their existence and healing quali- ties, but the baths were resorted to principally by lepers and the poor. The city, however, became of some importance as a centre of the West-country wool trade, and the seat of a community of Benedictine monks.
About the time of the dissolution of monasteries the baths were regarded as a mere adjunct to a tennis court, and were so little frequented that doubts were entertained as to their ownership. This question was settled only as one, and apparently the least important, of the terms of a general adjust- ment of rights between the Municipality and one Humphrey Cotton.
At the same time the wool trade decayed to such an extent that, in 1587, the Earl of Leicester wrote from Bath to Walsingham, that many of the clothiers were keeping on their workmen merely out of charity. The transition was from the state of a manufac- turing and ecclesiastical town, to that of a hydropathic establishment, for as trade de- cayed the reputation of the baths increased.
" The Bath," as it was commonly called, was a very small place. There were but five
vol.. XIV,
hundred houses within the walls, and only two suburbs — one a straggling street leading from the South gate to the Avon, the other a little cluster round the Church of St. Michael extra muros. The city had so little attained to the position of a health-resort, that, in 1622, the mayor complains that there is but one resident sojourner, whilst a few years before the whole municipality petitioned a judge to let one of the citizens sign his answer in an action without going to London, because he was a baker, and his absence would be most inconvenient.
The city was small, and so dirty as to excite indignation, even in those dirty times. Soil and carrion were thrown into the streets and routed amongst by pigs, and butchers slaughtered at their own doors.
The baths were pandefnonia. Men and women bathed together in open cisterns, which were never cleaned out, and the bathers were exposed to the chaff and the pelting of lads who crowded the public walk which surrounded them.
Although noblemen and gentlemen were accustomed, in increasing numbers, to fre- quent the city, they did so purely for the benefit of the waters, their stay seldom ex- ceeding ten days. There were certainly few attractions (for beautiful scenery was not then appreciated) to detain them.
In the pages which follow we shall en- deavour to confine ourselves as much as possible to the ipsissima verba of contem- poraries, and, whilst avoiding reference to more public events, to mention those personal traits which seem necessary in order to give an idea of what the society of the place really was.
Lord Cobham and Sir Walter Raleigh. These two gallants, in their earlier life bosom friends, were frequent visitors. Sir Walter was here in 1587, with the Earl of Leicester, and again in 1590 and 1600, and on each occasion received a complimentary present from the mayor (on one " a calf and a mutton "). But these were more or less formal visits. Raleigh's letters to Cobham, now extant, show how they were accustomed to run down here for a little change. Thus :
1597, August I. "I am yours before all that live." And Lady Raleigh adds a post-
2 SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES L
script, " If I could digest that last word of Sir Walter's letter I would likewise express my love, in which I am one with Sir Walter. Pray hasten your return, that we may see the Bath together."*
1601, August 27. "I hope you will be here to-morrow or Saturday, else my wife says her oysters will be all spoilt and her partridge stale. Let us know whether you have taken the house at Bath."t
The death of Elizabeth brought the Court favour of the two friends to a sudden close. Lord Cobham went indeed to Berwick to meet James, but was repulsed. Raleigh remained at Bath, and, on the very day fol- lowing Elizabeth's funeral, he thence wrote to Cobham :
" 29th April, 1603. My worthy lord, — Here we attend you, and have done this sen- night, and mourn your absence the rather because we hear that [your mind] is changed. I pray let us hear from you, at least ; for if you come not we will go heavily home, and make but short tarrying here. My wife will despair ever again to see you in these parts if you come not now." J
How these two involved themselves in a conspiracy with the view of placing Arabella Stuart on the throne — how Cobham turned king's evidence and Raleigh was condemned to death, but respited on the scaffold, are matters of history ; but we may imagine how, during the trial, the words, " I say that Cob- ham is a base dishonourable poor soul," must have been wrung from Raleigh's very heart, when Cobham's letter was put in evidence against him.
Fifteen years elapse before we hear of Cobham again at Bath. Glad to hide his dis- honour in the Tower, he remained there a prisoner until 16 18, the very year in which Raleigh was brought up to undergo the sentence pronounced against him in 1603. Then we read in a contemporary letter :
" Lord Cobham was permitted by the King to go to Bath with his keeper, for his health ; but when cured, and returning, was seized
* State Papers, Dom., Elizabeth, vol. cclxlv., No. 81.
+ //'/(/., vol. cclxxxi., No. 64.
X State Papers, Dom., Janus /., vol. i., No. 57.
with palsy, and conveyed to Sir Edward More's house at Odiham."*
Raleigh, meanwhile, was beheaded ; but his was the happier fate. Thus writes Anthony Weldon :
" So as myself heard William Earl of Pembroke relate, with much regret towards him, that he [Cobham] died in a room ascended by a ladder, at a poor woman's house in the Minories, formerly his landeresse, rather of hunger than of any more natural disease." f
One more sentence fitly concludes the tale. " Lord Cobham is dead," writes one of Dudley Carleton's correspondents, "and lies unburied for want of money."
The Burghley Family.
The great Lord Burghley was a patron of the city, as well as a frequent visitor. He was here in 1592, in particular, and wrote hence to Elizabeth, apologizing for not going to see her about some foreign letters, on the ground *' that he was in the midst of the cure."J
He was a friend and correspondent of Sir John Harrington, of Kelston, near Bath, who interested him in the work of the restoration of the Abbey Church.
This building was not a parish church, and was in course of rebuilding at the dissolution. The citizens plundered the structure and the stores collected for its completion, the lead alone being worth nearly ^^5,000. About the year 1572 a sense of shame was infused into the civic mind by the complaints of visitors, and the idea was started of demolish- ing the city parish church of St. Mary de Stalles, and restoring the Abbey Church as a substitute.
A remembrance was presented to Lord Burghley, in which it is recited " that there is in the spring time, and at the fall of the leaf yearly, great repair of noblemen and men of worth and others for relief at the Bathes there, and no convenient church or other place there for any company to resort together to hear the Word of God preached." The citizens pray to be allowed to collect money for the restoration of "a fair church builded by the
* Carew to Roe, State Papers, Dom,, James I. f Secret History, James I., vol. i., p. 156. X State Papers, Dom., Elizabeth.
SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES I,
late Prior, and not fully finished at the time of the suppression of the said Priory."*
The permission was given, but Sir John Harrington wrote to Lord Burghley, some years later, that more than p^i 0,000 had been collected, and but ;!^i,ooo spent on church work. The interest of Lord Burghley did not slacken, for Sir John, in answer to an inquiry, wrote to him in 1595 : "Our worke at the Bathe dothe go on haud passibus cequis^ we sometimes gallop with good presents and then as soon stand still for lack of good spurring ; but it seemeth more like a church than it has aforetime, when a man could not pray without danger of having good St. Stephen's death, as the stones tumbling about our ears, and it were vain to pray for such enemies."!
Lord Burghley was a personal benefactor to the work, and entrusted money to his steward, Thomas Bellott (himself a bene- factor, and founder of a hospital still bearing his name in the city), to be employed upon it.
Thomas Cecil, Burghley's eldest son, was in Bath with his father in 1592, and again in 1594; and in 1604, after his father's death, was presented by the mayor with *' 2 loaves of refined sugar weighing 20^ lbs. at 21 pence the lb." He was here again in company with Bellott in 1606 (having by this time been raised to the title of Earl of Exeter), and once more in 1608. On each visit he received a " gratification," consisting on the last occa- sion of " 2 capons, a dozen chickens, half a dozen couple of rabbits, and a sugar loaf" It is a little curious that we can find no trace of Robert Cecil (Lord Treasurer, afterwards Earl of Salisbury, the second and more famous son of Lord Burghley) visiting Bath until 161 2. The benefactions of his father, his own bodily infirmities, and the desire to frequent a place so favourable for the prose- cution of schemes of policy, would all have seemed calculated to draw him hither.
In 1603 he wrote to Harrington : " I wish I waited in your presence chamber with ease at my foode and reste in my bedde. I am pushed from the shore of comfort and know not where the wyndcs & waves of a Court will bear me. "J He seems to have meditated a
• State Papers, Dom., Elizabeth^ vol. ex., No. 24. f ^^iigiE AtttiqucT, vol. ii., p. 82. X Ibid., vol. ii., p. 264.
journey this year, but Charles Topclifie dis- suaded him, writing thus :
" Now my good lord hearing of your journey to the Bathe I beseech your Lordship most humbly that I may bring to your Lord- ship a professed doctor of physic very learned and most skilful in surgery called D'. Jacob Domingo a High German whom I dare as- sure your Lordship if he speak with your honour and do undertake to administer unto your Lordship for the occasion it shall move this journey to the Bathe which he doth altogether dislike."*
In 1608 there seems to have been a special reason for a visit, for Dudley Carleton is asked to go thither on the Treasurer's behalf, to in- terfere between Lord Norris and "his pretty daughter," whom he was practising "at the Bathe to disinherit."!
In 161 1 the Treasurer's health broke down, and the Bishop of Durham wrote to him from Bath that "rv'/a non est viveresedvalere/' and continues, " if your sickness & infirmity were of any cold cause or of any obstruction of the pores of your body I dare answer to your physician that some 10 days rest of the Cross Bath, which is as it were balnea lactis, would be more profitable to you than 40 days else- where."!
In March, 1612, Cecil purposed visiting Bath with the Queen ; but the visit of the Queen was put off, and that of Cecil some- what delayed.
He started for Bath at the end of April, 16 1 2, induced thereto not only by considera- tions of health, but because the Duke of Bouillon and the Coynt of Hanau, who had come to this country on an important negotia- tion, were there.
We have two narratives of the journey, one by Mr. Fynett, Cecil's servant, the other by Mr. Bowles, his chaplain (afterwards Dean of Sarum and Bishop of Rochester). §
"We left London," says Fynett, "the 27th April, with small hopes and less likelihood that such a journey could profit, otherwise than in his lordships willingness (not the
• State Papers, Dom., James /., vol. v., No. 36.
t Ibid., vol. XXXV., No. 71.
X Ibid., vol. Ixviii., No. 27.
§ Fynett's account is quoted in Winwood's Memoirs, vol. iii., p. 367 ; that of Bowles, in Peck's Desiderata Curiosa, Lib, vi.. No. 4.
B— 2
4 SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES I.
least part of a cure in sickness) to undertake it. By the way of our 6 nights baytes (at Ditton, my Lord Chandois ; Causam, my Lord Knowles ; Newbury, M'. Dolemans ; Marbro, M'. Daniels ', and Lacock, my Lady Stapleton) his lordship made many stops and shifts from his coach to his litter and to his chair, and all for that ease that lasted no longer than his imagination."
Mr. Bowles supplements this by telling us, that at Ditton Cecil said, "He was resolved to be buried in Bath, knowing that from any place there was a means of Resurrection & a way to Heaven ;" and that at Lacock, on Sunday the 3rd May, "he heard a sermon, dined and went to Bath."
On arrival at Bath, Sir Walter Cope called to pay his respects, and the patient began the course of bathing. " Upon his first tryals (wherein as in the rest he spent once a day but an hour of time and entered no further than the navel) he discovered such cheerfulness of humour, riddance of pains, recovery of sleep, increase of appetite and decrease of swellings, as made our comforts grow to the proportion of our affections."*
Bowles gives us the following interesting particulars : " Sir John Harrington, who dwells near the Bath at Kelston & who is sick of a dead palsy, came to my lord (i8th May). To whom my lord said, * Now, Sir John, doth one cripple come to visit another.' This day my Lord removed his lodging and was desirous to see the great church at Bath, where old master Johnf Bellott (his father's steward and one of his executors) had be- stowed some money of his fathers committed to his trust & a great part likewise of his own substance. The church he much liked, & the liberalities of such benefactors as had brought it to so good a perfection, — adding that he would himself bestow some good remembrance to the finishing thereof. And because old Mr. Bellott had spent all upon charitable uses, and left nothing for his kins- man, my lord in the church said, ' I give to my servant Bellott ;!^2o a year during his natural life.' My lord gave at the present J^/^ a week to the poor during his abode at Bath, ;j^3 to the hospitals, J^io to the guides, poor men in Bath, and jQt, to the Sergeants."|
* Fynett, ubi stipra.
+ A mistake for Thomas.
X The guides were attendants elected by the Com-
Fynett then tells us of the relapse : " The disease that had taken truce not peace, began again to discover its malignant qualities, brought new melancholy faintings & other dangerous symptoms so frequent, as the inter- missions which happened were interpreted but for lucida intervalla. The Bath was no more used, as that which afforded the utmost virtue in it, had, in making a kindly issue in his leg for the drain of the humour, but was thenceforth in the speculation of his lordships then attending Physicians D' Atkins and D' Poe held hurtful rather than profitable."
The following somewhat curious entry appears in the City Chamberlain's account : " The Lord Treasurer in provision for his kitchen, j[^d^ 17s. lod."
We learn from Mr. Bowles that " Master Pennam,* the parson of the city of Bath," called, and that Mr. Russell, the chaplain of the Bishop of Salisbury, preached before the Lord Treasurer.
During his stay in Bath Lord Hay arrived, bringing from the King " a diamond set or rather hung square in a gold ring without a foyle, and a token from the Queen;" and Sir John HoUist brought " a message and a token " from Prince Henry. The Earl's son Lord Cranbourne, against his father's wish, also came to visit him.
On the 2ist May, 161 2, Cecil left Bath in despair of effecting a cure, and was accom- panied as far as Lacock by Lord Hay and Sir John Hollis. On Sunday, the 24th, he died at Marlborough. |
mon Council to assist bathers. The sergeants were the mayor's mace-bearers, and were the officials nominally having charge of the baths.
* John Felling, instituted 1608.
t Sir John Hollis was an attached attendant of Prince Henry. He was a few years afterwards brought to trial and sentenced to pay a fine of ;^i,5oo, and to undergo a year's imprisonment, for " traducing public justice " with reference to the proceedings taken in respect of the murder of Sir Thomas Over- bury.
X It is an illustration of "how history is made" that Sir Anthony Weldon, a contemporary of Cecil, and presumably with good means of knowledge, thus inaccurately describes his death: "That for all his great honours and possessions and stately houses he found no place but the top of a molehill near Marl- bro', so that it may be best said of him, and truly, he died of a most loathsome disease, and remarkable, without a house, without pity, without the favour of that master that had raised him to so high an estate." — Secret History fames /., vol. i., p. 326.
SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES I
Men's tongues soon wagged. "I never knew," writes John Chamberlain only three days later, "so great a man so soon & so generally censured."*
But we have been anticipating. In 1603 the only visitor recorded as the recipient of civic gifts was Sir William Paston, a knight of Norfolk, who received " a pottell of wine & a lb of sugar, a buttered loaf & a dozen of fine cakes " — a gift which perhaps induced him to present J^xoo towards the rebuilding of the church.
In 1604 we have besides Lord Burghley, already mentioned, a somewhat curious cha- racter— Sir Robert Steward. He was in a constant state of impecuniosity. In 1606 he was commanded by the King to surrender his patent of the Royal Park at Bewdley (which he had assigned over to certain towns- men, who neglected it),t and yet in 161 1 he applies for " a grant of 2 trees out of every 100 of decayed or fuel trees (not timber) in the King's manors, his former grant of lops and tops not sufficing to pay his creditors."! Probably this grant was refused, as a few months later he wrote to the King asking him to pay his debts, and mentioned that he had taken sanctuary at Greenwich from his creditors.§ The very next month James be- came surety in ;i^8oo for payment of Steward's debts,li and in the December following he is smuggled out of the country as Ambassador in Sweden.H He received from the mayor, on his visit to Bath, " a gallon of wine and a lb of sugar."
In the year 1605 there is one of a class of entries which puzzles us. " The Lady Mar- ques," " a loaf of sugar." The same person was first feted in Bath in 1600, again in 1602; then, as we have said, in 1605 ; afterwards in 1609 (when she was presented with "a lamb, a dozen and a half of Chickens, two dozen pigeons, half a dozen couple of Rabbits, and 2 capons"), 16 1 2, 1 6 15, and 1616.
She is always referred to simply by title, and we have not been able to identify her.
In the same year (1605) the Archbishop of Canterbury made a visitation ; but Dr. Francis James, the Chancellor of the Diocese
* State Papers, Dom., y antes I.
t Ilnd.y vol. xxxviii., No. 72.
X Ibid., vol. Ixi., No. 106.
§ Ibid., vol. Ixiii., No. 83.
II Ibid., vol. Ixiv., No. 18. II State Papers, James /., Dec, 161 1, Docquct.
of Bath and Wells, probably acted as his deputy. We find the Chamberlain paying —
To Hawkins, for procurations at the Lord of Can- terbury's visitation, 3s. 6d.
To the Comm", for a copy of the parlars of the arrerages of the church land, and for bond and acquittance, 3s.
To Dr. James and his Company in wine and sugar, 3s. 8d.
Dr. John Still was at this time Bishop of Bath and Wells. He had been in Bath in 1594, but does not appear, from any muni- cipal records, to have been here between that date and his death, in 1607.
Another visitor was Sir Henry Neville, who was accompanied by his wife, and received a present of wine and sugar.*
The next year saw in Bath, in addition to Mr. Bellott and the Earl of Exeter (who have been already mentioned). Sir William Parsons, Sir Hugh Smith, of Long Ashton (a benefactor to the Abbey Church, and who was here also in 1606), the Dean of Westminster, Sir Law- rence Tanfield (Chief Baron of the Exchequer), and Lord Zouch.
The last nobleman was a frequent visitor and great patron of the city. His position in the Privy Council gave him great influence, and we shall find him exercising a supervision over the affairs of the city. The following entries appear :
1606. For a loaf of sugar given to the Lord Zouch,
IIS. 3d. 1614. To the Lord Zouch, a sugar-loaf of 9 lbs.
and a gallon of wine, i6s. 2d. 1620. To the Lord Zouch, a salmon, a lamb, 2 fat
capons, and 3 young turkeys, 22s. 4d.
In 1607 we find presents given to Sir Thomas George, Sir Thomas Horner, Doctor Powell, Archdeacon of Bath, the Dean of Wells, and Sir Roger Aston. This last was a somewhat noted personage. Originally a menial servant of James, he made himself so useful that he was raised to the posts of Gentleman of the Bedchamber and Master of the Wardrobe. He had been a frequent mes-
* This is the same man who, in 1610, so pluckily answered James. The King, at a conference at White- hall, to which he had summoned some thirty members, propounded two questions: (i) Do you think I am m want of means ? (2) WTiether it belongs to my subjects to relieve me? Sir Henry answered in the affirmative the first question, but to the second re- turned, " I must answer with a distinction. Whereyour Majesty's expense groweth by the Commonwealth, we are bound to maintain it — otherwise not." — IVinwood, iii. 235.
6 SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES L
senger between James and Elizabeth, and it was the custom of the latter to have him placed in the lobby, " the hangings being turned so that he might see the Queen dancing to a little fiddle, which was to no other end than that he should tell his master of her youthful disposition, and how likely he was to come to the throne he so much thirsted for."*
The year 1608 gives us the names of no visitors except the Earl of Exeter ; and in 1609 ^^ l^^ve only, in addition to the Lady Marquis and Dr. James, the Duke of Lennox, Sir Roger Wynborne, and Mr. Poore.
This year (1609) is assigned as the date of the first visitation of Dr. James Montagu, the bishop ; but it is somewhat curious that the records of the municipality bear no trace of what must have been an important visit.
The Duke of Lennox (Lynnocks, as the Chamberlain styles him) received " a calf, a wether, a lamb, and four capons." He was the son of Esme Stewart, Duke of Lennox at the accession, and held the addtional titles of Earl of Newcastle and Duke of Rich- mond.
{To be continued.^
IXuamt Conceits in Pottery.
By the late Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A., etc
VL — A Word or tw^o on Cradles, Caudle- Cups, AND Posset-Pots.
AVING in my last contribution to the pages of the Antiquary called attention to some mammiform vessels and to ietincB, it may not be uninteresting to follow that up by a few words upon cradles, caudle-cups, and posset- pots — all of which, among an infinitely great variety of other vessels, formed objects on which the potters of our grandmothers' days expended their skill and exercised their fancy.
And first as to Cradles. These, of course,
* Nichols, /Vo^^/mfj, vol. i., p. 34. On being asked by the Council, after Elizalx;th's death, how the King did, he replied, "Even, my Lords, like a poor man wandering about forty years in a wilderness and barren soil, and now arrived at the land of promise. "—/<J?a'.
were not usable, but merely model cradles, of small size, and were intended in some instances, I am afraid, as wedding gifts by the sly jokers of those days. In other instances there is every probability they were made, and given to, the fair recipient probably as a Christening gift, to be used for holding various little matters requisite for the toilet of the "welcome little stranger," whose arrival tended to increase the happiness and joy of the household. One of these little cradles is here carefully engraved from a drawing made from the object, many years ago, by myself. It is of excellent form, and elaborately orna- mented ; the ground being of the ordinary rich dark reddish-brown colour so characteristic of the Toft, Brampton, and Nottingham wares, and the ornaments are of buff and black. Its size is 7I inches in length, and 4f inches in height. It bears on the top the date of its manufacture, " 1693." (Fig. i.)
Another example with which I am ac- quainted is of seven years later date, and of some- what different form. It has over the head, or canopy, four perforated knobs, and two others at the foot. It bears the date "1700," and the name " william smith " on one side, and "MARTHA smith" on the other; and also the initials of the couple. On the back of the head of the cradle is a rude representa- tion of a crowned female head. Of this cradle M. Solon, in whose collection it is preserved, says : "A cradle of brown clay re- calls the christening festivities in families of the Midland Counties in the seventeenth century. The potter has always taken a pleasure in putting his best work upon
presents intended for his friends In
England, on the occasion of the birth of a first child, a cradle made of clay or precious
material was presented to the parents
These earthenware cradles were worked up in the plainest fashion ; no moulds or models were required, and any workman could make them. Some flattened bats joined together sufficed for the shape, and knobs, rolled in the hands, were stuck on every corner by way of decoration. Some of them were afterwards ornamented with an inscription or a pattern of coloured slip." Another example bears the name of " william simpson," and another that of " Joseph glass."
Others (and later ones) instead of being
QUAINT CONCEITS IN POTTERY.
made in the ordinary brown ware, were formed and fashioned in a far more finished and workmanhke manner, in Queen's ware, or other descriptions of finer pottery.
Another cradle, whose interest is greatly enhanced by the fact that it bears the name of its maker, is of the ordinary common brown clay, covered with a buff slip, and the letters and ornaments are of brown, spotted with white, slip. It bears on one side the name " iohn : meir 3" and on the other, in rudely formed letters, " made this," while at the foot is the date " 1708." The head, or canopy, a plain arch, is reticulated, and at the back of the head is a rudely formed female
bands of semicircles, in slip, as are the letter- ing and ornaments of the upper part. It has three handles, so that, as a "caudle-cup" or " gossips' bowl," it could, " like the tyg," be conveniently handed round.
Caudle-cups were also made of Delft ware, more or less richly ornamented with the ordinary blue painting, or with other colours. An example in my own collection has, besides its two handles, a spout some- what like that of a teapot, running up and attached to one of its sides ; thus the "caudle" could be poured out into glasses or other little vessels for imbibing.
The " caudle " was made in various ways.
FIG. I.
crowned head. The footboard is curved and serrated, and has a knob at each end.
Speaking of this cradle being made by John Meir, leads me to the next part of my present subject — that of the " Caudle-Cup," " Wassail," or " Gossips' Bowl," one of which (or a " posset-pot ") with which I am ac- quainted, bears the same name, "iohn mier MADE this cup 1 72 1." He was a potter in Derby, and other named examples of his make are in existence, as also others of the same family, notably the one I here engrave, which is in the Liverpool Museum. (Fig. 2.) It bears the name " richard meir," the letters being divided from each other by the scrolled stems of the conventional flowers composing the upper border. The belly, or bulged part, is richly ornamented in lozenges and
but in each case must have been marvellously good, and such as the old gossips would thoroughly enjoy. Here is one receipt for its making, of the date of 1664: "Take muskedine or ale, and set it on the fire to warm ; then boil a quart of cream and two or three whole cloves ; then have the yolks of three or four eggs dissolved with a little cream ; the cream being well boiled with the spices, put in the eggs and stir them well together; then have sops or sippets of fine manchet or french bread, put them in a bason, and pour in the warm wine, with some sugar and thick cream on that ; stick it with blanched almonds and cast on cinnamon, ginger, and sugar, or wafers, sugar plate, or comfits." The " Posset-pots " of early days were
8
QUAINT CONCEITS IN POTTERY.
somewhat akin to the Caudle-cups, and, and is of remarkable character, having, as
indeed, the two answered the same purpose I have stated is the case with a Delft-
in many places. An example, of the same ware caudle-cup, a spout for pouring out
period as the caudle-cup before engraved, the posset, at its side. The lower part
is of brown ware, elaborately ornamented in or *' belly," is somewhat curious in its
the usual way with slip, and bears the loyal construction, having double sides ; it is
motto: "god: save: the: qveen : 171 1." ornamented with foliage and flowers, the
In form it, and others of this earlier period, stems being simply incised and the leaves
differ a little from those of later date. Of these I give, as examples, two engravings, w^hich will well exhibit these forms. One of these, (F"ig. 3) dated 1700, is of Nottingham ware,
and flowers perforated. On one side of the upi^er part is incised the Royal Arms, and on the other is the name of the worthy for whom it was made :
QUAINT CONCEITS IN POTTERY.
Samuel Watkinson Major "\ y-»T..- „t.„.
^ Sarah his Wife ^ MaJoressP ^o^^'^i^'-
Later examples of " posset-pots " — and they are still occasionally made — retain, with however a better form of outline, pretty much the old shape, and, as of old, generally have the names of the parties for whom they were made incised or impressed into the clay. Here is a late Brampton example inscribedjand
have a pottle of good thick sweet cream, boil it with good store of whole cinnamon, and stir it continually on a good fire ; then strain the eggs with a little raw cream ; when the cream is well boiled and tasteth of the spice, take it off the fire, put in the eggs, and stir them well in the cream, being pretty thick, have some sack in a posset-pot or deep silver bason, half a pound of double-refined sugar, and some fine-grated nutmeg, warm it in the
r^i.-*'
FIG. 4.
bearing the date i8ig. (Fig. 4.) These will be sufficient to show their general form and character. Of the "Posset" itself, which they were intended to hold and dispense, I give the following receipt of the date 1664, which I select from several others which I possess. It will serve to amuse my readers, and show them in what good things our foremothers and forefathers were wont to indulge. It is as follows : " To make a Posset. Take the yolks of twenty eggs, then
bason and pour in the cream and eggs, the cinnamon being taken out, pour it as high as you can hold the skillet, let it spatter in the bason to make it froth ; it will make a most excellent posset ; then have loaf-sugar fine beaten, and strow on it good store. To the curd you may add some fine-grated manchet, some claret or white wine, or ale only." This rich compound I commend to the reader's attention.
Cbe jFolk^orc of a H^ottfj lincolnsljire tillage.
By Rev. M. G. Watkins, M.A.
I HOSTS, witches, and warlocks have reason to execrate the modern schoolmaster more than even the mediaeval exorcist. Thclatter merely dispossessed sundry ill-disposed ghosts here and there — ghosts which exceeded the bounds
of ordinary forbearance by frightening all who went down a certain road, or roaring so loud that the whole village was disturbed; but the public elementary school and the penny newspaper have driven all ghostly visitants bodily out of Christendom. Un- doubtedly village life has thereby lost much of its picturesqueness. In many parts of the country where not even a haunted house re- mains, an imaginative person may well specu- late whether life be worth living. " Tups "
lO
THE FOLK-LORE OF A NORTH LINCOLNSHIRE VILLAGE.
and turnips appear to possess transcendent interest to farmers, but they soon become as monotonous to ordinary men as four-course husbandry. It is another sign of the deca- dence of country hfe, a precursor of the happy days when all large estates shall be cut up into three-acre holdings, every landlord sum- marily dispossessed, and notice to quit served even on the fairies.
Every here and there throughout the country it fortunately is still possible, with a little research, to unearth a ghost or interview a real witch. North Lincolnshire was harried over and over again by the hordes of the North, and not only place names but also patronymics, personal characteristics and tra- dition, show that they made settlements in this district. It might have been expected, therefore, that much of their grim and other- world superstition would still linger in this division of the shire. Nothing of the sort really occurs. Puritan earnestness, eighteenth- century lukewarmness, and modern news- papers have effectually banished it. Not a trace of sacredness on account of Lok's de- vising the death of Balder by means of the mistletoe yet lingers round that plant. It is now only dear, as in other districts, to the amatory customs of Christmas. It seems likely, however, that the taboo pronounced upon the plant in northern mythology has kept its representation out of our churches. Five miles from Great Grimsby, the metropolis of cod-fish, lies a Wold parish, where at first sight all seems very dull and matter-of-fact, glamour of every kind having long faded into the light of common day, or (still more nauseously modern) of paraffin. But a little research has discovered some relics of Pa- ganism which are worth putting on record. Even at Grimsby, unlikely as it would seem among its multiform varieties of dissent, every Christmas produces a genuine survival of pre-reformation belief. Children parade the streets and neighbouring villages bearing a wax-doll, laid in cotton-wool inside a box, and singing carols. This is nothing else than the Bambino, so familiar to all travellers in Italy, the Child who was " wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid in a manger ;" and they who drop pence into the oyster-shell held out by the children, unconsciously act over again the part of the Wise Men.
The utilitarian character of the district will be seen from a remark of one of the natives made to us : "I thinks nowt to flowers ; there's nowt to eat in 'em." How truly has the Laureate sketched their Philistinism by putting into the mouth of such a woman in such a village !
" 'E niver knawd nowt but boobks, an' boooks as thou knaws, beant nout !"
And how expressive in its inexpressiveness their dialect is, may be gathered from a single example: "When you're coom to seventy, ye'll think — what now?" Rustic affairs are ordered better at present than in the last century, when Johnson remarked to Boswell that there was not a single orchard in Lincoln- shire " on account of the general negligence of the county." Let us hope that it will not sound ill-omened if we trust, in the present season of depression, that there will be no more examples of the sage's "clergyman of small income, who brought up a family very respectably, which he chiefly fed on apple- dumplings."
Turning first to the folk-lore connected with animals, the pig bears off the palm in Lincolnshire estimation. Old folk in our village never kill a pig when the moon is waning, or the bacon will waste when put into the pot. The creature should always be killed as the moon is increasing, then the bacon is sure to swell. It is but neighbourly to send a dish of pig's fry (" pig-fare," as the term is) to a friend; but the dish must on no account be washed when it is returned. It must be left soiled, else the bacon will not cure. So with " beestlings " (the milk of the first three milkings after a cow has calved), the pail must never be washed, or the cow will "go dry." Bees of course are fateful creatures ; they must be told when their master dies, or they will soon disappear. As a specimen of popular natural history, we may note that the caterpillar of a death's-head moth was brought to us with the information volun- teered that it would turn into a mole. The mole itself is firmly believed to throw up its hills every three hours. The badger has its legs on one side shorter than those on the other: hence it runs fastest in a ploughed field, where it can have one set of legs on a higher level than the others by running along a furrow. Shrews and hedgehogs are always to
THE FOLK-LORE OF A NORTH LLNCOLNSHIRE VILLAGE.
II
be killed, if possible. Vague, unknown powers of mischief are theirs. Toads, frogs, and newts are not much better ; they will " venom " a man if possible. Cut a worm in half with a spade; it makes no difference to the creature, after a few days the bits will have joined again. Winter thrushes are always called " Captain Cook thrushes ;" why, we cannot divine. It is very unlucky to " flit " a cat (/>., take it with you when you move in the general turn-out of Lincolnshire on old May Day, 1 3th May) ; but if you must take it with you, rub its paws with butter in the new house, and it will surely stay. Better still, keep it a night in the kitchen oven (cold, of course), and then it will never think of quitting its new home. If bitten by a fox, you will cer- tainly die within seven years.
Watching the church porch on the Eve of St. Mark's Day, in order to see the ghosts of those who were to die during the following year, was a superstition firmly believed in, though few dared to practise it. At the neighbouring church of Laceby, it is upon record that a curate called Vicars and a tailor named Hallywell, after "using divers ceremonies," watched on the mystic eve. Vicars fell asleep, when his companion " sees certain shapes, and Vicars amongst them, who died in y^ next year. This sight made Hallywell so aghast that he looks like a Ghoast ever since. The number of those who died, whose phantoms Hallywell saw, was, I take it, about four-score." An old lady used to talk of a mysterious phantom like an animal of deep black colour, which ap- l)eared before belated travellers. On hearing that we had been attacked at midnight by a large dog, she eagerly inquired : " Had it any white about it ?" and when we assured her that it had a white chest, she exclaimed in thank- fulness : " Ah ! then it was not the shag-foal !" No passing bell was ever rung after sunset. It would have portended the direst calamity. One woman in a fairly respectable position begged seriously for a piece of Communion money, to be made into a ring to keep off" fits. When a couple was being married, it was firmly believed that the first one who knelt when being blessed would die first. Others said, the first who should eat on reaching home would assuredly meet this fate. It was direfully unlucky to keep pea-
cock feathers in a house. If a pigeon flew to the window of the room where a sick person lay, it was a certain omen of death. Old folks remembered getting up early to see the sun dance on Easter morning. The widow of a man who was killed many years ago in a tavern brawl, told us that before she knew of his death, she heard his ghost come stamping upstairs. It said, ** I-.ie still, good bairn," to her, whereupon she covered her head; and then on hearing it stamp down- stairs again, put her head up from under the bedclothes, and perceived the strongest smell of brimstone she ever smelt.
May Day was the village saturnalia; not May I, but May Day by Old Style, May 13. Within the last twenty years we have heard in the village public shot after shot being fired behind the house for a kettle as a prize, while peals of laughter resounded through the still spring evening. The parish clerk had been a notable shot at kettles in his day. " I got fifteen kettles," he told us ; " ten years running, I got one. There's two in North America, two in Australy, and one at Legbourne. We kept three oursens, and sold the rest. I won a couple o' Queen metal teapots too, and a guinea 'at !" Much fight- ing, drinking, and dancing went on at these village feasts thirty years ago; the "lasses" ran races down the road for "gown-pieces," and donkey-racing was popular. The regular prizes for a donkey-race were : ist, a bridle ; 2nd, a pair of spurs ; 3rd, a jockey's whip. A powerful farmer of the parish stopped these varied entertainments because in a wet hay- time the men would not work, and always stayed off" their ordinary labour for two or three days drinking; "and a gude thing, too !" said a village wife, who told us of this suppression of the gaieties. Ten years before that time the cock-pit was a recognised in- stitution in the village. Worse still, the pit was dug in the parson's garden, for of course in those days he was non-resident ! " Pan- cake Tuesday " only ranked second to May Day in feasting and revelry. A "pancake bell" sounded from some churches. Now all these jollities have disappeared, and life has become very sombre. Almost the only relaxation now comes from the "lasses" going home to see their mothers for a fort- night in May, and from going a-begging on
12
THE FOLK-LORE OF A NORTH LINCOLNSHIRE VILLAGE.
many a portions, Yet this
St. Thomas's Day. Then all the old (and many of the young) women parade through the village, and call at all the substantial houses. The village shop perhaps gives them a candle apiece ; one farmer gives each family a stone of flour; another a piece of meat; yet a third brews a quantity of hot elder- wine, and each woman has a glass and a piece of plum-cake. All well-to-do people give the widows a shilling each ; many are badgered into sending out five shillings, or even more, for the troop to divide as they choose. Then ensues, as may be expected, quarrel. The masterful obtain
the poor and the weak get none.
annual "sportula" of Lincolnshire villages is much looked forward to and en- joyed.
Among the miscellaneous superstitions and folk-lore of our village, it may be noted that no eggs must on any account be brought into a house after sunset. An old lady, lately dead, would " call her boys " (forty years old) "finely," if she heard them sharpening a knife or the like after that time of the day. She always put a pinch of salt into the churn to keep the witches out. Whenever a baby made its first visit, it was necessary to give it something at every house it entered, either a penny, an egg, a piece of cake, or the like. No woman at a wedding ought to have a bit of black about her. Lasses used to try how many years it would be before they were married, thus : at the first new moon of the year their eyes were bound with a new silk handkerchief, which had never been washed. Then they were led out into the garden, and told to look up and count how many moons they could see. If they saw two, three, five, or whatever the number might be, so many years they were told would elapse before marriage. This ceremony always gave an occasion for lovers, farm-servants, and the like, it may be noted, to swing lanterns and lamps before the girls' eyes, and could not fail to create much fun. In a thunderstorm it was needful that all doors should be opened. All fires were not caused by light- ning. It was well known that a stackyard was consumed some forty years ago by two men who were out poaching. The one was tipsy, and imperious even when not in his cups. So that when he pointed the gun at
his comrade, and threatened to shoot him unless he at once set fire to a farmer's stacks, by way of winding up their evening's amuse- ment with a bonfire, the man thought it wiser to comply. The " first-foot " belief of the Scotch on New Year's Day does not come down so far as Lincolnshire, but we knew an old farmer and his niece who always took care on that day to be the first to leave the house, and to return with something in their hands — an egg, a flower, or piece of holly. A clergyman on the Wolds, who possesses a church with a fine echo, has created his own folk-lore for New Year's Day. As soon as twelve o'clock has brought the end of the old year he leaves his study, and opening the door shouts out " A happy New Year to you !" which is immediately returned by the echo ; it being what Mark Twain calls, in his amusing paper on the subject, a seven- powered echo.
In a few more years the harmless beliefs of superstition and folk-lore will have utterly died out in North Lincolnshire. In just the same manner did the Orcades and Hama- dryades, together with many more bright creatures of fancy, disappear from Grecian mythology as the study of wisdom and philo- sophy advanced. Ere long there will be little room left for fancy and imagination in England. We all grow more matter-of-fact and prosaic year by year. The Golden Year will speedily dawn when all will become virtuous and educated on compulsion, a con- tented race, each one cultivating his own allotment, and milking his cow. We end abruptly, overpowered by these delights, only asking one question. Shall we all then be happy ? Does spade-husbandry and reading good books seem the final end of " a being breathing thoughtful breath " ? Perhaps some will cherish a vague longing, amid all this social progress, for the dear old fairy-tales and imaginative beliefs of their childhood.
OLD FULHAM AND PUTNEY BRIDGE.
»3
flDlD jFulfiam anD IPutnep T5ritige.
They now at Putney pass the wood-piled bridge, On either side an ivied church, and ridge Of gentle rising hills, bedecked with green, And groves apparent made for beauty's queen ; Here Nature lavished all her stores so kind. To please the fancy or to charm the mind.
EFORE old Fulham Bridge, or as it is more commonly called, Putney Bridge, was built in the year 1728, the ancient ferry, which dated from the time of the Conquest, was used by all persons travelling to and from London to the west of England ; consequently, as far back as the sixteenth century, the want of a bridge at this part of the Thames was greatly felt, for at that time there were none between those of London and Kingston.
The approach to the ferry at Fulham was on the site of the draw-dock on the east side of the old bridge, and that of Putney, by the opening to the hythe, still existing, in the river wall at the lower end of Brewhouse Lane, which lane was named after the brewery hard by, where traded, nearly the whole of the fifteenth and early part of the sixteenth centuries, the ancestors of Oliver Cromwell. Only recently, some workmen, while removing some waterpipes, came upon part of the landing-stage of Fulham Ferry, the oak planking being quite black and perfectly sound.
Fulham was originally called Foulhame, some say on account of the foul, marshy nature of the land, others, because abundant water-fowl found a home in the marshes. The name given by the Celts to Putney was Pwtian or Putten, and by the Saxons Putten- hythe, after the hythe above mentioned. And now, in a few short months, the last vestige of the old timber bridge which connected these two ancient towns, and which, since the rebuilding of Kingston, was the oldest spanning of the Thames, will be swept away, giving place to the costly granite structure erected by the Metropolitan Board of Works.
And yet the old bridge is not the first that has crossed the river in this neighbourhood, for Lord Essex constructed one of boats early in November, 1642, to follow King Charles L, who, with his army, was quartered at Kingston, where he had retreated by crossing Kingston Bridge, after having un-
successfully stormed some earthworks thrown up by the Republican forces at Parsons Green in Fulham.
Memorable Accidents, of Tuesday the 15 th November, 1642, thus mentions the event :
" The Lord-Generall hath caused a bridge to be built upon barges and lighters over the river Thames, between Fulham and Putney, to convey his army and artillery over into Surrey, to follow the King's forces ; and he hath ordered that forts shall be erected at each end thereof to guard it; but for the present, the seamen, with long boats and shallops, full of ordinance and muskets, lie there upon the river to secure it."
This bridge crossed from Brewhouse Lane, a lane leading from Parsons Green, where the two armies met, to the Thames, to the Putney shore; the fort there remained intact until about the year 1845, when it was removed, and was situated in the market- grounds immediately below the Cedars Estate.
Putney was for some time the head- quarters of the Parliamentary army, councils being held in the parish church, the mem- bers sitting round the communion-table.
Twenty-seven years later, in the month of April, 167 1, a Bill for building a bridge over the Thames from Fulham to Putney was in- troduced into the House of Commons, and met with considerable opposition. {Vide Grey's Debates^ vol. i., pp. 4, 5.)
Mr. Jones, the member for London, argued that the Bill would question the very being of London — that next to pulling down the borough of Southwark nothing could ruin it more. All the correspondence westward for fuel, grain, and hay, if the bridge were built, would not be kept up. London re- quired a free passage at all times ; and if a bridge, why, a sculler could scarcely pass at low water. 'Twould alter the affairs of the watermen to the King's damage, and the nation's cost.
Sir William Thompson said it would make the skirts of London too big for the body. It would cause sands and shelves, affect the navigation, and cause ships to lie as low as Greenwich.
Mr. Boscowan remarked. If a bridge at Putney, why not have one at Lambeth? Neither Middlesex nor London required it.
14
OLD FULHAM AND PUTNEY BRIDGE.
Sir John Bennett said the Corporation would agree to it if thereby they were secured from another bridge at Lambeth.
The Lord Mayor said if carts went over, the City must be destroyed. He heard it was to be of timber, which would hinder the tide, that watermen must stay till it rose. When between the bridges the streams were abated, in time no boat would pass, and the river be rendered useless for naviga- tion.
The Bill was lost, fifty-four members being for and sixty-seven against it.
It was chiefly through the exertions of Sir Robert Walpole that the bridge was ulti- mately built ; indeed, the old centre lock, removed in 1870 to give space in conse- quence of increased water traffic, was named after the great statesman.
The story goes, that one day Sir Robert, after attending the King at Hampton Court, was returning with all speed to Westminster, to take part in some important debate in the House — or possibly he may have been late for dinner — when, on arriving at Putney, he saw the ferry-barge high and dry on the opposite shore, and no watermen about. It was in vain he and his servant shouted across the river, for the ferrymen were enjoying themselves in the Swan Tavern, and did not care to leave good liquor merely to ferry over a couple of horsemen. So there and then Sir Robert made a vow that a bridge should take the place of the Fulham and Putney Ferr)'. There may be some truth in the story ; however, it was almost entirely through Sir Robert Walpole's influence that the Act was passed in the 12 Geo. I., 1726, "for Building a Bridge cross the River Thames, from the Town of Fulham in the County of Middlesex to the Town of Putney in the County of Surrey. ^^
When, therefore, the broad-faced and very corpulent cavalier, with legs cased in jack- boots, as Thackeray in his lectures on " The Four Georges," describes Sir Robert, galloped from Arlington Street to Richmond Lodge, on the afternoon of the 14th of June, 1727, to wake a little red-faced gentleman in a night-cap, and hail him as His Sacred Majesty King George II., the occupation of the ferryman of Fulham and Putney was as good as gone.
In his paper on Old Fulham Bridge,
read before the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society, Mr. J. F. Wadmore says : " The importance in which the matter was thus regarded may be best understood by the number and influence of the illustrious list of noblemen and gentlemen who were appointed Commissioners to carry out the Act. Amongst them we find the Lord High Chancellor, the Lords Privy Seal, Steward and Chamberlain for the time being, the Dukes of Somerset, Richmond, Bolton, Bedford, and Newcastle, the Earls of Lincoln, Peterborough, Burlington, Scar- borough, Grantham, Godolphin, and Hert- ford, Lords Viscount Townshend, St. John, Falmouth, Lord Percy, De La Warr, Onslow, Walpole, Lord Viscount Palmerston, Lord Malpas, Lords William, Henry, and Nassau Powlet, the Speaker of the House of Commons, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Knights of the Bath, Baronets, Knights, Judges, officials, and a large number of Honourables, Right Honourables, and Esquires, Members of Parliament, and others, to the number of not less than no, including the Lord Mayor for the city of London."*
The first meeting of the Commissioners was held at the old Swan Tavern, before referred to, when sixty-eight noblemen and gentlemen attended. This tavern, built in the reign of William III., with its trim tea- garden, was a very picturesque specimen of an old waterside inn. In the elaborate iron- work which supported the sign was wrought the date 1698. The Fulham Light Infantry Volunteers, raised by Captain Meyrick in 1800, used to parade here, and mention is made of the Swan by Captain Marryat in Jacob Faithful. It was completely destroyed by fire in 1871.
Eight designs for bridges were submitted to the Coanmissioners " appointed for the Building of the Bridge," two of which, one of timber, the other of stone, were by Mr. John Price, who rebuilt the Church of St. Mary's, Colchester, and the Canons, near Edgeware, belonging to the Duke of Chandos. The other competitors were Captain Perry; Mr. Thomas Ripley, who built for his patron, Sir Robert Walpole,
* See Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archceological Society, vol. vi.
OLD FULHAM AND PUTNEY BRIDGE.
IS
Houghton Hall, Norfolk, the Admiralty, Whitehall, and other public works ; his name, as Mr. Wadmore reminds us, occurs more than once in Pope's Essays :
Who builds a bridge who never drove a pile, Should Ripley venture all the world would smile.
Again —
Heaven visits with a taste the wealthy fool, And needs no rod, but Ripley \vith his rule.
There were also Mr. William Halfpenny, the author of Magnum in Parvo ; or, the Marrow of Architects ; Mr. Godson ; and Sir Jacob Ackworth, the designer of Old King- ston, Chertsey, Staines, Datchet, and Windsor Bridges, who submitted two designs. These were all to be of timber. The whole were referred to a committee for consideration, and by the advice of Sir William Osborne, one of Sir Jacob Ackworth's was selected. ,The building of the structure was entrusted to Mr. Thomas Phillips, carpenter to George IH.
It was owing, no doubt, to the interest taken by Mr. Cheselden, the eminent surgeon and anatomist, in the construction of the abutments and toll-houses, which accounted for Faulkner, in his History of Fulham, erroneously stating that "the plan of the bridge was drawn by Mr. Cheselden, surgeon of Chelsea Hospital," causing a local wit of the time to remark that he was the right man to construct such a piece of architecture, as it had so many wooden legs.
The estimated cost for building the bridge with the toll-houses and abutments was ;^ii,555 i6s. 8d. ; but the total cost, in- cluding that of the Bill, approaches, purchase of the ferry, and other rights, amounted to ;<^23,o84 14s. id.
For their interests in the ferry were paid :
£ s. d.
To the most noble Sarah Dutches dowager of Marlborough Lady of ye Manor of Wimbledon — For her Graces Interest in y® Ferry from Putney to Fulham 0.364 10 6
To the R' Rev'', the Lord Bishop of London Lord of y° Manor of Fulham in right of y"= Church — For his Lord- ships Interests in y'= Horse Ferry from Fulham to Putney - - - - 0.023 o o
The right that the Bishops of London held under the ferry, to pass free of toll for ever, was reserved.
The celebrated Sarah was for eighteen
years Lady of the Manor of Wimbledon and Putney.
According to Sir Jacob Ackworth's plan, the length of the bridge was to be 786 feet, and the width 24 feet, with a clear water-way of 700 feet, with twenty-six openings or locks, and there were to be "on the sides of the way over the Bridge Angular Recesses for the Safeguard and Convenience of Foot- passengers going over the same."
In consequence of alterations made in 1870 and in 1872, the openings were reduced to twenty-three, but, in other respects, the structure remained to the last according to the original plan.
The bridge was eventually opened for foot- passengers on the 14th of November, 1729, and on the 29th for all traffic. The secretary, Mr. Eden, was ordered, at a meeting at the Lottery Office on the 1 3th, " to be at Fulham to-morrow morning at 9 of the Clock" to put the tollmen on their duty, and to give notice to the churchwardens of both parishes to warn the ferrymen not to ply ; " and that he do fix a Paper at each end of the Bridge giving Public Notice of the Proceedings of y^ Proprietors this Day relating to this Affair, and that he do Publish in y* News-Papers an Account of the Toll as settled by Act of Parliament."
In Fog's Weekly Journal for November 15, 1729, under "Home News," we find that "Several Gentleman have allready crossed over the Bridge on Horsback ;" and in the same journal for the 22nd of the same month, and also in the British Gazetteer, " Last Friday His Royal Highness the Prince went to hunt in Richmond Park, and on going thither and returning back passed over the new Bridge between Fulham and Putney, in a Coach and Six, with two other Coaches in his Retinue, attended by his guards, which was the first time of any Coach passing over the same. And His Royal Highness was pleased to order five Guineas for the workmen."
Formerly the King paid ;^ioo annually for the passage of himself and his household over the bridge.
Before the completion of the toll-houses, the proprietors met at Will's Coffee House ; the Lottery Office, Whitehall; the Devil Tavern, Fleet Street ; the White Lyon, and the Bull in Putney — the latter is still standing \
t6
OLD FULHAM AND PUTNEY BRIDGE.
and in Fulham, at the Swan, the Queen's Head, King's Head, and King's Arms.
The tollmen were provided with "hatts and gowns," which gowns were to be of a "good substantial cloth of a Deep blue Colour, and lined with blue Stuff or Sheloon." They were also supplied with staves with brass or copper heads. Bells, too, were ordered to be hung " on the tops of the toll- houses to give notice of any disorder that might happen, so that the collectors might go to the assistance of each other as there might be occasion." Precautions not un- necessary, when we remember that over the bridge was the direct road to Putney Heath, (where the notorious Jerry Abershaw was gib- beted), and Wimbledon Common, haunts of the highwayman and footpad.
In the year 1751 the old custom of swear- ing the clerks and tollmen to the " Fidelity of their Office " was gone through.
One or two items taken from the old account-books may prove interesting :
1733, Jan. 5. Subscribed towards y^ New £ s. d. Organ that has been lately Erected in Fulham Church 10 o o
1749, May. Paid at 3 times Advertising the Breakfast at Putney Bowling-green House- - - - - - -060
1749, May. Paid at Advertising the Prince's
Plate to be Row'd for, &c. - - -023 (This appears to have been rowed for annually).
1749, July 9. Paid for taking up a Buckett that had laid 2 years in y^ Thames, and
very little y^ wors - - - -006
1750, May 15. Paid towards the subscrip- tion of Epsom Races - - - -330
1750, May 15. Paid to Toll Men to Drink as usual in the Race Week - - -026
1752, April 13. Gave the Toll Men to
drink being the First £,\o day - -010
1752, Aug. 9. Paid Expenses at Sending two Irish Fellows to Clerkenwell New Jail for Assaulting and Beating the Toll
Man on his Duty on Sunday the 9"' July 0126
1753, April 23. Paid to Advertising a Race
on Putney Heath - - - -020
1755, Feb. I. Expenses of taking 2 Men before Justice Beaver, & Carrying one of them to Bridewell that knocked James Merritt down & otherwise used him very ill 056
1755, Feb. I. Paid the Constable for his Trouble in y** affair ... 050
I75S> Feb. 8. Paid Justice Beaver at Swearing self and Toll Men, and his trouble in Comitting one of the Persons to Bridewell that abused the toll Men - 050
1755, Dec. 31, Gave the Two Blind
Fiddlers 010
In 1735, when the Bill was before Parlia- ment for the proposed new bridge at West- minster, the proprietors became much alarmed that it would seriously interfere with their interests, and petitioned the House to that effect.
At a meeting on the 3rd of March, " Mr. Conduit comes in and acquaints the Gen^ that it is his Opinion, and he finds it also, upon talking with Sir Charles Wager and Sir Robert Walpole and other gentlemen, to be their Opinion, that wee Should on occasion of the Bill now depending in Pari'"' for a Bridge at Westm'', Petition the House of Commons for their regard to Our property, and for easing us with respect to the rates and Assem's Imposed by the Town of Putney and Fulham, and thereupon Mr. Conduit read a draft of a Petition for that purpose, and left it w^th the Gentlemen to consider and alter and amend as they should think fit, he being obliged to go somewhere else."
Theodore Hook lived the latter part of his life at Egmont Villa, near the bridge at Fulham. One day when he and a friend were looking at the bridge, from the lawn which ran down to the river, the latter asked if it was a good investment. " I don't know," said Hook, " but you have only to cross it, and you are sure to be tolled^
In days gone by, the bridge was a favourite resort of the lovers of the gentle craft, and many a fishing punt has been made fast to the old oak piles ; but of late years the rod and line have not been seen, except when old Honest John Phelps, the last of the Fulham watermen, has occasionally moored his boat to one of the locks, and now and again hooked a roach or dace.*
Honest John will tell you that sometimes when Hook engaged him to row on the river, he, Theodore, would provide himself with a huge horse-pistol, and suddenly discharge it when passing close to another wherry, parti- cularly if it carried elderly ladies.
Hook died at his river-side residence, and was buried in Fulham churchyard.
In 1877 the doom of the old bridge was sealed. In that year an Act was passed, giving power to the Metropolitan Board of Works to purchase, and free of toll, the
* The Phelps family is the oldest in Fulham, the name first appearing in the parish register in the year 1593-
OLD FULHAM AND PUTNEY BRIDGE.
17
metropolitan bridges, and to rebuild those of Battersea, Fulham, and Hammersmith. On the 26th of June, 1880, in a deluge of rain, his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales declared the old bridge free of toll for ever ; and in such another deluge the Prince, on the 1 2th of July, 1884, laid the stone of the new one, which was opened by his Royal Highness on the 29th of May of this year.
When Arthur Onslow took the chair on the 26th of July, 1726, at the first meeting of the Commissioners, two resolutions were passed : the first was that a humble petition to his Majesty should be presented, praying for power to build the bridge ; the second was, "That such a bridge be built as may supply the present exigency, and be useful for the building of a more substantial bridge, as there may be occasion." And now in the year 1886, the building of the "substantial bridge " has been completed, and opened to the public, and the tetnporary old wooden bridge closed for all time, having stood for nearly 160 years the ravages of frosts, time, and tide, remaining a sturdy old structure to the last.
A. Chasemore.
a^unicipal ©fiSces : Carlisle-
By Richard S. Ferguson, F.S.A.
WO things should be kept in mind in studying the municipal history of Carlisle. First, that it was re- founded by the Red King, when it had long laid waste, as a military post. A military post it always remained until the union of the two kingdoms under one crown : it then fell into great poverty ; it developed some trade at the end of the last century, and finally has become a great railway centre. Second, that its municipal history is one long and most interesting struggle for supremacy between the democratic trade guilds, eight in number, and the oligarchic guild mercatory or corporation. I have elsewhere told in print some of its most exciting episodes. Carlisle, of course, had its struggle with the Crown for leave to manage its own affairs. Carlisle differs from Colchester, whose insti-
VOL. XIV.
tutions, Mr. Round hints, may have a con- tinuity with Roman ones. Carlisle is cut off by a waste period of two hundred years from any continuity with Roman institutions. Colchester's name is Roman; Carlisle's is British.
Equally with Mr. Round have I found a difficulty in making a satisfactory system of arrangement of the offices. My readers must take them as they come :
(i) Citizens. — In the Pipe Roll of the 31 Henry I. (5th August, 1130, to 4th August, 1 131) is the following entry :
Chaerleolium. Hildredus reddit compotum de XIIII li. & XVI s. & VI d. de veteri firma de Chaer- leolio & de Maneriis Regis. Et in operibus Civitatis de Chaerleolio, videlicet in Muro circa Civitatem faciendo liberavit XIIII li. & XVI s. et VI d. et quietus est.
In the Pipe Roll for the 4 Henry II. (19th December, 1157, to i8th December, 1 158) is the following entry :
Et idem vicecomes reddit compotum de XX li. de dono Ciuitatis Cavleolii.
And in the Pipe Roll for 33 Henry II. (19th December, 1186, to i8th December, 1187):
Ciues Carleolii reddunt compotum de LX m de Dono suo.
In the Chancery Fine Roll, 5 Henry III. (28th October, 1218, to 27th October, 12 19) is the writ to the Sheriff of Cumberland, in which we find :
Rex &ct Sciatis quod &ct plenius didicimus quod eo tempore quo Gives nostri Carleolii habuerunt Civi- tatem nostram Carleolii ad firmam &ct.*
It would be easy to multiply instances from the Pipe Rolls of Henry II., Richard I., and John, and from other documents showing that Carlisle was a city {civitas) and its govern- ing body citizens {cives) : all the charters of Carlisle from the lost one of Henry II. (recited in one of Henry III.) use these terms, and in all of them up to the Governing Charter of 13 Charles I., the style of the Corporation is " Mayor and Citizens " {Maior et Cives). That charter altered it to " Mayor, Aldermen, Bailiffs and Citizens" {Maior, Aldervianni, Ballivi et Cives), a style which we even now much prefer to that imposed
* This writ gives most valuable information as to the early municipal history of Carlisle, and the mills, fisheries, and tolls which the citizens held of the
King.
i8
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
upon us by the Municipal Corporations Reform Acts.* On the seal of Carlisle is the legend :
S' COMMVNIS : CIVIVM : KARLIOLENSIS.f
Instances of this exist among the Corporation muniments over four hundred years old. It should be noticed that Carlisle is a royal city ; Cives nostri and civitatem 7iostram in the King's writ cited above.
(2) Burgesses. — On the other hand, in the same Pipe Rolls of Henry II., Richard I. and John, we find the term Burgum and Burgcnses applied to Carlisle, thus, 5 Henry II. (19th December, 1158, to 18th December, 1159) :
Idem vicecomes reddit compotum de LX m de dono Burgi de Carleolii.
And in the 6 Richard I., 1195, we find this :
In Soltis, per breve Regis Ipsius Vicecomiti LII li. pro LII li. quas Burgenses de Carleolio comodaverant domino Regi ad facienda negocia sua de firma ejusdem Civitatis, quam ipsi Burgenses tenent in Capite ad firmam de ipso vicecomite.
The first Bishop of Carlisle was appointed in 1 133 and died in 1155 : from that date to about 1220 the see was either vacant or held by non-resident foreign ecclesiastics. There thus might be doubt whether Carlisle was Burgiun or Civitas.
(3) Freemen, — The terms freemen and citizens seem synonymous : the latter term being used in the charters, which were drafted in London; the former in documents, such as bye-laws, both of city and guilds, of home manufacture. The right to the frelidge has been the subject of long and exciting contests, culminating in the famous Mushroom Elections at Carlisle. The story, too long to be told here, is given in my "M.P.'s of Cumberland and Westmoreland, 1660-1867."
(4) OUTMEN.
(5) FORONERS.
(6) Scotchmen. — The inhabitants of the British islands, who were not freemen, were divided into Outmen, Foroners and Scotchmen,
* Section 6 of the Act of 1835 seemed to reduce the style of all places, cities and boroughs alike, to mayor, aldermeti, and burgesses; but the Act of 1882 allows cities to use mayor, aldermen, and citizens.
+ Among the placita quo warranto 20 Edward I., is one of great local importance, versus Majorem et Cointmmitatem Karleolii (Mayor and Commonalty of Carlisle).
but the distinction between the three is not clear. Anyone who came from the north side of the Blackford, which is only four miles north of Carlisle, was a Scotchman, and as such a pariah ; he was not allowed to tarry in Carlisle unknown to the mayor, to walk about at night, or to learn or practise a trade there. Ouimefi in some cases meant members of the guilds who resided in the country : at other times it seems to mean persons not so connected with the guilds, but residing in the vicinity. Foroners meant all other people. The dealings of Outmen and Foroners in the market were viewed with much jealousy,
(7) Mayor. — The first mention of a mayor of Carlisle is in a Quo Warranto of 20 Edward I., 1292, which is directed against the mayor and commonalty of Carlisle.* But a subsequent charter of Edward II., in 1316, is directed to the citizens without any mention of the mayor at all, so that he may have been a mere spontaneous or voluntary creation of the citizens which the Crown did not recog- nise.! The next charter which mentions a mayor is that of 26 Edward III., 1353, which recites, among other things (we quote from a translation made for the purpose of a trial about the fisheries in Eden) that
The citizens of our city of Carlisle have been accustomed to have among the liberties and customs belonging to the said city the full return of all writs as well of summons of the Exchequer as of all other writs whatsoever, and one market twice in every week, that is to say, on Wednesday and Saturday, and a fair on the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Mary in every year, for fifteen days next following the said Feast. And a free guild and a free election of their mayor and bailiffs within the said city, and two coroners amending the assize of bread, wine, and ale broken gallows infangentheof ; and also to hold pleas of our Crown, and to do and exercise all things which belong to the office of sheriff and coroner in the city aforesaid ; also the chattels of felons and fugitives condemned in the aforesaid city, and to be quit of all fines and amerciaments of the county and suits of the county and wapentake.
The charter goes on to say that "the aforesaid liberties and quittances belonging
* Alan de Penington is said to have been Mayor of Carlisle in 1282 {Transactions Cumberland and West- inoreland ArchcEological Society, vol. i., p. 94), but no authority is given for the statement.
t The earliest charter granted to Carlisle was by Henry II. It was burnt, but is recited in a charter of Henry III., which confirms to the citizens of Car- lisle the liberties and customs which they had hitherto enjoyed, and it grants them Gildam mercatoriam liberam ita quod nihil inda respondeant aliquihus.
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
19
to the said city they have had from time whereof memory is not," i.e.^ by prescription. Now, legal memory begins from the first year of King Richard I., or 1189, and we may therefore suppose Carlisle had a mayor, bailiffs, and coroners at that time. Probably they had, or pretended to have; but they certainly had not got the full liberties claimed in this charter of Edward III. (1353), for in 1 195 they are negotiating for liberty, ad facienda sua negotia, to do their own busi- ness, as told before. But by 1353 they had clearly got, and had had for some time, full liberty to " do their own business," and that liberty of local self-government Carlisle has retained from that time down to the days of the Local Government Board.
A charter of the 9 Elizabeth takes the form of an inspeximus of a writing with schedule annexed, made by the commonalty of the city of Carlisle under the common seal. This instrument states that it was agreed that the government of the city should be by the mayor, with eleven worshipful persons of the city. That the mayor should not do any act without the assent of the majority of the eleven. Also, that the mayor and eleven should choose to them twenty-four able per- sons, and that the thirty-six should choose the mayor. That at the death of any of the thirty-six they should fill up the number. This charter contains an inspeximus of certain resolutions of the corporation in the nature of bye-laws. These declare that the officer shall be annual, and no person shall be re- elected to the same office for the space of three years under certain penalties.
The governing charter 13 Charles I. vested the election of mayor in the mayor, aldermen, bailiffs, and twenty-four capital citizens. He was to be elected from the aldermen. The office was annual, and the election was to be on the Monday next after the Feast of St. Michael the Archangel (29th September). He was sworn in, and civic rejoicings took place on the day of election. The mayor got a yearly fee.
Item that the Mayr for his year beynge shall have for his fee viii.l vi.s viii.d ; for wynne, vi.l, and for apprentices in his house on Saint John Evyn, and Saint Peter Evyn iii.l.*
Dormont Book Constitutions and Rules, 1561.
In 1573 the law was altered, and he was to have forty marks in respect of all charges. At Martinmas viii.l vi.s viii.d, and at Lady Day and Pentecost each vi.l xiii.s iiii.d.*
In later times the mayor's fee was increased to ;^2oo a year. I am sorry to say this bye- law is now obsolete. The distinguishing mark of the Mayor of Carlisle is a white staff or wand, which is carried to this day. In the journal of " A Captain, Lieutenant, and Ancient, all of the City of Norwich," in the British Museum, the following quaint passage relating to Carlisle occurs :
It makes shifte to maintaine a Mayor distinguished by his white staffe and 12 Aldermen his brethren, sans cap of maintenance, but their blew bonnets which they are as proud in as our soutbome citizens in their beavers.
The following documents, copies of which are entered in one of the corporation muni- ment books show that the Crown occa- sionally interfered with the election of the chief magistrate :
28th January 1564. A submission was made to the L byshop of Carlisle,
and Scrop Deputie warder to the L. Scrop, by
John Sewell John Patenson John Robison Roger Warwick Robert Key Stephane Dowglas Thomas Dowdry Edward Sewell with others for a rebellyon by them made against the quene ma'tie commissioners and the mayr and counsell of the citie for the election of the mayor for the which rebellion they were not only committed to ward by the comissioners but also submitted them selves to the comyssioners who tok their bound to appere afore the quene's ma'tie's counsale at York where upon there humble submission there to them maid was referred over to mak the sub- mission abovesaid in the cathedral church of the said citie in the presence of all the people.
It is a very odd use to turn the cathedral to. There was another row in the same year, or rebellion, to use the name it is dignified with :
On tuesday after Michelmas anno sexto R. Elira- bethe a submission was made by Robert Dalton and two adhoerents to the reverend father John byshop of Carlisle George Scrop and Richard Lowther Deputies to the L. George Scrop for the rebellion and mys- deamours of the said Robert Dalton and his adhoe- rents against the said reverend father and others above being the quenes ma'ties commissioners for the election of the mairaltie of Carlell whereas the s.iid Robert
Dalton of his owne in the presents aforesaid and
other Injuries of the quenes ma'tie peace and did
give up his frelidge of the said citie.
One might suppose that this Mr. Dalton would be done for; not a bit of it He
Ibid.
c 2
20
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
was mayor next year, and the next part of the story is told by a document termed the " Charter of Disfranchisement," which is thus described by Dr. J. B. Sheppard, in his report to the Historical MSS. Commissioners:
The parchment bearing this title is an exemplifica- tion (or authenticated copy), under the seal of the Exchequer, of a petition enrolled in the 8th year of Queen Elizabeth. In it the Aldermen and some citizens of Carlisle denounce the Mayor of that city, Robert Dalton. They assert that having by his pro- digality dissipated a small estate left him by his father, and having never learned an honest profession, he has obtained the office of Mayor, by means of his influ- ence with the most debased of the citizens, and that his object for seeking the office was in order that he might get possession of the revenues, amounting to two hundred pounds a year.
The key to these rows would be an attempt of the Queen (through the Bishop and Lord Scroop) to nominate the mayor, or rather to get the royal nominee elected by the council. Once a party had got the majority in the council, it was very difficult for the minority to do anything else but kick up a row in the street. Then the Bishop and Lord Warden arrested the rioters, took their bail to present themselves at York; from thence they were sent back to Carlisle to make a public submission in the cathedral. This done, the chief rebel or rioter becomes the new mayor, and the new minority try to black his character in an election petition, for the " Charter of Dis- franchisement " is nothing more or less.
The report of the Commissions on Muni- cipal Corporations, 1835, writes thus of the Mayor of Carlisle :
He is Chairman of the City Sessions. He pre- sides as Judge in the Court of Pleas. He presides in the Court of " Pie Poudre.'' He is returning officer at elections. He presides at the council, and at elec- tions of officers. He is Clerk of the Market. Pie is, by virtue of his office, a Commissioner under the two local Acts, the Police Act and the Lighting and Pav- ing Act. By an ancient bye-law, he is restricted from selling ale and beer. His salary is ;{^200 a year. There is no mansion-house provided. There are small fees arising to him from the City Court, amounting to about £/^ or £^ annually. He is expected to ex- ercise hospitality. The expenses of late years have been within the income.
Prior to the union of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland, the mayor had the duty of setting the watch nightly. One of the clauses in the mayor's oath was :
Ye shall see or cause to be sene nyghtly the watchyng of the walles of this citie treuly set, serched and kept for thonor of the quenes ma'tie, the savety of
her subiects, and discharge of you and other officers within this city.*
(8) Deputy Mayor. — The mayor had a deputy who is mentioned in the Constitutions and Rules of 1561, but not in the Governing Charter 13 Charles I.; that document, indeed, expressly requires the presence of the mayor on many occasions ; but, spite of this, in the eighteenth century, the office was frequently held by a non-resident country squire.
(9) The Bailiffs first appear in the writ of Quo Warranto of 20 Edward I. It is addressed versus Majorem et CommunUatem Karleolii, and the defendants answer under that style Major et Communitas, but the jury find that one of the mills in question in the litigation,
situm est infra situm castelli Karleolii ubi Major
& Ballivi Karleolii nullum officium f
exercere nee solent nisi solum modo percipero theolonea.
The verdict also says, that one of the mills which had been destroyed had been re- erected by the Alaior et Convnunitas. This distinction seems to point to the bailiffs being mere subordinate executive officials to the mayor and commonalty, and not the pre- decessors of the mayor, as at Colchester.
The charter of 26 Edward III. (cited in the translation ante, sub voce Mayor) gives to the citizens
liberam Gildam et literam eleccionem majoris et ballivorum suorum infra dictam civitatem .... quodque ballivi ejusdem civitatis possunt implacitare coram se breve nostrum de recto patens et breve de recto de dote secundum consuetudinem civitatis prae- dictee.
This is expressly stated to be an ancient custom and privilege, and our remarks on the antiquity of the mayor will apply to the bailiffs ; but the mayor seems at Carlisle to be an older office than those of the bailiffs.
The charter of Elizabeth does not include the bailiffs in the governing body, and they had no vote in the election of mayor, etc. ; but the governing charter of 13 Charles I. first incorporated them into the governing body. Their election under that charter was annual, and took place at the same time as the election of mayor ; they were to be elected from the citizens. Though they were judges of the civil court of the city, and had to impanel the juries in criminal
* Dormont Book Constitutions and Rules, 1561.
f Obliterated.
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
cases, they came to be persons of low and inferior station; in 1835 o^^^ was a stable- keeper of inferior description.
They ceased to be appointed after the Act of 1835, but have recently been revived for reasons which will appear under the next office.
Their duties are specified in their oath, which is set out in the Elizabethan bye-laws of 1561.
THE BALIFS OTIIE. r. Ye slialbe trew officers and balifs of this citie and at all tymes redye to serve the quenes ma''° your mayr and thare lawfuU comand- ments.
2. Ye shall impanell in your enquests betweene partie
and partie honeste trew and indifferent men who wyll discharge thare conchiance of all such things as shalbe coiiiitted to thare charge by thadvice of the mayr etc.
3. Ye shall suffer noe mayntenance ne embracerye in
the court nor suffer noe officer member of the court to use any partiallite but that Justice be trewly and indifferently ministred as well to the pore as riche.
4. Ye shall se or cause nyghtly to be sene set and
serchet the watchmen upon the walles.^ And if ye fynd ony default declare it to the maior.
5. Ye shall se that all maner of vitelles cumyngtothis
market be gud and holesome and sold at a resonable price.
6. Ye shall suffer noe forestallors ne regrators to be
w"' the precinct of this Citie ne the liberties theref.
7. Ye shall to thuttermost of your power mayntend
and defend all the cities inheritances possessions rights customes and dueties.
8. All thes poyntes and articles &ct as in thend of the
mair othe.*
The bailiffs were expected to wear gowns, as the following presentment of the Court Leet in 1649 shows :
We order that the present bailiffs of this Cittie shall forthwith provide for either of them a decent gown for the Honnor of this Cittie sub pena.
What with war, famine, and plague, the years from 1641 to 1648 were terribly dis- astrous to Carlisle. (See sub voce Auditor.)
(10) The Sheriff.— The charter of 26 Edward III. (cited from the translation aiite) grants to the
Mayor and within the said city .... to do and exercise all thing which belong to the office of sheriff . . in the city aforesaid.
This charter further states that in the 23rd year of Edward III. the sheriff of Cumberland, Thomas de Lucy, had hindered the citizens in the enjoyment of their liberties,
* Dormont Book Constitutions and Rules, 1561.
and it therefore confirms and grants to them all their liberties as of old. This charter puts the rights of the citizens very high. The learned town clerk of Carlisle, in a report to the corporation made in 1881, says :
It appears evident that under the above charter the city was, in all but name, a county of itself, being per- fectly independent of the county and all county juris- diction, having its own bailiffs to execute the office of sheriff, and its own coroners, and being free from the payment of any purvey or rate to the county.
Acting upon this report the corporation, in 1882, appointed two bailiffs, and asserted that the mayor and the two bailiffs were sheriffs of Carlisle ; these officials proceeded to deal with recognizances forfeited at the City Quarter Sessions and claimed by the High Sheriff of Cumberland, and succeeded in making good their claim against the High Sheriff, though he was backed up by the Home Office.
(11) Coroners. — These officers, two in number, first appear in the charter of 26 Edward III. (the passage is cited before) ; they were then ancient officials.
Under the governing charter they were to be annually elected by the mayor, aldermen, bailiffs, and twenty-four capital citizens from the citizens on the same day as the mayor was elected. The emoluments were small ; in 1835 these offices were and had been held by artificers, or the lower class of free- men.
The coroners ceased to be appointed in 1835; but since the City Quarter Sessions were revived in 1874, one coroner has been appointed for the city under the Municipal Corporation Reform Acts.
(12) Aldermen. — These do not appear in the charters until the governing charter of 13 Charles I., nor do the constitutions and rules of 1 56 1 contain any form of oath for an alderman ; but the mayor and eleven worship- ful persons of the city, to whom the charter of 9 Elizabeth entrusts the government of the city, seem to have enjoyed the title, as we see by the extract from the journal of the captain, lieutenant, and ancient cited before.
Under the governing charter the aldermen held office until death, resignation, or re- moval. The election was by the mayor and a majority of the aldermen from the citizens ;
30
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
was mayor next year, and the next part of the story is told by a document termed the " Charter of Disfranchisement," which is thus described by Dr. J. B. Sheppard, in his report to the Historical MSS. Commissioners :
The parchment bearing this title is an exemplifica- tion (or authenticated copy), under the seal of the Exchequer, of a petition enrolled in the 8th year of Queen Elizabeth. In it the Aldermen and some citizens of Carlisle denounce the Mayor of that city, Robert Dalton. They assert that having by his pro- digality dissipated a small estate left him by his father, and having never learned an honest profession, he has obtained the office of Mayor, by means of his influ- ence with the most debased of the citizens, and that his object for seeking the office was in order that he might get possession of the revenues, amounting to two hundred pounds a year.
The key to these rows would be an attempt of the Queen (through the Bishop and Lord Scroop) to nominate the mayor, or rather to get the royal nominee elected by the council. Once a party had got the majority in the council, it was very difficult for the minority to do anything else but kick up a row in the street. Then the Bishop and Lord Warden arrested the rioters, took their bail to present themselves at York; from thence they were sent back to Carlisle to make a public submission in the cathedral. This done, the chief rebel or rioter becomes the new mayor, and the new minority try to black his character in an election petition, for the " Charter of Dis- franchisement " is nothing more or less.
The report of the Commissions on Muni- cipal Corporations, 1835, writes thus of the Mayor of Carlisle :
He is Chairman of the City Sessions. He pre- sides as Judge in the Court of Pleas. He presides in the Court of " Pie Poudre." He is returning officer at elections. He presides at the council, and at elec- tions of officers. He is Clerk of the Market. He is, by virtue of his office, a Commissioner under the two local Acts, the Police Act and the Lighting and Pav- ing Act. By an ancient bye-law, he is restricted from selling ale and beer. His salary is ;[^200 a year. There is no mansion-house provided. There are small fees arising to him from the City Court, amounting to about £Sf or £i-^ annually. He is expected to ex- ercise hospitality. The expenses of late years have been within the income.
Prior to the union of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland, the mayor had the duty of setting the watch nightly. One of the clauses in the mayor's oath was :
Ye shall see or cause to be sene nyghtly the watchyng of the walles of this citie treuly set, serched and kept for thonor of the queues ma'tie, the savety of
her subiects, and discharge of you and other ofiScers within this city,*
(8) Deputy Mayor. — The mayor had a deputy who is mentioned in the Constitutions and Rules of 1561, but not in the Governing Charter 13 Charles L; that document, indeed, expressly requires the presence of the mayor on many occasions ; but, spite of this, in the eighteenth century, the office was frequently held by a non-resident country squire.
(9) The Bailiffs first appear in the writ of Quo Warranto of 20 Edward L It is addressed verstis Majorem et CommunUatem Karleolii, and the defendants answer under that style Major et Communitas, but the jury find that one of the mills in question in the litigation,
situm est infra situm castelli Karleolii ubi Major & Ballivi Karleolii nullum officium . . . . .f exercere nee solent nisi solum modo percipero theolonea.
The verdict also says, that one of the mills which had been destroyed had been re- erected by the Maior et Communitas. This distinction seems to point to the bailiffs being mere subordinate executive officials to the mayor and commonalty, and not the pre- decessors of the mayor, as at Colchester.
The charter of 26 Edward IIL (cited in the translation ante, sub voce Mayor) gives to the citizens
liberam Gildam et literam eleccionem majoris et ballivorum suorum infra dictam civitatem • . • • quodque ballivi ejusdem civitatis possunt implacitare coram se breve nostrum de recto patens et breve de recto de dote secundum consuetudinem civitatis prae- dictce.
This is expressly stated to be an ancient custom and privilege, and our remarks on the antiquity of the mayor will apply to the bailiffs ; but the mayor seems at Carlisle to be an older office than those of the bailiffs.
The charter of Elizabeth does not include the bailiffs in the governing body, and they had no vote in the election of mayor, etc. ; but the governing charter of 13 Charles I. first incorporated them into the governing body. Their election under that charter was annual, and took place at the same time as the election of mayor ; they were to be elected from the citizens. Though they were judges of the civil court of the city, and had to impanel the juries in criminal
* Dormont Book Constitutions and Rules, 1561.
t Obliterated.
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
21
cases, they came to be persons of low and inferior station ; in 1835 o^^^ was a stable- keeper of inferior description.
They ceased to be appointed after the Act of 1835, but have recently been revived for reasons which will appear under the next office.
Their duties are specified in their oath, which is set out in the Elizabethan bye-laws of 1561.
THE BALIFS OTHE.
1. Ye slialbe trew officers and balifs of this citie
and at all tymes redye to serve the quenes ma''° your mayr and thare lawfull comand- ments.
2. Ye shall impanell in your enquests betweene partie
and partie honeste trew and indifferent men who wyll discharge thare conchiance of all such things as shalbe comitted to thare charge by thadvice of the mayr etc.
3. Ye shall suffer noe mayntenance ne embracerye in
the court nor suffer noe officer member of the court to use any partiallite but that Justice be trewly and indifferently ministred as well to the pore as riche.
4. Ye shall se or cause nyghtly to be sene set and
serchet the watchmen upon the walles.^ And if ye fynd ony default declare it to the malor.
5. Ye shall se that all maner of vitelles cumyng to this
market be gud and holesome and sold at a resonable price.
6. Ye shall suffer noe forestallors ne regrators to be
w"' the precinct of this Citie ne the liberties theref.
7. Ye shall to thuttermost of your power mayntend
and defend all the cities inheritances possessions rights customes and dueties.
8. All thes poyntes and articles &ct as in thend of the
mair othe.*
The bailiffs were expected to wear gowns, as the following presentment of the Court Leet in 1649 shows :
We order that the present bailiffs of this Cittie shall forthwith provide for either of them a decent gown for the Honnor of this Cittie sub pena.
What with war, famine, and plague, the years from 1641 to 1648 were terribly dis- astrous to Carlisle. (See sub voce Auditor.)
(10) The Sheriff. — The charter of 26 Edward III. (cited from the translation ajiie) grants to the
Mayor and within the said city .... to do and exercise all thing which belong to the office of sheriff . . in the city aforesaid.
This charter further states that in the 23rd year of Edward III. the sheriff of Cumberland, Thomas de Lucy, had hindered the citizens in the enjoyment of their liberties,
* Dormont Book Constitutions and Rules, 1561.
and it therefore confirms and grants to them all their liberties as of old. This charter puts the rights of the citizens very high. The learned town clerk of Carlisle, in a report to the corporation made in 188 1, says :
It appears evident that under the above charter the city was, in all but name, a county of itself, being per- fectly independent of the county and all county juris- diction, having its own bailiffs to execute the office of sheriff, and its own coroners, and being free from the payment of any purvey or rate to the county.
Acting upon this report the corporation, in 1882, appointed two bailiffs, and asserted that the mayor and the two bailiffs were sheriffs of Carlisle ; these officials proceeded to deal with recognizances forfeited at the City Quarter Sessions and claimed by the High Sheriff of Cumberland, and succeeded in making good their claim against the High Sheriff, though he was backed up by the Home Office.
(11) Coroners. — These officers, two in number, first appear in the charter of 26 Edward III. (the passage is cited before); they were then ancient officials.
Under the governing charter they were to be annually elected by the mayor, aldermen, bailiffs, and twenty-four capital citizens from the citizens on the same day as the mayor was elected. The emoluments were small ; in 1835 these offices were and had been held by artificers, or the lower class of free- men.
The coroners ceased to be appointed in 1835; but since the City Quarter Sessions were revived in 1874, one coroner has been appointed for the city under the Municipal Corporation Reform Acts.
(12) Aldermen. — These do not appear in the charters until the governing charter of 13 Charles I., nor do the constitutions and rules of 1 56 1 contain any form of oath for an alderman ; but the mayor and eleven worship- ful persons of the city, to whom the charter of 9 Elizabeth entrusts the government of the city, seem to have enjoyed the title, as we see by the extract from the journal of the captain, lieutenant, and ancient cited before.
Under the governing charter the aldermen held office until death, resignation, or re- moval. The election was by the mayor and a majority of the aldermen from the citizens ;
24
LONDON THEATRES.
1596, which offered considerable difficulty to the student before the discovery of the fact that on this spot had been the headquarters of the Revels since the time of Henry VIII.
James Burbage opened the Theatre in Shoreditch in 1576, the neighbouring Curtain in the following year, and we have seen in our article on these playhouses how the drama flourished when it was no longer peri- patetic, but had a local habitation. Doubtless it was the dramatic associations of Blackfriars in the first place which led Burbage to con- template erecting another playhouse there. The hostility displayed by the city authori- ties towards the drama was doubtless another consideration, for the Blackfriars was in the Liberties, just without their jurisdiction. There is a personal interest in the possibility of a further element in Burbage's motive. That rivalry which had been steadily in- creasing between the Burbages and Alleyn may have led them to the spot where Alleyn held considerable property, and where pro- bably he might himself design to erect a play- house. As afterwards the Burbages trans- ferred the Theatre from Shoreditch to the Bankside, where Alleyn and Henslowe held profitable interests, so the desire for reprisal may have been active in the minds of the Burbages in 1596.
Our knowledge of the construction of Blackfriars Theatre is derived from the Deed of Feoffment, dated 4th February, 1596, from Sir William More, of Loseley, co. Surrey, con- veying the premises to James Burbage.* This document had been printed by Mr. Halliwell-Phillipps before the Report on the Loseley MSS. was pubUshed. It has been quoted as if only a part of the premises was converted into a playhouse, viz., " the seaven greate upper romes," whereas mention of these occurs only in a long and tedious enumeration of all the rooms in the building. Apparently a yard lay between the house and the Pipe Office, for the "payre of wyndinge stayres with the stayre case thereunto belonginge," leading to the upper rooms " out of the greate yard there which doth lye nexte unto the Pype Office," are conveyed to Burbage by the deed. The premises are described as " beinge within the precincte of the late Blackfryers Preachers
* Signed " James Burbadge," but we have followed the usual spelling, "Burbage."
nere Ludgate, in London." The conveyance gives "free and quiett Ingres, egress, and regress to and from the streete or way leading from Ludgate unto the Thamys over, uppon, and thoroughe the same greate yard next the said Pipe Office by the wayes nowe thereunto used." The deed also recites the previous ownership of the property, from the time of the gift and grant of it to Sir Thomas Cawar- den, which was made 4 Edward VI.*
There is probably some significance in the fact that several nobles resided at Blackfriars. Neighbouring the house purchased by Bur- bage were the houses of the Earl of Sussex, Lord Hunsdon, and Lord Cobham. Bur- bage designed his new theatre as a "private" house, and the audiences at Blackfriars ap- pear to have been more aristocratic than at the other playhouses. Various allusions which transpire in the present article will indicate this fact. Here, at Blackfriars, the Revel players had been wont to prepare en- tertainments for the festivities of the Court and of the noble families ; hence the appro- priateness of establishing a private theatre on this spot, when the companies of players attained independence under the patronage of the public at large. The opening of Burbadge's theatre indicates the hold of the Elizabethan dramatists upon all classes of the community. The perfection attained in dramatic representation caused impatience with the more or less improvised conditions under which the players inevitably worked when producing plays in the mansions of the nobility, and when Burbage started his "pri- vate" house, where plays could be adequately presented without the noise and other dis- agreeable associations of the " common play- houses," he inaugurated what proved to be a great success.
Not only did the wealthy and the powerful dwell in the vicinity of Blackfriars, but here also art and literature had their abode. Isaac Oliver, the miniature painter ; Ben Jonson, who dates his dedication of Volpone "from my house in the Blackfriars ;" and, later on, Sir Anthony Van Dyck, from his settlement in England in 1632, till his death in 1641 ;t
"' J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare (18S3), p. 511. Cunningham says 3 Edward VI, See ante,
t In a certificate of strangers dwelling in the precinct of Blackfriars, Dec. 23, 1635, the number of French is stated at 212 ; that of the Dutch at 128.
LONDON THEATRES.
25
and Cornelius Jensen the painter — these were among the inhabitants of the precincts. There were also many Puritans, and they regarded the proposed setting-up of a playhouse in their midst with a sort of wild alarm. They appear generally to have followed the trade of feather-making, and naturally their best customers were among the ungodly fre- quenters of the theatre. This inconsistency was not likely to escape the satire of the dramatists. In Randolph's Musei Looking- Glass (4to., 1638) we read :
" Mrs. Flowerdew. " Indeed it sometimes pricks my conscience, I come to sell 'em pins and looking-glasses.
"Bird. " I have their custom, too, for all their feathers : *Tis fit that we, which are sincere professors. Should gain by infidels."
And in Bartholomew Fair Rabbi Busy is taunted with the feather-makers in the Friars. While noting the inhabitants of the precinct, we must not omit mentioning that the King's printing-house stood here. Standing to-day in Playhouse Yard, in view of the Times printing and publishing office, one recalls this fact with a sense of significance. There is a reference to the King's printing-house in the State Papers : —
"[1635?] Petition of Edward Manestie, M. A. , Chaplain to the late Bishop Lindsell, of Hereford, and of Thomas Bird, M.A., Clerk, lately the King's servant in the Isle of Rhe, and then corrector of the King's printing house in Blackfriars to the King." — Caletidar,
1635-6, p. 75-
Burbage's enterprise was assailed by a petition to the Privy Council, " from the inhabitants of the Blackfriars," which doubt- less arose from the Puritan element among them. This valuable document is given in full by Mr. Halliwell-Phillipps.* We extract the following :
"Whereas one Burbage hath lately bought certaine romes . . . neere adjoyning unto the dwelling houses of the right honorable the Lord Chambcrlaine and the Lord of Hunsdon, which rooms the said Burbage is now altering and meaneth very shortly to
Among the latter is " Sir Anthony Vandyke, 2 years, 6 servants, from Linmer." — Calendar 0/ State Papers, p. 592. * Outlines, p. 522.
convert and turne the same into a comon playhouse, which will grow to be a very great annoyance and trouble, not only to all the noblemen and gentlemen thereabout inhabit- ing, but allso a generall inconvenience to all the inhabitants of the same precinct, both by reason of the great resort and gathering to- geather of all manner of vagrant and lewde persons, that, under cuUor of resorting to the playes, will come thither and worke all manner of mischeefe, and also to the greate pestring and filling up of the same precinct, yf it should please God to send any visitation of sicknesse as heretofore hath been; for that the same precinct is allready growne very populous, and besides that the Playhouse is so neere the Church, that the noyse of the drummes and trumpetts will greatly disturbe and hinder both the minister and parishioners in tyme of Devine service and sermons ; in tender consideracion whereof, as allso for that there hath not at any tyme heretofore been used any comon playhouse within the same precinct, but that now all players being banished by the Lord Mayor from playing within the Citie by reason of the great incon- veniences and ill rule that followeth them, they now thinke to plant themselves in liberties," etc.
Connected with this petition there is a curious blunder of Collier's, and a still more curious forgery among the State Papers. Collier, by some strange inadvertence, prints the document under date 1576, and all through treats of the Blackfriars Theatre as having been established twenty years before its actual date, 1596.* The forgery alluded to is an alleged counter-petition from the players to the above petition of the Black- friars inhabitants.t In this document, which is dated 1596, the players are made to say that they " should be ruined if they could not use Blackfriars for their winter perform- ances, as they can only use their new-built house on the Bankside called the Globe in the summer season." Now, we know that the Globe was not constructed till the close of the year 1598, or the beginning of 1599, and there is no doubt that the document is spurious. Annexed to the petition, a note
* History of Dramatic Poetry, i. 218-219. f Caletidar of State Papers, Donustic Series, 1595- 1597. P- 310.
26
LONDON THEATRES.
in the Calendar X.^^^ us, is another document, recording the unanimous verdict of all the best official and skilled opinion of the year i860, that this supposed petition from the players is a forgery. The cruelty perpetrated by such forgeries is seen in Collier's work. He repeats his erroneous statement, that the Blackfriars Theatre was built "about 1574-76,"* and treats the petition from the inhabitants to the Council in 1596 as if it referred to a reconstruction of the theatre. He then introduces the spurious counter-petition from the players, with the highest appreciation, dwells lovingly on the fact that Shakespeare is among the petitioners, and speculates upon the significance of his name appearing fifth in the enumeration. It is now very generally known in how many cases Collier was the victim of such impudent fabrications. That low-minded and cynical and mercenary people, incapable of understanding the scholar's lofty devotion and noble enthusiasm, should have thus vitiated his work and marred the results of his lifelong study, is no other than a stigma upon human nature, painfully illustrating the inequality of human endow- ments and the dread power of the weak over the strong.
As a sequel to the above forgery, there is among the Dulwich muniments a spurious order of the Council that the players' petition be granted. This precious document is ad- dressed to Henslowe, who, with Alleyn, stood in a position of rivalry to the Burbages. It is as follows :
" Mr. Hinslowe — This is to informe you that my Mr. the Maister of the Revelles, hath rec. from the LI. of the Counsell order that the L. Chamberlens servauntes shall not be distourbed at the Blackefryars according with their petition in that behalfe ; but leave shall be given unto theym to make good the decaye of the said House, butt not to make the same larger then in former tyme hath bene. From the office of the Revelles this 3 of Maie, 1596.
"RiC. VEALE."t
Small wonder that Collier came to grief among such quicksands. The fact that be- fore the date of Burbage's theatre the
* History of Dramatic Poetry, i. 287. t See Duhvich Catalogue, where this document is declared to be a forgery.
Blackfriars precinct had been the head- quarters of the drama was as a hot-bed to such forgeries, all the various allusions to Blackfriars plays prior to 1596 lending veri- similitude to the imposture. Later in his work. Collier writes again :
"The Blackfriars Theatre was erected about 1576, by James Burbage and others, who had obtained the patent for playing in 1574. .. . It is not mentioned by John Northbrooke, either because it was not finished when he wrote, or because it was a private house, and not so liable to objection as the two theatres he names. Stephen Gosson speaks of the Blackfriars in his Playes confuted in five Actions^ printed about 1581 ; it continued in its original state until 1596, when it was in the hands of Richard Burbage, Shakespeare, and others, and when it was enlarged and repaired, if not entirely rebuilt."*
Thus Collier emphasizes his error by repetition. John Northbrooke did not men- tion the playhouse, because it did not then exist ; and Stephen Gosson's reference in 1 58 1 was to the Revels actors. To what extent these continued to play at Blackfriars after the Burbadges came there, does not appear with any clearness. It is supposed that Burbage's Company acted at the Globe in the summer and at the Blackfriars in the winter, and that the " Children of the Queen's Revels," as they were styled, acted at Blackfriars in the summer, while the other company were playing at the Globe.f On the title-page of Ben Jonson's Case is altered^ printed in 1609, these Revels actors are called "the Children of the Blackfriars," which Collier took to indicate that up to that time they still had the use of the Blackfriars playhouse. J But, speaking of the year 1609, Mr. Halliwell-Phillipps writes:
"This was a memorable year in the theatrical biography of the great dramatist, for in the following December the eyry of children quitted Blackfriars Theatre to be replaced by Shakespeare's Company. The latter then included Heminge, Condell, Burbage, and the poet himself." §
* History of Dramatic Poetry, i. 327. t 2bid., i. 342. X Ibid., i. 342.
§ Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare (ed. 1883), p. 198.
REVIEWS.
27
Apparently there is nothing to show definitely to what extent the Revels Company acted at this theatre. Collier says that not long afterwards they acted at the Whitefriars Theatre.*
{To be continued.)
The Bibliography of Sir Walter Raleigh, with Notes. By T. N. Brushfield, M,D. (Plymouth and Exeter, 1886.) 4to., pp. 36.
OST students know that Dr. Brushfield has been long at work upon the literary and biographical history of one of the greatest of Englishmen, and many of us have seen with pleasure that a portion of his re- searches have been published in the Western Anti- quary, that useful ingatherer of western notes. It is now an additional satisfaction to have a complete reprint of these articles in a convenient form, and when we note that Dr. Brushfield's list includes no less than 239 titles, besides notes and additions, it will be seen how thorough has been his work. Much curious lite- rary information is here recorded, and we must con- gratulate Devonshire upon possessing students who can record so thoroughly facts about the careers of her worthies. Every schoolboy knows Sir Walter Raleigh, but very few students know enough about him, and Dr. Brushfield's bibliographical collection will help us to know more, until in due course we have before us a volume of more mature labours from the same pen.
The Manx Note-Book, a Quarterly Jotimal of Mattel- s Past and Present connected with the Isle of Man. January and April, 1886. (Douglas : G. H. Johnson.) 8vo., pp. 96. The Isle of Man would, if dealt with comprehen- sively, be^'almost unique as a field of archaeological inquiry. The impetus given to the subject by the commission granted to Professor Boyd Dawkins is apparent, and the "Note-Book" gives expression to some of this. Tastefully printed and illustrated, it shows, at all events, that our countrymen in the island are not behindhand in their cultivation of the arts of book-producing. Many articles will be recognised as of special value, and we may mention particularly those on the "Armorial Bearings of the Isle,' " Manx Surnames," " Manx Worthies," "Old Manx Families," "Notes from the Registers," and sOme Manx legends. We are particularly pleased to see that Professor Dawkins's very able and useful " Me- morandum on the Antiquities of the Isle of Man" is printed in extenso.
The Directory of Second-Hand Booksellers. Edited by Arthur Gyles. (Nottingham, 1886.) i2mo., pp. viii, 48. It is certainly an advantage to have in a handy and
pleasant form a directory of booksellers, and we cor-
* History of Dramatic Poetry^ i. 342.
dially welcome this useful little work, expressing a hope that it may be continued and improved at such times as may be considered advisable.
Transactions of the Leicestershire Architectural and Archceological Society. Vol. VI., Part III. (Leicester, 1886.) Clarke and Hodgson. 8vo. All the papers in this part are of some consider- able interest. Particularly we may mention those on " Dean Swift's Mother," " Pedigree of Herick," "Danish Place-names in Leicestershire," and "Ex- tracts from Parish Registers." The Danish settlement in Leicestershire has before this received attention from the student of early English history, and the pre- sent contribution is one of considerable importance. There can be no doubt that modern research is tending to establish the fact that large influences by the Scandinavian settlers in this country have made themselves felt in forming the later history.
A Chronicle History of the Life and Work of William Shakespeare, Player, Poet, and Play-maker, By Frederick Gand Fleay. (London : John C. Nimmo, 1886.) 8vo., pp. viii, 364.
Mr. Fleay has devoted so much attention to the Shakespearian drama, and to the difficult questions arising out of the constant changes in the various companies of actors, that he has a good claim to be heard when he produces a new work on the theatrical side of the career of our great dramatist. At the same time, we must acknowledge that his book has disappointed us. It will be of great interest to those who know the subject, and can take the statements with due allowance, but it would be a dangerous book to place in the hands of students, because a large number of mere guesses are set down as undisputed facts. The knowledge exhibited by the author respect- ing the plays of the period is very considerable, and the appendices — containing Tables ( i ) of the Quarto Editions of Shakespeare's Plays ; (2) of the Quarto Editions of other Plays performed by Shakespeare's Company ; (3) of Number of Performances at Court, 1584-1616; (4) of Entries of Plays in the Stationers' Registers, 1584-1640; (5) of Transfers of Copyright in Plays, 1 584- 1 640— will be found valuable by readers.
In dealing with the Sonnets, Mr. Fleay does not allude to the interesting suggestion made by Messrs. Tyler and Harrison (on the supposition that " Mr. W. H." was William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke) that the dark lady was Mary Fitton, maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth. He has, however, an hypothesis of his own, based on the belief that the Earl of Southampton was the friend to whom the Sonnets were addressed. He believes Mr. W. H. to have been Sir William Hervey, the third husband of Southampton's mother, and the dark lady to have been one Avice A., the subject of the curious old book, Wyllohie his Avisa.
The book is full of what may be called contentious matter, and we have not space to allude to the many interesting points which are brought forward. We may, however, say that we are not prepared to agree with the views that the Merry Wives of Windsor was re-written on the foundation of a play entitled the Jealous Comedy (1592), that Edmund Shakespeare wrote The Yorkshire Tragedy under his brother's
28
REVIEWS.
superintendence, or that not only is there no proof that Shakespeare ever acted at Blackfriars, but that there is strong presumption to the contrary. No one wishes to attribute Titus Andronicus to the poet, but the statement "that this play is not by Shakespeare is pretty certain from internal evidence," is too strongly put, for there are several passages which find echoes in the undoubted plays.
This book has been beautifully produced, and contains two good etchings, one of Alleyn the actor, and the other of the font in which Shakespeare was baptized.
The Heg-ister of Edmund Stafford {k.v>. 1395-1419);
an Index and Abstract of its Contents. By the
Rev. F. C. Hixgeston-Randolph. (London :
George Bell and Sons ; Exeter : H. S. Eland,
1886.) 8vo., pp. xvi, 485.
T7ie Register of Bishop Stafford is comprised in two
folio volumes, written on vellum, and contains a
general record of the Acts of the Bishop, a Register
of Ordinations, a Register of " Institutions," and a
miscellaneous collection of documents. Mr. Hinge-
ston-Randolph has made the valuable information
contained in these volumes available by his careful
and laborious index, which will be found to be a most
useful book of reference. Some of the larger headings
refer to Exeter, Institutions, and Oratories. At the
end of the general alphabet is a translation of the
Wills and a full list of the Ordinations. This index
is no mere list, but full notes are added to many of
the entries, which make it a work of great historical
interest.
Meetings of Antiquarian Societies;.
Cambridge Antiquarian Society. — May 10. — The Rev. G. Y. Browne, B.D., President, in the chair. — Mr. Bidwell exhibited six large round horseshoes of an early pattern, which had been lately found in Stuntney Fen ; of these he presented three to the Society. — Dr. Bryan Walker continued his paper on the British camps in Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, and adjoining counties. — The President made some remarks upon sculptured columns at Stapleford (Not- tinghamshire) and Rothley (Leicestershire) in respect of their bearing on the question of the dedication of places as apart from that of churches. The column at Stapleford is a pillar nearly cylindrical, with the upper part cut into four plane faces. Unlike other cylindrical pillars in England, except those at Penrith, it is covered with ornament throughout its whole length, and the ornamentation on the cylindrical part is elaborate and skilful, consisting of various patterns of interlacing bands, some of them very intricate. On two of the four faces are similar interlacements ; the third has a cornucopiae scroll ! the fourth has what is known in the village as a Danish bird. It is in fact a winged creature, with the feet of a man and the head of an animal with ears and horns. This points to St. Luke, but the dedication of the church is St.
Helen. The village feast is the last Sunday in Octo- ber, or, if that be the last day of the month, the last Sunday but one. This rule of thumb replaces the original rule, of which an old inhabitant dead many years ago has left a record, that the village wake is governed by old St. Luke — " we mun hae him i' t' wake week." The pillar at Rothley is a rectangular shaft, 12 feet high, and ornamented on the whole of its four faces with interlacing bands, and foliage scrolls of unusual character and much beauty. Three of the base panels present the very uncommon feature of a broad border of interlacing bands, enclosing an inner panel of interlacements and scrolls. Besides these ornaments, there are three large panels of a different character, one of which contains a winged dragon with serpent-like body interlacing in an intricate manner with its legs, and the other has a winged figure, evidently a bird, greatly resembling the figure at Stapleford. The feet are bird's claws, and the head is the head of a large bird. This points to St. John. The dedication of the church is St. Mary ; but the village feast is St. John Baptist, the wrong St. John, but confusion between the two St. Johns is not unknown.
May 14.— The Rev. G. F. Browne, B.D., President, in the chair, — The President exhibited a triangular pierced brick (kindly presented to the Society by Mr. Pickering Phipps, of CoUingtree Manor, through Sir H. Dryden, Bart. ), of the same character as the brick presented lately to the Society by the Rev. W. Foster Piggott. The brick presented by Mr. Phipps was found during excavations at Hunsbury, or Danes' Camp, near Northampton ; and those concerned in the excava- tions were completely unable to determine what the use of these triangular bricks was. — Professor E. C. Clark delivered an exhaustive and most interesting lecture upon the history of the Law School from 1470 A.D. down to the present time ; and exhibited and discussed several drawings illustrative of the succes- sive changes in university costume. — Baron A. von Hiigel exhibited some antiquities recently found with Saxon skeletons at Girton. The collection included a pair of circular and five cross-shaped bronze fibulae, strings of glass and amber beads, a bangle of Kim- meridge clay, a bronze girdle-hanger (?), a pair of tweezers, a buckle and two pairs of clasps. A large bone comb, two spear-heads and several iron knives were also found. With the skeletons two rough, plain urns were exhumed, but it was impossible to get them entire out of the earth, and their contents yielded nothing worth preserving. — Mr. Walter K. Foster, who in conjunction with Baron von Hiigel carried on the excavation, has most generously presented the entire " find " to the Museum.
Hampshire Field Club. — May 20. — The first excursion of the season was to Silchester and "Old Basing." Arriving at Silchester shortly after eleven, the club first mustered in the amphitheatre, and Mr. Godwin incidentally mentioned that many persons coming there were curious to know where the inhabit- ants of Silchester obtained their water, but there was a spring close by, which furnished water, near which could be seen a Corinthian pillar, and Mr. Shore, supplementing this, said there was a second source of water-supply to the south. Mr. Godwin went on to remark that the Roman amphitheatre in which they
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
29
were now standing was the second largest in Great Britain. The largest was Dorchester, which had a square area of 3,380 square yards, this at Silchester being about 2,ocxj. The great mounds surmounted by verdure surrounding it were 20 yards thick at the bottom, and only 4 yards at the top, and these enclosed an area of 150 feet by 120 feet, the area of the amphitheatre at Cirencester being 148 feet by 134, and that at Dorchester 219 by 138 feet. He believed the seats were ranged in five rows, and a deep hole on the south side is said to have been the place where the lions and such-like animals were kept. It was interesting to know that below the green sward on which they were standing was a floor of flint, gravel, and concrete. In 1760 the five rows of seats were, it was stated, distinctly visible. The entrance was towards the east gate of the town for the convenience of the inhabitants, and small bone tablets had been found there, which are believed to have been tickets of admission to the performances. The party then proceeded to the church. Mr. Godwin called atten- tion to some fine capitals in the adjacent farmyard, which had been removed from the Basilica. Entering the church Mr. Godwin first pointed out a small column built into the vestry wall and surmounted by a shelf on which to stand " holy water." Some, how- ever, questioned the classic origin of the column, and pronounced it undoubtedly a piece of Norman work. — Mr. Shore pointed out that Roman material was used up in building the church, and he suggested the pro- bability of some of the columns being altered in Norman times from original Roman work. There is a decorated tomb, temp. Edward II. or III., worthy of attention, and a very interesting screen, one of the best in Hampshire of the date, which was probably Jacobean. Quitting the churchyard, the party pro- ceeded to the Forum. To reach the Forum (which was flanked with stacks of Roman bricks), they had, Mr. Godwin informed them, crossed the intersection of the four great streets of the city. The Forum was 276 feet by 313. Shops were ranged on one side, and plenty of oyster shells, showing that the shop was a fishmonger's, had been found, as well as the steel- yards of the butcher. Gamecocks' spurs had also been discovered. Coins had been found there repre- senting almost every decade of the Roman occupation, and one of these, struck by Julian the Apostate, was as fresh as if it had been minted only yesterday. Proceeding across a field in which Roman fragments were kicked at every step, the ploughed field being everywhere strewn with them, the party entered the remains of a circular or rather polygonal temple, sixty feet in diameter, the foundations of the inner and outer walls being visible, though no traces are to be found of the columns or of any altar. A few coins had been found there — a worn one of Vespasian, who spent much of his time at Silchester, and a perfectly fresh one of Septimus Severus. Hurrying on to the baths the antiquaries were alike surprised and grieved to find that a portion of the excavations so lovingly and carefully made by the late Rev. G. P. Joyce and others had actually been filled in and ploughed over, and it was understood that this is still going on. Mr. Shore thought it might be advisable to submit to the Duke of Wellington, as owner of the property, a resolution drawing attention to the necessity of some-
thing being done to preserve the foundations. — Morti- mer was left about a quarter past three, and, after an interval at Basingstoke for lunch, a move was made for Old Basing, permission having been given by Mr. H. Raynbird, steward to Lord Bolton, to visit the histori- cal ruins of Basing House. This house, Mr. Godwin said, was built upon the site of an ancient British stronghold with a ditch around it, still to be seen to the depth of 32 feet. The De Porte family fortified it in the time of Henry II., and the first Marquis of Winchester built a magnificent mansion there in the time of Queen Elizabeth, some portions of which were pulled down by his descendants on account of the great expense of maintenance. John, the fifth mar- quis, a devoted Loyalist, fortified the place over 14J acres of ground. The party first of all inspected a wall opposite the north gateway — the latter in excel- lent preservation — still loopholed for musketry, and having marks of cannon-shot holes, the shots having been fired by the soldiers of Colonel Dalbier, the last besieger of the place. In another wall forming the gateway of the Grange, Mr. Godwin said the pointing was identical with that of the brickwork at Titchfield House. There was an extremely fierce fight inside this enclosure in November, 1643, the senior lieutenant of Waller's regiment being killed just within it. The field where sheep were now feeding was once almost a mass of masonry, and just beyond were various swamps, altered by the railway embankment, which were the fish ponds ; and as the family was Roman Catholic, this was a rather important feature. Passing then through the riding school, a magnificent apart- ment now used as a barn, a fine open-timbered roof was pointed out, and marks of cannon-shot fired by Colonel Dalbier from the west side. The enclosure of Basing House was entered by the Garrison Gate, through which once rode, Mr. Godwin said, as brave a soldier as ever served his King — Colonel Gage. The canal over which the party had passed had been guilty of altering a good many of the outworks when it was made, but it was evidently the line of the old moat. The fight at the bridge was described on the spot where it actually occurred ; and the party then assembled within the ramparts, where Mr. Godwin gave a most interesting account of the memorable siege. Of one of the proprietors of Basing House, Queen Elizabeth once said that if only he was a young man she would find in her heart to love him before any man in England. Queen Mary spent part of her honeymoon there, and Henry VI. once stayed there for the benefit of his health. Near one of the garrison ovens which were visible in the basement ruins, a caricature of a Roundhead was recently found, drawn probably by a Cavalier soldier while waiting for his rations. Mr. Shore gave some interesting details con- cerning Celtic fortification of old Basing. There were, he added, two places in Hampshire called Basing — where they now were, and Basing Park, near East Tisted. The origin of the word was sometimes attri- buted to a settlement of Anglo-Saxon tribes called Basingas. Now there was a place near Southampton called Basset, and there were traditions of Danish fighting near that town. " Bassa " signified conten- tion or strife, and this, he thought, might throw some light on the term. Mr. Godwin then from the ram- parts described the exterior aspects of the siege, saying
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MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
that a chalk -pit in the distance was the site of the headquarters of the contingent that came up from Southampton under Colonel Whitehead. He also showed where "Oliver" destroyed the drawbridge, and pointed out the trenches, now grown over with hawthorn trees, made by the besiegers, which were brought so close as to be within pistol-shot. — The last item in the day was a visit to Old Basing Church. It was used as a Parliamentary fortress, and was de- fended and taken several times during the siege, and all the houses between it and Basing House were burnt down. The lead of the roof was melted down for bullets. The west porchway was said to have been designed by Inigo Jones, who also came to Basing House, and after the siege was carried away in a blanket, some one having borrowed his clothes.
Derby and Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural History Society. — May 22.— The above Society went on their first expedition of the season to the two interesting villages of Ratcliffe and Kingston, both upon the river Soar, in the county of Notting- ham. Ratcliffe is situated about two miles from Kegworth, and was reached after a very pleasant though short drive, when all alighted and entered the parish church of Holy Trinity. The Rev. C. S. Millard (rector of Costock) explained the various points of interest in this venerable edifice. The structure itself appears to be of very ancient origin, dating from either late in the fourteenth or early in the fifteenth century. The style of its architecture is early English ; but its interior has suffered much from decay, and ill-treatment at the hands of iconoclasts. Special interest was taken in the fine series of ala- baster monuments, consisting of effigies and tablets, some of which are erected to the memory of members of the old Derbyshire families of Sacheveral and Bab- ington. A descendant of the latter, as we were reminded, was Anthony Babington, of Dethick, who first lost his heart and then his head in the cause of Mary Queen of Scots. These monuments are in very good preservation, and are, most likely, composed of the gypsum or alabaster which is found in such large quantities in the neighbourhood. On leaving the church, the vehicles were again occupied, and the drive resumed to Kingston. Bearing away to the left, the red brick cottages of Kingston, with the hall, the seat of Lord Belper, nestling among the trees, soon hove in sight ; and in a few minutes the conveyances stopped at the gateway of the picturesque church of the village. Here the party was joined by his lord- ship. The parish church of St. Winifrid's is chiefly a modern structure, having been rebuilt in recent times ; but it has still attached to it part of a much more ancient church, erected in the fifteenth century. The main object of antiquarian interest is an elaborate and costly monument erected by one of the Babing- tons to the memory of one or more members of the family. It stands in the old portion of the church, and is composed of grey stone, and is upright in shape, having north and south ends, the whole sur- mounted by a ponderous and most elaborate roof. Beneath is placed the church font. The principal feature of the ornamentation is the Babington Arms — the upper part of a child's body protruding out of a barrel placed horizontally — which cover the whole monument. The supposed interpretation of this coat-
of-arms — and, indeed, it is most probable — is that it is a rebus upon the name, and represents a babe in a tun — Bab-ing-ton. The monument is supposed to have been erected in 1538. After the church had been well examined by the party, and its various features explained by the Rev. Mr. Millard (assisted by Lord Belper and the Hon. Frederick Strutt) a start was made on foot to Kingston Hall adjoining. Kingston Hall was built by the first Lord Belper, father of the present noble owner, the tablet to whose memory was noticed in the church. It was erected about fifty years ago, and is a handsome stone structure in the Elizabethan style of architecture.
St. Albans Architectural and Archaeologfical Society. — June i. — The members visited St. Neots. The Rev. H. Fowler, standing on St. Neots Old Bridge, read a paper concerning its history, from which it appeared that in early times there was a ford here ; the hamlet on the west side of the river is called Eaton-ford, i.e., the ford of the water town. A wooden bridge was probably built by the priors of the Monastery of St. Neot. In Edward III.'s reign the convent was taxed with the repairs of the bridge. In the 38th of Henry HI. (1254) a fatal accident oc- curred to Wm. de P'errers, Earl of Derby, Lord of the Manor of Eynesbury. His driver upset his chariot while crossing the bridge, throwing him over into the river. He was rescued from drowning, but died of the injuries shortly afterwards. In Richard II. 's reign a toll was granted for rebuilding the bridge. This structure, which Leland saw in 1538, was of timber, and existed till near the end of Queen Elizabeth's reign. A great flood occurred in 1579. In an inqui- sition which was taken in 1588 about the dangerous state of the bridge, it is described as being 704 feet long, with its causeways ; the width of the river is about 150 feet, so the causeway must have extended 550 feet on the west bank over the marshy ground. It had seventy-two arches ; only twenty-nine of these had stone abutments, and there are still remains of some of these. It appears from the documents that it was then contemplated to rebuild the bridge of wood, for the men of Huntingdonshire undertook to carry 153 tons of timber. It is supposed that the present stone bridge was constructed soon after this inquisition, and the tradition is that it was built out of the stones of the monastery, which had been re- served to the Crown. It was, perhaps, finished in James I.'s reign. Atoll was projected in the inquisi- tion of Elizabeth. The centre arch of this very sub- stantial structure has a span of 44 feet at the ordinary water-level. A very interesting paper on the history of the Priory of St. Neot was read to the members assembled in the church by the Rev. PI. Fowler. After dealing at some length with the life of St. Neot in Cornwall, Mr. Fowler went on to speak of the priory of St. Neot, and said the sources of information were the annals of Elizabeth, of Henry IV.'s reign, and a MS. in the Bodleian Library. Towards the end of the reign of King Edgar, Earl Alric founded a monastery at Eynesbury. Relics were needed to give dignity to the foundation, so a scheme was devised for carrying off the Cornish shrine. Ethelwold, Bishop of Winchester, lent his aid, and by the complicity of the shrine-keeper the plan was successfully executed. The King, who had given a general license to Ethel-
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
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wold to remove relics from obscure places, sent soldiers to defend the relic stealers against the Cornish men. The treasure was first lodged in the mansion of Earl Alric. Soon a chapel was built and the mansion turned into a monastery. Monks were sent to occupy it from Ely and Thorney. The site of the monastery was on the north side of the present town, probably reaching nearly to the Market Place, and to the river on the west. About thirty years after its erection it was threatened by the Danes, and the relics were re- moved to the house of a lady at Whittlesea, named Leowina, who requested her brother Osketul, Abbot of Croyland, to take them in his charge. They were accordingly removed to Croyland with the chanting of psalms. Ingulph's Chronicle states that the sacred deposit was never returned, but the monks of St. Neot afterwards claimed to have the relics, and when Anselm visited the monastery he certified to the Bishop of Lincoln that the relics shown him were those of St. Neot. In Anselm's time the monastery was subject to the Abbey of Bee, in Normandy, being furnished with Cistercian monks. The priory was dedicated to St. Mary the Virgin and St. Neot, a taper being con- stantly kept burning before the shrine of the latter. At a later period the monastery covered forty-nine acres, but there were only fifteen monks in it, though probably a large number of lay brothers. Its con- nection with the Abbey of Bee was severed in the time of Henry IV., and the monks then observed the Benedictine rule. John Raunds surrendered the priory to King Henry VIII. in 1539 and received a pension, but he died the next year. All vestiges of the monastery have now disappeared. — Mr. Clarkson gave a description of the parish church. In the course of his remarks, he said a parish church was erected probably on this site in the last quarter of the twelfth century, but nothing remained of it. The font might have stood in it, for it was hardly notable enough to have been brought from elsewhere at a later date, and was probably the work of a very unskilled person of the twelfth century. A window now to be seen in the north wall of the vestry might indicate that the earliest church was superseded wholly or in part by early lancet work. The window is li inches wide, tall in proportion, with a sharply pointed head. The wall of the chancel may be wholly of the same date as the window, that is, about 1200. The foundations of the nave ])iers are to be seen, and they are a little larger than the bases of the present perpendicular piers. A slab of the fourteenth century, now forming part of the floor of Jesus Chapel, is another relic of the earlier church. The present church was no doubt carried well forward in the fifteenth century, and com- pleted in the sixteenth. The tower is faced with ashlar throughout ; the church has ashlar quoins, dressings, and strings, but rubble facing for the wall spaces. The insertion of the enigmatical hood moulds above the respond piers at the west end of the nave was an odd freak, and the equally odd arrangement of the detached pier at the south end of the nave arcarle may also show that if the designer of the tower habitually forgot the church, the designer of the church occaiionally forgot himself The nave is 80 feet long and 22 feet wide, and has an arcade of five bays, with ball-moulded piers and highly pointed arches. A clerestory window of three lights occurs in each bay. The roof has a carved cornice, and other elaborations.
On the roof, over the narrow bay next the chancel arch, the ancient colouring has been reproduced. The aisles of the nave have large fan-light windows, and all of them are said to have been filled with coloured glass in the old time. Most of it disappeared in the seventeenth century. The aisle roofs are also ancient. The chancel is 49 feet by 17 feet, and has an ancient roof. Mr. Clarkson occupied a long time in describing very minutely the tower, which he said is one of the finest in England. It is at the west end, reached from the nave by an arch of much dignity. Above the base it is about 28 feet square, and the walls are 5 feet 6 inches thick. The height from ground to roof is 100 feet, and to the apex of the pinnacles 128 feet. Afterwards the vicar, Rev. R. C. Meade, B.D., gave a short history of the church since the sixteenth century, at which point Mr. Clarkson left it. On arriving at Peterborough the party proceeded to inspect the parish church. They were met at the sacred edifice by Canon Syers, and the various architectural features and data were pointed out. At the cathedral and palace the Abbot Benedict doorway was pointed out by Canon Davys. The Bishop had given permission to the Canon for the party to have access to the palace and grounds, and the members accordingly entered under the Knights' Chamber, which was used for the last time for its original purposes on the occasion of the funeral of Mary Queen of Scots, when the attendants breakfasted there together. The ancient part of the palace. Canon Davys pointed out to be the remains of the Abbot's house and the great hall of the abbey, the present entrance hall being the former crypt.
Society of Antiquaries. — May 4. — Anniversary Meeting. — Dr. J. Evans, President, in the chair. — The members of the Council and officers of the Society were unanimously elected for the ensuing year. — The President delivered his annual address, in which he drew special attention to the great losses the Society had sustained by death during the past twelve months. He also commented on the various changes in the constitution and management of the Society, and of the various works of ancient date whose threatened destruction had been averted by the Society's inter- ference.
May 13. — Dr. J. Evans, President, in the chair. — A discussion took place on the subject of the reported danger of destruction or concealment of an important portion of the Roman baths at Bath. — Mr, P. O. Hutchinson exhibited a full-sized drawing of a figure of a saint in stained glass from Shute, Devon. — Mr. R. Day exhibited a dagger, a spear -head, and two celts (one with a singular rope ornament round the mouth), all of bronze, dredged up from the bottom of Lough Erne. — Mr. J. T. Micklethwaite, by permission of the Rev. R. II. Cave, exhibited a wooden figure of the rood, said to be from a Lincolnshire church. — Sir E. MacCulloch exhibited a magnificent gold signet -ring with a pelican in her piety, and the motto "Sans mal penser." — The Rev. H. T. Cheales exhibited a coloured tracing of a wall-pamting of the Resurrec- tion, one of a fine series of subjects painted on the walls of Friskney Church, Lincolnshire. — Mr. G. Clinch exhibited and gave an account of a number of palaeolithic and neolithic implements found at West Wickhain, Kent, a new locality for the occurrence of these objects.
May 20. — Dr. J. Evans, President, in the chair. —
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MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
Mr. J. E. Nightingale exhibited a seal of the deanery of Shaftesbury, with the device of a Saracen's head, found when pulling down an old house in the neigh- bourhood of Salisbury. — Rev. J. Beck exhibited a fine set of large fruit trenchers in their original box, also three good examples of palstaves, and a number of posy rings. — Mr. W. H. St. John Hope, by permission of the Mayor and Corporation, exhibited a most in- teresting mace belonging to the borough of Lyme Regis. The Vicar and churchwardens of All Hallows', Goldsmith Street, Exeter, exhibited two pieces of their communion plate. — The Rev. G. F. Browne read an interesting paper on basket-work images of men on sculptured stones at Checkley and Ham, and on an incised stone at Skipworth, Yorks, illustrated by a series of rubbings.
May 27. — Dr. J. Evans, President, in the chair. — Mr. Westlake exhibited an ancient horseshoe found at Kilburn. — Archdeacon Pownall exhibited a large Limoges enamel representing our Lord falling under the cross. — Mr. W. H. St. John Hope exhibited a number of mediaeval paving tiles found by him during excavations at West Langdon Abbey, Kent. — Mr. Joseph Clarke exhibited a singular unfinished alabaster panel with the Crucifixion, supposed to have been found under the flooring at Minster in Thanet. — Mr. E. St. F. Moore exhibited a loom weight from some earthworks near Northampton, and a small bronze vessel of Roman date found in Suffolk.
Anthropological Institute.— May 11. — Mr. F. Galton, President, in the chair. — Mr. Gallon read some " Notes on Permanent Colour Types in Mosaic." — Prof. Thane read a paper by Prof. A. Macalister "On some African Skulls and on a New Ireland Skull in the Anatomical Museum of the University of Cam- bridge."— Dr. Garson reported that the correspondence as to an international agreement on the cephalic index had been brought to a satisfactory conclusion, and that the scheme advocated by him before the Institute in February last had been accepted by sixty of the leading anthropologists on the Continent. Dr. Garson read a paper " On the Skeleton and Cephalic Index of Japanese."
May 25.— Mr. F. Galton, President, in the chair.— Mr. R. S. Poole read a paper "On the Ancient Egyptian Classification of the Races of Man": i. Egyptian, red ; 2. Shemite, yellow ; 3. Libyan, white ; 4. Negro, black.— Mr. C. W. Rosset exhibited a collection of photogra]:)hs and objects of ethno- logical interest from the Maldivc Islands and Ceylon.
Archaeological Institute.- May 6.— Earl Percy, President, in the chair. — Mr. R. S. Poole gave an address " On the Value of Archeology in the Study of the Bible." — Mr. S. Lucas exhibited a great sword of state, of about the date of 1440. — Mr. J. T. Irvine exhibited a series of interesting plans showing the foundations of the early buildings at the east end of Lichfield Cathedral, which were made manifest during the late restorations.
Philological Society.— May 7.— Rev. Prof. Skeat, President, in the chair. — Mr. A. J. Ellis read a report on his dialectal work since May, 1885. He said that he had completed the first draft of his account of the southern, western, and eastern divisions. He pro- ceeded to explain his nineteen districts, to show how they were treated and illustrated, and to give details respecting his informants and their qualifications.
May 21. — Anniversary Meeting. — Prof. Skeat, President, in the chair. — The President read his biennial address. He then read his remarks on " Ghost-words."
Society of Biblical Archaeologfy. — June i. — Mr. W. Morrison, President, in the chair. — Mr. F. G. Hilton Price read a paper describing a number of Egyptian antiquities in his collection.
Hellenic— May 6.— Prof. C. T. Newton in the chair. — Prof. Jebb read a paper " On the Homeric House in Relation to the Remains at Tiryns." The structure of the house at Tiryns, as traced by Dr. Dorpfeld, was shown by a plan. Beside it was placed another, showing the arrangement of the Homeric house as archreologists have hitherto usually deduced it from the data of the Homeric poems, the sketch given by J. Protodikos {1877) being taken as a basis.
Asiatic. — May 17. — Anniversary Meeting. — Col. Yule in the chair. — Portions of the past year's report having been read by the Secretary, the Council and officers of next year were elected. — The President then delivered an address, in which he remarked on the heavy loss sustained by the Society in the death of so many of its more eminent members.
Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. — Annual Meeting, June 8. — The Hon. Richard Grosvenor in the chair. — The report presented to the meeting included an account of the Society's action with regard to the York churches, and went on to say, " The very valuable church of St. Crux, at York, still remains roofless. About ;if 2000 had been raised for its restoration, and a second appeal has been issued by Canon Raine since the parish of St. Crux was united to All Saints', Pavement. The historical asso- ciations of the church are of surpassing interest, and its structural beauty noteworthy. The Society ventures to hope, therefore, that the present incumbent, whose archaeological learning is so well known, will make a determined effort to prevent its complete destruction. The disuse or destruction of St. Mary Bishophill junior has for the present been prevented by the action of the parochial authorities. St. Michael, Spurrier- gate, has been united to St. Mary, Castlegate. The beautiful little church of Holy Trinity, Goodramgate, remains desolate and uncared for. A little money spent in repairs might prevent it from going altogether to ruin. Nothing has been heard recently of the abandonment of St. Martin, Micklegate, or St. John, Ouse Bridge. The first of these churches is beautiful and interesting, and both have much precious glass. No steps have been taken for the demolition of St. Cuthbert's, a church which has been much mutilated but possesses features of considerable interest. With regard to Sedbergh Church, the committee report that it has done its utmost to save the church from the destruction of ' restoration,' and nothing now remains for it but to record a complete failure."
Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. — May 4. — The first excursion of the season was to Sherborne. — The members were met at the station by the vicar, the Rev. W. H. Lyon, and his son, and were at once conducted by the south porch of the Abbey to the King's School. All the various portions of the buildings were visited in detail. The boys' studies — once the cells of the Benedictine monks, whose monastery formerly stood on the north side of the Abbey, and has now been appropriated for the
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
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use of the school ; the crypt — with its Norman piers ; the old schoolroom — built 1670, with the statue of King Edward VI. at its east end, transferred from a more ancient schoolroom to its present site, well known to old Sherborne boys, as they "capped " the image of royalty. From the hall up to the sick chambers, curiously built amid the stone groining of what was the Lady Chapel, the ancient Guesten Hall, and through the chapel to the museum on the opposite side of the road. This room contains a very good collection of the characteristic fossils of the neighbour- hood, principally from the Inferior Oolite. Mr. Wood briefly indicated from a geological section of the neigh- bourhood the formations recently traversed, from the Oxford Clay and Corbrash at Templecombe in de- scending order to the Forest Marble, Fuller's Earth, Fuller's Earth Rock, and Inferior Oolite, on which Sherborne is built, the only peculiarity being that the Great Oolite so thick at Bath had thinned out in this direction altogether, and was probably represented by the Forest Marble. The members then entered the Abbey. Before doing so the remains of an old door- way on the north side of the present one were pointed out as containing traces of Saxon work, and attention was called to the picturesque effect of the painted window at the east end, as seen through the open portal. The contrast from the glare outside to the subdued light of the interior of this noble Abbey was most restful to the eye. The richness of the carving in panelled pier and vaulted tracery, and the soft blending of the whole in one harmonious warm tint, due to the quality of the far celebrated Ham Hill stone, renders this interior probably unequalled in beauty. A visit was paid to the belfry, containing a peal of eight bells. The tenor, called " Great Tom," the gift of Cardinal Wolsey, and the smallest of the seven brought from Tournay and presented to various cathedrals in England, bears the inscription : " By Wolsey's gift I measure time for all ; To mirth, to grief, to church, I serve to call."
The bell rung on the alarm of fire, and from its shape giving out a peculiar sound, has the following inscrip- tion :
" Lord, quench this furious flame ! Arise ! run ! help ! put out the same."
Having looked at the outside of the house built in the shape of the letter H, the cross part of which is said to have been erected by Walter Raleigh, the members wandered on to Walter Raleigh's seat and tree (an elm), the traditional scene of the pipe and flagon of beer anecdote, and to the precincts of the old castle, Bishop Rogers'sonce famous fortress, now apicturesque ruin, with here and there traces of the once rich Norman mouldings in column and window tracery characteristic of his period.
Buxton Philosophical Society. — June 5.— Professor Boyd Dawkins delivered a lecture on " Poole's Cavern, and its Place in History." The Professor said he was there to put before them the history of caves and ravines. The ravine from Buxton to Miller's Dale was clearly marked, and these ravines were hollowed out of the rock, like Poole's Cavern, were traversed by water, and gave unmistakable proofs as to what water had formerly done. In the ravine on every side, and at various altitudes, there were caverns opening out similar to that presented by VOL. XIV.
Poole's Cavern. It was not difficult to trace the history of a ravine, and they would observe that, by some means or other, the drainage of the country had gradually sunk, so that these water-channels were to be looked upon as deserted water-courses, the water having sunk down and found its way to lower levels. In the first place the mere mechanical action of the water ground away the bottom of the cavern. That was the simple agent in the making of caverns, but the carbonic acid ever present in the air was more subtle, and every drop of water that fell carried car- bonic acid to the limestone, and the water that found its way through the water-courses attacked the rock, wearing it away and lowering the floor of the cavern. Suppose they examined the surface of the quarry they would find that there had been a line fissure, and they would note that the rock had been honey combed and worn away in an irregular manner. This chemical action was exceedingly potent. Caverns were formed by enlargement of the water-courses, they being so enlarged by carbonic acid, by the passage of the rain through the atmosphere and decaying vegetation on the surface of the ground or roof. Bit by bit these blocks of rock became loosened and tumbled down. The frost had also an effect in the same manner. At Poole's Hole the ravine was not very clearly marked, but in a great many cases it was. They had a won- derful assortment of stalagmites, stalactites, and crys- taline in Poole's Cavern — some of the stalagmites coloured most beautifully with salts of iron, while others stood in snowy contrast. The rate of the deposit of the material was altogether uncertain. They could not really estimate the age of an accumulation in a cavern by appealing to the thickness of the stalag- mite. It might take a thousand years to have a stalagmite not larger than a shilling-piece, as in the case of Kent's Hole, at Torquay. The rate was vari- able, and there was speculation. At Poole's Cavern there was an accumulation of mud, with which most of them were familiar. That was an outward and visible sign of an amount of water and drainage which inevit- ably belonged to the formation of the cavern, the accumulation of which was simply due to the fact that there was not sufficient outlet for the water to carry it clear away. Here, underneath an accumulation and stalagmite, there were the most wonderful remains. They would take the remains of the animals first. There were those of the horse, the hog — mostly young — of sheep and goats, and short-horned ox. This latter would be familiar to most of them. The remains found are of that class which was represented by the small but beautifully-shaped Scotch and the elegantly- shaped Welsh cattle. The bones discovered in Poole's Cavern were to be looked upon merely as an old refuse-heap, as they were used for food. If they examined their red-deer they would find that most of the animals tended to be young rather than old. The horse was an exceedingly common article of food down to the close of the eighth century after Christ. It was the rule rather than the exception to eat horseflesh. The reason horseflesh was not partaken of was owing to an edict of one of the Popes, and the result of this prejudice was felt to-day. There were also wild animals. The stag had not been extinct in this part of the country for any great length of time, and if they could get at the records of the stag they would
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MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
get the evidence of wild red-deer down to exceedingly late times, long after the days of Elizabeth. In all the refuse-heaps of the present day they had broken articles of pottery. Among the materials in the refuse- heap the broken pots formed a very imjxjrtant ele- ment. These pots were of great interest. They found thick pieces of red pottery which belonged to the ordinary household, pottery undoubtedly forming lafge jars in which stuff or made wine was stored. He must also call attention to the small crucible, which was used for melting purposes. Samian ware was also alluded to, and it was found at Poole's Cavern. They had evidence of the presence of glass. There was a Roman glass bottle. It was in this damp and uncomfortable place to live in that they had evidence of the accumulation of a refuse-heap. The objects of interest lay scattered down in the clay. They inferred that it took some years for the formation of this refuse-heap, and it was perfectly clear that the people who made this heap were people in by no means a low state of civilization. Somehow or other they became the possessors of Samian ware. They could not imagine anything more out of place than the use of Samian ware in such a place as that, and it was impossible to believe that a collector of Samian ware lived in such a place as Poole's Cavern. He had not exhausted all the things found in the cavern by a long way, but he had given them evidence to prove that it was a refuse-heap. Human remains, too, occurred in this refuse-heap. They occurred, too, in conditions to imply that they had not been buried there. It seemed to him that there had been a massacre in the cavern. There was definite order in Roman interments. The Roman provincials burned the dead and stored the remains in cinerary urns. Here in Poole's Cavern, however, they had remains under the stalagmite. He thought there was some tragedy to note in that association. And who were these people ? In these caverns they came across iron knives, daggers, and choppers of a type he was per- fectly familiar with, specimens of which they could see in certain museums. They found, too, the sickle, and various ornaments in the shape of bone pins. He might also note the green and blue glass bead of Roman workmanship. He asked their attention more particularly to the bronze things. The contents of Poole's Cavern depended very much upon the bronze. Here he noted two things made of bronze : one of them was the bronze cluster, which consisted of tweezers for taking hair out, another for cleaning the nails, and a third for cleaning the ear out. It was in the nature of some of the apparatus belonging to the dandy of the time. These things he had met with over and over again, not, however, united together, as he was delighted to find them at Poole's Cavern. They found finger-rings of various kinds, like wedding- rings, made of bronze, though thinner. They had pins with the round ring and delicate tooling around, and there were also brooches. They had the blue centre, then the circle of red enamel, and a larger one of blue enamel, the whole forming a little shield in the middle of the brooch. They had considerable evidence of the enamelling art, which was certainly British. He also drew attention to another brooch, with silver inlay and scrolls, and said articles of the kind he had named had been met with in the Cress- brook Caves and some other caverns in this district.
At Poole's Cavern three coins of Trajan were found, and these he proceeded to dilate upon, adding that these refuse-heaps implied savage life, with very much luxury. The Roman Britons were the great road- builders in this country, and there was a complete net- work of roads leading to the military centres. The hot springs at Bath were known to have been used by them, and the hot water still, in fact, was running through the Roman pipes laid down. Roman civiliza- tion, he thought, penetrated into this region. Up to the present time they had not discovered any traces of the baths being used by the Romans at Buxton, but there was every probability that in the course of time they would find them. It was undoubted that they made great use of the hot springs, and that being so, it was not probable they would have missed Buxton. He thought the date of these remains in Poole's Cavern corresponded to the destruction of Chester, and he maintained that it was to these caves and holes such as that at Buxton that the unfortunate people fled. — The party then repaired to the museum at Poole's Cavern, where Professor Dawkins proceeded to explain and comment upon the various objects of interest found in the cavern. The human bones of young and old testified to a massacre at some time. The articles of personal adornment, the Roman coins, the bronze cluster, Samian ware, crucible, and other relics, were inspected with great interest. The human teeth, Professor Dawkins observed, were very much better than those belonging to the race of the present day, and he feared that the time would come when they would have no teeth at all, so great was the degeneration. He also called attention to a splinter Which formed part of a Neolithic axe, wedge- shaped.
Bradford Historical and Antiquarian Society. — ^June 5. — The place chosen for the excursion was Knaresborough. By the courtesy of the Rev. Canon Crosthwaite the party first visited the parish church, dedicated to St. John, which is a decorated building of the fourteenth century. The windows, with their geometrical tracery, and the lofty pillars of the nave, were especially noticed. But the chief object of interest was the Slingsby Chapel, where are seen the recumbent statues of Francis and Mary Slingsby, of 1600, and the beautiful white marble monument to the late Sir Charles Slingsby, the last male heir of his line, who was drowned in crossing the Ure, with other members of the York and Ainsty Hunt, in February, 1869. Of the origin of the church little is known, but after being attached to the Priory of Nostel it became a vicarage in 1343. Long prior to that period, how- ever, the original fabric suffered partial destruction at the hands of the Scots, and of its restoration no record is extant. The old Court House was next visited, where, through the kindness of Mr. Frederick Powell, the records, extending back to the thirteenth century, were exposed to view and explained by Mr. T. T. Empsall, the President of the Society. The ruins of the ancient castle were then inspected. The guard- room, with its many curiosities — a man-trap, cannon balls found in the neighbourhood, a model of the dropping well, a box said to have been used by William the Conqueror, and the black-hole for unruly soldiers — were examined. Then the gloomy vault underneath, with its tremendously thick walls, where the murderers of Thomas a Becket found refuge, and
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
33
iise of the school ; the crypt — with its Norman piers ; the old schoolroom — built 1670, with the statue of King Edward VI. at its east end, transferred from a more ancient schoolroom to its present site, well known to old Sherborne boys, as they '* capped " the image of royalty. From the hall up to the sick chambers, curiously built amid the stone groining of what was the Lady Chapel, the ancient Guesten Hall, and through the chapel to the museum on the opposite side of the road. This room contains a very good collection of the characteristic fossils of the neighbour- hood, principally from the Inferior Oolite. Mr. Wood briefly indicated from a geological section of the neigh- bourhood the formations recently traversed, from the Oxford Clay and Corbrash at Templecombe in de- scending order to the Forest Marble, Fuller's Earth, Fuller's Earth Rock, and Inferior Oolite, on which Sherborne is built, the only peculiarity being that the Great Oolite so thick at Bath had thinned out in this direction altogether, and was probably represented by the Forest Marble. The members then entered the Abbey. Before doing so the remains of an old door- way on the north side of the present one were pointed out as containing traces of Saxon work, and attention was called to the picturesque effect of the painted window at the east end, as seen through the open portal. The contrast from the glare outside to the subdued light of the interior of this noble Abbey was most restful to the eye. The richness of the carving in panelled pier and vaulted tracery, and the soft blending of the whole in one harmonious warm tint, due to the quality of the far celebrated Ham Hill stone, renders this interior probably unequalled in beauty. A visit was paid to the belfry, containing a peal of eight bells. The tenor, called " Great Tom," the gift of Cardinal Wolsey, and the smallest of the seven brought from Tournay and presented to various cathedrals in England, bears the inscription : " By Wolsey's gift I measure time for all ; To mirth, to grief, to church, I serve to call."
The bell rung on the alarm of fire, and from its shape giving out a peculiar sound, has the following inscrip- tion :
" Lord, quench this furious flame ! Arise ! run ! help ! put out the same."
Having looked at the outside of the house built in the shape of the letter H, the cross part of which is said to have l)een erected by Walter Raleigh, the members wandered on to Walter Raleigh's seat and tree (an elm), the traditional scene of the pipe and flagon of beer anecdote, and to the precincts of the old castle, Bishop Rogers'sonce famous fortress, now apicturesque ruin, with here and there traces of the once rich Norman mouldings in column and window tracery characteristic of his period.
Buxton Philosophical Society. — June 5. — Professor Boyd Dawkins delivered a lecture on "Poole's Cavern, and its Place in History." The Professor said he was there to put before them the history of caves and ravines. The ravine from Buxton to Miller's Dale was clearly marked, and these ravines were hollowed out of the rock, like Poole's Cavern, were traversed by water, and gave unmistakable proofs as to what water had formerly done. In the ravine on every side, and at various altitudes, there were caverns opening out similar to that presented by VOL. XIV.
Poole's Cavern. It was not difficult to trace the history of a ravine, and they would observe that, by some means or other, the drainage of the country had gradually sunk, so that these water-channels were to be looked upon as deserted water-courses, the water having sunk down and found its way to lower levels. In the first place the mere mechanical action of the water ground away the bottom of the cavern. That was the simple agent in the making of caverns, but the carbonic acid ever present in the air was more subtle, and every drop of water that fell carried car- bonic acid to the limestone, and the water that found its way through the water-courses attacked the rock, wearing it away and lowering the floor of the cavern. Suppose they examined the surface of the quarry they would find that there had been a line fissure, and they would note that the rock had been honey combed and worn away in an irregular manner. This chemical action was exceedingly potent. Caverns were formed by enlargement of the water-courses, they being so enlarged by carbonic acid, by the passage of the rain through the atmosphere and decaying vegetation on the surface of the ground or roof. Bit by bit these blocks of rock became loosened and tumbled down. The frost had also an effect in the same manner. At Poole's Hole the ravine was not very clearly marked, but in a great many cases it was. They had a won- derful assortment of stalagmites, stalactites, and crys- taline in Poole's Cavern — some of the stalagmites coloured most beautifully with salts of iron, while others stood in snowy contrast. The rate of the deposit of the material was altogether uncertain. They could not really estimate the age of an accumulation in a cavern by appealing to the thickness of the stalag- mite. It might take a thousand years to have a stalagmite not larger than a shilling-piece, as in the case of Kent's Hole, at Torquay. The rate was vari- able, and there was speculation. At Poole's Cavern there was an accumulation of mud, with which most of them were familiar. That was an outward and visible sign of an amount of water and drainage which inevit- ably belonged to the formation of the cavern, the accumulation of which was simply due to the fact that there was not sufficient outlet for the water to carry it clear away. Here, underneath an accumulation and stalagmite, there were the most wonderful remains. They would take the remains of the animals first- There were those of the horse, the hog — mostly young — of sheep and goats, and short-horned ox. This latter would be familiar to most of them. The remains found are of that class which was represented by the small but beautifully-shaped Scotch and the elegantly- shaped Welsh cattle. The bones discovered in Poole's Cavern were to be looked upon merely as an old refuse-heap, as they were used for food. If they examined their red-deer they would find that most of the animals tended to be young rather than old. The horse was an exceedingly common article of food down to the close of the eighth century after Christ. It was the rule rather than the exception to eat horseflesh. The reason horseflesh was not partaken of was owing to an edict of one of the Popes, and the result of this prejudice was felt to-day. There were also wild animals. The stag had not been extinct in this part of the country for any great length of time, and if they could get at the records of the stag they would
36
ANTIQUARIAN NEWS.
Christie, Manson, and Woods, at their rooms in King Street, St. James's, was undoubtedly one of the finest assemblages of porcelain that has been disposed of at public auction for many years. The collection was exceptionally rich in old Sevres vases, jardinieres, ser- vices, and cabarets ; the vases being of the highest im- portance, and including examples of all the choicest designs and colours, painted ty the most celebrated artists. The jardinieres were also of rare form, and enriched with the most beautiful decorations. Amongst the collections of services was the celebrated dessert service which was presented by Louis XVI. to Mr. Hope, of Amsterdam, and which is painted with the arms of the Hope family. It was purchased at the sale of the effects of the late Mr. W. Williams Hope, of Paris. There was also a cup and saucer, bearing the date 1778, which formed part of the magnificent service made at Sevres for the Czarine Catherine of Russia. One hundred and sixty pieces were subsequently brought to England, but were re- purchased, with the exception of a few smaller pieces, by the Czar Nicholas a short time before the Crimean War, and taken back to Russia. There was also a matchless collection of old Chelsea porcelain, in- cluding four of the largest and finest vases ever pro- duced of that ware, being no less than 24 inches in height. One of these vases was presented by the owners of the Chelsea manufactory to the Foundling Hospital on its foundation, where it remained until 1868, when it was purchased by the late Earl of Dudley.
Mr. Hubert Hall will shortly publish with Messrs. Swan Sonnenschein and Co. a new historical work, with the title Elizabethan Society. Ten social types have been selected to illustrate the interior life of the country, town, and court ; and nearly all of these will comprise sketches of famous personages of the period. A feature of the work will be the extensive use of original materials, even to the illustrations, which are derived from contemporary MSS. A large mass of social statistics will be contained in an appendix to the work, together with some curious specimens of family correspondence.
The Council of the Essex Archaeological Society have decided to begin printing the Register of the Colchester Grammar School, which is a valuable genealogical record, and to entrust its annotation to Messrs. J. H. Round and H. W. King. They are also anxious to issue their Transactions at more fre- quent intervals, if they can obtain increased support. Their funds have hitherto been heavily taxed for the support of their museum at Colchester, which they claim to have now made "one of the finest local museums in England," and which is " annually visited by scarcely less than 20,000 persons," of whom many come from long parts to see its unsurpassed collection of objects of the Roman period. Applications for membership will be gladly received by the hon. sec, H. W. King, Esq., Leigh Hill, Leigh, Essex.
The demolitions now in progress at the north end of the Broadway, Blackfriars, have, for the first time, laid bare another portion of the old wall of London. It is a continuation eastward of the fragment which was removed a year or two ago, and is not many yards distant from the point at which this ancient
defence of the capital turned northward across Lud- gate Hill at the point where stood the ancient Lud Gate. The portion now exposed is mainly composed of fragments of limestone united by coarse mortar. With these are intermingled tiles and bricks, and oddly enough large lumps of soft white chalk (ap- parently the upper chalk of the geologists). The wall is about fourteen feet high, and is surmounted by a rather deep line of red brick, which, though old, seems to be of later date than the lower portion.
An interesting archseological discovery has been made in the interior of the city of Vienna. A dog fell into an opening at the half-demolished Jesuit monastery. While efforts were being made to rescue the dog, a large vault, containing ninety coffins, was discovered. From tablets on the coffins it was found that the Jesuit brothers and the nobles supporting the order during the greater part of Maria Theresa's reign were buried in this vault.
Mr. W. Carew Hazlitt has presented the MS. of a Third and Final Series of Bibliographical Collections and Aotes (1474-1700) to Mr. Quaritch, who has arranged to print a very limited edition of it, strictly uniform with the two former series of 1876 and 1882. The new volume will contain between 3,000 and 4,000 articles, including a large and valuable assem- blage of books, tracts, and broadsides, illustrating English, Scotch, and Irish history ; the contemporary English translations of foreign tracts relating to the affairs of the Low Countries, France, Spain, Ger- many, Russia, etc., in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; rare Americana, and important additions to the departments of poetry, the drama, and folk- lore. Mr. Hazlitt has had a recent opportunity of examining the celebrated collection of tracts, in 30 folio volumes, formed by Lord Chancellor Somers, and has not failed to profit by the successive dispersion of many private libraries during the last five or six years, particularly those of Lord Jersey, Mr. Hartley, and Mr. Addington.
The reports of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts, 1870- 1886, have made known to scholars the existence of a mass of valuable documents which lie, scattered and inedited, and in a large measure unexamined, in the archives of public institutions and of private families throughout the country. Many of these valuable and, indeed, unique documents, especially those which are in private hands, are liable, it may be said, to daily risk of destruction from damp, fire, and a thousand accidents. They may, more- over, at any moment be dispersed and lost to sight. The importance of preserving and of making better known these best monuments of a nation's history is obvious. It was under considerations such as these that a suggestion was made in a communication to the Scotsman newspaper, in February last, by the Earl of Rosebery — viz., that the work of printing and editing the manuscript materials of the popular character above indicated should be undertaken by a society formed exclusively for that purpose. This suggestion was taken into consideration at a private meeting convened by the Rev. Dr. Dowden, with Professor Masson in the chair, on the 17th of February. The gentlemen present appointed a com-
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
3S
where the centre shaft has more arches springing from it than any other pillar in England, was shown. A paper on the history and antiquities of Knaresborough was read by Mr. Wm. Cudworth, honorary editorial secretary of the Society. After noticing the extent of the ancient Forest of Knaresborough, which prior to the enclosure of 1775 included eleven constabularies and an area of country measuring twenty miles in length by about eight miles in breadth, the several aspects of the period of the forest laws of William the Conqueror were presented, showing their severity and the means which were adopted to keep up the pre- servation of game for the Royal sportsmen who paid yearly visits to the Knaresborough hunting-grounds. Most frequent of these was King John, of Magna Charta fame. The castle, however, was commenced before his time, and was probably completed during his reign, facilitated by the readiness with which stone was found in the neighbourhood. So valuable was this material that in the year 1213-14, 30,000 blocks were sent from Knaresborough to Portsmouth. After withstanding the wide-spread devastation of the Scottish invasion and subsequent onslaughts, Knares- borough Castle was surrendered to the Parliamentary forces during the Civil War. Almost directlyafterwards the castle and several others were ordered to be made untenable, and have gradually succumbed to decay.
£Dt)ituarp,
LLEWELLYN JEWITT, F.S.A., Born 18 16; died June ^i/i, 1886. Our readers will share with us in the deep regret which Mr. Jewitt's death brings to his many friends. In the present number of this journal is probably the last article he ever wrote, and before the ink was dry on the corrected proof-sheet the hand that wielded the pen had become lifeless.
Mr. Jewitt was born at Kimberworth, near Rother- ham. He was the younger son of the late Mr. Arthur Jewitt (a well-known topographical writer in the early part of this present century), by his wife, Martha, daughter of Thomas Sheldon. In 1818 the family removed to DufTield, in Derbyshire ; and there Mr. Jewitt remained until the autumn of 1838, when he, then in his twenty-second year — the family at that time removing to Oxford — went to London, and on Christmas Day of the same year married, in Derby, Elizabeth, eldest sur\-iving daughter of the late Mr. Isaac Sage, of Derby and Bath. Having thus settled in London, Mr. Jewitt there remained for a few years, and during the time was mainly engaged with a well- known pioneer of illustrated literature — Mr. Stephen Sly — in the illustrations, etc., of Chirles Knight's Fenny Cyclofcrdia, Fenny Magazine, Fictorial England, Shakespeare, Old England, etc. , and of many other leading works of that day. At this early period, too, Mr. Jewitt published his Handbook of British Coins, which has since then passed through several editions. He also made nearly the whole of the sketches, and very many of the finished drawings, for the steel plates of London Interiors, for which he had special means of access to the palaces, Government offices, etc.
Leaving London on account of his own and his wife's health, Mr. Jewitt removed to Headington Hill, by Oxford, where he resided some time, and greatly assisted by his pencil in the admii able labours of his brother, Mr. Orlando Jewitt, the eminent architec- tural engraver in Parker's Glossary of Architecture^ Domestic Architecture, and in many other works. Returning after a few years to London, Mr. Jewitt again as earnestly as ever engaged himself in literary and artistic work ; and among many other and varied occupations, he had for a short time the management of the illustrations of Punch, at the time when Douglas Jerrold was giving his Story of a Feather.
In 1853, Mr. Jewitt removed with his family to Derby, where he continued to reside till 1867, when he took up his residence at Winster Hall. After re- siding there for about thirteen years, Mr. Jewitt, in 1880, removed to DuflSeld. In i860 Mr. Jewitt pro- jected the Reliquary, Quarterly Arc hcsological yournal and Kevieiv. Of Mr. Jewitt's literary labours we need say but little.
Among them are : The Ceramic Art of Great Britai}t,from Frehistoric Times down to the Present Day; Grave-mounds and theirContents ; The Life and Works of Jacob Thompson; The Stately Homes of England ; The Domesday Booh of Derbyshire; The Ballads and Songs of Derbyshire.
In 1 85 1 he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and he received many similar marks of distinction from other learned bodies — among others being created an honorary and actual member of the Russian Imperial Archaeological Commission and Sta- tistical Committee, Pskov; and corresponding mem- ber of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia.
antiquarian n^ete.
A singular discovery of old Roman coins has been made at Milverton, a suburb of Leamington. Some men in the employment of a local builder were digging foundations near Milverton Station, when one of them found a Roman amphora, containing between 200 and 300 coins, in silver and copper, of the very earliest date, and in excellent preservation. The man, not knowing the value of the amphora, smashed it across the wheel of a railway truck to see what it contained, and then left the coins, which are undoubtedly of great antiquarian value, where they had fallen. They were subsequently recovered in consequence of a statement made by him to a fellow- workman.
An extraordinary discovery was made in Aber- deen recently. A number of labourers were digging the foundation of a building in Ross's Court, Upper Kirkgate, an old thoroughfare, and when about three feet below the surface they discovered a bronze pot, containing about 15,000 English silver coins, of the reign of Edward I. It is supposed that this forms part of the Ixjoty secured in one of the raids into England during the twelfth century.
The late Earl of Dudley's splendid collection of old porcelain, which was sold last month by Messrs.
D — 2
38
ANTIQ U ART AN NE WS.
The restoration of the old church of St. Andrew, Heslerton, Scarborough, is contemplated. The work proposed to be done is the complete restoration of the Early English chancel, and the renovating of the eighteenth century nave.
The ancient church of Oswaldkirk has undergone a much-needed restoration. The church has been well described as a remarkable building, and this description is borne out by study of its details and perusal of its history. It had its rise in a very in- teresting period, and is said to be the only church which retains the name so prominently applied to the whole district in which it stands, though others dedicated to St. Oswald abound in various parts of the country. The features mainly presented in the edifice are those of thirteenth-century architecture, with interesting remains of late Norman work, and it appears to occupy the site of a far older fabric which not improbably stood at the time when the sainted King Oswald flourished. The nave appears to have been originally built at the close of the Norman period, its north wall having a very good doorway of that style, while a few feet to the west of it is a deeply splayed semicircular-headed light. The south door — a work of the very latest Perpendicular — has two transitional caps built into its jambs. In the end of the thirteenth century the nave was brought to its present size, the walls being partly rebuilt, with two- light windows, in place of the narrow Norman lights. What the chancel was then there is nothing to show, but the remains of the south windows, as well as the fragments of the east window that still remained, pointed to its being a work of the middle of the fourteenth century. The old pulpit of Jacobean oak- work has been carefully cleaned and re-fixed. Within the altar rail has been laid an Early English incised slab, bearing a pastoral staff, and precisely similar to some remaining in the ruins of the neighbouring Abbey of Byland, and probably originally over the grave of one of its abbots. A fragment of an altar- slab found under the pulpit has also been laid in the pavement under the present altar.
Mr. Fortescue, the superintendent of the reading- room in the British Museum, has completed a cata- logue which will be of special value to all readers of the library.
An interesting discovery was recently made at North Burton by Mr. Stephen Pudsey, who, while digging his garden for gravel, unearthed the skeleton of a man. The day after the skeleton was found. Dr. T. Cassidy, Mr. Dodd, and Mr. A. Brady made an excavation near the same place, and four more skeletons were unearthed, all of which bore unmistakable evidence of being those of ancient warriors who had fallen in battle. This assumption was more fully borne out by the fact that the skull of each man appeared to have been cloven by a battle-axe of stone or iron, the nature of the cut denoting most probably the latter. The skeletons seem to have been buried where they fell in battle, and in the case of those recently discovered there was only a covering of three or four inches of gravel and about eighteen inches of soil. The skulls of two or three of the skeletons now in the possession of Dr. Cassidy, of Hunmanby, are particularly inter- esting on account of their splendid state of preserva-
tion, the set of teeth in one being almost as good as when the owner was alive.
A prehistoric cemetery, it is declared, has been discovered on an island in the Potomac, and lying in Hampshire County, Virginia, where a recent flood un- covered the bleached skeletons of some 300 or 400 aborigines. Where the remains had been undisturbed by the rush of waters, the skeletons were all found lying on the left side, and with rude earthenware pots or bowls in front of them filled with flint knives, arrow-heads, etc.
In the Castle of Durham is a kitchen which, until a short while ago, possessed all its ancient features, in- cluding one long and massive oak table, with stout and characteristic supports, and two other tables not so large, but of the same date and make. Doubtless joints had been placed on them, which afterwards were served to Bishop Fox, etc., in the adjoining great hall. They were as strong as the day they were made, and had the rich colour of centuries upon them. Quite recently, however, the authorities who hold the Castle — those of the University, the Dean being Warden, and the Rev. Dr. Plummer, Master of University College — have had the large table shortened, the huge oak top planed over, and the massive and serviceable supports of good design taken away and replaced by turned legs of deal. The smaller tables have under- gone the same process, except that they have not been shortened. They have been made perfectly hideous and now look yellow monstrosities, and the absurdity is that tables have been destroyed which would have lasted for centuries to come as they have lasted for centuries past. This treatment has turned them into trumpery things which are already warped, and will not last for as many decades as the old ones had with- out deterioration lasted centuries. This is the act of the same men who, but for the interposition of the Durham Archaeological Society, three years ago would have destroyed Pudsey's upper hall of Transi- tional date and style, which is quite unique — a work of destruction which they had commenced.
During the past two years no less than three "finds" of the bones of the great extinct animals have occurred in Westmoreland and Cumberland. Two of these have been in limestone caverns, whilst a third was made during a series of excavations. The district embraced would originally be comprised by the great Caledonian forest, which was one of the strongholds as well as one of the last retreats of the larger forms of a past British fauna. The bones recently found represent the following species : Wild cattle {^Bos pi-imigens and B. longifrons) ; grizzly (?), brown, and cave bears ; of human remains — tibia, humerus, and femur, ribs, and part of a cranium. These are of a child and an adult. Wolf, wild boar, wild cat, badger, horse, several of the weasel kind, fox, a great quantity of the bones of deer — red and fallow — together with remains of animals at present existing. The most im- portant of the whole of the finds, however, is that of a beaver, a large and perfect skull having been dis- covered at Sedbergh, just on the border-line of West- moreland and Yorkshire. In some of the limestone recesses are evident traces of human occupation, such as burnt charcoal, a bone needle, an awl, and an arrow-head. Some of the bones exhumed have cer-
ANTIQ UARIAN NE WS.
37
mittee to take the requisite steps for its formation. The Society is named " The Scottish History Society," and has for its object the discovery and the printing, under selected editorship, of unpubhshed documents ilUistrative of the civil, religious, and social history of Scotland. The Earl of Rosebery has consented to be the President. Gentlemen desiring to become members should apply to the Hon. Secretary, Mr. T. G. Law, Signet Library, Edinburgh.
The Duke of Wellington has, through his secretary, thanked the Hampshire Field-Club for their com- munication resolved on at Silchester, on May 20, and has informed the Club that it is his wish " that any- thing of real value in the remains should be preserved, and that in addition to the corrugated iron roof now being erected over the principal baths, he has directed similar precautions to be taken for the protection of the most interesting parts of the excavations."
An official letter has been received from General Pitt Rivers, F.R.S., asking the Hampshire Field-Club to send him a list of any ancient monuments in the county worthy of protection, together with the names and addresses of their owners. If the owners' con- sent could be obtained to having such objects of antiquity placed under the guardianship of the Com- missioner of Works it would greatly facilitate matters. The Committee of the Club have resolved to prepare such a list at the end of the present season, and they invite the co-operation of the members in endeavour- ing to get this Act applied to such ancient monuments in Hampshire.
Devizes Castle will shortly be sold. The original structure (of which very considerable portions re- main) was built by Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, in the reign of Henry L, and was reputed to be the most formidable fortress in England. It was for some time occupied by the Empress Matilda, and in 1 149 passed into the hands of the Crown, and was given as dower to the wives of various kings. In the reign of Henry II. it formed one of the most important grants in the monarch's bestowal, and enjoyed all the immunities of a royal property. The remains of the ancient castle have been carefully preserved and restored where practicable to form the present resi- dence.
At the rear of the Cross Keys Inn, Peterborough, now in course of demolition for the erection of new shops, has been discovered what is believed to be the last remnant of the old boundary wall of the monastery. On the adjoining property a massive stone buttress was found ten or twelve years ago. The wall just exposed has been erected with rubble masonry, 3 feet 6 inches thick, with mortar that has for a long while lost its adhesive properties, similar, indeed, to that in the lantern tower and other por- tions of the cathedral. The hostelry now dismantled was probably the oldest domestic building in the city, evidently dating from the twelfth or thirteenth century. The old faced work exposed is suggestive of an opening, most likely as a doorway, some good Bar- nack quoins warranting this conclusion. In the troublous times of the twelfth and thirteenth century several of these domestic buildings were erected, their owners seeking the protection afforded by the monastery. There is, or was, an arched doorway to
a similar building in Goodyer's Yard, and another in Brookes' Yard, Church Street. The rooms of the Cross Keys are very low, with large open fire-places, the floors having simple moulded beams. The ex- ternal windows have stone mullions and labels. The lower portion has been modernized.
A Shakespeare memorial window, 10 feet by 6 feet, costing £,\<Xi, has been unveiled in St. James's Church, Curtain Road, Shoreditch. The window, which is the gift of Mr. Stanley Cooper, represents the poet seated holding a scroll, on which are inscribed the words, "All the world's a stage." St. James's Church was selected because in Curtain Road, near to, or on the same site, once stood the Curtain Theatre, and there is, it is said, a probability that Shakespeare acted oftener here than anywhere else. There is a tradition that the tragedy of Hamlet was first performed at this quiet little theatre, not far from which, in Gillum's Fields, Shakespeare lived ; and it is also pointed out that many of the original actors were interred in the ground behind the parish church.
Some workmen, while excavating at Spittal Gas Works, came across over one hundred old silver coins, which were found in sandy soil at a depth of about four feet. Some of the coins are in a capital state of preservation, although most of them have become very much worn. About a dozen Spanish coins, re- sembling in size our crown and half-crown, are in capital condition. They bear the date 1795 '■> ^'so the words, " Carolus IIII., Rex. Hispan et Md." On the face of the coin is a large imprint of that sovereign, and immediately on the top, and near the centre, is a small but distinct impression of one of our Georges, probably stamped on the coins in order to make them current in this country at that time.
Mr. Albert Jackson, the well-known bookseller, lately purchased a parcel of books for four shillings at a sale at Saffron Walden. Among the lot he dis- covered a very fine uncut copy, in its original boards, of the first edition of Keats's Endymion.
The work of copying the celebrated frescoes in the Ajanta Caves in Bombay, which was begun, says the Athenaum, under the auspices of the Governments of India and Bombay, so far back as 1872, has recently been completed. These caves, as is well known, are situated about fifty-five miles from Aurungabad and consist of twenty-four monasteries and five temples, hewn out of the solid rock, supported by lofty pillars, and richly ornamented with sculpture and highly finished paintings. The caves derive their chief interest from these last, which are assigned to periods ranging between B.C. 200 and a.d. 600, thus afford- ing a continuous display of Buddhist art during 800 years. Some idea of the magnitude of the work which has just been completed, at a cost of a little over ;^5,ooo, may be gathered from the fact that the copies made cover 166,888 square yards of canvas. There are in all 165 copies of paintings, 160 copies of panels, and 374 water-colour drawings of the orna- mental panels of the walls and ceilings, executed on a reduced scale with a view to their publication. The paintings vary in size from 25 feet by 1 1 down- wards. The whole of the copies are to be finally deposited in London, and are to be reproduced by chromo-lithography and the autotype process on a reduced scale, and published in book form.
40
THE ANTIQUARY EXCHANGE.
Wc^t 3ntiquatp (ZBrcfjange.
Enclose \d. for the First 12 Words, and id. for each Additional Three Words. All replies to a number should be enclosed in a blank envelope, with a loose Stamp, and sent to the Manager.
Note. — All Advertisements to reach the office by the lt)th of the month, and to be addressed — The Manager, Exchange Department, The Anti- quary Office, 62, Paternoster Row, London, E.C.
For Sale.
Quaint Gleanings from Ancient Poetry, a collection of curious poetical compositions of the l6th, 17th, and 1 8th centuries; large paper, only 75 copies printed, 1884, 6^. Kempe's Nine Dales Wonder performed in a Journey from London to Norwich, 1600 ; large paper, only 75 printed, 1884, 6^. Cottoni Posthuma, divers choice pieces of that renowned antiquary. Sir Robert Cotton, by J. H., Esq., 1679; large paper, 2 vols., 75 copies only printed, 1884, ihs. Ancient Popular Poetry from authentic manuscripts and old printed copies, edited by John Ritson ; adorned with cuts, 2 vols., 1884 ; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 14^. Hermippus Redivivus; or, the Sage's Triumph over Old Age and the Grave; London, 1744, 3 vols.; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 1885, £l \s. Lucina Sine Concubitu, a letter humbly addressed to the Royal Society, 1750 ; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 1885, lOs, Narrative of the Events of the Siege of Lyons, trans- lated from the French, 1794; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 1885, 6s. : or offers for the lot. — 301, care of Manager.
Copies of 222 Marriage Registers from the parish book of St. Mary's Church in Whittlesey, in the Isle of Ely and County of Cambridge, 1662-72; 1880, 10 pp., IS. 6d. A copy of the Names of all the Marriages, Baptisms, and Burials which have been solemnized in the private chapel of Somerset House, Strand, in the County of Middlesex, extending from 1 7 14 to 1776, with an index and copious genealogical notes ; 36 pp. and wrapper, 1862, 2s. 6d. — 1 19, care of Manager.
To Collectors. — Old London Views. County Views and Maps. Catalogue of Books, etc., on application. — R. Ellington, 15, Fitzroy Street, W.
Old Oak Chests, carved, 20^. and 25^. each. Also Old Oak Table and Corner Cupboard. Sketches. — Dick Carolgate, Retford.
Heroines of Shakspeare, 48 plates, letterpress, etc., published at 31J. 6d., for 15-f. (new). Jewitt's Stately Homes of England, 2 vols, published at 31J. 6d., for 17s. 6d, (new). — 119, care of Manager.
Monumental Brass Rubbings, from Is. 6d. each. Haines' Manual, 2 vols., i$s. Boutell's Brasses, Ss. Map Swanscombe, Kent, mounted, 1838, £1 is. — Sparvel Bayly, Ilford, Essex.
Speed's County Maps — 83 English and Foreign Maps, with Views of Towns, Costume, Heraldry, etc., boards loose, price 35^., date 16 10. — 307, care of Manager.
Antiques — Cromwell (eight-legged, ornamented) Sutherland Table, £1 5^. Oak Stool to match, 10^. 6d. Fine Old Bureaus, Oak and Mahogany, £2 los. to £4 each. — Shaw, Writtle, Essex.
The Manager wishes to dra~v attention to the fact that he cannot undertake to fo>-cvard post CARDS. or letters, unless a stamp be sent to cover postage oj same to advertiser.
Wanted to Purchase.
Dorsetshire Seventeenth Century Tokens. Also Topographical Works, Cuttings or Scraps connected with the county. — ^J. S. Udal, the Manor House, Symondsbury, Bridport.
Cobbett's Political Register, vols. 25, 30, 66, *]"}, 79, 84, 85 ; Beddoe's Death's Jest Book and Im- provisatore ; Pike's Ramble-Book, 1865 ; Courthell's Ten Years' Experience on the Mississippi ; Hazlitt's History of Venice, 4 volumes ; Dr. W. Morris's The Question of Ages. — M., care of Manager,
Henry Warren's Lithographic Illustrations of the River Ravensbourne, near Lewisham, Kent. Folio, 6 or 7 plates. (No date is believed to be on the book.) Thorpe (John) A Collection of Statutes relating to Rochester Bridge. Folio, 1733. — Thanet, care of Manager.
Portraits of Eminent Americans Now Living, with Biographical and Historical Memoirs of their Lives and Actions, by John Livingston, of the New York Bar, in 2 vols. New York, Cornish, Lamport and Co. — P., care of Manager.
Stoughton's Shades and Echoes of Old London, 1864; Cooper's Rambles on Rivers, Woods, and Streams ; Lupot on the Violin (English Translation). S. , care of Manager.
Views, Maps, Pottery, Coins, and Seventeenth Cen- tury Tokens of the Town and County of Nottingham- shire.— ^J. Toplis, Arthur Street, Nottingham.
ANTIQUARIAN NE WS.
39
tainly been worked by human instruments, and in one or two cases the chipping by hatchets is quite appa- rent. Some of the larger bones, too, have quite the appearance of having been gnawed to obtain the marrow within, and are split lengthwise. Professor Boyd Dawkins, of Manchester, has already examined three batches of animal remains from the district indi- cated, and more are about to be submitted to him. As the results of the investigations conducted there can be no question as to the importance of the yields already made. The Lake district abounds in lime- stone escarpments, and the caverns in which the bones are found are along the faces of these. It usually happens that the floor of the cave, in the first instance, is covered with pieces of limestone, from a pound to several hundredweight. Beneath this is a band of red loam, and under this again a dense deposit of thick red clay. It is in this last that the bones are embedded. Often the blocks of stone which cover the first floor are covered with stalagmitic matter, while stalactites depend from the roof. The finding together the remains of animals so widely diverse in food, mode of life, habitat, may be accounted for by the fact that the carnivorous animals dragged their prey into these rocky recesses, and that when old age or accident came upon them, they themselves crawled there to die, as is the wont with most wild animals.
In the London Chancery Division, before Mr. Justice Chitty, the case of Elwes and others v. Brigg Gas Com- pany recently came on for hearing. Mr. Romer, Q.C. (with him Mr. S. Dickinson), applied for an injunc- tion to restrain the defendants from parting with a prehistoric ship or boat, stated to be at least 2,000 years old, recently discovered at Brigg, near the bank of the River Ancholme. The plaintiffs were the lessors of the ground, and the defendants, who were the lessees, were exhibiting the boat. The learned counsel stated that some nice questions of law might arise as to the right of property in the boat. Mr. Nalder, for the defendants, stated that time was re- quired to file affidavits. It was therefore arranged that the motion should stand over, upon an undertaking by the defendants in the meanwhile not to sell or part with the boat, and to keep an account.
Corte^pontience,
MAIDEN LANE. {Ante, vol. xii., pp. 68, 134, 182, 231, 278 ; xiii., pp. 39. 86, 13s, 182.) I have read with much interest the discussion that has taken place upon this subject in the columns of the Antiquary, and cannot help thinking that Mr. J. C. L. Stahlschmidt, if he has not exactly hit the nail on the head, has at any rate made a pretty close aim at it. The word midden has doubtless been degraded in modern days to base usages — in Scotland it means a dunghill; and a "kitchen midden" is a heap of kitchen refuse ; but was it originally confined to this inferior rank ? The following quotation from Miller's Fly Leaves, ist Series, p. 178 — a serial which I may state, en passant, was edited by the late Dr. E. F. Rimbault, and contains a large amount of useful as
well as curious information — seems to me to have some bearing on the subject :
" In Agga's and Hogenburgh's plans of about 1570 and 1584, Drury-lane is represented at the north end as containing a cluster of farm and other houses, a cottage, and a blacksmith's shop, and the lane in con- tinuity to Drury-place forms a separation from the fields by embankments of earth, something like those of Maiden-lane, Battle Bridge. It was, in fact, a country road to Drury-place, and the Strand, and its vicinage."
Now, I would ask, may not the word " midden " have originally meant an embankment or mound, and the terms Maiden Lane, Maiden Street, etc., been applied to thoroughfares that were formed by excavat- ing the soil and throwing up embankments of earth on one or both sides of the roadway ? Most of the Maiden Castles and Maiden Bowers, or Burhs, that have been referred to by your correspondents, appear to have been constructed upon natural or artificial mounds. A careful topographical examination of the places whose names are compounded with the word maiden, would go far to settle the question. If it occurred in the case of a place where the idea of the heaping up of soil would be out of the question, the origin of the name must in that special case be assigned to some other source. I am far from wish- ing to hang my theory on to a hard-and-fast line.
The quotation which Mr. J. H. Round gives (vol. xiii., p. 86) from the records of Melcombe Regis is of value as illustrating the assumed secondary sense of "midden." In 1397, " The Bailiffs further present that in the lane called ' Alaydestrete ' dung is placed to the nuisance of the community." This seems to point to an ancient practice which the residents in the neighbourhood were bent on continuing in the teeth of sanitary reformers. Our ancestors were as conservative in these matters as the natives of India are at the present day, and they had very likely heaped up their refuse in Maiden Street from im- memorial times. It is not an unfair deduction that the street received its name from the practice to which the more enlightened bailiffs of 1397 ob- jected.
A further inquiry into the primary use of the word "midden" seems to be desirable. Mr. A. HalPs derivation of Maiden from the Celtic viagh, a field or plain, and dinas, dune, don, a hill fort, presents a little difficulty. \\Tiat has a hill fort to do with a field or plain, and how can they be united tc^ether ? Has Mr. Hall ever actually seen the words in com- bination, or is his etymology merely one of the guesses which were reprobated lately with so much justice by Mr. H. B. Wheatley {ante, p. 39) ?
4, Alipur Lane, Calcutta. W. F. Prideaux.
PARISH UMBRELLAS. {Ante, vol. xiii., p. 231.)
I have no doubt but that the charge in the church- wardens' accounts was for an umbrella for the use of the officiating clergyman at funerals in bad weather. At Aylesbury a movable lx)x was used in lieu of an umbrella ; it was something after the fashion of the old watchman's street-box, and was carried about as required by means of two poles, like a sedan-chair.
Aylesbury, May 28th, 1886. ROBT. Gibbs.
40
THE ANTIQUARY EXCHANGE.
Wc^z antiquary (^Brcfiange.
Enclose s^.for the First 12 Words, and id. for each Additional Three Words. All replies to a number should he enclosed in a blank envelope, with a loose Stamp, and sent to the Manager.
Note. — All Advertisements to reach the office by the l$th of the month, and to be addressed — The Manager, Exchange Department, The Anti- quary Office, 62, Paternoster Row, London, E.C.
For Sale.
Quaint Gleanings from Ancient Poetry, a collection of curious poetical compositions of the 16th, I7tli, and i8th centuries; large paper, only 75 copies printed, 1884, ds. Kempe's Nine Daies Wonder performed in a Journey from London to Norwich, 1600 ; large paper, only 75 printed, 1884, ds. Cottoni Posthuma, divers choice pieces of that renowned antiquary. Sir Robert Cotton, by J. H., Esq., 1679; large paper, 2 vols,, 75 copies only printed, 1884, 16^. Ancient Popular Poetry from authentic manuscripts and old printed copies, edited by John Ritson ; adorned with cuts, 2 vols., 1884 ; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 14J. Hermippus Redivivus; or, the Sage's Triumph over Old Age and the Grave ; London, 1744, 3 vols.; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 1885, £\ \s. Lucina Sine Concubitu, a letter humbly addressed to the Royal Society, 1750 ; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 1885, \os. Narrative of the Events of the Siege of Lyons, trans- lated from the French, 1794; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 1885, 6x. : or offers for the lot. — 301, care of Manager.
Copies of 222 Marriage Registers from the parish book of St. Mary's Church in Whittlesey, in the Isle of Ely and County of Cambridge, 1662-72; 1880, 10 pp., \s. 6d. A copy of the Names of all the Marriages, Baptisms, and Burials which have been solemnized in the private chapel of Somerset House, Strand, in the County of Middlesex, extending from 1 7 14 to 1776, with an index and copious genealogical notes ; 36 pp. and wrapper, 1862, 2s. 6d. — 119, care of Manager.
To Collectors. — Old London Views. County Views and Maps. Catalogue of Books, etc., on application. — R. Ellington, 15, Fitzroy Street, W.
Old Oak Chests, carved, 20s. and 25^. each. Also Old Oak Table and Corner Cupboard. Sketches. — Dick Carolgate, Retford.
Heroines of Shakspeare, 48 plates, letterpress, etc., published at 3IJ. 6d., for i^s. (new). Jewitt's Stately Homes of England, 2 vols, published at 3IJ. 6d.y for 17^". 6d. (new). — 119, care of Manager.
Monumental Brass Rubbings, from is. 6d. each. Haines' Manual, 2 vols., i$s. Boutell's Brasses, Ss. Map Swanscombe, Kent, mounted, 1838, £1 is. — Sparvel Bayly, Ilford, Essex.
Speed's County Maps— 83 English and Foreign Maps, with Views of Towns, Costume, Heraldry, etc., boards loose, price 35^., date 1610. — 307, care of Manager.
Antiques — Cromwell (eight-legged, ornamented) Sutherland Table, £1 ^s. Oak Stool to match, los. 6d. Fine Old Bureaus, Oak and Mahogany, £2 los. to £4 each. — Shaw, Writtle, Essex.
The Mafiager wishes to draw attention to the fact that he cannot undertake to forward post cards, or letters, unless a stamp be sent to cover postage oj same to advertiser.
Wanted to Purchase.
Dorsetshire Seventeenth Century Tokens. Also Topographical Works, Cuttings or Scraps connected with the county. — ^J. S. Udal, the Manor House, Symondsbury, Bridport.
Cobbett's Political Register, vols. 25, 30, 66, 77, 79, 84, 85 ; Beddoe's Death's Jest Book and Im- provisatore ; Pike's Ramble-Book, 1865 ; Courthell's Ten Years' Experience on the Mississippi ; Hazlitt's History of Venice, 4 volumes ; Dr. W. Morris's The Question of Ages. — M., care of Manager.
Henry Warren's Lithographic Illustrations of the River Ravensbourne, near Lewisham, Kent. Folio, 6 or 7 plates. (No date is believed to be on the book. ) Thorpe (John) A Collection of Statutes relating to Rochester Bridge. Folio, 1733. — Thanet, care of Manager.
Portraits of Eminent Americans Now Living, with Biographical and Historical Memoirs of their Lives and Actions, by John Livingston, of the New York Bar, in 2 vols. New York, Cornish, Lamport and Co. — P., care of Manager.
Stoughton's Shades and Echoes of Old London, 1864; Cooper's Rambles on Rivers, Woods, and Streams ; Lupot on the Violin (English Translation). S., care of Manager.
Views, Maps, Pottery, Coins, and Seventeenth Cen- tury Tokens of the Town and County of Nottingham- shire.— ^J. Toplis, Arthur Street, Nottingham.
HISTORIC STREETS OF PLYMOUTH.
4*
wm^^m.
The Antiquary.
AUGUST, 1886.
historic %treet0 of pigmoutf): tbcir n^ames ann aggociations.
By W. H. K. Wright, F.R. Hist. Soc, F.S.Sc,
ETC.
Part II. OCAL names," says Isaac Taylor, in Words and Places, " whether they belong to provinces, cities, or villages, or are the designa- tions of rivers and mountains, are never mere arbitrary sounds devoid of meaning. They may always be regarded as records of the past, inviting and rewarding a careful historical interpretation. In many instances the original import of such names has faded away or has become disguised in the lapse of ages. Nevertheless, the primeval meaning may be recoverable, and wherever it is re- covered, we have gained a symbol that may prove itself to be full-fraught with instruction, for it may indicate emigrations, immigrations, the commingling of races by war and con- quest, or by the peaceful processes of com- merce. The names of a district or of a town may speak to us of events which written history has failed to communicate. A local name may often be adduced as evidence determinative of controversies that otherwise could never be brought to a conclusion."
These words may be as aptly applied to street-names as to the names of cities and towns, for, as we shall see, we have in our street-nomenclature, particularly in the case of old towns, the perpetuation of events and persons of local interest and importance. And here I am almost tempted to refer to the marked contrast between the street-names in towns of modern growth and those which may be rightly termed ancient j this contrast
VOL. XIV.
being particularly noticeable in the towns and cities of America, as compared with the old- world cities and towns of England and Con- tinental countries. I must say that my taste does not lie in the direction of the system of street-naming prevalent in America, and more particularly practised in New York, how- ever convenient such a system may be. I prefer that system which tends to perpetuate historical, traditional, family, and local names and associations in our street-nomenclature. Happily Plymouth has retained the old style, although unhappily, in some instances, it has entered into the hearts and minds of our local authorities to remove some of the ancient landmarks. For not only have the streets and houses become modernized, but the very names they once bore, which re- tained old-time associations of interest and importance, have been cast into the limbo of oblivion, or just linger as traditions of our forefathers, which the succeeding generation may never know or utterly reject. This has been the case with many a goodly tradition in our own day, which has been ruthlessly uprooted from its old position in the minds of the people, and treated as utterly unworthy of credence (because unsupported by docu- meiitary evidence), and, consequently, of per- petuation.
My object in the present portion of this paper is to ensure, if possible, the remem- brance of a few of the old names and histo- rical landmarks, and to cherish their asso- ciations. I have before observed that the Plymouth of early days (previous to the I)resent century, in fact) was very limited in its extent, the streets and houses being mainly congregated around the water-side. Here then we shall find the most ancient and in- teresting names, most of them possessing significance or importance from their connec- tion with memorable events and people long past, yet bound up with our local history and tradition. Plymouth, although a fairly old town, cannot claim any pretension to great antiquity ; there are no traces of its having been a Roman settlement, consequently none of the street-names are derived from so early a source, unless, as some allege, High Street, Market Street, and other like names which are found in almost every town have such an origin.
£
44
HISTORIC STREETS OF PLYMOUTH.
In the same locality we find Lambhay, derived, according to Mr. Peel, from lamb — Gaelic " hand," in reference to the strength shown by Corinaeus when he hurled Gog- magog thence. Mr. Worth says, " Its oldest form is Lammy. Lamb/zrz^ would be merely * the lamb-field ' — a mode of expression very common in the east of the county. We have it as tbe Lammy, and Lammy Point, while now it is Lambhay Hill. Larn may = lan^ 'an enclosure;' and Lan-hayle would be *the enclosure on the river' or estuary-
It will be seen that I am dealing with some of the older street names and their derivations first, inasmuch as the greatest interest attaches to them. I shall afterwards deal with others singly, or in groups, as convenience or discretion may dictate.
Briton Side, until recently, served to per- petuate the memory of an event of consider- able importance — viz., the raids of the Bretons on our shores in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They on one occasion burned the greater part of the town, some
FIGS. 5 AND 6. — PLYMOUTH DUCKING CHAIRS.
But," says Mr. Worth, " it is impossible to decide."
Readers of these notes will doubtless re- member the curious legend related by Geoffrey of Monmouth, of a remarkable combat, said to have taken place on or near Plymouth Hoe, or at the Lambhay, where Corinaeus, a kinsman of Brutus, and one of a race of giants, defeated Goemagot, or Gog- magog, in mortal combat, hurling him into the sea. Drayton recites this curious legend in his " Poly-olbion," but as it relates more particularly to Plymouth Hoe than to the streets of the town, I refrain from quoting it in this place.
six hundred houses having succumbed to their fierce attack. Unfortunately the name which has handed down the memory of this event to the present generation has now been superseded by the inclusion of Briton Side in the long line of houses designated Exeter Street. This is an unnecessary change, which has been strongly deprecated, as in fact, almost all changes of a similar character should be.
" New Street, in process of time, has become one of the oldest streets in the town; but it was new when Old Town Street was ancient. Yet no one heard of Old Town Street sixty years ago. For centuries it had
HISTORIC STREETS OF PLYMOUTH,
45
handed down, under the name of 'Old Town,' simply the memory of the parent community, of which the Sutton of the Conquest was the offspring. Westwell and Finewell and Buck- well streets help us to realize the days ere Drake ' brought the water into Plymouth ;' Finewell may have been named from its quality, Buckwell was clearly the spot where the good housewives used to ' buck ' or wash their clothes. Blackfriars' Lane for centuries preserved the memory of the house of the Dominicans in the absence of all written record. Whitefriars' I^ne, Friary Court, and Friary Street, in like manner, kept alive the settlement of the Carmelites. Catherine Street is so called because it led to the Chapel of St. Catherine on the Hoe. Catte Street, which we may presume was somehow connected with Cattewater, has now given place to Stillman Street, which, however, like Bilbury Street and Whimple Street, is one of the oldest names in the town. Frankfort Street is the sole memorial relic of the siege days, and indicates the site of Frankfort Gate. Several names record the existence of old families. The Trevilles were notable merchants in the time of Elizabeth. Vintry Street was once called Foyne's Lane, after the still more notable Fowneses ; Kinterbury Street was Colmcr's Lane ; Week Street and How's Lane are names of the same class."*
I make the above interesting extract in order to point out two or three matters con- cerning which, in the view of later informa- tion, a little modification might be made. Mr. Worth is uniformly correct in his premises, and has made Local Etymology his especial study ; but in these few points I may be allowed to suggest another reading. Old Town Street, it may be remarked, appears with the affix "street " in the " Picture of Plymouth" (1812); but it was evidently an appellation only then coming into use, inasmuch as several entries occur in the same book where it is simply styled " Old Town." In this connection it may also be noted that York Street, where it runs into Cobourg Street, was until recently known as New Town ; and at one time there is good evidence for believing that York Street was termed " Richmond Hill." This reference to Old Town Street reminds the writer that not * R. N. Worth, Notes on Local Etymologies^ 1878.
long since, whilst some workmen were pre- paring to replaster the front of a house on the eastern side, they uncovered a stone in the wall, bearing this inscription
The wall or pier was of limestone, while the inscribed stone was of a softer material. This clearly identifies the age of the house, and possibly of several of its neighbours. It may, perhaps, in course of time, furnish a clue to the family or person whose initials are thus restored to light, for it may be added that influence was brought to bear upon the persons interested, with the result that this interesting link with bygone days was allowed to remain uncovered, and may easily be read from the roadway. This house was one of a row on the oldest side of the street (the other side has been entirely modernized of late years), and from its appearance had formerly a timbered or half- timbered front. Curious old buildings may be observed in the courtyards at the back of these houses, and near by are two of the oldest inns in the town — viz., "The Rose and Crown" and "The Old Four Castles," both picturesque structures, the latter repre- senting the Plymouth Borough Arms.
FIG. 7. — PLV.MOUTH BOROUGH ARMS.
With regard to Finewell, I would simply suggest that the name may be a corruption of Foynes's Well, or Fownes's Well ; for in the list of old names already given will be ob- served the name "Foundwell Street," as "the street where Mr. Elford lives ;" and the Fownes's were at one time a family of considerable repute in the town.
Again, Mr. Worth refers to Colmer's Lane, now Kinterbury Street, as perpetuating the
46
HISTORIC STREETS OF PLYMOUTH.
memory of a merchant or local family ; but, having met with a variation of this name in the term Combers, and having been informed that wool-combing was formerly carried on in the vicinity, it may be reasonable to suggest that the name took its rise from this circum- stance, although it appears evident that Kinterbury Street was an older name still.
Mr. Worth also says that Catherine Street took its name because it led to the chapel of St. Catherine on the Hoc. It is difficult to trace the connection, and I would therefore hint the possibility of the name being derived from another Catherine — viz., Catherine of Aragon, to whom allusion has already been made. With ref;ard to the much-disputed derivation of Cattewatcr, as applied to the eastern harbour, an old Plymouthian has suggested that, as it was at one time pro- nounced or spelt Catt^water, it might have meant " little vs^ater." But this I leave to etymologists, some of whom trace it to the Scandinavian. Some of the local designations are of very doubtful derivation ; others, as has been seen by the above instances, are of still unsettled origin, but the greater part are readily suggestive of the source from whence they spring.
In the former class may be cited Vinegar Hill, as applied to an extensive district en- tirely covered with streets during the last half-century, which Hes north of Regent Street. All my investigations up to the present have failed to elicit any probable derivation of this singular appellation.
Again, No-Place will recur to the mind of an old townsman; but the recollection of this name, as of the preceding one, is rapidly passing away. I may therefore be excused for here calling attention to it, and for repealing the homely legend which still ap- pears, or did not long since, on the sign- board of the public-house known as " The No -Place Inn." A thrifty wife has a tippling husband, whom she lectures on his return home after a protracted drinking bout :— " Where have you been all the day ?" He answers with a sort of evasion, which does not satisfy the angry dame, " No-Place." This locality appears at one time to have been an isolated group of houses or cottages — a sort of no-man's land, contiguous to both Plymouth and Stonehouse, but belonging to
neither, and, as such, exempt from local rating. Or, at least, such is the view which has been put forward with regard to it. What is the meaning of Some-Place^ at the opposite ex- tremity of the town, and which is found inscribed on an old plan, we cannot even venture to suggest.
Tliere is still another name concerning which a recent reference on a map of the town leads the writer to suggest a variation from the ordinarily accepted theory, viz., Batter Street. Sometime known as Pomeroy- Conduit Street, from the fact of one of the public conduits being in or near it, the older form of name was restored early in the present century. But the map to which reference is now made gives the name as Batten Street. May it not therefore be rightly so styled after Mount Batten, the height overlooking the Cattewater and Sound ? But this is mere speculation. It may even be a modification of the term Battery.
Again, in the Harris MS., v/ritten by an old Plymouthian early in the present century, occurs the name Winchelsea Street ; but no such name now exists, neither can I find any other reference to it.
Eldad, a name almost forgotten, but not long since applied to a large district west of the railway, now entirely covered with houses, does not present so much difficulty in assign- ing its derivation. We trace the origin of the term Eldad to tlie following circumstance. In 1828 the foundation-stone of Eldad Chapel was laid, of which ceremony some interesting particulars v.-ere given in a broad- sheet printed by E. Keys, No. 7, James Street, Devonport. In this account we are informed that the chapel (v.-hich v/as to t)e erected by the friends of the Rev. John Hawker) is named from the prophet Eldad, which signifies " favoured of God." From this, therefore, it a]^i)cars that the term was selected at first for the chapel, and, as recently as 1828, that it was afterwards applied to the groups of houses which sprang up in proximity to the chapel ; and that when the chapel became transformed into St. Peter's Church, the name Eldad gradually became disused, and is now perhaps only known to middle-aged Plymouthians.
I propose now to devote a small portion of the space allotted me to some brief
HISTORIC STREETS OF PLYMOUTH.
47
remarks upon the obsolete or disused street- names. Many of these are long out of date, or have been discarded ; while town improve- ments, the widening of thoroughfares, and other causes of a like nature, have of course caused some names to be abolished. Some of the changes are, as we have seen, of recent date. Among the older names, there are doubtless a few which will be noted with surprise, even by persons well versed in the ancient lore of their native town; but the memory of many of these names still survives in local traditions, and it is singular how, in a few cases, aged people still cling to the names by which they knew the places in their youth. For instance, many persons still speak of Market Street and Pike Street, although for several generations those tv/o thoroughfares have been named respectively High and Looe. We rarely hear the term Pig Market now applied to fashionable Bed- ford Street, but the appellation is well known ; and though Bilbury Street and Briton Side are now merged into Treville Street and Exeter Street, many persons still call these places by their former designations. The following names, now quite disused, are of men who in tlicir day and generation were of some degree of local or general notoriety, viz. : Foynes, Jory, Scammell, Denham, Searle, Hawkc, Fewis, Jones, Moon, May, Hov/e. With the change of some names little fault can be found ; for Little Hoe Lane and Broad Hoe Lane have undergone sundry alterations, which have rendered the appellations Hoe Street and Hoegate Street more appropriate ; thougli by a piece of gross vandalism the Hoegate, which gave its name to the latter, was destroyed some twenty years since.
We could very well afford to dispense with such names as Mud Lane, Dirty Alley, Dung Quay, Pig Market, Cock and Bottle Lane, Horsepool Lane, Burying Place Lane, Billet Lane, Sausage Lane, Saffron Row, Castle Rag, and others ; designations whose associa- tions were certainly of little importance, and, in some cases, certainly not of the most savoury kind. But, on the other hand, we could have excused the retention of such names as French Lane, Catch-Frenr'' ^ ^ne, and a few others which suggest old-time associations ; whilst those which bore the
names of the various town-gates might cer- tainly have been preserved. With these and other special groups we propose to deal here- after.
With the multiplication of churches and chapels came also the necessity for discon- tinuing the use of such special designations as Little Church Lane, Chapel Lane, Meet- ing Lane, New Church Lane, and others of a similar character, these peculiar terms tend- ing somewhat to confusion of locality. There
I'U;. b. — HOK GATE, PLVMOUTII.
is one litde group to which I shall refer with some interest, inasmuch as the changes have been recent, and to some extent brought about by remarks made upon the subject by the writer. In the plan of the town, dated 1756, to which reference has already been made, are shown tlirec openings leading from Higli Street to St. Andrew's Street, in the very heart and centre of Old Plymouth. These v.ere named respectively Linam, Loders, and Patrick Lanes ; but they have been known for many years by the somewhat absurd terms Higher, Middle, and Lov/er. Doubtless the older names had their signi-
48
HISTORIC STREETS OF PLYMOUTH.
ficance, though what it was it is now difficult to judge. It may be that at one time the Irish congregated in Patrick Lane, as in more recent times they have colonized in Stone- house Lane (now King Street West), earning for the locality the sobriquet "Irish Town." However that may be, I am inclined to think that the old form was far more euphonious than the latter. But another change has come about, and one not to be condemned. A marked improvement has come over this locaUty of late. Within the recollection of many now living, these three lanes were amongst the lowest and most disreputable haunts of vice and poverty in the town. They were narrow, over-populated, the lofty houses each giving living-room (one cannot say a home) to scores of human beings, many of them the veriest outcasts, and all of them the very poor. Here poverty and vice went hand in hand, and respectable persons were almost afraid to venture through these haunts, even in broad daylight, so evil a fame had these lanes attained. But now all this has passed away, and in no part of Plymouth is the change for the better more marked For the old rookeries have been removed, the thoroughfares widened, and, in one case at least, a good street is being made. Public attention having been brought to bear upon this matter, it has been decided to rename these places, which will from henceforth rejoice in the titles Palace Street (from the Palace Court which stood at the corner, and previously mentioned), Kitto Street in memory of one of our most noted sons; and Kelly Street in memory of a worthy and respected ^Layor, whose widow has recently erected a Mission Chapel in the locality. The Corpora- tion are to be commended for these important and necessary town improvements.
Westwell Street was named on the same map (1756) Love Lane, while quaint old Basket Street (now the site of the Municipal Offices) was Love Street. Holy-Cross Lane still bears its old title, although no trace of a cross remains ; Barrack Street has during the last sixty years been transformed into Russell Street, but whether in honour of the great statesman of that ilk, or that other Russell whose carrier-waggons were of so much re- pute before the days of railways and Pickford, I will not venture to affirm. Prison Lane,
once a narrow, dark, and unfrequented thoroughfare, now possesses some of the finest houses in the locality, and is now designated Greenbank Road. Millbay Grove, both houses and name disappeared with the erection of the palatial Duke of Cornwall Hotel ; Mill Prison Lane is now Citadel Road; Gooseberry Lane has vanished, so has Cherry Gardens (now Zion Street) ; Workhouse Lane, with the removal of the Workhouse, regained the name Catherine Street ; Duck's Lane bears its older title Week Street; Great George Street is now simply George Street, and Frankfort Street has swallowed up several other minor appella- tions. I have thus rapidly glanced at the transitory character of our street-nomen- clature, and have given a few instances of the changes of form which have been adopted. If space permits I propose to append to these articles a complete list of all modern names, a tabulated list of the older forms with their changes, and, as far as possible, the date of the said changes.
In concluding this branch of my subject, I would say that I consider many of the name- changes undesirable and uncalled for, whilst others were the outcome of necessity. Such changes cause complications, and perhaps difficulties in the identification of property or the changes of ownership. Suffice it to say where changes are inevitable, an effort should be made to keep up the old associations of the particular locality.
Mortimer Collins (a Plymouthian, by the way), in one of his pithy papers, says: "It always seems a pity to change the names of places without good reason ; but the thing is done daily, and there is no Londoner of any standing who has not to regret senseless alterations in the names of streets and squares. Recently an ancient rural road between Stamford Hill and Hornsey has had its name altered from Hanger Lane to St. Anne's Road, because the inhabitants fancied that people used to be hanged there. What wise- acres ! Hanger simply means a wood hang- ing on the side of a hill. Clearly the fastidious folk who dwell in Hanger Lane have abolished a pleasant sylvan reminiscence through their ignorance of English. What if others follow suit ? Dwellers in Fleet Street may complain that they are reminded of the
MONUMENTAL BRASSES IN HERTFORDSHIRE CHURCHES. 49
Fleet Prison, ignoring the swift silver stream that in the old days ran through the valley into the Thames, a stream whose fleetness well deserved its name. There was once an attempt to turn Holywell Street into Book- seller's Row ; but in that dingy precinct there was once a holy-well, and why should it be forgotten ?"
Add.
\For the loan o/tke luood-cuts lohich have been used in iliiis- trating this ami tJie preceding article on Plymouth st)-eets, the writer is iiide/'ted to the courtesy of Mr //". //. Luke, pul'lislur, o/Z, Bedford Street, Plyjiioutli.\
Monumental IBrasses in ^m- fortJs&ire Cfturcbesi*
Additions, etc., to Haines' List.
Albiiry. DD. III. Man in armour and wife, c. 1475, four daughters ; sons and inscription gone. Engraved in Cussans' Herts, vol. i. IV. Inscription, Anne, daughter of Henry Barley, wife of Philip Gunter, and two shields.
Add. V. Three shields, Leventhorp, Bar- ley, &c., families.
Aldbu?y. Add. to I. Four shields.
Alde?iham. VII. The children are all gone. Add. XII. Two shields with indent of man in armour on cover of altar-tomb.
Ajnwell, Great.
Insert. I. Priest, c. 1400.
,, II. Civilian (head gone), two wives, four sons, three daughters, and indent, of one child of second wife.
insert. HI. Inscription and shield, An- thony Maukes, 1684.
As/innil. Insert, Inscription, John Sell, 1618.
Baldock.
Add. VI. Inscription, Margaret Bennett,
1587.
Bai'kway.
Insert. I. Civilian, Robert Poynard, two wives, Joan and Bridget : four daughters of second wife — Martha, Judith, Rebekah, and Frances, 1461.
Insert. II. Inscription, Ann Rowley, 1613.
Bayford,
Add. III. One shield, Knighton and Pigott.
I. and III. are palimpsests; I. and II. are engraved in Cussans' Herts, vol. iL
Bennington. I. and II. are missing. Add. III. Inscription, AVilliam Clarke,
1591. Add. IV. Inscription, John Clarke, 1604. „ V. Upper part of figure of a priest.
Berkhampstead. V. is lost.
Add. X. Inscription, John and Margaret Waterhouse, 1558.
Add. XI. Inscription, Margaret Water- house, 1587.
Add. XII. Shield on altar-tomb with arms of Cornwallis.
Bishop Stortford.
Insert. I. Inscription, Thomas Edgcomb, 1 6 14,
Insert. II. Inscription, Charles and Mar- garet Denny, 1632.
Bovingdon.
Insert. I. HenryMayne, 1605, inscription. „ II. John Hall, 161 7, „
„ III. Andrew Mayne, 162 1 „ „ IV. Mary Mayne, 1641 „
Broxbourne.
III., IV. and VI. are lost.
Add. VII. Civilian with scroll, and four Evangelists.
Buckland.
I. The inscription is to be seen.
III. The brasses of John Gyll and six sons and inscription are complete ; the daughters are missing.
Add. IV. Inscription, Joanna Gyll ; dates omitted.
Add. V. Inscription, Joan Bland, 1648.
50 MONUMENTAL BRASSES IN HERTFORDSHIRE CHURCHES.
Cheshunt. IV. and V. arc missing.
Clothall. IV., V. Inscriptions are only to be seen, as the brasses have been recently covered by the choir stalls.
Cottend. Insert. Inscription, Lytton Pulter, Esq., 1608.
Datchworth. Insert. Inscrii)tion, William Payne, about 1622.
Digsiaell.
Add. VIII. Inscription, Margaret Cane and Martha Champneys, 1537.
Eastwick. One shield and part of inscription only remains ; the figure of the lady is loose, and requires fixing.
Essendov. Add. III. Arms and crest (Tooke), 1635 > inscription missing.
Flamstead. Add. to I. Three shields ; the canopy is per- fect, with the exception of only a small por- tion of each pinnacle, which is missing.
Great Gaddesden. Add. to I. Three shields ; the children are all lost.
Hadhain Muc/i.
I. These figures are not now to be seen. Add. VII. Inscription, Diana Burton, 1616.
Add. VIII. Inscription, Grace Goodman, 1631.
Hatfield Insert. I. Arms and inscription, Fulkc Onslowe, 1602, and Mary his wife, 1582.
Insert. II. Three shields and inscription, Fulke Onslowe, 1602 ; the figure and one shield lost.
Heme! Hempstead. Add. Two shields.
Hc7-tford^ All Saints. Add. II. Inscription, John Hunger, 1435.
Hertford, St. A?idreu>s. Add. Inscription, Bridget Whitgifte, 16 10.
Hei tingfordbitry.
II. Inscription is missing.
Add. Inscrij;tion and tv/o shields, Thomas Ellis, 1 60S, and Grace his wife, 161 2 ("man and wife forty-nine years, seven months and odd days ").
Hinxworlk.
Add. II. Man and wife ; inscription gone ; probably Simon Ward, 1453, and Ellen his wife, 1.^81.
III. Inscription, Andrew Gray, 16 14.
Hitchin. Add. to VIII. A " bleeding heart." „ XIV. Civilian and three wives.
Htinsdon. I. The Holy Trinity is missing, but a por- tion of a scroll remains.
Add. III. Inscription, William Gray, 15 17.
Klnipton. Insert. A lady ; inscription gone ; about 1450.
Kings Walden. Insert. Inscription, Sybil Barber, 1614.
Laagky, Abbot's. I. The male figure is gone. III. and IV. are missing.
Langley, King's. I. is now lost.
Add. IV. Inscription, John Cheney, 1597. ,, V. „ Mary Dixon, 1622.
„ Nl. „ J. Marsworth, 1487,
on the back of II.
Minims, North. IL, VI. and VIII. are all missing. Add. IX. Inscription, Thomas Hewes, 1587, and Elizabeth his wife, 1590.
NewnJtani. Add. to II. A shield.
RadvjcU. The brass noticed as lost, p. 63, is in this church, and represents William Whitakcr and wife and son, a priest who died 1487.
Sacornb.
Insert. Inscription, Eleanor Dodyngton,
1537- Insert. Inscription, John Dodyngton, 1544^
MONUMENTAL BRASSES IN HERTFORDSHIRE CHURCHES. 51
St. Albaii^s Abbey. Add to III. Inscription, mutilated. „ to XL A shield (loose). „ XIX. Inscription, Richard Ston- don, 15 — (loose).
Add. XX. Inscription, Agnes Skelton, 1 604 (loose).
Si. Albans, St. MichaeVs. I., II., III., IV. These are all visible on the floor in various parts of the church.
St. Albans, St. Peter s. The brass of Elizabeth Peniberton is not lost, but v/as with those of her husband and children loose in the vestry in 1882.
Sandon. Add. 11. Inscription, Simon Pratt and Joan his wife, and "childer" (no date).
Sawbi'idgeworth . Add. to I. Two shields. „ IX. Plates of twelve boys and six girls.
Standon. I. Inscription now only remains. Add. to IV. Three shields and two lines of inscription. VI. Is missing.
Walkern.
Add. to I. A shield and hand with scroll existing in 1850, now missing.
III. The brass of the man is gone.
Add. IV. Inscription, Richard Humber- stone, 1581.
Add. V. Inscription, mutilated, John Hum- berstone, 1590.
Add. VI. Inscription, William Bramfeilde and two wives, 1596.
Add. VII. Inscription, John Lovekin, 1370, four times Mayor of London, on back of No. IV.
The five portions which represent No. 11. are all palimpsests, and are cut from a large I'lemish brass, elaborately engraved, and on the reverse of the shield is the date 1474.
Watford. Add. IV. Inscription, Henry Baldwyn, 1601. Add. V. Inscription, James Moss, 1758.
Walton. III. The brass of the wife is lost. Add. to IV. A shield.
V. The head of the male figure and the brass of the wife are gone. Add, two in- scribed labels.
Add. to VI. An achievement
Add to VII. Two shields and inscription, Richard Boteler, 1614, and wife, 16 19.
Add. VIII. Lady (lower half gone) and matrix of husband, and inscription mutilated, and two shields.
Wheathampstead. Add. to I. One shield.
„ to II. Four shields. Add III. Civilian and wife (small) and six children (c. 1500).
Add. IV. Man in armour, c. 1500, One leg and feet, with dog only remaining, and v.'ife with the top of her head gone.
Willian. Insert. Priest and inscription, Richard Goldon, 1446.
IVormley. I. The three daughters are missing. Add. to II. Ten sons.
Wyddiall.
Add. IV. Five shields and inscription, Richard and Jane Gouleston.
Add. V. Arms and inscription, Helen Joscelyne, 1640.
Add. VL Inscription, John and Joan Gyll, 1600.
Add. VII. Lower portion of figure of a civilian, probably George Canon, 1532.
Hertfordshire contains about 140 churches, and in 90 of them are to be found brasses of various sizes and condition. I now possess a collection of rubbings of the whole of them, which I believe is unique, mostly taken during the last three years, and I think the above list of additions, etc., will be found to be useful to the antiquary. I have written a description of each brass which I intend to publish in the course of a few months. Many of the brasses are very fine, and present several interesting features, representing the periods when they were fixed, and the whole collection forms a valuable portion of history, relating to some of the celebrities and worthies who formerly flourished in and about the county.
William F. Andrews.
Ilcrlfonl, May 6, lSS6.
52
UNDERGROUND SOUTHAMPTON
Onuergtounn Southampton.
By Mrs, Thiup Champion de Crespigny.
OUTHAMPTON ranks among the oldest of our English towns, and at one time was, perhaps, the most important in the country, excepting Winchester. The reigning king had a palace there which he visited occasionally, bringing in his train the nobles, clergy, and followers of the court, who formed the fashionable world in those days, thereby stimulating the trade and encouraging the industries of the inhabitants.
Walking down the principal street at the present time, it would be found hard to imagine the various scenes which may have taken place there in the olden days. Instead of the ** ambling palfreys " decked in gold and silver, and bearing gorgeous nobles through a crowd gaping in stupid awe at the king they feared, the modern " tram " is the first object that attracts the attention ; while hideous water-carts and unromantic cabs, with the chance of being suddenly asked if you want your boots cleaned by a very dirty little boy, effectually keep your mind from wandering into the picturesque days that are gone. Not even the sight of the old " Bar " or gateway, inconveniently placed across the main street, is sufficient to conjure up the scenes of which it must have been a silent spectator. Its modern surroundings are not calculated to enhance its sombre dignity ; and the immediate proximity of a dirty gin- palace impresses the stranger with a sense of hideous incongruity.
Among the most interesting of these relics of the past are the undergound vaults, which have furnished antiquaries with much food for argument. There are a great number of them, and, with a few exceptions, they are generally supposed to have been built for the storage of wine, for which purpose they are still used.
One of the most important of these cellars is at present in the possession of Messrs. Hine Brothers. Authorities on the subject have pronounced it to be of the period of Henry III., and even a casual glance is sufficient to discover the antiquity of the place.
It is a roomy apartment, capable of hold- ing fifty or sixty people with ease, and was in in all probability built for the use of the King. During the fourteenth century Southampton traded to a very large extent with foreign countries, and especially in wine from France. There are records of the conveyance of wine from these vaults to the palace, and many such cellars were built for the purpose. But from the reign of Edward III., or a httle later, trade in Southampton began to decline owing to a variety of causes, and it is reason- able to suppose that one of the effects of this would be the discontinuance of the building of vaults ; a fact which greatly helps to fix the date of those t6 be found there at the present moment.
A very curious thing to be remarked in these underground chambers is the rise of the streets.
The vault we have mentioned was appa- rently built upon the same level as the street on which it opens. This is shown by the windows, which are now useless and blocked up by the soil outside, but which, it is to be presumed, must have been originally intended to admit light and air into the place. Now the level of the street is at least six feet above the floor of the vault, into which visitors are obliged to descend by a flight of steep stone steps.
Mr. Le Feuvre owns a vault of still earlier date, and in which the rise of the street-level is even more obvious. There is a descent of a dozen steps or more from the entrance, but three steps from the bottom is one very much broader than the rest, which must evidently have once formed the threshold of the door, while those above have apparently been added as the rise in the ground made it necessary to do so.
This difference in the street-level is easily accounted for by the primitive habits of our ancestors, who saved themselves a world of trouble and expense by- pitching all refuse of every description into the middle of the streets.
At one end of the vault there is a large fireplace, which gives rise to the suggestion that it might have been used as a dwelling- room, possibly by the cellarman in charge; but we fear conjecture on this point must be of the vaguest.
UNDERGROUND SOUTHAMPTON
S3
Under the schools belonging to St. Michael's Church, and at the present time occupied by Messrs. Gayton, is perhaps the most interest- ing of all these underground antiquities, for here we have no common cellar, merely used for the storage of wine, or at most tenanted by a menial of the King. Even to uninitiated eyes this vault claims a more dignified posi- tion in history, indicated by the handsome groined roof and ornamental stonework on the walls.
In all probability it was a banqueting- hall, and had witnessed many a scene of feasting and revelry. Upon the vaulted roof is a man's head carved in stone, and supposed to represent King Edward II., by its close resemblance to the portraits still extant of that ill-fated monarch. In one corner there is the head of a woman wearing a head-dress belonging to the same period, and also that of a warrior in mail.
The stone brackets at intervals on the walls are supported by "ball-flowers," a species of ornamentation in stone introduced about the time of Edward II., and conse- quently fixing the date of the vault with comparative accuracy.
Here again the rise in the street-level is curiously apparent. The windows are entirely blocked up, and the floor of the vault six feet or more lower than the roadway above.
A very handsome marble mantelpiece at one end, in excellent repair, would alone stamp the apartment as the resort of the wealthy classes. This vault at one time be- longed to Mr. Deal, of the Isle of Wight, who has stated that when he first became its owner, there were distinct signs of fresco- painting upon the walls, the outline in colour here and there being clearly visible.
Even according to modern ideas of size this room would be considered of respectable dimensions, and doubtless in those old days it was looked upon as a spacious apartment. Many a jovial entertainment may have taken place v.'ithin its walls. Golden goblets and priceless dishes may have reflected the some- what limited light admitted through the mediaeval windows, while popular toasts were proposed by the highest nobles in the land, as they vied with each other in contributing to the amusement of some honoured or even royal guest.
Or, there is another theory in explanation of its past.
The old Abbot of Beaulieu is known to have possessed a house somewhere in South- ampton, and "Pilgrim Street" the original name of the street in which the vault is situated, has a devotional ring about it, which might naturally lead to the conjectures con- necting the abbot with the pilgrims. Pil- grims visited Southampton in hundreds, and were most probably lodged in the street which bore their name. It is not unreason- able to suppose that they should have chosen their quarters in close proximity to the house of the abbot, to whom they would naturally go for a blessing, either as a " Godspeed " on their departure, or a reward on their return.
If this is the part that the old vault played in history, it is perhaps better left to the imagination than entered into in detail. For the picture of a dozen or two of unkempt pilgrims sworn to go unwashed for an un- limited period, receiving benediction from a fat abbot whose sole idea was to get the ceremony over as quickly as possible, can hardly be a pleasing one, even though lent the proverbial enchantment of distance.
Overlooking the sea, on the western side of the town, is a rugged, ancient-looking wall, suggesting to the passer-by hidden delights in the shape of secret staircases, or at the very least a haunted chamber. But a closer investigation shows that the greater part of the building must have disappeared, for now a thoroughfare runs along above it, and the only discovery to reward the explorer is a large vaulted chamber, entered through an aperture caused by the removal of a few stones half way up the wall.
This vault is Norman in architecture, and from its general appearance and position, conjectures again arise as to its past use or uses.
It was once much larger than it is at present, being bricked up at both ends. The roof is arched, and was originally supported by stone ribs, traces of which still remain with the ornamental supports intact. The groining has been unaccountably removed from the roof within the memory of man ; unaccountably, because this vault rarely sees the light of day, having been only twice opened during the last fifty years.
54
UNDERGROUND SOUTHAMPTON.
A large gateway, now closed up, and having been apparently a Watergate, from its position on the side nearest the sea, leads archaeologists to suppose that the place may have been a guard-room in connection with the old castle, the remains of which are still standing not far off, and which, it is believed, was the palace of the King in its palmy days.
Although not coming, properly speaking, under the head of " Underground South- ampton," we cannot close without a feAV words about one of the oldest churches in the kingdom, and of which Southampton is justly proud.
St. Michael's is a fine building, and claims the attention of all who are interested in antiquities. Modern decoration has been somewhat incongruously added to the solid masonry and archways which proclaim the architecture to be Norman.
The church is said to have been erected during the reign of William the Conqueror, or AVilliam II. at the latest. Its original shape was cruciform (Latin), and four large Norman arches stand at right angles to each other in the body of the church, these, and the old tower, forming the chief objects of interest from an antiquarian point of view.
Beside a little window in the north wall, there is a " merchant's mark " cut in the stone. These marks were introduced into England by the merchants who came to us from Flanders, corresponding to the ** trade- marks " so generally used now, and of which they were probably the origin. We ov>-e many of our industries to Flanders, and trade marks apparently are among the other legacies left to us by Flemish merchants. Whether this mark in St. Michael's belonged to a single individual, or to a merchant's guild, is not known, but the facsimile of it has been found carved upon the wooden binding of an old book.
Among the most interesting features of this church is the font, which has given rise to much archaeological discussion. It is, by some, pronounced to be Norman, and to have been placed in the church at the time of its erection. There are similar fonts in Winchester Cathedral, at East Meon, and in Lincoln ; but it seems far more likely that the theory held by some authorities that they are of Byzantine origin is the correct one.
Their presence in English churches would be easily accounted for in this way.
One of the later Crusades was undertaken by the bishops and nobles in England and France, and conducted by them entirely, without the leadership of a crowned head. These champions of religion, in the absence of the necessary funds, applied, and success- fully, to the Venetians to help them in their efforts to carry on the war. The ill-feeling between the Latin and Greek Churches at that time ran very high, and the Crusaders, not content with victory alone, sacked the town of Constantinople, among others, and despoiled the churches.
A family closely connected with South- ampton at that period is known to have taken part in these wars, returning to the town when the Crusade was over ; and it is quite possible that the font, which is to all appearance Byzantine, and not Norman, should have been brought home by one of them and placed in St. Michael's Church. The Abbe of Lille, in France, also fought in this Crusade, and there is a similar font in Lille Cathedral.
It is roughly shaped in a solid block of either black basalt or marble — opinions differ on this point — nearly square, and covered with rude sculpture in the forms of dragons and other heathenish monsters. This, in itself, would seem to confirm the Byzantine theory, and also to give an idea of the age of the font. The Emperor Con- stantine was the first to attempt to combine the Christian religion with heathenish v.-or- ship, and it would seem in pursuance of this idea that a font to be used in Christian ritual should be ornamented with the creatures of mythology.
The fact that the pedestal upon which it is mounted is certainly not Norman, but very unmistakably early English, would seem to point in the same direction ; but this vexed question we must leave to more able authori- ties to decide.
LONDON THEATRES.
55
iLontion Cfteatres*
By T. Fairman Ordish.
No. III. — The Blackfriars Playhouse. {Continued.)
iURBAGE'S COxMPANY, at the time of the opening of Blackfriars Theatre, bore the title of the "Chamberlain's Men;" but at the accession of James I. in 1603, they became the " King's " players. The fears of those Blackfriars inhabitants who had opposed the establishment of a playhouse were more than realized. The attraction of Shakespeare's plays and Richard Burbage's splendid acting of the chief characters of those plays, drew all that was high, intelligent, noble, and lovely to the Blackfriars playhouse ; and with the coaches of the great and wealthy thronged London citizens and visitors from the provinces, representing that large middle- class element in English life which has hap- pily existed from so early a period of our history. All classes flocked to hear the gospel of the poet of humanity : the aristocratic tone which has been remarked in his plays harmonized with bourgeois sympathies ; even churls, clowns, and buffoons would come and laugh at themselves, as with good- natured satire they were represented on this universal stage. But while the intellectual life of England was being thus enriched, there were certain details of history occurring in and about the theatre which more especi- ally concern us here. We can scarcely blame the inhabitants of the Blackfriars precinct if they remained ignorant of the fact that the most wonderful products of dramatic and poetic genius were then and there being given to the world. Absorbed in their daily cares, they saw only the reverse side of the picture ; and, judging from their petitions against the playhouse, after making due de- ductions for Puritan prejudice and the exaggeration which they probably allowed themselves in emphasizing their complaints, the Blackfriars folk had a good deal to put up with :
" Petition of the Constables and other officers and inhabitants within the precinct of the Blackfriars to Sir Sebastian Harvey, Knt., Lord Mayor, and the Court of Aldermen,
stating that in November, 1596, the in- habitants had informed the Privy Council of the inconveniences likely to fall upon them by a common playhouse then intended to be erected, and the Council had thereupon for- bad the use of the house for plays. By Orders of the Privy Council, dated 22nd June, 1600, only two playhouses were to be tole- rated ; one on the Bankside, and the other in or near Golden Lane, exempting thereby the Blackfriars ; and a letter was at the same time sent to the Lord Mayor and Justices, requiring them to see the Orders strictly put in execution and continued. The owner of the said playhouse, under the name of a private house, converted it into a public playhouse, to which there was daily such a resort of people and such a multitude of coaches (many of them hackney coaches bringing people of all sorts), that at times the streets could not contain them ; they clogged up Ludgate Hill also, so that they endangered one another, broke down stalls, threw down goods, and the inhabitants were unable to get to their houses, or bring in their pro- visions, the tradesmen to utter their wares, or passengers to get to the common water stairs without danger of life and limb ; quarrels and effusion of blood had followed, and other dangers might be occasioned by the broils, plots, and practices of such an un- ruly multitude. These inconveniences hap- pening almost daily in the winter time (not excepting Lent), from one or two o'clock till five at night (the usual time for christenings burials, and afternoon service), the inhabitants were unable to get to the church, the ordinary passage for a great part of the precinct being close by the playhouse door.
"The petitioners therefore prayed that order might be taken in the matter, and the owner of the playhouse required to satisfy the Court of Aldermen for his presumption in breaking the aforesaid Orders, and to put in sufficient surety for the time to come. If the in- habitants, by turnpikes, posts, chains, or otherwise, kept the coaches outside their gates, great inconvenience would ensue to Ludgate and the streets thereabout; they therefore craved aid and direction from the Court in all the premises.
"The petition is signed by the minister, churchwardens, sidesmen, constables, col-
S6
LONDON THEATRES.
lectors, and scavengers of the precinct." {Circa 1618-19.)*
There is also among the City archives a letter "from divers honourable persons, in- habiting the precinct of Blackfriars, to the Lord Mayor and Court of Aldermen," sup- porting this petition. But the precinct of Blackfrairs was without the jurisdiction of the civic authorities, and they had no power to interfere. Still their sympathies, judging from the various orders made by the Corpora- tion against plays and players, were doubtless with the petition, and they made an effort to stretch their authority over the Blackfriars. They issued an order, dated January 21st, 1 6 18-19, ^or the suppression of the theatre. This order has been printed by Mr. Halli- well-Phillipps, taken from the original entry recording the proceedings of that day, in the City archives. t The document begins: " Item, this day was exhibited to this Court a peticion by the constables and other ofificers and inhabitants within the precinct of Black- friars, London." After recapitulating the petition and the letter of the Privy Council to the Lord Mayor and Justices, limiting the number of playhouses to two, the order proceeds :
" And nowe forasmuch as the said in- habitants of the Blackfryers have in their said peticion complayned to this Court that, con- trarie to the said Lorde's Orders, the owner of the said playhowse within the Blackfryers under the name of a private howse hath con- verted the same into a publique playhowse, unto which there is daily so great resort of people, and soe great multitudes of coaches, whereof many are hackney coaches bringing people of all sortes that sometimes all their streetes cannot conteyne them, that they en- danger one the other, breake downe stalles, throw downe men's goodes from their shopps, hinder the passage of the inhabitants there to and from their howses, lett the bringing in of their necessary provisions, that the trades- men and shopkeepers cannot utter their wares, nor the passengers goe to the common water staires without danger of their lives and lyms, whereby many times quarrells and effu- sion of blood hath followed, and the minister and people disturbed at the administracion
* JRemembrancia, pp. 355, 356. t Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare (ed. 1883), PP- 538-539-
of the Sacrament of Baptisme and publique prayers in the afternoones ; whereupon," the Court orders, "the said playhowse be sup- pressed."
This order was of course of no effect in the liberty of Blackfriars. The patent, 27th March, 1619-20,* in which the King licenses " his well-beloved servants to act, not only at the Globe on the Bankside, but at their private house situated in the precincts of Blackfriars," probably has reference to this agitation, and was intended to confirm the right of the company to their two playhouses. The patent is a revival of that granted to Fletcher, Shakespeare, and others on 19th May, i6o3.t
On the 26th October, 1623, a calamitous accident occurred in a house adjoining Black- friars Theatre which caused a great sensation in London. " Camden, in his A?inals, says that the theatre itself fell down, and that eighty-one persons were killed ; but he was misinformed upon this point : the catastrophe occurred in a large upper room of what was formerly the residence of Lord Hunsdon, but then occupied by the French Ambassador." J It would appear that about three hundred persons had assembled to hear a Roman Catholic preacher, when the floor gave way, and about eighty persons were killed and as many injured. Collier gives some con- temporary descriptions of the accident§ In the State Papers there are various documents referring to it. On October 27th, 1623, Henry Banister writes to Lord Zouch that a house, formerly Lord Hunsdon's in Black- friars, fell on Sunday last, when a number of Papists were assembled to hear Mass : a priest, formerly a Protestant, who preached, and eighty other persons were killed.|| Another account, dated November ist, gives the preacher's name, Drury, and states the number of Papists killed at ninety or one hundred ; they were buried where they died, the Bishop of London refusing them burial in churchyards.H Two subsequent letters show that the printers were busy over the
* Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, 1619-1623, p. 28.
f See article on the Globe Theatre, Antiquary, xii. 46.
X Collier, History of Dramatic Poetry, i. 419.
§ Ibid., p. 420.
li Calendar of State Papers, 1623-1625, p. 104.
If Ibid., p. 106.
LONDON THEATRES.
57
affair. On November 15th Chamberlain writes to Carleton saying that he sends such books and ballads as he could collect touch- ing the accident at Blackfriars ;* and again on November 21st he writes that he sends a pamphlet by Dr. Good on the subject.!
The fate of the drama was bound up in the social status which preceded the Great Rebellion, and we may see evidence of the growing Puritan movement in further efforts directed against the stage. In 1631 the churchwardens and constables of Blackfriars petitioned Bishop Laud " on behalf of the whole parish " for redress of many grievances which they suffered " by reason of a play- house exceedingly frequented." They peti- tion for the revival of previous orders made for the removal of the players ; and among the " reasons and inconveniences " moving them " to become suitors for the removal of the playhouse," they name :
" I. Hindrance to the shopkeepers from the great recourse to the plays, especially of coaches, their commodities being broken and beaten off their stalls. II. The recourse of coaches is so great that the inhabitants cannot in an afternoon take in provision of beer, coals, etc. III. The passage through Lud- gate and to the water is stopped up. IV. If there should happen any fire, no order could be taken for quenching it, on account of the disorder and number of coaches. V. Chris- tenings and burials are many times disturbed. VI. Persons of honour and quality that dwell in the parish are restrained by the number of coaches from going out or coming home." %
Whatever deductions we make on account of the motive and inspiration of such a peti- tion, there can be no doubt that it points to the ever-increasing popularity of the drama. There is nothing to show that any action against the theatre followed this petition.
Collier remarks that it is a matter of infer- ence only that the complaint was renewed in the autumn of 1633, for on the 9th of October in that year, we find the Privy Council enter- taining the project of removing the playhouse, and of making compensation to the parties interested. The Aldermen of the Ward and two others were appointed to examine into
* Calendar of State Papers, 1623- 1 625, p. 1 10. t Ibid., p. 115.
% Ibid., Domestic Series, 1631-1633, pp. 219-221. VOL. XIV.
the subject, and to make a report on the value of the property.* In a note Collier gives the order extracted from the Privy Council Register : we have a precis of it in the Calendar of State Papers -.^
"Abstract of businesses left unperfected by the Council in the present month : 9th Oct. : Sir Henry Spiller, Sir William Becher, the alderman of the ward, Mr. Whitaker, and Mr. Child, to call the parties interested in the Blackfriars playhouse be- fore them, and after hearing them and viewing the place to make an estimate and value, and agree upon such recompense for the same as should be indifferent, and to report thereon by the 26th instant."
Apparently the players were able to offer very considerable obstruction to the inquiry, and were in nowise minded to be wiped out of existence. Collier remarks that the report of the Commissioners does not appear to be extant, and we observe in the foregoing document that the matter was an item of " business left unperfected by the Council." The Commission then appears to have been reconstructed and strengthened, and a month later, on November 20th, 1633, their report was presented to the Council. This document is signed by Sir Henry Spiller, Humfry Smith, Sir AVilliam Becher, Laurence Witaker, and William Childe, and endorsed '* Certificate from the Justices of the Peace of the County of Middlesex about the Blackfriars." J The players demand ^^21,000 compensation; while the Commissioners valued their rights at near ;^3,ooo. The parishioners offer towards the removing of them ;^ioo (seem- ingly but a small sum, which rather dis- counts their vaunted grievances). The players had numerous friends of power and influence, and probably by this time it was the rapidly spreading Puritanism outside the Court and Government which directed this renewed effort to dislodge them. The Government sought to meet the difficulty by issuing a stringent order regulating the traffic to and from the Blackfriars Theatre. The order is dated two days after the report :
"Order of the Star Chamber upon com-
* History of Dramatic Poetry, i. 476.
t Domestic Series, 1633- 1 634, p. 266.
X Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, 1633- 1634, p. 293. Report given in extenso by Collier, History of Dramatic Poetry, i. 477.
58
LONDON THEATRES.
plaint of the inconveniences occasioned by the stoppage of the streets by the carriages of persons frequenting the Playhouse of the Blackfriars, ' their lordships remembering that there is an easy passage by water unto that playhouse without troubling the streets, and that it is much more fit and reasonable that those which go thither should go by water or else on foot,' therefore, order that all coaches shall leave as soon as they have set down, and not return till the play is over, nor return further than the west end of Saint Paul's Churchyard or Fleet Conduit. Coach- men disobeying this order to be committed to Newgate or Ludgate. Copies of the Order to be set up at Paul's Chain, the west end of St. Paul's Churchyard, Ludgate, the Black- friars, and Fleet Conduit. — November 22, 1633."*
Collier furnishes some particulars from the Privy Council Register subsequent to this order. t On the 29th November the Lord Mayor was specially required by the Privy Council to see the regulations duly and strictly enforced. This order may have been pro- voked by contumely on the part of the play- goers, or it may refer only to the power to exercise civic authority without the City. At a meeting of the Privy Council on the 29th December following, the subject again en- gaged attention. It is particularly noted that the King was himself present in Council, and an order was made " to explain " the former decision, on account of " the prejudice to the players, his Majesty's servants." The ex- planation was, in fact, a permission " that as many coaches as may stand within the Black- friars gate may enter and stay there, or re- turn thither at the end of the play ;" thus virtually rescinding the regulations made on the 20th November. There is probably truth in Collier's assumption from the note of the presence of the King at this Council, that representations had been made personally to his Majesty in favour of the actors. {To be cofttinued.)
* Remembraiicia, pp. 356, 357.
+ History of Dramatic Poetry, i. 479.
ancient Cape^trp.
— ♦■ —
HE cartoons drawn for the use of the tapestry-weaver have been fre- quently of the very highest excel- lence, and many of the noblest conceptions ever carried into concrete art are still to be found in warp and woof. It may be observed that " tapestry " is a term commonly used both for carpets and hang- ings ; and M. Muntz, in his recent book on the subject,* confines his researches almost entirely to hangings.
That tapestry in this form can ever again assume the position it once held is an open question ; certainly it will not do so for some long time to come. The prejudice in favour of oil painting as a technical method of executing designs for wall decoration is not easily to be modified, much less destroyed : so strong is this predilection for oil painting and the execution of small works in that vehicle, to be hung in frames for domestic decorations, that most of the establishments subsidized by the Board of Trade find them- selves filled with students who do not intend to design for fabrics like wall tapestries or carpets in any grand way, but to enter ulti- mately the ateliers of the Royal Academy as painters oi genre or landscape pictures.
A solitary effort, ever so earnest — a few patrons, no matter how influential, will never revive the art of tapestry-weaving. Not that the appliances for such work are expensive — anyone can, at small expense, get a hand- loom; but that the tradition of big design and historical composition, such as can be applied to this work, can hardly be said to exist in England.
M. Muntz, in the work already alluded to, questions the success of even Raphael in some of the cartoons, and with reason criticizes the feeble effect in tapestry of the design representing the calling of S.S. Peter and Andrew, splendid as it would have been, executed in fresco, and faultless as it may be on cartoon-paper.
On the other hand, that great auxiliary in the establishment of the Mantuan tapestry
* A Short History of Tapestry, by Eugene Muntz. Translated by Tomson J. Davis. We are indebted to the publisher of this volume for the use of the blocks illustrating this article.
ANCIENT TAPESTRY.
59
school, Mantegna, was eminently successful in making his genius the genius of such work.
Many of us have often stopped to admire the cartoons of the Triumph of Julius Caesar at Hampton Court, but few have considered how especially suitable and excellent they are as designs for tapestry.
The history of tapestry is of the greatest interest; it takes us back with certainty to Egyptian art of an early period, and its
opinion that the work was of the Greek or Roman period. Although in the British Museum we have linen fabrics taken from mummies of comparatively early periods, there are no woven designs that can be positively dated earlier than the second Ptolemaic periods, but of this there are many excellent specimens. These examples are specially referred to in our review, as accessible to most of the readers of M. Muntz's work, and as adding to the informa-
[Reproduced from A Short History of Tapestry, by permission of Cassell and Company.]
invention appears coeval with civilization. In Mr. Birch's edition of Sir Gardner Wilkinson's Egyptians there are many references to ancient textiles.
Notwithstanding the witness of ancient authors concerning the art of weaving, we are still much in the dark concerning the exact character of the designs used — of the nature of the work.
Diodorus informs us that the Egyptians had carpets which were spread for the sacred animals. Sir Gardner Wilkinson describes a small rug brought from Thebes, in the centre of which was woven a boy and a goose. Mr. Birch was, however, of the
tion he gives. Indeed, one desiderates in this English edition more references to work in this country. M. Muntz quotes the opinion of Semper, who considered tapestry, or rather woven hangings, the primary object in ancient architectural decoration ; and the quotations which he has made from Homer and Pliny, which are too numerous to mention, give some idea of the characteristics of the ancient work. The engraving from a picture in the Nypogeum of Beni Hassan, circa 300 b.c, given by M. Muntz, shows that the Egyptians knew the use of the loom, having all the essentials of the high warp-loom, and is much the same as that now used at the
F 2
6o
ANCIENT TAPESTRY.
Gobelins. Other examples of Egyptian looms are given by Sir Gardner Wilkinson.* Their earliest work seems to have been entirely of flax, and not of cotton as often thought before the fibre was examined under the microscope. The introductions of wool and silk were of much later date, although M. Muntz states that there are in the Louvre some ornamental bands of a late Phara- onic era, worked in wool. We are certain, from the records in Holy Scripture, that the Hebrews in the time of Moses used tapestry hangings to decorate and separate the apart- ments of the Tabernacle. M. Muntz (quot- ing M. de Saulcy) thinks some of these were embroidered by hand (needle ?). Such an opinion is, however, of the most speculative nature; the work of the loom preceded that of the needle, which is said to be a Phr)'gian invention of later date. The most expert scholars are not agreed on this point, nor even on the exact meaning of the words translated " embroiderer." Lady Marion Holford claims for the needle an older and more illustrious age than can be recorded for the brush, but of proof for such an assertion there is little. Of course the seams of the woven fabrics may have been joined by needlework, and in course of time such seams were ornamented ; but we are altogether in the dark as to date of either as absolute needlework. Indeed, Lady Holford remarks in another paragraph of the same page (6), " but how much was weaving and how much done with the needle, may be disputed." In her ladyship's most interest- ing work the loomwork and needlework of antiquity are not separated. Speaking of " Homer's women," she says they were all "artists with the needle;" but two of the passages chosen speak only of the " loom " and "web" (p. ii), and " Gudrun, like the women of Homer, embroidered history ;" whereas in the passages chosen to illustrate this statement, as before stated, Homer speaks of loomwork, and Gudrun worked with an embroidery frame, etc.
The needles of antiquity, which we possess, do not seem qualified for the most minute work. Many of them are more like sacking- needles for joining, or darning ; in fact, some
» Ancient Egyptians, vol. i., p. 317; vol. ii., pp. 170, 171.
of the earliest needlework embroidery has a resemblance to coarse darning.
Probably the vestures of the priesthood were woven throughout, without seam. The mixture of wool and flax in a garment was, however, interdicted amongst the Jews, (Leo, xix. 19); and it is curious to this day how few of such mixtures exist in Jerusalem, although common in Egypt. It is certain, from ancient illustrations, that the ancients knew of more kinds of loom than one. Some were small, but others must have been of considerable size. We read in Scripture of the weaver's beam, and from the spear of Goliath being likened to one, it is quite evident that the looms of that period were of considerable size. In another passage, where it is opposed in simile to the mote, the inference is that the beam was large.
From the description of the veils of Solomon's Temple, with the cherubim in blue and scarlet on purple groundwork, and the profusion of gold, it may be fairly inferred that the Jews were proficients in textile art before the Babylonian Captivity.
A circumstance which points to the posi- tion of the weaver was that he was not a slave, nor was his handicraft hereditary. Doubtless the great workers in ancient tapestries were the Assyrians. To this day all our readers know the carpets of that region of Asia are celebrated. It is important to note in passing that the history of tapestry- making introduces us to a phase of early economical history which is in the highest degree interesting. In the days of the early civilization so much labour of all kinds, whether purely commercial or purely manu- facturing, was slave labour, that it betokens influences of a remarkable kind which should have lifted tapestry-making out of the ordi- nary groove. What these influences were we can but guess at, but it seems pretty clear that Art performed here one of her earliest victories in the cause of man's intellectual development in proclaiming that her votaries must be free.
The dresses of the Assyrians, as shown in the figures in the British Museum, are covered with worked patterns, some with elaborate figure-work.
The Syrians and Babylonians had, it is stated, some time before these empires, com-
ANCIENT TAPESTRY.
6i
menced to introduce silk and gold into their work.
There cannot be a doubt but that the Assyrians were great workers in ancient woollen tapestries, and from their day until ours the Asiatics have had an unbroken tapestry tradition ; and some of the patterns found on the most ancient work, having often religious significance, are still used.
M. Muntz gives an example (plate 2, page 7) of an ancient tapestry design, circa 800 b.c, which is preserved, having been copied in sculpture. There are in the Assyrian base- ment room of the British Museum three
The hangings at the feast of Ahasuerus are described in the Book of Esther (L 6.) The Hebrews seem to have caught the taste for sumptuous woven and embroidered dresses from their Babylonian captors, so that they brought down upon themselves the rebukes of the Prophet Ezekiel (xvL 8, xxvi. 7).
The veil of the Temple, made after the return from Babylon (b.c 536), was of linen and scarlet, and became the prize of Anti- ochus IV. (B.C. 174-164).
Herod the Great (19 b.c.) had wrought for the temple he built a Babylonian tapestry fifty cubits high by sixteen wide; of scarlet
KiG. I.— Penelope's loom, from an antique vase found at chiusi, about b.c 2000.
[Reproduced from A Short Histcry of Tapestry, by permission of Cassell and Company.]
perfectly preserved specimens of such copies ; they are called pavements, but show no signs of having been worn by feet, and even bare feet would occasion some wear or softening of the outlines. One is therefore inclined to ask, is it not possible that these sculptures were intended as mural decorations, and that ihey were painted to resemble hanging tapestries ? The records of tapestries hang- ing to columns amongst the Syrians and Babylonians are numerous ; they were of the most gorgeous description, and it is asserted that the weavers had, before the suppression of these empires, already commenced to intro- duce silk and gold thread into their work.
(fire), linen (the earth), azure (the air), and purple (the sea). "The whole range of heavens, except the signs, was wrought upon the veil."
In another part of Asia, about 3000 B.C., long before the Assyrians and Israelites worked in tapestry, the Chinese were, as some affirm, experts in the weaving of silk. Some day the influence of the work of this ancient nation upon Assyria, Persia, and other nations may be elucidated.
It would occupy more space than could be given to this review to recapitulate the different kinds of Greek workmanship. Homer is continually referring to them, whilst the
62
ANCIENT TAPESTRY.
loom of Penelope is involved in the most beautiful of ancient stories.
It would appear from a passage in the Agamemnon of -^schylus that the richest carpets of purple were used in his time for the temples only.
The peplos of Athena, embroidered by the virgins of Errephorae, was renewed every forty-seven years and carried in procession : it was a great square of saffron-coloured cloth ; on it was depicted the labours of the goddess. An illustration of Minerva wearing such a peplos occurs on a hydra in the British Museum.
Plutarch tells us that tapestry-workers were employed by Phidias, and M. de Rouchand is of opinion that they worked from the great master's designs.
The extent to which tapestry was used as a sumptuous fabric is endorsed by the circum- stance that the common tent of Alexander, after his victories, was covered with tapestries worked in with gold, was supported by fifty gold pillars, and contained one hundred beds : from this time until the decay of the Empire the use of gorgeous and expensive tapestries increased ; numerous examples of their mag- nificence are quoted by M. Muntz.
The Romans in their early days were too austere for such magnificence \ the luxurious notions of the Greeks were ignored, and they appear to have used tapestries only in their temples.
After the conquest of Greece, Egypt, and Asia, the spoils of civilization, which were brought to Rome, engendered a taste for luxuries, and amongst these luxuries tapestry was especially prominent.
Plautus tells us of many tapestries manu- factured at Campania in the second cen- tury.
M. Muntz quotes Pseudolus to prove that, in the earliest years of the Empire, tapestry adorned the habitations of exalted individuals. He also quotes from Virgil {Georgics, iii. 25) a passage, showing how our conquered an- cestors were depicted on the purple curtain of the theatre.
From this period Roman tapestry com- menced to attain a high perfection; it is mentioned by most of the Latin poets and historians ; and from Rome the manufacture undoubtedly spread to less civilized regions.
Upon the subjects and characters of Roman tapestry, the matter in this small volume is most interesting; but day by day a general tendency of Roman art to substitute richness for beauty asserted itself, and painting in
FIG. 5.— ANCIENT TAPESTRY FOUND AT SITTEN. THE RESTORATION IS BY SEMPER.
[Reproduced from A Short History of Ta/>cstry, by permission of Cassell and Company.]
textile fabrics soon prevailed over other forms of art.
Aurelian (a.d. 270-275) commenced the wearing of sumptuous garments woven with gorgeous colours and gold, and in a.d. 283-4
ANCIENT TAPESTRY.
63
Junius Messala lavished on imperial come- dians the most costly woven dresses. The introduction of silk has been, by some authors, attributed to this period.
The needle now dethroned the loom with its more varied and more delicate delinea- tions, and grand design in tapestry appears to dwindle into decay with the decadence of the Empire; but there appears to be little doubt that, as M. Muntz asserts, the ancients possessed " all the knowledge of weaving and dyeing requisite for bringing painting in textile fabrics to the highest degree of perfec- tion." So far we have reviewed the pre- Christian history of tapestry ; but M, Muntz, like other authors, leaves much to be desired. Semper, Fishbach, Auberville, Lady Marion Holford, M. du Rouchand, Jubinal, are all interesting and full of information ; but the history of ancient textiles and needlework has yet to be written. Perhaps when we have more examples with authenticated dates, like those in our British Museum, from the tomb of Ptolemy 11., the textures, materials, and design of each period, with its origin and influence, may be carefully examined and described ; and, what is as necessary, how far the loomwork was carried and what was actually, in our modern sense of the word, needlework.
letters from loru Eomnep to t[)e "^xM of iLeeD0.
Communicated by George Clinxh, of the British Museum.
HE following letters, written by Robert Marsham, the 2nd Baron Romney, do not appear to have been published hitherto. The chimpanzee referred to in the second letter was probably the same as that mentioned in the following extract from Rees' Cydopcedia : " In the year 1738, one of those chimpanzees was brought over into England by the captain of a ship in the Guinea trade ; it was of the female sex, and was two feet four inches high ; it naturally walked erect. It would
eat very coarse food, and was fond of tea, which it drank out of a cup with milk and sugar, as we do."
The original letters are in the British Museum.
,, X. . /«/y9, 1738-
My Dear Lord,
You are prehaps so good as to imagine because you have not yet heard from me, that I am extreamly busie ; but to my shame be it spoken, I have no particular business to plead my excuse ; for I pass my time as I used to do sometimes in my Study, some- times in Company, and sometimes musing by my self : now and then I am extreamly angry with the Ministry for patiently suffering the Insolence of the Spaniards, and think, that if I was consulted, things would be much better : but then when I look into my own Conduct I find so many faults, that I leave off musing with humbler thoughts of myself than when I began. I very often think of Kiveton, and promise my self great pleasure there in September, my Horses will be then in good order, and I don't doubt but that we shall have very fine Sport. I am sorry to hear you have such bad luck in breeding of your little Hounds, but to make up your Loss 1 have three couple of old Dogs, and three or four couple of Puppies ready for you, when you'll let me know how I shall send them to you. You have certainly heard how great a Favorite the German Lady is. When she was at the Review, it is reported here, the People were so importunate to see her, that orders were given that the coach should come within the Line, and that a Party of the Blue Guards should guard it. I am very sorry he is so fond, because I am afraid it will bring that sort of Gallantry into Vogue which I think is destructive to Society. I beg my Compliments to Mr. Trymmer and all Friends, and am.
My dear Lord, Your most faithfull Friend and Servant,
Romney.
My Sisters desire their Compliments to your Grace.
Mote, Nov. 17, 1738. My Dear Lord,
After having returned your Grace my sincere thanks for your Goodness at Kiveton,
64 LETTERS FROM LORD ROMNEY TO THE DUKE OF LEEDS.
I must let you know that I arrived safe and sound in Town on friday night, but that it was three days before I could possibly find time to see the Champanzie ; and before I had seen her, I did not dare write to you for fear of disobliging Mr. Legrand. I had been told by Mr. Underbill that the Cha .... mpanzie was a cu . . . . rious crea- ture, and that it was to be seen by the Royal Excha .... nge : so on Wednesday morning I walked to the Exchange, where having for some time stared at the signs, and in vain examined all the advertisements (that are stuck up there in great plenty) to find out this Creature : I was at a loss what to do, for I did not dare ask after her by name, for fear I should apply my self to one who was not so well versed in news papers as I was ; and so, not knowing what I meant, might perhaps laugh at me. In this perplexity I proled on to Whitechapel, where seeing a by- coffee house, sneaked into it, and having con- sulted the old new papers, found that my Lady lived in Lombard street ; pleased with this discovery I went to the Bar to pay for my knowledge, and having changed six pence gave the woman two pence, for I did not dare give her more, for fear she should either take me for what I was, or else think that a Fool and his money were soon parted. At last I arrived at the right house, where, to my great surprise I saw a most disagreeable creature, very like a Baboon ; my friend Jack outdoes it in every respect, he is comly, young, and lively, this creature is stupid, old and ugly. I cannot of my own knowledge say what sex it is, for I was satisfied with seeing its face; but I am told it is of the female kind, and if that is sufficient to please
Mr. , he may still call out upon his dear
Champanzie ; but if that is not sufficient, as I believe it is not, he will certainly forsake her. My Sisters desire their compliments to your Grace, and I beg mine to Mr. Trymmer, Legrand, and all Friends.
Yours most sincerely,
ROMNEV.
I have sent the enclosed receipt for Mrs. Carter.
^ome Oisitots to 15atF) tiurmg tfje iaeign of 3lame0 31 ♦
By Austin J. King and B. H. Watts.
Part IL
HE year 1610 must have been in- deed a gay one in Bath. Besides the Deans of Canterbury and Wells and Dr. Powell, we have several guests who call for more than nominal men- tion. Lord Fenton, Sir Thomas Erskine, who succeeded Raleigh on the accession as Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard, and was created Viscount of Fentoun in May, 1606, and Earl of KeUie in March, 1619, is the same gentleman who figures in the follow- ing extract from the diary of Lady Ann Clifford :
" We all went to Tibbals [Theobald's] to see the King . . . but we saw a great change between the fashion of the Court as it was now and in the Queen's, for we were all made louzy by sitting in Sir Thomas Erskine's Chamber."*
Lady Stapleton. — This lady was daughter and coheir of Sir Henry Sherrington, of Lacock, to whose family the abbey of that place was granted on the dissolution. Her first husband was John Talbot, recommended to her by Queen Elizabeth. Her second husband was Sir Robert Stapleton. She is said to have held Lacock at this time as guardian of her eldest son, Sherrington Talbot, the ancestor of the Earls Talbot.
Lacock Abbey was a convenient stage from Bath on the way to London through Marl- borough.
Sir Fulk Greville ("a doz : pigeons, a couple of capons, «& a lamb"). — Sir R. Naunton, in his Fragmenta Regalia, thus curtly describes this distinguished person : " He was a brave gentleman." One of the members of the Society of Antiquaries in James's reign, one also of Fuller's " Worthies," a writer of no mean pretensions, his course was throughout one of honour and distinction. He was Under-Treasurer and afterwards Chancellor of the Exchequer, and a Gentleman of the Bedchamber, and in 1620 he was created Lord Brook of Beauchamp Court.
* Nichols, Progresses, vol. i., p. ill.
SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES L 65
It is a curious sign of the times that a gentleman of such character and position should have stooped in 1614, on the death of the Earl of Northampton, to give ;!^4,ooo to Lady Suffolk and Lady Somerset to obtain the Chancellorship of the Exchequer.*
The Earl of Hertford (" three sugar loaves"). — This nobleman challenged Cecil Earl of Salisbury, and, but for the interposi- tion of the King, would have " gone out " with him in St. James's Park. Though doubtless a man of spirit, he was no mere "fire-eater," as the following anecdote will show :
Being sent on " an embassy to the Arch- duke, he was crossing the sea to Belgium in a ship commanded by Sir W. Monson ; in whose passage a Dutch man-of-war coming by, that ship would not vaile as the manner was, acknowledging by that our sovereignty over the seas. Sir W. Monson gave him a shot to instruct him in manners ; but instead of learning, he taught him, by returning another, he acknowledged no such sove- reignty. This was the very first indignity and affront ever offered to the royal ships of England, which since have been most fre- quent. Sir W. Monson desired my Lord of Hertford to go into the hold, and he would instruct him by stripes that refused to be taught by fair means ; but the Earl charged him on his allegiance first to land him on whom he was appointed to attend. So that to his great regret he was forced to endure that indignity, for which I have often heard him wish he had been hanged rather than live that unfortunate commander of a King's ship to be chronicled for the first that ever endured that affront, although it was not in his power to have helped it."t
Sir Henry Montague (" chickens, rabbits, and pigeons "). — This gentleman was brother to Dr. James Montague, who in April, 1607, was raised to the See of Bath and Wells. He was a benefactor to the Abbey restora- tion, and he caused his arms to be embla- zoned on the West doors of the church, which were his own gift. Sir Henry was a lawyer, and at the time of his visit Recorder of London ; but aspired especially to the repu- tation of a man of fashion.
* Birch's Negotiations, p. 3S0.
t Weldon's Court of James /., p. 45.
" Having put on the gown," says Lord Campbell, " he was desirous of obtaining practice ; but his plan was to get it by bustling about in society, by making himself known, and by availing himself of the good offices of his powerful relatives, rather than by shutting himself up in his chambers, and by constantly taking notes in the Courts at Westminster."*
He complained bitterly of "life on the Bench." Sitting all the morning at West- minster, he was expected to dine at Serjeants' Inn, where, in their compotations, his com- panions talked of nothing but the points they had ruled upon their circuits, and the cases depending before them in their several Courts.
The gaiety he had was "grand day in term " or a " readers' feast," when, for the amusement of the judges, the barristers danced with each other in the halls of the Inns of Court.t
He was made King's Serjeant in 161 1, and Chief Justice on the disgrace of Coke in 1616, and in 1620 Lord Treasurer and Baron of Kimbolton and Viscount Mandevil.
There was a reason for this congregation of notables at Bath.
In March, 16 10, Mr. Beaulieu writes to Mr. Trumbull :
" Here is expected this day the young Prince of Brunswick, who shall be lodged with the Prince at St. James's. The speech is that he comes for a marriage with the Lady Elizabeth."
Prince Frederick Ulric, of Brunswick, came to England as stated, and went a tour through the country, visiting Oxford, Glouces- ter, Bristol and Bath.
He arrived in Bristol on Good Friday, and was noisily received :
" He was brought in with two hundred horse, and twenty-five great pieces of ordnance were discharged on the marsh [Queen Square]. He was met by the Mayor, the Aldermen and Common Council at the Tolzey, and there was an oration made unto him. Which being ended, the Mayor etc., brought him to his lodging at the White Lion, in Broad Street, where the Mayor and many of the Council supped with him, and at supper time
• Lives of the Chief Justices, vol. i., p. 249. t7W</., p. 358-
66 SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES I.
sundry volleys of shot were performed by all ihe trained bands, three hundred men or thereabouts. The next morning he walked round the marsh with the Mayor and Aldermen where the great ordnance were twice discharged. Then he dined at the Mayor's, and in the afternoon, being Easter evening, took his journey for Bath."*
The Prince no doubt looked forward to spending a few days in a city where the amusements were more varied and less noisy than walking round the marsh and listening to cannons and small arms.
The Chamberlain expended twenty-six shillings on " six couple of rabbits, a dozen chickens, a lamb, and two couple of capons ;" but we can find no record of any further entertainment — indeed neither the wealth nor the position of the citizens would have warranted it.
Whilst at Bath he heard the news of the assassination of Henry IV. of France, and left hurriedly for the Continent.
In 1611 the visitors were Lord Knowells, Sir Gilbert Pryn, Baron Sotherton (Chief Baron of the Exchequer), Sir Thomas Howard, the Earl of Shrewsbury, Lord Hay, Dr. Powell, the Recorder of Wells, and Baron Snigge.
The latter had a more intimate connection with the city than a mere visitor. He became the owner of the Barton Farm Estate just beyond the city walls, which had been a part of the possessions of the Priory, and over which the citizens had exercised a right of common. Sir George denied the right, and commenced an action against the citizens, but died pending the litigation. His son William succeeded to the property, and he and the citizens agreed to leave the matter to the decision of Nicholas Hyde, then Recorder of Bath, and afterwards Chief Justice. Hyde awarded that the citizens should have a tract of about ninty-six acres in absolute ownership in lieu of the common rights, and this estate is still the property of the city.
Sir George Snigge was a Baron of the Exchequer, having the circuit of Glamor- gan, Radnor and Brecknock assigned to him.
Thus Weldon speaks of him and Tanfield, whom we have already noticed as a visitor : * Nichols, F}-og7-esses, vol. ii., p. 310.
" And for the more effectual promotion of this the Earl of Dunbar [Chancellor of the Exchequer] did sound the Barons of the Exchequer, and although Altham and his brother afforded him small encouragement, Tanfield and Snig, the first no less famed for corruption than the other for ignorance, of their compliance in judgment"*
In 1612 the attention of the city would have been much absorbed by the illness of the Lord Treasurer, and no presents seem to have been given either to Lord Hay or Sir John Hollis, who were clearly here.
The visitors of whom we have mention besides the Lady Marquis and the Earl of Salisbury were, Mr. Thurston, an Alderman of Norwich ; Sir Maurice Barkley, who not improbably came to see the Earl ;t and the Bishop. The Bishop was entertained at supper at Mr. Clift's, at an expense of
£lT, 2S. id.
Visit of the Queen.
The year 16 13 is celebrated in the city annals for a royal visit, that of Queen Ann of Denmark.
Our first reference to the visit is in a letter from Chamberlain to Carleton in February, 161 1 : "About the midst of March, the Queen meaneth to go toward the Bath, and the Lord Treasurer and Lord Chamberlain are said to have the same purpose, which will be a great hindrance to the ordinary customers of that place." J
This visit was put off, perhaps in conse- quence of the Lord Treasurer's illness to which reference has been made. The pre- parations for the marriage of the Princess Elizabeth with the Duke of Brunswick no doubt still further delayed the projected journey. This marriage was solemnized amidst extraordinary pageantry in February, 1613. The expense exceeded ;;^73,ooo, and, as Chamberlain tells one of his correspon- dents, there was talk of melting down " the goodly plate of the house of Burgundy, which had been pawned to^Elizabeth in i578,§ to de- fray it. As it was, Lord Harrington (cousin of our facetious friend. Sir John) could only get payment of the ;^3o,ooo which he expended
* Secret History, James I,, p. 248. t He was a friend of Cecil's, and in July, 1611, moved a vote of thanks to him in the Commons. % State Papers, Dom., James I., vol. Ixviii., No. 62. § Winwood, vol, iii., p. 442.
SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES L 67
in attending the bride to her German home by obtaining a patent for the issue of base farthings." *
It may seem extraordinary that Ann should have chosen such a time, when the Treasury officials were often mobbed by the inferior officers of the household demanding arrears of their salaries, and when the purveyors actually refused to furnish provisions for the royal table, for making a " progress." She and James accompanied the bride and bridegroom as far as Rochester, and then returned together to Hampton Court. There James remained whilst the Queen proceeded on her first stage to AVindsor. The journey was notified to the Mayor of Bath, and we find in the Council Book the following reso- lution :
"March 28, 1613. — It is agreed that the entertainment of Her Majesty now repairing to this City is to be borne by the Subsidy-men and such able persons as the Mayor and Aldermen shall find out."t
The Queen travelled in royal state, " for besides the Lord Chancellor [Sir John Egerton], the Countess of Derby and the Countess of Dorset, she hath divers other ladies that follow her, as also the Earl of Worcester, the Lord Danvers and other noblemen. Though she made account to stay at Bath but ten days, yet it is said this journey will stand the King or her in ;^30,ooo."+
From Windsor the Queen's first stage was Caversham, Lord Knolles' house near Read- ing. Here, on the 27th April, was a grand
* Aikin, Court of /antes I. ^ vol. i., p. 249.
t This aptly illustrates the position assumed by the Chamber with reference to taxation. The" Subsidy- men " were those citizens whose names were inscribed on the Subsidy books which were sent down to the city when a grant of a " tenth " or a " fifteenth " was made to the King. Such books formed a convenient list for all fiscal purposes. It is curious to notice that receipts from general taxation, such as would be involved in the resolution in the text, were not accounted for as part of the city revenues. The Chamberlain did not concern himself with any other receipts than the rents and fines payable to the Chamber, nor with any payments but those made in administering this income. When further money was required, collectors were named for different districts, and the money obtained was administered by the Mayor and Justices.
+ Contemporary letter, Nichols' Processes of James /., vol. ii., p. 628.
entertainment to her Majesty, consisting principally of a masque.
She arrived at Bath in May, and was here (amongst other days) on the 19th of that month.
The following anecdote we give purely on the authority (no great one on such subjects) of the architect Wood :
"As Ann was one day bathing in the King's Bath, there arose from the bottom of the Cistern, just by the side of Her Majesty, a flame of fire like a candle, which had no sooner ascended to the top of the water than it spread itself upon the surface into a large circle of light, and then became extinct. This so frightened the Queen that, notwith- standing the Physicians assured her the light proceeded from a natural cause, yet she would bathe no more in the King's Bath, but betook herself to the new Bath, where there were no springs to cause the like phenomena ; and from thence the Cistern was called the Queen's Bath."*
We have no precise record of the Queen's stay at Bath. On the loth June, 161 3, Chamberlain writes to Carleton " that the Queen was well entertained at Bristol and elsewhere ;"t and there is clear evidence that in June she was at Greenwich, and in July at Somerset House. On the ist August she was with the King at "Theobald's," and killed there by accident the King's favourite hound, receiving from James, after a slight quarrel, "a diamond as a legacy from the dead dog." On the 28th September, 16 13, the Queen was at Hampton Court.
The evidence of the Queen's visit to Bath in the spring of 16 13 is fairly satisfactory, although not quite conclusive ; but it is abso- lutely certain that she was in Bath in the autumn of that year, sometime between the ist August and the 28th September.
This is proved first by an entry in the Chamberlain's account under date of the 15th October, 1613 — "more paid to Mr.
* Wood's Essay on Bath, 2nd edition, p. 206. The King's bath is immediately over one of the springs. The " new bath " was built by Thomas Bellotf for the use of the poor. The result of all this was, of course, to deprive them of it. The new bath was fed from an overflow of the King's bath. It has recently been removed, and beneath it has been discovered a very interesting circular Roman bath.
t State Papers, Dom., James /., vol. Ixxiv., No. I.
68 SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES I
Mayor, which he laid out to the King's Majesties trumpeters at the Queen's being here in September, 40s. ;" and by the follow- ing resolution of the Chamber, passed on the 1 6th August, 1613 ; " Item to shew ourselves joyful of her Majestie's coming by all the means we can."
^^'e can even fix the exact date.
The Court Physician, Theo de Mayerne, frequently accompanied the Queen on her journeys, and was in Bath in August, 16 13. He wrote thence two letters dated the 31st of that month : one to Rochester, begging the King to be more careful in his diet ; and the other to the King, containing the fol- lowing :
" Le jourd hay S. M. est entrie dans le baing qu'elle a tres bien porte et au sortir. C'est trouve en toute telle disposition que nous erisons bien souhaiter." *
Either, therefore, the Queen did not visit Bath in her progress, as she evidently in- tended, or returned again later in the year to give the curative waters a better chance of benefiting her constitution.
As we have seen, the expenses of the visit or visits of the Queen were to be defrayed out of a fund independent of that adminis- tered by the Chamberlain ; but we find a few entries on the account-roll of that functionary, which might, of course, relate to any visit of the Queen during the year :
Given to the Queen's footmen, 40s.
The painter, for new painting the King's Arms at
the Northgate, 6s. To the plomer, for new casting the winepipe upon
the bridge, and for soder used about it, 7s.
The last entry relates to the custom of making a little fountain on the bridge " run with wine" on occasions of great rejoicing.
The household accounts are unfortunately missing for these years ; but we find two warrants dated in July, 16 13, for the pay- ment of a part of the Queen's expenses in Bath.
One is for p£" 2 20, the other for;^20o ; and the first contains the recital : " Whereas John Tunstall, Esqre., one of the Gentlemen Ushers to our dearest wife the Queen, hath disbursed for divers necessary charges for her service at
* State Papers, Dom., /antes I., vol. Ixxiv., Nos. 54) 55- The first letter refers to the illness of Sir Thomas Ovcrbury, which fixes the date of the year conclusively.
Bath the sum of ;^2 2o, as by the particulars of his account, subscribed by the hand of the Earl of Worcester, will appear."*
The next visit of the Queen to Bath was in 161 5. In February of that year the Cham- berlain writes to Carleton :
"23rd February, 1614-15. In the meantime there is great want of money, and the Queen's journey to the Bath, which should have been the 27th of next month, is prolonged until more may be gotten ; and her turn is to be first served ; and withal it is said the re- ceiver's half-year accounts, that come not in till our lady-day, are already assigned over for other uses."t.
The money was found after a time, but the journey was not viewed with satisfaction by the counties through which she was to pass.
" 20th July, 16 1 5. The Queen is likewise going to the Bath, which comes ill to pass for those counties they are to go through, who made petition to be spared this year in respect of the hard winter and hitherto ex- treme hot and dry summer, whereby cattle are exceeding poor and like to perish every- where."!
There are no Council minutes expressly referring to this particular visit. The follow- ing resolution, passed on the 29th August, 1 6 15, appears to relate to a making up ot old accounts rather than to a preparation for the future :
"A resolution concerning the arrerages for the collection towards the Cupp and other charges given to the Queen's most excellent majesty.
"It is resolved that the rate as it is sett heretofore shall be collected presently; and if any person do refuse to pay the same, then to be forthwith committed till he do pay it."§
The Chamberlain's accounts are, however, eloquent. The Queen was to stop at the
* Sign Manuals, [a/iies I., vol. iii., No. 12.
+ State Papers, Dour., James I., vol. Ixxx., No. 39.
X Chamberlain to Carleton, State Papers, Doin., James I., vol. Ixxxi., No. 17.
§ In an account of Mr. Sherston's (one of the alder- men) presented in 1619, but running as far back as 1604, occurs without date the following :
"Paid for the cup that was given to the Queen, ;^5 14s. od. Whereof I have received of Phillip Jones for the cup, £1 is. 4d."
SOME VISITORS TO BATH DURING THE REIGN OF JAMES L 69
Hart Lodgings, adjoining the King's Bath, then kept by Mr. Murford. This house was suppUed with drinking-water from the pipe from Beechen CUff, which had been reserved by the monks when they sold that source of supply to the city.
The Chamberlain pays —
Towards mending the Abbey pipe in Murford's backside for the Queen's use, 5s.
To the painter, for painting the Queen's gallery window, at Mr. Tunstall's request, lis.
These payments were before her Majesty's arrival. They are followed by —
Given to Peter, the blindman, for playing on the
organs at the Queen's being here, 5s. To the King's trumpeters, 22s. To the Queen's wayne men, 20s. To the Queen's littermen, 20s. To the Queen's footmen, 40s. To the Queen's coachmen, 20s. To the Queen's trumpeters, 40s. To the Queen's porter, 20s. To the Queen's guard, 20s. To the Queen's drummers, 13s. 4d. To the Black guard, 13s. 4d.
On the 15th September, 16 15, Chamber- lain writes to Carleton : " The Queen, I hear, is returned from the Bath not so well as when she went."*
In a very interesting drawing at the British Museum, made in the reign of Charles II., the Hart Lodging (where, as we have said, the Queen put up) is shown, with this legend carved upon it — "Annte Reginse Sacrum, 16 1 8."
It is clear, however, that the Queen did not visit Bath subsequently to 1615. She died in 16 19, and we learn " that her funeral is deferred because, as the King's and Prince's servants are to go into mourning, credit for so much black is not to be had."t
SDti^s.seus ant) W dinger.
By Vv'. Carew IIazi.itt.
p.N the sixth volume of the Century Magazine Mr. Stillman has given a most interesting series of papers as the result of his personal re- searches into the topography of the Odyssey. Now, first let me, by way of preface, say a
* State Papers, Dom., Janus /., vol. Ixxxi., No. 99. t Jhid.
word about the authorship of that and the companion epic, and their relationship to their putative maker.
If the Greeks in the Homeric epoch — the ninth century b.c. — were a people ignorant of geography and of the art of writing, as it is generally supposed that they were, the natural question arises whether Homer, grant- ing him to have been an individual, could have really left behind him in any shape the works with which his name is commonly associated ; and it becomes an allowable speculation whether the poems are not of later date, collected by men, including Homer, in whose time the old oral traditions were in full vigour and completeness, and identified as Homeric, and Homeric only, through the mersion of all the ingatherers of the scattered legends in a person and a name to some imperfect extent in the same manner as so much of the ancient Gaelic saga is designated Ossianic.
It is at once obvious that the Homeric narrative plunges in medias res, and that we are dependent on the account which Odysseus gives to Alcinous, almost at the conclusion of his trials, for the slight knowledge which we possess of what happened to him after his departure from Troy.
The duration of the return journey is, no doubt, as fabulous as that of the siege of tlie city, and is to be accepted in the same sense as almost all other ancient chronological estimates ; and it should be noted, in cor- roboration of this view, that the periods occupied in the transit from point to point, are, on the contrary, computed by days. The ten years' subsequent pilgrimage was a meet complement to the ten years' invest- ment of Troy. Such measurements of time are in harmony with the lax and vague calcu- lations which are familiar to us in the pages of the Old Testament and throughout the literature of the East,
The Ithacan chieftain, whose domain was clearly of very limited extent, and who pro- bably conducted to Troy a very small body of followers, lands on his native island alone. All of those who had been his companions in the earlier stages of his voyage fell victims to shipwreck or other casualties ; but the number, as I have ventured to think, was at no time considerable ; nor am I a partisan
70
ODYSSEUS AND HIS SINGEH.
of the old idea that the slaughter of the Greeks by the mythical Laestrygonians, and the destruction of their vessels, were as extensive as Homer avers.
When it is borne in mind that of the suitors of Penelope as many as four-and- twenty were contributed by Cephalonia, and that the circumstances connected with Odys- seus must have been perfectly well known there, it seems natural to wonder why, in a place so close at hand as the so-named Phajacia, the returned warrior was not generally recognised until a local bard sus- pected his identity, and led him to unveil himself, according to Homer, by narrating the tale of Troy in heroic strains. Of course this may be taken to vindicate the ordinary opinion as to the great lapse of years since the departure from Ithaca ; but, on the other hand, the want of ready means of communi- cation was apt to assist forgetfulness. Nor is it much, if anything, to the purpose that Telemachus did not know his father, since he must have been a child when the king left home. In Homeric days the minstrel's ditty may have comprehended past as well as current events ; but if it existed at all in the pre- Homeric era, in so highly developed a shape as to embrace a large piece of history, it probably confined itself to what had more or less recently taken place ; it appears still more reasonable to conclude that in this case Homer has transferred to a prior age the manners of his own, when there was sufificient culture to lay before the men of Greece, through the medium of song, the achieve- ments and transactions of bygone epochs. The tale of Troy, whereat Odysseus is seen to weep, his consequent discovery, and the recital by him of his exploits and mischances, have the air of a tangled thread of fact and invention, in which the latter appreciably preponderates. If, on the one hand, the absence of the king had been so protracted as to be matter of history, the elaborate account which he furnished to a neighbour could have barely been necessary ; and if, on the other, the chronology is incorrect and exaggerated, a prince whose territory was almost adjacent could not very well have failed to identify a contemporary so eminent and famous as the husband of Penelope. My own impression, arguing from analogy
and the ostensible circumstances, is that the time covered by the Trojan War and the arrival of the King of Ithaca home has been greatly overstated.
I begin to doubt whether the participation of the lonians in the movement against Troy was at all general. Even Odysseus required a good deal of persuasion before he was in- duced to join the expedition. But if Ionia did not supply many fighters, it supplied one man who was of enormous value as a saga- cious and intrepid commander, and (long after) a second, who committed to imperish- able verse the whole engaging story. The Ionian origin of Homer is strikingly and weightily attested by his palpable conversance with the country round about Ithaca and with the little island itself When we have crossed with him by the homes of Calypso and Circe, of the Cyclopes and the man-eat- ing Laestrygonians, even into what is called Phseacia, we cannot help feeling that we have passed from an atmosphere of fable and hearsay into one of actual observation. You must remark that he refrains from any- thing approaching exact geographical detail or local colouring, until he has brought his hero to ground which he was able to describe from more or less intimate acquaintance. The interview with Eumaeus, the meetings of father and son and of husband and wife, the banqueting scene, the episode of Irus (recalling an earlier feat by Odysseus of a similar kind), with the way of life of Pene- lope and her female attendants, are realistic enough, and contrast rather powerfully with the anecdotes which the author puts into the mouth of his principal figure, where the latter sums up in retrospect. I even believe that I have come to something resembling history when the Ithacan reaches Phaeacia, and the princess is introduced to us with her maidens washing their clothes in the stream. It is a glimpse of primaeval manners and of patriar- chal government.
Inasmuch as Homer elected to devote to Odysseus — a single dramatis persona in the war, and by no means the most conspicuous — an entire epic, and, again, as the poet makes the exile, weary, one might imagine, of delay, recount his homeward-bound ex- periences at Phaeacia, and spend some time at a point so near to his final destination, I
ODYSSEUS AND HIS SINGER.
71
ask myself whether the author was a Phseacian familiar with Ithaca or vice versd ; and, balancing one consideration against another, it is really difficult to decide which of these two views, if either, is more likely to have been the true one.
That part of the picture which represents the phalanx of aspirants to the queen's hand revelling indefinitely at her cost in all the plenitude of savage hospitality, exhibits a re- markable illustration of antique palatial life. A large proportion of the candidates, if such a place as Cephalonia sent four-and-twenty, must have been men with whom it is not strange to find Penelope temporizing. All this portion of the narrative is singularly vivid and graphic.
But Homer was a debtor to his imagina- tion or to the fertile brains of his informants, when he portrayed the one-eyed anthropo- phagous Polyphemus and all the other mar- vels which fill the earlier cantos of the epic. Doubtless his illustrious traveller met with many romantic incidents, and also with many a fair admirer to whom his homage was something more than platonic. In the en- chanted abode of Circe the stratum of folk- lore superincumbent on fact is sufficiently transparent to permit us to judge for ourselves with what kind of fiction we are confronted in the reputed transformation of men into swine. The Greeks could scarcely have encountered on their route from Troy any cannibals, unless it was when they were driven far from their course, and landed involuntarily among the savages on the African coast, denominated in the poem Lsestrygonians. But Homer took his know- ledge of Polyphemus at second-hand. To me he appears nothing more than a member, possibly the chief, of some pastoral cave- dwelling tribe on the Sicilian seaboard.
Mr. Stillman, I perceive, makes a little difficulty about the form Kephallenes, of which he speaks as occurring in the Odyssey instead of Kephalknia. But it was the ordinary rule, if not in Homeric days, at all events in those which succeeded, to merge the locality, as it were, in the population ; and hence, by way of example, for Bruttium and leontium we get Bruttii and leontini. The same gentleman is disposed to assign to the Odyssey a higher antiquity than the date
which has been usually associated with it — about 1000 B.C. Portions of the subject- matter of this metrical romance are very probably much older than its composition ; such legends as it presents to our considera- tion were doubtless familiar long before Homer's time ; and the primitive life and thought of which scenes are described, seem to belong to the first period of Hellenic development. But it was to the favourable reception of the Iliad that the appearance of the sequel was owing. The latter was a curious mosaic of superstitions, oral tradition, and broad historical reality, a tolerably faithful picture of what the author knew, pieced to a sublime embodiment of current Ionian notions under a popular name.
It is to be supposed that it is, in the case of the Odyssey^ the immense distance of time which leads us to overlook at first the com- parative nearness of place. The scene of ■ those parts of the great poem, which are historically and humanly the most important, lies among those same islands which were not long since under British rule, and where, within the compass of a summer vacation, any intelligent explorer may still discover numerous vestiges of an age coeval with Homer and not very far removed from Odysseus.
I have made these remarks at the hazard of finding myself forestalled by Homeric specialists, with whose views and discoveries I may be unfortunate enough not to be acquainted ; but a perusal of Mr. Stillman's interesting papers suggested the few para- graphs of commentary which are here set down.
I shall, however, entertain the hope that I may have proved as congruous and pertinent as a distinguished public character, who has expended much vain ingenuity in establishing a link between the Homeric traditions and the Mosaic ; which seem to me a . more romantic hypothesis or speculation than that of the descent of the dead language of Corn- wall from the speech of ancient Judaea.
72
NOTES ON COMMON-FIELD NAMES.
n^otesionCommon^jFielt) Jl3ame.s.
By the Rev. J. C. Atkinson.
Class I. Section II. Names depending for one of their Elements on some Arbitrary or Artificial Object or Feature.
1. -brig:
Pulaynbrig. Siainbrig, Walhebrig.
Pulayn is, almost certainly in this connec- tion, a personal name. With an article and preposition preceding it — ViS,e.g.,delpoulain or de pulayne — it is not uncommon as an appel- lative. The meaning is " of the poultry," or perhaps " of the poultry-house," and it takes rank with bercarius, " of the sheep-fold," le Spenser^ or le despe?iser, dispensarius, etc., etc. Stainbrig hardly means an arched bridge of stone, but rather one, like many a one still extant in the district, where a thick slab, or a series of thick slabs, was made use of to carry the traffic instead of planks of wood.
2. -die, -dike:
Kerdic. Rotilanddic.
Neiidic, Ihorndike {ox -die).
Nether, and Uver. Lange, and Scorthe.
A dike in these old times was almost always, if not always, an earthen bank,* often of very considerable dimensions, and sometimes of great antiquity. This is true of Grenedic or Grendik, Theofesdikes or Theovesdiches, named in the boundaries of Whitby Liberty, and found in very early deeds, and the antiquity of which may well extend far beyond the foundation of even Anglian Whitby. It is equally true of the " double dykes " on the ridge between Danby and Little Fryup, which must have been thrown up as entrenchments, probably in the early part of the bronze period. But many were formed at a later date for boundary, or for enclosure purposes; and notes touching either are of perpetual
* As a matter not devoid of collateral interest, I may mention that in connection with allotments and enclosures, both extensive and systematic, which were proceeding in the North Riding in 1635 to 1638, I have recently met with, in divers entries in the Minutes of the North Riding Quarter Sessions, the word ditcli used in this same sense. Different persons are "presented" for "casting upp ditches" across the line of old highways, which were so called simply because they were tracks across the country that had been used time out of mind.
occurrence in each of the chartularies named above, usually under the Latin nzxsxtfossatutn. Kerdic is the dyke near, or perhaps in part enclosing or separating, a carr. Neudic ex- plains itself ; but the words used to describe the two banks so named are worth notice — nether and uver. The latter is written vuer, and is the old form of the dialect word now sounded and spelt uvver, meaning upper or higher. Roulanddike (which might be £ou- landdike, perhaps) takes its name from a person, and Thornedike needs no comment. 3. -gate:
Fishergate. Melegate,
Grettegate. Richergate.
Lcuidegate, Riggingate.
Le vienegate. Stretegate.
Markergate, Waincarlegate.
Gate is a street in a town, or even it may be a small village or hamlet ; and also a way or road, a way gone. It is hardly open to supposition that in any of the above names, and numberless others of the same character, the word gate means what we understand nowadays by a gate. Probably there was not a gate of that kind to be found in the entire common-field. But roads might, and did, run through the said campus communis, and others must needs run near them or to them; and possibly, or more than possibly, perhaps, Stretegate, one of the above-named, was a road of this kind. The prefix streie may be taken with tolerable certainty as indicating that this road was a high-road — "the King's high-street" — or highway, in later terms. Laddcgate (once met with in the form Lardegate) and Ladgates occur in two or three instances. The inference here is, that most likely this particular gate was — what many of them, perhaps most, were not — one over which loads could be led. In the Rectitudines singularum personarum, of about the tenth century, quoted by Mr. Seebohm (p. 129), a part of the Geneats' {villa ni, villeifis) services was ridan 3 averian •;] lade Icedaji (translated " to ride and carry and lead loads "), which also explains a part of the Co?isuetudi}ies Cotarionwi de Hakenes ( Whitby Chartulary, S.S., vol. ii. 279) — " Cotarius de Midelburg dabit lades et rades, sicut bondi faciunt, preter cariare turbam et bladum," where exactly the same three items of service are specified. In further illustration, Halli- well's lade-saddle, a pack-saddle, and the
NOTES ON COMMON-FIELD NAMES.
73
terms laders of 5 Elizabeth, cap. 12, meaning persons who carried their wares by aid of a horse with pack-saddle and panniers, may both be quoted and considered. Le mene- gaie, again, is not without its interest. High- gate, Lowgate (Hull), High Ousegate, Low Ousegate (York), and any number of like names, at least suggest that every here and there there may have been — not to say must have been — an intermediate, or mean gate. Markergate is possibly of equal or even greater interest. Markar is the genitive of O.N. nwrk, ^'■di. forest (properly a march-land, border-land) : in olden times vast and dense forests often formed the borderland between two countries " (Vigfussen), and even be- tween districts or subdivisions of the same country; and Markergate is simply the way, path, or road leading through, or to, the mark. Compare Grein's mearc-pdd with the same meaning, marke-mot, the mark place of meeting (an early thirteenth-century name fromWykeham), A.S. mearc-mbt; O.N. marke- menn, skogar-menn, literally mark-men, forest-men, with the full meaning of out- laws. As for Melegate and Riggingate one has nothing certain to go upon. The way to the mill was a road of importance in these old days, and some traces of its existence still linger in such districts as these. Thus there is a broken road called the Mill-way over a ridge between two of the dales which help to constitute the writer's parish, and the mill-cadger is still an official whose business it is to collect the sacks of corn which the various farmers want to have ground, and return the meal at his next journey ; and Rigg-lane, a lane or narrow way along a rig (a name yet existing in Easington), may supply an idea as to the derivation of Riggingate. Waincarlegate, the way or road taken by the ceorls or carles in charge of wains : note Halliwell's waifi-men, and compare the follow- ing entry in the expenses of Whitby Abbey {Chartidary, ii. 614): "Item, i suan per xxiiii dies minanti plaustra," for one swain (whether lad or man, a carle), for twenty-four days' work driving the wains. 4. -pit,- pittes.
Ketel-pittes, Pete-pit.
Mire-pittes. Sand-pittes.
That some of these pits were artificial is, of course, true. Both pete-pit and sand-pit
VOL. XIV.
would be, possibly also mire-pittes, as natural pits in a mere, or marsh, or boggy place would scarcely exist. But it may be different with ketel-pittes. Kettle is a frequent help- word in forming a local name, as in Kettle- ness, Ketelsthorp or Chetelestorp, Hell-kettles, Kettle-holes, and several others. The last- named is applied in the case of a curious chasm some half-mile from the writer's home, due to natural subsidence. A road crosses part of it, and this crossing part was watched by him through a gradual sinking of twenty to twenty-five inches some four or five years ago. Ketelthorp is due to a man's name ; but Kettle-pits were doubtless some hollows or pits, the origin of which was mysterious in the days in which these names were given.
Many other words belong to this section, but the names they contribute to form stand singly or nearly so, and few of them call for special notice. Such are -cros, as in Percy- cross, Mole-cros. This is really a very numerous as well as a very ancient class. Radulphi Crux, on Danby South Moor, is a written name as early as the latter part of the twelfth century. Percy Cross also is ancient. Both these were boundary-marks, and on the confines of grants to a monastic house — that of Gisborough, namely. The same remark might be made of dozens of others : -holes, in Fox-holes ; -bank, -bancke, meaning the slope of a steep hill, or perhaps only a steep bank of a stream, furnishes Holebec-banc, and Hobancke ; -rig, the ridge or lengthened summit of a hill, as Wathel- or Wal-rig, in Bernaldby ; and -sted, -stedes, in Scale-stedes, in Thocotes, wherein scale may be the old form of modern shale, or more likely, in consideration of the suffix, of O.N. skdli {cf. Scottish shieling), a hut, cabin, shanty. It is a word which in one or other of these senses forms a part of a very numerous class of local names, as Scalefoot, Scaling, Scalecross, Scalebeck, and others, all in this vicinity.
Class II.
Names depending on Agricultural considera- tions.
. -acres, -aker.
Austculteraker. DcUacker, Dalacres, Galleacre,
Gulacre, Scor (Short). Udmanacre.
74
NOTES ON COMMON-FIELD NAMES.
The word acre, or aker, or acres is suffi- ciently attractive and interesting. Everybody remembers the episode of our Lord's going through the cornfields and His disciples plucking the ears of ripe corn as they fol- lowed Him. St Matthew's expression in the AS. Gospels is, " He for ofyr seceras ;" St. Mark's, " He purh seceras code ;" and St. Luke's, " He ferde purh (5a aeceras " — He yode (or fared) over (or through) the acres. Mr. Seebohm's comment on this is : " Obvi- ously the translator's notion of the cornfields round a village was that of the open fields of his own country. They w^ere divided into 'acres,' and he who walked over them walked over the 'acres.'" The common- field was divided into longitudinal slips or strips of the approximate or average length of forty rods, and four rods or perches in width ; so that " the strips are in fact roughly-cut ' acres ' of the proper shape for ploughing " {Jb., p. 2). There is no need to follow the writer quoted in all the details of proof which he alleges in support of this position. It may safely, indeed, be regarded as fully established. These strips or slips, often subdivided into halves or half-acres, or even quarters, " roods " or " quarter-acres," were held, often intermingled in strange- looking confusion, by the cultivators of the soil, villans or geburs, cottarii, bordarii, grassemen, or what not. And some of them lay in one direction from the vill, or group of homesteads of the people, some in another. Hence AusUulttir-aker, or east culture acre, "cultura" or "culture" being a name of continual occurrence in old deeds of a group of such acres ; Daleacre, a strip in a valley. Galleacre is probably miscopied for GuUeacre, and the prefix gul has already been dealt with. Scor or short gulacre has to do with an " acre " that was less than the medium or approximate length of 40 perches, and was consequently broader in proportion. Ud- manacre — that is, Woodmanacre : Seebohrn, p. 70, et alibi, shows that the faber or vil- lage blacksmith held his ox-gang (a variable number of "acres," according to the quality of the land, whether " light " or " heavy," or "strong" or "stiff") free from ordinary ser- vices, and that the same was true of the prce- positus, the punder or pinder or pound-keeper, the carpenter, and the priest. Our present word enables us to add another official of
the vill or township — namely, the wood- man.
2. -bo them, -boihome.
Litel hothem. JSIidel hot he in. Midel este bothem.
Nether este bothome. Scorte (Short) bothome. Uver, Uver este bothome.
All these names are from Ormesby alone ; but fields, or a series of fields formed out of one larger tract under the auspices of an Enclosure Act, in various parts of the district, still called " Bottoms," remain to attest the frequency of the name in the days of the open-field system, as Hawsher Bottoms, Bothem, Litel Bothem, all in one township. The meaning is low-lying, fairly level lands ; not marshy or wet like an ing, but dry and fertile, with good depth of soil.
3. -butt, -buttes.
Scort- or scorte- (short) buttes, in Ormesby and Bernaldby. This, again, is a name of very frequent occurrence. Mr. Seebohm's definition is : " Where the strips " (into which the common-field is divided) " meet others, or abut upon a boundary at right angles, they are sometimes called btits." Mine, given ten years ago in the Supplementary Cleveland Words (Dialect Society, Series C, 1876), is : "A piece of land, usually small, and of irregular shape. This word is of frequent occurrence in local names and the names of fields. ... In Liverton, according to a map or plan of the parish of about 1730, now be- fore me, one small enclosure is called ' Long- lands, and the adjoining one ' Longlands- butts,' which latter is separated from the field called Longlands by a road. This severance of the short end (by whatever means) leads, I think, to the use or application of the word, as in the term ' butt-end.' " My still con- tinuing impression is that the fields, or parts of fields, called "butts" are not so called from ^^ abutting at right angles" on others, but that they are ends. Professor Skeat, ex- plaining butt as an end, adds : " In butt-end, a reduplicated form, the E. butt is from O.F. bot (F. bout), an end."
4. -fiat, flathe, flattes, (?) plat.
Barreflat. Berewald-, Berezvar-,
Benvald-flat. Efigplat. Fortiflat. Hameldunejlat . Hcrtejlath. IJolkerJlat.
Hue-, Huge-, Huhe-,
Hut he-flat (ptflath). Kirkeflat, Morflat. Northflat. Petteherflat. Spirtflat. Siuaytesflat.
NOTES ON COMMON-FIELD NAMES.
75
The number of names under this heading, remembering the Hmited area from which the hst we are examining is derived, is a plain attestation of the frequency of the application of the word flat in common-field names. Perhaps, however, the following extract from the Whitby Chartulary (i. 328), touching lands in Skirpingbeck belonging to the Abbey, will put the matter in a stronger light than a number of mere words of descrip- tion : " In campo occidentali, a flatt vocata Undyrstanhcnv . . . (iii acras), et in eodem a flatt vocata Okflat ... (11 acras), et in eodem a flatt vocata Escheflat . . , (viii acras), et in eodem a flatt vocata Mykylcarflatt . . . (vii acras), et in eodem a flatt vocata Korn- garth/lat, quae jacet north et suyth et continet iii acras terrge et dimidiam, et juxta illam buttying upon y^ ende aliud a flatt quod con- tinet iii acras, quod jacet est and west." Halliwell's definition oi o.flat is "a hollow in a field {Gloiic). Any very smooth, level place. Anciently a field," which, to say the least, is not very descriptive or satisfactory, even were there nothing but the above ex- tract to infer from. All ihe flats there named are in one campus or field. Moreover, in the earlier part of the same document, it is stated that there are in all in Scirpingbeck 14 bovates of land of the fee of the Abbot of Whitby ... Of these eight are lying in flatteo in the Campus of the said vill. Second among these is a flat called Audlohow in y botluun, then another flat in the same bot/iufit, and a third and fourth also in the same bothum, containing in all 13I acres, be- sides a bit called Bylbrek of 3^ acres ; and there are mentioned five other flats, with their contents, in the Eastern Campus of the vill. Here, then, we have a series oi flats not only in three distinct portions of the Campus Communis, but of several y^'a/i' in one bot/mvi, and not one of them a " field " in Halliwell's sense, or, in other words, in our modern sense. The picture presented to the mind's eye seems to be of an extent of fairly level land below the general elevation of the district, mainly deep of soil and fertile, but divisible into separate portions by such boundary lines as stells, or drains (in the Lincolnshire sense), or brooks, or minor valleys — s/acks in Cleve- land— or other means of the same nature. Perhaps even, in some instances, the direc-
tion of the acres, or separate strips, sections, furrows, might be quite sufficient to mark off one flat from another. Finally, the word seems to be evidently not English but Scan- dinavian, and to be due to O.N. fldt (plural flatir), a plain, a word described by Vigfusson as " frequent in modern use."
Some of the names constituting the fore- going list seem to admit of easy explanation, but it is less so with others. Perhaps the two first depend on the same element as prefix, viz, O. Engl, bere, O.N. barr, Sw. Dial, bor, N. Fris. berre, bir, bar, Scottish bear or bere, the grain called bigg in Cleveland. The taalde, wald, war in the second on the list may easily be O.N. raldr, O. Sw. raider, N. Toll, Dan. void, Sw. Dial, vail, an origi- nally grass-grown piece of land, which might be converted into a cornfield. Engplat ad- mits of no doubt as to its prefix, while //a/ is an interesting illustration of the Cleveland verb to plate, employed in describing the process called clenching a nail — flattening it down, that is. Pr. Pm. gives plat or pleyne, with the Latin equivalent oi planus. O. E. plat ( =flat) occurs, and the expression, a pat pleyn is met with in Early English Allit. Poems. Fonflat is probably old or ancient flat. Vigfusson gives forn, old, collating Ulfilas, fair?iis (the adjective used in the New Testament sentence, "old wine is better"), A.S. fyrn, Hel. furn, Sw. forn, adding, " lost in English." But not lost in older English, as Halliwell's forn from Guy of Warwick, forne from Pr. Pm. , prove, while ]am\eson's fern-year, fame-year, with the in- stances and illustrations adduced, are equally pertinent to the case in point. Hameldune- flat, in Ormesby, is doubtful, and Herteflath most likely owes its prefix to like considera- tions with those that account for Hart-hill, Hart slack. Hart-hall (all near this parish), Hartlepool, etc. So much uncertainty pre- vails about the orthography of Hugeflat, Huheflat, Hutheflat, as to increase the diffi- culty of accounting for it. It may be obser\'ed that there is a township of Whorlton parish called Huthwait, and a very common per- sonal name, Hugill, is prevalent throughout this district, and has been so for some three centuries past certainly ; which is also spelt Hughell, Hugall, Havgill, etc. The prefix may be a personal name, and a variety of
G — 2
76
REVIEWS.
forms of such name is cited by Ferguson {Teutonic Name System^ p. 357). But the matter is uncertain. Holkerflat and Petteker- flat both contain the element ker or car, and perhaps the Pette in the latter is open to suspicion as incorrectly copied. Spirtflat, or Spiretflat, as otherwise written, and Swaites- flat are both names as to which only con- jecture can be offered ; and only in this connection is reference made to N. svifa, woodland cleared for tillage by burning. The modern dialect word for a space of moorland cleared by burning is swidden. (To be contintied.)
illet)ietu0»
Morley : Ancient and Modern. By William Smith, F.S.A.S. (London, 1886. Longmans, Green and Co.) 8vo., pp. viii., 1-322.
HIS brilliantly-bound book is practically the note-book of a local antiquary who has known how to collect and put together information that is of the greatest interest to antiquaries. Such books are not often to be met with, and we, at any rate, cordially welcome them ; because if they are faulty in some respects, if they fail to convey a comprehensive idea of the history of the place, if they fall short of a high standard of local history, they at all events supply facts of the greatest value, which no one but a good local antiquary can supply. Mr. Smith deals with the most out-of- the-way facts of Morley history, and among the sub- jects treated of we must particularly mention parish customs, social customs, old houses, dress, amuse- ments, past political life, agriculture, religion, and trade. There is also an amount of Morley biblio- graphy. We may add that the book is capitally illustrated, and there is a fairly good index.
Ittdex to the Obituary and Biographical Notices in the Gentleman's Magazine, 1731-1780. By R. H. Farrar. Part L A to Gi. (Index Society. London, 1886.) 4to., pp. 1-240. This important index, so long promised, has ap- peared at last, and we cordially congratulate the Society upon the fact. No one unacquainted with the incompleteness and incorrectness of the Gentleman's Magazine can properly estimate the difSculties to be overcome in the compilation of such a work, and it must be admitted th^t the instalment before us, if it is not absolutely perfect, is as nearly so as possible ; and it can be made absolutely so if readers or users of it would send up to the Society any corrections which may be necessary. These corrections could be printed and forwarded to the members of the Society and those outside purchasers who might apply for them. As an instalment of a long-needed work we
welcome it, with a hope that it may be completed as rapidly as possible. The Index Society has of late years rather gone to sleep. Let us hope that we have now good signs of its reawakening ; there is plenty of work for it to do.
Old Barnet. By H. W. P. Stevens, M.A. (Barnet. G. W. Cowdng.) 8vo., pp. 48. This little pamphlet is beautifully illustrated by etchings of the following subjects connected with the history of Old Barnet: High Street, in 1800; the Old Crown Inn ; street corner of the last century ; mineral springs ; Market House and Cage ; Barnet tokens. These glimpses of Old Barnet make the pamphlet of some considerable interest and value, and It is accompanied by some useful notes. The manor of Chipping Barnet belonged to the Abbey of St. Albans, and records of its history appear therefore in the registers of the abbey. It took part in the insur- rection of Wat Tyler, and is famous as the scene of one of the bloody battles of the Wars of the Roses. One particularly interesting portion of Mr. Stevens's notes is that dealing with the old roads and means of tra- velling, a subject always interesting, and one the investigation of which tells us of much otherwise not understandable in the past life of our forefathers.
Proceedings of the Berwickshire Naturalists Club.
(Alnwick: H.H.Blair. 1886.) pp. 425-616,
i.-xxviii. This part of the proceedings of one of the most indefatigable societies of North Britain is, as usual, full of interest. The description of the annual meet- ing and excursion is highly instructive, leading, as it does, to some of the bye-paths of one of the most interesting districts of the borderland between England and Scotland. The papers include those on the Early Literature of Flodden Field ; Urns and Cists found at Amble ; British Urn found at Screnwood ; Antiquities of Almham ; Bronze Axe-head found near Howford. We are glad to see that Mr. James Hardy still takes a leading part in the doings of this club.
Yorkshire Notes and Queries. Edited by J. HORS-
fallTurner. (Harrison, Bingley.) Parts 3 and 4.
April and July, 1886. 8vo. Gloucestershire Notes and Queries. Edited by Rev.
B. H. Blacker, M.A. (London : W. Kent and
Co.) 8vo. Bygones relating to Wales and the Border Counties.
(Oswestry and Wrexham : Woodall, Minshall
and Co.) October to December, 1885, June to
March, 1886. 4to. These three local note-books are doing good service in the cause of antiquarian and archaeological re- search, and the parts before us appear to be more than usually interesting, because they contain the contribu- tions of more thoroughly local observers than has sometimes been the case. The Yorkshire Notes and Queries has for subordinate titles the "Yorkshire Bibliographer" and "Yorkshire Folk-lore Journal," and thus we gain a classification of subjects which is the means of saving much time. Among the subjects dealt with in the two parts under notice are fairs, city charters, pottery and potteries, village feasts, com- mon lands, and family history. Gloucestershire Notes
REVIEWS,
77
and Queries is an old friend. Among its contents may be noted Bristol Pillory, 1752 ; Corporation Maces of Chipping Campden and Winchcombe, and Tobacco- growing. The last subject is one worth a little atten- tion just now. Bygones is also an old friend. It con- tains, inter alia, Harleian MS. relating to Oswestry ; Church Bells ; A peculiar Court in Chester ; works by local authors ; Old Houses in Oswestry ; William Penn ; Hanging in Chains ; Payments in the Church-porch, and Manors in Wales. The writer of this last query states that gavelkind existed in Wales, a statement which is controverted by Mr. Elton in his Tcmires of Kent. It is important in these matters that our terminology should be strictly accurate, as so much is sometimes conveyed by terms which are used loosely.
Ancient Proverbs and Maxims from Burmese Sources ;
or the Nite Literature of Burma. By James
Gray. (London: Triibner and Co., 1886.)
8vo., pp. xii., 179.
This welcome addition to our stock of proverb
literature is an English translation from original
sources, and Mr. Gray has added to its value by
giving notes explaining and illustrating the points in
the text. He has also given many useful parallels.
Kaffir Folk- Lore ; a Selection from the Traditional
Tales current amotig the People living on the
Eastern Border of the Cape Colony. By Geo.
McCall Theal. (London : Swan Sonnen-
schein and Co., 1886.) 8vo., pp. x., 226.
We are glad to find that a second edition of Mr.
Theal's book is issued. It most certainly deserved it,
as the stories told by those " savage " fellows are so
remarkably parallel to the nursery literature of
Europe, that the origin of the folk -tale becomes a
question interesting to others besides folklorists. As
a means of popularizing and spreading the study of
folk-lore we can recommend no better book.
The Fables of Pilpay. (London : Warne and Co.) 8vo., pp. xviii., 274. We are glad to see this edition of one of the most famous books in Eastern literature. Perhaps no book except the Bible has been more frequently printed in all languages than the Fables of Pilpay or Bidpai ; and just now, when scholars are paying so much more attention to traditional and popular literature, it is useful and necessary that the public should be sup- plied with a copy which is within their reach. The book is tastefully bound and printed, and is well adapted for the use to which it will be put.
Book Lovers' Library : Old Cookery Books and Ancient Cuisine. By W. Carew Hazlitt. (London: Elliot Stock, 1886.) 8vo., pp. 271. When such renowned scholars as the late Mr. II. C. Coote, and such learned and well-known anti- quaries as Mr. R. .S. Ferguson, condescend to inquire into the subject of cookery in the past, we may be excused for expressing our appreciation of the volume prepared with so much labour and skill by Mr. Hazlitt. One would hardly imagine that so much had been written upon a subject so domestic as cookery ; and yet when we examine the pages of this little book, we easily find out that the literature of cookery is by no means slight or uninteresting. Mr.
Hazlitt deals with early and late cookery, and con- sequently his range of material is extensive. A chapter is devoted to the quaint recipes to be found in some of the older books, and one of these curiously relates to the old nursery rhyme —
" Four-and-twenty blackbirds baked in a pie." If Mr. Hazlitt has not thought worth while for his immediate purpose to supply an exhaustive account of all the editions of some famous cookery- books, he has given us an exceedingly useful and entertaining work, and one for which book-lovers will be grateful.
Essays in the Study of Folk-Songs. By the Countess Evelyn Marti nengo-Cesaresco. (London: George Redway, 1886.). 8vo., pp. xl.,
395- It is satisfactory to see that the labours of the Folk-lore Society in the classification of folk-lore have already been so highly appreciated by students as to induce the accomplished author of this work to pro- ceed upon the lines laid down by the Society. In this particular branch of folk-lore there can be no doubt that the author of this book has laid the bases for future study, the introduction being a masterly summary of the aims and results of a study of folk-songs. The contents of the volume is as follows : the inspiration of death in folk-poetry, nature in folk-songs, Armenian folk-songs, Venetian folk-songs, Sicilian folk-songs, Greek folk-songs of Calabria, folk-songs of Provence, the WTiite Pater- noster, the diffusion of ballads, songs of the rite of May, the idea of fate in southern traditions, folk- lullabies, folk -dirges. Each section deals with a separate grouping of the subjects dealt with in folk- song, and contains numerous important hints and con- clusions which must be of great utility in future study. We would draw special attention to the essay on the diffusion of ballads, which has received the attention it deserves, but upon which the last word has not yet been said. The Countess Martinengo-Cesaresco has much to say that is of great value, and when we note that she says " the folk-song probably preceded the folk- tale," we know quite well how important a study of this fascinating subject is to all folklorists. Our readers will recognise that two of the chapters of this book originally appeared in this journal and they will cordially welcome them and their fellows in the hand- some volume in which they now appear.
a^eetings of antiquarian Societies.
Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society. — 17 June. — Deerhurst and its neighbourhood w.is explored. The recently discovered Saxon chapel was visited, and subsequently, in Deerhurst Church, the vicar, the Rev. G. Butterworth, read a paper on the subject of the discovery. Previously the Abbot's Court appeared to Ix: only a rambling picturesque farmhouse, with a reputation of Ixjing very old. In consequence of a change of tenancy the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, to whom the property belonged, pro-
78
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
posed turning the farmhouse into a cottage or cottages. He visited it, as other people might, as it was open to all, and he noticed the great thickness of the walls of a portion of the building. It l)elonged evidently to three distinct dates, the central portion being the oldest. The next in point of age seemed to be of the Tudor period, and had a slightly ornamental appearance, imparted by an irregular outline, a massive chimney-stack, and the plentiful display of timber- work. One feature alone of indisputable age was visible : in an angle of a square room called " the jiantry " there was fixed a first-pointed capital, with its abacus. At the back of the house was brought to light an ancient circular-headed window, which had been bricked up and plastered over. In " the pantry," in addition to the Early English capital, were to be seen two massive stones, whitewashed, standing out from the face of the west wall. A pilaster of brick, whitewashed, ran up between them, doing its best to conceal their mutual relation. Could these be the impost of an arch springing from above them, covered with coats of plaster ? This was found to be the case. The key of the mystery of the structure was now gained. The arch so effectually concealed was with- out doubt a chancel arch, and " the pantry" was the chancel. Other rooms occupied the area of the nave. All the walls of the chapel were seen to be standing except the south wall of the chancel. The chancel was of a reduced width, as was usual with ecclesiastical edifices. The direction of the building was from east to west. The chapel is a small building, consisting of a nave and chancel, 46 feet in exterior length, the width of the nave inside is 16 feet, and the chancel 1 1 feet. The height of the side walls of the nave is 17 feet, and their thickness nearly 2 feet 6 inches. The two portions of the building are divided by a very solid chancel arch. The walls are of blue lias stone of the locality ; all the angles, arches, imposts, and jambs are worked in dressed oolitic stones, procured no doubt from the neighbouring hills. The most noteworthy feature is the chancel arch. The height of the opening from the ground is a little over 10 feet, the width from jamb to jamb 6 feet 6 inches. The massive jambs, 2 feet 3 inches in thickness, are com- posed of large blocks laid in irregular long and short courses, five of these being found on the north side of the arch, seven on the south. The imposts are 10 inches in thickness. The arch springing from them, formed of a ring of single stones, is of a horse-shoe shape. On the west side a plain square label runs round the arch, dying with the abacus. On the chancel side there is no label. The chapel has two entrances opposite to each other near the west end of the nave. On the north side about half of the arch and one entire jamb are preserved. That on the south side is nearly obliterated. The archway is 8 feet high, but the entrance is only 2 feet 8 inches in width. No door seems to have been attached to it. Of the windows of the nave one remains perfect. Opposite to it on the north are traces of another similar to it. The sill of the surviving window is 9 feet from the ground. The opening is 4 feet 6 inches in height, 2 feet 6 inches in width. The head is semicircular. I'art of the inner oak framework, taking the curved form of the head, remains, and shows that the aperture admitting the light was very narrow. Over the
windows is an arrangement of thin slabs placed in converging fashion, of which traces are visible. Tossiljly the nave was originally lighted by four similar windows. A very considerable part of the west wall had been removed for the insertion of a vast fireplace and chimney. The height of the gable from the ground before it was thus interfered with is 26 feet. The roof is modern. Resting upon the summit of the two side walls and morticed with the wall-plates runs a series of oak beams, black with age. These help to form ,the ceiling of the nave, and must be of great antiquity. The stones of the walls are of irregular size, and bedded in very copiovis mortar. Inside and out the W'alls were originally plastered, the plaster being carefully thinned off where at angles worked stone was met with. The wall dividing nave and chancel has been cut down to the level of the side walls of the nave. Of course this was not its original form. The chancel has an interior length of 14 feet. The south wall is wanting. The north and east wall have been cut down at a level of 10 feet from the pave- ment, and upon these massive truncated walls, supplemented by a new south wall, run out in the line of the nave south wall, was constructed in the Tudor period an upper room forming a portion of the hand- some timbered house of the sixteenth century, which stands at the east end of the chapel, and into which both chancel and nave were incorporated as domestic apartments. How daylight was admitted into this small chapel there were no means of knowing. There appears to have been no east window. In the north- east angle of the chancel a first pointed capital and abacus are seen, as before noted. The height of the side walls of the chancel was apparently about 15 feet. Inserted into a large chimney-stack of the Tudor erection a stone may be noticed possessing great value and interest. The surface was of a nearly square form, but a great part has been cut away to render it apparently the headstone of a lancet window. The portion which remains is inscribed with letters of an early character, proving the stone to have been origi- nally the dedication slab of an altar. The letters pre- served run as follows :
I HONO
E TRI
HOC
'RE DE
— CATV E
The inscription unmutilated was probably to this effect : " in honore sancte trinitatis hoc
AI/PARE DEDICATIV E."
Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club.— 27 May. —
The first field meeting of the season took place at Newent. Upon the hill botanists failed to find anything worthy of notice, but a few geological speci- mens were gathered from the neighbouring quarries, where may be found atrypa, pentamerus, petraia, etc., etc. Returning homewards by a different route Taynton Church was visited, its registers examined, dating from 1536 ; its position observed to have been built due north and south with the object of gratifying Puritan tastes. Its remarkable pulpit, partly four- teenth century, has a panel of Henry VI I. 's time, and the front and cornice Jacobean, with an iron cage, in good condition, for holding the preacher's hour-glass.
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
79
The pulpit is at the south end of the building, whilst the altar-table is situated upon the eastern side ; it used to stand in the middle of the church. The President here read a paper on the church and matters pertaining to it, and made some remarks upon the curious and interesting register ; one of the earliest in the kingdom. The next object of interest was the battle-field at Barber's Bridge, in commemoration of whicha stone monument was erected by Mr. Price, of Tibberton Court, a few years ago. Near this spot during the excavation of the Hereford and Gloucester canal several skeletons were found buried, and many others were discovered in 1868, and were undoubtedly those of the Welshmen under Lord Herbert, here severely defeated by Waller and Massey on the 24th of March, 1643. The President stated that, by the kindness of Mr. Price, he should be enabled to read a paper very carefully written by the late Major Price, which contains the fullest information which can be gained on the subject. The parish church of Newent was examined, and a paper read upon it by the Presi- dent. After dinner the President gave his paper on "Crockett's Hole."
Presbyterijin Field Club.— July i.— The members of this club paid a visit to the Chesters, the Cilumiim of the Romans, the grounds and antiquities of which, by the kindness of John Clayton, Esq., were thrown open for their inspection. After examining the ancient masonry of the bridge, the party, which numbered upwards of thirty, retraced their steps and sauntered on to the Chesters, visiting alittle rustic museum which contains a most unique collection of Roman relics, in- cluding a small stone draught-board, chips of pottery, statues and numerous household gods with battered noses and time-worn faces, besides bones of extinct animals and other curious etceteras. The remains of the Roman town were then visited. The forum stood clearly defined, its boundaries being marked by the bases of the pillars which supported the roof. Portions of the Roman streets, paved with huge blocks, were exposed to view. The baths, conduits, and heating arrangements were pointed out and explained. One particularly noticeable object was a pretty little purple flower, a native of Italy, which grows in tufts in the crevices of the masonry. It is not known to grow anywhere else in this country. An arched cavern, to which a few steps descend, was examined. Mr. Wilson stated that at Pompeii there was a similar structure, and that there it had been used as a place of detention for prisoners. A series of stone recesses, like dovecotes in appearance, also commanded con- siderable attention. Mr. Wilson mentioned by way of suggestion that the Appian Way at Rome is full of them. They are known as coluuiharia. Each family in ancient Rome had one of them, and when a member of the family died the body was burnt, and the ashes were put into a small urn and dejiosited in the family burying-place. It was interesting to note that in some places the stone steps leading into the various apart- ments had been almost worn away by the tread of countless feet in ages long since dead.
Malvern Naturalists" Field Club.— Excursion to Bosbury.— The parly were driven in a break by the Wyche Road to Colwall, where the church was open to inspection. The entrance door shows Norman date, Imt the nave divided into aisles by pointed
ajches extends into several later periods. There is little of interest in sepulchral monuments, but in the south aisle is a sculptured coat of arms inscribed " Walweyn Rudhale," and a flat stone beneath covers his remains. He is said to have been the founder of schools in London connected with the Grocers' Com- pany, and a school on his foundation is still kept up in this parish, dated from 1587. On the arms a motto is inscribed : " Doe well and fear not." On the south wall of the church is a memorial to Eliza- beth Harford, 1590, inscribed on a square of copper. Near the church is an old timbered house, which in olden times is stated to have been a hunting seat of the Bishops of Hereford, and it has some curious rooms within it, which were inspected by the party, and it is said that Bishop Latimer was connected with one of the rooms, and there was a tradition about it. Two massive oaks many centuries old are in a field in the vicinity, but one has lately been blown down. A forward move was next made to Bosbury. The church is a large and noble building of twelfth century date, the style being transitional Norman, both in the pillars supporting the arches of the nave and in the deep splayed recesses of the windows, which contain lancets. On each side of the chancel are two very large sculptured monuments with effigies of the Harford family, who flourished at Bosbury in the sixteenth century. The chantry chapel of Sir Rowland Morton at the east end of the south aisle, erected about 1528, in memory of Sir Rowland's wife, has a very elegant roof of fanlight groining. There are two fonts, and the older one, which is very rude, was discovered under the pavement during restoration work in 1844, and no doubt belonged to the Saxon church here in the eighth or ninth century. The tower is one of those almost peculiar to Herefordshire, standing separately in the churchyard, and is a square massive embattled building, looking like a castle, having an almost impenetrable door. Six other separate towers exist in Herefordshire. An enormous mass of rock lies on one side of the tower, which it has been suggested may have belonged to a ruined monument. There is a pillar in the churchyard sur- mounted by a St. Cuthbert's cross, which is one of the very few perfect crosses that were not upset in Puritanical times. It is said that the incumbent of that day was only allowed to keep it standing by placing upon it this inscription, which yet remains :
Honour not the X
But honour God for Christ.
Newcastle Society of Antiquaries and Cumber- land and Westmoreland Archaeological Society.
— July 3. — The members commenced their pilgrimage along the Roman wall, by visiting the site of the old Rom.in station Segedunum, and tracing the course of the wall and the fosse as far as Newcastle. The Earl of Ravensworth, president of the society, accompanied the i)arty, amongst whom was the venerable local anti- quary, Dr. Bruce.— On Monday morning, the pilgrims along the line of the Roman wall resumed their journey. They met at the Castle, and started for Ben- well — the Condercum of the Romans. On arriving here they entered the grounds of Colonel Dyer, and examined the foundations of a Roman temple in front of his house. The pilgrims then went into the neigh- bouring grounds of Mr. Mulchester, where a number
8o
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
of sculptured stones of Roman workmanship were exhibited, and, in the house, considerable numbers of fragments of Roman pottery. The company then drove to Denton. At Denton Hall they alighted, and were shown a British boat, taken a few years ago from the bed of the Tyne, and several centurial stones. This house was at one time the residence of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, and here she was visited by Dr. Samuel Johnson. The pilgrims were shown a room said to have been occupied by the great lexico- grapher, and a shaded garden path still known as " Dr. Johnson's walk." From Denton the party drove forward to Heddon-on-the-Wall, and here left the road to examine an interesting portion of the wall. The pilgrims drove forward to Rudchester, the Vindo- bala of the Romans. Here they entered the house occupied by Mr. James, and were shown a fireplace into which an inscribed centurial stone and two Roman altars had been walled. The outline of the station was traced with difficulty, but excavations carried on during the past few days have revealed the foundations of what were no doubt barrack buildings just within the eastern rampart. After a short stay at Harlow Hill, where an interesting portion of the wall has just been exposed by excavation, the company drove forward to Halton Castle. Here they found many objects of interest. The castle is a fine example of the fortified peel-towers, which we find in large numbers throughout the county of Northumberland. The house, which was probably built about the close of the fourteenth century, was formerly a residence of the Carnabies, but is now the property and residence of Lady Blackett. Walled into building the houses adjoining are several sculptured funeral stones of Roman workmanship, whilst close by are the ramparts of the station designated by the Romans Hunnum, and now known as Halton Chesters. After leaving Halton, the pilgrims descended into the valley of the North Tyne. Here they entered the grounds of Brunton, the residence of Major Waddilove, and made the acquaintance of the finest portion of the wall with which they had as yet come into contact. It is here seven feet high, and presents nine courses of facing stones. On the north side of the wall is a remarkable Roman altar which has been removed from the neighbouring chapel of St. Oswald. The party then descended the hill to the bank of the North Tyne in order to examine the abutment of the Roman bridge which here crossed the stream. This completed the day's pilgrimage. — On Tuesday, they proceeded to the neighbouring station of Cilurnum, within the grounds of Mr. John Clayton. Here Dr. Bruce drew attention to the open court or market in which the less perishable wares were offered for sale, and to the covered market intended for wares of a more perishable character. The worn threshold, over which the carriers' carts had often passed, was also noticed. Leaving the station, the party moved round to the front of Mr. Clayton's house, in the portico of which a large number of altars and other Roman stones are preserved. The pilgrims then left the Chesters and returned to the high road. Here the road runs upon the wall, and the stones of the latter may be seen at frequent intervals embedded in the surface of the former. A curious cottage was passed a little to the right of the road, of which
the northern gable, which rises considerably above the house, is battlemented. It is known as the Tower Taye. Shortly afterwards the party reached Limestone Bank. Here both the north and south ditches are cut through the solid basaltic rock. The next point of interest reached by the pilgrims was the station of Carpawburgh or Procohtia. Keeping to the line of the wall, the party reached Housesteads or Borcovicus. The wall itself comes up to the north-east corner of the station. With the exception of Chesters, this is the most interesting station along the whole line. From Housesteads the pilgrims again followed the line of the wall, which is here remarkably well preserved, till they reached a farmstead known as Hot Bank, where they left the wall and returned to the highway. They then drove to Chesterholm, the Vindolana of the Romans, a station situated not on the line of the wall, but about a mile to the south of it. A Roman milestone, the inscription on which is almost obliterated, still stands where it was placed by Roman hands, and in an adjoining house a large number of most interesting sculptured stones have been built into the walls. The pilgrims then drove to the station at Bardon Mill. — On Wednesday, the pilgrims returned to take up the wall at the point left on the previous day. Winshields Crag, 1,230 feet above the sea, was reached at 2.15. This marks the highest point of the wall. Bogle Hole and Cow Gap follow after heavy alternations of clambering and descent. Great Chesters ( Aesica) was reached at 3.40 ; Walltown was reached by the advanced party at 4.30. On the wall, at the summit of one of the peaks between Walltown and the station of Magna, a turret, just excavated under the instruction of Mr. Lamb, was examined. A great quantity of bones, iron tools, pottery, etc., were exposed, as well as a fine bronze loop. The station of Carvoran (Magna) was reached at 5.50. Its situation out of the line of the wall, and almost obliterated site, were noted. This station has been recently purchased by Mr. John Clayton, and excavations on the northern and eastern ramparts have already been commenced. The proceedings concluded at Willow Ford.
Yorkshire Naturalists* Union. — Excursion to Bridlington and District. — ^June 4th. — The boulder clay of that part of Yorkshire known as Holderness has long been minutely studied by Mr. Lamplugh. It has now been classified in four divisions, the top being, at present, correlated with the Hessle clay, succeeded by the upper and lower purple clays, these overlying the basement clay. In the last-named division occur those transported masses of sand and clay full of mollusca, so well known to geologists as the "Bridlington Crag." There are also beds of gravel, sand, or clay, parting the four divisions named, which, no doubt, represent inter -glacial periods. A short distance along the beach at Brid- lington, Mr. Lamplugh pointed out in the cliffs a fine section showing the upper and lower purple and base- ment clays ; here and there, in the latter, occurred those fossiliferous patches already named. Proceed- ing farther, a bed of inter-glacial clay on the beach was noted. Mr. Lamplugh also directed attention to those beds of sand and gravel and laminated clay which rest upon the upper purple clay, more particu- larly in the cliffs opposite Sewerby, and known as the
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
»i
" Sewerby Gravels." Proceeding, the ancient chalk cliff which runs inland was seen, evidence that pre- vious to the great ice age the sea covered Holderness, the line of coast being in the direction of Burton Agnes, Craike Hill, and Hessle. Some pre-glacial beds of sand and chalk debris were noted. Then evidence of the great pre-glacial valley was seen, filled up during the glacial period, and since, at Dane's Dyke, partially re-excavated by denudation. The fine cliffs of the upper chalk were now passed, ex- hibiting in some places fine examples of contortion, the result of lateral pressure. At South Landing the cliffs were ascended, and the way taken across the fields to the lighthouses and to that beautiful bay known as Selwick's Bay, although on the Ordnance map it is erroneously named Silex Bay. Here were some special matters of interest ; in the centre of the bay a fault occurs, the strata being much bent and broken, and from this cause the sea has been enabled to make an inroad and form Selwick's Bay. The fissures of the broken chalk have since been beauti- fully filled by calc spar. On nearing the extreme corner of Flamborough Head on the south side, flints, both nodular and tabular, begin to appear, and on the south side of Selwick's Bay they were seen in vast numbers. Mr. Lamplugh proved the existence of this fault by showing that the chalk on the north side of the slip contains no flints whatever, and they do not reappear till a little distance to the north. A very curious matter was pointed out here — a mass of blue Speeton clay, stranded on the top of the chalk, which contains many of the characteristic Neocomian fossils. Here, too, were a couple of isolated pinnacles of white chalk standing out like sentinels. Keeping the edge of the cliff, were arches, caves, and miniature bays in abundance ; pillars and pinnacles in other places, as in the case of the King and Queen Rocks. The latter were formerly the supports of gigantic sea caves, but since the falling in of the roof they stand out in melancholy isolation, destined in their turn, before the ceaseless attacks of the waves, to finally disappear. At Breil Point was noticed a " blow- hole," where the water is violently ejected from the force of the compressed air, and flies in fine spray at right angles to the rock. These "blow-holes" will eventually become caves — thus the work of denuda- tion actively goes on. The cliffs are here capped with boulder clay, which weathers most curiously, as in Filey Bay, into knife-shaped edges. The party next arrived at Thornwick Bay, where the way was taken along the cliffs, arriving at length at the wonderful earthwork known as Dane's Dike. This great defen- sive work runs north and south, a distance of two and a half miles from cliff to cliff, and is of nearly uniform height all along, being about i8 feet above the level of the ground, and having a ditch 60 feet wide on the outside. Although the name " Dane's Dyke " is used when speaking of this earthwork, it is evidently a misnomer, as excavations carried on systematically by competent arch^ologists have discovered weapons and other relics of a higher antiquity than the Danish invasions of England. Farther on, near Scale Nab, were seen some extraordinary contortions in the chalk cliffs, the strata being bent and folded most remark- ably. The explanation for this must be the same as accounts for the contorted limestone at Draughton,
that is, immense lateral pressure long after the strata were deposited, and when they were covered by an immense thickness of overlying rocks.
Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club.— June 4th. — The first meeting of the Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club was held at Ebchester, Newlands, and Shotley Bridge. Proceeding to the village they visited the church under the guidance of the Rev. H. Linth- waite, F'rom the church they proceeded to the site of an old Roman camp, which was the station between Binchester, Bishop Auckland, and Corbridge. Sub- sequently they witnessed the walls of fields and houses : and on the walls of the church there still remain Roman inscriptions, which are more or less defaced, some of which are described in Dr. Bruce's Lapidarium Septentrionale.
Newcastle Society of Antiquaries. — May 29. — The monthly meeting of this Society was held on Wednesday, at the Castle. The Rev. Dr. Bruce pre- sided. Among the publications received was a sup- plementary work on the Roman Wall, in German, the author of which, Dr. Hodgkin stated, had been in- duced to devote his life to the subject by reading Dr. Bruce's book on the Roman Wall many years ago. Dr. Hodgkin further remarked that, before the Eng- lish left Egypt, they might perhaps be able to secure some information concerning the Roman remains in that country. — Mr. Sheriton Holmes read a paper on " The Roman Bridge at Chollerford." — A communi- cation from Mr. G. H. Thompson, of Alnwick, on the incised markings on rocks at Berwick, was read by the President, the writer giving the assurance that the markings were quite safe in the hands of the Duke of Northumberland.
Cfte antiquarp's ii3ote='J5oofe.
Ancient Egypt.— Remarkable Discovery. — A
very curious and interesting discovery has been made in the loneliest and dreariest corner of the North- Eastern Delta. In a land where previous explorers have found only temples and tombs — the monuments of an extinct faith and the graves of a dead nation — Mr. Flinders Petrie has lighted upon the ruins of a royal palace. Not a palace of the dubious prehistoric Byzantine sort, but a genuine and highly respectable structure, with an unblemished pedigree, and a definite place in the history of four great nations. In a word, the fortunate finder has discovered the ruins of that very palace to which, as recorded in the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah (chapter xliii.), Johanan, the son of Kareah, followed by " all the captains of the forces," and " the remnant of Judah," brought the fugitive daughters of Zedekiah, then a dethroned and muti- lated captive in Babylon. This flight of the Hebrew princesses took place about B.C. 585, during the reign of Ua-ab-Ra (26th Egyptian dynasty), whom the Hebrews called Hophra, and the Greeks Apries, The Pharaoh received them with hospitality. To the mass of Jewish immigrants he granted tracts of land
82
THE ANTIQUARY S NOTE-BOOK.
extending from Tahpanhes to Bubastis, while to the daughters of Zedekiah, his former ally, he assigned this royal residence, which the Bible calls " Pharaoh's house m Tahpanhes." At the time when these events happened the whole of this part of the Delta, to the westward as far as Tanis (San), to the southward as far as Wady Tumilat, was a rich pastoral district, fertilized by the annual overflow of the Pelusiac and Tanitic arms of the Nile. It is now a wilderness, half marsh, half desert. Toward the eastern extremity of this wilderness, in the midst of an arid waste, re- lieved by only a few sandhills overgrown with stunted tamarisk bushes, lie the mounds of Defenneh. Far from the roads, villages, or cultivated soil, it is a place which no traveller goes out of his way to visit, and which no explorer has hitherto attempted to excavate. Sixteen miles of marsh separate it on the one side from Tanis, while on the other the horizon is bounded by the heron-haunted lagunes of Lake Menzaleh and the mud swamps of the plain of Pelu- sium. The mounds consist of three groups situate from half a mile to a mile apart, the intermediate flat being covered with stone chips, potsherds, and the remains of brick foundations. These chips, potsherds, and foundations mark the site of an important city in which the lines of the streets and the boundaries of two or three large enclosures are yet visible. Two of the mounds are apparently mere rubbish-heaps of the ordinary type ; the third is entirely composed of the burnt and blackened ruins of a huge pile of brick buildings, visible, like a lesser Birs Nimroud, for a great distance across the plain. Arriving at his des- tination towards evening, footsore and weary, Mr. Petrie beheld this singular object standing high against a lurid sky and reddened by a fiery sunset. His Arabs hastened to tell him its local name ; and he may be envied the delightful surprise with which he learnt that it is known far and near as " El Kasrel Bint el Yahudi " — " the Castle of the Jew's Daughter." The building was first a stronghold, quadrangular, lofty, massive ; in appearance very like the keep of Rochester Castle. This stronghold was built by Psammetichus I., whose foundation deposits (con- sisting of libation-vessels, corn-rubbers, specimens of ores, model bricks, the bones of a sacrificial ox and of a small bird, and a series of little tablets in gold, silver, lapis-lazuli, jasper, cornelian, and porcelain, engraved with the royal name and titles) have been discovered by Mr. Petrie under the four corners of the building. The name of the founder being thus determined, we at once know for what purpose the castle was erected. Plaving fought his way to the throne by means of a force of Carian and Ionian mercenaries, Psammetichus granted them a perma- nent settlement at " Daphnre of Pelusium," where, according to Herodotus, they occupied two large camps, one on each side of the river. Now, this " Kasr," built by Psammetichus, probably al;out B.C. 665 or 666, stands in the midst of what was once a square courtyard, the whole being again enclosed with an immense walled area measuring 2,000 feet in length by 1,000 feet in breadth. Its great boundary wall was 50 feet in thickness. Some three or four acres of the enclosed soil have been turned over by Mr. Petrie's Arabs to a depth of six inches, and have yielded an extraordinary number of arrow-heads, in
bronze and iron, besides horses' bits, iron and bronze tools, fragments of iron grating, iron chains, etc. The place is not merely a ruin, but a burnt ruin, the upper portions of which have fallen in and buried the basements. Furthermore, it was plundered, dis- mantled, and literally hacked to pieces before it was set on fire. The state-rooms, if one may use so modern a phrase, were lined with slabs of fine lime- stone covered with hieroglyphic inscriptions, bas- relief figures of captives, and the like, most delicately sculptured and painted. These now lie in heaps of splintered fragments, from among which Mr. Petrie has with difficulty selected a few perfect specimens. The whole place, in short, tells a tale of rapine and vengeance. It would be idle, under these circum- stances, to hope for the discovery of objects of value among the ruins. Moreover, it was only in the base- ment chambers, where things might have fallen through from above, or have been left in situ, that there seemed to be any prospect of "finds" for the explorer. There is certainly nothing very romantic in the discovery of a kitchen, a butler's pantry, and a scullery. Yet even these domestic arcana become interesting when they form part of an ancient Egyptian palace of 2,552 years ago. In other chambers there have been found large quantities of early Greek vases, ranging from B.C. 550 to B.C. 600, some finely painted with scenes of giganto-machia, chimeras, harpies, sphinxes, processions of damsels, dancers, chariot- races, and the like, nearly all broken, but many quite mendable ; also several big amphorae with large loop handles, quite perfect. Some small tablets inscribed with the name of Amasis (Ahmes II.) and a large bronze seal of Apries (Hophra) are important, inas- much as they complete the name-links in the historic chain of the 26th dynasty. Apries brings us to B.C. 591 — 570, and to the time of the flight of the daughters of Zedekiah. It may be that the Egyptian monarch added on some of the later external chambers of the " Kasr" for the accommodation of their suite; for "all the captains of the forces," all the nobles, and priests, and merchants of Judea were among the immigrant multitude. With them, also, sorely against his will and judgment, came the prophet Jeremiah, whose first act on arriving at Tahpanhes was to fore- tell the pursuit of the Babylonian host : — " Then came the word of the Lord unto Jeremiah in Tah- panhes, saying, Take great stones in thine hand, and hide them in mortar in the Ijrickwork which is at the entry of Pharaoh's house in Tahpanhes, in the sight of the men of Judah ; and say unto them. Thus saith the Lord of Hosts, the God of Israel : Behold, I will send and take Nebuchadrezzar the King of Babylon, My servant, and will set his throne upon these stones that I have hid ; and he shall spread his royal pavilion over them. And he shall come, and shall smite the land of Egypt ; such as are for death shall be given to death, and such as are for captivity to captivity, and such as are for the sword to the sword " (Jere- miah xliii. 8-1 1). To identify Jeremiah's stones (unless he had first inscribed them, which is unlikely) would of course be impossible. Yet Mr. Petrie has looked for them diligently, and turned up the brick- work in every part. Did Nebuchadrezzar really come to Tahpanhes and spread his royal pavilion on that very s^xjt, and was Jeremiah's prophecy fulfilled ?
THE ANTIQUARY'S NOTE-BOOK.
83
Egyptian inscriptions say that he came, and that Apries defeated him ; Babylonian inscriptions state that he conquered, and the truth is hard to discover. At all events, there are three clay cylinders of Nebu- chadnezzar in the Museum at Boulak inscribed with the great king's name, titles, parentage, etc., which there is much reason to believe were found a few years ago at this place, and not, as the Arab sellers stated, at Tussun, in the isthmus. Such cylinders were taken with him by Nebuchadnezzar in his campaigns for the purpose of marking the place where he planted his standard and throne of victory. The smashed, shattered, and calcined ruins of " Pharaoh's house in Tahpanhes " tell the end of the story. — Times,
The Office of " Dog- Whipper."— Amongst the officials of Exeter Cathedral, until a few years ago, was the Dog-Whipper, whose duty was to keep dogs out of the building. On his death the office, having become a sinecure, was abolished. His widow has since been employed as caretaker at the prebendal house in the cloisters, but was a few days ago pro- vided with one of the Dingham free cottages, of which charity the Dean is a leading trustee. The office of Dog-Whipper formerly existed in many large churches, but the late functionary at Exeter Cathedral was the last survivor of his order.
Antiquities of Godolphin, Cornwall. —By Rev. S. RuNDLE, Vicar of Godolphin. — The following is a good specimen of what is hoped to be accomplished for every parish in Cornwall :
Ancient Chapels. — I. vSt. Mary, Godolphin Hall. Destroyed. Large quantities of human bones found on its supposed site.
II. Pengilley. Destroyed, Also large quantities of bones found. (Not mentioned in county histories.)
III. Tregonning. Destroyed.
Crosses. — Newton Cross : flat stone, standing at the head of Pengelly Lane. Cross had disappeared years ago ; socket still remains. Fires used to be kindled at certain times.
I. Cross (supposed) standing near a pool, as a gate- post, on the road from Carleen to Chytodon.
II. Cross — built in a hedge. Stump and two arms only. At the gap near the cross-roads from Breage and Helston on the way to Spernon. Used to stand close to its present position.
III. Cross. Supposed to be built into John Adams's house at Ruth-dower, Godolphin. Mr. James Toll, Pengersick, remembers it standing near the entrance of the road from Godolphin Cross to Pengilley. Me is now 87. He recollects it when about 12. — [Date of memo., ix. : 3 : '85.]
Round Earthworks, — I. Tregonning Hill. One with a double vallum on the summit : a second on the eastern slope. — [x. : 3 : '85.]
II. Carsluick, in the farm-yanl. The farm used to l)e known as Castle Sluey (SUiey-Carsluick.) De- molished some years ago by Mr. \V. Edwards, the tenant.— [x. : 3 : '85.]
HI. In the upper part of a field near Grammer Polly's Lane, just below Great Work. — [x. : 3 : '85.]
IV. In a field near Carsluick are to be seen the faint traces of a circular earthwork. It was demolished several years ago, in the summer. However, its site is plainly marked by the deeper hue of the grass.
V. One at Penhale : position still remaining.
VI. One at Penjwedna : demolished.
Jews' Houses.— I, Supposed one within two fields west of Godolphin Hall. Covered over.
Carved iitones, etc, — I. Carved stone, used as a gate- post for the house of John Symons, at Gwednx
II. Replica of the above, forming a horizontal stepping-stone in a stile in the second field (path) from Godolphin to Pengilley.
III. Upper stone of a quern, or handmill, built into a stable at Tregonning, on the left-hand side of the road going up the hill, immediately after leaving Tregonning Farm.
Old Buildings, etc, — I. Spernon Farm, said to be the oldest house in the parish of St. Breage. Its walls are also said to be the thickest.
II. Old house, now used as stables, at Tregonning Farm : remarkable on account of its being pierced with loop-holes.
III. Old pound at Godolphin Hall.
IV. Two or three carvetl stones (rude) formerly be- longing to the old house (traditionally believed to be a church), at Trescow, lying in the road.
V. Old well on the west slope of Godolphin Hill, called "The Giants' Well." There are traces of masonry. A little water flows into the hollow in winter.
VI. Old gate-posts and ornaments at Pengilley ; portions of the house : very old.
VII. Old granite doorway at Dover.
[At Clob Street, St. Crowan, just over the boun- daries of the parish, there is an ancient doorway, pro- bably removed from Godolphin Hall, where there was a great destruction of rooms in the last century.]
VIII. Near Godolphin Hall is a field, formerly the deer park, and still known by that name. The deer were removed within living memory. Tradition relates that Mr. Popham, of Trevarno, was nearly ruined by a lawsuit caused by his hounds chasing one of the deer, and killing it at St. Day — a run of about 12 miles.
IX. Site and ruin of smelting-house at Wheal Vor. Stone Ciixks, Burial-places, etc. — I. Stone circle on
the top of Godolphin Hill.
II. Jews' Lane Hill, in the lane leading from Godolphin to Gwedna. A tree is still shown, where a Jew hung himself, and a stone in the road just below marks his grave— [ix. : 3 : '85]. His ghost, in the form of a fiery chariot and a bull, still haunts the spot.
HI. The truncated Cross at Spernon Cross [vide ante. Crosses, No. II.). It is reported to have marked the burial-place of another Jew.
Remarkable Rocks, etc. — I. The giant's chair on the west slope of Godolphin Hill, where he used to rest after flinging the granite quoits, which formed the quarries at Prospidnick.
II. Around are the giant's poker, bed, nightcap, the giant's hand and foot. These latter are slabs of granite with deep striic, formed a])jiarently by nature.
Finds. — I. Stone utensil : a small stone trough with a cover. Found by Mr. Sampson on the top of Tregonning Hill, 33 years ago : given by him to me, July, 1883.
II. Coins found at Trescow, in taking down the old house in 1873-74. They were all coppers, and had
84
THE ANTIQUARY'S NOTE-BOOK.
apparently been hidden underneath a window-sill by the collector. They were mostly tokens. There was one of Louis XVI, of France. Also the Cornish half- penny. Some in my possession.
III. Brass coin found by Mr. John Edwards in Godolphin garden. Said to be a Muremburg token. Penes me,
IV. Carved wood, dug up by Mr. Palamountain : penes'M.x. Bamfield Vivian, Townshend.
V. Pottery at Tregonning Hill. Some in posses- sion of G. B. Millet, Esq., Penzance.
Celt at Godolphin Mine. Vide Borlase's Tin Trade in Comivall, page 19, n. Haunted Houses, etc. — I. Godolphin Hall : the king's room.
II. Godolphin Lane.
III. Penhale Lane.
IV. Pengilley Farmhouse.
V. Jew's Lane Hill {vide Stone Circles, II.).
VI. A woman thinks herself haunted because she was the means of another woman's destroying her- self.
VII. Wheal Vor Mine. Before an accident it was said that there were tokens of it in the ominous creak- ing of the pumping-rods, etc.
Natural History. — I. A live toad in the midst of a trunk of a tree, sawn in sunder at Great Work, by F. Richards.
II. Luminous moss at Godolphin Pound.
III. White blackbird shot at Trescow. Penes F. V. Hill, Esq., Helston.
For Man and Hoss no Loss. — The situation of the publichouse was formerly at Trenear. As the house lay some little distance from the road, the following notice was placed to attract the notice of the passer-by :
•' Entertainment for man and hoss, That the traveller shuddun't be at no loss. "
antiquarian 513eto$»
In the collieries of St. Etienne, France, a remark- able fossil tree has been discovered near the Chateau of Meons in a working quarry. The trunk is three metres high, the diameter about half a metre, spread- ing out to the roots to a metre thick. The tree belongs to the Syringodendron alternans, but it is chiefly interesting in a geological sense by the roots being of the stigmaria type ; whilst the sigillaria type is seen in the upper part. The stem, which has been broken off short, has a channelled aspect, and was once surmounted by a great bouquet of leaves. One more than thirty metres long has been found in the coal-fields of Esecorpelle Nord. Beside the trunk discovered at Meons the summit of a similar but separate tree has also been found.
Some workmen, while engaged in demolishing an old house, spoken of as the old Oakwellgate Farm, in which Cromwell is said to have slept, at the rear of
the Black Bull Inn, Gateshead, discovered two seats of jambs and mantels, which had been plastered over. The stones were very artistically chiselled, and ex- hibited signs of skilful workmanship. The date 1669 is inscribed on one of the mantels, and under it are the words : "By Hamer and Hand, all arts doe stand."
An interesting literary relic has lately come to light in New South Wales. It is a copy of "The Whole Duty of Man," which formerly belonged to John Adams, the celebrated mutineer of the Bounty. By him it was given to his son, and in the course of time passed to his grandson, from whom Mr. Wilkinson, of Sydney, the visiting magistrate of Norfolk Island, had it. In the last century the book was issued with the Bible to seamen in the Royal Navy, amongst others to the men of the Botmty, and a copy was amongst the mutineers' effects when they settled on Pitcairn Island, and was long the only means of religious instruction which they had. So much used was it that the covers are quite worn, and the binding has given way. Adams repaired it with a rude string manufactured from the bark of the burdoa tree, which grows on Pitcairn. The part of the book which shows most use is the collection of prayers at the end, which evidently formed the ritual of the community in its early days. Mr. Jonathan Adams, the grandson of the original owner, gave up the book that it might be preserved as a memorial of the Mutiny of the Bounty and the subsequent incidents in the strange career of the mutineers.
The freehold of the property upon which the re- mains of Richborough Camp, near Sandwich, stand, is likely to fall into the market. It is to be hoped that this Roman antiquity may be secured from injury by the change of ownership. It is time that the sites of this camp and the Roman villa at Bignor, in the neighbouring county of Sussex, were secured for the nation.
Intelligence from Huntingdon, United States, dated June 16, states : Peter Herdic, once known as the Williamsport lumber king, received the contract a year ago to supply Huntingdon with water. Yester- day afternoon his men were excavating at the new reservoir at the head of Fifth Street, when at a depth of about eight feet frorn the surface, J. D. McClain discovered an earthen pot securely sealed which was filled to the brim with Mexican and American gold and silver coins of ancient date.
The church at Aymestrey has been restored and recently re-opened for public worship. It is beauti- fully situated as to position, and consists of a nave, north and south aisles, chancel, western tower, and south porch, with a clerestory over the nave. The proportions of the fabric are good, the tower being of imposing height and breadth, the nave lofty, and the chancel spacious and well-developed. It is a church of much architectural interest, possessing evidences of Norman work, and traces of a still earlier period. It is peculiarly rich in oak screens, that across the chancel being remarkably handsome, being canopied with delicate fan-tracery intricately carved. Four other screens or parcloses enclose the easternmost bays of the aisles as chapels or chantries ; and the greater part of the church, as it now exists, is of the
ANTIQUARIAN NE WS.
85
time of Edward IV. The condition of the building, previous to its restoration and reparation, was very deplorable. Upon examination, the timlier roofs of the naves and aisles were found to be thoroughly rotten, the boarding upon them decayed, and the lead coverings perished and worn out. The roof of the chancel, from being high pitched, was in a better state, but all the roofs were concealed by plaster ceilings. The floors were everywhere decayed, and in several places had fallen in, and were resting upon the natural ground ; and the whole interior of the building, from being below the surface of the church- yard, and in the entire absence of drainage, had suffered severely from damp and mildew.
It is proposed to publish by subscription an inven- tory of the church plate of Leicestershire, with some account of the donors thereof, by the Rev. Andrew Trollope, B.A. The book will be illustrated from drawings made specially by Mr. Matthew Pearson, Miss F. Morton, and others. Of the more interesting vessels, a certain number of larger-sized illustrations will be given ; in all more than 200 pieces of plate, drawn accurately to scale, will be portrayed by either one process or the other. In this work the com- munion plate belonging to each church in Leicester- shire will be accurately described, the measurements, weight, and hall-marks of each piece will be given, and every coat of arms and inscription correctly re- corded. In order to ensure perfect accuracy the author has himself examined every service of com- munion plate.
The Ayr Town Council have resolved to shut up the old bridge, on the ground that it was not safe for the public. Recently several stones fell out of one of the arches. The bridge was built in 1252, by two maiden ladies, who were led to do so on account, says tradition, of some near friend having been lost while crossing the river at the ford, a little higher up. This was one of the Burns " Twa Brigs," and it was the old one he represented as saying, while addressing the new — " I'll be a brig when ye're a shapeless cairn. ' This came true, as the new one was rebuilt some years ago.
A very valuable consignment to the Louvre Museum reached Paris recently. It consists of two hundred and fifteen packing cases, containing the fragments of the decorations of the Palaces of Artaxerxes and of Darius at Susa, in Persia, and the objects of ancient art discovered by the Mission sent to Susa, under the direction of M. Diculafoy. A vast salle, situated on the first floor of the Louvre, has been prepared for the reception of these precious relics of antiquity.
A remarkable " find " is reported from Bari, in Apulia. It is said that more than two thousand Byzantine diplomas upon a blue parchment have been discovered in the cathedral, where they were walled up in a niche, apparently for their safe preservation. \Vhether the blue colour of the parchment was its original hue or has been produced by chemical action during the long burial is not yet clear. The docu- ments belong to the Chapter of Bari Cathedral, who have declared that they shall not hesitate to give full access to them for purposes of examination and study.
The authorities in Japan are investigating the laws and customs relative to cattle fairs in England and
America, with the view of establishing central markets in their country.
We quote the following passage from a letter of Mr. J. O. Halliwell-Phillips, in the New York Natiofi of June 24th : " By one of the most singular accidents of the kind that have ever occurred, the original title- deeds of Shakespeare's estate at New Place have been discovered in the archives of a county family in Shropshire, and have found their way to HoUingbury Copse. One of them is torn, but the other five, dating from 1532 to 1602, are as perfect as when they were in the poet's own rooms. They are inestimable personal relics, that are absolutely free from the doubts of authenticity that must inevitably be attached to other kinds of domestic memorials."
Much interest has been excited in the Lake district by Professor Knight's statement at the meeting of the Wordsworth Society, that it is hoped to establish a hall or public building in the Lake country, in which memorials of Wordsworth and the Lake poets can be preserved for posterity. There would be no lack of co-operation in an effort of this kind, and many inter- esting memorials of the Lake poets exist.
The German papers record the death of a niece of Schiller, Frau Elert, the widow of the late parish clergyman of Nuretingen, in Wurtemberg. She was in her eighty-third year. Her mother, who was the second sister of the poet, married Pfarrer Frankh, of Cleversulzbach, afterwards Stadtpfarrer of Mockmuhl. Schiller's mother died in his house.
A discovery of unusual interest in its bearing on the antiquity of man in Britain has recently been made by Dr. Hicks, of Hendon, and communicated by him to Nature. In exploring the caves of Tremeirchion, in the Vale of Clwyd, it was found that the main entrance to the Cae Gwyn Cave had been blocked up by glacial beds deposited subsequently to the occu- pation of the cave by pleistocene mammals. A shaft was dug through these beds ; and a small well-worked flint flake was discovered in the bone earth, about eighteen inches beneath the lowest bed of sand, on the south side of the entrance. It appears that the contents of the cave must have been washed out by marine action during the great submergence in mid- glacial times, and then covered by marine sands and an upper boulder clay. This discovery, therefore, proves that man lived in the North Wales area before the great submergence indicated by the high-level sands of Moel Tryfan.
Corte0ponuence»
FIRST-FOOT.
{Ante^ vol. xiv., p. 12.)
Mr. Watkins is in error when he says that " the ' first-foot ' belief of the Scotch on New Year's Day does not come down so far as Lincolnshire." An old
86
CORRESPONDENCE.
friend of mine tells me that she would not on any account let a woman or girl enter her house before a man or boy had crossed the threshold on that day. " I alus keap do5r lock'd till reight soort cums, an' then I saay, ' Hev' yS owt to bring in ? If yd hcvn't goa get a bit o' stick or sum'ats ! Yd sea it's straange an' unlucky to tek things oot afore owt's browt in, an' foiiks is careful. I mind th' time when lads cum'd roond reg'lar wi' bits o' stick aboot as long as a knitlin' needle."
The following extract from the writings of Clare is interesting as an illustration of one of the superstitions mentioned by Mr. Watkins :
On our road She many a token and a kiss bestow'd. Once, as she leaned to rest upon a stile, The pale moon hanging o'er her looks the while, " Richard," she said, and laugh'd, " the moon is new. And I will try if that old tale is true, Which gossips tell, who say, that if as soon As any one beholds the new May-moon^ They o'er their eyes a silken kerchief fling That has been slided through a wedding-ring, As many years as they shall single be, As many moons they through that veil shall see ; And I for once will try the truth I vow : For this, that hangs about my bosom now, Was drawn through one upon a bridal night, When we were full of gossip jmd delight.'
Then instant from her snowy neck she threw It first o'er me, and bade me tell her true ; And sure as I stand here, while that was o'er, I saw two moons as plain as one before ; And when my Mary took it off to try, Herself saw two, the very same as I.
The Rivals : John Clake.
The Northamptonshire belief is evidently the same as our Lincolnshire superstition, though according to the poet the new May-moon, not the first new moon of the year, is the luminary by whose aid the divination is worked.
Mabel Peacock.
Bottesford.
MAIDEN PLACE NAMES.
In your March number, at the suggestion of Mr. Round, I sent you a list of several I had come across. Since then I have met with other two.
The name of a farm near Dinsdale-on-Tees, bounded by Morton Palmes — in an old deed in my possession — " Maiden Dale " {Ante, vol. xiii,, 212) :
Charter, 1150.
•' I, Robert Peytefin, gave to the hospital of St. Peter's, York, that right and advowson which I held in the church of Saston in alms, and a certain parcel of land in the town, and besides this the back of a certain hill, which is called • Maydencastell ' as the old ditch descendeth in the water toward Lede."
Scott Surtres. Dinsdale-on-Tees, July I, 1886.
P-S. — All these names appear to me to be given to places not far from Roman roads.
SPANISH DOLLARS IN ENGLAND. {Ante, vol. xiv., p. 37.)
The discovery on the premises of the Spittal gas works of Spanish dollars stamped for circulation in England is curious. It is difficult to understand what can have been the motive for their concealment. There are three types of these pieces :
I. The dollar of Charles IV. of Spain, having in the neck of the bust the head of George III., stamped with a die similar to that used by the Goldsmiths' Company in stamping silver plate. II. Dollar of Charles IV. of Spain, having on the neck an octagonal stamp containing the bust of George III., similar to the heads on the Maundy groat, but without the legend. III. Dollar of Charles IV. of Spain, restamped, but so imperfectly that the original date of 1797 may be read. Laureated head of George III. looking to the right. On reverse the royal arms within a garter, dated 1804. Plates of all these pieces may be seen in William Boyne's Silver Tokens of Great Britain and Ireland, the dependencies and colonies.
Edward Peacock. Bottesford Manor, Brigg.
M. GALLAND'S ARABIAN NIGHTS.
I have written in vain to Notes and Qtieries soliciting an answer to very simple questions : Where, and when, did the first English translation of Galland's Arabian Nights appear ? Perhaps one of your learned readers could enlighten me.
R. F. Burton.
Athenaeum Club.
THE VILLAGE COMMUNITY IN ENGLAND.
In his invaluable work on the above subject, Mr. vSeebohm insists, as is well known, on the connection between the "virgate" and the plough-team, urging that each virgate was bound to contribute two beasts towards the normal team of eight. There would seem to be a striking confirmation of this view in the court-rolls of the Manor of Connock, quoted in the Appendix (I., 631, a) to the 8th Report on Historical MSS. It is there ordered (3 Mary) that " every tenant shall keep only two plough beasts for a virgate of land, and only one for half a virgate, under penalty of 6s. 8d." I am not sufficiently acquainted with court-rolls to say if such an entry is common, but it certainly seems a suggestive one.
J. H. Round.
Brighton.
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS.
{Ante, vol. xiii., p. 279.)
Mr. Booker's inquiry is a very natural one. As knowing something of these matters, I am certainly
CORRESPONDENCE.
87
inclined to suggest, as the solution, that the examiner asked the wrong question, and that the question he meant to set was this : " Name the parents of James Vie First'" [not "Mary Queen of Scots"], "and show how each of them were («V) related to the Royal Family of England." In such form the question would have been a perfectly proper one to ask.
J. H. Round. Brighton.
BOX LEY ABBEY, KENT. {Ante, p. 279.)
Mr. Surtees writes that "to those, of course, who
are at all acquainted with such matters it
would be superfluous to tell them that there never had been such an individual as ' the Abbot of Box- ley.' " I find, however, that " the Abbot of Boxley " is duly spoken of by a writer in the Antiquary, and that that writer is no other than Mr. Surtees himself, the article being one to which he now refers us {Anti- quary, viii., p. 49). My object, however, in writing, is not to point out that Mr. Surtees's hypercriticism is of somewhat recent growth, but to raise a mild protest against the novel theory started by Mr. Brownbill and himself as to " the Rood of Grace."
Though one cannot but sympathize with their laudable endeavours to " whitewash " the Cistercian monks, the subject is too important in its bearing on the beliefs and lives of our forefathers to be treated as a matter of sentiment.
Mr. Brownbill, in his fair and able pleading on behalf of "the children of St. Bernard," urges that, at the worst, there was but "one monastery among hundreds in England which had so far forgotten its early virtue as to descend to such a fraud." It is clear from this that he cannot be aware of the statement of Robert Shrimpton, four times Mayor of St. Alban's, who lived on into the seventeenth century, that he " remembered the hollow image erected near .St. Alban's shrine, wherein one being placed to govern the wires, the eyes would move, and head nod, ac- cording as he liked or disliked the offering, and, being young, he had many times crept into the hollow part thereof. In the grand processions through the town, when the image of St. Alban was carried, it was usually borne by two monks, and after it had been set down awhile at the market-cross and the monks essaying to take it up again they pretended they could not stir it, and then the Abbot coming and laying his crosier upon the image, and saying these words : ' Arise, arise, St. Alban, and get thee home to thy sanctuary,' it then forthwith yielded to be borne by the monks" {Ant. Repertory [1808], iii., pp. 349-350). This suggests that the wonder-working image was by no means peculiar to Boxley Abbey. The Holy Rood of Dovercourt and its fate is surely familiar enough.
I venture to think that the expression " fraud " needlessly complicates the case. I hope that, without giving oflence, I may point out that there were frauds and frauds, and that "a jnous fraud" is, to some minds, scarcely a fraud at all. It is impossible, in a few lines, to go into questions of ethics, but the same reasoning which is held to justify parents in harmlessly
deceiving their children, may easily have been applied to themselves by monks with reference to their "spiritual children."
Again, no one can have had any practical experi- ence of the life of certain nations on the Continent without learning that the l^eliefs and superstitions of " the vulgar" form a corpus by themselves, in which the higher and more intelligent classes have no part or share. In other words, the question shoulcf be discussed rather subjectively than objectively.
The view, therefore, that I would put forward is this. The monks worked the image. Of that there is no question. The point, we are told, in dispute is whether they worked it with fraudulent intent. I, on the contrary, would rather say that the point is — how did the beholders account for the phenomena ? The more intelligent would look on it (much as, in these days, we might look on the automaton chess- player) as a triumph of constructive skill. On the other hand, "the vulgar," ever prone (and then, of course, far more than now) to account for the unin- telligible by supernatural intervention {omiu ignotum pro magnifico) would obstinately cling to the notion that they were witnessing supernatural phenomena. "Were the monks lx)und to disabuse their minds? That is the question they would certainly have asked us, and to judge from modern experience abroad, they would as certainly have anticipated a negative.
This theory, I claim, explains the fate of these miraculous roods at the Reformation. Those who would have us believe that there was nothing in them to expose, fail, so far as I can see, to give any ex- planation of the importance attached to the exposure of the Rood at Maidstone and at St. Paul's Cross, or of such an outbreak of indignation as that wit- nessed at Dovercourt.
It should be noticed that the impossibility of re- moving the rood forms part of the Boxley story. In the case of the miraculous image of the Virgin at Cardigan Triory, the legend seems to glide into the well-known "building tradition" class. This is worth investigation.
Lastly, is it the case that every " Holy Rood " was necessarily "a crucifix," like the Boxley Rood of Grace ? Was it not sometimes a fragment of " the true Cross" itself? I do not feel certain on this point.
As to the founder of Boxley Abbey, Mr. Surtees (vol. viii., p. 49) takes Mr. Freeman to task for speak- ing of his earldom as "doubtful," and appeals to Burke's Extinct Peerage. I can only say that my researches on the subject have entirely confirmed the opinion of Dr. Stubbs (for it is originally his), that this earldom is, to say the least, " doubtful." Nor can the popular compilation invoked by Mr. Surtees be accepted as of any authority whatever.
J. H. Rou.NU.
Brighton.
NOTICE.
The second part of Mr. R. S. Ferguson's paper on " Municipal Offices at Carlisle " will appear in our September issue.
88
THE ANTIQUARY EXCHANGE.
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THE MULTIPLICATION OF SURNAMES.
89
The Antiquary.
SEPTEMBER, 1886.
Cbe a^ulrtpUcatitin of ^urnameg.
By Arthur Folkard.
T is a question of considerable in- terest to many as to how the largely increased number of families among us have become provided with distinctive surnames. Leaving out of account the large number of such surnames as are manifestly derived from occupation or residence, there is still an enormous residue as to which curiosity must exist. It is certain that the number of those family designations which sufficed for our early forefathers could no longer, without great social inconvenience arising, do so for our present population. Indeed, had not surnames in some way or another become multiplied since their adop- tion became common, our directories would teem far more even than they do with persons bearing similar names. It is the object of this paper to show how the increase of surnames in number and variety has contrived to keep pace with the necessity for distinction of nomenclature.
The writer sees good reason to believe that nearly all those who have dealt with the subject of surnames and their derivation have exercised a needless amount of ingenuity in their endeavour to assign distinct meanings to an immense number of those now common among us. It appears to him that a vast proportion of these are corruptions and sub- corruptions of but a few original roots that are due to various causes. It will be well, before going further into the subject, to consider what such causes may have been.
I. Corruption by the Use of the Latin Tongue. — The origin of much corruption was undoub tedly the rule followed by our earliest
VOL. XIV.
scribes to write everything in Latin, even personal names being arbitrarily Latinized to admit of the use of the cases in that tongue. Folconis for Folco has thence become Folcon, Berthonis for Bertho, Ber- thon, and so on. Again, the Latin alphabet possesses no "w," and it became necessary therefore for the ancient scribes who desired to write with correctness to omit that letter in the cases of all names originally containing it. It will be evident to the reader how very numerous such cases must have been, and how very materially names so dealt with became altered in sound when read.
2. Corruption by Abbreviation in IVriting, etc. — The same old writers are doubtless responsible for another most fertile cause of alteration. They carried their system of abbreviating words into their writing of proper names, both of places and persons. Thus Faulconbergis constantly met with abbreviated to Fcbg., Fabro to Fab., Fader to Fad., Richard to Ricti., Folchard to Folcfi., Thomas to Thorn. Thousands of such instances might be quoted, but it is needless to extend the list. Now when (apparently about the time of our Henry VII.) the use of personal signatures began to extend, those persons who desired to write their names would refer to documents in their possession for the required guidance for doing so. They saw but the abbreviated form, and perforce, almost, adopted it. Their names once thus written by them would probably guide their after-pronunciation of it, and we may assign largely to this cause the prevalence of such single-syllable surnames as Thorn, Folk, Rich, etc., among us. Lingual abbreviations have also similarly contributed. Thus the town of Sevenoaks received first the same abbreviation as was given to " Sevennights," i.e.f " Se'ennight," and became Se'enoaks; and secondly, therefrom to the common and not elegant form of Snooks. Thus, ulti- mately, John de Sevenoaks would become John Snooks. Vis-de-Loup has similarly descended to us through Videler to Fidler.
3. Corruption by Changed National Pro- nunciation.— But there has undoubtedly been another material cause operating towards the creation of single-syllable surnames, and of a much later date than that above dealt with. It is certain that in England, even
H
90
THE MULTIPLICATION OF SURNAMES.
as recently as the middle of the last century almost, the final " e " of a word retained the present Teutonic accentuation. Mother, Father, Sister and Brother, were therefore commonly written Mothe, Fathe, Siste and Brothe, the final " r " being dropped as an excrescence useless for the guidance of pro- nunciation. As the Teutonic system softened among us, and the " e " became merged in pronunciation as a single syllable, names having originally two syllables, such as Smither (from the old German Smichter or Smiter), Folker, Baxter, Richer, Fowler, etc., very frequently became Smithe and Smith, Folke and Folk, Baxte and Bax, Riche and Rich, Fowle and Fowl, etc.
4. Corruption bySynonyftious Employment of Letters. — There is yet another cause for such curtailments to be dealt with, and that is the similar pronunciation given in older times to the '' e " and " y." Thus " niichte " for the modern " mighty," Dorothe for Dorothy, Batterbe for Batterby, Birde for Burdy, Namys for Names, Corde for Cordy, Carre for Carey, cum multis aliis. When the use of personal signatures before alluded toextended, and prior forms of writing them received adoption, many family surnames became changed in form, and, as the present method of pronunciation crept in, such names in many instances became altered to Bird, Cord, Carr, etc.
5. Corruption by the Use of the Plural Form. — To the foregoing must be added another form of corruption by the addition of a final " s," making single names assume the plural form. The reason of such addition is, the writer thinks, not far to seek. A man would be spoken of as Smith's son, John's son, Folk's son ; and as that form of appella- tion dropped out of use (although in many cases becoming merged in the present Smithson, Johnson, etc.) the " s " sound would be in many cases retained, and, refer- ring to the instances above quoted, we get the common forms of Smithers, Folkes, Riches, Fowles, etc. But the plural and singular are often met with applied to the same individual as in Pagett-Pagettes, Folke-Folkes and other cases, though they have since become dis- tinctive names.
6. Corruption due to want of Arbitrary Spelling. — Having thus briefly dealt with the
surnames now reduced to a single syllable only, the reader's attention may be directed to causes operating towards more extended forms of corruption. It must be borne in mind that even up to a late period there was no arbitrary spelling of the names either of places or persons. The instances of varia- tion contained in Shakespeare's Will are often cited, and in a pedigree of the Folkards of Suffolk in the Bodleian Library the writer found its compiler — a clergyman, and there- fore an educated man — spelling as late as 1670 the name in five different ways on the same sheet. We have in such laxity a most fertile cause of after- variation ; and if it existed as late as the date given, we can readily understand how much more fully it must have operated in earlier times.
7. Corruption due to Local Pronunciation. — Then, again, local specialities of pronuncia- tion, as well as individual peculiarities of speech, must have contributed greatly to confusion of names. As regards these items of the subject, the fact may be cited that many of the Norman names imported into Cornwall and adjacent counties that began with the letter "f" seem to have had their initial changed to "t" Indeed, it is most rare to find either a Cornish locality or old Cornish surname that now possesses the former initial. The hard pronunciation of our northern counties has not been equal to maintaining the soft " 1 ;" thus, among other instances. Folk has long been changed in Yorkshire into Fawke and Fock. In Ireland, from the earliest dates, the hard " c " of the Danish invaders yielded to the softer Milesian lisp of the old Spanish Celts, and became almost universally "th," as in the Spanish " conthepthione " for the written word " concepcione ;" while, similarly, the "Folck" of the Dane, following the same Milesian influence, became among the Irish people " For " and " Fur." Apart from this national habit, the peculiarity of a personal lisp would probably also cause the substitution of the " th " for the " c " by any scribe writing from word of mouth. The " c " in some English mouths also became softened to '* s," producing infinite variety, and again hardened to a soft "g" as in Fulcher, Fulsher, Foulger. These and a thousand other demonstrations constantly press upon
THE MULTIPLICATION OF SURNAMES.
91
anyone who closely studies the old Subsidy Rolls. It is often scarcely possible to recognise the same individual under the many aliases assigned to him by different scribes.
8. Corniptions due to Use of Various Languages. — Passing on to further considera- tions, we find wide-spread changes arising out of the use of various tongues in our early chronicles, a use which has left its impress over an immense range of our subject. The same name has been repeatedly dealt with in Saxon, Latin, and French, and while retaining the original meaning has assumed widely different forms. Thus we have in example, Fairfield, Belfield, Bonfield, Beauchamp, Bel- champ, Bello Campo, Campbell and Belcamp, all having the same root. Further in illustra- tion may be cited Monte-Acuto, Montacute and Montague ; De Bosco, Dubosc, De Bois, Bois, Boyce, Wood and Atwood ; Ponte Fracto, Pontefract, Brackenbridge and Brace- bridge; Novo Mercato, Newmarket and Newmarch ; Novo Burgo and Newburgh : Puntward has been Anglicised to Bridgeward, whence Bridger, Bridgett, etc. — all these instances having a similar derivation and meaning.
The list of changes arising from this par- ticular cause might be almost indefinitely extended, though it will suffice for the present object only to notice, in extension of this heading of our subject, the influence of the various Northern tongues as they became transferred to British soil. Naturally, among the belligerent invaders of this country, " the swordsman " was a common appellation. Now the old Norse word meaning a sword was " kordi," and that of the Danish tongue " kaarde ;" and these variations, as might be expected, form the root of a great variety of our modern surnames. We find the Norse form still fully preserved in the family of Cordy of Norfolk and Sufifolk ; but side by side with it are to be found the variation by the use of the Danish form of Cardy, Cady, Carde, and Cade. In the western and northern counties the Norse form is princi- pally met with, though now somewhat softened, and in them the variety of growth has given rise to Cody, Codde, Code, Coode, Crudde, and a hundred other aliases. The Norse form is apparent in Cordwell, while
the Danish form is traceable in Cardwell. The addition of the syllable " man " as the equivalent for " swordsman," and of " er " as the equivalent for "sworder," as in Cady- man, Cademan, etc., and in Corder, has produced a further infinite variety of English surnames ; while from the same root may probably also be deduced the Irish and Scotch McCardy, Macarthy, McHardy, etc. Continuing this branch of discussion, it may be observed that " Fylk " in Norse is the equivalent of " Folk " in Danish, while the Lithuanian form of the word is " Polk," a circumstance accounting for much variety. To this fact should be reckoned in addition the use of the synonymous word " flock " for " folk," a form not even now of uncommon adoption to denote any assemblage. We thus obtain from the same root as the names which commence with " Folk," the abundant forms of Flockard, Flockart, Flocker, Flocke, etc., as also the similar sub- corruptions de- scending finally to Flacke.
9. Corruptiojis due to Indiscriminate Use of all the Vowels and of some Consonants. — There is but one further prominent source of corruption which it occurs to the writer to mention. It must be apparent to all students of local and sur-nomenclature that the vowels of the English language must have been used by our forefathers as almost synonymous. Nothing but such a custom could account for the indiscriminate employment we find made of them. They cannot, it would seem, have had the broadly-marked distinction in sound which we give them in the present day; and the result has been that many thousands of names originally the same have come down to us in forms of spelling which render them, unless this allowance be made, quite untraceable as to their origin. Neither were the consonants free altogether from such liberal dealing. '* P " and " B " were commonly interchangeable, as in Burchard and Purchard from the old Burghward, while "d" was almost invariably the equivalent of " th," bringing about a change in sequence (through the lisp before referred to) of For- cred, Forthred, Fordred.
Having thus sketched out as fully as is possible within the limits of a magazine article the leading circumstances which would appear to have gradually brought about the
H— 2
92
7 HE MULTIPLICATION OF SURNAMES.
multiplication of surnames among us, the writer would now desire to revert to the con- tention with which he started, that much needless ingenuity has been shown in the endeavour to assign particular meanings to names which are really only corruptions. Mr. Ferguson, in his recent useful and most instructive work upon surnames, has fur- nished, as it seems to the writer, a striking instance of such misapplied endeavour.
Taking for the purpose of illustration that author's method of dealing with the ancient name of Folkward, it will be seen that he assigns to the varied forms of the terminal syllable discovered distinct meanings. To Folcobert or Folcbrat (which is, it may be believed, to be rendered as " Child of Folco," as witness our country word "brat") he ascribes the interpretation " famed of the people." To the German Folchaid and its varied French forms he assigns the meaning of " state or condition of the people," from the old German word "Haid." For Folkitt (Eng.), Fouquet and Fouchet (Fr.), he sug- gests/t^r/Zi' or "hard." To Folkard (Eng.), Volkhardt (Ger.), Foucart (Fr.), he gives " Hari " or warrior as the equivalent, while many other forms of the terminal syllable !Mr. Ferguson holds to claim similarly vary- ing derivatives. The writer believes that such ingenuity is, as he has said, misapplied : that all such variations are but corruptions of the original " Folkward," due to the causes he has above suggested. In order to prove such to be the case he has compiled the table which closes this article. It will be seen therefrom how allied are all the forms of terminal corruptions in names which origi- nally ended with " ward," Now, presuming that we accepted Mr. Ferguson's interpreta- tion above given of Folcobert or Folcbrat, the same meaning could hardly apply in the case of Marcbart or Wolfbert. A man could scarcely be "famed of the Marc" or "boun- dary," nor of that destructive animal the wolf, and yet we find the same terminal applied in both those two cases.
It is needless to pursue that line of argu- ment further ; but it wuU be found applicable to nearly all the instances cited in the ap- pended list. The author contends that the fact that the same forms of corruption have been found to attend the originals of all the
names therein dealt with, is sufficient proof that such instances were but corruptions, and were not possessed of the different significa- tions Mr. Ferguson has given to them.
In the compilation of the list given, and with the object of sufficiently bearing out his argument, the writer has selected six of the oldest names ending in " ward " that he has discovered. But with reference to that assigned the most prominent place, Folk- ward, he has had in view the demonstration of a further object of this article. The varia- tions of the first syllable of that name have been as wide as have those of the second. The result has been to produce from the original root a multiplication of surnames so great as to necessitate almost the employment of the system of permutations and combina- tions to calculate their possible finality. So numerous have been the instances met with, that it has been necessary to reduce those quoted to about one-fifth in order to bring the list within practicable limits ; but those selected will suffice to illustrate how large a number of modern surnames may perhaps be traced to this old term of office. With the other cases of surnames paralleled, it has been the writer's object merely to use them to show how the terminal syllable has con- sistently varied with all of them. Had his attention been directed to this subject throughout the researches made by him, doubtless many other instances of parallelism could have been noted which would have filled up the gaps of it which are now per- force left unoccupied. Still, sufficient evi- dence, it is believed, has been adduced to prove the case stated.
A few remarks are desirable before inviting the reader to study the list presented to him. It will be readily understood that the hold- ing of office among our earliest forefathers would be held to denote an honourable position claiming to some extent perpetuation of record. We therefore find many surnames which received subsequent adoption, due perhaps to such a feeling. The first name of such a character placed on the list is that of Folkward, its literal meaning being the "keeper or guardian of the people." This term appears to have been assigned probably to the presidents of the local or " hundred " folkmoots. The second in order is, there is
THE MULTIPLICATION OF SURNAMES.
93
reason to think, a Cornish sub-corruption of the shortening due to the omission of the " w " in Folkward in the Latin writing before referred to, i.e., to Folchard or Folkard (the " ch " being of hard pronunciation, and equivalent to the modern " k "). The " f," as has been pointed out, became changed to '• t," and the name of Tolchard, while still preserved in its integrity, has followed the almost infinite forms of corruption observable of its original. The third in order is the name Tanward or Tunward, /.(?., the person charged with the keeping in order of the "Tun," or quickset hedge surrounding the village of our forefathers, whence our modern word " town." The fourth, Marcward, is de- fined by Bosworth as meaning the keeper or watcher of boundaries, i.e., guardian of the marc. The fifth, Wolfward, designated the officer to whom was assigned the keeping down of the number of the wolves by which our most ancient progenitors were troubled. The sixth, Puntward, meant literally the ferry or bridge-keeper, from the Saxon " punt," of which the Latin " pons " is the equivalent ; an office of no small importance to a society in a state of almost constant internecine quarrel, it being within this ofiicer's discretion to permit or refuse pas- sage over any guarding stream. The seventh and last name is that of Wodeward, or the officer charged with watching over the legiti- mate use of the forests, in which the mem- bers of the ancient communities possessed communal rights.
In the compilation of the derivations from those names, the writer has endeavoured so to classify them as to show how the corrup- tions— as to the causes of which he has before essayed explanation — gradually ex- tended. It is quite impossible to assign dates to the commencement of any of their forms, for some appear in use at very early periods ; but it is significant, as evidencing the lateness of the corruption Tolchard, that the use of the original " w " can hardly be traced, nor does any form of it appear in old foreign records or charters. It is not professed that the conclusions assumed are entirely accurate ; they are meant at best to be but suggestive. Still, it is held that they will be found to dispose of many of the efforts made to assign meanings to a great
number of surnames in modern use, and to account for their present almost infinite variety. A distinction has been made in the type employed in the printing to enable the reader to follow the compiler's idea as to which names were primary, secondary, and third corruptions, with the sequences to the last.
In order to anticipate as far as possible objections which may be raised to the con- clusions proposed as to many names in the list, which may appear at first sight almost untenable as corruptions of the original root assigned to them, it is desirable to give, by way of forestallation, some confirmatory evi- dence. Nothing was commoner in the olden times than for the names of individuals to be given to and to remain with the places of their habitation. Once such names were so locally established, they followed to a large extent in their corruptions those observable in the use of the name when applied to persons. The writer has therefore selected a few out of the many instances where the name of Folkward has thus received adoption as the name of a locality, and the citation of the different forms met with in ancient docu- ments, and so applied, will form strong warranty for his assumption of similar varia- tions in its use as a personal appellative.
Out of 144 instances in his present posses- sion wherein the personal name has so been the foundation of those of towns in various countries, four are quoted for the fulfilment of this object, though the two last have been associated, it having been found impossible to distinguish as to which of them the cor- ruptions apply. The modern name of the town is that first given, and the older ones are arranged as they appear to vary in suc- cession from the earliest to the latest form, some attempt at parallelism also being main- tained :
FoCKERIiY
(Yorkshire).
Folkwardby
Folquardby
Folkardby
Folkcrdby
Folkcrby
P'okardby
Fokcrdby
Foqucrby
Fookcrby
Fokerby
FOCGATHORP
(Yorkshire).
Fulkwarethorpe
Folkarthorp
Folkerlhorp
Folkersthorp
Fokkcrthorp
Fowkersthorpe
Fokcrthorp
Fai'lqi'emont and
p'oucarmont
(France).
Folcardi-Monti
Fulcaudus-Montensis
Fokardimonte
Fulcardemont
Folcarimint
Frocardi Monte
r'rancquemont
Montes Fouqucrannus
Foukarmount
94
THE MULTIPLICATION OF SURNAMES.
FOCKERBY FOGGATHORP
(Yorkshire). (Yorkshire).
Fockerby —
Fawkeby —
Folkesby Folkethorp
Fulcherby Fulcathorpe
Felcardby Follethorpe
Falgardeby Fulthorp
Fougerby Foggerthorpe
Folgnarby Fogathorp
Folnarby —
Foceby —
The above given corruptions by no means
exhaust all the various forms found, but their
Faulquemont and
foucarmont
(France).
Faukemont
Falkemont
Fulcharmunt
Facarmund
Falco-Monte
Falconis Mons
Falcmount
Falkenstein
Fontardi Monte
number will suffice for the present purpose. As regards the variations of the name when applied to persons, it may be remarked that in nearly all the cases hereafter given, the writer has been able to identify them with the original name, or with some leading corruption of it, by their co-use to designate the same individual.
With thus much by way of introduction, the list may now be given for examination, and it is believed the reader will find it to strongly support the arguments advanced.
|
FOLKVVARD |
(Corruption) |
Tanward |
Marcward |
Wolfward |
PUNTWARD |
WODEWARD |
|
Folquard |
.. |
Tanguart |
Marquard |
IVolward |
Penward |
|
|
Ferquhard |
Terquart |
Tankwart |
||||
|
Ferqwar Folgtterd Folquer |
Tawarn |
Mar wart |
Woifwar" " |
Pynceware |
.. |
|
|
Folque |
Marque |
|||||
|
Foulke |
||||||
|
Folcvard |
Marcvard |
Wulvard |
||||
|
Folcuald |
Markwald |
|||||
|
Fawkczvard |
.. |
|||||
|
Folavin |
Tolwyn |
Tunkin |
Marvin |
Wol/win |
. • |
|
|
Folkeworth |
Toneivorth |
Markeivorth |
Panneworth |
|||
|
Fulwood |
Marwood |
|||||
|
FOLKARD |
Tankard |
Merkkard |
WOLFARD |
Punkard |
Woodard |
|
|
FoUhard |
Tokhard |
Tanchard |
Marchard |
Puntc/iard) Punchard ) |
||
|
Folkhard |
* . ■ ■ |
Tunherd |
Marholt ) Merkhard j |
Wolfhart |
Penhard |
Woodyherd |
|
Fokard |
Vufard |
|||||
|
Folkarbe |
Tiirkebi |
Markaby |
||||
|
Forkard |
Torkard |
|||||
|
Fochard |
Tochard |
|||||
|
Fokard |
. ■ |
Marcard |
Pontcard |
|||
|
Folcart |
Tancwart |
Marcart |
Wulfart |
|||
|
Folcatt |
Talcott |
.. |
Marcot |
Penicott |
Wodecot |
|
|
Folcett |
Tolcett |
.. |
Marget |
.. |
Penikett ) Punyett f |
Woodgett |
|
Faukett |
||||||
|
Faucet |
Tiickett |
Marcet |
Poncett |
|||
|
Folkod |
Tanihud |
|||||
|
Folcauz |
Torcaz |
Volfras |
||||
|
Foley |
Marcy |
Wulphez |
Poncy |
|||
|
FOLKERD |
Tankerd |
Vulferd |
Puncherd |
Woodwerd |
||
|
Folkered |
.. |
Tankered |
Puncered |
|||
|
Folcred |
Tancred |
Volfred ■■ |
Pendred |
|||
|
Fulchred |
• • |
|||||
|
Fulchret |
Wulfret " |
|||||
|
Folkett |
Toket |
Tancret |
Pencet |
WoodgetV |
||
|
Foukett |
Tuckett |
Punchet |
||||
|
Fouquet |
Touchett |
|||||
|
Folkelet |
• • |
|||||
|
Folkelot |
Maracholt |
Woifkelt ' |
Punchelote |
|||
|
Fuhherd |
||||||
|
Fulcher |
Tulcher '" |
Marcher |
Puncher |
|||
|
Fulke |
Toulke |
Tunks |
Marche |
Punche |
||
|
Fiiker |
||||||
|
P"uke |
Tiike |
|||||
|
Folkaid |
via/aid" |
|||||
|
Folcheid |
Taiichlld' ' |
|||||
|
Folchild |
Thenchila |
Marchida |
Vulfild |
|||
|
Folcheid |
Vuolheid |
|||||
|
Folcrid |
Tingrid V Tancrid ) |
Vuolfrid |
||||
|
Folcrit |
Walfrit |
Penquit |
||||
|
Folcric |
Marquick \ Markwick j" |
* . • • |
||||
|
Folchrlh |
Tanchrih |
Marchrih |
Pencrich |
|||
|
Folric |
Merrick |
Wiiifric ■' |
||||
|
Folkered |
.. |
WoLFERAD |
Pendered |
|||
|
Flkoeray |
Tanqneray |
* • |
Pnndelay ) Penderay j |
|||
|
Folkeroy |
Tolderoy |
THE MULTIPLICATION OF SURNAMES,
95
|
FOLKWARD |
(Corruption) |
Tanward |
Marcward |
WOLFWARD |
PUNTWARD |
WODEWARD |
|
|
Folderoy |
.. |
Penderay |
|||||
|
Folcroy |
|||||||
|
Folkey |
.. |
Toney |
Wulfheye' |
||||
|
Folkys |
Marcheyes |
Wolfchis |
Ponteys |
||||
|
Folkes |
W^es |
||||||
|
( Fookey (Foky |
Vourey ) Woify ; |
Woodey |
|||||
|
Markey |
|||||||
|
Folcharad |
Tancharad |
Marcarad |
Wolverad |
||||
|
Fulcherar |
Pontearchar |
||||||
|
Folchrad |
Taiicrad > Tangcrad j |
Marcrad |
Wulfrad |
||||
|
Folcrada(fem.) |
• • |
Tancrada |
.. |
Wulfrada |
|||
|
Folerad |
Tulerad |
. ■ |
.. |
||||
|
Folraad |
VuYfrad '" |
||||||
|
Folcharat |
Tancharat |
Marcharat |
.. |
||||
|
Folcrat |
Tancrat |
Marcrat |
Wialfrat " |
||||
|
FOLCOARD |
Ulfoard |
Pancoard |
|||||
|
Folkoad |
Toicoat " |
Marcourt |
V'lilf.xud |
Putuhaud |
|||
|
( ( Folcold |
Tolcholt |
Thancald |
Marcolt |
Vulfoald |
|||
|
\ Folco |
Tolcho |
Tanco |
Marceau |
Vulfo |
|||
|
( Folcus |
Tancrus |
Marcus |
Vulfleus |
||||
|
■ rFulcold |
|||||||
|
{ Fulko |
• • |
Marco |
|||||
|
. tFulke |
Tulke |
Punche |
|||||
|
/ Folcon |
Tolcon |
.. |
Marchun |
Woifun ■■ |
Poncione |
||
|
Folkyn |
Tolkyn |
Tunkin |
M.archinc |
Wulfen |
Ponteyn |
Woodin |
|
|
Fulkln |
Tolken |
• • |
Pynchin |
||||
|
•< Folkelyn |
Tolkien |
Tanklin |
Marclin |
||||
|
Folyn |
Tolyn |
Vu'lfin |
■■ |
||||
|
Faukoun |
Tochen |
Wolfrun |
. . |
||||
|
VFacon |
Tacon |
.. |
|||||
|
Frocode |
|||||||
|
Folculf |
Tancul/ |
Marco!/ |
|||||
|
FOLKEARD |
• • |
Marcuard |
WULFEARD |
||||
|
Folkier |
Marchia |
Wuljier |
Puncia |
Woodier |
|||
|
Foliard |
Tolihard |
Punnyard |
Woody ard |
||||
|
Folard |
Tannard ) Tunnard | |
Wulard '" |
|||||
|
FoUer |
(•Toiler |
.. |
WoUer ) Waller/ |
||||
|
•^Tull |
|||||||
|
(Toll |
|||||||
|
FOLKANDE |
.. |
.. |
Markand |
VULFAND |
PUNCHAND |
||
|
Folcrand |
IVol/gant |
Ponyant |
|||||
|
Folcran |
Marcian |
Vulfran |
Punchon |
||||
|
Folkarn |
ToVkam |
Marcbern |
VVolfarn |
Pinchorn |
|||
|
Folken |
Wolfen |
Puncyn |
W^en |
||||
|
Folcnand |
Wolfnand |
||||||
|
Fokerande |
Vuifcheran |
||||||
|
Fukeram |
Tocham |
Marcham |
Wolfram |
Puncham |
Woderone |
||
|
Foukhend |
|||||||
|
FOLGARD |
WULGARD |
PONGARD |
|||||
|
Folgar |
Tangye |
M 'ol/gar |
^. |
||||
|
Folger |
Thancger |
Margger |
Wolfger |
Woodger |
|||
|
Foulger |
.. |
Vuolfger ) Woolgar ) |
|||||
|
Folgot |
Margot |
||||||
|
Fargud Faljard |
To'lgud |
Tingrid |
Margund |
Penicud |
|||
|
Faxard Fouzard |
|||||||
|
FOLSARD |
Plnshard |
||||||
|
Folsar |
|||||||
|
Folser |
Tolson |
Punshon |
|||||
|
Foulser |
|||||||
|
Fouldier |
|||||||
|
Folzer |
. . ■ |
. • |
■ • |
||||
|
Fuhhtr |
.. |
||||||
|
Frusher |
Trusher |
||||||
|
FOLKAR |
Marschakr |
WOLFAR |
PONCHAR |
WOOIMR |
|||
|
Folkcr |
Marcher |
Wol/t-r |
]\ 'oodcr |
||||
|
rFolcher |
ToVcher '" |
Tancre |
Marcher |
Wolfker |
Puncher |
||
|
Folche |
Marc he |
Punche |
|||||
|
- Folke |
Tank |
Marc |
Punch |
Woodde |
|||
|
Foker |
Toker |
||||||
|
.Foke |
Tokke |
||||||
|
Foker |
Toker |
.. |
|||||
|
Foaker |
Toaker |
||||||
|
Faker |
( Taccha \ Taker |
||||||
|
Fuker |
Tuker |
.. |
|||||
|
( Kucher \ Foche |
Tuchcr |
||||||
|
96 |
THE MULTIPLICATION OF SURNAMES. |
|||||||
|
FOLKWARD |
(Corruption) |
Tanward Marcward |
WOLFWARD |
PUNTWARD |
WODEWARD |
|||
|
Focker |
Tocker |
.. .. |
||||||
|
Fugger |
||||||||
|
( Fouker |
/To'iiker |
|||||||
|
1 Fouke |
( Towke |
|||||||
|
J Fucker |
1 1 ucker |
|||||||
|
j Furcke |
\Turck |
|||||||
|
j Fokker |
Tocker |
|||||||
|
t Fokke |
||||||||
|
Foky |
Toky |
|||||||
|
Fcx:h |
Toche |
|||||||
|
Foke |
Toke |
|||||||
|
Faulker |
||||||||
|
Faulke |
". |
|||||||
|
Faulkes |
||||||||
|
Falke |
Tarin |
|||||||
|
Foaker |
||||||||
|
Fawker |
'.'. '.. |
• |
||||||
|
Fawke |
Tawke |
|||||||
|
Fawkes |
||||||||
|
FOLPARD |
Vol PAR D |
|||||||
|
Folpald |
Vuolfpold |
|||||||
|
Folcpret |
Tolputt " |
Tancpret |
Wolfpret ) Vopred ) |
|||||
|
FOLBARD |
.. |
Marbold |
||||||
|
Folbald |
Tolbald |
Thancbaid |
Merkbold |
Vuolfbald" |
||||
|
Folcobert |
||||||||
|
Folbert FoCARD |
Thancbert |
Marcbart |
Woifbert" |
|||||
|
Fokard |
.. |
|||||||
|
Frothard |
Trotard " |
Marthard |
Vuolftrud |
|||||
|
Foltrud |
Marcadrud |
|||||||
|
Fotard |
.. |
• • |
Vualthaid \ Vualther j |
|||||
|
Futher |
Tuther |
• • ■ • |
Wolther |
Punter |
||||
|
Fordred |
|
Vulfedrud |
accounts of 5)enrp 03[.
By Sir J. 11. Ramsay. Part II.
(See a}ite, vol. x., p. 191.) N dealing with the financial history of the latter half of the reign of Henry VI., I have to express my regret at not being able to give the totals of the Issue Rolls from the year 145 1 onwards. But the fact is that from that time the treasurers, Lancastrians and Yorkists alike, ceased to require their subordinates to add up the Rolls. Every continuous series has a value ; but the labour of adding up nineteen consecutive Rolls is so great that I have been obliged to postpone it for the present ; besides, my previous articles have already shown that the totals of the Issue and Receipt Rolls do not give the most trustworthy statements of the bona fide revenue ; that knowledge can only be obtained by analyzing the Receipt Rolls, and comparing the results with the data furnished by the enrolled accounts and other sources of information. It may be well to glance at
the finance of the reign as a whole, touching lightly on the points which have already been illustrated. Financially the reign should be divided into three periods, distinguished by the direct taxes voted by the representatives of the nation. The first period will run from the accession of Henry VI. in September, 1422, to September, 1428, when the Govern- ment received practically nothing from Parlia- ment, and very little from Convocation : that is to say, the only direct iiTipost granted by Parliament was a levy of 6s. 8d. on each lay knight's fee, and each country parish in the kingdom, for one year (March, 1428) ; v.'hile the Convocation of Canterbury gave one tenth, and that of York one half tenth. The second period will extend from Septem- ber, T428, to September, 1454, when lay and clerical subsidies were voted with some degree of regularity. The remainder of the reign, up to the accession of Edward IV. (4th March, 1461), will form the third period, when direct grants wholly ceased.
I will first endeavour to estimate the yield of each branch of the revenue under the heads with which the readers oi^o. Antiquary have been made acquainted ; and will then
ACCOUNTS OF HENRY VL
97
compare the totals with those of the Issue Rolls so far as they have been printed.
For the amount of the old Feudal re- venues of the Crown for the first period I miist be content with the estimate laid by Lord Cromwell, the Treasurer, before Parlia- ment in 1433 (see Antiquary, x. 195) ; and will assume them to have amounted in round numbers to ;^24,ooo or ;^25,ooo a year, including the Lancaster estates. The Customs with aulnage of cloths we may put down at about ;^3 1,000 from the yield in the eighth year, the earliest available {Antiquary, supra). The vacant sees and priories alien may be taken at about ;^3oo a year : the gross yield of the Hanaper I can give with exactitude from the Enrolled Foreign Ac- counts of the period, and the amount in the six years was ^^12,013, or ;,£"2,ooo a year. For the Mint and Exchange at the Tower I find again on the Enrolled Foreign Accounts an average yield of ;j^i, 632 a year. Lastly, we may put in a sum of j[^2oo a year for sundries. For the direct grants we have one tenth from Canterbury, amounting to ;!^i 3,000; and one half tenth from York, worth about ;^i,2oo. For the 6s. 8d. of the twenty- eighth year I must make a guess. Assuming as an outside estimate that there were 8,000 country parishes, and as many lay knights' fees in England at the time, the yield of the impost would amount to little more than ;i^5,ooo. Thus the total for the period received under the head of Direct Grants would come to ^^19,200 in all, or ;,^6,4oo for each year. The entire revenue, tliere- fore, would make up ;;^65,ooo or ;2^66,ooo a year. The totals of five Receipt Rolls of the period which I found added up average ^32,664 a term, or ;^65,328 a year. The coincidence may strike the reader as very happy, but to my mind it proves that our estimates are too high, as even at this period of the reign I find that the Rolls are swelled by a certain amount of borrowed money, to say nothing of interest, if interest was paid, a point to which I will revert. The recorded average expenditure on the Issue Rolls comes to ^68,440 a year.
For the second period from September 1428, to September 1454, the indications mostly point to declining revenues. For the old Crown revenues ^^20,000 will suftice.
For the Customs the average of the ninth, tenth and eleventh years, as given by Lord Cromwell in 1433, comes to much the same as the amount we took before; but as the tendency is downward, the last year only producing something over p^2 7,000 (with aulnage of cloth), while the twenty-seventh year (1448-1449) produced rather less than that sum, I shall take ;^2 7,000 as my estimate. The vacant sees may remain at ;;^3oo ; and the Hanaper at ;;^2,ooo. I have no data for the period under considera- tion ; but in the last years of the reign the amount rises from ;^ 1,800 a year to ;^3,i72 gross. The Mint in the same period dwindles to ;^3io. ^^ 1,000 therefore ought to be ample for the second period. Adding p^2oo a year as before for sundries, we shall get ;^4o,5oo irrespective of direct grants. As to these from September, 1428, to September, 1454, the Parliament Rolls record the follov.-ing votes, which I must ask the reader to take on my authority, the references lying before me as I write. Between 1428 and 1432, the King received three subsidies and five-sixths of another subsidy without deduction. A statement on the Parliament Roll of the second Edward IV. tells us that a full fifteenth and tenth was still estimated at ;!^3 7,000 ; but as we have never been able to make more than ;!^36,ooo out of the proceeds of any one, we will take the amount at that sum, making an aggregate total of ;i^i38,ooo. Between 1433 and 1445 the King received six further subsidies ; but under a deduction of ^4,000 from each for the benefit of impoverished places, these will come to ;^ 1 92,000. Between 1446 and 1454, again the King received four and a half subsidies, but under a deduction of ;;^6,ooo from each, making another total of ^^i 35,000. The King also received in 1450 a graduated income tax. Incomes from ^i tO;^2o per annum were required to pay at the rate of 6d. on the ;£\ ; incomes from ^^20 to ;;^2oo a year paid i2d. on the ^\ ; and above ;^2oo double that. Eventually in- comes under £2 and ^{^3 a year from real and personal ])roperty respectively were excused. The Commons were reluctant to vote the tax, which was unpopular; it was made a condition that persons should be assessed on their own simple oath, and
98
ACCOUNTS OF HENRY VI.
that no further inquiry as to their means should be lawful. When the next Parlia- ment met it was stated that not a step had yet been taken towards raising the money. Fresh orders were issued ; I was prepared to believe that the whole thing would fall to the ground. But I was mistaken : the En- rolled Foreign Accounts (33rd to 38th years) tell us that the commissioners, after four years of diligent work, succeeded in getting in a sum of ;^i2,i54 as the entire proceeds of an income tax of 6d. to 2s. on the J[\,\ of all incomes over jQ2 and jQt) ^"^ ^'^^ whole of England. In 1440 a poll-tax on foreigners was instituted, householders being condemned to pay IS. 4d. yearly, and servants 6d. This was extended in 1449 by the imposition of 6s. 8d. on each resident foreign merchant, and IS. 8d. on each clerk ; but this need not trouble us, as the total seems only to have reached jQt-oo a year. Adding up the amounts of the other Parliamentary grants and spreading them over the twenty-six years, we get _;^2 6,000 a year to be added to the ordinary revenues. The clerical grants remain. From Wake's State of the Church, W' ilkin's Concilia, and the second Appendix to Deputy Keeper's Third Report, we learn that during the period under consideration the King received from the southern Convoca- tion 15^ tenths, and 5^ from the clergy of the Northern Province. At the rates above given these would make up ;^204,55o, or ;!^7,867 a year to be added. The whole then will stand thus :
Ordinary Revenue Lay Subsidies Clerical Subsidies
;^4O,50O
26,000
7,867
^^74,367
I have not got the total of any Receipt Roll of the period to compare with this ; but the Issue Rolls from 1428 to 1450 (all that are available) show an average expenditure of j[^\o<^,\i^ a year. The difference repre- sents financial embarrassment ; but it does not exactly give the measure of the King's indebtedness If the totals of the Receipt Rolls were before us we should probably find them giving an apparent income equal to the expenditure, the accounts being swelled on the one side by loans contracted in anticipa- tion of the ordinary sources of revenue, on
the other by the drafts given to the persons advancing the loans. These " assignments " were often drawn within a few days of the time of the advance, and they are always treated on the Rolls as actual repayment ; but in fact they were only securities for repayment, of which Sir John Fortescue tells us that a poor man would rather have had 100 marks {£,(i(i 13s. 4d.) in cash than ;^ioo by assignment, "wich peraventur shall cost hym right miche, or he can gete his pay- ment and peraventur be never paid thereof" {Governance of England, 119, ed. Plummer). Again, when the Treasury could only pay part of a debt, the practice was to enter the whole as paid, the unpaid balance being credited to the payee as a loan to the King ; the entry of payment on the Issue Roll being balanced on the Receipt Roll by a fictitious "assignment," which is marked as "cancelled" and retained in the Exchequer. When the unpaid balance comes to be paid to the creditor the sum is entered on the Issue Roll, not as paid on account of the original and true debt, but of the fictitious " advance " by " restitution of a tally."
Thus we trace three kinds of payment on the Rolls : ist, payment in cash, "/« dettariis solutis /^ 2nd, payment by assignment de- livered to the creditor, to be cashed by him as and when he may ; and 3rdly, payment by cancelled assignment, which is not even delivered to the creditor, but retained in the Exchequer. The first sort of assignment makes money to appear as paid into and out of the Exchequer, which perhaps was not paid till long after, perhaps not at all ; under the second sort of assignment money is entered on the Issue Rolls as paid which is not paid at all, and which, if paid at some future time, must figure again on both Rolls.
I will give two instances to show the scale on which those things were done. On the 7th December, 1443, we find on the Re- ceipt Roll (Mich. 22 H. VI.) an entry of ;^i 1,666 13s. 4d. advanced to the King by the Duke of York; the money, however, is not marked on the margin "sol" {soluttim — paid), as it ought to have been if really paid in. On the 21st February, 1444, we find, on the Issue Roll of the same term, assign- ments made to the Duke in payment of the above amount ; also, on the same day, pay-
ACCOUNTS OF HENRY VI.
99
ment in cash of another ;£ii,666 13s. 46.. due for the wages of men who have been serving in operations against Dieppe in Nor- mandy. The assignments for the " advance " of ;^ 1 1,666 13s. 4d. were only cashed by instalments between the 28th and 32nd years (1449-1454), though they are entered as pay- ments of February, 1444. The cash advance by the Duke, and the cash repayment to him, appear to be both fictitious ; the wages being nominally paid at once in cash by handing back to the Duke his own money, but really only by instalments between 1449 and 1454. Both Rolls, however, are at once swelled by cross entries of ;^i 1,666 13s. 4d. Again, in July 1446 (Easter, 24 H. VI.), we have assignments to the Duke of York for ;;^2 6,000 in payment of his salary as King's Lieutenant of Normandy; the Duke is obliged at once to restore tallies for ;,^6,62o, which are cancelled and re-entered as a loan from him. At what dates the assignments that he took away with him were paid I cannot say ; but the fresh assignments eventually given to him for the ;!^6,620 were not finally liquidated till the 2nd Edward IV. (146 2- 1463). The schedule of debts drawn up by Lord Crom- well in 1433 showed an amount of ;^i66,96i as owing; one drawn up in Parliament in 1449 gave p^" 3 7 2, 000 as the amount of debt. Our third period, from 1454 to 1461, was one of confusion, the Wars of the Roses beginning with the First Battle of St. Albans in May, 1455 ; and the revenue went down quickly. I will not attempt an estimate for the earlier years of the period ; but an analysis of the receipts of the 37th year (1458-1459) shows that, exclusive of loans and cancelled tallies, the King's entire revenue was just over ;i^2 2,000. The old Crown revenues, in spite of repeated acts for the resumption of Crown lands, have fallen to ;^i3,i35,and the Customs tO;^7,558. But these amounts cannot stand. The Lancaster estates alone, with Wales, Chester and Corn- wall, were worth ^^10,000 or ;^ir,ooo a year; while the Enrolled Foreign Accounts show Hanaper Receipts to the amount of ;^3,ooo a year in this period. It is clear that in this year the Rcccij)! Rolls only record the cash paid into the Exchequer, without noticing the payments made direct to Crown creditors by the parties ac-
countable to the Crown. Our estimate for the third period must, however, in any case be something under ^^40,000 a year, as that was the amount (without direct grants) in the previous period. The feudal revenues of the 37 th year, small as the total is, are eked out by a most unusual amount of fines on sheriffs for insufficient returns to writs and escape of prisoners ; estreats of recognisances for good behaviour and the like, testifying to disorders of several years' standing. In one place we have 117 consecutive entries of " forfeitures," the amounts forfeited varying from 3s. 4d. to 20s. The persons condemned include some of the highest names in the land and of both sides in politics, as Northumberland, Norfolk, Arundel.
I have alluded to the unsolved question of interest on the royal loans. Sir John Fortescue, who ought to know what he was writing about, says distinctly that the King's creditors took "the 4th or 5th penny" from him for all that they advanced {Governance of Englaftd, 118). All I can say is that not a trace of this appears on the Rolls. If the King repays all that is entered as advanced to him, that is as much as he does. The only suggestion that I can make is that perhaps the interest was discounted, the creditor receiving an acknowledgment of a larger sum than he had actually advanced ; but then it seems strange that the treasurer should charge himself with more money than he had received.
The rates of Customs' duties did not vary much during the reign, at any rate so far as natives were concerned. Tonnage remained throughout at 3s. the tun of wine, and poundage at i2d. on the ;£i value of general merchandise, including native cloth. The wool duties payable by natives, in spite of some efforts to raise them, remained at 40s. the sack throughout. The duty from foreigners varied a good deal. A total of 63s. 4d. the sack was imposed on them in 1422, to be reduced shortly to 53s. 4d. {Proceedings P. Council, iii. 35). In 1435 the amount is given as 56s. 8d., and in 1437 as 63s. 4d. ; while in 1453, when the customs were voted for the King's life, the total to be paid by foreigners on the sack of wool is laid down as loos. This duty, if enforced, would
lOO
ACCOUNTS OF HENRY VI.
simply exclude them from dealing in their own names in the English market.
To glance at the expenditure of the reign. The Household, down to the time of the re- ductions made in 1454, appears to have been kept with singular regularity at the moderate amount of ^13,000 — _;^i5,ooo a year, ex- clusive of the Great Wardrobe, which came to p^i,5oo — p^i,6oo a year more.* From the 4th December, 1454, to the nth May, 1456, we find ;^i 7,684 spent. t
Calais was always a terrible drain ; the expenditure can be traced fully through the Enrolled Foreign Accounts. There were two accounts for Calais, that of the treasurer for wages, and that of the victualler for the rations which the Government had to supply. From the 4th February, 142 1, to the same day in 1424, the apparent expenditure for the combined accounts was ;!^43,444 ; in the next two years we have ;!^43,2 76 recorded as spent in the same way. Again, from 1426 to 1428, we have;!^26,374 spent. Then passing on, in the five years beginning 24th June, 145 1, we have ;!^95,5oo paid for wages, with ;^2 2,676 spent for victualling in five other years about the same time, but not quite the same years.
Lastly, between 145 1 and 1456, we have P^ 16,484 spent on works, making thus a grand total of ;^ 13 1,65 7 spent, or nearly ^27,000 a year. Of this amount we note that ;^49,58o were apparently borrowed from the merchants of the Calais Staple, of which ;jr4o,9oo went to clear off the account of Edmund, Duke of Somerset, up to the 20th April, 1456 — nearly a year after his death — the rest going to the Earl of Warwick. But this was a great efiort made once in a way. The expenditure was really beyond what the Government could defray, and the garrison was in a state of chronic mutiny. One word as to the large sums left owing by the Government for wages of war, as, for instance, to Sir John Fastolf, who claimed * So for the Household, a summary of the four first years in the Chapter House Miscellanea, Lord Cromwell's estimate for the nth year and sundry Q. R. Miscellanea for the 22nd, 25th, 26th, 29th, and 30th years. The estimate, therefore, of ;[{^24,ooo for the 28th year, given in Rot. Parlt., v. 183, seems un- reasonable. For the Great Wardrobe, see accounts also in the Q. R. Miscell. for the 17th, 18th, 21st, 22nd, and 28th years, t Q. R. Miscell. Wardrobe, {\.
£a,ooq at his death.* The indenture of a man-at-arms, engaging to serve under the Duke of York in 1441, throws some light on this.t The captain engages to pay over to the recruit the full amount of the two first quarters' pay, always advanced by the Govern- ment before the expedition sailed ; for his pay after that the soldier practically agrees to be content with what he can get abroad ; thus, when the captains charged the Govern- ment with full wages for the whole time, it was well known that they were claiming to be reimbursed for what they had not spent.
TABLE I. Issues 21-29 Henry VI. From Pell and Auditors' Rolls.
Mich.
Easter Mich.
Easter
Mich.
Easter
Mich. Easter
Mich.
Easter Mich.
Easter
Mich.
Easter
Mich.
Easter
Mich,
Thursday, 4 Oct., 1442 (given as 3d Oct.) — Sat., 6 April, 1443 ...*;7o.
Sat., 4 May — Friday, 26 July, 1443.,.
Thursd.,3 Oct., 1443— Sat., 22 Feby., 1444 4I;
Frid., 24 April— Wed., 26 August,
1444 39;
Wed., 30 Sept., 1444— Mond., 1 Mar.,
1445 42
Frid., 9 April — Wed., 21 July, 1445... '42 Mond., II Oct., 1445 — Mond., 7 Mar.,|
1446 (shillings and pence illegible) *i3o, Thursd., 5 May— Frid., 19 August,
1446 * 8s
Thursd., 6 Oct., 1446— Frid., 17 Feb.,
1447 (given in two subtotals) ...* 50, Sat., 22 April — Tuesd. 25 July, 1447 a Tuesd., 17 Oct., 1447 — Tuesd., 12th
March, 1448 (Auditors)
Frid., 12 April — Tuesd., 16 July,
Wed., 9 Oct., 1448— Tuesd., 8 April,
^ 1449 *
Mond., 5 May — Wed., 24 Sept., 1449
(Pell defective), about
Tuesd., 30 Sept., 1449 — Tuesd., 31
March, 1450 (Auditors) *
Thursday, 16 April — Sat., 29 August,
1450
Tuesd., 6 Oct., 1450 — Sat., 10 April
(given as 8 April), 1451 (Auditors)...
a " Sum omitted by accident."
9i o
ic Si
TABLE II. From Receipt Rolls, Mich, and Easter, 37 Hem. VI. (Sept., 1458-1459). N.B. — Without loans or cancelled entries.
(i.) Old Crown Revenues 13,135 i 9 '
i2.) Customs 3.) Hanaper ,
(4.) Alien Tax
(5.) Lay Subsidy (arrears)
(6.) Clerical Subsidy (arrears)
(7.) Vacant Sees
(8.) Sundries (wool sold on King's account, ;£ioo ; cash returned, X;i79 13s. 4d.)
|
7,558 II 238 4 94 8 ID 15 254 18 450 0 |
3 8 10 I 8 9 |
|
279 13 |
4 |
;C22i02I 14 4
* Paston, L. I, 358, etc. + AnhcFologia, xvii. 214.
THE aMEAGHERS OF IKERRIN.
lOI
TABLE III.
Customs, Henry VI. From Receipt Rolls.
37TH Year, Sept., 1448-1449.
;£ S. d.
Mich i8)4oS 3 "
• Easter 71674 o 9
;C26,o79 4 8 N.B.— Without cancelled tallies. These are :
Mich 8,508 iS 2
2,189 '9 '°
Easter ...
(tXofirfi 18 O
Cf)c ©'^eagftetg Df 31fe^i:nn.
HE family of O'Meagher, which held long sway, played no inglorious part in the history of Ireland. The Cinel Meachair'^ are de- scended from Fionnchada, son of Connla, son ofCian, second sonof Oiliol Olum, King of Munster in the third century.
In 1 6 1 7 it was conceived so important to ^ ascertain who were the heads of the clanns, that the Earl of Thomond compiled a " Book of Pedigrees of the meere Irish," in which he records that of Meachair, who was thirteenth in descent from Cian. Sir George Carew, President of Munster about this time, also collected for the use of Lord Burghley " Descents of the meere Irish," in which he gives five generations of the O'Meaghers. ** Pedigrees of the Irish Nobility," preserved in the British Museum,! also record five generations of the O'Meaghers ; and beside these there are nine other pedigrees of the O'Meaghers in the libraries of Lord Rodcn, of the Royal Irish Academy, and of Trinity College. That in possession of Lord Roden, written on vellum by Duald Mac Ferbis, brings the pedigree downtoTeige orThaddeus O'Meagher, who was thirty-eighth in descent from Cian; and a pedigree in the Royal Irish Academy, which was compiled in 1664 by Cucory O'Clery, one of the Four Masters, also written on vellum, brings the pedigree down to John O'Meagher, who was thirty- ninth in descent from Cian.
At the foot of this pedigree was inserted the following note : " The steed and battle- dress of every Lord of them belong to the
* Cincl Meachair, descendants of Meachair. t Harleian MSS.
Comarba of Cronan* and Inc/ianambeo^ and these must go round him (the chief of the Meachair) when proclaiming him Lord, and the Comarba should be at his shoulder {i.e., the place of honour), and he should rise before the Comarba, and that Meachair was King of Ele."t
The territory of the Cinel Meachair was called Ui Cairin, modernized Ikerrin, a barony in the north of the County Tipperary, situate at the foot of Bearnan Eile, i.e., the gapped mountain of Ely, now called the Devil's Bit from its curious outline. The barony contains 69,381 acres of arable land and land and water, and it is subdivided into twelve parishes, rated at the annual value of ;^45,ooo. The rivers Nore and Suir rise in the parish of Borrisnafarny.
We find the earliest notice of the clann in an ancient life of St. Columba,J which in- forms us that one of his disciples named Machar received episcopal ordination, and undertook to preach the Gospel in the northern parts of the Pictish kingdom. The legend adds that Columba admonished him to found his church, when he should arrive upon the bank of a river where it formed by its windings the figure of a bishop's crozier. Obeying the injunctions of his master, Machar advanced northward preaching Christianity, until he found at the mouth of the Don the situation indicated by St. Columba, and finally settled there with his Christian colony, and founded the church, which from its situation was called the Church of Aberdon.
In O'Clery's Calendar of the Irish Saints,^ the feast of " The Daughter of Meachair " is fixed on 7th September, and that of Dermod (son of Meachair), Bishop ol Airthear-Maiglic,
* St. Cronan was patron of Roscrea, the principal town in Ikerrin, and his successor was called his Comarb. Inchanambeo, or the island of living, also in O'Meagher's country, has been described by Geraldus Cambrensis, who visited it in 1 185.
f A gold cap or morion, which may have ser%-ed as a crown, and been used at the inauguration of the O'Meagher, was found in a lx)g at the Devil's Bit mountain in 1692. Its ornamentation was undoubtedly Irish, and was identical with some earlier golden articles — Itinuhc and /tlmlir — found in Ireland, and consisted of embossed circles, some parallel and others arranged in angles of the chevron pattern.
X Adamnan's Life of St. Columba, edited by Rev. Dr. Reeves, and Transactions of the Spalding Club.
§ Edited by Rev. Dr. Totkl, S.F.T.C.D.,and Rev. Dr. Reeves, now Bishop of Armagh.
102
THE aMEAGHERS OF IKERRIN.
Tuath-ratha (Tooraah, County Fermanagh), on the 6th January,
The War of the Gaedhill with Gaill* and the Chronicon Scotoriini\ record that King Malachy, Monarch of Erinn in the year 1012, " led a plundering expedition against the Danes, and he ravaged as far as Ben Edair (Howth) ; but Macmordha,J son of Murchad, and Sitruic,§ son of Amhlaidh, and the Danes of Leinster, overtook them and killed the whole of one of their three plundering parties. There fell then Flann, son of Malachy, and Lorean, son of Echtigern (King) of Cinel Meachair, and two hundred along with them. This was the defeat of Drainen, now Drinan, County Dublin."
In 1280 Seaffriadh Bacagh MacGilla, Patraic the Lame, married Inghin, daughter of O'Meachair, King of Ui Cariin [Ikerrin].
In 1 315 Edmund, fifth Chief Butler of Ireland, received a grant of the return of all writs in his Cantrod of Ormon Hyogurty and Hyocarry Ikerrin; and 1328 James, his son and successor, was created Earl of Ormonde by Edward III., who granted to this noble- man's son, James, the royalties, fees, and all other liberties in the County Tipperary, and the royal liberty thus established continued down to the year 17 14, when by an Act of the Irish Parliament, 2 George I., it was abolished.
In 1 361 King Edward III. sent his son, the Duke of Clarence, to Ireland to fill the office of Lord Deputy. In 1367 the memorable Parliament of Kilkenny was held, in which was passed the celebrated Statute of Kilkenny. This remarkable ordinance, though chiefly directed against the Anglo-Normans who had adopted the laws and customs of the natives, contains some enactments full of the jealous and penal spirit which continued for centuries after to pervade and infect the whole course of English legislation in Ireland.
By this statute it was high-treason for any person of English origin to contract a mar- riage with an Irish family ; the infraction of this stern law, unless dispensed with by the King's special permission, was punished with unrelenting severity.
* Edited by Rev. Dr. Todd, F.T.C.D.
t Edited by W. M. Hennessy, M.R.I.A.
X King of Leinster. § King of the Danes.
On the 23rd December, 1385, Richard II. granted a license to Sir Almaric Grace, styled Baron Grace, for the better preservation and improvement of the peace of the country, to form an alliance with Tibinia, daughter of O'Meaghir, dynast of Ikerrin, all the laws to the contrary notwithstanding.
On the 20th March, 1372, Stephen, Bishop of Meath, had an order for ;!^32 6, equivalent to ;^i 3,000 sterling, granted him for having risked his life in various parts of Munster with men-at-arms, fighting and reducing to peace O'Meaghir, O'Brien of Thomond, McConmarre (MacNamara), and other rebels.
The annals of Lough Ce* record that a great slaughter was committed by Art, King of Leinster, in Lough Garman (Wexford), in the year 1401; in retaliation for this the foreigners of Athdiath (the Danes of Dublin) attacked the Gaidhill of Leinster, and a great many of the retained Kerns of Munster, under Tadhg O'Meachair, were slain there.
About this time Gilla-na-naomb O'Hindrin wrote a topographical poem, giving an ac- count of the principal families of Leinster and Munster, and the districts occupied by them at that period.t He thus mentions the O'Meaghers :
Mightily have they filled the land, The O'Meachairs, the territory of Ui Cairin, A tribe at the foot of the Bearnan Eile ; It is no shame to celebrate their triumph.
In the annals of the Four Masters the death of O'Meagher, chief of Ikerrin, is recorded in the year 14 13.
On the accession of Edward IV., so small was the portion of Ireland which acknow- ledged the authority of English law, that from four small shires which constituted the terri- tory of the Pale, were all the lords, knights, and burgesses that composed its Parliament summoned ; and the fierce clans which sur- rounded the Pale were always ready to take advantage of the general confusion to which the contest for the English Crown had given rise, and the inhabitants of the districts bordering upon the Irish were forced to purchase exemption from them by annual pensions to their chiefs.
* Edited by Wm. H. Hennessy, M.R.I.A. t He died in 1420 ; this poem has been edited by John O'Donovan, LL.D.
THE aMEAGHERS OF I KERR IN.
103
In 1462 an army gathered by MacWilliam (Bourke), of Clanrickard,* marched into Icarin (Ikerrin), where O'Meachayr, i.e.., Thadg, with his confederates met and opposed them, and William Bourke, MacWilliam's son, was slain by wan cast of a dart by O'Meachayr's son, by which wan throw O'Meachayr escaped his army. Thady O'Meachayr, King of Icarin, died, and his son supplied his place.
The next notice we find of the O'Meaghers is in an Irish MS., preserved in the public library of Rennes in Brittany,t being a trans- lation from English, from Greek, and from Hebrew into Irish, " of the travels of Sir John Mandevil," and the age of the Lord when John made this journey was one thousand years and three hundred and thirty-two years. J The age when Fingin, son of Dermod, son of Donnel, son of Fingin, son of Dermod mor O'Mahony, put it ultimately into Irish, was one thousand four hundred and seventy-two years, and John was thirty-four years visiting the world, and on his return to Rome the Pope confirmed his book, " These are the Lords who were over the Gaedhill ;" and after naming MacCarthy mor, O'Sullivan, O'Brien, O'Neill, O'Kelly, O'Connor, O'Donnell, and others, the notice continues, " and Gilla-na- nacmh, son of Tadhg, son of Gilla-na-nacmh, was over the Ui Meachair, et alii multi in Erinn, from that time forth, who are not reckoned for commemoration."
With the view to the better defence of the English territory at this time, it was enacted in a Parliament held at Naas that every merchant should bring twenty shillings sterling worth of bows and arrows into Ireland for every twenty pounds worth of goods he imi)orted from England.§ Had the Irish but known their strength, or rather had they been capable of that spirit of union and concert, the whole military force of the Pale could not have withstood them.
Upon the resignation in 1490 of Wm. Roche, Bishop of Cork and Cloync, who was concerned in the rebellion of Perkin War-
* Translated from the Irish by Dudley MacFIrbissc, for Sir James Ware, Arch., Mis. Vol. I., p. 246.
t Edited by Rev. Dr. Todd, F.S.A., in Prue, R.I.A. (Irish MSS. Series).
X Columbus did not start on his first expedition until the year 1492.
§ Cox.
beck, Thaddeus Meachair was appointed to succeed him the same year. The temporali- ties of the see were in a great part the gifts and grants of the Barrys, Fitzmaurices, and other southern chieftains, and on being seized by them Pope Innocent VIII. issued a brief on the 1 8th July, 1492, commanding them to desist from their usurpation. Bishop Meachair in the meantime set out for Rome, on his way took mortally sick, and died at Ivrea in Piedmont.
THE ARMS OF O'mEAGHER.
The writer was favoured last May with a letter from Canon Saroglia, Chancellor of the Cathedral of Ivrea, which contained the fol- lowing narrative translated from the Italian :
"In 1492 passed to heaven the blessed Thaddeus, an Irish bishop, concerning whom we hear the following details : He was of the royal stock of O'Meacher, born in the town of Cloyne (quere Clonyne in Ikerrin), in Ireland, and was probably Bishop of Cork.* In the second half of the fifteenth century the lay powers in the country set about de- priving the Church of its immunities, and compelled some of its bishops to seek in foreign lands that peace that they could not have in their own country. Amongst them was the blessed Thaddeus, who set out for Rome, and passed through Ivrea, and on the night of the 24th October, 1492, was admitted as
• He was Bishop of Cork and Cloyne 1490-92.
104
THE aMEAGHERS OF IKERRIN.
an unrecognised pilgrim to the Hospice of St. Anthony; he was broken down by the long journey over the Great St. Bernard, then covered with snow. On the following night the officials beheld a great light gleaming on the bed where the stranger lay. Being fright- ened they ran to extinguish it ; but to their great surprise they discovered that it was a light that did not burn, and that the pilgrim, breathing an air of paradise, was then dead. Next morning the Governors of the Hospice were prayed to relate to Monseigneur Garr- gliatti the miraculous occurrence, and on going to the Hospice and examining the papers found on the person of the deceased pilgrim, they discovered that he was a bishop ; they then thought it their duty to provide him with a befitting interment. The bishop with the chapter and clergy, accompanied by all orders of citizens, went processionally to the Hospice and removed the body of the pilgrim, and caused it to be clad in bishop's dress. The bells of the city were set tolling, and the bishop translated the corpse to the cathedral, where solemn obsequies were held. Remembering the extraordinary light at the time of the decease, and knowing that certain miraculous cures had occurred at that very time, the bishop decided that the corpse should be interred in the cathedral, and at the altar of St. Andrew where reposed the relics of St. Eusebius, Bishop of Ivrea. On the 27th August, 1742, Monseigneur Michele Vittorio de Villa caused the sepulchre, where were the bodies of St. Eusebius and the blessed Thaddeus, to be opened, and the body of the latter was found whole, and not decayed, clothed in a violet soutane and rochet, his white beard falling on his breast, and a ring on his finger."
Amongst the Lansdowne MSS.J there is a paper dated 18 Henry VIH. (1526), in which the King is recommended to appoint as lieutenant one active and politic nobleman, with experience of the land, hke the Duke of Norfolk, and to give him a sufficient army, 4,coo light horse, gunners, morris-pikes, bows, bills, all quick and hardy men, that McMur- rough's, O'Byrne's, and O'Connor's countries should be taken ; that they were the key of Ireland, and that Melaughlan, O'Molmoye, O'Doyne, O'Dymsye, O'More, and O'Mehayr X 2,405 Ireland, 15,983 British Museum.
will be dearly won, and as each country was won the land should be let in freeholds at fourpence an arable acre ; and when it was once brought to quiet and order the King might, by Act of Parliament, enlarge his realm as he pleased.
Eleven years later (12th August, 1537) Eord Deputy Grey and his Council report to the King that they had won a battle in O'Magher's country, and taken the gentleman owner thereof and all that were therein pri- soners, and forced O'Magher to deliver hostages.
In the month ot July, 1538, Lord Leonard Gray proceeded on a military progress through a greater part of the kingdom, receiving sub- mission of all the chiefs through whose countries he passed. In this progress, at- tended by the lords of the Pale, he traversed Offaley, Elyd, O'Carroll, Ormond, and Arra. It is not mentioned that he visited the adjacent barony of Ikerrin, but it is probable that he interviewed its chief, for in the follow- ing year (7th August, 1539) an indenture was made between the King and Gullernowe O'Maghyr, captain of his nation. The King accepted O'Maghyr as his faithful subject, and O'Maghyr bound himself, his heirs and successors, captains of the said countr}', to pay to the King tvvelvepence, lawful money of Ireland, annually for every carucate of land within his country and dominion of Yny Kyryne. Whenever a general hosting was made he would lead to the Deputy twenty horsemen and forty galloglas well armed according to the usage of the country, with victuals for forty days at his own cost and charges. When the deputy came near the borders of the said country, O'Maghyr would assist him with his whole power for three days, and he and his successors would make a sufficient open road through their country for the more easy passage of the King's waggons and other warlike instruments, and of the King's men as often as they should be required to do so by the deputy.
At this period O'Meagher held the Castle of Roscrea, which belonged to the Earl of Ormond by inheritance.
On the 28th June, 1549, Captain Walter ap Poyll reports from the Nenagh a dis- sension between the Lord Marshal and O'Meagher for certain prey. Nine years later
THE OMEAGHERS OF IKERRIN.
105
a commission was issued to Sir Henry Radcliffe, Knight, Lieutenant of the King's and Queen's Counties, to parle with, take pledges from, and punish with fire and sword the O'Maughers, O'Dunnes, O'Carrolls, and others.
In 1562 the Earl of Sussex reports to the Queen (Elizabeth) what he conceived for the reducing of her English subjects in Ireland, to live under obedience of the law and of her Irish subjects, to live under certain constitu- tions more agreeable to their natures and
of the Shenon lived in obedience under the rule of Sir Henry Radcliffe, Captain of Leise and Offaly, and for the most part de- sired to give over Irish tenures to hold their lands of the Queen by succession, to have their country made shire-ground, and to live under the obedience of the laws.*
In 1567 Sir Henry Sydney, with the view of informing himself of the actual state of Munster, took a journey into that province, and the account he has left presents a picture of lawlessness and abused power. He re-
KUINS OF CLONYNE CASTLE.
customs, and suggests when Munster shall be settled the president should travail to procure the Irishry inhabiting the other Munster (Upper Munster), to give over all the Irish tenures and to receive states tail, and that bonaught* should be levied upon O'CarroU and O'Mawhcr to the extent of ^^360 ; and later on that year, Lord Sussex reported that O'Maughcr and other Irish lords on this side
* Bottaitt^ht, a certain allowance unto the Queen's galloj;las or kerne by the Irishry, wlio were bound to yield a yearly proportion of both money and victuals for tlieir finding. \0U XIV,
ported to the Queen that Ikerrin, called O'Meagher's country, was uninhabited, having been wasted by the younger brothers of the Earl of Ormond.f
On the nth Januarj', 157 1, Gillernewe O'Meagher, alias The O'Meaghir, received a pardon, subject to the payment of a fine oi j£$.
In 1576 Sir Henry Sydney reported that the Queen's writ had not currency in Tip- perar)'.
* CakiiJar Carciv MSS.,\>. -i/^e. t Journal Kilkattiy Archteological Society, vol. i., 1872, p. 158.
I
io6
THE O'MEAGHERS OF IKERRIN.
In 1579 James Fitzmaurice, "a champion of the Irish cause," set sail from Lisbon with three ships provided with arms and ammuni- tion, a small supply of money, and a force of about 100 men, and with this means did these sanguine adventurers set out on their mission for the relief and enfranchisement of Ireland, and landed at Smenvick in Kerry ; and finding that the natives did not repair to him, the small band began to express dis- content, and Fitzmaurice, after remaining for a month, set off for Holy Cross in Tipperary to seek aid for the desperate adventure he had embarked, and Tipperary being then the region in which, as the chronicler of the time tells us, the fuel of rebellion was always most ready to kindle.
In the autumn of 1582 the Earl of Ormonde plundered Ui Cairn Duharra and South Ely ; and at this period it was generally remarked that the lowing of a cow or the song of a ploughman could scarcely be heard from Dun Caoin to Cashel.
Dymoke, in his treatise, gives a particular of the rebel forces then (April, 1599) em- ployed in the rebellion, and that Keidagh O'Meagher had 60 foot and 30 horse under his command,* and Fynes Morrison confirms that statement.
In 1599 Sir George Carew was appointed President of Munster, and the following year he offered large rewards for the heads of the leading rebels. In the month of September 1600, he received intelligence in Kil- kenny that Spanish forces amounting to 5,000 had landed, and taken possession of Kinsale. Munster, which had been reduced to a tranquil state by the stern and vigilant rule of the Lord President, remained for some time undisturbed.
Red Hugh O'Donnell, marching to Kinsale to the assistance of the Spaniards, crossed the shoulder of Slieve Bloom into Ikerrin, and remained twenty-six days on the hill of Druin Saileeh awaiting Hugh O'Neill, who was marching slowly after him ; and O'Neill, in his march through Ikerrin, encamped at Roscrea and at Templetuohy. Sir George Carew, notwithstanding all his skill in coercion, found the rebel spirit had become too powerful; and between abettors abroad and their ruthless masters at home, the * Page 130.
hapless natives were at once lured and goaded into rebellion. He reported the arrival in Ikerrin of O'Donnell and O'Neill, and that one called Keidagh O'Maghir had gathered 300 rogues together and did many outrages, and that the third son of Viscount Mountgarrett, some of the Graces, and Thomas Butler, a kinsman of Sir Edward Butler, with 200 men, were drawing into Tipperary to assist Keidagh O'Meagher, and suggested to the Lord Deputy Mountjoy the suppression of that upstart rebel.
In 161 7 Angus O'Daly, a Munster bard, started, at the instance it is stated of Carew, on an excursion through the four provinces to bespatter with ridicule and contempt every chieftain on his way, and on such of the descendants of the Anglo-Normans as had adopted their customs and formed alliances with them. O'Daly executed his task by attempting to prove in detail, by force of assertion, that the Irish chieftains were neither hospitable nor generous, and that they were too poor to afford being so. He traversed Leinster, Ulster, and Connaught, but his excursion was brought to an end in Tipperary, where he received, it is said, that kind of reward which he did not anticipate. Whilst staying at Bawnmadrum Castle with the O'Meagher, he composed a satire on his host, which the servant of the chieftain resented by stabbing him to the heart. He is said to have composed — extempore — the remarkable quatrain respecting his having so recklessly lampooned his countrymen :
All the false judgments that I have passed Upon the chiefs of Munster I forgive ; The meagre servant of the grey O'Meagher has Passed an equivalent judgment upon me.
The Inquisitions taken between the years 1622 and 1637 by the Sovereign's escheators give some interesting particulars of the O'Meaghers of Barnane, Boulylane, Clona- kenny, Clonyne, Cromlyn, Garrymore, Lisna- losky, Louraine, etc., showing what lands they were seized of, their value, by what services they were held, and who, and of what age, were the heirs to same.
Lord Castlehaven* in 1645, on his march from Limerick, invested O'Meagher's Castle of Clonakeny, that stood in his way possessed
* He held a command under the Irish Con- federates.
THE aMEAGHERS OF IKERRIN.
107
of by the enemy, and there being no other passage he writes : " I sent to the adjacent villages and got together crows of iron, pick- axes, and whatever else could be found, and fell a-storming of the castle, and in three or four hours took it. In this place I left 100 men, and being over pretty safe I lodged that night at my ease."
This castle is situated at foot of Boirisnoe mountain, near the sources of the Nore and Suir.
And in 1649 the Sheriff of Tipperary issued a commission to Teige O'Meagher of Keilewardy and others to " ymmediately raise a body of horse well accommodated with swerds and pistolls, after the rate of one horse and means out of every five colipes."*
Civil War having broken out in 1641, Tadgog O'Meagher, son of the O'Meagher, raised a Regiment of Foot, which formed part of O'Dwyer's Brigade. This Brigade surrendered to Sankey, commander of the Parliamentary forces in Munster, on the 23 rd March, 1652, with all the honours of war, the Brigadier, and all the commissioned officers having the right to enjoy their horses and arms, and liberty to transport themselves to serve in any foreign army in amity with England, persons guilty of murther, or members of the First General Assembly, or First Supreme Council, alone excepted. Brigadier O'Dwyer availed himself of the permission to go abroad, and went, with 3,500 men, to serve under Conde in the Low Countries ; but his brother, Lieutenant- Colonel Donough O'Dwyer, Colonel Toige Oge O'Meagher, Theobald Butler, Ulick Bourke, and others, were not suffered to de- part, and Miss Hickson, in \\Qx Ireland in the Seventeenth Century\\ writes that they were put upon their trial at a court held at Clonmel, about the 8th November, 1652, for the murder deposed to by one EUice Jeane, convicted, and soon after executed. The writer could not find any notice of this trial in the Records of the High Court of Justice; Miss Hickson informed the writer that she made the statement on the authority of Carte. Local tradition bears out her statement, and adds that Colonel
* As much pasture as would feed a bullock, cow, or colt for a year, t Longmans, 1SS2.
O'Meagher rode to the scaffold on his black charger, which escaped after its master was hanged, and galloped back to Clonakenny, where it wandered at large for many years. The writer also found a confirmation of Colonel O'Meagher's death in /V'^^^j Originals* preserved in the Bibliothbque Nationale, Paris : " Teige Oge O'Mahar, who suffered in Crom- well's day, married a Butler, but had noe heirs."
The Irish Confederates were finally subdued in the summer of 1652, and then took place a scene not witnessed in Europe since the conquest of Spain by the Vandals. The captains and men of war numbered to 40,000, were suffered to embark for the Continent, and forced *' to feed themselves by the blades of their swords in the service of foreign countries." Those who stayed behind had families that prevented them from following their example. They returned to their former neighbourhoods, took up their abode in the offices attached to their mansions, or shared the dwellings of their late tenants — their mansions being occupied by some English officer or soldier — and employed themselves in tilling the lands they had lately owned as lords, until the nth October, 1652, when they were ordered to transplant to Connaught, the news being proclaimed by beat of drum and sound of trumpet in the adjoining town j ploughmen, labourers, and others of the lower order of people excepted, because they would be useful to the English as earth-tillers and herdsmen ; and others of them, with a crowd of orphan boys and girls, were transported to serve the English planters in the West Indies; and thereupon the conquering army divided ancient inheritances amongst them by lot.
Every person ordered to transplant was furnished with a certificate which described his family and friends who intended to bear him company to Connaught, and his stock and crop in ground. The writer's ancestor, John O'Meagher, being then a minor, the certificate was made out in favour of his mother, Anne O'Meagher, of Cloyne Castle, widow, and seventy-five persons agreed to accomi)any her into exile. For each acre of winter corn she left behind, three acres of land were to be assigned, summer corn and fallow being included ; for each cow or bullock (if two * Vol. 1909.
I 2
io8
THE OMEAGHERS OF IKERRIN.
years old and upwards), three acres ; for every three sheep, one acre ; for every garron, nag, or mare (if three years old and upwards), four acres ; and for goats and swine proportionally. These assignments were only conditional, for at a future day other Commissioners were to sit at Athlone to determine the extent of lands the transplanters had left behind them, and to ascertain the extent of disaffection to Parliament, by which the proportion to be confiscated was to be regulated. Ikerrin was then parcelled out among the Anneslows, Armingers, Bayleys, Boats, Bulkeleys, Butlers, Chappels, Creuzals, Desbrows, Drakes, Eakins, Eames, Foulkes, Gossans, Hales, Heaths, Joneses, Lenthalls, Lobbs, Mathers, Minchins, Morrises, Noels, Pierceys, Rad- cliffes, Rundalls, Runthorns, Smiths, Thorn- burys, Sympsons, Weekes and Woodcocks; the Dukes of York and Ormonde and Sir Martin Noel getting the largest share.
Of those who went abroad, Theodore dc Meagher served in 1660 in the Spanish Netherlands as Marechal de Campo, under the Prince of Conde.
Civil war having broken out in Ireland in 1689, the O'Meaghers declared for King James, and joined his army. We find John Meagher serving in Sarsfield's Horse ; Cor- nelius, Brian and Edmund O'Meagher in Purcell's Horse; Daniel O'Meagher in Butler's Foot; John, Edmund, and Thomas O'Meagher in Bagenal's Foot ; Philij) O'Meagher in Ox- burg's Foot, and Thomas O'Meagher in Mountcashel's Foot. And after the surrender of Limerick the remains of the Jacobite army volunteered for France and Spain, and we find O'Meaghers serving in the French regiments of Bulkeley, Clare, Galmoy, and Lee ; in the Spanish regiments of Hibernia, Irlanda, Wauchop, and ^^^aterford ; in the Prussian army in Von Derfinger's Dragoons, and in the garrison of Ciistrin; and in the Polish Saxon army, Thadee de Meagher be- came a Lieutenant-General and Colonel Proprietor of the Swiss Guard, and Chamber- lain to the King : he was commissioned by his sovereign to negotiate with Frederick the Great a treaty of neutrality on the breaking out of the Seven Years' War.*
JLonnon Cfteattes*
Bv T. Fairman Ordish.
No. III.
P- 55-
Carlyle's History of Frederick the Great, vol. iv.,
•The Blackfriars Playhouse. {Continued.)
UT the fortunes of all English players were running low in the hour-glass : they were bound up with those of the royal house, and stood out full against the advancing tide of Puritan fanaticism. The stage was one of the most familiar topics of pious abuse and fanatical misrepresentation in the pulpits of the zealots ; and at the outbreak of the Civil War all playhouses and players disappeared like a sinking vessel in the sea. In the mean- time, two years after the proceedings of the Privy Council just noted, the Blackfriars players went through that phase of internal dissension which inevitably precedes dissolu- tion in all associations of men, from nations to limited liability companies. Mr. Halliwell- Phillipps discovered the papers relating to this dispute, in the year 1870, among the official MSS. of the Lord Chamberlain of the House- hold, then preserved at St. James's Palace, but since transferred to the Record Office. They contain some exceedingly interesting par- ticulars concerning the constitution of the King's company of players which acted at the Globe and the Blackfriars playhouses, showing how that eternal question of ways and means, and loaves and fishes was managed. Mr. Halliwell-Phillipps has printed the papers in full,* and here we may pass them in review.
The first document is a petition from three of the players, Robert Benefield, Heliard Swanston, and Thomas Pollard, addressed to the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, Lord Chamberlain of the Household. They petition to be admitted sharers in the Globe and Blackfriars playhouses. The grounds of their case are, that the few members of the company who hold the shares have a full moiety of the whole gains, except the outer doors, and that those of the shareholders who are actors also share the proceeds of these outer doors in addition to the moiety upon their shares. The petitioners complain "that
* Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare, pp. <^y)et seq.
LONDON THEATRES.
109
out of the actors' moiety there is notwith- standing defrayed all wages to hired men, apparell, poetes, lightes, and other charges of the. house whatsoever, soe that betweene the gaynes of the actors and of those interessed as housekeepers there is an unreasonable inequality." Their request is that they may be admitted to purchase, at such rates as have formerly been given, a single share each from those that have the greatest number of shares, and can best spare them : viz., in respect of the Globe, that Burbage and his sister, having each 3^ shares, may sell them two parts, retaining each 2| ; and that Shankes, having 3 parts, may sell them I part : then as regards Blackfriars, that Shankes, having 2 parts while the other share- holders only have i, may assign them i share. The shareholders were as follow :
|
Globe. |
Blackfriars. |
|
|
Burbage |
... z\ ... |
... I |
|
Robinson |
... z\ ... |
... I |
|
Condall |
,.. 2 |
... I |
|
Shankes |
... 3 |
... 2 |
|
Taylor |
... 2 |
... I |
|
Lowen |
.. 2 |
... I |
|
Underwood . |
... 0 |
... I |
The next document is an Order, 12th July, 1635, granting the petition, and signed by the Chamberlain.* But there was some im- pediment, because the players again petitioned the Lord Chamberlain. Then we have the answer of John Shankes, addressed to the Chamberlain. He generally controverts the petition, but the point of the matter pro- bably comes out here :
" That when your suppliant purchased his partes, hee had no certainty thereof more then for one yeere in the Globe, and there was a chargeable suit then depending in the Court of Requestcs betwene Sir Mathcw Brend, knight, and the lessees of the Globe and their assigncs, for the adding of nine yceres to their lease in consideration that they and their predecessors had formerly been at the charge of 1,400 //. in building of the sayd house upon the burning downc of the former, whcrin, if they should miscarry, for as yet they have not the assurance per- fected by Sir Mathew Brend, your suppliant shall lay out his money to such a losse, as the
* Outline! of the Life of Shakespeare y p. 542.
petitioners will never bee partners with him therein."
Shankes apparently had been admitted a shareholder a year before the expiry of the actual lease, upon terms involving the further doubtful nine years. Perhaps the issue as to those nine years appeared now less uncertain, and these other players wished to buy shares at the same figure that Shankes had bought them. The fervour with which Shankes prays to be allowed to continue in the enjoyment of his shares, may indicate he did not much fear the issue of the suit regarding the lease, or that he had laid out his money " to such a losse."
The next document is addressed by the Burbages to the Lord Chamberlain, defend- ing their possession of shares.* This petition is so interesting, both absolutely and per- sonally as regards the Burbage family, and also for the information it contains upon the theatres in which they were concerned, that it demands more space and consideration than the other papers :
'* Wee your humble suppliantes, Cuthbert Burbage and Winifrid his brother's wife, and William his sonne .... The father of us, Cuthbert and Richard Burbage, was the first builder of playhowses, and was himselfe in his younger yeeres a player. The Theater hee built with many hundred poundes taken up at interest. The players that lived in those first times had onely the profitts arising from the dores, but now the players receave all the commings in at the dores to themselves, and halfe the galleries from the houskepers. Hee built this house upon leased ground, by which meanes the landlord and hee had a great suite in law, and, by his death, the like troubles fell on us, his sonnes ; wee then be- thought us of altering from thence, and at like expence built the Globe, with more summes of money taken up at interest, which lay heavy on us many yeeres; and to our- selves wee joyned those deserving men, Shaksperc, Hemings, Condall, Philips, and others, partners in the profiittes of that they call the House ; but makcing the leases for twenty-one yeeres hath beene the destruction of ourselves and others, for they dyeing at the expiration of three or four yeeres of their lease, the subsequent yeeres became dis- • Ibid,, p. 548.
no
LONDON THEATRES.
solved to strangers as by marrying with their widdowes and the like by their children. Thus, Right Honourable, as concerning the Globe, where wee ourselves are but lessees. Now for the Blackfriers, that is our inherit- ance ) our father purchased it at extreame rates, and made it into a playhouse with great charge and trouble ; which after was leased out to one Evans, that first sett up the boyes commonly called the Queenes Majesties Children of the Chappell. In processe of lime the boyes growing up to bee men, which were Underwood, Field, Ostler, and were taken to strengthen the King's service ; and the more to strengthen the service, the boyes dayly wearing out, it was considered that house would be as fit for ourselves, and soe purchased the lease remaining from Evans with our money, and placed men players, which were Hemings, Condall, Shakspere,
etc Then to shew your Honor, against
these sayings, that wee eat the fruit of their labours, wee referre it to your Honor's judg- ment to consider their profittes, which wee may safely maintaine, for it appeareth by their own accomptes for one whole yeere last past, beginning from Whitson Munday, 1634, to Whitson Munday, 1635, each of these complainantes gained severally as hee was a player and noe howskeeper, 180 //. Besides Mr. Swanston hath receaved from the Black- friers this yeere, as hee is there a houskeeper above 30 //, all which being accompted to- gether may very well keepe him from starve- ing."
There is a further petition of John Shankes, Aug. I, 1635,* from which it appears an order was made that he should " pass two partes unto Benfield, Swanston, and Pollard." One is glad to find that the family and descendants of James Burbage, "the first builder of playhouses," remained in posses- sion of their shares.
This is the last record we have of the history of Blackfriars theatre. It will prob- ably have been remarked by the reader that all the records concern movements menacing the existence of Burbage's playhouse. But external attack and internal dispute were as nothing beside the great Puritan Triumph, under which this and all the theatres dis- appeared. There remain a few interesting * Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare, p. 551.
matters in and about Blackfriars theatre to complete our account of it.
One of the objects of the forgeries by which Collier was victimized was to represent the Blackfriars playhouse as the property of Edward Alleyn. But although AUeyn pos- sessed property in the neighbourhood, he had no interest whatever in the theatre.*
Shakespeare also held property at Black- friars. Mr. Halliwell-Phillipps gives the ** Deed of Bargain and Sale of the Black- friars Estate from Henry Walker to Shake- speare and Trustees, loth March, 1612-3."! The property consisted of a house and yard. The lower part of the house had long been a haberdasher's shop. Shakespeare gave ;^i40 for the premises, although the vendor, one Henry Walker, a London musician, had paid only ;^roo for them in the year 1604. It is impossible to say now what may have been Shakespeare's intention in purchasing this property. The house was situated a short distance to the east of the playhouse, and it is possible Shakespeare may have intended to convert it into a residence for himself. The first Globe Theatre was destroyed by fire in the following June, and Shakespeare appears then to have retired from the stage. Previously to his death he granted a lease of the property to one John Robinson, who, it oddly happened, was one of the persons who had violently opposed the establishment of the neighbouring theatre. Mr. Halliwell- Phillipps describes the property and its posi- tion in his interesting Oiitlines.X In the Athcnawn oi February 13, 1886, Mr. Richard Sims wrote concerning two Shakespearean documents he had found among the MSB. of Mr. J. E. Severne, of Wallop. One of these gives a glimpse of the subsequent his- tory of this Blackfriars property which once belonged to Shakespeare. The document is the original exemplification, dated " Westm., 29th Nov., anno 23, Charles I." (1647), of ^ recovery by William Hathway and Thomas Hathway, against Richard Lane, gent., and William Smyth, gent, of a messuage with appurtenances in the parish of St. Anne,
* See Dulwich Catalogue, p. 115, where the forgeries bearing on this point are fully exposed, f Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare (3rd ed.),
p. 713-
X Ibld^ pp. 210, 211.
LONDON THEATRES.
Blackfriars. At the trial Elizabeth Nashe, widow, was called by the defendants as witness.
There can be no doubt that the first "private" house marks an advance in dramatic history. The "common" theatres still depended upon accessory amusements which partook of the nature of sports and pastimes. At the Blackfriars "private" house, on the other hand, the play was the thing, without admixture or borrowed aid of any sort. There are contemporary allusions which indicate the intellectual and social superiority of the " private " house.* Here some of the spectators were allowed to sit upon the stage. These favoured persons seem to have been mostly the critics and wits of the time. They must have been a nuisance to the actors, besides detracting from the stage-illusion they laboured to pro- duce. In Middleton's A Mad World my Masters^ we read : " The actors have been found on a morning in less compass than their stage, though it were ne'er so full of gentlemen."! Other quotations are given by Malone, illustrating this interesting point :
To fair attire the stage Helps much ; for if our other audience see You on the stage depart ^ before the end, Our wits go with you all, and we are fools.
Prologue to All Fools, a comedy, acted at Blackfriars, 1605.
" By sitting on the stage, you have a sign'd patent to engrosse the whole commoditie of censure; may . . . stand at the helm to steer the passage of scenes." — Gttls Horne- booke, 1609.
In their preface to the first folio edition of Shakespeare, Hemings and Condell say :
" And though you be a magistrate of ivit^ and sit on the stage at Blackfriars or the Cockpit, to arraigne plays dailie, know these plays have had their trial already, and stood out all appeales."
Again, in Decker's GuIs Horncboohe, 1609 :
" Being on your feet, sncake not away like a coward, but salute all your gentle acquaint- ance that arc sprcd either on the rushes or on stoolcs about you ; and draw what troop you can from the stage after you."
* Malone, Shakespeare by Bosxvell, iii. 69. f Ibid., iii. 76.
So also in Fletcher's Queen of Corinth :
I would not yet be pointed at as he is, For the fine courtier, the woman's man, That tells my lady stories, dissolves riddles, Ushers her to her coach, lies at her feet At solemn inasqiies.
Fom a passage in King Henry IV., Part I., it may be presumed that this was no un- common practice in private assemblies also :
She bids you on the wanton rushes lay you do\vn And rest your gentle head upon her lap, And she will sing the song that pleaseth you.
"By sitting on the stage you may with small cost purchase the deere acquaintance of the boyes, have a good stool for sixpence." — Guls Hornebooke.
Again, ibidem : " Present not your selfe on the stage (especially at a new play) until the quaking prologue is ready to enter ; for then it is time, as though you were one of the properties, or that you dropt of \i.e. off] the hangings, to creep from behind the arras, with your tripos, or three-legged stoole, in one hand, and a teston mounted between a forefinger and thumbe in the other."
These are the most worae and most in fashion Amongst the bever gallants, the stone-riders. The private stage's audience, the twelvepenny-stoole gentlemen.
The Roaring Girl, a comedy by Middleton and Decker, 161 1.
In the induction to Marston's Malcontent , 1 604, acted at Blackfriars, we read : " By God's slid if you had, I w^ould have given you but sixpence for your stool." Sixpence appears to have been the lowest, and a shilling the highest rate for the stage stools. Again, in this induction, we read :
Ty reman: Sir, the gentlemen will be angry if you sit here.
Sly: Why, we may sit upon the stage at the private house. Thou dost not take me for a country gentleman, dost ? Doest thou think I fear hissing ? Let them that have stale suits, sit in the galleries, hiss at me
Some of those who sat on the stage did so from a desire to display their gaudy plumage :
When young Rogero goes to see a play, His pleasure is you place him on the stage, The better to demonstrate his array. And how he sits attended by his page, That only serves to fill those pipes with smoke P'or which he pawned hath his riding-cloak.
Springes for WoodcocktSf by Henry Parrot, 161 3.
112
LONDON THEATRES.
In the " private " theatres, plays were usually presented by candle-light : " All the city looked like a private playhouse when the windows are clapt downe, as if some noc- turnal and dismal tragedy were presently to be acted." — Decker's Sa^en Deadly Shines of London^ 1696. See also Historia His- trionica.
We have described how female characters were usually represented by boys or young men, who frequently wore vizards to help their disguise.* An innovation, which we should consider an improvement, was at- tempted in this direction; but the Puritans of that age were scandalized as much by this as by males wearing female attire.
Prynne, in his Histriomastix, informs us " that some Frenchwomen, or monsters rather, in michaelmas term, 1629, attempted to act a French play at the playhouse in Blackfriers," which he represents as " an im- pudent, shameful, unwomanish, graceless, if not more than whorish attempt."
Soon after the period he speaks of, a regular French theatre was established in London, where, without doubt, women acted. They had long before appeared on the Italian as well as the French stage.t
Malone gives the following entry from Sir Henry Herbert's Office-book :
" For the allowinge of a French company to play a farse at Blackfryers this 4 of Novem- ber, 1639 — 2/. oi". odP
A critical and intellectual audience like that at the Blackfriars would naturally exact good music as an accompaniment to the play. How the orchestra was constituted — whether paid by largess from the audience, or by salary from the proprietors of the play- house, does not appear. The musicians paid an annual fee to the Master of the Revels for licence to play in the theatre ; % and this licence may indicate that the orchestra were entitled to receive gratuities or payments from the public direct. The strophe to music which opens the play of Twelfth Night, and Lorenzo's eloquent de- scription of the music of the spheres, and of the power of music over all animated creation, in the last Act of the Afercha?it of Venice, are
* Antiquary, xii. 195.
t Malone, Shakespeare hy Bosxuell, iii. 119.
t Ibid., iii. 112.
familiar as the expression of Shakespeare's j intense appreciation of melody j but such I passages also indicate that the music in the Blackfriars playhouse was of a very high quality. After Shakespeare's retirement from the stage, the Blackfriars orchestra became more numerous and famous. There is evi- dence of this in an account, in Whitelocke's Memorials, of a Masque given by the four j Inns of Court on the second of February, I 1633-4, entitled The Triumph of Peace, and intended as a counterblast to Prynne's attack on the stage in his Histriomastix. Whitelocke eulogizes the musicians, and gives some interesting particulars as to the manner of paying them for their services at this masque. This payment by largess or reward may have been only because their services were given away from the theatre ; or it may indicate that by their licence they received their hire always in this way.
*' For the Musicke," says Whitelocke, " which was particularly committed to my charge, I gave to Mr. Ives and to Mr. Laws ;^ioo a piece for their rewards : for the four French gentlemen, the queen's servants, I thought that a handsome and liberall grati- fying of them would be made known to the queen their mistris, and well taken by her. I therefore invited them one morning to a collation att St. Dunstan's taverne, in the great room, the Oracle of Apollo, where each of them had his plate lay'd by him, covered, and the napkin by it, and when they had opened their plates they found in each of them forty pieces of gould, of their master's coyne, for the first dish, and they had cause to be much pleased with this surprisall.
"The rest of the musitians had rewards answerable to their parts and qualities ; and the whole charge of the musicke came to about one thousand pounds. The clothes of the horsemen, reckoned one with another at ;^ioo a suit, att the least, amounted to ;^io,ooo. The charges of all the rest of the masque, which were born by the societies, were accounted to be above twenty thousand pounds.
" I was so conversant with the musitians, and so willing to gain their favour, especially at this time, that I composed an aier my selfe, with the assistance of Mr. Ives, and called it Whitelock's Coranto ; which being
HERALDIC GLASS IN ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, LISKEARD. 113
cried up was first played publiquely by the Blackefryars Musicke, who were then es- teemed the best of common musitians in London. Whenever I came to that house (as I did sometimes in those dayes, though not often) to see a play, the musitians would presently play Whitelock's Coranto \ and it was so often called for, that they would have it played twice or thrice in an afternoone. The queen hearing it would not be persuaded that it was made by an Englishman, because she said it was fuller of life and spirit than the English aiers used to be; but she honoured the Coranto and the maker of it with her majestyes royall commendation. It grew to that request, that all the common musitians in this towne, and all over the kingdome, gott the composition of itt, and played it publiquely in all places for above thirtie years after."
Mr, Halliwell-Phillipps possesses a book which contains some of the airs which were played by the Blackfriars orchestra :* *' The First Booke of Ayres or little short Songs to sing and play to the Lute, with the base Viole. Newly published by Thomas Morley, Bachiler of Musicke, and one of the gent, of her Majesties Royall Chappel, fol. Imprinted at London in Litle S. Helen's, by William Barley, 1600 — Containing the original music to the song, ' It was a lover and his lass,' in As You Like It.''
IJ)craltiic (Slass formerly in ^t. ^attm'0 Cbutcf), Li§keact)»
By N. Hare.
HE church is a large structure. It is said by C S. Gilbert to bo one of the most spacious religious edi- fices belonging to the county of Cornwall, excepting that of Bodmin. f It has seventeen large windows, namely, three on the east, two west, seven north, and five south, besides others now blocked.
It is probal)le that in the early history of this church, many, if not all, of its windows were of stained glass. The iron fastenings
* Shakespeare Rarities, p. i6.
t Historical Survey of the County of Cortnuall.
which secured the wirework protecting the glass may still be seen on the mullions of the large east window. What the subjects de- lineated were, have long since perished with the glass, nor is it known when the glass was destroyed. Probably it occurred during or shortly after the Civil War.
A Mr. Richard Symonds, an Essex gentle- man, who came with the King's army into Cornwall in the summer of 1644, kept a diary. Besides noting in it many of the stirring events of the campaign, he also di- rected his attention to the heraldry which he found in the parish churches and the manor- houses of the Cornish gentry, where his pro- fession as a soldier called him ; and we are thankful to him that, amidst stormy and eventful times, he found leisure to write a record, imperfect and unsatisfactory it may be in many respects, yet nevertheless valuable to the families he mentions as well as to the antiquary.
Mr. Symonds tells us* that his Majesty King Charles I. marched, about four o'clock in the morning of the 2nd August, 1644, from Trecarrel, an interesting old manor- house in the parish of Lezant, still standing, and came that night to Liskeard.
" Com : Cornub : a mayor towne, large, the buildings of stone covered with slate, one church. He lay at Mr. Jeane's hov/se.f The people speak good and playne English here hitherto."
Mr. Symonds then proceeds to give the heraldry he found in the tracery of some of the windows of Liskeard Church. Unfor Innately he does not mention if the windows contained any other subjects than the armo rial bearings he describes. It is very likely they did, as there is evidence, as before stated, that such must have been the case ; but he seems to have confined his attention solely to the heraldic ones.
It will be noticed, as we proceed, that the descriptions of many of the coats of arms, as given by Mr. Symonds, do not strictly agree with those assigned to the families by our Cornish historians. This discrepancy may have arisen from our diarist jotting them
* Lake's Parochial History of the County of Cont' 'ci'all, vol. iv., p. 6. S. Tapers.
f This house is in Burrus Street, and the bedroom the King slept in is still called King Charles's room.
114 HERALDIC GLASS IN ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, LISKEARD.
down hastily, or possibly to a change of Tinctures, or charges in the shields assumed by younger branches of the family. Carew,* writing in 1603, says: "It is to be noted that divers Cornish gentlemen borne younger brothers, and advanced by a match, have left their owne coats, and borrowed those of their wives, with the first quarter of their shields, which error their posteritie likewise ensued, as also, that before these later petty differences grew in vogue the amies of one stocke were greatly diversified in the younger branches." This may explain the differences noted.
The first window Symonds describes is that in the south aisle of the chancel, be- tween the monuments to Major Row and Lieutenant Hawkey. It is a four-lighted window, with three tracery heads, which held the three coats of arms he marks as old glass. His words are :
South window, south yle, chancel these, old : Ar., ■^fusils conjoined in f ess gti. Ar.,a cock gu.^ on a chief t, torteaux. Cheqtiy or and az,, a bend vert.
The first coat is the same as that borne by the illustrious House of Montacute, or Mon- tagu, and is figured by Boutell.f The Mon- tagues in ancient times held the Manor of Lantyan, in Golant, near Liskeard, and were large landowners in the neighbourhood, as well as in other parts of Cornwall. It is probable, therefore, that these arms belonged to that ancient family, and that they, being donors to the new building, had their arms inserted in the tracery of one of its win- dows. These arms, within a bordure, are still borne by the Duke of Manchester, the Earl of Sandwich, the Baron Rokeby (all Montagues), and are quartered by Montagu- Douglas-Scott, Duke of Buccleugh.
I have been unable to find any arms agree- ing with the second coat, and fear, therefore, they are so " old " that all trace of them is lost. Lake, I in his Parochial History of Cornwall, gives the arms as of the Priory of St. Stephen's, to which the Vicarage of Lis- keard then belonged ; but there is a doubt about this, inasmuch as in Lyson's§ Cornwall
* Sjirvey of Cormuall, p. 65. t English Heraldry, pp. 17, 70. + Lake's Corntvall, vol. iii., p. 92. § Lyson's Conrwall, p. 35.
a woodcut is given of the seal used by the Prior on the surrender of that Priory, 26 Henry VIII., which represents a rude monas- tic building with a central tower, and the legend, Sigilli Eccle Set Stephani de Lan. ; but Lake says* that " besides the seal already given, the Priory bore for its arms, Ar. guttie de sang a cock gu., on a chief of the last 3 roses or.^' It is just possible that these arms may have belonged to one of the Priors, and not to the Priory ; or Lake may be correct, but he gives no authority.
The arms of Lord Bottreaux are the nearest I can find to the third coat. He bore, Ch., or andgu., 07i a bend az, 3 horseshoes. William Bottreaux sat as one of the members for Liskeard, 1420, and Sir Ralph Bottreaux was one of the witnesses to the second deed for rebuilding the church (1430). Their seat was at Bottreaux Castle, now Boscastle, a favourite resort of tourists.
Mr. Symonds in going round the church from south to north states that " the seats of the south yle of the church have escocheons with severall bearings alluding to the Passion, of the scourge, whip, lanthorne, garment." These devices are still to be found in many Cornish churches.
All the bench-ends, with the oaken screen, were unfortunately destroyed about 1793, to make way for large pews, which were then set up for the first time. These again in their turn have been lately replaced by open benches.
Mr. Symonds then notices one of the other four windows in the south aisle.
South yle, window below :
Or, a chev. az. betiveen 3 roses argent (Wad- ham).
Instead of or, all our county historians give gules ; but the change might have been a mark of cadency, supposing Symonds rightly describes what he saw.
Wadham was originally a Somersetshire family. Nicholas Wadham was the founder of Wadham College, Oxford. George Wad- ham was Mayor of Liskeard on several occa- sions. On the death of Joseph Wadham, in 1707, the family became extinct. His monu- ment, which is in the church, states him to be the last of the Wadhams.
* Lake's Cormuall, vol. iii., p. 92; and vol. iv., p. 144.
HERALDIC GLASS IN ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, LISKEARD. 115
West window, south yle, this :
Ar. , 3 nails erect in pale, sable.
This coat probably was an emblem of the Passion. There is a similar one in a window of Laneast Church.
Symonds then goes to the North yle of the church, these :
Quarterly or, a chev. gu. hetiueen in chief 2 roses, and in base a fish naiant azure (Roscarrock). 2ncl. Imperfect.
3rd. Gules, 2 lions passant gtiardant argent. 4th. Per saltier ar. ami sable (Deviock). Quarterly. 1st and a^h argent, a chev. between 3 {portcullises ?) sa. 2nd and yd gules, a chev. erviine between 3 dolphins embo7ved, or. The four preceding coats quarterly impaling, or 3 wolves passant in pale azure.
Only two coats out of the seven are identi- fied by Symonds, viz., Roscarrock and Deviock.
I St. The Roscarrocks of Roscarrock, in Endellion, who bore, Argent, a chevron gules behveen 2 roses in chief of the second, and a sea tench naiant azure, are traced from 1300 to 1602. John Roscarrock was Sheriff of Corn- wall in 149 1 ; Richard 155 1, and again in 1562. Thomas was M.P. for Liskeard 1553, as also was Francis later in the same year. The Roscarrocks quartered with their arms those of Chenduit, Bodulgate, and Deviock.
The second coat, marked imperfect, was probably that of Chenduit, or Cheynduyt, of Bodanan in EndeUion,
3rd. Bodulgate was of Bodulgate, in Bocon- noc. He bore, Gules, 2 lions passant guardant, argent.
Thomas de Bodulgate was M.P. for the county of Cornwall, 26 Henry VI. Isabel, a coheiress, married Thomas Roscarrock.
4th. Deviock of Deviock, in St. Germans, bore for his arms, Party per saltier arg. and sable. John Deviock was M.P. for Bodmin in 1466.
The first and fourth quarterings of the second tracery are evidently those of Harvey of Hale, in Linkinhorne. The family are known to have been seated in that ]xarish three descents before 1620. That church also belonged to the Prior and Convent of St. Stephen's. Our diarist, it will be noticed, has queried the three portcullises. These were the three harrows, borne by Harvey, whose arms are given as, Arg., a chev. bettvecn
3 harrows sable. The second and third quarterings of the same coat are those of Kendall, a family of considerable antiquity in Cornwall, and who are said by C. S. Gilbert to have sent more representatives to the British Senate House than any other in the United Kingdom. William Kendall repre- sented Liskeard in Parliament, i Richard II. The elder branch became extinct in the early part of the seventeenth century. Their arms are still to be seen in a window of St. Keyne Church, three miles from Liskeard.
In the third coat of the tracing the arms of Harvey and Kendall are impaled with those of Penpons of Penpons, in St. Kew. Jane, daughter of Richard Penpons, married Richard Kendall. They bore, Ar., 3 wolves passant in pale sable.
North window, north yle, chancel :
Quarterly France ami England, Courtenay with a label.
William Courtenay, Earl of Devon, mar- ried the Princess Catharine, daughter of Edward IV., and died in 1511. He quar- tered the Royal Arms with his own. Catha- rine was buried at Tiverton, 1527. The Courtenays were seated at Boconnoc, and bore for their arms. Or, three torteaux.
Quarterly France and England, a label of 3 points ar.
These arms would seem to be those of the Prince of Wales and Duke of Cornwall, son of Edward IV., and are figured by Boutell, who says that "Edward the Black Prince marked the Royal shield of Edward III. with a label argent of 3 points, and a silver label has since been the mark of cadency of every succeeding Prince of Wales."*
The Duke's manor -courts were held at the Castle of Liskeard.
" Divers flat stones in Chancel, the inscrip- tions round about cutt in text. Most of them write ' Gent ' — no arms on the stones."
These are all the arms in the church described by Symonds, and but for him we should have been ignorant of the families who in old times were benefactors to the church.
C. S. Gilbert says, " The armorial bearings of Cornish gentry are numerously displayed in most of the parish churches. These
• English Heraldry, p. 182.
ii6
NOTES ON COMMON-FIELD NAMES.
perishing memorials of ancient heroic gran- deur cannot be beheld without experiencing emotions of respect and veneration mingled with awe."*
Sad to relate, in too many instances this former greatness of our ancestors as displayed in these interesting memorials have nearly all perished, not by the rude hand of Time, which we could have endured, but by the wanton outrage of Puritan fanaticism and modern church 'restorers' (?), devoid alike of sympathy or reverence for the beautiful of past ages.
if3ote0onCommon^jFtelD Jl5ame0,
By the Rev. J. C. Atkinson.
Class I. Section II.
Names depending for one of their Elements on some Arbitrary or Artificial Object or Feature.
5. -land, -landes :
Sub-class (a) Barlicland (Ormesby). Bcndand (Tollesby). Lineland, Ltrielandes (Thocotes).
„ ,, (Ormesby).
„ „ (Marton).
Peselandes (Pinchingthorpe).
„ „ (Marton).
Ryeland (Thocotes). Sub-class (/') Blalandes (Ormesby). Blaland (Normanby). Cokelandes (Ormesby). Flit-, Flinilandes (Marton). Langlandes, twice (Gesbrough). Plouland (Pinchingthorpe). Shvinelands (Moorsom).
Two sub-classes are made here, and, it may be seen, not altogether without reason, if even without necessity. A further sub- division still suggests itself, because, almost certainly, the termination landes bears two distinct meanings. The two sub-classes de- pend on differences in agricultural system, and the former of these two sub-classes pro- bably reveals a fact that is by no means without sustained interest ; while the mean- ings of the suffix laiides depend on a matter of practical detail and distinctive nomen- clature accordingly. To deal with the former
Vol.
1., p. 412.
of the said two sub-classes first : — It will be remarked that the grain or produce of barley, beans, linseed, peas, beans, and, I may add, wheat also, in the case of wheat-lands (anciently hvedelandes, or some like form, a name attaching in ancient times, as has already been remarked, to two separate localities in Danby parish as it used to be, as well as elsewhere), furnish the prefix in the different names cited. In other words, cer- tain portions of the arable land, in divers parts of the district concerned, have obtained, and still, at the date of the charters pre- serving these names, retain a specific or distinctive appellation from certain kinds of grain or produce, and necessarily — for no other explanation can be suggested — from their growth upon them ; and that, it must be observed, implies the continued growth upon them of the several kinds of grain supplying the distinctive prefixes. Certainly Mr. Lawes' experiments on the growth of wheat show that wheat may be grown in many successive years on the same plot of ground, and Colonial experience is sufficiently explicit on the same head. But no one is under any uncertainty as to what is implied under the phrase "rotation of crops," and the absolute necessity which practically under- lies that system. AH these names, then, in the sub-class under our notice have a special historical significance. There has been a time in our early agricultural economy when wheat, barley, peas, rye, line or flax, etc., used to be grown for years in succession upon the same plot of ground, and the explanation, in such a country and such a climate as that of North Yorkshire, can hardly depend on the accumulated and partly inexhaustible fertility of the virgin soil, as in more than one of the colonies. And if not, on what system, or difference of system, did it de- pend ? And in order to try and answer this question I must quote from Mr. Seebohm's book at greater length than I have hitherto done. After adverting to certain " German systems of husbandry, which are not analo- gous to the Anglo-Saxon three-field system in England," he proceeds, p. 372 — "Passing all these by, we come to a peculiar method of husbandry which covers a large tract of country, and which is adopted under both the single-farm system and also the open-
NOTES ON COMMON-FIELD NAMES.
117
field system with scattered ownership, but which nevertheless is opposed to the three- field system. It is especially important for our purpose because of its geographical posi- tion. AH over the sand and bog district of the north of Germany, crops, mostly of rye and buckwheat, have for centuries been grown year after year on the same land, kept productive by marling and peat manure, on what Hanssen describes as the ' one-field system.' This system is found in Westphalia, East Friesland, Oldenburg, North Hanover, Holland, Belgium, Denmark, Saxony, and East Prussia. Over parts of the district under this one-field system the single-farm prevails, in others the fields are divided into ' gewanne '* and strips, and there is scattered ownership. Now, probably, this one-field system, with its marling and peat manure, may have been the system described by Pliny as prevalent in Belgic Britain and Gaul before the Roman conquest ; but certainly it is not the system prevalent in England under Saxon rule. And yet this district, where the one- field system is prevalent in Germany, is precisely the district from which, according to the common theory, the Anglo-Saxon in- vaders of Britain came." The facts, then, that such names as those under comment have, in ancient times, prevailed, and pre- vailed largely, in originally Anglian Cleveland, and that they clearly attest a quondam exist- ence there — possibly not prevalence — of the one-field system, are, it is at once seen, of no ordinary interest.
Next, as to the two meanings of the suffix -landes. What I remember in Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk under the name of stetc/i, or the breadth of land ploughed together, or between finished furrow and furrow (the width of which was always carefully measured with the feering-pole of half a rod in length twice laid on the ground), and is elsewhere — in the North particularly — called ridge or rig, is in this district still called a land: there are so many lands in the field, and the field is spoken of as landed in such or such a way or direction. True, the headland is called the
* " The usual word in Middle and South Germany is gcivemie, in Lower Germany ',caihic or 'a>a>iue, or gdwantt—woxiXs which no less than the furlong refer to the length of the furrow and the turning of the pU)ugh at tiie end of iL"—Jl'id., p. 380. Sec IVenJiiig below.
headrig, and in the case of a field ploughed in uneven breadths, one of the broadest stand- ing up higher than the others, I have heard the said higher part or middle part spoken of as the rig. But the universal term for the divisions of the field created by regular plough- ing is lands. And this, I am disposed to think, is the meaning of the word in all such names as Langlands and Shortlands, even if not in other cases noted by the names in the second sub-class. Blalands, Blalandes — a name of not unfrequent occurrence in other districts besides that of Cleveland — is not with- out its perplexity. It may be, as suggested above (vol. xiii., p. 25 8), indicative of the colour of the soil, or it may depend on the same word as does the Sw. Dial, word bla-vally which Rietz defines by blad-vall, a meadow with leafy growth or herbage. Cokelandes, the lands assigned to or held by a cook. Flit- (in one copy, Flic) or Flinilandes, is obscure, and Siwinelandes (in Moorsom) are lands (whether ridges or lands in our modern standard sense, or no) which had once been in the possession of a person named Siwine (Sigwin), who appears more than once in the Gisburgh Chartulary, and in relation to the same places, as a donor or recipient of land. Heved- or Hoved-landes is the lieadland, our headrig, as just now mentioned, and of it Mr. Seebohm says, "This grouping of the strips in furlongs or * shots ' . . . involves another little feature which is universally met with, viz., the headland. Mostly a common field-way gives access to the strips ; i.e., it runs along the side of the furlong and the ends of the strips. But this is not always the case ; and when it is not, then there is a strip running along the length of the furlong inside its boundaries, and across the ends of the strips composing it. This is the headland. Sometimes, when the strips of the one furlong run at right angles to the strips of its neighbour, the first strip in the one furlong does duty as the headland giving access to the strips in the other. In either case all the owners of the strips in a furlong have the right to turn their plough upon the headland, and thus the owner of the headland must wait until all the other strips are ploughed before he can plough his own." The Latin term for the headland \s forera ; the Welsh, pentir ; the Scotch, headrig; and the German (from the
ii8
NOTES ON COMMON-FIELD NAMES.
turning of the plough upon it), amuende. 6. -rode, -rodes.
East langrodes. Fcnirtene-rode.
Seven-, septem-rodes. Twenti-rodes.
We have to remember that the strips in the open fields were separated from each other by balks or narrow lengths of un- ploughed land, and that they varied more or less in size even in the same fields (Seebohm, 2), that there were long strips and short strips, our langlandes and shortlandes, in some cases; but that, generally speaking, the normal strip is roughly identical with the acre. The length of the acre is 40 rods, poles, or perches {pertica being the word always used for this measure in the charters, etc., which supply our list of names), and it is 4 perches in width. Now 40 perches in length and I perch in width make 40 square rods or perches, or a rood ; and thus an acre is made up of 4 roods lying side by side, which would, by the manner of the ploughing, be as easily discernible as the several "acres" themselves, divided from each other, as they were, by the balks. Hence, then, the names now specially under notice, in three of which we have the precise number of rodes in specific divisions of land quoted as the foundation of the name of such division, and in the other the cha- racter involved in the dimensions of the sub- divisions of another such division.*
* It has been remarked above (p. 117) that strips, not only of an average acre in size, but half acres, and even lesser portions still, were customarily in several or separate occupations. As forcible an illustration of this observation as can be desired will be found in the following, derived from f. 96 of the Furness Cowchcr Book. The entire grant made is of Q>\ acres of land in the vill and common-fields (campi) of Orgrave, which were thus made up : \ acre on Rotherissethe, next the land of the monks ; a second \ acre there next W. de Orgrave's land ; i^ rood above Melbrek ; \ rood above Hervyriding ; \ rood next the way to Steinton ; \ rood next Ilelyas do Boilton's land ; \ acre on Leyrgile ; I rood above Leyrgile bank ; I rood next the way going towards Merton ; I rood on Slegrene ; \ acre above Ilorigerane ; I rood in Litle-lange-slak ; i rood next Kilnebanke ; \ acre in the croft towards Merton; i rood above Ileselknot ; \ rood above Langeheved ; i rood which reaches to the trench where the iron-ore is raised ; I rood in Ilorigebank, and \ rood in the same campus; i rood on Selesbank ; A rood next the way to Staynonesterne; and \ acre on Mikelelangeslak : that is to say, the total of 6^ acres (for \ rood is wanting to complete the tale) is made up of no less than 22 separate strips. Another rcatter worth noting is the character of the
7. -wending, -wenth.
Wending (Ormesby). Midelwenth (Normanby).
No further comment on this word, in ad- dition to what was said at the end of the extracts from Mr. Seebohm's book just above is needed, save, perhaps, the remark that the occurrence of this German term affords another, and a remarkable comment on Mr. Seebohm's observations as to the home (if not origin) of the one-field system, and my own observation thereupon as to the interest of the names attesting the former existence in Cleveland of the aforesaid one- field system.
Municipal fiDfiSces : Carlisle*
By Richard S. Ferguson, F.S.A.
(14) Councillors. — In a copy of the Con- stitutions and Rules of 1561, made from the Dormont Book in the reign of Charles L, is a form of oath for a councillor, not in the Dormont Book. It seems to have been taken by either an alderman or one of the capital citizens when first elected to the council. The Constitutions and Rules in prescribing the order of business at a council meeting call the members " Counsalors," and the whole body are called his {the mayor's) coiinsale.
(15) Chamberlains. — Carlisle enjoyed the services of two of these officers. They are not mentioned in the charters, but appear in the Constitutions and Rules of 1561. Their election would come under the 25th rule :
Itm that the mayr and counsale w"' iiij of the elec- tion of euere occupacon w"'in the citie upon gud and lawful matter hard and proved afore them shall hereafter haue auttoritie to displace the auditor recorder or any other officer not expressed in our charter and in thayre places to appoint others meater for the same offices.
In the Report of 1835 it is stated that the corporation has a chamberlain and assistant chamberlain, the former elected annually by
common-field names involved in the above list, most of them repeating just the various elements serving to compose our present list, with the addition of two or three, not unknown, but less common in this part of Yorkshire — e.g. set, rane, etc,
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
119
the mayor from the freemen, the latter annually by the mayor, aldermen, bailiffs, and twenty-four capital citizens from the free- men. The four of the election of every occupation (guild) had at some time or other been deprived of their right to assist in the appointing the chamberlains, thus marking a stage in the long, long contest between the guild mercatory or corporation of Carlisle and the eight trade guilds.
The chamberlains discharged the duties now appertaining to the city treasurer : they were also custodians of the city's small goods, such as picks, gavelocks, etc., and executed small repairs. Thus the Court Leet in 161 9 ordered :
We order and sett downe that the Chamberlains of this Cyttie shall build up and repaire the Butts under the walles before the ffirst daye of Maye next upon paine xK
In 1603 their fee, as appears from their accounts, was x'- They ceased to be appointed in 1835, and their duties mainly devolved upon the modern officer called the city treasurer.
Their accounts are in existence almost continuously from 1603, and are full of in- terest.
(16) Chamberlain's Clerk. — This official appears in the accounts for 1603 : " Itm unto the chamberlains clarke v'"''
(17) City Treasurer. — One is appointed under the Act of 1835.
(18) Auditor. — "Thauditor " is mentioned in the Elizabethan bye-laws of 165 1, which provide means for his removal from office and for a fresh appointment by the
niayr and counsale w"^ iiij of tlie election of euerie occupation.
Several of the audit-books exist, and in one is the following melancholy note, which ex- plains why in 1649-50-51, the corporation were purchasing maces, halbcrts, gowns, etc. :
The yeare 1641 Mr. Langhorne being maior noe accounts was maid ; in the ycare 1642, Mr. Stanwix maior, the King maid warr against his Parliament, soe this cittie was garrisoned by ye King's partie, Sir Thomas Glenham being governor, unto whom was given, as ane hclpe to maintaine ye citty against ye Scotch who lay scigc against it for one whole yeare, all ye citties jilaite and money. Atul in the yeare 1644 tlie necessity of ye soldirie and inhabitants was such, yt they cate horse flesh and linesecd bread frequently, upon which ye cittie was yielded to ye
Scotch, and in ye yeare 1645 the visitation begun, and continev/ed one whole year. In ye yeare 1646, the Parliament of England and Scotland agreed soe yt the citty should no more be garrisoned, but perfidi- ously the Scotch in ye yeare 1648, did enter ye nation, and garrisoned our citty, but ye same yeare was beat fourth with disgrace, and this citty peaceably sar- rendered to ye Parliaments forces Mr. Robert Collyer beinge placed maior, upon his entrie the citty had noe money in common chist, nor any plaite, or other things necessarily to be used in ye citty, his account for his yeare is on the other side, taken before the maior, and capitalls by me.
Tho. Craister, auditor.
In the chamberlain's accounts for 1603 is :
Itm Mr. auditor for his fee and passinge the chamber- laines booke xlv^.
(19) Recorder. — A recorder is mentioned in the Elizabethan bye-laws : he was not then a chartered officer, and was appointed and removed in the same way as the auditor by the " Mayr and counsale w"' iiij of the election of euerie occapation." But by the govern- ing charter 13 Charles I., the mayor, alder- men, bailiffs, and twenty-four capital citizens have power to elect
unum discretum virum in legibus Angliae peritum qui erit et nominabitur Recordator Civitatis praedictae.
He held office during pleasure, was assessor to the mayor and bailiffs in the city court, and legal adviser of the corporation. He had at one time a salary.
A minute of the proceedings of the coun- cil on July 21, 1673, shows that the question was put
Whether an abatement shall be made of the Re- cord"^ Salary considering he hath been very negligent in his place, and hath absented himselfe at seu'all great Court dayes and other times w" ye affaires and concernes of ye Corporation required his attendance, and he had notice given.
An abatement to be made 20 votes.
Noe abate till he be discoursed with 2 voted.
Abated 5" — neine contradie, except 2 voices only.
Subsequently cases for opinion were sub- mitted to the recorder with a fee, and the salary ceased. The office was once held by the famous James Boswell, and at last became a sinecure, and was held for thirty years by the Earl of Lonsdale. It ceased in 1835, but the present Lord Chancellor was appointed recorder in 1874, when the city Quarter Sessions were revived.
(20) Recorder, Deputy. — A charter of Charles II., which was never acted upon, gave power to appoint this officer.
I20
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
(21) Justices of the Peace. — The mayor, the recorder, and the two senior aldermen were appointed justices of the peace by the governing charter 13 Charles I.; but they could not deal with felonies or other offences whatever touching loss of life or member within the said city, the limits, liberties, and precincts thereof, without the assistance and association of the justices of the peace for the county of Cumberland.
(22) Attorneys. — Under the Elizabethan bye- laws the city court or court of the mayor and bailiffs had two attorneys ; and an oath is prescribed for them, which required them, among other things, not to
be of counsale w*'> plaintiff and defend',
and also to
be upright and indifferent to all mann. of psons in the execution of yo' office.
The number was afterwards increased, and in 1835 ; no less than twenty, all attorneys of the superior courts, had been admitted.
(23) Sergeants-at-Mace. — Sergeants are mentioned in the Elizabethan bye-laws of 1 56 1, and a form of oath is given ; and three old maces exist, which, by the heraldic in- signia on them, may be of that date or older ; but the captain, lieutenant and ancient cited before do not seem to have seen them. The petition which the corporation presented to the King in 1637, and on which the govern- ing charter was founded, asks
that your Mat'" wilbe pleased that there may be a Sworde and Maces borne before the Maior for the greater renowne and honour of the Government.
The request was granted, and the governing charter provides :
quod sint et erunt in Civitate prredicta quatuor alii officiarii videhcet unus officiarius qui erit et vocabitur Portator Gladii nostii coram Maiore Civitatis pra3- dictre et tres ahi officiarii qui erunt et vocabuntur Servientes ad clavas pro execucione process: precept: mandat: et ncgotior : etc, etc.
The sword-bearer and one of the sergeants- at-mace were to be appointed by the mayor on the day of his election ; the other two by the mayor, aldermen, bailiffs, and twenty- four capital citizens on the same day. The sergeants-at-mace were to bear
Clavas deauratas vel argenteas et signo armorum hujus regni Anglic sculplas et ornatas ubique infra diclam Civitatem,
The Court Leet of Carlisle on Monday, 22nd October, 1649, made the following pre- sentment :
Item. We order that the three Sergeants of the Cittie shall carry their halberts upon their shoulders when they attend Mr. Maior and bailiffes and likewise on the market dayes. And we entreat there may be three new halberts bought at the Cittie's charge for the Sergeants to serve them successively. And we also order that the three Sergeants maces be made sufficient as is sett downe in the 7th article of the abstract of the Cittie's Charter.
The corporation, as just mentioned, pos- sesses three old sergeants' maces, which are much earlier than the date of the governing charter, and were evidently in a bad state in 1649 sfid wanted making sufficient. This was never done, but it appears that in 1650 the three silver maces now in use were bought at a cost of ;^i2, and at the same time three new halberts were bought " for the 3 sergeants." It is clear therefore that the three sergeants-at- mace should carry both the halberts and the maces. No one seems to remember their carrying the halberts, but in the old sergeants' gowns there were pockets for the maces, and except when carried * before the mayor the pocket is the proper place for a sergeant's mace.
In 1660 £,2 was spent in sending the maces to Newcastle to have the royal arms put on them.
The sergeants received cloaks or gowns : Itm unto Mr. Maior for sergeants gowns iiij''.— Chamberlain's Accounts, 1604-5.
(24) The Sword-bearer. — Vide stih voce Sergeant-at-Mace. He received a gown and a salary. The sword was purchased in in 1635-6, and was made at Milan in 1509 :
Item for a sword of honour for ye cittye ;[f4 : 13 : o.
Stays to hold it were provided for it in church and in the low chamber in the moot hall, as shown in the chamberlain's accounts : Itm to him [Robert Rigge] for makeing a stay for y° sword in Saint Cuthbert's church, o : I : 6. — Cham- berlain's Accounts, 1638-9.
In 1649 the sword-bearer's gown cost 04 : 09 : 02.
(25) The Mace-bearer, or bearer of the great silver gilt mace, is not a chartered officer. The mace itself was presented to Carlisle in 1685 by Col. James Graham,
* The halberts are now on state occasions carried in front of the sergeants, who carry their minces,
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
121
privy purse to James II. and M.P. for Car- lisle.
(26) Halberdiers are mentioned once or twice as paid for going to Kingmoor, to the races, when the mayor attended in state.
To the halbyders for attending there (Kingnioor), o : 2 : o. — Chamberlain's Accounts, 1634-5.
To given to them that carried halberts to the moore, 0:5: o. — Ibid., 1635-6.
(27) Crier of the Court.— One of the sergeants-at-mace held this office. See Report of 1835.
(28) Town (or Common) Clerk. — This official appears in the Elizabethan bye-laws, as the clerk, the towne clerk, the clerk of the city, and in the governing charter 13 Charles I. as the common clerk, who was to be chosen from the citizens from time to time by the mayor, aldermen, bailiffs, and twenty-four capital citizens. The appoint- ment was for life.
(29) Clerk of the Peace.
(30) Clerk of the City Court.
(31) Clerk of the Council.
(32) Clerk to the City Magistrates. {■^'iti Clerk to the Coroners.
(34) Clerk of Recognizances.
(35) Attorney and Solicitor to the Corporation.
These offices were all held by the town clerk in 1835. See Report of 1835. But in 1673, a period of great litigation over the shire tolls, Mr. Bird was appointed Solicitor for the City at a salary of 6" 13' 4*'-
(36) Steward of the Court Leet. — Also held by the Town Clerk. Vide ibid. The Court Leet, up to 1835, held three sittings annually, known as the Mayor's turns. Thus :
Turnus maioris sive curia leta ciuitatis Carlioli tenta ibidem die Veneris, viz. : vicesimo secundo die Aprilis anno regni domine nostre Elizabethe del gratia Anglic Francie et Hibernie regine fidei defensoris &ct. 39 annoque Domini 1597 coram Thoma Blenerhassett armigero tunc maiore ciuitatis predicte Eduardo Monke et Willehno Barniqke ballivis ejusdem ciuitatis per sacramenta
(here follow the names of twelve citizens). The jury made presentments of all matters that they wished attended to and of all persons who offended against the bye-laws of the city and of the guilds. Their records are replete with most interesting matter, and form a most instructive gloss upon these bye-laws, and on VOL. xiv.
the customs and manners of the citizens of Carlisle. No court has been held since 1835.
(37) Steward of the Court Baron. — The mayor and corporation, as lords of the manor of Carlisle, had also a Court Baron, of which the town clerk was steward.
(38) Clerk of the Market. — Under the Constitutions and Rules, 1561, two clerks of the market were appointed :
Itm that the Mayor and counsale shall yerely appoint two clerks for the m'ket to tak the ovarsight of all kynds of vitells cumyng and beyng w'hyn the citie and m'ket on the m'ket days and that all un- wholsome vitells takyn either by the mayor balif or clerk of the m'ket shall either be burnt or otherwise Disposed to the poor people by the Mayr and balyfs at thare Discretion.*
In their petition for a charter to Charles I. the mayor, bailiffs, and citizens asked " That they may haue a Clarke of the Mar- kett w""'" themselues." The governing charter 13 Charles I. appointed the mayor
Clicus Mercat : nostr hered : et success : nron infra Civitat : praedict :
he might execute the duties.
per se et per sufficien : deputat : suu : sive dcpulat : suos sufficien.
(39) Superintendent of the Market and Cleaning the Streets. — Mentioned in the Report of 1835. Duties now divided between the chief or head constable, the city surveyor, and the toll collector. He had ;^2o a year in 1835.
(40) Collector of Shamble Rents. — Mentioned ibidem. Prior to 1790 the sham- bles were wooden sheds in the market-place, in which the butchers sold their meat. They were pulled down in that year and others built between Scotch Street and Fisher Street. He had ;:^io a year in 1835.
(41) Billet Master. — Mentioned in Re- port of 1835. At one time his duties must have been important, as prior to the introduc- tion of railways troops were constantly march- ing through. He had ;^i5 a year in 1835.
(42) Constables of the Townships. — A constable was appointed for each township, of which there were five, by the Court Leet. See the Report of 1835. I find Constables of the Streets mentioned in the proceedings of
• This would have the further advantage of dio- posing of the poor people, and so saving the rates.
K
122
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
the Court Leet, and take them to be the same as the Constables of the Townships, each township formerly being practically a single street.
(43) Head or Chief Constable. — Carlisle has a chief constable at present, but I have not found a head or chief Constable in the older records. " Constables and catchpoules " are mentioned in the ancient ballad of " Adam Bell":
Ffirst the Justice and the Sherifife And the Maior of Cailile towne
Of all the Constables and catcpoules Alive were left but one
The Baliffes and the Beadeles both And the Sargeant of the law.
(44) Appraisors. — The Constitutions and Rules, 1 56 1, say :
Itm that the mayor and balifs for the tym beynge shall appoint iiij honest men to be appasers who beyng sworne shall appraise all such guds and catells as shalbe brought afore them which guds and catells so being appraised shalbe ofTered fyrst to the def putynge in sureties to answer the Debt w"'n twelve days next after ensewynge Vf the def refuse to take the guds so apprised then the guds to be offered to the plaintiff And yf the plaintif refuse the guds & Distresse then the same to remaine in the apprisers hands and thei thereof to answer the pine w"'n xx Dayes.
{45) Watchmen. — The Constitutions and Rules of 1 56 1 provide as follows :
Itm that the watch nyghlly of the walls shall not be sett nor appointed tyll half an houre after the gaites be locked And that the mayr nor his deputie shal not give the watch word to hym that shal be the first watch to after nine of the clock in the nyght nyghtly.
Itm that the watchmen appointed to watch of the walles nightly shalbe such able honest and discreet persons both in bodie and guds as shalbe able to dis- charge thare duties and truste wherein thei ar put as well towards tlie devvties of theire soveragne as the suretie of thinhabilances both in body and guds w^^in the same citie and the precinckts thereof And tliat noe watchman hereafter to be appointed but only w'"^ thadvisc of the mayr and counsale or the moste parte of them And that euere man so appointed shall watch his owne watch hymself and noe deputie except license obtened of the mayr upon payn of forfitor of euere defalt iii^ iiij''-
It has already been mentioned that the mayor and bailiffs took oath to see the watch properly set every night. By 1626 watching the walls had been given up : it probably was disused when James I. came to the English throne.
(46) Porters of the Gaittes.
And that all tlie gates of the citie shall nyghtly be locked immediately the cumon bell rounge Andyf the
porters doe the contrarie to either to pay such fyne or else such order as the mayr and counsale agreeth unto or the most part of them.
In the chamberlains' accounts for 1603, under the head of *' Disbursements in fees and annuities," is :
Item unto James Syde George broun and heugh Scwell porters of the gaittes xW
Extra men were put on on special occasions ; thus in the same accounts are Disbursements in attending the gaittes in the tyme of the seakness being at newcastle beginning the iii of August 1603.
The city had three gates called in these accounts bochardgaitt (Botchergate), Rychard- gaitt (Rickergate), and Caldewgaitt, better known later on as the English, Scotch, and Irish gates.
{To be continued^
Jl3ote0 on tbe jFlorentine ^ttatu jnnu.strp.
I HE following Notes by Consul- General Colnaghi appeared in a re- cently published Blue-Book,and are well worth our readers' attention. The straw-hat industry was originally con- fined to the " Contado " of Florence, where it existed in the sixteenth century.* From this it gradually spread into other parts of Tuscany and of Italy. The industry appears, however, to have become of some importance only in the beginning of the eighteenth century, when Domenico Michelacci introduced or perfected the culture of spring wheat ("grano mar- zuolo "), sown thickly, from which an excel- lent straw is obtained. The first experiments were made on the hills round Signa, and their success caused this culture to be quickly extended to the neighbouring dis- tricts. Straw hats now formed the object of a rising, but intermittent, export trade. About 1 8 10 Signor Giuseppe Carbonai, of Leghorn, having established himself at Signa and improved the manufacture, was the first to open out a trade with France and Germany.
* The " Corporation of Merchants of Straw Hats " is mentioned in documents of the year 1575.
NOTES ON THE FLORENTINE STRAW INDUSTRY.
123
In consequence, the straw industry, which, till then, had been confined to the Com- munes of Signa and Brozzi, spread to those of Sesto, Campi, Carmignano, and Prato. Between 181 5 and 18 18 employment was given to some 40,000 persons, almost all women and girls. Further orders from England brought the number of persons en- gaged in the industry between 18 19 and 1822 to 60,000. America next came within the radius of the export trade, and more hands were required, so that not only the female population of the Communes of Empoli, Fucecchio, Castelfranco-di-Sotto, and many others, but even the men of Signa, Brozzi, and Campi, abandoned their ordinary occupa- tions to work in straw. The number of persons engaged in the industry was at that time calculated at 80,000. During these palmy days several new villages rose in the country district, and the increase of prosperity among the peasantry was general. The staple article of export was the " fioretto," or broad- brimmed " flop " hat, known originally as the Leghorn hat, a name which, however, is now given to all hats of the same material and manufacture, whatever their shape or dimen- sions may be. The plait of which this hat was made was of thirteen ends, and the strips were knitted " a maglia," as it is technically termed, i.e., sewn together without overlapping so as to form a single piece. This method is peculiar to Tuscany.
From the year 1826 the demand for the " fioretto " hat began gradually to fall off, and it was necessary to supply its place with another article. This was found in the eleven-end plait, one strip of which, in making up the hat, was sewn so as to overlap the other. The merit of introducing this plait was chiefly due to Messrs. Vyse, an English firm, first established at Florence about the year 1827. After some temporary changes the factor)- was finally removed to Prato, about the year 1844, where the centre of the business has ever since remained.
In 1840 a large cone-shaped hat, called "cornetto," or "cappotto," was introduced. It was received with great favour abroad, as it could be adapted to any shape. This hat was largely made of rye straw, which is finer, more easily worked, and consequently less expensive, than the wheat straw, but not so
flexible. In order to maintain the industry, however, new articles had to be found, such as plain plaits of fifteen and nineteen ends, pedal plaits of seven ends ("maglina," or corded), in imitation of the English plaits, and various kinds of fancy plaits. Straw stems were also woven with cotton, horsehair, and silk into braids or mibbons, either plain or fancy, according to the changing fashion.
The weaving of straw materials into braids and trimmings had existed in Switzerland from a remote date. The application of the art to the weaving of the Tuscan straw into these articles was first adopted in England, where, for some two or three years, it received a very large development. The rise, of this manufacture produced a very extraordinary effect upon the raw Tuscan straw-market. The kind required for weaving was short, fine straw, technically called fine " spuntature," and the somewhat larger and better kinds, " bava." There had been previously very little use for these ends, which, considered almost as refuse, had but little value ; as soon, however, as the demand for weaving began to be felt, they speedily rose to a very high price, and the country was scoured by the " fattorini," or middlemen, to procure them. They were collected in small parcels, and carried in bags to the exporters, at the price of from 2 to 3 lire per Italian pound of twelve ounces for the finer and better qualities ; they thus became more valuable, and more sought after, than the best usual qualities of regularly exported straw. Large quantities were shipped to England. Straw plaits, in general, are produced in all the country district round Florence, Prato, Signa, Empoli, Pistoia, etc. Woven straw is made at Fiesole, where, of late years, a special industry of fancy straw baskets, fans, cigar-cases, etc, has arisen. The Leghorn hats are made nearly everywhere, but more particularly in the towns and villages lying near the Arno, to the west of Florence, such as Brozzi, Signa, Empoli, etc. The best hats are said to be produced in the immediate neighbourhood of the capital city. The seed used for the cultivation of straw is carefully selected with regard to the nature of the soil in which it is to be sown. The quality employed is always a variety of spring wheat {Triticum astivuui). For the lighter soils seed from Mount Amiata,
K 2
124
NOTES ON THE FLORENTINE STRAW INDUSTRY.
near Santa Fiora, or from the mountains of Radicofani, in the Province of Siena, is pre- ferred ; for the heavier lands the '* semone " grown on the Pisan hills near Pontedera is selected Seed is also said to be brought from Modena. As the object of the cultivator is to produce a fine long straw, and not a full crop of wheat, all the usual conditions are reversed. Straw is largely grown about Campi, Sesto, and Prato in the plain between Florence and Pistoia, diminishing in quantity in the neighbourhood of the latter city. The cultivation is important between Florence and Empoli, principally on the south-w^est side of the Arno, in the plain and on the hills commencing in the vicinity of Signa. It extends into the country round within a radius reaching to and beyond Empoli, of about an average distance of fifteen miles from the Arno, including within its range San Casciano and Castelfiorentino. The culture also is carried on about Volterra, and is met with in some parts of the Mugello and elsewhere. In the principal centres of cultivation straw is grown on nearly every farm. Plots of land are also hired, at a money rent, for this culture. The average quantity sown is from five to twenty sacks of seed, each sack weighing about fifty kilog. This quantity, however, varies according to circumstances.
The seed is sown very thickly, at the rate of from five to seven hectolitres* per hectare, towards the end of November or the begin- ning of December. The ground intended for this culture is dug up and manured in May, and generally sown with spring beans and the like, which are often dug in. About October the ground is ploughed for sowing. At the end of May or the beginning of June following, when the ear is beginning to swell, the straw is pulled up by hand, a sunny day being chosen for the operation.
The straw is now made up into " bundles " (''manate" or "menate") containing as much straw as can be easily held in the hand. The bundles are tied up with broom. The green straw is sold in this condition to the factors or speculators who come round to the farmers to make their purchases. The next operation which the straw undergoes is that of being
* Some authorities say 4*50 hectolitres per hectare, others give the quantity at above 8 hectolitres ; but the average would appear to be as noted in the text.
bleached, which is effected by exposure to the sun by day and to the dews by night The '* manate " are spread in a fan-shape on a bare river-bank or other open space, which must be entirely devoid of vegetation. After four or five days' exposure the straw will have ac- quired a light yellow colour. The " manate " are now turned over, and the under part exposed, in its turn, for three or four days more, when the straw, after being well dried, can be gathered in. When the dews are light the process is slower but more perfect. In case of rain, the straw, must be at once heaped together and covered over to prevent its becoming spotted.
The straw is now ready for manufacture, the first operation of which is the " sfilatura," or unsheathing the ends of the straw, leaving only the inner portion to be worked up. This is generally done by children. The ends are sold for forage.
When unsheathed, the straw is carried to the factories. After having been slightly wetted, it is first exposed to the fumes of sulphur, in a tightly-closed room, thus ac- quiring that light sulphur colour which is characteristic of Florentine hats and plaits.
The straw has next to be sorted according to its different thicknesses. This is done by means of an apparatus, which consists of a series of vertical metal cones placed on a stand in a double row and provided with movable copper plates (" sistole "), perforated at their lower ends.
iRet)ietu0»
RomanO'British Mosaic Pavements; a History oj their Discovery, and a Record and Interpretation of their Designs. With plates, plain and coloured, of the most important Mosaics. By Thomas Morgan, F.S.A. (London : Whiting and Co., 1886.) 8vo., pp. xxxiv, 323.
ERV gradually, but we think surely, we are
gathering up the records of our past in
this country. The labours of individual
workers and local societies are constantly
going on without any of that aid from the
Government or other central authorities which the
English nation have a right to expect, and which
other countries — Italy, France, America at their head
REVIEWS.
^25
— already obtain. But the scattered researches of these local bodies cannot give us the assistance for historical purposes which a classification of their labours would' accomplish ; and hence such books as Dr. Evans's Stone Implenitttts and Flint Implements, Mr. Munro's Lake Dwellings of Scoilmtd, Mr. Wood- Martin's Lake Dwellings of Ireland (a valuable work, which we have on our table for review in these columns), become of the utmost importance to the scientific student of English antiquities. To these works we have now, thanks to Mr. Morgan, to add his magnificent volume on the mosaics of Romano- British times. Let us say at once that Mr. Morgan's labours fully entitle his book to rank alongside of those others we have mentioned as an indispensable adjunct to every antiquary's library. And what all students will endeavour to possess for its own special value, many more will no doubt obtain for its general interest on a subject that is known to a very wide circle of intelligent readers, who, when they travel in the country, are always only too glad to turn aside, if there are any objects of antiquity to be seen. As a handsome volume of general interest, and as a student's volume of special interest, we cordially bear testimony to the worth of Mr. Morgan's labours.
Mr. Morgan has brought to his aid unwearied in- dustry, practical knowledge of an extensive kind, a considerable outlook towards the many subjects which these pavements illustrate and by which they are in turn illustrated, and lastly the unstinted assistance of some of the best scholars of the day. It would be strange indeed if, with these advantages, the work were not in every way worthy of its subject. After a general introduction dealing with the mythical and other illustrations which form the ornamentation on the pavements, Mr. Morgan proceeds, county by county, and describes minutely all the mosaics that have been found, commencing with Woodchester, one of the earliest finds, and finishing with that wonderful specimen at Brading, which so interested the English world not long since. Following this, Mr. Morgan most usefully adds some notes on the Itinerary of Antoninus, and the text of the portion so far as it concerns Britain ; and from this we are able to see how the Roman road lines and their defences completely dominated the country, and how, when
Eeaceful times came, villas and their accompanying uildings arose every where on the lines of communica- tion. Such a view of Roman Britain is indeed a story to have told ! It stands out before us in almost the same kind of vividness as these mosaics them- selves ; and if we could once more get a master-hand and master-mind — like the late Mr. Coote — to place in these remains of ancient buildings the correspond- ing picture of the men who lived there, the institu- tions by which they were governed, the domestic and public career which they honoured or disgraced, then, indeed, we should have a history of Roman Britain which would be a worthy successor to the two books which have made it a possibility, namely, Coote's Romans in Britain, and the work before us — Morgan's Romano-British Mosaic Pavements.
We cannot unfortunately, in the limited space at our command, do much more than specify the beauti- ful illustrations which accompany this work — namely,
modern mosaic, interlaced work on early crosses, Woodchester pavement, plan of Roman villa at Chadworth, pavement at Willow, plan of villa at North Leigh, mosaic at Horkstow, pavements at Lincoln, at Canterbury, in Leadenhall Street, plan of Bignor, pavement at Itchen Abbas, plan of Brading, hunting scene (British Museum), Meleager, Atalanta, Dionysus, head of Gla«cus, fisherman in boat, and Roman imperial coins and medals.
On d Copy of Albertus Magnus' De Secretis Mulierum, Printed by Machlinia. By Professor J. Ferguson. 4to. {Archaologia).
In the forty-ninth volume of Archaologia, Pro- fessor Ferguson, of Glasgow, has performed a very acceptable service to early English literature and typography by giving a copious account for the first ' time of two excessively rare and hitherto obscure pro- ductions of the press of William of Malines, or Mechelen — namely, the Liber Aggregationis and Secreta Mulierum of Albertus Magnus. Of the former, the professor was so fortunate as to secure a copy at the Syston Park sale (December, 1884, No. 53), formerly belonging to Herbert, and described by the latter at page 1773 of his well-known work. But at that time the two tracts, which have since been separated, were bound up together. The question as to whether they were originally intended to make one book is difficult to settle, or which was the earlier in order, unless the word Necnon in the colophon to the Liber Aggregationis is to be received as a clue. Perhaps the Secreta Muliei-um would be the likelier subject as a starting venture ; and the absence of an imprint is also favourable to the hypothesis that it really constituted the first of two pieces in a volume, the second alone exhibiting the name of the printer.
An Introduction to the Study of Jacob Boehme's Writings, By A. J. Penny. Reprinted from Li^ht and iJfe. (Glasgow : Dunn and Wright, 1886.) Pp. 31. Boehme flourished 1575-1624, and his name appears in English literature as Beem, Behmont, and most generally Behmen. A shoemaker and unlearned, he is, nevertheless, perhaps the chief of mystical writers, and his influence has been rather with the learned few than the unlettered many. Between 1644 and 1662 his voluminous writings were translated into English by John Ellistone and John Sparrow, assisted by Durand Hotham and Humphrey Blundcn, who paid for the undertaking. At that time regular societies of Behmenists existed in England and Holland, but they became merged in the Society of Friends, with whose tenets their own were substantially identical. The early portion of Mr. Penny's Introduction cites the testimony of some of Boehme's most distinguished students as to the worth and power of his teaching. These names include Edward Taylor (1678), J. G. Gichtel (1698), L. Claud de St. Martin (1792); Schopenhauer, who, speaking of Schelling's works, described them as a rechauffe of Boehme ; D. Frehcr, and in recent years Mr. E. Paxton Ilood, who de-
126
REVIEWS.
scribed Boehme as the Evangelical Hegel. ^fr. Vaughan, in his Hours with the Mystics, had treated Boehme's works as an historical curiosity ; but it is with a widely different aim that Mr. Penny has pub- lished this interesting Introduction. Boehme is pro- claimed as a medicine for the mind in this age of scepticism, and we cannot peruse the extracts here printed without recalling Sartor Jicsarttis, and those Essays in which Carlyle introduces us to Novalis,
Richter, and others. The magnificent and startling idea of God in man, living, and speaking, and know- ing through man, was the contribution of Boehme to European thought, and if for no other reason his writings should be valued. But they abound in mental and spiritual fahulum, and it is to be hoped that the proposed reprint of the old English translation, of which this Introduction appears to be the herald, may find numerous subscribers.
Cray's Inn ; its History and Associations. By W. R. DouTHWAiTE. (London : Reeves and Turner.) 8vo., pp. xxiii, 283.
The compilation of this interesting memoir has been evidently a labour of love for the Librarian of Gray's Inn. Every source of information has, it would seem, been ransacked ; and though the Inns of Court are by no means so rich as might be
foremost among the Inns of Court, yet that in the sixteenth century, when it was adorned by the illustrious Bacon, it surpassed them both in numbers and importance. The ancient Constitution and Orders, the "Readings" and "Moots" (of late so successfully revived), are carefully explained ; and the chapter on the Hall will be of special interest to heraldic readers from its careful and elaborate de- scription of the coats-of-arms in the windows. Book-
riELI) COURT.
supposed in records, Mr. Douthwaite has been able to supplement their evidence from so many various quarters, that he has produced a very attractive and readable volume. The History of the Inn is here traced from the days when it was the head of the Manor of Portpool, through its ownership by the great family of Grey (from whom it derives its name), down to the time when it became the haunt of men of the law, and so on to our own days. The fact is rightly insisted on that though Gray's is no longer the
HOLBORN GATE.
lovers also will appreciate the chapter on the origin and growth of the Library, while that devoted to "Masques and Revels" serves to remind us how closely the rise of the drama among us was connected with the Inns of Court. We must not forget to mention that a copious Index is given, or to praise the excellence of the illustrations, of which the sober quietness is in harmony with the subject, and which are worthy of the admirable typography by which the volume is distinguished.
REVIEWS.
127
Q0eeting0 of antiquanan
Banburyshire Natural History Society and Field Club. — ^July 10. — This society had their first excursion this season to Rollright, Long Compton, and Whichford. The route lay by Lower Tadmarton, through the remains of the ancient British Camp to Hook Norton. At Great Rollright the party alighted to inspect the church. The principal feature here is the Norman arch in the south aisle. It is protected by an ornamental porch, near to which are the remains of an ancient stone cross. Reaching the top of the Bright hill they again alighted to inspect the Rollright Stones, and then descended the hill to Long Compton. The homeward journey was commenced through the WTiichford Woods, which formed a rich ground for the botanist.
Bradford Historical and Antiquarian Society. — ^July 17. — The fourth excursion for the season was made to Bolton Abbey. On arriving at the Abbey, the Rev. Mr. Howse led the party first through the nave of the ancient edifice, now used as a parochial chapel, and thence to the ruined portion, describing on the way the most interesting portions, and also the arrangement and uses to which the entire series of the original buildings was applied. The beautiful western end of the nave, yet entire, was shown to be greatly concealed by the partial erection of a hand- some tower in front of it, about twenty years before the dissolution of the monastery, by the last Abbot, Richard ,Moone, in 1520. The ancient water-mill was next visited. Frequenters to Bolton will have noticed an archway spanning the road near the Lodge. This arch was devised to support the aqueduct which led the stream from the adjoining hillside to the old wheel of the mill, and portions of the sluice and mill-race are yet remaining. From the Abbey the party proceeded to the Lodge, the ancient gateway to the Abbey. After the dissolution, by sundry alterations and additions, it was converted into a dwelling ; and has been the occasional residence of the Cliffords and their descendants ever since. By the kindness of the Duke of Devonshire the premises were thrown open for inspection on this occasion, and the converted ceilings of the vaulted gateway were specially admired. These are constructed in panels all through, each panel being decorated by subjects and devices taken apparently from early Latin legends. Many of them are now, however, consider- ably faded, the colours having disappeared, and it is very likely the whole will vanish in a brief period, if some attempt is not made at restoration. Here arc deposited also sundry records in MSS. relating to the history of the Abbey and the district around. Sub- sequently, a portion of the company visited the Beamsley Almshouses, situate about half a mile beyond the Red Lion on the Hazlewood Road. Fs- tablishments of this kind are very rare now in this country ; and this particular one being little known, and out of the way, is very seldom visited. These almshouses were founded in 1593, by Margaret, Countess of Cumberland (mother of Lady Anne
Clifford, of famous memory) for a matron and twelve poor sisters, and an endowment each of 7s. 6d. a week for their maintenance. Mrs. Anne afterwards added a small estate at Harewood, so that altogether the inmates of this institution should be very com- fortable. The original edifice is approached through a rude archway, over wHft:h, on a slab inserted in the wall, is the following inscription : — *' This almshouse was founded by that excellent lady Margaret, Countess of Cumberland, wife of George, 3rd Earl of Cumberland, 1593; and was more perfectly finished by her only child, the Lady Anne Clifford, Countess Dowager of I'embroke, Dorset, and Montgomery. God's name be praised." Beyond this gateway, at a distance of some hundred yards or so, on rising ground, stands the ancient edifice, looking for all the world like a huge cheese with a dome on it. It is therefore circular, and by measure 15 yards in diameter, the centre, 5 yards across, being occupied by a small octagon chapel, which is lighted from the roof. About this chapel radiate six dormitories or dwellings of the sisters, and only through it can they reach them. The arrangement is certainly very curious, but it cannot be either very healthy or con- venient. At first sight it looks uncommonly like a contrivance to provide the maximum accommodation from the least space. The visitors greatly admired this antique and primitive establishment.
Herts Natural History Society. — June 19. — The members held a field meeting in conjunction with the members of the St. Albans Architectural and ArchjEological Society at St. Stephen's. The party crossed the fields to St. Julian s, where, by permission of Mr. Cartwright, they assembled on the lawn to hear a paper on the Leper Hospital, by Mr. A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S, He said that the disease of leprosy, now happily so rare in this country, was during the Middle Ages a real and dreaded scourge in our islands. As early as a.d. 928 Howel the Good, the great Welsh King, enacted laws with regard to lepers, and it is known that long before that leprosy was a common disease on the conti- nent of Europe, while at a later period the inter- course with Eastern countries during the time of the Crusades resulted in a great increase of the malady. To alleviate the sufferings of the afflicted, and to check in some measure its ravages, Lazar, or Leper Hospitals, were built in many parts of the country. These foundations, the outcome of the charity of wealthy persons, or great religious houses, were often richly endowed, and were generally under eccle- siastical rule. A leper hospital formerly stood near to where they were then assembled. It was founded early in the twelfth century by Geoffrey De Gorham, sixteenth Abbot (1119-1146), a learned man, who came over from Normandy to become master of a mediaeval school in St. Albans, which he thought they might claim to be lineal ancestor of the present Grammar School. Geoffrey, however, arrived after the appointment had been filled up, and retired to Dunstable, but subsequently entered the House at St. Albans and rose to be Abbot. He built a church and hospital for lejiers near the way which leads to I^ondon, and at a spot called Heved, or Eywood, dedicating it to St. Julian, a martyr, who died with great constancy during the Decian persecution. For
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the support of the house the Abbot set apart many portions of tithe, among them being the tithe of 60s. paid by the town of St. Albans, all the corn tithe of the lordship of Kingsbury, parts of the corn tithe of the parishes of SS. Michael and Stephen, all the corn tithe of Hamstude, and many others. These gifts were bestowed with the unanimous consent of the chapter, and a solemn sentence of excommunica- tion was pronounced against all those who should at any time interfere with the hospital. These grants were confirmed by Henry I., who himself made a grant of id. per day out of his own treasury. Popes Gregory and Innocent also confirmed them. In 1235, after the death of William, twenty-second Abbot of St. Albans, and before the election of his successor, there was a vacancy in the mastership of St. Julian's, and following the usual rule the patronage reverted to the King (Henry III.), who collated one of the brethren from St. Albans, named Nicholas. Roger, the twenty-fourth Abbot, confirmed the grants to the hospital, and also undertook a lawsuit against one Randolph Perot, who did knight service for the manor of Wyndrugg, and who claimed the right of placing one leper in the hospital. In 1329 Abbot Richard Wallingford confirmed the recovery of 60s., which had been withheld. The rule of the house appears to have got very lax, and the lepers became a nuisance and scandal to the neighbourhood. So Michael de Mentmore, the twenty-ninth Abbot {1335-49), made constitutions for the regulation of the house (which will be found printed m extenso in the appendix to the second volume of the Gesta, Rolls series). They are very interesting, and contain a good deal of information as to the dress, diet, government, and life in a charitable institution in the fourteenth century. The following are some of the most curious regulations : — On St. Martin's Day a pig was to be given to each brother, or if he pre- ferred it, its value in money. It was also provided that the brethren should have fourteen gallons of beer every seventh month, or 8d. for the same, from which it would seem that beer was an inexpensive luxury in the fourteenth century — fourteen gallons for 8d. ! The dress of the leprous brethren was to consist of an upper and lower tunic of russet and a hood of the same material. The sleeves of the tunic were to be closed to the hand and not laced with cords in the secular fashion, and the upper tunic was to be closed down to the ankles. A close black cape was also worn out of doors. The boots were made with special regard to the malady of the wearers. They were laced high, and if a brother dared to wear a low-cut shoe he was compelled to go barefooted during the pleasure of the master for a penance. Only men were admitted to the foundation, and with the exception of blood relations no women but the washerwomen were allowed inside the house, and these only at stated hours. The lepers were not per- mitted to go beyond a mile from the hospital, and were strictly forbidden to enter the town of St. Albans or to stay out all night. They were also ex- cluded from the bakehouse, brewhouse, and granary at all times, except the brother in charge, and he was not to dare to touch the bread and beer, since it was "most unfitting that persons with such a malady should handle things appointed for the common use
of men." Ablx)t Michael constituted that six lepers should be maintained here, and at least five priests under the rule of the master ; the revenue being suf- ficient to maintain this number. In the time of Abbot Thomas, successor to Michael de Mentmore, the rectory of St. Julian was applied to the Abbot's private purse, and was greatly improved by John Moote, who was then prior. Abbot Thomas seems to have been very kind to the inmates of St. Julian's. On the death of Thomas, Moote was elected Abbot. The rectory of St. Julian appears to have been leased to William Burcot, and during Moote's titne reverted to the Abbot by gift, and the income was applied to the use of the prior with a certain annual portion for Burcot. In 1473 we find one Ralph Ferrer master of the hospital of St. Julian. At the dissolution of the monastery, the hospital was given by the Crown to Thomas Lee, and at the present time the site is in the possession of Mr. C. W, Wilshere, of Welwyn. At the conclusion of the paper, St. Stephen's Vicarage was visited, where the members of the united societies were received by the Rev. W. D. W. Dudley, who exhibited some Roman remains, discovered in the churchyard, and then conducted the party over the church. Thence a walk was taken along Watling Street to Verulam woods, where the Rev. Dr. Grififith gave an interesting account of the old city of Verulam. At the conclusion of the address some little time was spent in viewing the walls and earthworks, after which Westminster Lodge was visited.
Peterborough Scientific and Archaeologfical Society. — ^July 17. — The party proceeded to Cam- bridge, and the Fitzwilliam Museum was the first point made for. The various objects of interest, pictures, rare engravings, valuable collection of Greek coins formed by Colonel Leake, casts of ancient statues, etc., were exhibited and explained. The chapel and hall of Peterhouse, the former having its windows filled with painted glass from Munich, and the latter with portraits of its distinguished scholars, were then explored. Both were lighted with the elec- tric light. The library of Corpus Christi College was next visited, and was seen to be particularly rich in old manuscripts and illuminations, amongst them the original copy of the Thirty-Nine Articles. Many of the manuscripts relate to the Reformation ; a letter of Martin Luther's is among the number. Mr. Lewis con- ducted the party over the library of Trinity College ; this contains the statue of Lord Byron, which was refused admission into Westminster Abbey, also many rare books and coins. St. John''s library and chapel were afterwards visited. Under the guidance of the Rev. the President of St. John's the party ascended to the top of the tower — 163 feet high — and were rewarded by a splendid panoramic view of Cambridge and the surrounding country.
Yorkshire Archaeological and Topogfraphical Society. — July 31. — Visit to Kirkham Abbey and Malton. At Kirkham the party, passing across the rustic bridge which spans the now swollen and turgid river, took up their stand in front of the historical gateway which furnishes the entrance to the Priory grounds. Here Mr. J. T. Micklethwaite entered upon an elaborate description of the entrance gate and other portions of the Abbey, the company follow- ing him through the luxuriantly wooded grounds, and
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
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inspecting with keen interest the numerous historical records. The secretary read a letter which he had received from the Rev. C. B. Norcliffe, of Langton Hall, Hulton, the well-known authority on heraldry, in which he called the attention of the association to several interesting characteristics associated with portions of the Abbey. The company then resumed their journey by special train to Malton. The com- pany proceeded to inspect St. Michael's Church, and afterwards drove to Old Malton Priory, where a lengthy paper, giving an historical account of the structure, was read by the Vicar, the Rev. A. B. Pitman. Mr. Micklethwaite next addressed the members of the association present, and after calling attention to several matters of detail in connection with the building, he said that the present was an appropriate time for preaching the doctrine of restora- tion. They had in the church a most interesting old edifice, but one which was in a perfectly ruinous con- dition. One corner of the building was positively dangerous. There were stones which might fall at any moment, and something must really Ije done or the church would fall to the ground. The question was — What had best be done ? Some people would be sure to say that it ought to be restored according to the style of the period ; but that was what ought not to be done. Let them, if they like, put on a roof that was constructed in accordance with modern ideas ; but let them not touch anything that was old — to which a history and tradition attached. He confessed he would sooner see the church tumble down than see it improved like the church in the Market Place, where nothing of the old edifice remained.
British Archaeological Association — Congress at Darlington, — A preliminary excursion in the morning of the opening day was made to the Norman churches of Haughton le Skerne and Aycliffe, at which latter place some interesting stone crosses of the late Saxon type and a cross-legged effigy of the thirteenth century were the objects of attraction. The official opening took place at the Reference Room of the Free Library, Darlington, where the Association was received by the Mayor, J. K. Wilkes, Esq., and the Corporation. The parish church of St. Cuthbert was then attended, and Mr. J. P. Pritchett read a paper descriptive of the peculiar char.icteristics of its archi- tecture, which were further supplemented by Mr. Dyer LongstafTe. The church is believed to have been built in the closing years of the twelfth century, and some of the work at the east end and transepts, which are very fine, is of this date. .Some Saxon crosses of the later style, sculptured with interlaced work springing from a central boss, are preserved in the church. The first excursion took ])lace on Tuesday morning. The day was entirely devoted to Durham. At the Cathedral Mr. C. Hodgson Fowler described the points of interest. Canon Greenwell exhibited the manuscripts of Beda, Cassiodorus, and others of the seventh and eighth centuries ; and relics of St. Cuthbert's grave in the library and the sculptured stones and Roman inscriptions were inspected by some of the party. In the museum, which was after- wards visited, the Rev. Dr. Hooppell drew attention to the extensive collection of Roman remains found in recent excavations at Vinovia, or Binchester Farm,
conducted by him with the assistance of Mr. Proud. The Norman chapel in the castle and the numerous tapestries in the deanery and castle were specially attractive points in the work of the day. Wednesday morning was devoted to visiting Piercebridge, the site of a Roman station, ConiscTifife, Gainford, and Stain- drop Churches, and Raby Castle. In the afternoon, Barnard Castle and Church and Egglestone Abbey and Rokeby were the principal sites of examination.
Archaeological Institute— Congress at Chester. — The annual meeting was held in the Town Hall, when Earl Percy, whose term of office had expired, was re-elected president for another three years, as were also the retiring members of the council. The annual report was adopted, the accounts were passed, and it was agreed to leave in the hands of the council the choice of some means of increasing the numbers of the institute, and so place it on a safer basis financially. It was announced also that the next annual meeting would be held at Salisbury, to which city the society had received a pressing invita- tion from the local authorities. At twelve o'clock Mr. Beresford-Hope, M.P., opened the architectural section of the meeting, his speech being devoted to a review of the points in which ajicient architecture may be reconciled with modern sanitary arrangements. The party were then escorted to the old Norman church of St. John, just outside the walls, and which served as the cathedral of the diocese until the Reformation, when Henry VIII. suppressed St. Werburgh's Abbey and established the bishop's seat within the walls of the latter. The interior of the church was described by Mr. R. P. PuUan and Sir James Picton, and its fine monumental crosses, etc., by the Rev. George Browne. After luncheon an hour was spent in view- ing the cathedral under the guidance of the Dean, Mr. R. P. Pullan, and the Rev. Mr. Venables, Pre- centor of Lincoln Cathedral, who explained the lead- ing features of the nave, chancel, chapter-house, library, and cloisters, and who concluded his description by an appeal to " some wealthy merchant or mil- lionnaire " to complete the south-western tower. The inspection of the cathedral being finished, the party were conveyed by boat up the river to Eaton Hall, the seat of the Duke of Westminster, who, with the Duchess of Westminster, entertained them at a garden- party. The rain, however, which fell heavily, com- pelled them to remain on the covered terrace and in the library and other apartments. Here they were joined by a large number of the Colonial representa- tives, who arrived from London by train in the course of the afternoon, and who, jointly with the archreolo- gists, were welcomed at a conversazione in the Town Hall by the Mayor and Corporation. Next day the members of the institute left Chester soon after break- fast by train for Malpas, where the interesting and beautiful church was described by the rector, the Hon. and Rev. William Trevor Kcnyon and Mr. R. P. Pullan. At noon the members went on l)y special train to Nantwich, where they inspected the church, the Rev. F. G. Blackburne, the rector, acting as their cicerone. From Nantwich, a drive of a few miles took them to Acton, where they inspected the church, Mr. R. P. Pullan oiTering a few remarks on its leading architectural features. The parish church of Bunbury, which followed next, was explained by the Rev. W.
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THE ANTIQUARY S NOTE-BOOK.
Lowe. From Bunbury the party drove on to Breston Castle, the loftiest spot in all Cheshire ; and here Precentor Venables favoured the company with some comments on its leading features and past history. In the evening meetings of the three sections were held at the Town Hall.
C&e antiquatp'$ n^ote^lBook.
Newspapers in England. — From an interesting "Jubilee Retrospect," issued by Mr. H. Whorlow, the secretary, in commemoration of the fiftieth anni- versary of the Provincial Newspaper Society, we glean the following figures exemplifying the progress which has since been achieved : —
1824. 1886. Total number of newspapers In
the United Kingdom . . 266 2,093
Dailies — 187
London papers ... 31 409
English provinces . . . 135 ijZ^S
Wales — 83
Scotland 58 193
Ireland ..... 33 162
British Isles .... 9 21
Arts in Rome. — The following notes from a newly- published "Report from H.M. Diplomatic and Con- sular Officers " are worth transcribing in these columns : The most ancient art institution in Italy is probably the Roman Academy of .St. Luke. From time im- memorial, and long before the League of Florence, there existed in the Eternal City a .Society of Painters, which afterwards took the name of " The University of Arts," and had its seat in a small church dedicated to .St. Luke, on the Esquiline, conceded to it by Pojie Gregory XL, reigning at Avignon in 137 1. Sixtus IV. extended the statute of the College in 1478 by a Code which still exists in the archives of the Academy. I5y .Sixtus V. the Institution was removed to the Forum, where it now is. The Academy is an independent corporation. It admits, as Fellows, artists of all nations, creeds, and political persuasions ; organizes prize competitions, gives pensions to art students, and attends to the care and progress of national art, and the preservation of ancient monuments. Napoleon I., with the assistance of Canova, formed its present statutes with important privileges and functions. I5y them the numberof resident Fellows is fixed at twelve for each de])artment, viz., painting, sculpture, and architecture, and twenty non-residents of each class. The number of honorary associates is not limited. The art gallery is the private property of the Academy ; it cont.ains the collections of pictures left to it by Fabio Rosa, Carlo Maratti, D. Pellegrini, Gregory XVI., Wicar, and others. Zuccari, Poussin, Pietro da Cortona, Maratti, and T. Minardi have succes- sively re-arranged the works of art, the catalogue of which is too well known to demand repetition here. There are over 200 pictures in the gallery and a rich collection of medals given by Gustavus III. of Sweden,
including also Pistrucci's Waterloo medal ; those in gold, collected by Professor A. Juvarra ; one pre- sented by King Charles Albert, and many others. The Library, given to the Municipality of Rome by Antonio .Sarti, perpetual Honorary President of the Academy and a distinguished architect, is enriched with from 10,000 to 15,000 historical, archaeological, and art volumes. The donor bequeathed an annual sum of £,a,Oi together with this collection, one of the finest ever made by a private individual. The sculp- ture-rooms contain works by Thorwaldsen, Canova, Gibson, and other masters. In the archives are many fine sketches and drawings, engravings and rare editions, as well as a certain number of interesting documents and manuscripts. There are 256 portraits of former members of the Academy in the gallery. The present Minister of Public Instruction, Dr. Bacelli, is very zealous in furthering excavations and restora- tions of ancient monuments. Under his auspices the Pantheon has been isolated, and the Forum is being restored to its original ground-plan. Most of the monuments in the kingdom are now in the hands of Government officials, by whom they are well looked after and preserved. Amongst the Government art institutions which deserve special notice is that de- voted to engraving celebrated works by the great masters. This establishment, under the name of the " Calcografia Camerale Romana," was founded in 1738 by Pope Clement XII., who, learning that the heirs of Gian de Rossi were thinking of selling the famous collection which originated the art of en- graving in Italy, forbade the sale without licence, under penalty of the loss of the plates and a fine of 10,000 scudi. The same Pontiff afterwards purchased the whole collection for the sum of 45,000 scudi, and endowed the institution thus formed with an annual income of 5,000 scudi for the purpose of augmenting and completing the store of art treasures. The painter, Domenico Campiglia, was made the first director. From the time of Benedict XIV. to that of Pius VI. the art of engraving languished somewhat, but it revived greatly at the beginning of the present century, and in 1836 the establishment was moved to its present site, under the care of R. Persichini, a noted connoisseur. Since that time the sale of engravings has inuch increased. Many copper-plates were unfor- tunately taken out of the Stamperia at the end of the past and commencement of the present century, to be coined into money. Thus were lost the Cliroiiology of the Cardiiials and La Fiaiita di Konia del Villa- iitena. Another severe loss was suffered under Pope Leo XII., who ordered the destruction of all plates reputed of an obscene nature, including the priceless works of Dorigny, engraved from the pictures in the Farnesia, and many others ; the statues of Canova were destroyed as indecent, or veiled (and thus spoiled) on account of their nudity, and the Venuses engraved by Folo were ruthlessly clothed ! Pius IX. gave great stimulus to the art by making the celebrated artist, Paolo Mercuri, head of the institution. He, with the aid of the best engravers he could find, proceeded with the important work of reproducing the master- pieces in the Stanze of Raphael. Unhappily for the cause of art he was stricken with apoplexy after ten years of eminent labour ; but the work commenced by him has been, and is still being, continued.
ANTICS UARIAN NE WS.
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antiquatian J13eto0»
M. Auguste Lahontan, of Paris, has lately executed for an English bookseller an artistic sample of scien- tific book renovation, the work under treatment being a copy of Coverdales Bible. It had evidently been used by some Vandal as a stand for a butter-keg, the latter portion having been completely saturated with fat, while the title-page had greatly suffered from the predatory attacks of mice assisted by damp. He treated each leaf to a judicious course of chlorine in solution and ammonia as the occasion warranted, while the dirt was removed by some process only known to himself, and he then supplied the defective portions by carefully grafting on selected portions of paper of the requisite texture and shade ; the missing letter- press was then facsimiled ; the whole was next sized, and afterwards appropriately bound by one of the best Parisian binders, the whole cost of this exhaustive treatment being £i,o.
A number of gentlemen connected with the city and county of Aberdeen have taken steps for the formation of a club having for its object the publica- tion of works illustrative of the archreology of the counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine. The club is intended to carry on the work achieved by the Aberdeen Spalding Club, which became defunct about seventeen years ago, after thirty years of a useful existence. A list of works has been indicated as suitable for the earlier issues, and, in addition, it is understood that many private charter chests in the three counties are still unexplored, and may be ex- pected to yield a rich harvest. The promoters propose for the club a scope somewhat wider than that adopted by the Scottish History Society recently instituted in Edinburgh, whose sole aim is stated to be " the print- ing of unpublished documents." The promoters are already assured of the co-ojieration of a number of gentlemen in the editing of works. Should the pro- ject meet with approval, the club will shortly be regularly constituted.
The silver coins recently disinterred in a bronze jar at Aberdeen have been handed to the representatives of the Crown. The army of Edward H., whose image many of the coins bear, was once encamped on the ground where the treasure was found ; it was then waste land outside the town, and is now in the heart of the city.
Queen Eleanor's Cross at Waltham is to be restored, amongst the donors being her Majesty the Queen. It is the intention of the committee who have been ap- pointed to carry out the work to bring the cross as near as possible into the condition in which it was when erected nearly six centuries ago.
The city of Paris has become lately the possessor of a remarkable collection of documents, which will have great interest in years to come for historical investi- gators. This was the scries of death-warrants extend- ing from the 7th of April, 1808, to the 8th December, 1832, belonging to Sanson, the notorious headsman of the Revolution. The collection was bound up in nineteen volumes, and Sanson has prefixed to each
volume a summary of the contents. It appears that during twenty-five years he executed 7,143 capital sentences, being an average of 217 executions a year — rather a busy life. During the twenty-five years he only twice ascended the sc^old without a fatal result — once in 1815, when General Count Lavalette was to have been executed for complicity in the return of Napoleon, but escaped the night before his intended execution through the heroism of his wife. The second time was in 18 17, when Philippe-Jean Antoine, a noted coiner, was respited at the last moment by Louis XVI 1 1.
The parish church of St. Peter, Dalby, near Ter- rington, has been restored. This ancient church has suffered from damp and dilapidation for many years. The interior of the chancel, which has a stone vaulted roof, was restored some years ago. The work just completed consists of stripping off the old pantiles from the roof, replacing the rotten timber with new, and re-covering with Welsh slates and stone ridge ; building a new stone-edge gable at the west end (where there were traces of having been one for- merly), and re-hanging the two old bells ; partly taking down the old porch walls, and erecting an open timber porch of oak, with seat at each side and a new door. The plastered walls have been repaired and coloured. During this operation traces of colour decoration were discovered on the north wall. The font, which is an early one, hemispherical, and_ large enough for immersion, was considered too large, and has been placed outside near the porch, and a smaller one, which was found half sunk below the floor as a base for the above one, cleansed and substituted on a new stone step.
The parish church of Hampton, near Evesham, was entered in the course of the night of the loth of July, and the jiarish registers, dating back to 1538, were stolen. These documents were " kept in a tin box with a small brass padlock," and their disappearance may perhaps be the means of drawing the attention of the clergy generally to the question of the safe keeping of church registers.
At the sale of the library of a well-known collector, the famous sermon preached by John Knox, at Edin- burgh, in August, 1565, " For the whiche he was inhibite preaching for a season," fetched ;^4I5.
Some excavations lately carried out at Flonheim, near Worms, have brought to light some most interest- ing specimens of Frankish antiquity. In and around the old Romano-Gothic church, Franconian chiefs and nobles had their burial-places. The new church does not stand on exactly the same ground as the old one, and so it was possible to undertake explorations that would otherwise h.ave been difficult. In one grave a necklace of fine pearls was found around the neck of a female skeleton, with small gold plates, adorned with filigree work, inserted as pendants be- tween each pair of pearls. There were some heavily gilt silver ornaments, with filigree work, lying on the breast ; beside the skeleton a piece of yellow topaz, a silver buckle, and a comb of lx)ne. In another woman's grave there were similar ornaments, and also some pieces of glass (unusual in Frankish graves), and keys of a form hitherto unknown in Germany.
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ANTIQUARIAN NEWS.
In a man's grave there were found a gold ring of ex- quisite workmanship, which could have l^elonged only to a woman, a pot of singular shape, arrows, a shield, a hea\-y javelin, a sword, a drinking-cup, a beautiful buckle of gilt bronze, and a piece of chain of twisted wire.
M. Maspero, who from family circumstances has found it necessary to relinquish the superintendence of the important archreological excavations now in pro- gress in Eg>'pt, has just given at the French Acaderny of Inscriptions an interesting account of his latest dis- coveries. With regard to the great Sphinx, M. Maspero stated that the works of this year had lowered the surface of the ground surrounding the monument by sixteen metres. Little more had now to be done l)efore it could be ascertained whether the Sphinx rested on a pedestal. From the appearance of the .Sphinx, now that it is so far disclosed, M. Maspero is inclined to reject the opinion that it was carved on a huge rock commanding the plain. He considers that the plateau was hollowed out into an immense basin, at the centre of which the rock intended to be sculp- tured into the Sphinx was left intact. Among the numerous excavations made M. Maspero mentioned an untouched sepulchre of the twentieth dynasty, even the priests* seals on the doors remaining as when placed there.
Some extensive subterraneous caverns have just been discovered by the Rev. H. A. Thorne beneath a garden at the rear of the house occupied by him at Westfield, Birchington-on-Sea. When lowering a bucket down a well in the garden the bucket, which was swinging, mysteriously disappeared in the side of the well. This aroused the curiosity of Mr. Thorne, who himself descended the well and discovered ex- tensive excavations. The place has been thoroughly examined, and subterraneous passages and chambers representing 20,000 cubic feet of space found to exist. The entrance in the side of the well is thirty-two feet below the surface, and the chambers are of a very roomy description, their height being eight feet and upwards. One very long passage leads off in the direction of the shore, which would seem to indicate that the occupants contemplated opening up under- ground communication with the sea, which, however, they failed to accomplish. Close by the spot there used to be an old limekiln, and it is conjectured that the smugglers contrived to keep their work secret by means of the kiln. Indications are not wanting that the caverns were used for the storage of contraband goods.
Leighton Buzzard parish church has just been re- opened after restoration. The fabric is cruciform in plan, and consists of a nave, chancel, north and south transepts (with a central tower and spire), north and south aisles, north and south porches, with — north of the chancel — an ancient sacristy, surmounted by a domtis rechtsus, or domicile of a priestly recluse. The tower is of the Early English period (twelfth and thir- teenth century), and the massive spire, 193 feet high, is probably of only a little later date. The chancel is also in great part of Early English date; the transepts (fourteenth century) have Perpendicular windows. The nave is surmounted by a remarkably fine Perpen-
dicular clerestory, the large and beautiful three-light windows of which are arranged in couplets. On the walls of the nave stone corbels are formed by means of angels holding shields, on which are sculptured various " instruments of the Passion," such as the cross, the lance, the pillar to which Christ was bound, the scourge, the robe of mockery, and the crown of thorns. To these are added some less familiar devices — for instance, a representation of the five sacred wounds of Christ ; three little squares symbolizing the dice with which the soldiers cast lots ; and a cock, recalling the denial of St. Peter. A very interesting device, frequently employed in mediaeval times, is to be found in the south-west angle of the south aisle. It is sculptured on a stone shield, and represents the doctrine of the Trinity in Unity. In the interior the handsomely and elaborately carved Perpendicular roof of the nave, of unusually high pitch for the style, is very fine. The fine ancient carving and the series of stalls, formerly with " miserere" seats, in the chancel are remarkable. The iron scroll-work which decorates the southern door is now restored to its original posi- tion in the west doorway. It consists of two hinges and a handle, 8 feet by 4 feet 10 inches, covering the door. The church is said to have been built by St. Hugh, Bishop of Lincoln, who founded a Pre- bendary Stall, or Rectory, the first incumbent being Nicholas Hyam. The church was finished in 1288, and in that year was consecrated by Oliver Sutton, then Bishop of Lincoln, and a legend in connection with the carved eagle and the consecrafion is that while the ceremony was proceeding " the Bishop was much annoyed by an arch enemy in the form of a large bird hovering about him ; he cursed it, and it fell down, a broken, battered thing."
The opening of a museum of natural history and archaeology, with schools of science and art, took place at Chester on the 9th of August. The Duke of W^estminster took a prominent part in the pro- ceedings. The museum has been christened the " Grosvenor Museum," in recognition of his Grace's generosity in heading the subscription list with ^4,000, and giving the greater part of the land for the site.
The Archbishop of York has reopened Hooton Pagnell Church, which has been restored at a cost of ^4,000. Many of the ancient Saxon features of the church have been carefully preserved.
Pannal Church, Yorkshire, has been restored. This ancient edifice is known as the "Old Mother Church," and its vicars can be traced back to 1271.
The Rhind Lectures at Edinburgh in 1S87 will be delivered by Mr. A. S. Murray, Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum, his subject being Greek archeology.
M. Thorin announces the publication of a book describing the excavations undertaken at Myrina, during the years 18S0 to 1882, hy MM. Edouard Pottier, Salomon Reinach, and A. Veyries, on behalf of the French school at Athens. It will be in two volumes, one containing the text with illustrations, the other fifty-two plates and a plan. The sub- scription price for the entire work is 100 francs.
ANTIQ UARIAN NE WS.
'33
The centenary of the publication of the first edition of the poems of Burns was celebrated on August 7 at Kilmarnock. The demonstration was attended by 30,000 persons. The centennial address was delivered by Mr. Jas. H. Stoddart, LL.D., editor of the Glasgow Herald. Having briefly alluded to the importance and the significance in our national life of the first edition of Burns's poems, Dr. Stoddart pro- ceeded to say that the effect of the publication of Burns's first volume of poems upon his countrymen was that Scotland awoke from her long intellectual lethargy. Burns spoke from a heart glowing with the hottest passion, of love, of patriotism, of detesta- tion of meanness, hypocrisy, and cant, to a people prepared to thrill at every word, at every homely but divme line of his verses. They had a strong educative influence upon the mind of the peasantry of Scotland. They allayed fanaticism, and whatever harm some of these poems may have done, the influence was in- tellectually and morally stimulative and essentially good. Whatever their critics may say, he thought he might assert this much, that the first work, the first hostage which a great man gives to his country of the work which is in him, was as worthy of com- memoration as the day of his birth or the day of his death.
There is a good deal of excitement in Italy about the discovery of the site of the ancient Vetulonia, due to Dr. I. Falchi, at Colonna, in the province of Grosseto. In particular, one tomb is on a very large scale. In it over twenty large bronze vases were discovered, shields, helmets, sv.ords and lances, and silver vases, one of them chiselled. The quantity of earthenware is immense, and altogether the amount of remains of Etruscan art seems to be extra- ordinary.
The little-known cabinet of Oriental coins in the library of Christ Church, Oxford, has just been catalogued by Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole. It contains over five hundred varieties of Mohammedan coins, including specimens of the Eastern Khalifs, the kings of Cordova, Ceuta, Murcia, Toledo, and Malaga, Almoravides, Almohades, and Sheriffs of Morocco, Samani dynasty of Samarkand, Seljuks of Iconium, Atabegs, Ayyubis, and Mamluks, Ottoman Turks, Shahs of Persia, and Moguls of India, of whom there is a fine set of Jehangir's zodiacal mohurs. Mr. Lane-Poole's Catalogue of the Mohammedan Coins in the Bodleian Library is also completed, and is now being printed at the Clarendon Press.
The council of the Archaeological Institute of America, to whom we owe the archieological explora- tion of Assos, in Asia Minor, has resolved to under- take a similar work at some site in Magna Graccia — probably Tarcntum. The expedition will again be in charge of Mr. Joseph Thacker Clarke. Sul)scri])tions are asked for to the amount of 2,000 dollars (^500) ; and it is hoped to commence work early in the coming winter.
Evidence of a post-glacial forest have been dis- covered on the western outskirts of Mull, about a mile from the Humber and one and a half mile from the River Hull. Workmen engaged in a brickyard in the locality named, on cutting through the clean warp- clay about twelve feet, have come across a forest-bed
on an irregular surface of the drift, on the top of which is a greenish sandy clay, with pebbles and stones. The roots of the trees are standing where they grew, and from their closeness represent the remains of a dense forest. The forest bed is now at the low water level of the sea. A stone jpplement has been found on the surface of the drift.'
The Blenheim picture sale came to a close on August 13, when ^ 10,411 was realized for sixty-nine pictures. One of them, a "Madonna," by Carlo Dolci, brought no less than 6,660 guineas, this sum having been given by Mr. Agnew. Altogether, the Blenheim art treasures have realized upwards of ;^35o,ooo.
Whilst the York Corporation workmen were ex- cavating in Colliergate, in connection with the wood pavement that is being laid down in that thoroughfare, they came across two stone coffins, about a couple of feet from the surface. The particular spot where they were discovered was near Christ Church burial ground, which at one time undoubtedly extended across the street. Mr. Platnauer, of the Museum, was sent for (in the absence from home of the Rev. Canon Raine), and it was decided that the coffins should be conveyed to the Museum. They appear to be composed of a coarse limestone. Both the coffins are very incom- plete, but the upper part of one is well preserved. It had been hollowed out for the head and shoulders.
The Estates Committee of the York Corporation have been considering (or some time the desirability of restoring and opening to the public that portion of the City Walls which lies between Monk and Bootham Bars at the north-east side of the city. Hitherto there have been considerable difficulties in the way. But it is to be hoped that conflicting interests will dis- appear, and all join heartily in promoting so desirable an object as the restoration of these splendid fortifica- tions.
The re-opening of the parish church of Wentnor re- cently took place upon the completion of the work of restoration. In the tower are four very sweet-toned bells, the weight of which is supported by four old oak beams of a massive size, and which must have been in the building for several centuries. The bells have been in the church about 170 years. In the tower is a clock which is said to be 102 years old, constructed by a local genius hailing from the village of Rushbury. On the north side we come upon two very interesting relics of Norman architecture of a very early date. These consist of an archway and window, which have at some period been built up, and on being discovered were jealously watched by the rector, not a coign being allowed to be removed. The roof was plastered, but upon being stripped of its covering it was found that it was of richly-carved oak, and this has been re- stored, much of the old material l^eing utilised in the work. The scats in the body of the church are of oak, and the choir-stalls in the chancel of carved oak. The reredos is of mosaic work in a frame of alabaster. The pulpit, a very handsome one, is of carved oak, and is of the date of James I. The font is a very handsome one, carved to represent flowing water.
The work of restoring the ancient and very interest- ing parish church of Tansor has now commenced, and
134
ANTIQ UARIAN NE WS.
the building, which is one of the oldest in the county and diocese, is now in a state of ruin, being roofless and floorless. Some parts of the old church are con- temporaneous with the Norman work of Peterborough Cathedral, and the material with which those parts are built is the same, viz., the Barnack Rag. A portion of the church is distinctly Norman, and the other por- tions are equally distinctly Early English. The work of restoration has not been commenced an hour before it was urgently needed. The building has for some time been totally unfit for Divine service. The open oak roof, which was decayed beyond all hope of mend- ing, was first taken down. The uneven flooring was then removed, and the old tombstones, which did not, apparently, cover tombs, have been taken care of and will be re-laid in their old places as far as possible. Then the west portion of the north aisle wall was taken down ; and that is how the church stands at present. The south porch will also have to come down, as well as the roofs of both aisles, for they are hopelessly beyond repairing. There were only two mural inscriptions on the walls, one on the north aisle and the other on the west end wall of the south aisle. A remarkable peculiarity in the church is that the floor is not horizontal, but rises by an inclined plane from the west end to the altar. When the pavement is re-laid this will not be altered, but the floor of the restored church will also have the same peculiarity. There is also a stone seat running for almost the entire length of the north aisle attached to the wall. This also will not be removed, but will be repaired where it is necessary. In several parts of the church there are portions of modern colouring, which possess no artistic merit whatever. But under several coats of whitewash on the north aisle wall there are evidences towards the east end of better and apparently older colouring, but it is too indistinct and partial for any judgment to be formed upon it. On the first column of the north aisle there is a portion of an apparently old piece of pigment. The form of a bishop in canonical robes and with a pastoral staff is clearly dis- cernible. In the chancel, which needs restoration, the floor remains in the uneven state which cha- racterized the rest of the church. Within the sanctuary there is a very dilapidated oak table, which has done duty for a communion table, and an old and interest- ing oak seat, which is more dilapidated than the table. A piscina and credence remain in the south wall, and the aumbry cavity, without the door, in the north wall. There is also above the aumbry an interesting pre-reformation brass figure, with an inscription, in memory of a former rector, the legend concluding with the words: " Cujus animam propicietur Deus. Amen." Above it is a brass inscription of modern date, 1858. The pavement both of the sanctuary and the rest of the chancel consists of tombstones, one of which bears the evidence of having once been ornamented with brasses. The dates on the other inscriptions are 1734, 1745, 1757, 1765, 1773, 1782, and 1791. They chiefly record the deaths of rectors of these times and their wives.
Cotrespontience.
.ST. NICHOLAS CHURCH, IPSWICH.
I herewith forward three photographs of some old stones in St. Nicholas Church in this town, which are now attracting a considerable amount of interest and discussion, attention being drawn to them in con- sequence of some restorations going on there. In order to protect them, they were built into the inner side of the north wall. The vicar tells me the round stone has at the back of it a cross and two words in Latin and Greek, and this he thinks fixes the date of about the thirteenth or fourteenth century. It is said this stone was over a doorway in an ancient church of All Saints, which stood on the same spot. The stone in three pieces was found so under the seat in one of the south windows. I also send you photo- graphs of old boots, spurs, helmet or hat, and stirrups belonging to Cromwell's Ironsides. These were found in an old house in Clerkenwell between the ceiling and roof, and are now in the possession of C. Tollemache Scott, Esq., Boswell Park. The old gun is about the same date — I believe formed part of the Ironsides armour. The weight of the gun is, I believe, 76 lb. ; that of the boots, etc., about i cwt. I intended sending these to my late friend Llewellynn Jewitt, but regret to say I was too late. I thought they would interest you, and if you can throw any light on the old stones especially, I shall be de- lighted.
W. ViCK. [We are greatly indebted to our kind correspondent
for the very fine photographs.]
REVIVAL OF IRISH SECESSION ; OR, UNIONISM, OLD AND NEW. Few persons who interest themselves in political questions can be ignorant that the demand of a separate Constitution for Ireland is a very old one and a very oft-repeated one. We are just now on the very lines of a controversy which was proceeding between the advocates and opponents of separation nearly two centuries since. In 1695, William Molyneux published Ireland's Case Briefly Stated, in which he advances the claim of the Irish to an independent political system; and in 1698 appeared an octavo volume of 171 pages, without any author's name, to refute Molyneux, and vindicate the necessity for preserving the Empire intact. This, with what is going on now, forms a curious little piece of repeated history. The antagonist of Molyneux enters most elaborately and thoroughly into the subject, and takes the position of Ireland in its relationship to Great Britain from the earliest period. His book carries a title which has in it quite a contemporary ring : An Answer to Mr. Molyneux, His Case of Ireland's being bound by Act of Parliament in England, Stated: and His Dangerous Notion of Ireland's being under no Subordination to the Parliamentary Authority of England Refuted. If for Molyneux we read Gladstone, the pages seem almost to acquire a current application and significance.
CORRESPONDENCE.
135
To students of this crucial question, I would par- ticularly recommend Bishop French's Narrative of the Rarl of Clarendon! s Settlement and Sale of Ireland, 1668, Borlase's History of the Execrable Irish Rebellion, Trac'd from many preceding Acts to the Grand Eruption, the 2^rd of October, 1641, folio, 1680, in which he gives the total cost to England of the War, and The State of the Papist ^ and Protestant Proprietors in the Kingdom of Ireland in the year 164 1, ami how disposed in 1653, when the War ami Rebellion was declared at an end, 1689.
W. Carew Hazlitt.
Barnes Common, Surrey, July 30, 1886.
WROTH SILVER.
At Knightlow Hill, in the County of Warwick, a quaint ceremony takes place annually on the eve of St. Martin (before sun-rising, nth Noveml^er) in con- nection with the payment of " Wroth Money," or "Wroth Silver," to the Du]|e of Buccleuch, as lord of the manor of the Hundred of Knightlow. This ceremony can be traced back nearly a thousand years. Can any readers of the Antiquary give any informa- tion on the meaning of the word " IVroth Silver," or about the origin of such payments ?
R. T. Simpson.
Rugby,
August, 1886.
UNDERGROUND SOUTHAMPTON. [Ante, p. 53.]
The writer of the article on ^' Underground South- ampton " is in error in stating that the vault in the occupation of Messrs. Gayton is under St. Michael's Schools. The exact position is in Simnel Street, under a lodging-house. Your readers will find a very good illustration of this vault in a small pamphlet, published by Messrs. Paul Brothers, High Street — Description of Two Remarkable Ancient Buildings in Southampton.
W. LOVELL.
Cambridge.
GAVELKIND IN WALES. {Ante, p. 76.)
I notice in your review of Bygones (August number of the Antiquary) that you refer to a statement made by Mr. Elton in his Tenures of Kent to the effect that the custom of gavelkind did not exist in Wales. I do not know in what connection this statement is made, but I should like to say : —
1st. That the custom of equally dividing the pro- perty of the deceased among the sons of the latter was formerly universal in Wales, and still remained so, local customs excepted, until the end of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century.
2nd. That this custom, when spoken of in English, within the districts, and during the period in which it prevailed, was called the custom of "Gavelkind." This is also the name by which it is described in the Act abolishing it in this district. (See the Appendix to my Ancient Tenures of Land in the Marches of North Wales.)
There will be no difficulty in j^roving the two asser- tions just made, so far as this side of Wales, at any rate, is concerned.
Ai.KREu Neobard Palmer.
Wrexham.
[We are always glad to hear from our learned cor- respondent. Gavelkind is something more than ccjual division of property ; that is only one of its features, d. Elton's Tenures of Kent, — Ed.]
MUNICIPAL OFFICES : CARLISLE. {Ante, p. 20.)
It is a great satisfaction to me to find my suggestion taken up by so high an authority on municipal antiquities as Mr. Ferguson, and to know that it has led to his instructive paper on the " Municipal Offices of Carlisle." It is specially desirable that the towns treated of should represent, as far as possible, distinct types, and this is eminently the case with Colchester and Carlisle.
An office on which, I gather, the case of Carlisle is specially likely to throw light is that of the Bailiff or Bailiffs. I would urge that search should be made for some further evidence on the origin, at Carlisle, of this office. The relation in which it stood to the Shrievalty is a point on which, in my opinion, there is much, we shall find, to learn. Mr. Ferguson seems inclined to hold that the BaiUffs were "not" (at Carlisle) " the predecessors of the Mayor, as at Colchester." I venture to think, however, that the presumption is in favour of their having been so, but this is a point which can only be decided when, and if, some definite evidence bearing on the question is discovered.
P.S. — Since the above was in type I have noted an important piece of evidence, which appears to support my conjecture, and which Mr. Ferguson would seem to have overlooked. This is a writ {Breve Ponetagii), directed to the Ballivi et probi homines of Carlisle, apparently a few years after the Writ of "Quo warranto," quoted by him, which was directed to the Major et communitas. I hope Mr. Ferguson's special local knowledge may enable him to produce some further evidence on this interesting and important point.
I would also take the opportunity of correcting an obvious erratum in Mr. Ferguson's Paper, as the slip is .an unfortuniite one (p. 2\a).
FOR "The charter of Ed- ward HI. grants to the " Mayor and within the said city ... to do and exercise ,^ll things which belong to the office of sheriff in the city afore- said."
Brighton.
READ
"The charter of Ed- ward HI. grants to the "Citizens ('cives civitatis nostre Karliol '} ... to do and exercise, etc., etc."
J. II. ROU.ND.
136
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For Sale.
Quaint Gleanings from Ancient Poetry, a collection of curious poetical compositions of the l6th, 17th, and i8th centuries; large paper, only 75 copies printed, 1884, 6s. Kempe's Nine Daies Wonder performed in a Journey from London to Norwich, 1600 ; large paper, only 75 printed, 1S84, 6s. Cottoni Posthuma, divers choice pieces of that renowned antiquary. Sir Robert Cotton, by J. H., Esq., 1679 ; large paper, 2 vols., 75 copies only printed, 1884, 16^. Ancient Popular Poetry from authentic manuscripts and old printed copies, edited by John Ritson ; adorned with cuts, 2 vols., 1884; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 14J. Hermippus Redivivus; or, the Sage's Triumph over Old Age and the Grave; London, 1744, 3 vols.; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 1885, £1 is, Lucina Sine Concubitu, a letter humbly addressed to the Royal Society, 1750 ; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 1885, lOj. Narrative of the Events of the Siege of Lyons, trans- lated from the French, 1794; large paper edition, only 75 copies printed, 1885, 6^. : or offers for the lot. — 301, care of Manager.
Copies of 222 Marriage Registers from the parish book of St. Mary's Church in Whittlesey, in the Isle of Ely and County of Cambridge, 1662-72; 1880, 10 pp., IS. 6d. A copy of the Names of all the Marriages, Baptisms, and Burials which have been solemnized in the private chapel of Somerset House, Strand, in the County of Middlesex, extending from 1714 to 1776, with an index and copious genealogical notes ; 36 pp. and wrapper, 1862, 2s. 6d. — 119, care of Manager.
Antiques — Cromwell (eight-legged, ornamented) Sutherland Table, £1 $s. Oak Stool to match, los, 6d. Fine Old Bureaus, Oak and Mahogany, £2 los. to £6, each. — Shaw, Writtle, Essex.
Heroines of Shakspeare, 48 plates, letterpress, etc., published at 3IJ-. 6d., for I5,<-. (new). Jewitt's Stately Homes of England, 2 vols., published at 31^-. 6d., for I'js. 6d. (new). — 119, care of Manager.
For Sale, separately or in one lot, Rapiers, Cross- bows, Spears, Stirrups, Mats, etc. (worked by natives of New Zealand), Fishing Lines, Shells, Assegais, Zulu Shields, and other articles suitable for a collector or museum. — Particulars from O. B., Carolgate, Retford.
Old Oak for Disposal : Carved Chest, Carved Cupboard, Chest of Drawers, Small Table, Stool. Sketches. — Dick, Carolgate, Retford.
Edmondson's Heraldry, 1780. Fine copy, £i los. Nisbet's Heraldry, 1722-42, £2 los. A few other heraldic works.— C. S. Bell, Chesterton Road, Cam- bridge.
Albertanus de Doctrina Loquendi et Tacendi. Printed at Antwerp by Leev, 1484. Highest cash offer. — Dick, Carolgate, Retford.
A Lot of Armorial Book-plates for .Sale or Exchange. — Address, Edward Massey, 84, Patrick Street, Cork.
Ancient London. Unique and Rare Collection of 600 Engravings, Prints, Charters, Facsimiles, etc. Lot for los., worth £S-—Gxi&i\i, 15, Dighton Road, Wandsworth, Surrey.
Several Old Poesy, Mourning and Curious Rings for .Sale. — 306, Care of Manager.
To Collectors. — Large Assortment of Old London Views, County Views, and Maps. Catalogue of Books, etc., on application. — R. Ellington, 15, Fitzroy Street, W.
Topographical Prints of Ancient Buildings in England, Scotland, and Wales. Collection of 540. Scarce. Lot for los. — Griffith, 15, Dighton Road, Wandsworth.
Speed's County Maps— 83 English and Foreign Maps, with Views of Towns, Costume, Heraldry, etc., boards loose, price 35^., date 1610. — 307, care of Manager.
Monumental Brass Rubbings, from is. 6d. — List, apply Sparvel Bayly, Ilford, Essex.
The Manager 'wishes to draw attention to the fact that he cannot undertake to fonvard I'OST CARPS. or leltei's, unless a stamp be sent to cover postage oj same to advertiser.
Wanted to Purchase.
Dorsetshire Seventeenth Century Tokens, Also Topographical Works, Cuttings or .Scraps connected with the county.— J. S. Udal, the Manor House, Symondsbury, Bridport.
Cobbett's Political Register, vols. 25, 30, 66, 'j'j, 79, 84, 85 ; Beddoe's Death's Jest Book and Im- provisatore ; Pike's Ramble-Book, 1865 ; Courthell's Ten Years' Experience on the Mississippi ; Hazlitt's History of Venice, 4 volumes ; Dr. W. Morris's The Question of Ages. — M., care of Manager.
Henry Warren's Lithographic Illustrations of the River Ravensbourne, near Lewisham, Kent. Folio, 6 or 7 plates. (No date is believed to be on the book.) Thorpe (John) A Collection of Statutes relating to Rochester Bridge. Folio, 1733. — Thanet, care of Manager.
Portraits of Eminent Americans Now Living, with Biographical and Historical Memoirs of their Lives and Actions, by John Livingston, of the New York Bar, in 2 vols. New York, Cornish, Lamport and Co. — P., care of Manager.
Cooper's Rambles on Rivers, Woods, and Streams ; Lupot on the Violin (English Translation). S., care of Manager.
Views, Maps, Pottery, Coins, and Seventeenth Cen- tury Tokens of the Town and County of Nottingham- shire.— J. Toplis, Arthur Street, Nottingham.
Three-legged Chair (Antique). — W. Phillimore, 124, Chancery Lane, W.C.
ON THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH RACE. 137
The Antiquary.
OCTOBER, 1886.
©n t6e ^cantimatiian aBlements in tj)e €nglisb Hace»
Part IV. HE hall of a Scandinavian chieftain was generally built of wood, stone being very rarely employed. It was oblong in form, and was fur- nished with two doors, one at each extremity. The walls were of rough pieces of wood, laid in some rare instances on a lower course of rough unhewn stone ; but more generally they were built — as the log cabin of the Russian peasant is now constructed — of huge trees, felled and fastened together at the four corners by a kind of mortice-work, the inter- stices between each successive log, or trunk of the tree, being filled up with tow, similar to the caulking on board ship. The pent- house roof was invariably of wood, covered with thatch or shingles. Windows were few or none. The richer sort ornamented the walls with finely-executed tapestry, to weave and embroider which seems to have been the great accomplishment of all Scandinavian ladies. These tapestries represented the deeds of the gods of Walhalla, and were often of great value. In the centre of the hall was a hearthstone, on which an immense fire was lighted ; the smoke rose up and escaped through a simple aperture left for that pur- pose in the roof. Of course the rafters and beams in the neighbourhood of this aperture were dismally black with soot, hence the saying among the Vikings, "Alt drickar under sotad as," *' To drink beneath a sooted roof," equivalent to our saying, "To sit at one's own fireside."
The entrance to the hall at one end, and the exit at the other, were generally open and
VOL. XIV,
free to all-comers at the period of mid-winter, when Odin was worshipped under his name of J oik, or Jolg (pronounced Yoolk, or Yoolg), which has descended to us as Yule ; while the Russians, wl^ derive many of their customs from their Scandinavian rulers, call the Christmas-tree "elka," pronounced "yolka," from the same name.
Along the sides of the hall were the benches, or " mead-saettles," where the warriors sat and quaffed foaming mead to the health of the gods they served so well, and of whose exploits the tapestries around them were vividly illustrative. Behind the seat of each were his arms and armour, grouped into the most ornamental forms by the taste of the damsels whose duty it was to fill out the mead as the horns were emptied. Such an attendant, suggested by the Valkyria of Val- halla, has been described when seen standing behind the stern, war-beaten Viking, intent upon his fearful supper of sweet beer and. pork, as " a spring sun behind a storm- cloud ;" a simile the more apt when we re- member that the sun is feminine in all the Scandinavian dialects.
In the centre of the hall two cumbrous pillars, called " roof-trees," supported the roof, and were carved into a rude sem- blance of Thor and Odin respectively. In the centre of one of the longest walls was the high-bank, subsequently called in England the dais, on which the earl, chief, or king sate with his queeji (from Kona, or Quinna, the most respectful term for woman) and the guests he delighted to honour. Opposite were the inferior warriors and servants, toning down in fine gradation to the humble tiller of the soil, who was occasionally present, though being held in contempt he preferred such comfort as his own rude hut afforded to the boisterous jollity of life at the hall. Such persons had their stations close to the door, and helped to keep out the cold. From these customs many of those of the feudal ages were the direct descendants, and remained, in fact, as un- changed by time and Christianity as the very mail the warriors wore.
The central fire was the scene of constant activity. A huge caldron, supported by a chain, suspended from a stout iron bar high above, athwart the aperture for the passage of
L
13S ON THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH RACE,
the smoke, contained a savoury mess of boiled flesh of the boar, the bear, and occasionally of the goat. The black-cock and other game birds were roasted on spits or on javelins, and served round to the guests to partake of. On certain grand and stately occasions the queen would admit aspirants to the honour of joining her husband's household by step- ping down from the " high-bank " with a horn of mead or wine, according to the rank of the recipient, who was made to stand opposite her, the roaring fire between them. Then she called him by name, prompted by the elder of the host — Heer-aldor (herald) — and solemnly reached him the mighty draught over the flames ; and he, bending for- ward to spare her the danger and inconve- nience attendant on the ceremony, received the horn, which he had to drain to the gods sculptured on the roof-trees, to her and to her lord. Then he passed his ring-hewer, or battle-sword, to her ; and if it were too weighty for her gentle fingers, the herald assisted her in the duty. Then the newly-received cham- pion sprang through the flames to be wel- comed by her as one of the band. The sword was returned to him with a new mean- ing attached to it, having become devoted to the service of the chieftain, jarl (pronounced yarl), or king, by this singular solemnity. A gold ring was placed on his arm by the lord of the mansion, and bread was given by the dispenser of bread, the crown of the home- stead, the lady (loaf-giver — hlaf dige) herself. After thus solemnly partaking of bread and wine the newly-appointed raemberof the house- hold sat, for that evening, on the high-bank, until his own place could be arranged by the maidens, to whose taste in decoration the task of producing a pleasing group of his arms and armour was entrusted, though the Sagaman adds that weapons, however placed together, always form lovely groups to the warrior's eye. This fact of the capacity of arms to form artistic groups was pointed out to me by one of H.M. storekeepers at the Tower many years ago, when assisting in the ar- rangement of some armour there. I may add that this gentleman had never heard of the Scandinavian dictum, nor, at that time, had I. On each side of the dais were doors, con- cealed generally by the arras, leading to the chambers of the women, who, at a certain
period in the feast, withdrew, leaving the champions to circulate the horn without their aid. The scald awoke his harp, and lays referring to the deeds of the gods, or to those of the family of the chief, resounded. The god who presided over historic poetry was "Erage;" and on relating his own brave deeds, or those of his immediate ancestors, the Viking invoked this deity — hence the expres- sion, ' to brag^ of one's own achievements. On such occasions, when two powerful boasters or disciples of " Brag " differed in opinion, such difference was frequently settled by an appeal to the sword. Not in the hall — that was impossible — but on some neighbour- ing island, chosen on account of the sup- posed impossibility of magic being exercised on a spot surrounded by water. Such a duel was called the Holmg^ng, or visit to the island. Here occasionally the shield-bearer, as the second was called, would take up the quarrel after the death of the principal, and either avenge his fall or share his fate.
When the lord of the domain was absent, as was generally the case in summer, for then he was either hunting the orochs, the elk, the bear, chasing various birds by means of his well-trained falcon, or making war upon his fellow-man — the lady, with her maidens, would be engaged in embroidery. One of the number vrould recount the deeds of the heroes of old ; sometimes an ancient scald was admitted to this sanctum ; and again, at other times, the lady of the hall vrould take the initiative, and either "spin yarns " about her own family and connections, or give her maidens practical lessons in em- broidery, spinning, leech-craft, and other such ladylike amusements. The " higher educa- tion of women " had taken rapid strides in those early times, before the English came to England, and woman was the guide and directress of much that has fallen out of her hands in these degenerate days. There can be little doubt that as priestess, prophetess, and doctress, woman was far superior to her male competitors, while the homes of the great lords formed regular training schools in these arts. Constant dwelling on the poetical myths of Valhalla produced in the female mind a holy faith which, being peculiarly real in woman, renders her a most efficient priest, because women are more in earnest on
ON THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH RACE. 139
these points than men are. When urged by overstrung conviction into enthusiasm, woman became, by a natural transition, the inspired seeress, and obtained a power over the fierce natures around her only to be under- stood by those who have seen the deference paid by a brutal rough (who would laugh at any sufferings inflicted on a parson) to a Sister of Mercy.
The chaste lives of the Scandinavian women is proverbial, and yet the power of divorce lay with them. A woman had but to tell an assembly that her husband was a nithing, or a nithering, and that she solemnly threw him off from that day, and the divorce was complete, the unlucky husband having to return her dower. It must be admitted that this right on the part of the lady was seldom exercised ; but when it was, it appears to have been worse for the husband than for her, as he could rarely find a second mate, while she had no difficulty in replacing the rejected one.
Although early marriages were strictly forbidden by the Scandinavian code, when a man arrived at full maturity, when the eagle-wings on his helmet showed him to be no longer a boy, then it seems as though he were permitted to indemnify himself, as it were, for waiting so long, by adding to the legitimate lady of the house a recognised concubine, who was perfectly well received by the actual wife. Some of the richer nobles were allowed even to have two lawfully married wives ;. though this was done, as Tacitus says, rather for the eclat of the thing than from any very special desire to possess a plurality of wives. He tells us that the Germans (including, of course, the Scan- dinavians) were for the most part content with one wife, Exceptis admodum panels, qici non llbldlne, sed ob nobllltatem plurlinis nuptlis ambluntur. Christianity had great difficulty in contending with this custom, which pre- vailed in the north as late as the tenth cen- tury. Bearing this in mind, we shall not be so struck in reading the general anecdotal histories of England, when we find that kings and great men, especially of the Norman slock, were prone to the custom of concu- binage.
The marriage festival was a very grand occasion. The consent of the bride being
obtained, that of the parents or guardians had to be sought, and this in the most public way. Refusal was considered as an insult, to be wiped out with bloq^i alone; but when consent was given, and the day appointed, the bridegroom assembled his friends and relations, of whom a party was told off to fetch the bride and her portion from her father. The friends were answerable for their trust, and if they abused it they were compelled to pay three times the amount of the sum they would have had to pay for murder. The father and guardians of the bride attended her to her husband's house, and solemnly gave her over to his care. After this the newly-married pair sat down to table with their guests, who drank their healths together with those of the gods and heroes. The friends of the bride then took her up on their shoulders and carried her round the house — to be borne on men's shoulders being a great mark of respect among the Scandi- navians. Her father then bore her to the nuptial couch, the whole scene being illu- minated by innumerable lights. On the following day the husband made the wife certain mystic presents, among which were a pair of oxen for a plough, a horse fully capari- soned for war, a shield, a lance, and a sword. These gifts typified that she was not to be an idle incumbrance to him, but that she was to share his toil and danger, and be his com- panion in peace and war. Then the woman presented him with a gift of arms, and this was their mystic union. Frigga, the goddess of wedded happiness, was invoked, and the gods of peace and war were besought to lend their aid to promote the happiness of the now wedded pair.
Although notice has been taken of con- cubinage it was never general ; it was only permitted to certain wealthy earls, who prac- tised it rather for display than any other reason ; but any breach of chastity on the part of a woman was cruelly punished. The husband cut ofT her hair, and she was driven naked from the house, scourged through the village with whips by the indignant matrons, upon whose caste she had brought shame. No repentance was of avail, such a fault could never be forgiven ; and if the husband chose to kill her on the spot he was perfectly justi- fied in so doing. But these penalties were
L — 2
I40 ON THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH RACE,
rarely enforced, for the sense of female honour among Scandinavian women was so great as to prevent the necessity of such cruelty, while the ferbcity of the enactments speaks volumes for the disgust with which our forefathers regarded the breach of the first law of all social happiness.
When the people of the north began to migrate southward, the southern nations of Europe were struck with their delicacy and refinement in these important matters, and a Roman priest of Marseilles, writing in the fifth century, exclaims : " Let us blush and be covered with confusion, which ought to produce salutary effects. Wherever the Goths become masters, we see no longer any disorders except among the old inhabitants. Our manners are reformed under the do- minion of the Vandals. Behold an incredible event ! an unheard-of prodigy ! Barbarians have, by the severity of their manners, rendered chaste the Romans themselves !"
Before the introduction of Christianity — • before, in fact, anything was known about that system in Scandinavia — it had been the custom for fathers to baptize their children, especially the boys, with water. The sys- tem of their faith was highly emblematical and symbolical. Their rites were repre- sentative of some higher teaching, and their symbols had an inner meaning which is astonishing to us at this time to con- template. Thus the pure water of a stream typified truth of a certain kind ; by washing a child solemnly in tvater, they professed to indicate the cleansing of the soul from the infirmities of the flesh, through the activity of cleansing or active truth. This was the remnant of a very ancient teaching that had been made known to man in very distantly remote ages in a system whose life had become extinct, leaving merely the forms of its observances, like dead husks, to be rejected or abused at will. That such a system really existed is shown by many works on mythology, and its existence is only a corroboration of Christianity, inasmuch as many of its most striking doctrines are evi- dently only prophetical of the crowning act of Divine mercy manifested in the Christian avatar. Startling as the fact may appear to be, we have no reason to doubt the historical accuracy of the statement by Snorri Sturluson,
that, long before the dawning of Christianity, children were named by their fathers solemnly pouring water upon them. Harald H^rfagra was named in this manner ; so was King Olaf Tryggvason, so was Earl Hakon, and so were many others.
If the pure life of the Scandinavian women may be regarded as the source of that refine- ment and that purity of thought "and word, as well as outward acts, which so eminently dis- tinguish the women of our happy island, we need not be ashamed of our Scandinavian blood. But the features already pointed out, however strikingly akin to English thought and agreeable to English manners, are not more essentially and emphatically English than the love of personal freedom which dis- tinguished the Scandinavians. A freeman was to the Scandinavian what a gentleman is to us; the noble was of higher rank and standing, it is true, but, after all, his greatest privilege was his freedom. And tho. fribonde, or yeoman, had his right to express his own opinion in public, as well as the high-born jarl. Thought was free in Scandinavia. Speech was equally unfettered, and as far back as two thousand years ago, the bar- barous (?) Goths were farther advanced in this important matter than the Russians of our own time. Public opinion was free ; great questions of state were ventilated at the All-ti?ig^ or general assembly of the nation, while smaller problems agitating one of the petty kingdoms or states into which Scan- dinavia was divided were discussed in the ordinary " Ting." When such a meeting was to be held, the Heeralder (herald) was de- spatched with a staff of beech, or box, on which runic letters were engraved, empower- ing him to convoke the states to a solemn meeting. He himself proceeded to the dwellings of the more important jarls to do his errand in person, while to the yeomen and free peasants inferior messengers were despatched, over hill and dale, to call all good subjects to the Ting.
This was a grand event, for the warriors of the north attended in full armour, with war- sword, byrnie, helm, and shield; so before the time of actual meeting there was a grand polishing of arms and armour throughout the region round. The bosses of the shields were burnished, the war-net freed from rust, the
ON THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH RACI^. 141
gilding of the leathern helmet was repaired, and the steel cap or iron helmet polished till the sun was pleased with his mirror. But the battleaxe was banished from the Ting, nor was the spear admitted. The place of as- sembly was frequently the grave-mound of some departed chief, who slept below, perhaps in hisj dragon-ship with his drawn sword in his hand. On the apex of the hill was fixed the Ting-stone, formed of three vast granite blocks, immovable save by these giants of the north, who had rolled them by main strength, as their posterity " fisted " the guns at Alma. On one of these the king took his proud stand. He was arrayed for the occasion. Bright shone the byrnie, "well-singing shirt of Hilda on his breast !" On his head gleamed the gilded helmet with the eagle- wings of Odin, and the golden crown of state. In his hand beamed the ring-cleaver, the mighty battle-sword. On his legs were the bruki or trousers (whence our breeches, the Russian bruki, and the Norwegian brok), well ornamented with cross garterings of red and blue leather. Behind him on a tree the royal shield was hung. Over his shoulders the blue mantle with the golden brooch was flung, and he stood a man of iron bound with gold ! At his right hand stood the priest with the victim on the broad flat stone, ready to be offered either in propitiation of the gods or in the way of augury. On the other side stood the elder of the host with his wand of ofiice carved full of mystic runes. Then in close circle, shield against shield, and swords flashing in the sun, in mantles of red or blue, stood the jarls ( = yarl, earl) in circle round their king. In the space of a spear's length lower down came a ring of wealthy independent landowners, not of the noble class, with no gold circlet round the helmet, but with many heavy rings of gold on their brawny arms. In a third ring were the poorer retainers, yet free- men, who all and each had a voice in that assembly. Outside were the slaves, who were only there to do their master's bidding, not to vote.
The assembly being full, the proceedings were opened by a religious ceremony. The high priest, the lord-chancellor of his day, chaunted a glowing address to AUfather, and to the deity in whose special province the
subject of the meeting lay. Then the victim was sacrificed, the augury explained, and "business" commenced. The king himself announced the subject of the meeting, and invited discussion. Then spoke up some noble jarl, giving his opinion. If his ideas met with a good reception applause was thundered upon the metal-bound shields with the clanging swords, so that it might almost be supposed that the dead warrior in the grave-mound would awaken and join in the debate ! If, on the other hand, the speech of the " noble earl " were not well received, an ominous silence was the result; no remark was made, and the next speaker in turn ad- dressed the assembly. When the nobles had had their innings the turn came to the yeomen, or freeholders ; after them to the free peasants, each of whom was listened to with patience and respect until all had spoken, when the king summed up, and decreed what the result of the meeting had been. After which, the resolution being taken, the Heeralder, or herald, took note thereof, and the measure was adopted.
This short sketch of the Ting will be suffi- cient to show that such Scandinavian gather- ing was the prototype of the modern English Parliament. The Ting described is the or- dinary meeting, and not the All-ting, or grand national assembly, which was held in a large plain, where mighty stones had been set up, partly in honour of the gods, who were sup- posed to be present in force on such occa- sions, partly to act as Ting-stones for the great kings and jarls who attended, and partly as altars for the immolation of the victims de- voted to the purposes of augury or propitia- tion.
An assemblage of huge rocks of this kind, brought to the spot by the sheer strength of our own immediate ancestors, may be seen in England, where it is known as Stone- henge, /.<?., the house of punishment and doom. The smaller structures, such as that called Kit's Cotty House, in Kent, are fair specimens of the doomstead, or place of meeting for judgment, debate, or sacrifice, with the doom -stone in the centre. In Scandinavia such groups of stones are fre- quently met with, and the allusions made to them in chronicle, saga, and lay, abundantly prove their Scandinavian origin. Here, in
142 ON THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH RACE.
England, we have been taught to ignore the giant pioneers of freedom who rescued the world from the tyranny of Rome, and to ascribe whatever ancient remains we find in England, when evidently and emphatically not Roman, to a Keltic origin.
There is, however, absolutely no founda- tion for the hypothesis that these enormous piles were raised by the Kelts, while the kindred Domsten and Tingsten of Scan- dinavia clearly point to their true origin and object
That such immense blocks of stone should be fetched from great distances and set up as temples, or portions of temples, rather than that ordinary mason-work should be resorted to, is not surprising when we consider the tempers of the men who had to work. Their houses generally were mere log-huts, as has already been pointed out ; and in the rare instance of stone being employed in such a hall as has been described above, it was only used for the side walls at most, the ends and roof being invariably of wood. The large halls were usually wooden struc- tures only, consequently they were extremely liable to destruction by fire. That a place hallowed to the service of the gods and the nation should be beyond reach of this destructive element was a natural desire ; but the patient labour required in the con- struction of a regular stone edifice was too much to be expected of the impatient fiery warriors who were chiefly concerned in the work. Any amount of violent exertion could be had from them, and being acquainted with the use of powerful levers in attacking hostile fortresses, they, with their gigantic strength, already in youth exercised in rolling enormous masses of stone uphill, combined with such mechanical skill as they possessed, would devote all their enormous strength and energy to the construction of edifices which neither time nor the elements could destroy.
The idea is eminently characteristic of the rough but thorough nature of the Viking, and the violent exertion required to carry it out would be precisely the kind of coin in which he would be inclined to pay tribute to his gods and to his nation.
Like all sea-faring people, the Scandinavians had a great dread of fire. To this special feeling may be traced their dislike of towns
and fortified places. Generally they lived in log-huts, scattered about at considerable distances from each other. A great chief or king had a large hall, as has just been shown ; but his retainers lived with him in the hall, and not in a collection of dwellings of which that hall formed the nucleus. Unlike the Romans, they had no conception of the value of citizenship, though glorying in freedom. The right of free speech at Ting v.-as accorded to each m.ember in a most republican way, and yet their social system was the feudal system in its early phase, and looks extremely mon- archical at the first glance. On closer ex- amination it will be seen that the konung or king had little real power save as a military leader, and what is extraordinary, although he might be the son, nephew, or near relative of the king who had preceded him, he could not actually commence his reign until he had been duly elected by the *' Estates of the Realm" in full Ting. Again, it does not appear that jarls and others were often raised to the royal dignity ; on the contrary, great as Jarl* Godwin's influence was in England in the eleventh century, his son was only partially received as king on account of his not being of royal birth. It was the custom with these kings of the north to trace their pedigree up to Odin, the supreme god of their creed. Perhaps this may account for the many attempts that have been made to establish the existence of an historical Odin, who, however, seems to be far more shadowy than the mythological personage of the Edda. It may be that, seeing how improbable some of the genealogical trees were springing from various myths, it was thought that greater value would be given them if a human Odin were supposed ; consequently he was sup- posed, and a very unsatisfactory and misly supposition he turns out
Free discussion took place invariably * In the course of these articles the Scandinavian orthography "Jarl" has been preserved, but it must be borne in mind that the Scandinavian "J" has the sound of the Enghsh " y " in yard. The word " Jarl " is our " Earl," an orthography which, in Anglo-Saxon times, represented a sound which we now should write " Varl," a Swede, Dane or German would write "Jarl." Edward was pronounced " Yedward " ; "eorth" (earth), "Yeorth," which is written "jord" in all Scandinavian writings. A trace of this remains in our pronunciation of " Ewe" — the female sheep.
ON THE SCANDINAVIAN- ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLiSTl RACIt. 14.I
" under free heaven," no roof being suffered save the "blue vault above." Hence such great places of meeting as Stonehenge, though evi- dently structures ably contrived and wonder- fully executed, present no traces of being roofed in. Love for the blue sky seems inherent in the Scandinavian disposition, and though a long course of fog and gloom have deprived the English descendants from that stock of the advantage of practical acquaint- ance with blue skies, the innate feeling bursts forth when the English visit less foggy climes. The Northman thought of his " klarahimmel'' with rapture, and was wont to regard the orbs of heaven as particularly his own property. From sailing to the south he knew that other lands had not the privilege of seeing the sun at midnight, and as this happens in the extreme north, it was a natural deduction that the sun had a greater affection for the Scandinavian than for any other inhabitant of the globe. The stars were his friends and guides, companions of his long sea-voyages, and guides over the trackless paths of the ocean. Deriving no knowledge of astronomy from Greece or Rome, he constructed his own system, which answered the same end, for, like the nations of so-called classical antiquity, the Scandinavians recognised great clusters and groups of stars and named them, although by very different appellations. Ursa Major they called the Dog ; the Lesser Bear was Charles's Wain or Charlevagn = Man's chariot, probably Thor's war-chariot. The three stars forming the Belt of Orion were called the Distaff of Frigga. The Milky Way was named "the path or street of Winter." The North Star, of course, they considered as their own special property, keeping watch over them unchangingly. It assumed a sort of divinity in their eyes, which is not by any means surprising.
We see that before our ancestors left the north they were imbued with that love of open discussion of questions under the free vault of heaven which animates us at the present day. The monarchical system was at the same time elective, for though, in general, the son or near relative of a deceased king naturally succeeded to the Doom-stone, he could not formally assume the regal func- tion until he had been duly elected by the voice of his subjects in full Ting. The power
existed of electing another ruler, but the choice yas limited to the royal race. Some of the more important kings were not renowned as warriors, in which case other leaders were chosen to direct the pro- ceedings of the army in war and the military affairs of the nation in general. Such a per- son was called the Here-toga (Her-tog — German, Herzog) leader of the host, dux, or general. This functionary was elected rather for brave conduct in battle than skill as a strategist. His duty was to show an example to the warriors, and he counted it shame to be excelled in daring by any of his band, while his brave men vied with each other to show that they were not a whit behind him in valour, declaring that if not surpassing they were, each of them, at least the equal of their " Hertog." Thus the king rather presided than ruled over the assembly, and the general rather led than commanded the host. Indeed, there is no doubt that the attempt to govern such free-souled, high- spirited natures never entered the mind of the king ; if it had, he would soon have lost either his life or people, which latter alterna- tive really occurred to Harald Hkrfagra, who, attempting to oppress the chiefs under his nominal sway by acts of tyranny for which the language of the north had not even a name, they decided on leaving him and emigrating to the uninhabited island of Ice- land, where the ancient language of their time has been preserved in consequence. The subjects of this king, the first who desired absolute rule, revolted from him and left him only such as chose to be enslaved.
The public tribunal called the Ting or Thing was also the supreme court for the adjudication of criminal cases and the per- formance of solemn sacrifices to Odin. The crowning-stone, such as in Kit's Cotty House might be called the roof, was the slab on which the victim was immolated. Whether human or not, the officiating priest exclaimed, " I devote thee to Odin " — or " I send thee to Odin." Occasionally these early English thought to please the god they worshii)ped by burning the victim alive, almost in the same way as they did in the later time of Queen Mary. Nor was the difference be- tween the two modes of immolation very perceptible, save that the Scandinavian Eng-
144 Oy THE SCANDINAVIA^; ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH RACE.
lish sent the human sacrifice to the god they adored, while the Christian sacrificers be- lieved that they destroyed body and soul together, and thereby delighted the Deity ! Again, the victims of the Scandinavians were slaves, prisoners taken in war, and rarely free men of their own race ; though when the priests required it, they did not scruple to sacrifice the noblest of their race, the very kings and kings' sons being occasionally offered up in propitiation. The descendants of these warriors, in the sixteenth century, performed similar rites, though under another name.
In Denmark there are three great places where, as at Stonehenge, the All-thing or general assembly met. One is at Lunden, in Scania ; another at Leyra or Lethra, in Zealand, and the third is near Viburg, in Jutland. These monuments, the vast size of which has preserved them, like Kit's Cotty House, Stonehenge, and other remains in England, from the ravages of time and weather, are nothing else than great massy stones, set up unhewn in a circle. In the middle is one much larger than the rest, in which the royal dignity was supposed to re- side. The other stones were for the twelve peers, the jarls who attended the king in peace and in war, while without the circle were the freemen and yeomen who took part in the grand debates, just as has been described as performed on a smaller scale on the grave-mound of a departed hero. Should the king be slain in battle, or be deprived of life in some place at a distance from that of his election, a model of the Thing-stead was made impromptu by the warriors about him, who rolled the biggest stones they could find in the neighbourhood, and, placing them in the same positions as the stones of the Danish Thing-stead, proceeded with the election of the new king secundum artem. The chiefs mounted the stones, and the warriors, stand- ing round in rings, clashed their applause on their shields or expressed disapprobation by silence. The custom of electing kings in the open air was common to all the German nations, and the Emperors of Germany were for many ages elected in this manner.
Dalin, in his History of Swede?i, relates that in addition to the custom of electing in thi Ting-stead, an oath was taken by the
king to do his duty by his people, and on the other hand the people swore to do theirs by him. When the opinion of the meeting had been taken, and all present had agreed to accept the new candidate as their king, he was taken up on the shoulders of certain jarls, and borne round the circle that all men might behold and recognise him. Then he swore by Odin that he would observe their laws, defend their country, extend their boundaries, avenge all insults, whether done to his predecessors, himself, or his people ; he would strike down their enemies and do some daring deed of prowess to make his name and that of his people famous through- out the world. This oath he repeated on the occasion of the funeral of his predecessor, and in all the provinces of the kingdom through which he was obliged to make solemn progress.
Here we have the picture of an elected monarch subject to the laws of the land, which he himself must swear to uphold and protect before formally entering upon the royal office. And, as much of the spirit of the nation is exhibited in its legal enact- ments, it will be well to glance at some of the leading features of early Scandinavian legisla- tion, and trace their influence, through succes- sive generations, upon the modern English.
In the first place, we have to consider under what circumstances laws had to be enacted. Murder could hardly be forbidden among men who considered it a solemn duty to avenge the death of a friend or relative by killing any person or persons who might have been implicated in the crime or accident, without having recourse to law. But the methodical nature of the Scandinavian mind became apparent in the distinctions made in the various degrees of injury that were con- sidered possible. Sometimes it would become a matter of nice discrimination whether the revenge taken for an injury had not exceeded the bounds of due vengeance, in which case there would be a balance of blood on the other side to make up. If, for example, A waylays B, and wounds him so as to render him lame for life, then, to avenge his father, B's son cuts A in two parts, it is clear that A's "heirs, executors, and assigns" would have a claim against B's son for the value of A's life, viinus B's leg. Such a case as this
ON THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH RACE. 145
would require some considerable amount of forensic talent to arrange. A plan was at last hit upon by which all possible injuries, from taking life down to the employment of threats, were measured by cattle or some other equi- valent, subsequently of course by money. So that a man in attacking another would be able to calculate the amount of damage which his pocket would allow him to inflict. This system was introduced into England with the English, and to a certain extent re- mains in force, though it would be a con- venience to the magistrate of the Victorian age as well as to the parties between whom he has to adjudicate, if the scale of charges for the injuries inflicted upon the various parts of the body were as clearly defined and laid down now as they were in the good old times under notice. Offences against chastity were most severely handled, and although a husband had power of life and death over an unfaithful wife, he had also the means, by law, of ruining a co-respondent to the full as much as now. Laws regulating purchase, security, or borrowage, were simple but strict ; and what is remarkable, these laws were made by the people and not by the king. The laws relating to religious observances were in the hands of the priests, who, as may well be supposed, were not behind their de- scendants in their claims on the loaves and fishes ; they were perhaps a little more exact- ing, and defalcation was severely punished. A good result was thus obtained by the sub- stitution of fines by a legal authority for the violence of personal revenge. By law a man's honour was satisfied, his respect for law in the abstract raised, and the countless feuds that existed were reduced to a minimum. It was better, however grotesque it sounds, for a man to have to pay five or six shillings for another's leg than that he should be allowed to kill that other or be killed by him. It was better that he should recognise the power of the law to inflict a pecuniary fine, than that he should recognise no law but that of his red right hand. And it must be admitted that in their willingness to submit to the de- cision of a judge, these fierce warriors showed a degree of forbearance hardly to be expected of them.
The price of a limb or the expense of damage" to the body difiered according to
the rank of the person injured, a jarl's leg being worth more than a free-yeoman's, a free-yeoman's more than a slave's, and so on in very nice gradations. Injury done to a maiden was valued at three times the amount of the same injury done to a man in her own sphere of life ; and violations of the laws of modesty and decorum were estimated with a nicety of shading that would scarcely be thought possible under the circumstances.
With regard to theft, where men were accustomed to guard their own, strong police regulations were out of the question. Some of the Teutons punished theft with death. The Scandinavians deemed life given to be lost on the battle-field only, so that a thief was punished by paying three times the value of what he had stolen plus a fine to the judge.
The oddest part of the legal system of the Scandinavians seems to be the course adopted in the investigation of a crime by witnesses. The accused had to produce a number of persons who became answerable for his in- nocence, inasmuch as they would swear that they believed him innocent. Not that they could prove an alibi, or anything else about him ; they merely expressed an opinion, and became sureties for his veracity in denying the charge. When proof failed the judiciary combat was appealed to, a custom which was only abolished by statute within the last century. The ordeals of water, hot as well as cold, of hot iron and of fire, were all employed. These ordeals outlived paganism, and the Scandinavian Englishman has had recourse to similar modes of torture long after the introduction of Christianity. The ordeal of the red-hot ploughshares was in use in Christian-Saxon times in England. The trial by water was employed in examina- tions in cases of witchcraft in this island, in the time when the present translation of the Bible had placed the doctrines of gentleness and mercy within the reach of all.
Much has been said in various learned works of the distinctness of certain periods marked as the stone, the bronze, and the iron ages respectively, and this has been done with a distinctness and decision rather more dogmatical than is consistent with the ordinary delicacy which marks the caution observed by men of letters in expressing
146 ON THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH RACE.
their opinions on matters of this kind. The theory of the existence of periods when men used stone implements and no metal tools or weapons, then bronze weapons and ornaments to the exclusion of stone and iron, and finally iron without either bronze or stone, seems based, for the most part, on the discoveries of remains in the grave-mounds or barrows in Scandinavia. At first it was stated that in some of these mounds of a very early date stone implements alone w^ere found, then ornaments and weapons wrought exclusively in bronze, and lastly, in more recent burial- hills, iron weapons and armour have been discovered. As far as history, or that still more reliable guide, fiction, can carry us back, there seems no trace in Scandinavia at least of a purely stone age. There is no mention in saga or lay of stone weapons belonging to a subjugated race, or to a bygone age. Bronze, gold, and iron are all mentioned ; stone never, save as flung from slings, or as being from its hardness a type of perpetual duration. Hence the stand of the king — the Doom-stone and the Ting- stone — were of imperishable materials, not of timber with which houses and halls were built. The peculiar faith of the Scandi- navian rendered him highly susceptible to poetic images, to periphrastic and emble- matical language. He saw that the hard ring-cutting sword was perishable ; he knew that the iron heads of axe, javelin, and arrow would crumble into dust and leave not a trace behind. But it was necessary that some portion of the offensive equipment of the dead warrior should be indestructible as a type of his future hope. Consequently the smaller articles, such as arrow-heads and a smaller battleaxe, were copied in stone, for the stone arrow-heads found are precisely similar in form to the iron-heads of arrows of a later time. These were copied from the more perishable originals, and not vice versa. They were placed in the grave-mound as a lasting type of the more perishable weapons used by the dead man when alive. If he had been a distinguished hunter he was supplied with a store of arrow-heads cut in imperishable flint. And these were chipped into shape by iron or steel instruments. To combat the swart Alfvar that might haunt his tomb, a battle-axe was formed of flint which no
magic could resist, for we know from Beowulf and other sources, that steel was powerless against certain classes of supernatural crea- tures. Similar to this belief is that long prevalent in these islands of men being rendered bullet-proof by a compact with the Evil One. Such persons had to be shot with pieces of silver, or despatched with the cold steel. So with the weird and wonderful in- habitants of earth and air that assailed the Scandinavian-English champion in his tomb. Thorlek, in his Thor og hans Hammer, takes this view, and states further that " The arms found in barrows were merely simu- lacra armorwn meant to typify the power of Thor over the Elves and spirits of dark- ness, and to protect the dead from their machinations. Thor killed his demoniacal adversaries by launching his mallet at them ; that is to say, an evil principle, typified under the form of a giant, was destroyed by the lightning of heaven." Now, accord- ing to Thorlek, " the cuneiform stone axe was emblematic of the splitting, the arrow- head of the piercing, and the malleiform- axe the shattering force of the thunder- bolt hurled by the renowned Scandinavian deity, and these are the stone weapons generally found in barrows. Whether this hypothesis of the learned Dane be well founded or not, we will not pretend to decide ; it is, at all events, sufficiently in- genious to make us hesitate in assuming that a barrow in which only stone weapons are found must necessarily have been raised at a period when bronze and iron were unknown, or not in general usage."*
When we reflect on the costly nature of these mound-burials, it seems by no means improbable that some such emblematical purpose was intended by the use of these stone implements, and the extremely Scan- dinavian " cut " of those which have been found elsewhere would tend to show how wide-spread the influence of Scandinavian art must have been.
In our festivals, the very names of our days, in our Parliament, laws, language, thought, and mode of life, we have preserved more of this influence than almost any other nation. Although we have been exposed to
* Mallet's Northern AntiquitUs, Bohn's edition, 1847, pp. 211, 212.
GOKEWELL NUNNERY.
147
influences of every possible kind from every possible foreign source, we have pushed through them, outgrown them, flung them off, and in every way got rid of them, and have come out as English now as we were a thousand years ago. The very culte of Christianity, coming in a Roman dress, had to be modified in its externals to suit our needs ; and the Church of England, in the broad sense, is as far from the Church of Rome as ever it was. Even the language of Rome, which we pretend to love so much, when pronounced by English lips is totally unintelligible to dwellers on the Continent of Europe ! So that our enmity to Rome lives on in spite of schools and schoolmen.
This very slight attempt is made in the hope that some more able pen may be directed to the task of showing how the Scandinavian element within us should be recognised in legislating for and educating Englishmen.
This important point has been lost sight of by historians altogether, and the history of the English has yet to be written.
J. F. HODGETTS.
(^oketBell n^unnetp.
HE northern parts of Lincolnshire are but seldom visited by tourists. A few churches therein have at- tained sufficient celebrity to attract more than a solitary pilgrim, but the greater part of it is almost an unknown world, except to those who are interested in agriculture, iron smelting, or field-sports. Lincolnshire suffers much from having no county history worthy of the name. It has thus come to pass that there are several of the monastic houses of Lincolnshire whose sites have not been identified.
The editors of the last edition of the Monasticon* were evidently unaware in what part of the shire the nuns of Gokewell had their abode. They in fact knew very little about it, although if diligent search were
Vol. v., p. 721.
made, it is almost certain that much of its history is capable of recovery. The current opinion used to be that Gokewell nunnery was situated somev/here in the parish of Gox- hill, near Barton-upon-Humber. We believe that the late Mr. William Smith Heselden was the person who demonstrated that Goke- well, a farm ir) the parish of Broughton, was the spot where this religious foundation stood.
If a traveller follows the old Roman way — the Ermine Street — for about four-and-twenty miles in a northerly direction, he will reach the little village of Broughton, with its curious Norman church tower ; if he follows an un- stoned cart-track which goes in a westerly direction, he will soon find himself on the ridge of the oolite range of hills, with an ex- tensive view before him of a good portion of north-western Lincolnshire, the Isle of Axholme in the far distance, and the tall chimneys of the Frodingham Iron-field very near at hand. Below him, almost at his feet, he will see a farmhouse still known as Goke- well, though almost every relic of the eccle- siastical structures which once ornamented the spot has been swept away. A few frag- ments of shafts, presumably of Early English date, and a rude holy-water stoup, are all that has been left, in modern days, of the little secluded nunnery where at least twelve generations of holy women spent their lives. Unlike the great majority of Lincolnshire place-names, there cannot be any reasonable doubt as to its derivation ; though the mode of spelling has changed from time to time (Gokell, Gaukevel, Goykewell, and Gowkes- well are variants that occur to us), every form points clearly to the fact that the place took its name from the old word " Gowk," a cuckoo. No name could be more appropriate. When we last visited the spot it was spring- time, and the call of the cuckoo was almost continuous.
The foundation charter of the house has not been discovered, but it seems clear that it was in existence before 1185, and it is at least probable, though not as far as we can make out by any means certain, that its founder was William de Alta Ripa. In 1853 the late Rev. F. Pyndar Lowe communicated to the Lincolnshire Architectural Society four charters which had been discovered by Mr.
148
GOKEVVELL NUJ^NERY.
Heselden. They are of so much interest that we shall describe their contents.
By the first of these William Paganellus gives and confirms to the nuns in the terri- tory of Mannebi in frank-almoigne the place where they live, and all the lands which William de Alta Ripa and his son Anthony had given "sicut carta eorum testatur." He also gives certain lands "de territorio de Bertonie usque at Scalehau," with common pasture for sheep, and a mill which had belonged to Rodbert, the son of the presbyter. It will be observed that the name Gokewell does not occur in this early record ; though as the nunnery is spoken of as " de territorio de Mannebi," there can be no doubt that it is a Gokewell charter, for Manby is a hamlet in Broughton parish in which Gokewell is situate. Mr. Lowe thought that the " Bertonie " of this charter meant Broughton ; in this he was probably right. Scalehau, however, cannot mean Scawby. We have no doubt that it was the name of one of the numerous barrow-Uke sand-hills which occur near the village of Broughton.
In the second charter the donor is called William Painel. It relates to the same pro- perty, but is somewhat more elaborate. Among the boundaries are mentioned Langhausne and Santun. Santon yet exists as the name of two farms — High Santon and Low Santon. We are unable to identify Langhausne. The right to "focaha et opertorea," which William Painel gave on the petition and concession of Fredesent his wife, signifies the " graving" of turves and cutting brushwood ; perhaps, also, it may include digging bog-timber in the moors. Though there can be no doubt that this charter relates to Gokewell, the name is not given ; but the recluses are called the nuns of Eskadal, which means, we believe, the dale among the ash-trees.
The third document is a confirmation charter of Henry II. ; the nuns are spoken of as dwelling "in territorio de Mannebi." It is, of course, undated ; but the names of the witnesses, several of whom were bishops, makes it certain that it was executed about 1 1 74.
The fourth charter is a confirmation by Adam, the son of Adam Painel, of the pos- sessions which had been given to them by William Painel, whom Adam calls " avunculus
meus." The seals are of more than ordinary interest. Adam is represented on horseback with a sword-^n his hand, his shield charged with a bend. The Dean of Lincoln, the Prior of Drax, and the Prior of Thornholm also seal as witnesses.
Among the witnesses who did not append their seals was a certain Richard Wacelin. This is, as far as we have been able to ascer- tain, the first mention of this old Lincolnshire family. He was, there can be little doubt, a member — probably the head of a race which lived for many generations in the neighbour- ing township of Brumby, at a secluded place called " The Hall in the Wood." The male line ended in the early part of the sixteenth century. An heiress carried the estate and the representation of the family to the Bel- linghams.
The pedigrees of De Alta Ripa and Paynel have not had the attention given to them which they deserve ; that they were among the more influential of the great Lincolnshire landowners of the twelfth century might be proved in various ways. The families were, it is believed, more than once connected by the ties of marriage.
From the time of the last of these charters until the dissolution of the religious houses, nothing whatever is at present known as to Gokewell. There were but six nuns living there when the religious houses fell.
To lament the destruction of quiet retreats like Gokewell would be perhaps quite out of place, now that more than three hundred years have passed away since the last of the sisters was laid "beneath the churchyard mould." The times were indeed terrible when all England heard
Vox Domini confringentis cedros.
It is probable there were none save a few neighbours, the poor of Broughton, Santon, and Brumby, to sorrow for those who had been turned out into the cold hard world which they had forsaken. One person at least was made glad thereby. In the thirtieth year of Henry VIII. the domain of Gokewell passed into the hands of Sir William Tyrwhitt, a member of a family which was enormously enriched by the spohation of the monasteries. No Lincolnshire family, if we except that of Heneage, gained so much by the fall of
GOKEWELL NUNNERY.
149
mediaeval Christianity as did the Tyrwhitts. This particular estate did not remain long in their hands. Whether there were intervening purchasers we have not ascertained. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, and perhaps earlier, Gokewell had become part of the possession of the Andersons, of Manby. It has not changed hands since, but is now a portion of the estate of the Earl of Yar- borough, the representative of the line.
In this, as in so many other cases, the work of destruction seems to have been very gradual. In 1696 a neighbouring clergyman of antiquarian tastes visited Gokewell. He says that " It seems to have been a most stately place," and goes on to tell that the walls enclosed between twenty and thirty acres. " They shew'd me a little well," he continues, "which by tradition was once very great and famous; this they called Nun's Well. It has run straight through the midst of this ground, being a great spring, and it fedd all the house with water, and several statues or water-fountains in the courts and gardens. The part of the old building that stands is but very small, one room at most. Here was a church within this nunnery, as the constant tradition says, part of which being ready to fall, was puU'd down about ten years ago. . . . Part of the orchard walls of this nunnery is yet standing, and there] has spread upon it and knit into it an ivy that has mightily preserved it, and will keep it firm and strong many years."*
Though nothingnowremains above ground, it is at least probable that by judiciously con- ducted excavations the foundations of the church might be laid bare, and that we might thus be enabled to judge of the date of the edifice. It is not improbable that more than one of the De Alta Ripas and the Painels sleep within what was once a sacred enclo- sure, and that their grave-slabs might be dis- covered.
The following notes as to prioresses of Gokewell, from the Lincoln registers, have been given to the writer by the Rev. J. T. Fowler, F.S.A. :
1278-9. Ysabell.
1300. Matild. de Saplon, a nun of the house.
1348. Matilda de Newode, late prioress.
* Diary of Abraham de la Pryvie (Surtees Soc), p. 79.
1 348. Elizabeth Sawtry, nun of the bouse, chosen
in her room. 1365. Alicia de Lafeld, resigned.
Alicia de Egminton, chosen, installed by Thomas Vaus, rector of Breghton. 1395. Alice Egmanton, resigned.
Johanna Pygot, a nun of the house chosen in her room. Presented to the Bishop of Lincoln and confirmed at Stow Park.
Edward Peacock.
Q^anr Customs.
Bv Rev. R. Corlett Cowell.
''EVERAL ancient customs which are lingering in out-of-the-way places on the verge of extinction are worth noting. One of these is the yearly festival which inaugurates the turf-cutting season. In the early summer, after the corn is sown, and "idle lies the plough," the peasantry are occupied in providing their stock of fuel for the winter. Formerly, groups of men and women from all parts of the island set off to the curraghs and mountain-sides to cut peat. But since the importation of coal from England in large quantities, turf, as an article of fuel, has been well-nigh superseded, except in the district adjacent to the mountains, where the old customs, spiced with romance, connected with the preparation of this useful fuel still linger.
The enterprise is commenced annually with a rustic picnic, which is of immemorial antiquity. On the day preceding the event, the good housewives are busy catering for the feast. Just enter one of those stone-built thatch-roofed, spotlessly lime-washed houses that here and there dot the lower reaches of the mountain glens, say on the Maughold side of North 13arule. In the spacious fire- place, the open ingle-nook which never knew any semblance of a fire-grate, the flames sputter on the hearth, beneath a quaint three- legged pot that stands jauntily on the iron tripod. In the said pot boils steadily a sub stantial hunch of hung beef, which had
Graced the chimney-cheek The winter through amongst the reek,
150
MANX CUSTOMS.
and which on the morrow will test the quality of the teeth of strong-jawed, sun-bronzed Manxmen. Dishes of "cowry" — a jelly manufactured by some mysterious process from the inner husk of oats — are got ready. This is regarded as a prime dainty, the chief of all the luxuries of the mountain banquet. Oaten or barley bannocks are baked in the earthenware oven, which turns out savoury- smelling, irregularly-shaped cubes, the like of which no Brummagem stove could produce ; though it must be confessed that the stove, with its shining steel appurtenances, is fast ousting the time-honoured arrangement, to the sorrow of the sturdy mountaineer, who complains that, \vith the new-fangled wheaten bread, baked in this new fashion, there is nothing for his teeth to do, and that they are in danger of decaying from sheer idleness. While the cooking is proceeding, new-laid eggs are packed away in dry bracken, and sweet fresh-churned butter in well-moulded segments is laid aside in some very cool spot to solidify — real butter, not the slimy decoc- tions of commerce. These are almost the only articles of homely cheer provided. If there is not great variety, there is that which will appeal to the appetite of honest labour and good-conscienced mirth, sharpened by the bracing cordial of mingled sea and up- land breezes.
The morrow having arrived, men and women, lithe lads and sprightly lasses, no longer in home-spun " lai(ghta?i " — cloth made from wool of the natural colour of a sheep peculiar to Mona — but in modern cos- tume, more or less fashionable, set out from neighbouring farmsteads, from Balla-Jorey, and BallaCubbin, and Balla-Joughin, and a dozen other Ballas, to join the mountain- bound band. On reaching some upland plateau on Snaafield or Barule, the men set to work to find a fitting place to commence operations, whilst the women display their plates and bowls on the grassy lawn, and spread their homely feast. Shortly the feast begins, and, to quote Mona's only poet :
While each rustic plays an eager part, The sire repeats, " There's plenty in the cart To satisfy us all, I'm sure, to-day; So, lads, eat on, and spare it not, I pray." Each bashful maid, so modest and reserved, Takes care her own beloved best is served ; While many looks of artless love pass round, Pure joyful mirth and innocent abound ;
The stai 1 in years no longer can refrain From joining chorus with the youthful train, Calling to mind those happy days gone by, Ere cares of life drew forth the heartfelt sigh.*
When appetite is well blunted, and the accustomed grace is said at the close of the feast — for the Manx are a pious people — labour begins in right good earnest. Some cut the turf in square blocks of about ten inches by six ; others spread them out to dry on the green sward —
Until the sun sinks far into the west, li^-hind the summit of vast Snaafield's crest, Throwing its shadow o'er the lowland plain, Tlie well-known gnomon of the lab'ring swain.
And now, while the shades of night are gathering, to quote the faithful picture of the Manx bard —
They homeward wend their course along the moor, Their wives and children wait them at the door, And many a neighb'ring cottage lass was there To meet the swain the courting kiss to share. As careless they to hide their artless love As the wood-pigeons cooing in the grove ; For there no etiquette or worldly pride Had taught the heart to stray from virtue's side.
After the turf has been well dried it is con- veyed home in primitive fashion. Packed in straw-made panniers, called cree/s, on the shaggy backs of mountain ponies, it finds its way down the shelving sides of Barule to the farmyard, where it is carefully stacked for winter use. But it must be confessed that since the formation of the new roads across the mountain, the commonplace cart is fast superseding the ancient and picturesque mode of transit.
3i.$ ^r. jFreeman Accurate f
Part II.
That Mr. Freeman is an accurate historian no one who has carefully studied his works can doubt ; that his writings should be free from error is impossible. — Acoi/emj', June 5, 1SS6.
And I seiJe nay, and proved hit b)' Domesday. — Letter of John Shillingford, 1447.
HE above quotation from the columns of the Academy is taken from a critical notice on the first portion of this paper. To me it is most welcome, as vindicating my position,
* Monas Isle, and other Poems, by W. Kennish, R.A. Simpkins and Marshall, 1844.
IS MR. FREEMAN ACCURATE 'I
151
and as showing how much has yet to be done before the work of the Regius Professor can be set in its true Ught, before a correct estimate can be formed of its authority and its worth. Let me then repeat that it would be mere affectation to decry the merits of that work. All that I urge here is that an exaggerated estimate has been formed of its •' accuracy," and that until that estimate has been reconsidered in the light of such evi- dence as the facts afford, its effect may be gravely misleading.
This exaggerated estimate would naturally arise from Mr. Freeman's peculiar insistence on "accuracy," and, still more, from his severe handling of inaccuracies in the writings of others. Of the former, we have an instance in such a passage as this :
I would say as the first precept — dare to be accurate. You will be called a pedant for doing so, but dare to be accurate all the same.*
Of the latter, I need hardly observe, no one can well be ignorant. I need, therefore, only refer to a favourable and most friendly re- view of the Professor's latest volume, in which he is described as best known to the public as an " historian who is moved to an indignation usually reserved for moral offences by misstatements of the facts of history, even in matters which appear trivial to other people," and as specially distin- guished for "the Berserker fury with which he sometimes assails blunders which appear innocent enough to ordinary people."! Nor, I may add, is this extract taken from what Mr. Freeman is so fond of terming " the Mahometan press of England."
The Academy critic is perfectly right in separating "inaccuracy" from "error." The distinction is most important. From " error," it may fairly be said, no historian can be free. The two chief sources of "error" are (r) insufficient evidence ; (2) erroneous infer- ence. "Inaccuracy," on the other hand, might be described as the zymotic disease of history ; that is to say, it is strictly pre- ventible. A writer may be deficient in that peculiar faculty which can alone enable the historian to draw ihe right inference from his facts. For that, of course, he is not to blame. But he is to bhme if he states the
* "On the Study of History" {Forinightly AV- vie7u, N.S., xxix., 325). t S/>.-iia!or, July 31, 1886.
facts themselves incorrectly, and the more so if he makes himself conspicuous by chas- tising this fault in others.
Let us now see whether Mr. Freeman is merely liable to error, or is at times not even accurate.
With his treatment of Domesday I have already dealt, and I shall return to it again anew. Let us now therefore glance at some other points.
There are few subjects to which Mr. Free- man has given more special attention than to the ecclesiastical settlement of England under the Conqueror. He devotes to it an entire chapter (cap. xix.) of his work on the Norman Conquest. Yet, having twice informed us in that work (IV., xxii. 419 [ed. 1876]) that Remigius translated his see to Lincoln in 1085, he informs us, as distinctly, in another work that Remigius " moved his throne . . . in 1070"!* And what renders the dis- crepancy infinitely stranger is that, in the later, as in the earlier work,t the translation of this see affords the same opportunity of introducing a phrase, which must by this time be familiar to Mr. Freeman's readers, about " the home of Birinus, by the winding Thames, looking up at the mighty hill-fort of Sinodun ;"J a feat which, I believe (it is but jast to add), it does not perform more than thrice in the later of the two volumes.
The exact date of this translation is noto- riously an open question. But this obviously is no excuse for assigning, and with equal confidence, the two contradictory dates of 1070 and 1085. Nor is it a question of dates only. We would learn not merely the date, but also the cause of the transference. Was it, or was it not, one of those conse- quent on the Council of London (1075)? Mr. Freeman, in his Norman Conquest^ dis- tinctly implies that it was, though it is not one of the three sees mentioned by name as affected § If it was, how could it have taken place five years before that Council (/>., in
* Enqlish Towns and Districts, p. 208.
t Norman Conquest (vol. iv. ), 1871 and 1876; Ens^lish Towns and Districts.
X Norman Conquest, vol. iv. (421), 419.
§ Three Hishopricks were at once removed by virtue of this decree. . . . 15ut these three changes, made by the immediate orders of the Council of London, were not the only chanjjes of the kind which were made during this reign and the following one. First of all, Remigius, etc., etc. — Norman Conquest^ iv. (418, 421), 415,419.
152
IS MR. FREEMAN ACCURATE!
1070)? The two versions are mutually in- compatible. I have not here the space for a dissertation on the point, so I will merely observe that it seems to me probable that not only one but both of Mr. Freeman's dates (1070 and 1085) are wrong.
But this would take us out of the sphere of " inaccuracy " into the other and distinct sphere of "error." So also would the case of another transference, that of the See of East Anglia, which follows immediately, in Mr. Freeman's narrative, on that which we have just considered, and should be classed for investigation with it. Here again I find evidence irreconcilable with Mr. Freeman's data.
Keeping, however, to the question of "accuracy," we have seen above that Mr. Freeman is not even consistent with himself, that he flatly contradicts in one work a date which he has given in another. We shall now see, more than this, that even in one and the same work he is found to contradict himself flatly. Take, for instance, the fol- lowing passages from his most recent magnum opus, both of them referring to the same man, Gilbert " de Tunbridge " or " de Clare."
A.D. 1088. A.D. 1090.
This ancient fortress Streatham, the gift of [Tunbridge] had grown Richard of Clare or of into the Castle of Gilbert Tunbridge, of whom we the son of Richard, called have so often heard .... of Clare and of Tunbridge, the priory of Clare .... the son of the famous was the gift of Gilbert of Count Gilbert of the early Clare, brother of Richard, days of the Conqueror. — the other benefactor of the William Rufus, i. 68. house, a house which seems
to have had special attrac- tions for the whole family of Count Gilbert.— ^z7- liam Rtiftis, i. 376.
Or again let us take this similar instance :
His [Robert of Meulan's] He was the father of two
sons were well taught, and sons, both of whom were
they could win the admira- brought up with such care
tion of popes and cardinals that they could, while still
by their skill in disputa- young, hold logical dis-
tion. The eldest, IValeran, putations with cardinals.
his Norman heir, plays an Of these brothers, Rohert,
unlucky part in the reign the elder, became a pros-
of Henry; his English perous Earl of Leicester
heir, Robert, continued in England, while his
the line of the Earls of brother Waleran became
Leicester. — William Ru- an unlucky Count of
fus, i. 187. Meulan beyond the sea. — William RtifHS,\\. 419.
In this case, though, or rather because, these statements are so directly contradictory, it
would seem impossible that they could both be wrong. And yet Mr. Freeman may be held to have accomplished even this. For, as his " master " is well aware, the sons in question were — twins.*
I am tempted to select from the same work yet one instance more, as illustrative not only of Mr. Freeman's practice of care- fully referring, in support of his statements, to passages in which he has himself exposed them, but also of the singular process by which his errors are frequently evolved. We start from the brief and unimpeachable state- ment contained in a note on Tunbridge Castle, that —
A singular story is told in the Continuation of William of Jumii'ges (viii. 15) how Tunbridge was granted in exchange for Brionne, and measured by the rope. See Appendix S. — William Rufus, 1. 68.
We turn, as directed, to " Appendix S," but find that we do so in vain. In " Note U," however (p. 564), we find the passage we are referred to. This passage runs as follows :
Of this way of measuring by the rope . . . whence the Rapes in Sussex. . . . several examples are col- lected by Maurer. ... In Sussex itself we have (see above, p. 68) the story of the measuring of the lowy {sic) of Lewes {sic) by the rope, which is at least more likely than the story told by the same writer ( W. Gem., viii. 15) that the earldom of Hereford passed in this way.
Thus on p. 68 we are referred, for further information on the lowy of Tu7ih'idge, to this passage, in which it is dealt with as the lowy of Lewes, while in this passage we are re- ferred back to that in which it is (rightly) described as the lewy of Tunbridge ! Verily, we are reminded of Mr. Vincent's words deal- ing with another of the Professor's works :
The author of this book, I should infer from number- less passages, cannot revise what he writes. He must accustomably rely upon a memory which is conspi- cuously defective.!
" Of course," in Mr. Freeman's words, " I shall be told that these things do not matter, that it is quite unimportant whether " Tun- bridge or Lewes was the scene of the legend. But " real students of history think other- wise." They do.
Or again, if my criticism be thought too harsh, take this passage, from the Professor
* Stubbs' Const. Hist., i. 309.
t Genealogist (New Series), ii. 179.
JS MR. FREEMAN ACCURATE!
153
himself, on the letters of special correspon- dents :
If a man sails down the Hadriatic, he must write the history of every island he comes to ; if he jumbles together Curzola and Corfu, it does not greatly matter ; who will know the difference ? So if he goes to a Church Congress at Leicester he must needs write the early history of Leicester ; if, instead of this, he gives his readers the early history of Chester, what does it matter? Who will know the difference? . . . Some- thing, of course, must be said about Curzola, something about Leicester. But if any man hint that it makes some little difference . . . whether the victory of i^thelfrith and the slaughter of the Bangor monks took place at Leicester or at Chester, he must bear the penalty of his rashness. . . . He who shall venture to distinguish between two English boroughs . . . when the authorised caterer for the public information thinks good to confound them must be content to bear the terrible name of pedant, even if no worse fate still is in store for him.*
As I have here ventured, under these very circumstances, "to distinguish between two English boroughs," that fate must, I fear, be mine.
Can confusion further go ? Apparently it can. In the passage from William Rufus, quoted above, Mr. Freeman asserts that the Lewes story is " more likely " than that told of Hereford. How a story which was never told, and which would have been impossible if it had (there having been no such lowy), could be " more likely " than another one, is a problem I will not attempt to solve ; I will only observe that, as a matter of fact, the unfortunate "writer" did not even tell that other story which Mr. Freeman so strangely here assigns to him. What the continuator really says is that William Fitz Osbcrn left two sons :
Willelmum de Britolio, qui post decessum eius ter- ram quam hal^ebat in Normannia habuit; et Rogerium cuiComitatus ll<zxQ^oxd\/iiniculo distributiottis ez'enti.\
Surely, if Mr. Freeman, to use a phrase of his own, had read this passage with "com- mon care,":}: he would not have overlooked " distributionis," and must have seen that the writer's expression could have nothing to do with "measuring by the rope,"§ but was an
* Fortnightly Review (N.S.), xxix. 329.
f Cont. Will. Juin., viii. 15 (ed. Duchesne, p. 299).
X We simply see that he [Mr. Pearson] has not read his Chronicles or his life of Eadward with common care. — Fortni'^htly RevicM (N.S.), iii. 403.
§ His expression in the Tunbridge case is quite different: — "leugam. ... cum funiculo mcnsuratam fuisse " (ed. Duchesne, p. 300). VOL. XIV.
obvious paraphrase for that division between the brothers which took place on their father's death.* Nor can any other interpretation make sense of the passage.
But now observe how one error leads on to another. The erroneous shifting of the scene of this tradition from Tunbridge in Kent to Lewes in Sussex, led Mr. Freeman to appeal to it, as we have seen, as con- firming the origin assumed by him for the term "Rape" in Sussex. Accordingly he thus recurred to the subject in his inaugural address at the Lewes meeting, 1883 :
In Sussex we have the hundred and we have the gd under another name. At some stage, which must have been an early one, the land was, according to a common ancient usage, dealt out by the rope, and the rope has left its name to the groupings of the SouthSaxon hundreds. Rape, a name unlcnown in England out of Sussex, is, I need not say, simply the old measuring rope, keeping nearer both to the ancient sound and the ancient spelling than the other form of the word.
Appended, however, to this passage, in a report published subsequently, we find this significant note :
So I wrote, following the explanation which, I be- lieve, has been commonly received ; but on turning to Mr. Skeat's Dictionary, I find that he does not seem to acknowledge any connection between the rope (see Williain Rufus, i. 68 ; ii. 564) and the Rapes of Sussex.*
Here, then, the cat emerges from the bag. When in his William Rufus, and again in his address at Lewes, the Professor wrote thus confidently of the derivation of the " Rape " from the rope with which it had been measured (as when he pronounced that Colchester keep was "clearly" the work of Eudo), he was merely, we learn, following " the explanation " which, he believed, had " been commonly received " — the explanation of guide-books and similar compilations — without thinking for a moment of its in- herent, and indeed obvious, improbability. What a confession from that "accurate" historian, who has insisted so loudly and so long on the necessity of original research !
Even now the Professor, it would seem, is only half convinced by Mr. Skeat, and refers
* The policy of William divided his inheritance. . . . The Norman estates . . . passed to his eldest son William ; the Earldom of Hereford and all that he had in England was granted to his second son Roger. — Norman Conquest, vol. iv.
t Arch./ouni.f xl. 346.
M
154
IS MI?. FREEMAN A CCVRA TE 1
us to those passages in his William Eufus, which so strangely contradict one another, presumably under the blissful impression that there is no contradiction between them.
After this, it may be instructive to refer to a review of Mr. Freeman's chief topographical work — English Towns and Districts — in which we read as follows :
The favour with which Mr. Freeman is received as Chairman of the Historical Section of the Archceo- logical Institute is explained when it is seen how much concerning a town he Is able to tell which the best instructed inhabitant cannot have received from tradi- tion, and wliich the acutest local antiquary is not likely to have divined.*
This was certainly the case at Lewes, where no inhabitant can " have received from tradition," nor could any local anti- quary " have divined " that they were sur- rounded by such a district as " the lowy of Lewes," for the really excellent reason that no such district ever existed.
Passing from the land of the South- to that of the East-Saxons, we may glance at one more case in point, taken from the paper on Colchester. There is at Colchester a relic of Roman domination known as the Balkan (or Balkerne) Gate. The existing structure, well-known to archaeologists for its remark- able state of preservation, consists of a com- plete archway in combination with a bastioned guard-chamber. Dr. Duncan, in his mono- graph on The Walls of Colchester {i2>$i,\ thus describes the gateway :
The magnificence of the tile-work of this great Roman arch cannot be described by my feeble pen. . . . The two bastion-like ends and the arched ways of this grand gate must have contributed in the olden time to its strength as a military position, and to its elegance as a piece of architecture. . . . The whole building, standing, as it does, in front of the line of the wall, is •unequalled by any remains in England. f
Now Mr. Freeman admitted, when speak- ing at Colchester, that he had gone round the walls the previous year (1875), ^^^ it is difficult to understand how he can have done so without being confronted by this suggestive symbol of the arts and the dominion of Imperial Rome.
But what has Mr. Freeman to say of this gate after his perambulation of the walls ?
As almost everywhere in Britain, the gates have
Kerished. There is nothing to be set even against the 'ew Port of Lincoln (!) ; far less is there anything to
* Notes and Queries (Sixth Series), viii. 219. t Essex Arch, Journal^ i. 48, 51.
set against the mighty gateways of Trier, Aosta, and even Ntmes. Can we deem that at Camulodunum, as at Rome itself, there were ever gateways of really good architectural design, built of the favourite material? As it is, we must content ourselves with the walls.*
Doubtless Mr. Freema^n would be better pleased if this gateway had perished ; but there is really a gleam of unconscious irony in the inquiry whether, if there had been a gateway, it were likely to have been " built of the favourite material," when a gateway so built is actually standing, and when no less an authority than Mr. Roach Smith described and depicted it years ago in the Journal of the Archceological Association (ii. 31-33), ob- serving that —
In no buildings that I have seen do the Roman tiles abound so much as the red tiles in those of Col- chester. . . . The upper part of the arch is entirely
composed of tiles.
Truly, in announcing that no such gateway existed, Mr. Freeman revealed to the good people of Colchester a " fact " — " which the acutest local antiquary is not likely to have divined." But even supposing that, at the time when he delivered his address, he was actually ignorant of this famous relic, we find it re- corded in the Archceological Journal (xxxiii. 420) that Mr. Freeman, only two days later, accompanied the members of the Institute on the occasion when
A thorough examination was made of the remains of the old Roman wall in Balkerne Lane . . . and the admirably preserved Decuman gate at tlie top of Balkerne Hill, the only existing Roman gateivay and g liar dho use. — Ibid.
And yet in his English Towns and Districts, published some years after this visit, the Regius Professor, as we have seen, ignores the very existence of such a gate !
J. H. Round.
a^unicipal £DfiSce$ : Catllole.
By RiCHAiiD S. Ferguson, F.S.A.
Part III.
(47) Town Guard. — Even within the present century certain decrepit veterans in brown, turned up with red (the livery of the old corporation), sat at the city gates and * English Towns, p. 394.
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
155
dozed all day. They practically represented the porters of the gates.
(48) moultergrave.
(49) Farmers of the Mills.
(50) Common Leaders to the Mills.
(51) Millers. — The following are from the Constitutions and Rules, 1561 :
Itm that there shelbe noe comone leders of noe freman or woman's corn inhabitynge XY'i'In the cities or liberties of the same to any myhie But only to thre niyliies of the citie whereunto all citiscns are bound And that the moultergraues and fermers \v''> thare servants shall grind and use those duties to all thinhabitantes of the same citie in such nianer and forme as thei ar bound by thare lease graunlcd by the citie And yf any mylner hereafter offende any citisen in grinding thare corne or takyne moulter that then the partie grieved first to coraplean to the moulter- graue who shall reforme the thinge to the person plaintif And yf the moultergraue will not reforme the thinge then the plaintif to complean to the mayr who shall reforme the wrong according to justice.
Ilm that there shalbe noe moe remaininge at any of the townes mylne but the mylner and the leder only upon payne of forfitor of iii^ iiij^ for eure tym which som shalbe levied of the guds of the moultergraues so often as thei suffer the same.
The corporation of Carlisle had under their charters three mills, the Borough Mill, the Castle Mill, and the Bridge End, and a large portion of the revenues of the city rose from these three mills. To these mills all citizens, all inhabitants, were bound to send their corn, and to no other. This right the corporation long possessed, and from it they derived a large income, but litigation arose ; a trial took place at York, in the middle of the last century. It was proved that the corporation had not fulfilled their part of the obligation, namely, to keep a stallion horse, a bull, and a boar for the use of the people of Carlisle, and so they lost their right of compulsory mulcturc, or toll on grinding. But this was not until the middle of the last century. In 1723 and 1724, and doubtless in other years, the chamberlains' accounts show that the corporation had two bulls, but I find no trace of horse or boar.
I know little about the moultcrgrave {inoultergerifa)^ but the Court Lect in 1628 presented as follows :
We present these persons for keeping leading horses to the hindrance of the moultergraues of this cittie viz' Robert Cooke and James Dunne for keap- ing a leading horse to Denton Millne Alexander Lowickc for aleading horse to Ilarrabyc Millne Robert
Eales for leading horse to Harrabye Millne and Thomas Taylor for a horse to the Abbey Millne.
The Court Leet in 1619 amercyed
Archiles Armstrong for keping his wife to play the milner contrary the orders of this cyttie.
In 1617-8 the chamberlains account for x" xiii' 4'' received from the moultergraves. Various sums are received in subsequent years.
(52) Fermors of the Citie.
Itm yf any fermor of the citie pay deliver or dis- burse any part or parcell of his yerely rent to the hands of the mayr for hys tym beyng onles it be agreed by the consent of the counsale or the most parte of them that then the said fermer shall pay the same rent againe at the next audit or ells to remaine in ward to yt be payd. — Constitutions and Rules, 1561.
Farmers of the city seems to include the farmers of the mills, the two next to be men- tioned, and probably all other tenants.
(53) Farmers of the Tolls. — Also called The Cities Toolers.
Itm that the fermors of the toulles shall tak of all maner of vitells and graine cumynge to the market in lyk manner and form as heretofore liaith been .accustomed and that thei shall tak no toulles of no kynd of vitalls cumynge to the market beyng onder the value and price of v' ob upon paine of euere tym using the contrarie to forfet liij''- — Constitutions and Rules, 1 561.
These persons also appear as " Farmers of the Shire Tolls" " Farmers of the Scotland Toll." The tolls held by the city of Carlisle under its charter are to this day and always have been a most valuable property, and have frequently been the subject of prolonged and expensive litigation. They consist of three kinds: i. Market tolls; 2. Passage or through tolls on all goods not belonging to freemen ; 3. The shire toll on all cattle and goods entering or leaving the county. Double tolls were imposed upon Scotchmen entering the city and county, and the corporation formerly possessed atoll called the Scotch or Scotland toll, but this was abolished by the sixth article of the Act of Union; the corporation received ;!^2,64i by way of recompense ; this was judiciously invested in land, which has risen enormously in value.
(54) Farmers of the Fisheries.
Itm that the fermers and there assignees of the Kinggarth and frenct after the years expired that the fermers now haith shall yerely present the market
M 2
15^
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
w* the half part of all such fyshe as thei shall gyt at the same for the better furnishment and releef of all the inhabitances of the same citie upon paine and forfitor for euere default vi= viii'' which default shalbe found and presented by inquest and the forfitor to be levied and taken of the fermors. — Constitutions and Rules, 1 561.
The citizens enjoyed the Kinggarth fishery and the free net under their charters ; they have frequently been the subject of Htigation, and the corporation have virtually lost the Kinggarth fishery, owing to the river having changed its course ; but it once produced ;,^8oo a year.
(55) Farmers ofCullerie or Coulterie.
Item for wyne and sup;ar in Mr. barwickes when the farmers of coulterie were called iii'* 4'^- — Chamberlains' Accounts, 1605.
An account of the singular local tenure known as " cullery," by Mr. W. Nanson, F.S.A., will be found in the Transactions Cumberland and Westmoreland Aiitiquarian and Archaeological Society, vol. vi., p. 305. Certain persons held and still hold tenements from the corporation on terms something re- sembling those by which in other places copyhold tenants are bound ; these in Car- lisle are named Ctillery tena?its. The quit- rents which these tenants pay are small, and the collection of them was let out for a fixed payment to persons who were known as Far- mers of cullery.
(56) Farmers of the Wealock.
We order that the farmers of the wealock shall cahse the markett place to be swept and made cleane every Satterday at night upon pain of xii^ every de- fault.— Presentments Court Leet, 1655.
A similar entry in 1658 :
September 21, 1669. Whether there shal be an abatem' to Dr. Tallentire of part of y"= wealey rent for last year and how much — abated 50/s — Town Council Minutes, 1669.
The farmers of the wealock or wealey were the lessees of the corporation public weighing-machine in the market-place, and they also leased the stallage there. I think they succeeded the keeper of the pillory (next to be mentioned) as collectors of the market tolls. The corporation has and still has the exclusive right to set up a public weighing-machine, and at the present day maintains two or three.
(57) Keeper of the Pillory.
Wee present the kepers of the Pillorye for takeing more towle than theyr due iii^ iiii'' And we order that
if hereafter they doe use or offer the like triccorye that they shall lose theyr place. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1628.
We present Willm Stoddart the keper of the Pil- lorye for taking of more than ordinarye Towle iii* iiii** — Ibid., 1629.
From a plan of Carlisle, tempore Henry VIIL, in the British Museum, and reproduced in Lyson's Cumberland, the pillory appears to be an hexagonal or octagonal wooden build- ing, on the top of which was the actual pillory. In this building measures were kept, called the pillory bushels, pillory pecks, etc., for each kind of grain, and the keepers of the pillory appeared to have collected the market tolls.
The modern pillory, now in the Carlisle museum, consisted of an upright pole, which went through one end of the plank, which had the holes for the neck and hands. The plank turned on the upright pole, and the victim thus could run round and round it.
(58) Sworne Men.
We desire Mr. Maior that the sworne men both for flesh and fisli that every markett they may take a strict view of both flesh and fish that it be good and wholesome for the sustenance of man hereafter there be noe cause of complaint. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1658.
(59) Sealers of Leather.
Itm y^ 9 of October to henrye Sewell for a new seale for lether stampinge xii^i — Chamberlains Accounts, 1618-9.
The sealer's office was in the lower part of the moot hall, next to the delectable place known as the doghole, in which the drunken citizens were consigned to durance vile.
(60) Beadles. — " Itm unto Anthonie clarke for beaddells place xiii^ iiij"^" — Cham- berlains' Accounts for 1603.
Werequestyo"' worship and the rest ofyo' bretheren, that whereas John Robinson, and Edward Dalton, being beadlles, and have no regard of their office, that yf they do not hereafter looke better to their office than they have lieretofor done in keeping further vagabonds, and valient beggers, that they shalbe expulsed frome the sayd office, and their Coits taken frome them, and others appointed to execute the same. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1597.
We order and sett downe that the Bedles shall avoyd all beggers oute of this cyttie except ffre cyti- zens, or els to be avoyded thern selves or to stand in the pillorye ffower market dayes every day an hour at least. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1619.
There are many similar presentments. These officials received coats, Itm for iiii yeards halfe of tawney brodcloth to the
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
157
bedells and belman xxxviii' — Chamberlains' Accounts, 1604-5.
Itm to the beadles for their coals xxxvi= — Ibid., i6io-ii.
(61) Bellman.
Itm unto the bellman Willing Stodderte x'- — Cham- berlains' Accounts, 1603.
For his coat, see under the heading of the Beadles, ante.
The bellman also cleaned the conduits, for which he got x^- Sometimes he did not clean them, for the Court Leet in 1597 pre- sented, " We crave your wo"' to command the bellman to mayke the conduits cleane and the wales for they are nott well look unto." But in 1649 he earned commendation.
We desire that Mr. Maior Aldermen and capital Cittizens doe take into consideracon the great paines the Bellman tooke in the sickness time and that he may have allowance out of the Cityes meanes : and that Mr. Maior be pleased that his wages may be augmented. We likewise desire that the Beadles and Bellman may be remembered for their paines takeing in clensing the conduits and dressing the streats.— Pre- sentments of Court Leet, 1649.
We desire Mr. Maior that the markett Bell may be rung winter and summer at twelve of the clock by the maiors servant. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1658.
(62) Bell-ringers. — Salaries were paid for ringing the following bells : Curfew (first mentioned in 1603 in the earliest remaining Chamberlains' Accounts) : it was rung at 8 at night, and afterwards at 9 ; 4 o'clock a.m., which in lazier times became 5, and 6 o'clock; and was called the scholars' bell, the market bell, the watch bell, the common bell, etc. The ringers of the Cathedral bells received donations for ringing on festive occasions.
Itm geven to Ringers upon y*^ gunpowder daye ii'' vi''. — Chamberlains' Accounts, 1618-9.
See also the Sexton.
(63) Jailer of Richergate Prison.
Fees and Anewties yearlye.
Itm unto Alexander dalton for rychardgaitte prison xiii*^ iiij''. -Chamberlains' Accounts, 1609.
To Alexander Ualton the Jaylor of Richardgait xiii'' iiij''. — Chamberlains' Accounts.
(64) Attendants on the Mayor. — At the Assizes, when the Commissioners for the North meet at Carlisle, during the fairs, and on other high occasions, during the seven- teenth century, six or eight men, in addition to the sergeants, were paid for attending on the mayor. For instance :
Itm unto vi attend*-' upon Mr. Maior in the assises tyme xxi"*.
8 Aprill 1605 Itm . . attending Mr. Maior in the comission tyme xxi^ — Chamberlains' Accounts, 1604-5.
Itm to waters of Mr. Maior being ffower at ye ffirste fifayer xii*.
Itm to waters of Mr. Maior being 7 for ye creditt of ye citie at ye assyses xxix'. — Chamberlains' Accounts, 16 1 8-9.
(65) Torch-bearers.
Item to those which carried the torches before Mr. Maior & his brethren from the castle xviii''. — Cham- berlain's Accounts, 1608-9.
The mayor had been dining there with the sheriff. Torches and links for the Mayor's use are frequently charged for. The remains of a great gilt civic lanthorn, to be carried dangling from a pole, survive in the museum.
(66) Waits.
Itm for a coatt unto the Waitte xx^. — Chamber- lains' Accounts, 1603.
We request Mr. Maior that the three wates who now are allowed may continue and be commanded to play beginninge presently and soe continue until! Candlemas and to play both at Christmas and at all other times according to former custome except onely the Sabbaoth dayes and to have such allowance as formerly they have had. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1633.
Numerous entries of payments to the city's waits are in the Chamberlains' Accounts ; the waits of many other towns, such as Ken- dal, Lancaster, Lincoln, etc., visited Carlisle, and were handsomely rewarded from the city funds, as were all strolling players, musicians, jugglers, bear-wards, etc., '■'■ by Mr. Maior comand. "
(67) Annuitants.
Itm unto Thomas braucheson his annewtie x'. Itm unto Doritie Vaille for her annewtie v'. — Chamber- lains' Accounts, 1603.
These persons were paupers, and similar items frequently occur.
We order and sett doune that all such poore people as have eyther pension or allowance of this citie shall content themselves therewith and not be clamorous or troblesome to strangers as heretofore they have used to the great scandill cf this cytie upon paine that everye such clamorous Begger shall forfytt theyr pension & allowance. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1625.
(68) Beadsman. — The following note occurs in the Dormont Book, 1561, and elsewhere among the city manuscripts :
That in the spitall of Sainte Nicolas ar thre Bedmen allowed, one for the Abbey or CoUedge, one for the castell and one for the citie.
At S. Nicholas, outside the city, was a hos- pital for lepers, whose revenues the Dean and
iSS
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
Chapter of Carlisle now enjoy, charged, I believe, with some pensions for poor men. By the Constitutions and Rules of 1561 :
Vagabonds and valiant beggars were not to be suffered to go openly about the city " Onles such pore and impotent persons as shalbe allowed by the mayr and counsale according to the statute mayd in that behalf which pore persons to have tokens and badges Declaring that thei be allowed by the mayr and counsell."
It would be very interesting to find one of these " tokens or badges." The holder would be a sort of privileged mendicant, or Carlisle Edie Ochilltree.
(69) Fool.
Itm unto one that was fool on hallou thursdaie xii''. — Chamberlains' Accounts, 1604-5.
Itm the 20 daie January upon one that was joke- maker at Mr. Maior com vi"*. — Chamberlains' Ac- counts, 1608-9.
Itm the xxvi"^ day December, for a coat to my lord Abbott at Mr. Maior command xvii'.
Itm for a hat unto the said lord bread (braid) in the makinge of his coat & hat & for candles viii* vi**. — Chamberlains' Accounts, 1610-11.
The ffooles cote and other charges for him xxvii^ xi<i. — Ibid., 1618-9.
Itm for a soote to y<= naturall foole Miller, tow payer of showes & tow payer of hosse xxviii^ — Ibid., 1614-5.
Itm bestoued upon Sir Wilfred lauson's foole at Mr. Maior command xij**.
The cheapest way of providing for a '■'■ 7iaiuraV^ was to attach him to some great house to do what work he could for his food ; thus the Bishop kept a " softy " at Rose Castle, and the Carlisle fool was kept off the rates by being made an oflficial. His livery or coat was red and white.
(70) Cook.
Fees and annewties.
Itm unto Eduard Barnes for cookes place xiii^ iiij'*. — Chamberlains' Accounts, 1603. The cooks fee xl*. — Ibid., 1618-9.
The cook and several other officers dis- appeared in the troubles of the Civil Wars.
(71) Drummer.
Itm vi yeards flanell brodclothe unto the drummer XX'. — Chamberlains' Accounts, 1604-5.
Fees & anewties yearlye.
Itm unto Nicholas hindson drummer xx'. — Ibid.
Itm to Mr. John Cape w*^'' he had laid forth for re- pairing the old drum 0:7: 6. — Chamberlains' Ac- counts, 1638-9.*
He received a livery, like the sergeants, bellman, etc.
* This was when the citizens in anticipation of troubles furbished up their old muskets and began to drill. ^
(72) Piper.
In cloth for the sergeants pipers beadles & drum- mer 13 : I : c— Chamberlains' Accounts, 1638-9.
We desire that V»'illiam Heslop piper may be per- mitted to goe his accustomed course playing evening and morning through the streetes and that he may have his livery formerly had with the charitable benevolence of those who .... the course and love musick. — Presentments of Court Lret, 1649.
For ye seri^cnts and pipers cloakes 09 : 19 : 02.— Chamberlains' Accounts, 1649.
Pd for serg*' beadles piper & bird coates 12 : 05 :o8. — Ibid., 1650.
I cannot find a Piper's Close, but I extract the following from the Carlisle Patrict, of April 16, 1886. Botcherby is a township immediately contiguous to Carlisle.
GRAZING LAND AT BOTCHERBY TO LET.
TO be LET, by AUCTION, on Monday, 19th April inst., the following CLOSKS of GRAZING LAND, situate at Botciikkby, near Carlisle, viz. :
A. R. p. Park 43 2 27
Near Old Carr
236
14 2 13 10 o 20
Near Piper Mire ... P'ar Piper Mire
(73) Trumpeter.
Itm unto John Trumpeter ii^ — Chamberlains' Ac- counts, 1602-3.
Itm to John Burton trumpeter upon the Election day at Mr. Maior com'^ ii^ vi<J.
Several similar entries occur, but rather by way of occasional " tips " than of a salary, and I do not find that the trumpeter ever had a livery, as the drummer and piper had.
(74) Paver of the City. — In the records of the Court Leet, 1597, is the following:
In most humble maner dissiring your worship to consider of me Archeles Dalton concerning the Paver- ship of the citie That I may have your worshipes good will and fouvthence in it for I think that I am as sufl'ecent and fet for it as anie within this citie And so in it showing me that goodwill I am kept bound to pray for your worship
Your pour neighbour To comand Archiles Dalton We thinke good you"^ wo'' shold consider well of this bill.
We set doune and order that Archilles Dalton shalbe allowed to be the paver to this citie and that he shall have the wages as others have had before and we crave yo"^ worship that he may be bound to do all such like works as others have done before.
(75) Herd of Kingmoor.
We crave your woorship to provid the cittycenes a sufficient herd for this citye and to allow him a
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
159
sufficient stypend for doinge & keapinge of the cittyes neatt and swine as your wo : and brelheren thinkith good for the cittie is greatly decayeth therby.
We request y°'^ worship that we maye have a sufficient man to be C hird and that his wadge may be amended at the sight and discrecone of y°' worship and the rest of y°' bretheren because this year is very harde, and that he be had furth of hande for we have great neede of him for o' cattell. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1597.
We order that Eduard Moorhouse shalbe the Cittyes hird and keepe the cattell upon the King's moore as formerly haitt beene used and to have such allowance as formerly haitt bene given And we order that he shall swcepe and make cleane all the fremens chymneyes 4 tymes a yeare upon demand or att any tyme payinge to him for every dressing i''.
Under their charters the citizens from very early times up to 1700 were seised of a large tract of land, about two miles to the north of Carlisle, known as Kingmoor ; here they pastured their cattle and swine, and held their annual races. Between 1700 and 1750 the corporation improvidently leased large portions of this land to members of their own body for three lives at a nominal con- sideration, with covenants for perpetual re- newal, at a fine of ;^i for each life. Several renewals took place, but about 1780 the cor- poration attempted to refuse the renewals : litigation ensued, and they found they could not do so ; in 18 15 they enfranchised the pro- perty. In 1835 it was estimated that the value of the land thus lost was ^1,000 per annum.
(76) Swineherd.
Item for cloake given to the Swine herd 000 : 16 : o5.
Item for a swine crooke, a locke & a key ooo :02 :o6. — Audit Books, 1649-50. He occasionally appears elsewhere ; both the herd and swine-herd appear in the same accounts showing they were sometimes distinct offices held by distinct persons.
In the records of the Court Leet for 1619 is this :
We order and sett doune that all that have any swine within this Cyttie shall eyther send them to the Kinges more or kepe theiu close in theyr Back- side that they come not in open streat upon paine of amcrcyment to everye one offending therein vi''.
And the hird to have a penny in the month of the owners for his paines for every swine.
Mr. Round has already called attention to the following passage from the ancient ballad of Adam Bell.*
The lille boy was towne swinhearde And kept ffaire Allice swine :
Antiquary, vol. x. 83.
(77) Keeper of the Bull.
We set downe that as concerninge the cyties bull, yf a poor man had the bull in his keapinge he myght have answered for hym, wch we thinke is a great deceaye to the Citie, wherefore we desyere yo"' wor- shipe and yo' bretheren to call of hym that had hym, and goot the cytyzens one as sone as maybe. — Pre- sentments of Court Leet, 1597..
See also under the heading of the Moulter- grave, atite.
ffor y° kepinge of y® Bulls xx=. — Chamberlains' Ac- counts, 1618-9.
In 1 6 14-5 there was only one bull, and the charge was xiii^ iiij"".
We order that a sufficient Bull be kept in winter & two in summer at the citties cost. — Presentments Court Leet, 1651.
Bulls continued to be kept until early in the eighteenth century.
(78) Lecturer.
We order and sett doune that the Lecturer of Set Maryesand SctCuthberts shall have allowed unto him yearely the summe of six pounds thirteene shil- lings 4d. to be payed as foUoweth 3" vi^ S** to be taken out of the Maior his allowance for wine whosoever shall supply that place : And the other 3'' vi^ viii'i to be taken out of the Cittyes milne rents. And we order that the lecturer shall preach 4 Sermons at Set Cuthberts yearely that is to say every quarter a Sermon upon Sunday in the forenoon and likewise shall exercise and preach afternoon sermons upon the Sabbaoth dayes as now is used. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1633.
An account of the lecturer, or lecturers, for there were sometimes two, by the present author, will be found in the Transactions Cumberland and Westmoreland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, vol. vii., p. 312.
During the Commonwealth the Corpora- tion appointed two ministers for Carlisle, electing them by a great competitive preach- ing : they also paid their stipends, but to do this they had annexed chapter property, in the shape of tithes.
(79) Chaplain. — This ofiicial appears in the accounts of the last century-, but he disap- peared in 1835. He had a salary of ;^io : his duties consisted chiefly in saying grace at the corporation dinners. He was a distinct official from the lecturer.
(80) Usher of the Grammar School. In 1597 the Court Leet presented as
follows :
Good Mr. Maior whereas we finde in this cittye great defect for want of a sufficient mane to instruct the yonge childrcne of this cittye therfor we crave your wo'' to be so good as to paie one for the same purpose and to allow them sufficient wagies and to
i6o
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
withdraw the wagies both from the ushour of the hye Scheie and from Mungo Maysonr\e and to give iht to some that will instruct them.
We request yC worship and the rest of ye bretheren that the xxvi'- viii'' wcnc the usher of the heighe scolle had may be called backe and retained to the use of the cittie until such tyme as we shall think him worthy of the same. And likewise we request yo' worship to prefaure unto my Lorde bushopp of Durham* a petitione for to request his Lordshipp that we maye have a sufficient man appointed to teach o' children according to the ancient custom heretofore used. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1597-
Itm allowed unto the usher of the Grammar Schoole everie yeare 3" 6^ 8''. — Chamberlains' Accounts, 1603.
We desire the Maior Aldermen and Common Counsell will continue the stipend unto Thomas Craf;hill usher of the Grammer Schoole wch hath beene ahvaies heretofore paid qrterly by the Cittie in regard both of his dilligence & abillity wch wil be an encouragement to Rim for the continuance of his paines in the s'* place. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1651.
March 4, 1667.
What sume of money shall be given towards the maintenance of the M'' of Carlile free Schoole during the pleasure of this Corporacon if the Dean and Chapter provide a sufficient Schoolm''. 18 voted 6" 13*^ 4''- — Minutes of Town Council.
The Grammar School was part of the Cathedral establishment ; and the Dean and Chapter appointed the Infortiiator Fuer- orum or Headmaster ; but the citizens took most interest in the usher, or Liidi Magister, who taught the elements, and appear to have contributed to his salary in order to get a good man. During the Commonwealth the corporation appointed the headmaster.
(81) Verger of the Cathedral.
(82) Clerk of S. Cuthbert. — These officials have had annual fees of a few shillings paid them from the earliest date of the Chamberlains' Accounts, up to now, "for setting the cushions for Mr. Mayor and his brethren."
(83) Sexton.
We desire M"" Maior that the sexton of the church shall ring six a clock bell called scholler bell every morning at six a clock winter and summer and alsoe nine a clock bell at night heretofore haith bene accus- tomed and that he may have allowed him for his paynes and award the charge of candle light of the revenues of this cittie 40^ yearely. — Presentments of Court Leet, 1649.
Item for rodds given to the Saxton 000 : 01 : 02. — Audit Book, 1649.
* The See of Carlisle was vacant in 1597 by the dcatli of Meye.
(84) Hangman. — The Hangman's Close, now built over, is shown on the map given with Hutchinson's History of Cumberland, published 1794, and in Wood's map of Carlisle in 182 1. It is situated next to the city ditch, on the north side of the city. I have found no mention of the hangman in the city muniments, but on one or two occasions payments for the repairs of the gibbet occur. Executions took place not far from this close, on an island, known as the Sands, between two channels of the river Eden, the main channel and the Priestbeck. Here Hatfield, the betrayer of the Beauty of Buttermere, was hung. The moss-troopers and those who suffered in 1745 were hung on Harriby Hill.
The name " Hangman's Close " is of great antiquity : as the Close is situate in the City Ditch, one would imagine the hangman to have been an officer of the municipality, which, by its early charters, had the right oifiircce.
(85) Witchfinder.
Itm for ye witchfynder 006: 10: 00. — Audit Books, 1649-50.
I do not know that the entry again occurs : he may have been engaged for the job, but the fee is large.
(86) Chimney-Sweep. — See the Herd of Kingmoor.
(87) Scavenger.* — See the Bellman.
OFFICIALS OF THE GUILDS.
(88) Fours.
(89) Ancients.
(90) Wardens.
(91) Masters.
(92) Governors. — The rulers of theguilds bore these names ; fours, wardens, and masters being synonymous. In one or two the rulers were increased for a time to twelve, and were then called Governors : the dignity was generally attained by seniority.
(93) Undermasters. — These were the exe- cutive officers, who summoned the brethren to meetings, provided the materials, beer, wine, brandy, bread, biscuits, paper, tobacco, etc., for the feasts ; they held office for a year, and were elected from the youngest members ;
* At Cockermouth the scavenger is called the " sheldraker," a name traceable back to Elizabethan times.
MUNICIPAL OFFICES: CARLISLE.
i6i
they were re-elected if their accounts were not satisfactory, and kept in office until they could show a clean sheet.
(94) Clerk. — Each guild had a clerk, who kept the minute books, etc.
(95) Four of every Occupation. — The great object of the trade guilds or occupa- tions, was to impose " four of every occupa- tion " upon the guild mercatory or corpora- tion, as a check upon its doings ; and the Dormont Book shows these words "and four of every occupation " interpolated in a different handwriting into the Constitutions and Rules of 156 1 in several places, par- ticularly into the one relating to the making of freemen. Out of the words interpolated into this clause arose the Mushroom elections of the end of the eighteenth century.
OFFICERS OF THE GARRISON.
I give a list of these, though they can hardly be called municipal officers ; yet many of the subordinate posts were in the eighteenth century, for political reasons, bestowed upon freemen of the city, and generally on members of the corporation ; and the mayor was not unfrequently a quarter-gunner.
(96) Governor, or Captain of Carlisle.
(97) Deputy Governor.
(98) Town Major.
(99) Engineer.
(100) Barrack-Master. (loi) Store-Keeper.
(102) Head-Gunner.
(103) Quarter-Gunners. — All these officials are mentioned in Hutchinson's Cumberland. The " Gunner's Close " ap- pears on the maps of the Socage of Carlisle Castle, made in the seventeenth century ; and the Governor's house is shown in old plans of Carlisle Castle : it afterwards was given to the master-gunner, and ultimately became and now is the hospital. In the last cen- tury the appointments of master-gunner and quarter-gunners were frequently given to political partisans among the freemen. The ancient office of Governor of Carlisle ceased in 1837, on the death of Licutenant-General Ramsay ; it had long been a non-resident sinecure. The Governor in 1545 appears under the title of Captains of his Maties Castle of Carlisle, in which capacity Lord
Wharton signs a receipt by indenture for the armament of the Castle of Carlisle, handed over to him by the Mayor and citizens.
(104) The Porters of the Castle.
" Itm to the porters of the castle when Mr Maior and his brethren supped with the Sheriffe, xii<i " — Chamberlains' Accounts, 1608-9.
(105) The Garrison Drummer occa- sionally appears as being " tipped " by Mr. Mayor.
(106) Captain of the Watch at y° Main-Guard. — In 1678 the Town Council order the inhabitants to furnish to this officer, before nine at night, the names of any strangers coming to lodge with them.
MODERN OFFICIALS. It may be useful to give here the autho- rized list of the present officials of the corporation of Carlisle : Recorder. Town Clerk, Clerk of the Peace,
AND Clerk to the Urban Sanitary
Authority. Medical Officer of Health. Coroner.
Clerk to the Magistrates. Police Surgeon.
Treasurer and Committee Clerk. Assistant to do. Surveyor.
Clerk to Surveyor. Chief Constable and Inspector of
Weights and Measures. Manager of the Gas and Water
Works. Inspector of Nuisances. Inspector of Gas Meters. Rate Collectors {2). Toll Collector. City Analyst. Bailiffs of the City (2). Sword-Bearer. Mace-Bearer.
Sergeants-at-Mace (3), one of whom is ISIayor's Sergeant.
Auditors (2).
Mayor's Auditor.
My authorities for this paper are the City Muniments, particularly the Charters, some of which were printed privately for use in litigation a few years ago ; the Constitutions
l62
EPITAPHS.
and Rules of 156 1, contained in the " Register Governor Or Dormont Book of the Comon- welth of Thinhabitance w'^^in in the Citie of Carliell, renewed the year of our Lord God 1 56 1 ;" the bye-laws of the eight guilds — ■ these and the Constitution and Rules I have transcribed, and am now printing; the Chamberlains' Accounts, through some fifty years of which I have carefully waded ; the Auditors' Books, and the Records of the Court Leet — from these I had copious ex- tracts made by Mr. W. Nanson, F.S.A., late deputy Town Clerk of Carlisle ; the minutes of the Town Council, and many other muni- ments— also the Report of the Historical Manuscript Commissioners on the same ; the Report of the Parliamentary Commis- sioners, 1835 ; the usual County and City Histories \ my own Cumberland mid IVest- fiioreland M.P.^s from the Restoration to the Reform Bill, 1660 to 1867.*
(ZBpitapfjs*
By Rev. F, R. Mills.
BELIEVE it will be frequently ad- mitted by competent critics that there is scarcely any kind of com- position, whether in prose or verse, more difficult to execute satisfactorily than an epitaph. On the other hand, there is, perhaps, no sort of writing that has met with a larger number of aspirants to authorship, and the result has been some very amazing as well as amusing inscriptions.
Sir Walter Scott, in that entertaining story. Old Mortality, has given a very interesting and pathetic record of the labours of an ancient individual in the Scottish Moorlands, who made it his duty and, I may add, his pleasure to attend to the tombstones of certain kirkyards which covered the graves of the Cameronian dead. Many of these devoted and zealous religionists had fallen victims to their resolute attachment to their peculiar views ; and, as in process of time, which with its rapacious tooth spares neither brass nor marble, the pious memorials of
* I have to thank Mr. Round, ante, p. 135, for correcting a slip on p. 21.
these good people were in danger of oblitera- tion, this aged Scotsman journeyed about with hammer and chisel in his pouch, and leaving his mountain pony to graze upon the herbage, would be found busily renewing the letters, and removing the lichen from the stones which recorded, in brief fashion, the names and adventurous exploits of his doughty fellow-countrymen. Such a labour of love might well be exercised in many another cemetery besides those which were frequented by Old Mortality ; but although the field is ample, our old acquaintance has not, so far as my experience of churchyards goes, had many copyists. For my own part, without his practical skill, I confess to a sympathy with him, so far as regards a frequenting the precincts of the sanctuary, and meditating amongst the memorials of mortality, and deciphering or attempting to decipher the inscriptions upon tombstones. In this study one may observe a sort of fashion to regulate even these grim memorials : I mean to say, that regarding the inscriptions of a particular date or series of years, it will be found that there is a style peculiar to each period. At one time the almost invariable commencement of an inscription was — " Sacred to the memory " of the deceased ; at another the regular form seems to be, " Here Ueth the body," the literal translation of the old monkish legend, "Hie jacet," wnilst a more refined turn is occasionally given to it in the phrase, " Here resteth " or " reposeth " the body of the departed, whilst some reference is generally made to the soul of the defunct. However, lest I should grow tedious by extending these remarks, I pur- pose to give my readers a few specimens, which I have gleaned here and there, of the most curious epitaphs, and I shall commence with some of those which I may entitle the "grotesque."
In Harrow churchyard (so well known to lovers of the picturesque) there are some quaint examples, from which I will give first of all the meinorial to Isaac Greentree. This worthy man appears to have been the planter of the row of magni- ficent lime-trees which adorn the east side of the churchyard, and are a striking and beautiful feature of that picturesque spot The following are the lines referred to, in
EPITAPHS.
163
which it will be seen that the author* of them has availed himself of the remarkable coincidence between the name of the planter and the arboretum of his affection, whose goodly growth he cherished in his lifetime, and which overshadowed his burial-place at his decease.
" Beneath these green trees rising to the skies, The planter of them, Isaac Greentree, lies. A time sliall come, when all green trees shall fall, And Isaac Greentree rise above them all."
Farther on, and not remote from the southern or main entrance to the church, there used to be a wooden rail inscribed to the memory of one " Richard Dodsworth," who, as the gossips were wont to say, had treated his spouse very roughly during their wedded life. Death had for a while left the widow a few years of solace for the loss ; but burial had again united them or nearly so, for it is recorded by the epitaph, " Here lies Richard Dods- worth," and subsequently " at his feet Sarah his wife." Some one, more satirically than seriously minded, has added in rude letters, "Kickhimagain, Mrs. Dodsworth." Although the churchyard was by strict enactment made "out of bounds," the Harrow boys were rather fond of lounging there, and such com- ments as these upon the epitaphs were the result. Such opportunities for waggery were not infrequent when the spelling was defec- tive. This mixture of the solemn with the ludicrous is to be found where the epitaph records of that inhabitant of the tomb, and " sudding was his death ;" whereas the critic youth has left his emendation of this corrupt sj^elling by altering the "s" to "p,"and so the deceased is recorded as a man of undue appetite, or it may be of a hasty spirit, for " pudding was his death."
Enough, however, of extracts from this Harrow visitation. In the course of my pil- grimage I have found myself at Kington in Herefordshire, at that time a flourishing little town with an ancient church, pleasantly situated in a churchyard overlooking the border-land between England and South Wales. Hither wandering, and spending half an hour in " meditation lost " and " fancy-free," I chanced upon the following inscription, which I thought striking, for it
* Generally, and on pretty good authority, said to be Lord Byron.
has a flavour of antiquity, a quaintness of expression, and a sincerity of parental adora- tion all combined (and that, too, within the compass of four lines), which it might be difficult to match elsewhere :
" Beneath this stone, both amiable and milde, John's* sister Anne, an expert knowing childe, In height of witte, at 6 f her House of claye Gave up the Ghost, upon St. Stephen's daye."
In the churchyard at Areley- Kings, in Worcestershire, I was shown a huge heap of rough stones, and on the adjacent wall of unhewn stones was inscribed in rude but very large letters, Greek and English characters being interspersed, this curious epitaph :
" Ai0o\oyi;//a Quare (quarry) Hie reponitur Sir Harry.
The local legend affirming that this eccentric knight had so willed that his remains should be interred beneath a pile of loose stones, like the debris of a quarry ; and his epitaph, as above given, is as remarkable as his place of sepulture.
The following extract from a History of Bewdley, by Rev. J. R. Burton, 1883, p. 83, throws some light on the subject :
"The chief object of interest in Areley churchyard is a wall about 18 or 20 feet in length, built up of eight large sandstone blocks, each stone being more than 4 feet long and i| feet square. On this wall is the inscription :
"AI0HOLOGEMA QUARE, REPONITUR SIR HARRY." For a long time there was great speculation as to who Sir Harry might be. The registers were lost, and no other record was there. Rut (as showing the value of internal evi- dence) in Astley Church there is a monument to the Rev. Thomas Bowater, Rector of Astley, inscribed —
His soul Heaven has.
Dirt dirt does cover, Our Saviour saw one such, We one other ; Of his successors shall be said hereafter, As good, or bad, as like, unlike Howater. (Signed) Ilenricus Coningsby,
P.ques. Duratus, 1696.
" It was argued (and it turned out justly argued) that in an illiterate age, and in the
* This refers to another child of the same family, previously decea'^ed and buried near, t Six years old, not six o'clock, on the day named.
164
BO WLING-GREENS.
same neighbourhood, there could hardly be two rhyming ' Sir Harrys,' and hence the Atk'koyrnjja was conjectured to be the tomb of Sir H. Coningsby. This proved to be cor- rect, for in 1842 a perfect copy of the Areley-Kings Burial Registers was found in a lumber-room at Tewkesbury, and in it occurs the entry, * The 8th day of December, 1 701, Sir Harry Consby, Knight, was buried in Wollin, according to y° late Act of Pari'.'
" This knight was ancestor of the Earls of Essex, and lived at Hampton Court, Here- fordshire, where he by accident dropped his (only) son into the moat, and was so afflicted by the loss that he retired as a recluse to the Sturt at Areley, a small property, whence he superintended the erection of his curious monument, as a permanent pane or portion of the churchyard fence, while the other panes being formed of wood have long since . disappeared. Sir H. Coningsby also planted three walnut-trees near the slab, covering his remains at the foot of the above-mentioned dwarf-wall ; and made a bequest in his will that the boys of the parish were to crack the nuts on the said slab on a certain day in each year. But in the long war of 1790-18 15, walnut-wood became valuable for gunstocks, so the trees were cut down, and the boys deprived of their sports. The wall of stone blocks is now much distorted, and the stone so friable that ere many years are past only a heap of sandy dust will be left of Sir Harry's curious monument."
a5otDling:'(^reen0»
ROM the days of Homer downwards we find there always have been people who have mourned the " good old times," extolled the prowess of ancestors, and spoken of their own contemporaries as " a degenerate race." Even the heroes of Troy could not wield a sapling as a spear-shaft or cast a weighty stone like their progenitors :
Then fierce Tydides stoops and from the fields, Heaved with vast force, a rocky fragment wields, Not two strong men the enormous weight could raise, Such men as live in these degenerate days.
In our days stop-watches, the accurate measurement of weights, heights, and dis- tances, and the knowledge of what subter- fuges men will resort to, to win a bet, have made us somewhat sceptical about the feats of men recorded by admiring biographers. The cold and unsympathizing eye with which critical scholars sift the data that have been available for writers has in itself tended to shake faith in many cherished traditions. The achievements even of Black Bess, that idol of our school-days, have been ques- tioned. The ballad of Chevy Chase, which records how the doughty knight " when his legs were smitten off he fought upon his stumps," is regarded as a poetic fancy medical evidence could hardly support, unless the valorous man unwittingly plugged up his veins from his weight resting on soft ground. There is one consolation the modern athlete has, that the records of what he does are authentic. He is timed to the tenth of a second and measured to the sixteenth of an inch. But the athletes who train for glory, little more lasting than the freshness of the parsley crown of old, are but few in compari- son with those who keep up athletic exercise in some gentle form for the sake of the good they find it does them. There are thousands who play lawn tennis who never look forward to a tournament, thousands who row who never dream of Henley, thousands who cricket who never aspire to their county eleven, thousands who bicycle who would shrink from a race in the presence of shout- ing spectators. They exercise for their own good. They may belong to "a degenerate race," but they are content to be. They do not give their whole energies to muscular development, and rare indeed is an Admirable Crichton who can excel in the schools, and disputations in feats of strength. In spite of croakers on one hand, and those who prate only of the past on the other, it is abund- antly evident that, taking the nation all throughout, there never was a period when so much attention was paid in England to athleticism as at present. We have done away with wigs, powder, patches, lace cuffs, and jewelled shoe-buckles ; and a man in flannels and indiarubber shoes is not ashamed to salute ladies of his acquaintance. The portly snuff-taking forms of the Georgian
BO WLING-GREENS.
1^5
period are now rare exceptions. Even our bishops and aldermen are of a different build.
But amid all our recent revival and de- velopment of athleticism, gymnastics, and open-air games, there is one game gradually falling more and more into disuse — that jileasant and somewhat dignified game of bowls. It cannot claim to be an athletic game, and in the patience and deliberation it requires there is little in it to commend it to the fiery impetuosity of youth. It is essentially an open-air pastime for later life, when the high jump can no longer be taken, when the mile can no longer be covered in the old time, when a " spurt " can no longer be maintained on the river, nor smartness be shown in fielding. It does not even require so much exertion as quoits, the one game almost identical with that for which Greek youths of old trained so carefully, and which from bringing so many muscles into active play even suggested a motif to Myron, and resulted in his famed Discobolus, which in turn gave origin to the Towneley and Vatican figures. But though bowls is a game for mature life, and has furnished subject for the brush of the genre artist and caricaturist rather than the chisel of the sculptor, it has not a mere ignoble history connected with the actions of lives passing to senility.
The actual antiquity of howling-greens has not been ascertained with any great certainty, the difficulty lying in forming a decision as to what certain games were which are referred to in old records and old Acts of Parliament. It is very probable that bowls was played on a green before it was called bowls, and possibly when we meet with the word bowls, especially in connection with bowling-alleys, some other game was intended from what we now understand when we speak of " bowls." The essential requirements for the game as now played are a well-kept green, and balls with a " bias " in them. They are generally of lignum vita;, and whether the bias is given by weighing the bowls on one side, or by turning them not a true sphere comes rather under the consideration of the refinements of playing. The first player rolling the " jack " to the farther end of the green, the succeed- ing players bowl their bowls as near to it as their skill allows \ and whether the green be
half an acre or smaller the principle of the game remains the same. A bowling-^//<y is something very different. The motion of a skilfully delivered delicately biased bowl as it creeps silently along the turf, gradually curving in towards the jack, is very different from the noisy rumble of a ball straight along the hard floor of an alley. The game is practically a different one in every respect. The object is to bowl at something and knock it down.
It has been assumed that bowls is referred to in the Libellum de situ et nobilitate Londitii, written by William Fitzstephen in the reign of Henry II. The passage in which the reference is supposed to be made, is in the section " de ludis :" " In festis tota aestate juvenes ludentes exercentur in saliendo, in arcu, in lucta, Jactu lapidum, amentatis mis- silibus ultra metam expsediendis." This "jactu lapidum " has been supposed to mean bowls, because in later times "jetter le peer" is believed to be equivalent to " bowls."
Before discussing that, it is worth notice that the word " bowls " occurs in the text of an Act 3 Hen. VIII., c. 3, "an act concern- ing shooting in long bowes." Requiring the statutes for enforcing the practice of archery, and " against them that use unlawful games," to be put in execution, there occurs the passage, "usaige of Tennis Play Bowls Classhe and other unlawful games."
The word "bowling" also occurs as an alter- native reading in an earlier Act, 1 1 Hen. IV., c. 4, " and utterly leave i)laying at the balls as well hand ball as foot ball and other games called quoits dice [Bowling] kails and other such unthrifty games," where another reading has " casting of the stone ;" in the P>ench, "jetter le peer."
Then in 12 Ric. II., c. 6, there occurs, "all playing at Tennis or football, and other games called coits. Dice, casting of the stone [kailes] or [skittles] and other such im- portune games."
In the edition of the statutes published by authority in 18 16, where different MSS. are collated, the French wording of the Acts is given in parallel columns very con- venient for reference.
In connection with these passages, the three illustrations from early MS., repro- duced in Strutt's Sports and Pastimes^ should
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be referred to. The representations there are undoubtedly of what we now know as bowls. The balls are being boiulcd, not thrmvn. Although admitting it is an open question, the writer is inclined to retain the belief that in " jactu lapidum " we have refer- ence to putting the weight.
If the Acts quoted above are not all in which " jetter le peer " occurs (and there may perhaps be others), these suffice to show that the term was at any rate sometimes rendered by " casting the stone," though the alternative reading "bowling" in ii Hen., c. 4, gives weight to the opinions of those who think " bowling " and " casting the stone " are one and the same game. This should not escape notice, that while Thoms in his translation of Fitzstephen gives " stone throw- ing " for " jactu lapidum," Stow gives " cast- ing the stone," which is the expression used in the statutes. This, however, shows only that Stow assumed that the "jactus lapidum" of Henry H.'s time was the same game as one known in his time (Elizabeth). In the drawings reproduced by Strutt it is not pos- sible to tell whether stone or wooden bowls are being used. The game, however, is on a green or a field, not in an alley.
The etymology of bowl that is commonly given is from French boide. If this be correct, then comes the question whether the game was originally French, or whether simply the Norman-French name was given to the round stone (if stone it were and not wood) used in the game. Strutt (published in 1 80 1 ), says " Bowhng-greens are said to have originated in England ;" but the authority he quotes in a footnote is not earlier than an encyclopedia. Bowling- alleys are frequently mentioned in Acts of Parliament and by old writers as taking men and youths away from a due practice of archery and as encouraging gambling. That, however, has nothing to do with the game itself. There are also many references to the construction of bowling-alleys, such as by Henry VIII. at Whitehall, and there are also accounts of " fashionable " brawls and rough assaults and even murders taking place in such alleys. A Iwwle-alley is particularly characterised by Earle in his Microcosfuo- graphia, and he winds up thus : " To give you the moral of it : it is the emblem of the
world or the world's ambition; where most are short or over, or wide, or wrong-biassed, and some few justle to the mistress, fortune." But bowling-greens seem to have been free from such unpleasant associations. They were at one time interdicted even in private, unless the owner had a license. During last century they seem to have been as common an appendage to a country-house as a tennis lawn is now.
Many of the associations of the game are decidedly dignified. If history tells us truly, Drake and his manly companions were engaged in the game on the Hoe at Ply- mouth when the first news of the coming of the Spanish Armada was brought in. Their day's work was over, they relaxed their thoughts and sauntered around the bowls in the evening air.
It was towards the close of a warm summer's day, There came a gallant merchantman full sail to Ply- mouth Bay.
Fashion has much to do with our pastimes, but these men thought bowls no unsuited recreation even in their responsible and dis- tinguished position. It had on this occasion not enervated them like a gambling-table, and they were prompt in counsel and in action.
Many an estate has been lost, it is said, at the bowling-green, and Canon Jackson, in one of his numerous articles in the Wilis Magazine, preserves for us a note that Sir Edward Hungerford lost his estate in 1648 by gambling at a bowling match at which he staked his property, calling out as he threw his last chance, " Here goes Rowdon."
King Charles, when captive at Carisbrooke, was, through the thoughtful consideration of Colonel Hammond, able to enjoy the game for which he appears to have had such a par- tiality, and he was at another time a frequent visitor to the greens of Lord Vane at Har- rowden, and Lord Spencer at Althorpe. Those who have not dived for themselves into monastic records, know at least from canvass, how many a good scholar, possibly in company with the sensualist who has masked himself under the lay cloak of the order, has refreshed his eyes and his vigour on the well-kept bowling-green of the monas- tery gardens. Our two universities have maintained the monastic traditions, and with
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perhaps a claret-cup on a rustic table, and a cloudy perfume (not known in these islands before the time of Sir Walter Raleigh), grave editors of classic plays, wearied mathe- maticians, cautious physical experimenters, and authoritative college tutors, possibly even proctors, have thrown aside their cares for awhile and joined or watched a game of bowls, alike in enjoying the quiet and still- ness beneath ancient trees and that inde- finable pleasure of treading on an elastic well-kept lawn.
The game has been by no means an exclusive one for people of fame or wealth or comfortable ease. It has been a decidedly popular one. Village inns have had their bowling-green, and even old-fashioned taverns in grounds gradually surrounded by towns maintained them. And it is to the destruction of these old greens that the faUing off in the game is chiefly to be traced. Whether the present generation can play bowls as adroitly as their forefathers, whether they are in this respect " a degenerate race " or [not, is as nothing compared with the fact that the bowling-greens themselves are disappearing one after another. Strutt, at the beginning of this century, speaks of their being more numerous in his youth than at the time he wrote, and that is the experience of middle- aged people now. As a mere game of skill, that smaller form of bowling-green, the billiard-table, offers possibly higher ad- vantages for greater refinement of play. The cloth is even. The best-kept green is always somewhat uneven, and the chances are in favour of those who know its pecu- liarities.
\Ve cannot afford, without some substitute not yet suggested, to lose a single bowling- green nor garden ground to an inn. Coffee palaces nowhere think of securing an inch of green. They are everywhere spreading, but nowhere offer a chance of an open-air game. There has lately been a great impetus given in all our large towns to the laying out of parks, the formation of recreation-grounds, and the conversion of churchyards into gar- dens. Our parks are beautiful with their well-trimmed lawns and brilliant with their parterres of "carpet bedding," but wherever the grass is kept trimmed it is railed in, and a notice board requests the public not to
walk on it. The churchyard seats are mostly occupied with dirty idlers. The re- creation-grounds are mostly laid out with plenty of gravel or asphalt, affording good play-room for children. All this is very admirable, and the open spaces of any town — London, for example — are so diflTerent from what they were twenty years ago, it would be almost impossible to describe the improve- ment in adequate terms, since each change has influenced its neighbourhood. But grown-up people are the better for play- grounds as much as children are. They may be too occupied to actually feel the want of an open-air pastime, but they are the better for having it. Yet what is happening ? They are everywhere losing their play- grounds. Bowling-greens appear to be rapidly verging to being matters of mere antiquarian interest. The gardens attached to inns or taverns, now styling themselves hotels, are encroached on for additional bar space, for billiard- rooms or stabling. This is occurring in all our large towns, and especially in London. Long ago this was effected in all the central part of the agglomeration of parishes that now are brought under the name of London. And in our present time the change is rapidly affecting the suburbs. We still have bowling-greens near Barnes, Hammersmith, Dulwich, Heme Hill, Lord- ship Lane, and Hampstead stations, and possibly there are some in the north east districts. Some few exist even in West- minster. A street adjoining to Dean's Yard still retains the name of the Boiulmg Alley, But the taste for mahogany and cotton-velvet, imitation stained-glass, plated tankards, and " the best twopenny cigar in the neighbour- hood," is gradually doing away with all the old-fashioned places. Abundance of gas- lights and barmaids with rivilres of flowers are found to " pay," and so the new lessees of the old inns make changes, for which no one can blame them from their point of view, while the fact remains that the open ground becomes partly or wholly occu- l)icd by a saloon. That the love for the quiet game has not died out is shown by the clubs that exist wherever there is room for them to exist. But they cannot exist where there is no room to play. Hitherto bowling- greens have been almost invariably attached
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to inns. Are they to continue to be de- pendent on inns ? An acre of ground sufifices not only for the rolled and mown green, but for the surrounding "arbours." If inns give up all their grounds for additional saloons and bars for the sake of gain to lessees, is the game to perish in towns ? Must the quiet of a summer evening in a bowling-green, as our ancestors enjoyed it, be blotted out by over- crowding of noisy youths ? Cannot private clubs secure an acre here and there in suburbs before prices become too high, and so maintain the old game ? It has been always said it is one thing to ask a question, and quite another to answer it. Looking at the registrar-general's returns, the best wish to express to the w-inner of an "event" in athletic sports is, " May you live] to enjoy a game of bowls." Perhaps those now young may think the question worthy of their youth- ful consideration. They have energy for effecting changes.
Stephanotis.
inscr. to Thos. de la Hart, 1464, and Bartram Herbottel, 1474. IV. A lady, kng. sm. with 2 sh. 15th cent. S. Tr. V. Lat. inscr. to Jas. Clayton, S. T. P., rector, 1705. C. Nos. I. and III. are loose in vestry chest.
Yorkshire.
Catterick. — All except inscr. to John de Burgh, 141 2, under organ and seats. Add, Lat. inscr. to Grace Lowther, 1594. C.
Easby. — Arms and Eng. inscr. to Eleanor Bowes, 1623. Mur. S.A.
Fonet. — Mrs. Anne Underbill, 1637, qd. pi. mur. N.
Richmond. — I. Lat. inscr. to Thos. Cawing, 1506. II. Eng. inscr. to Chr. Pepper, esq., 1635. Both now mur. under tower.
Westmoreland. Musgrave, Great. — [Thos. Ouds] priest, 15 th cent, inscr. and 2 Ev. symb. lost. II Eng. inscr. to Rev. Edw. Knowsley, 1775.
A. R. E.
(Not in Mr. Haines' Manual.)
Durham.
JUCKLAND, S. ANDREW.— Add II. A priest in canon's habit, large, broken in two pieces and loose, in room over porch. III. Lat. inscr. to Lane. Claxton, 1506. N.
Barnardcastle. — I. Lat. inscrs. and 8 Eng. w. to Jonathan, 1650, and John, 1652, inft. sons of John Rogers. Now mur. under tower. II. Eng. inscr. to Thos. Atkinson, 1709. Ch.-yard.
Billingham. — Add II. Lat. inscr. to John Necchim, vicar, 1461. C. III. A worn Lat. inscr. N.
Durham Cathedral. — Lat. inscr. and arms to Anne, w. of Thos. Burwell, LL.D., 1639. N.
Hartlepool. — Jane, w. of Parsavell Bell, " maire," 1593, rel. C
Middleton-in- Teesdale. inscr. to Simon Comyn,
Sedgejield.— Add II. to Wm. Hoton, 1445.
Lat.
— Arms and 1620.
Crest and Lat. inscr. N. Tr. III. Lat.
Eet)ieto0»
Retrospections, Social and Archceological. By Charles Roach Smith, F.S.A. Vol. II. (London : George Bell and Sons, 1886). Pp. vi, 312.
E are glad to welcome the second volume of Mr. Roach Smith's interesting Retro- spections, which has been somewhat delayed, as it is nearly four years since we noticed the first volume. Mr. Smith gives some further information respecting his London life, and some pleasant notices of those with whom he came in contact. He tells us how they helped him, and in some cases how they thwarted him in his endeavours to advance the knowledge of the early history of London. The account of the purchase of his invaluable Museum of London Antiquities is of considerable interest, and the petitions to the House of Commons and to the Lords of the Treasury for the purchase of the collection, which were signed by a large number of distinguished antiquarians, are here reprinted. The museum was bought, but Mr. Smith did not receive nearly so much as so magnificent a collection was really worth. This volume is well illustrated, and that portion relating to visits to France is particularly valuable. Mr. Smith brings his knowledge of existing Roman remains to bear on the consideration of the remains of Roman London with great skill.
When the third volume (which is to complete the work and to contain an account of Mr. Smith's life at Strood) appears we shall have a valuable addition to
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that class of books which always finds a favoured position on the shelves of the book-lover, viz., the books that tell of the habits of the men we know chiefly by their works.
The Lake Dwellings of Ireland ; or Ancient Lacus' trine Habitations of Erin, commonly called Cran- nogs. By W. G. Wood-Martin. (Dublin : Hodges, Figgis and Co. ; London : Longmans, 1886.) 8vo., pp. xxii, 268. In every way this is a most valuable book. Anti- quaries are following the guide of other scientists, and are beginning to group their subjects into the various sections which tell of man's past history ; and along with Mr. MoigdiVi's Komano-British Mosaics {Tt\\tyftA last month), and Dr. Evans's well-known works, we can now class the two books on Lake Dwellings, Munro's Lake Divellings of Scotland, and the one now under consideration, ^^"ben we say that Mr. Wood- Martin's care and skill have succeeded in placing his work alongside of those just mentioned, there does not seem much left by way of recommendation to our readers. But we must add that the engravings are all excellent in themselves, very well chosen, and quite sufficient in point of number to illustrate pro- perly the important descriptions given in the text.
Mr. Wood-Martin divides his book into two parts. The first deals with the origin, construction, and civilization of the ancient lacustrine habitations of Ireland, as illustrated by their remains, and the anti- quities found in or around them ; the second contains a description of the lake-dwellings, and particulars of their geographical distribution in the provinces of Ulster, Leinster, Munster, and Connaught.
We are in the midst of a remote past when we come upon the remains of the water-towns of Ireland ; but, remote as it is, it has left much to tell us of many of the inner aspects of the human life with which it was associated. The construction of the crannogs themselves, the means of access to them, show an ingenuity which in many ways is surprising. Marshes, small loughs surrounded by woods, and large sheets of water, were the favourite sites in Ireland for crannogs. First stakes were driven into the bottom of the lake in a circle of from sixty to eighty feet in diameter, a considerable length of the stake sometimes projecting above the water. Often an inner row of idling was placed about five feet distant from the outer, and piles were driven in various parts of the centre. Next were placed one or two layers of round logs mortised into the upright piles, kept in position by layers of stone, clay, and gravel. On this foundation, when raised sufficiently above the water, the dwelling was erected, and there dwelt the primitive tribes who thus crept along the banks of rivers and the sides of lakes.
Their domestic economy is evidenced by the re- mains discovered, consisting of grain-rubbers, querns, pottery, wooden vessels, drinking-cups, wooden mal- lets, whorls, etc. One of the drinking-cups resembled the mether-cup found in county Derry. They were acquainted with music, the remains of harps and harp-pins, trumpets, etc., being found, and among the witnesses of their amusements are some stone chessmen ! VOL. XIV.
But perhaps one of the most interesting group of remains is that of ornaments. Of these the bronze ornaments are exceedingly handsome, and few can equal in design and workmanship the hinge brooch from Ardakillen. The decoration on the inlaid ends partakes of the Celtic trumpet pattern ; while the central connecting curved strap, with a raised intertwinement, like that seen on some sculptured crosses, would appear to have been cast. The thin ornamented plate in front is fastened by eight rivets to a stout flat plate, behind which also overlap the edges of the strap ; its flat pin is hinged at the back. A bronze fibula from Lough Ravel is also figured as a beautiful specimen of these orna- ments. This brooch is distinguished by its peculiar bird-head ornamentation on the superior extremity. Other ornaments are equally interesting, and they are of silver, iron, bone, and stone. A silver brooch from the crannog of Lough Ravel is a beautiful and almost unique specimen of early Irish art, dating from about the tenth century.
Weapons of war, and of the chase, are also found, and two curious examples are engraved. The one is an axe-head of bone, which was found seven feet below the then surface of the bog, and altogether is a remarkable object ; and the other is a flint arrow- head in a briar-root shaft, the thong which tied it still adhering.
Altogether in these extraordinary memorials of the past we get a long record of man's life, from perhaps the remotest past to within historical times. This work is one that will be highly appreciated by all students of archaic history, and Mr. Wood-Martin is to be congratulated upon the successful issue of his most laborious undertaking. He gives something like an apology in his preface for recording thus the labours of others ; but we can assure him that such a record needs no apology.
Proceedings of the Huguettot Society of London. 1886. 8vo. Besides information as to the formation and con- stitution of the Huguenot Society, these Proceedings include some interesting and valuable matter. The " Report of the Bi -centenary of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes " is especially notable. This celebration included a sermon, addresses, and reading of papers. A paper by the Hon. and Rev. Canon Fremantle describes the effect of the Revocation on the English Revolution of 1688. This is clearly done, and in such a way that we behold the royal houses of France and England committed to the hands of Roman Catholic ecclesiastics, with the cause of Protestantism, on the other hand, safe in the keeping of Englishmen, conscious of political freedom. There can be no doubt as to the important part borne by the Huguenots in the transaction of 1688. Mr. Stride, in a paper on the flight of the Huguenots, is able to gather some fresh facts on a familiar theme. The display of Huguenot relics and treasures got to- gether for the commemoration must have been of great interest to the members. A paper by the President de la Socidte de I'Histoire du Protestantisme Francais, on •* The French Churches of London after the Revoca- tion," is the most important paper from an antiquarian
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REVIEWS.
point of view. A list of these churches with dates and other particulars is given at the end of the paper. At the second meeting of the Society, Mr. William Westall read a paper on "Geneva, the Protestant City of Refuge ;" and Mr. Kershaw gave a paper on the "Refugee Inscriptions in the Cathedral and Churches of Canterbury," which, it is needless to say, is of permanent value. Mr. Stride contributed also a Huguenot Bibliography, which will be useful for references, although the books themselves are mostly to he seen in the library of the French Protestant Hospital, Victoria Park.
The capital and well-written account of this gate serves to complete a very admirably conceived publi- cation.
Studies in Ancient Hisfoty, comprising a Reprint of Primitive Marriage, an Inquiry into the Origin of the Form of Capture in Marriage Ceretnonies. By the late John Ferguson McLennan. (London : 1886. Macmillan.) 8vo., pp. xxxi,
387. We are glad to see a new edition of this famous work. Perhaps no book has received so much atten- tion from students of archaic society, and few books have had such influences towards directing the course of study. Mr. McLennan was the first to bring into prominent notice the practice of bride-capture, and his well-known theory connecting this with exogamy is still a matter of contention. Mr. Donald McLennan is now bringing out his brother's literary remains, and it will be most serviceable to those who are engaged in this branch of scientific research to have this valuable work, enriched with additional notes, and published uniform with the others.
The Manx Note-Book. Edited by A, W^ Moore. July, 1886. (Douglas : Johnson.) 8vo. This part contains a most valuable paper on " The Manx Runes," by the learned author of Words and Places. Dr. Taylor suggests that these runes may be ascribed to the two centuries of Scandinavian Christianity and Norwegian power, from about 1050 to 1250. First, proceeding on historical grounds, the author traces in the earlier crosses some Celtic names and pure Irish ornament, and these he ascribes to the earlier part of the period. He then deals with the in- ternal evidence furnished by the monuments them- selves, and alike from the artistic quality of the orna- ment, and by the contents, the dialect and the palaeography of the inscriptions, confirms the historical evidence. As these results differ from the received opinions, our readers will be glad to be referred to the researches of this distinguished scholar.
Illustrations of Old Ipswich, luith Architectural De- scription of each Subject, and such Historical Notices as illustrate the Manners and Customs of Previous Ages in the Old Borough, and help to forvi unpublished Chapters of its History. (Ipswich : John Clyde.) Fol. This is an excellent beginning to what we hope will be a very successful series. The well-executed plate illustrates the west gate of the town. This pictur- esque object was the work of three widely separated periods. The lower part is of the period of Edward III., the upper stages belong to the fifteenth century, while the bell turret is probably seventeenth century.
Records of the Borough of Nottingham, being a Series of Extracts from the Archives of the Corporation of Nottingham. Vol. III., 1485-1547. Pub- lished under the authority of the Corporation of Nottingham. (London and Nottingham : Quaritch, 1885.) 8vo., pp. xix, 538. It is not our fault that this important work has not been noticed before. Following the other two volumes (already reviewed in these columns) we come upon a later, but by no means less interesting, period of municipal history. Anyone who has listened to the foolish talk of unread politicians, would think that local self-government had never existed in England, and was about to be granted as a boon. But let those who care anything at all about the matter study these pages, and they will very soon understand that local institutions have been allowed to dwindle down or have been destroyed, until we of this age scarcely understand what they truly mean. To our ancestors they meant everything that was worth having in political life. At Nottingham, the municipality possessed authority over individual citizens that at once covered all that is now suggested should be placed under local control, and much more Ijeyond. The lands of the borough, the tenements of private owners, criminal, moral, economical, and sanitary matters, were all under the regulation of the muni- cipal authorities, and they dealt with those subjects in a manner which, if not agreeing with modern con- ceptions, shows at least their practical sense and their general uprightness of purpose. It is simply monstrous that such records as these, except in the honourable instances of Nottingham, London, Chesterfield, and a few others, should lie unpublished and neglected, when they tell us so much of the past, and that, too, upon points which are of considerable value to the world of politics at the present time. The Notting- ham records shows how local institutions were gradually usurped by the few, until they became totally unfit for their purpose and almost devoid of any capacity for development ; but they also tell us what they once were, and they suggest what they might again become.
It is right that the Antiquary should pay attention to such subjects as here indicated, and we sincerely trust that the publication of these Nottingham borough records will not only lead to the example being ex- tensively followed, but that the scientific study of local institutions, too much neglected, will obtain some hold upon the public mind.
We should much like to dwell upon some of the interesting antiquarian features of this volume, but space forbids this to any adequate extent. The editor of the volume has done everything to make it worthy of its subject. Good and useful notes, a glossary of English and Latin, a list of names of streets, fields, and other localities, and an admirable general index, sufficiently attest the excellent editorial labours which have been bestowed upon the volume, and we wish in this notice, as in that of the second volume, to especially draw attention to the value of having these lists of local names. Could they but have been marked on a map prepared for this purpose, their
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value would have been unequalled in almost any other municipal records. But it is unfair to suggest, by the expression of such a want, that there is one word of fault-finding with the editors. It is not so. The editors point out how interesting to students of dialect are the records penned by the town clerk, William Easingwold, from about 1478 to 1506. They show the loss of many words now peculiar to the northern dialect of England, and suggest how the north mid- land dialects have gradually assimilated to the standard English. If Easingwold was Nottingham born and bred, this is no doubt true ; but if he came from a northern town himself, the argument is far from conclusive. But of the value of these English- written documents there can be no doubt. One of the most numerous class of entries in the Chamber- lain's Accounts, all written in English, relate to pay- ments for travelling, and these afford us interesting details of life and its troubles : ' Item paid for the costes of the seid William Esyngwold ridyng to Lincoln agayn for discharge of suche Lenten stuff as was taken there for toll, and also of suche money as was leyd there for pledges, John Baker, wolman, ye same tyme ridyng with him by ye space of iij dayes, and for ye hors hier of the same William, etc, iijs xd.' Such entries afford a curious picture of economies and of society, and they deserve studying carefully. It would be impossible in a short notice to do full justice to all the material here collected for enabling the student to understand the England of former days ; but we have probably said enough to show how great is the debt antiquaries owe to the enlightened authorities of Nottingham, who can turn aside from the hardening influences of everyday life to accom- plish a work which is an honour alike to their present and their past.
Our Forefathers in the Dark A^es, and what tve (ru)e them. A Sketch mainly intended for the Young. By R. G. Blunt. London : Elliot Stock, 1886. Many are incredulous, and we would gladly be in- credulous too, but the fact remains that there still exists a mass of ignorant prejudice as to the value of archceo- logical study. This little book makes a lusty tilt against this combination of indifference and perversity. • It indicates how we may read the past in the present, and shows how the phrase "the Dark Ages" may become a mischievous misnomer like unto that of the Greeks, whose term of " barbarian" was synonymous with foreigner. Mr. Stock has earned such a high reputation in the matter of typography and binding that it seems a pity to have put this little book into the admirable "get-up" of the Book-Lover's Library. That scries loses in distinctiveness, and it is difficult to see that this little pamphlet gains by the loss.
0@eetmg0 of autiquanan ^ocietie0.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. — Aug, II-12. — The quaint little town of Hawcs formed a convenient rendezvous from which to com-
mence the exploration of Wensley dale, the first point to which the members' steps were directed being Cotter Force, a small cascade of singular beauty, at a point something over two miles from Hawes, and a short distance above the spot where that mountain stream the Cotter joins the river Ure. A movement was made for Hardrow Scar, a gem of the dale too well known to need any detailed description so far as its natural attraction is concerned, Dr, Lees' explora- tions in the neighbourhood had brought to light several geological curiosities on the road traversed from Cotter Force to Hardrow Scar. At Aysgarth the party at once proceeded to the lower fall, where some time was spent in examining the rocky bed of the river. On the return journey along the winding path to the high-road, a glimpse was obtained of the middle fall, with the ancient and picturesque church of Aysgarth on the opposite bank of the river, and subsequently the upper fall was visited. Leaving the Aysgarth, the visitors proceeded to Leyburn. A start was made on Thursday to that grand natural limestone terrace which, under the name of Leyburn Shawl, is one of the wonders of the dale. As the party proceeded from point to point of this rocky ridge several halts were made, while objects of intereit far and near were indicated. At the entrance to the Shawl proper, where, the visitor is informed, local tradition has it that the ill-fated Mary Queen of Scots was recaptured in an attempt to escape from Bolton Castle, three or four miles higher up the dale, the party turned aside down a by-path, which brought them to a kind of lower terrace which Mr. Home — who has spent much time and labour, not by any means unre- quited, in the exploration of the neighbourhood — is of opinion, from discoveries made upon it, must have been used as a camping-ground in very early times. At one spot researches carried on with more or less vigour during a period of ten years resulted in bring- ing to light the skeleton of a human being. These remains were found eighteen inches below the surface in the shale. The remains were lying north and soulh, the feet being in the latter direction, and the attitude in which they were resting indicated that the skeleton had lain on one side, a little doubled up. The bones of the body were so soft that they could not be preserved ; but the skull, which was broken into several pieces, and the teeth, some of which were decayed and others worn down, admitted of more successful treatment. Alongside this skeleton were found a number of bones, which Professor Dawkins and others describe as those of the reindeer, a circum- stance which would take the burial back to a very early date. Upon or near to the breast of the skeleton was unearthed a curiously-cut reindeer bone, which was probably one of the devices by which the inhabi- tants of this island, at a remote period, secured at the breast the skins then doing duty for clothes. Traces of another burial were discovered close by, together with several bones of the red deer, burnt stones, and bits of charcoal. A little farther along the ridge the party were conducted to what is believed to be a tumulus, though as yet only a few small bones have been found. The disposition of the large stones, visible as far as the excavation has proceeded, is evi- dently the v.ork of man. After the examination of this *• find," Mr. Davis made a few remarks upon the
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MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
geology of the district, observing that the Voredale series, so named by Professor Phillips, consists of an alternating series of limestones, gritstones, and shales, with veins of lead of eruptive origin forced into them. He pointed out that the Craven mountain limestone did not maintain its thick and massive character pro- ceeding northwards, but became split up into smaller beds, with intermediate beds of sandstone, shale, and so on. Mr. Davis then gave some information of the nine beds of limestone which were to be found in the geological formation of the locality, and their rapid dip to the eastward until they disappeared under the valley. In the course of the journey, which was shortly afterwards resumed, a visit was paid to a small cave, discovered by Mr. Plorne, in the limestone es- carpment of the Shawl,
British Archaeological Association.— Congress at Darlington. — Continued frotn p. 129. — The first place to be inspected on Thursday was St. Andrew's, or South Church, Auckland. This is a collegiate church, so established by Bishop Anthony de Bek in a.d. 1292, and contains an effigy of a cross-legged knight in chain mail, with a surcoat and greaves, about a.d. 1290, carved in oak. On the south side of the chancel is a piscina with two stone basins, the one carved with a cinquefoil pattern, the other with a six- foil. The church is cruciform, and is believed to be the largest parish church in the diocese of Durham, It was erected apparently about a,d, 1200, The next place of inspection was one of the grandest features of the Congress, and worthy alone of a pilgrimage to see. The recently discovered perfect Saxon church at Escombe demands a prominent notice in every future manual of English church architecture, and no description of Saxon architecture can ever be complete without copious reference to the details of its composition. The system of its con- struction is that known as pyramidal or battering — a strong proof of antiquity in such a building, and one for which we must go to Celtic edifices for parallel examples. All the doors, windows, and arches are wider at the base than at the top. The material is Roman squared stone, derived in abundance from the adjacent station of Vinovia, two miles off. Many of the stones bear Roman hatching or ornamentation, some retain fragmentary inscriptions. The veteran anti- quary, Mr. C, Roach Smith, stated that in his opinion the church indicated not only Roman material, but even Roman influence, as the earlier Saxons were barely competent to construct so solid an edifice. Curiously enough, a lancet window of the original work here — as perhaps also at Staindrop — demon- strates that that form demands a far older date than is commonly conceded to it. At Auckland Castle the president, the Bishop of Durham, received the party hospitably, and described all the principal details of the building, notably the chapel, dedicated by Bishop Cosin in a.d. 1660, and originally the hall of the castle. A few of the members then proceeded to the recently discovered Roman station of Vinovia or Binchester. In the evening three papers were read : " St. Wilfrid," by Mr. James I'Anson ; " The Conyers Family of Sockburn," by Mr. F, R, Surtees ; and •' The Works of the Neville Family," by Mr. J. P. Pritchett. On Friday, the 30th, the members pro- ceeded to survey ihe antiquities of Richmond. After
a short visit to the over-restored Church of St, Mary's, a building which now has a very modern appearance, the curious free chapel of Holy Trinity was visited. The grand old castle of Richmond was then inspected, under the guidance of Mr. Lofius Brock, Catterick Church was next examined, where the most interesting feature was the contract for the erection of the present building, entered into by Richard of Cracall, mason, and Dame Katharine of Brough, and William her son. The indenture is dated 1412. The contract for erecting the bridge at Catterick was also inspected. These were sent to the church for exhibition by Sir Wm. Lawson, of Brough, together with a curious MS. life^of St.* Cuthbert, of the twelfth century, the small volume having many quaint full-page illuminations. At the evening meet- ing papers were read " On Sockburn, Dinsdale, and the Roman Roads," by Dr. J. W. Eastwood, and " On the Palatinate of Durham," by Mr, Edward Hutchinson, The party on Saturday, the 31st, pro- ceeded over much of the ground described in one of the papers of the preceding evening. Thus the ancient bridge of Croft was passed over, on which the ceremony referred to, of presenting the falchion to the bishop, took place, Hurworth Church, at no great distance, was next visited. The ruins of Sockburn Church were then inspected, and the members had the unpleasant task of expressing regret at the sight. The party then inspected the ancient fish wear on the Tees on the old Dinsdale estate of the Surtees family. The fall is high, but the river being full of salmon, the leaping of the fish to ascend the stream presents a scene of great animation, the banks of the Tees being here of great beauty. The members then proceeded to the old manor-house to inspectjthe base of a large castle-like building which Mr. Surtees has excavated. This was pronounced to be of early thirteenth century work. There are, however, a great number of still more ancient banks enclosing the low-lying site, and some fragments of split bone discovered in the exca- vations appeared to be ancient British, The new- looking church at Dinsdale was next inspected, and a great number of Saxon incised stones were again found here. At the evening meeting the following papers were read : " The Peculiarities of the Durham Churches," by Mr. E. P, Loftus Brock ; and •' On the Sockburn Worm and other such Legendary Creatures," by Mr, Geo. R. Wright.
Hampshire Field Club.— Aug. 19.— An ex- cursion of this club from Southampton to the villages of Upper and Lower Clatford, and the town of Andover, took place. On reaching Lower Clatford a move was made for the church, where the Rev. R, H, Clutterbuck discoursed on the Transitional Norman capitals in clunch stone and the other principal archi- tectural features. Canon Collier remarked that there was a tradition that on the destruction of the priory of AVherwell (locally known as Horrell), the old materials from that place were brought to Clatford, which would account for the many carved stones worked into the interior of the tower. The party next proceeded to Upper Clatford, where Canon Collier and the Rev. R, H, Clutterbuck spoke on the archi- tectural features of the building, the principal of which are a small Norman doorway and the curious double chancel arch, which latter, however, rather bears evi-
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
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dences of the "churchwarden's taste" of the last century. In the churchyard Mr. Shore propounded a theory of the immortality of the yew tree, pointing out that the present old tree is really but thirteen saplings growing within the circumference of an old stump of still greater antiquity. From Upper Clat- ford the party proceeded to Bury Hill, where Canon Collier initiated a discussion on British hill towns and forts, and Roman oppida and camps, for which pur- poses the earthwork was successively used. One or two worked flints and flakes were found by members of the club, and the meeting then proceeded to the discussion of the denudation of the valley of the Anton, which is well seen from the eminence of Bury Hill. The Roman earthwork of Balksbury, or Rooks- bury, was visited on the way to Andover, where the company again assembled in the Guildhall to hear a paper by the Rev. R. H. Clutterbuck on the general features of the valley of the Anton, and for an examination of the royal charters of King John, Richard H., and Philip and Mary, and otlier of the muniments in which the corporation of Andover is rich.
Royal Institution of Cornwall. — The annual excursion of the Institution was held on 7th Sep- tember. The first place to be visited was Ladock. At Ladock Rectory were inspected some beautiful oil paintings by Sir Joshua Reynolds, marble busts, including one of the First Napoleon, as Consul, and other treasures, some interesting particulars concerning which were given by Rev. S. Raffles Flint. Ladock Church was visited, and various features of interest were pointed out by the rector. The church is a plain old edifice of the fifteenth century, a remarkable feature regarding the tower being the fact that the ashlar work is carried right through, a peculiarity not observable in many church towers in Cornwall. The font is in an excellent state of preservation. Special attention was drawn to an ancient memorial tablet of slate. This was recently found in the ground covered with dirt and moss. It was cleaned, and now occu- pies a position on one of the walls inside the church. The date of the tablet is 1665, and the carved in- scription refers to William Randell and John Randell, who were evidently clock-makers of the village. The holy well near the church was also inspected. The party then were driven to Roche, a distance of ten or eleven miles. Prior to reaching Roche a halt was made to inspect some primitive tin streaming, an anti- quated but ingenious pump receiving a fair share of attention. At Roche the old church was first visited. Its style was described as debased Perpendicular. The principal attraction in the church is a Roman font, and one or two tablets to the memory of former rectors were read. In the churchyard are some very old crosses, including a "four-holed cross." Roche Hermitage, the history of which is enveloped in obscurity, was visited, as were also the Rocks, which are 680 feet above the sea. The party made for Castle-au-Dinas to inspect the remains of an ancient entrenchment. At about half-past two the fine old town of St. Columb Majdr was reached. By mutual con- sent the church, dedicated to St. Columb, was first inspected. The older portions of the church date from the twelfth century, and the general style is Early English. The font, south window, chancel, aisles, and brasses were worthy of notice, and much
attention was bestowed by many of the party upon the old and curiously carved bench ends. Before leaving the churchyard, some ancient crosses and in- scribed stones were pointed out.
Essex Archaeological Society.— Aug. 12.— Annual meeting and excursion. The locality chosen was Ingatestone and neighbourhood. Major Chan- cellor exhibited a very curious painted tile, which was recently found in the walls of St. Mary's Church, Maldon. It contained the arms of the Duke of Braganza. It was thought that as a considerable trade was formerly carried on between Maldon and Flanders, it was brought over and deposited in the church. A similar one was found at Witham a few years ago. He also mentioned that last week a very curious tile was discovered in the works going on at Messing Church. At the close of the meeting, the party made their way to the parish church of Ingate- stone, which, with the churches of Margaretting and Fryerning, Mr. Chancellor had very kindly under- taken to give a brief description of. Arrived at the fine tower, Mr. Chancellor said the churches they were about to visit were types of churches which were, he would not say peculiar to this county, but were certainly more identified with Essex than with any other county, two churches (Ingatestone and Fryern- ing) with brick towers, and two (Margaretting and Blackmore) with oak towers. Scattered about the county, there are some few examples of more ancient brickwork, but late in the fifteenth century an impetus seemed to have been given to the manufacture of brick, and the execution of works in brick, which amounted to a rage almost equalling in intensity the Queen Anne rage of the present day. In some of our churches we find brick clerestories, in others brick porches, and in several brick towers, and the fashion went so far that not many miles from where we were now standing, is a church altogether built of brick, even to the front — it is called " Chignal Smealey," but by the working people the appropriate name is "Brick Chignal." Ingatestone Church has, perhaps, one of the finest specimens of a brick tower in the county, and notwithstanding some older and interesting features, the tower from its large size, its grand out- line, and its massive and solid construction, cannot remain unnoticed even by the most careless observer. It is 80 feet high, it is divided into four stories, and surmounted by a corbelled and embattled parapet. The walls and buttresses diminish in thickness at each story, the walls receding from the face. The west front is a fine composition, starting with a four-centred doorway on the ground-story with square head, which receives the sill of a noble three-light window with four reveals, and brick tracery breaking into the second story. The third story is occupied by a two- light window with three reveals, lighting the ringing- chamber ; whilst the bell-chamber, which occupies the fourth story, is lighted also by a series of two-light windows, except on the south, where there is only a one-light window. The parapet is boldly corbelled over, and the battlements are most effective in their stepping. Each angle is surmounted by a pinnacle, but, Mr. Chancellor suspected, the terminations have been altered and reduced in height. The staircase turret is outside at the south-east angle, and has a plain and splayed top terminating just below the battlements. The stairs themselves are of somewhat
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MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
peculiar construction. Altogether it is a remarkable specimen, the proportion of the whole is very fine, and the detail designed with care and boldness. It is said that half a million of bricks were consumed in its erection. On the east side of the tower inside is a grand arch of three reveals connecting the tower with the nave. In the tower are hung five bells. According to Buckler the earliest bell is inscribed in Old English, " Peter Hawkes made me in 1610 ;" another, " Miles Graye made me in 1660 :" one 1701 ; two 1758, one of which has the following rhyme : —
The Founder he has played his part, Which shows him master of his art ; So hang me well and ring me true, And I will sound your praises due.
A move was next made to Ingatestone Hall, about a mile distant, where, under the guidance of Mr. Cover- dale, jun., the most interesting parts of the building and premises were visited. The mansion, it was ex- plained, was one of about Henry YII.'s reign, and when Sir William Petre came into possession he con- siderably enlarged it and made it the seat of the family until they removed to Thorndon Hall, near Brentwood, in 1768. Margaretting Church is dedi- cated to St. Margaret. Essex. Mr. Chancellor said, is entirely devoid of any building material, such as stone, and therefore the early inhabitants of the county were unable, except at a cost far beyond their means, to construct those magnificent towers and edifices which we find in stone counties. They seem to have seized with avidity upon any local material which they found at hand. The Romans very soon discovered the value of our brick -earth, and manu- factured bricks which are superior for durability even to the bricks of the present day. They also dredged up at Harwich and elsewhere off the coast the cement-stone which they called Septaria, and used alternately with the bricks. But of all building materials the most plentiful was the oak, and pretty freely the mediasval architects used it. Margaretting Church affords in its tower a grand example of ancient carpentry, and is a very good type of the oak towers to be found scattered throughout the county, including Blackmore, Laindon, Shenfield, and Stock, all within a few miles of Margaretting. These old oak towers are really very fine specimens of construction, Mar- garetting being the finest, and if properly protected from wet, it will last for centuries. Journeying next to Fryerning, the church was visited, and described by Mr. Chancellor. After another pleasant drive, the interesting old church at Blackmore was reached. Mr. C. F. Hayward related a history of the church, describing it as of Norman origin, and altered at several subsequent periods. At the east end there are two Norman arches and a doorway, which used to form the entry to the cloisters. In other respects the church is similar to that of Margaretting. After examining the monuments in the church, an adjourn- ment was made to the adjoining grounds attached to "Jericho," the residence of Colonel Disney. An inspection was made of the house, and it was ex- plained that "Jericho" was formerly a country-house of Henry VIII. 's, whose courtiers, when the king had retired to this place for his pleasure, used to say, " He has gone to Jericho," and the Cam rivulet which (lows through the village is called the "Jordan."
Scottish History Society.— July 15.— Professor Masson in the chair. It was resolved that the first publication of the society should be Bishop Pococke's Tat4r in Scotlattd, 1760. It will be edited from the original manuscript in the British Museum by Mr. D. \V. Kemp, who will illustrate the volume with a reproduction of the sketches drawn by the traveller himself. This work will probably be followed by the Diary or Account Book of IVilliam Cunningham, of Craigend, the representative of Renfrewshire in the Convention of Estates in 1689. The Diary covers the years 1674- 1726, and gives a minute account of the personal expenditure of a Renfrewshire land- owner, throwing some interesting side-lights on the social and political history of the period. It will be edited by the Rev. Dr. Dodds, of Corstorphine. It was also resolved by the council to edit, by the hand of Canon Murdoch, The Gramiad, a Latin epic, with Dundee for its hero. The poem was written in 1 691 by James Philip, of Amryclose, who joined Dundee as he started on his expedition, and who writes as an eye-witness minute and graphic descriptions of the whole campaign. It is proposed to print the original Latin, but to add in English a running abstract of the contents along the margin, and copious foot-notes. Mr. Hew Morrison will edit the Diary of the Rev. Murdoch Macdonald, minister of Durness (1726-1763), fragments of which have recently been printed in the Northern Ensign ; and Mr. Russell is at work upon the late Robert Chambers's collection of unedited cor- respondence of the contemporaries of Burns, in illus- tration of the lives of the poet and his companions.
Bury Natural History Society. — ^July 10. — The members and friends of this society had a most enjoyable ramble to Carr Wood. The party were conveyed to Hooley Bridge, from whence they pro- ceeded on foot up the valley, noting the topography of the district and collecting specimens of plants, insects, etc. Carr Wood is situated on the Rochdale side of Ashworth Valley, and is very picturesque, the trees, more especially the oak, being in good leaf.
Leeds and Yorkshire Architectural Society. — July 10. — In response to an invitation from the Mayor of Ripon (Aid. Baynes), a number of the members and friends of this society visited Ripon and Foun- tains Abbey. At 12.30 the cathedral was visited, the chief architectural points being described by Mr. G. Benson. The Dean of Ripon invited the party to the Deanery and grounds. Afterwards the city was left for Markenfield Hall, about three miles distant. Markenfield, tliough now occupied as a farmhouse, is a good specimen of a castellated manor-house of the fourteenth century, and is surrounded by a deep moat. The drive was afterwards continued through Macker- shaw Woods, on the estate of the Marquis of Ripon, and through Studley Park to the grounds of Fountains Abbey, where, by his lordship's kind permission, the party had free access.
THE ANTIQUARY'S NOTE-BOOK.
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C6e antiquarj^'is n^ote^'JBoofe*
Antiquities in Corea. — The following notes are from a Report by Vice-Consul Carles of a Journey from Soul to the Phyong Kang Gold-washings, in Corea :
The regular road from Soul to Gensan makes a considerable bend to the east and crosses numerous chains of mountains, the highest of which is on the border of the Kang-won and Ham Kyong Provinces. When returning from Gensan last winter to Soul I heard, however, of a shorter route, saving 50 out of 550 li, which I gave instructions to follow, but my pony-drivers and Corean servants, who were greatly scared by rumours of armed brigands infesting the shorter route, which they described to me as a mere hill track, purposely took a wrong turn at Kosan, 30 miles out from Gensan, and I did not discover that they had outwitted me until it was too late to retrace my steps. Towards the end of last month I found that I had a few days at my disposal, of which I thought that I could not make better use than by test- ing the accuracy of the answers which had been given to my inquiries, and which, though the existence of gold in the Phyong Kang district was always denied in the first instance, all agreed on fuller inquiry in placing the number of gold-seekers at 3,000 men.
I accordingly left Soul on the 20th April with Mr. E. L. B. Allen, of Her Majesty's Consular Service. The chain of granite mountains which encloses Soul came to an end on the evening of our first day's march and brought us into a more picturesque though less open country. Away to the east lay the Amsan hills, where the King is said to have his hunting par- ties, and in which are many fir-v<'Oods of considerable extent. In one of these was a colony of egrets, to- wards which hundreds of birds were finding their way, whose white plumage made their home conspicuous at over two miles' distance. Pheasants were chal- lenging their rivals or calling to their mates on the hillside ; in the paddy fields, which lined the narrow valley, a few herons were standing on one leg, and a pair of pink ibis, whose plumage had greatly deepened in tint since autumn, were flushed by the road- side.
On the farther side of the tributary of the Han River was a bank, not very abrupt, thickly strewn with blocks of lava, which led up to a level plain about 120 feet above the river, extending as far as So-rai-yol, a distance of about ten miles, and apparently about three to four miles in width. Near the north-east border of the plain Mr. Allen discovered a dolmen of slabs of lava, the upper stone, six to nine feet long by six feet wide and fifteen inches deep, resting on three stones about three feet high, which left an opening facing almost due north.
A circumstance which surprised me at Ka-neug-kai was that, according to the men's own account and appearances, the valley had never been worked pre- viously for gold. In other places that I have seen, and especially at Yong-heung and Mansi-lari, gold has been sought for ages, and always found after the summer floods had brought down fresh detritus. But
at Ka-neug-kai the shingle seemed never to have been disturbed, or rather arranged in walls, before. The rock there is of a far harder nature than that at the other places which I have mentioned, and though a considerable quantity of shale lies on some of the hill- sides, it is not likely that there is a sufficient displace- ment each year to lay bare fresh treasures to the gold- washer. About ten miles north of the town of Chhol-won are the mines of an old capital of the Sinra time. My curiosity had been excited regarding it by the local traditions connected with some earth- works near Poun-tjen in the Chhol-won district, which I passed last year. Authorities differ as to the site of the Sinra capital, some placing it near Keum-sbng, and others on the east coast of Kyong-sang Do. I learn, however, from Mr. Kondo, his Imperial Japanese Majesty's Charge d'Affaires, that at the close of the Sinra dynasty in the tenth century several little princelets ruled over portions of the kingdom, and it is probable that it was one of these who had his capital in the plain of Chhol-won at Tai-kul-to.
The ruins consist of the eastern walls of a fortress about 350 yards square, the interior of which is inter- sected by low walls of lava, apparently indicating the position of the streets, and of the foundations of the palace, which, with a small pagoda, lie outside and to the south of the fort. The plan of the palace, though small, is large in proportion to that of the town. The foundations, if I recollect aright, are of brick. The pagoda, about fourteen feet high, is of stone, and is in five pieces, of which all but the centre are octagonal. The cap and second stone from the base project over the sides, and have small figures standing on the angles of the eaves. The centre stone has its sides rounded, and displays rough work in relief represent- ing the lotus of the Buddhists. The second stone from the top has been .pierced on four sides for wings, which are no longer in position.
There seems to be a vague tradition that it was in the Sinra times that the plain was "turned into" lava. The depth cut even by the smaller streams renders this improbable, but if the overflow of lava occurred then, the ruins of course cannot be of the age assigned to them. That they belonged in any case to a very different people from the present rulers of the country is evident from the position of the town in an open plain, unprotected against attack by a wall of hills. Such another site I have not seen in Corea, except for the earthworks, which I have mentioned as near Poun-tjen.
A mountain in this neighbourhood, called P'om- bok-san, owes its name " Dough Hill," according to tradition, to an incident in the life of one of the kings of Kao-kuri, in an early century of the Christian era, resembling the well-known story of King Alfred and the cakes.
Early List of Books (1327-8). — " Un lyre ke parb de quatre principal gestes and de Charles; Le Romaunce littis and Vespasian ; Le Romaunce de Aygi-es ; Le Romaunce de Afarc/iauns ; Le Romaunce do Eamtmd and Agoland ; Le Romaunce Girard de Vyeine ; Le Romaunce IVilieamc de Otcuges and TabauJe dc Arable ; Lyvrc de vii ; Le Romaunce de 1 roye ; Matins et salutations de la Dame ; Le cnseygnement de Aristotle. — Mado.\'s Formulare
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Anglicanum, p. 12. (Communicated by J. H. Round).
Harvest Custom. — "At the Haivkie, as it is called, or Harvest-home, I have seen a clown dressed in woman's clothes, having his face painted, his head decorated with ears of corn, and bearing about with him other emblems of Ceres, carried in a waggon, with great pomp and loud shouts, through the streets [of Cambridge], the horses being covered with white sheets ; and when I inquired the meaning of the ceremony, was answered by the people that ' they were drawing the Harvest Queen."'' — Clarke's Travels (1812), ii. 229, (Communicated by J. H. Round.)
antiquarian H^etos.
The ancient well in the Norman Crypt of Win- chester cathedral, now dry consequent on the Dean's remarkable excavations, has been cleaned out, but its debris yielded no objects of interest. The well is steined with wrought stone. It is 8 feet deep, and its diameter is 29 inches at the mouth, and 32 at the base, which is covered with a hard concrete bed. It was never supplied by a spring, but by soakage from the soil and the water-courses of .St. Ethel wald hard by ; indeed, it is inferred from the fact that the well is not central to the base of the column, which is northern to it, that it is anterior to the Norman work of Walkelin.
The Home Office has issued a notification to the effect that, in order to more effectually assist the efforts of Antiquarian Societies for the preservation of objects of general interest (by asserting the claims of the Crown to coins and antiquities coming under the description of treasure trove), the Lords Com- missioners of the Treasury are willing, as an induce- ment to finders of such articles to promptly report their discoveries to the Government, to so modify existing regulations as to hand over to such finders articles not actually required for national institutions, and the sum received from such institutions as the antiquarian value of the articles retained, subject to a deduction of 20 per cent, from the antiquarian value of such coins and objects as are retained, and of a sum of 10 per cent, from the value of all objects dis- covered as may be hereafter determined. This arrangement is a tentative one, and the complete right of the Crown as established by law to all articles of treasure trove is preserved.
Some excavators in the bed of the Cher have dis- covered what is described as an enormous Gaulish boat formed of a single oak trunk. After many days of labour the mass of timber was disengaged from the gravel in which it was enclosed, and, by means of special apparatus, hauled to the Hotel Cujas, Bourges, where it will form one of the leading elements of the collection of the antiquities of the province of Berry. The wood of which it is composed is in excellent preservation.
A stone coffin or cist has been unearthed at Barn- hill, near Broughty Ferry. All theTslabs forming the sides, ends, and tops of the cist were complete, and of the usual dimensions. When opened, a small quantity of dust and a number of fragments of what appeared to be human bones were found, as well as two coins or medals about the size of a penny — the metal of which they are formed being of a bright yellow colour, and supposed to be gold. There is no lettering or engraving on the coins, both sides being quite plain, but the margin is raised round the edge like a penny. A few years ago a number of other cists were found at the same place.
Bothenhampton Church, near Bridport, built in the fifteenth century, and described in a circular issued by the vicar and churchwardens as "in every respect one of the very worst in the diocese of Salisbury," is about to be partially destroyed. The nave will be taken down, and the chancel and tower retained as a mortuary chapel.
Sir John Savile Lumley has given to the British Museum the fine head and fore-part of a horse from a chariot group which was dug up lately at Civita Lavinia (Lanuvium). It is evident that this fragment is all there ever was of the horse ; the sculptor, taking a painter's view of his art (in its original position nothing more could be seen of the figure), entirely omitted the rest. In fact, mindful of his own labour and the shortness of human life, he carved nothing more than half a horse, issuant, as the heralds say, apparently from a chariot. This pictorial method of treatment marks the comparatively late date of the sculptor, which, nevertheless, is of high value and great merit.
During the construction of a sewer in Northwich, Cheshire, an interesting discovery has been made. Underneath the surface, at depths varying from two to three feet, the workmen came upon what appears to be the remains of the wattled thorn walls used by the early English in the manufacture of salt. Stakes were driven into the ground, and twigs 'were inter- woven with them until a high wall had been erected. Over the wall V-shaped troughs were placed, and the brine, after flowing through the perforated troughs, trickled over the thorn wall, and was evaporated by the heat of the sun, leaving salt crystals on the wall. This process is carried on in some parts of Germany to the present day. Imbedded in the vegetable mould were found a number of upright stakes, as well as quantities of hazel boughs and nuts. There were also found an oak raker-head, six inches by three inches, with a cleanly-cut hole in the middle an inch in diameter, an excellently preserved wooden hand- shovel, and fragments of early English pottery. A long piece of wooden pipe, belonging to the period when the manufacture of salt was controlled by the Court Leet, was also discovered.
Some time ago we reported that a workman in the employ of Messrs. Boff Brothers, of Park Street, near Luton, while cutting up some old oak beams which had formed part of a farmhouse, came upon a large number of Old English gold coins in a cavity, which had evidently been carefully prepared for their reception. There being some question whether the
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find could be regarded in the light of " treasure trove," the Treasury office was communicated with, and the authorities decided that the coins should be forwarded to them. This was accordingly done. An intimation has now been received stating that a con- siderable number of them have been retained to add to the national collections, the finders receiving pay- ment for them at about the rate of their value as old gold. The remainder of the coins have been re- turned.
Excitement is running high in the neighbourhood of Akrom, in America, owing to a most curious discovery made, quite accidentally, by a person residing in the locality. He was setting up some posts when he was greatly surprised to see one of them break through the ground and disappear. His natural impulse was to see what had become of the post, and following it he dug into the earth, which after a few minutes gave way, exposing to view a cave about twenty feet square and nine feet deep. This discovery added to the curiosity of the digger, who lost no time in procuring a ladder and a lantern to enable him to pursue his investigations. He descended into the cave, where a wonderful and unaccountable sight met his eyes. Stretched on the ground were the forms of twelve full-grown men, whilst the thirteenth leaned against the side of the cavern, one hand outstretched as if in the act of earnestly address- ing his companions. All the bodies, when more closely examined, were found to be petrified ; and residents in the neighbourhood, who have visited the singular scene by thousands, are lost in speculation as to how they got there, what they were doing in the cavern, and how long they had been hidden. The person who discovered it, like a true American, find- ing the public curiosity growing daily, had determined to make the cave a profitable concern by demanding payment for admission.
The Rev. F. W. Kingsford calls attention, says the Building Navs^ to the negligence displayed iiy the custodians of Caslleacre Priory, near Swafiham, one of the finest specimens of Transitional Norman ruins in England. The western fa9ade is, as Mr. Kingsford remarks, simply magnificent, and in some ])oints unique. In one of the chambers — the Abbot's dining- hall — the centre of the old mantelshelf has been ruth- lessly cut out and carried away within the last twelve months ; some of the mouldings in one of the beautiful side windows, where the dog-tooth is as sharp and well defined as if it had been carved out yesterday, have been torn down by mischievous boys out of sheer wantonness. The village has for years a|)pa- rently regarded the Abbey as a quarry, for stones from the fane are to be found everywhere. He suggests that surely pressure ought to be put upon the parish, or the owner, as the case may be, to cause some steps to be taken to preserve this relic of the piety of a former age from further devastation.
It will be remembered that the cave known as St. Ninian's, on the coast of Wigtownshire, was explored about two years since by the Ayr and Galloway Archaeological Association, when abundant confirma- tion of the tradition of its occupation in the fourth century of our era was afforded by the discovery of a stone pavement, eighteen carved crosses, a Latin
inscription, and one in Runes. After the exploration the proprietor, Mr. Johnston Stewart, caused an iron grating with a locked door to be placed across the entrance of the cavern, the key of which was deposited at a neighbouring farmhouse. The inscrip- tions and carved crosses were ranged along the interior of the cave, and secured with cement. These precautions have proved useless, for some unknown persons have bombarded the interior with large stones thrown over the railings. The tablet with the Latin inscription has been smashed into several pieces, some of the letters being obliterated ; the cross with Runes has been badly damaged, the larger crosses overturned and chipped, and the paved floor strewn with missiles. Fortunately, all the objects had been carefully engraved by lithography, and an accurate record made by the Provincial Archaeological Association, so that, although irreparably damaged, the story told by these monuments of early Christi- anity is preserved.
Several discoveries, tending to illustrate the art and topography of classic Athens, have been made during the past week in the course of the excavations on the Acropolis. Near the Propylnea, a staircase has been brought to light, which is cut in the solid rock, leading from a gate opposite the Areopagus. It was by these steps that the two noble maidens, who carried the Peplos and other paraphernalia of the goddess Pallas Athena, used to descend to the city. Probably it was by these stairs, too, that the Persians effected their entrance into the Acropolis at the time of the invasion of Xerxes. Near these steps the bearded head of a bronze statue, belonging to an ancient bronze foundry situate at that spot, has been foiind. To the east of the Parthenon a variety of objects have been discovered in terra-cotta, tufa, and bronze, including fragments of vases and reliefs, all excellent specimens of art, and retaining their original colours as bright and vivid as when new.
With the surplus wood from Burns's bedroom at Dumfries, after binding the fascimile edition of the poems, Mr. Elliot Stock will make paper-knives in commemoration of the Burns centenary.
About two hundred members of the British Phar- maceutical Conference, whose annual meeting takes place at Birmingham this year, visited Stratford-on- Avon, on Sept. 1st, by special train, on a Shake- spearean pilgrimage. The party visited the parish church, where they viewed the poet's grave and monument, and the entries in the parish register of his baptism and burial. They afterwards visited Shakespeare's birthplace and the memorial buildings and other objects of interest.
The museum at Northampton has just received several important and valuable additions, which have been identified and arranged by Sir Henry Dryden, assisted by Mr. T. J. George, the curator. The chief of these is a collection, lent by Mr. Pickering Phipps, of historic remains from Hunsbury Hill, or Danes' Camp.
A movement is on foot for the restoration of one of the oldest and most interesting churches in Wales, viz., that of Llantwit Major, near Cow- bridge, in Glamorganshire, a village which is almost unique for its ancient associations and existing
78
ANTIQUARIAN NE WS.
remains. Llantwit was not only a monastery, but a very famous university or school of divinity, founded by St. Iltyd in the fifth century, and said to have in- cluded among its alumni Gildas, the historian, St. David, and even Taliesin, the oldest of the Welsh bards ; while the number of less eminent students was so great as to have necessitated four hundred houses and seven lecture-halls. The church is of different dates : what is called the new church, which is of the thirteenth century, being, curiously enough, older than the other part, which is a couple of hundred years later. At the west end of the latter are the ruins of a Lady Chapel, 40 feet in length ; but the chief interest lies in its toiiibs, one of which has a row of lozenge- shaped compartments, with an arabesque ornament on one side, and a series of interlaced rings on the other. In the churchyard is an upright stone, believed to be Runic, and the shaft of a cross to the memory of St. Iltutus, or Iltyd. The antiquities of this quaint village are not confined to the church, for close by is a very singular town hall of Norman date, with a flight of steps by the side, and an inscribed bell in the gable, while for some distance around there are traces of ruined buildings, probably those of the University.
An interesting memento of Mozart has been found in the shape of a theatre bill dated, " To-day, Sunday, February 28th, 1796," announcing the performance in the Royal Theatre, at Berlin, by Mozart's widow and a company of singers of "the last work of her deceased husband, ' La Clemenza di Tito.' "
A gallery at the British Museum, to be known henceforth as the Central Nimroud Saloon, has just been rearranged for the better exhibition of the Assyrian antiquities discovered by Sir A. H. Layard at Nimroud ; the site of the ancient city of Calah, during the years 1847-51 ; the collections obtained by the late George Smith and Mr. Rassam ; and the objects presented by the proprietors of the Daily Telegraph. There are also arranged in this saloon a selected series of inscribed terra-cotta tablets, repre- sentative of Babylonian literature, embracing a period of two thousand years. In the two large cases in this room are inscribed clay tablets, representing almost every branch of popular vernacular literature, afford- ing us a vivid insight into the life, manners, and customs of ancient Chaldea.
An interesting account is given in some Vienna and German papers of excavations made by the French Dominican monks at Jerusalem on some land which they have lately acquired, about a furlong and a half outside the gate of Damascus. Six metres below the present level of the ground the workmen came on some arches of considerable extent, the walls of which had been very carefully built. At a short distance they found the basement of a chapel, before the entrance of which there was a tombstone covered with a long inscription. Unfortunately, this stone was stolen before anyone thought of copying the inscription, and no trace of it could be obtained. About the middle of their property they found a large well-preserved mosaic, and upon the space all around being cleared, the bases and other remains of great pillars were discovered. It is presumed that this is the site of the great basilica, built in the fifth century
in honour of St. Stephen by Eudoxia, the wife of Arcadius, the first of the long line of Eastern emperors. Still more remarkable is the discovery made just on the boundary of the estate. While digging the trench for the foundations of the boundary- wall which the Dominicans wished to build, the ground gave way, and one of the workmen disap- peared. On clearing out the place they came on a large and beautiful hall which had been cut out of the rock ; where the rock failed the gap was filled by admirable masonry. From two of the sides two large doorways led into two vaulted tombs, of equal size. On each side of the vault there was a resting- place for one coffin, and at the end opposite the entrance-places for two. At the farthest end of the great hall a passage led to another excavated vault, in which stood three great covered sarcophagi. It is suggested that these sarcophagi contain the remains of Helena, Queen of Abiadenos, and her sons. The quantity of bones found in these chambers was very great. In the middle of the great hall, in a hollov/ especially prepared, a sort of long metal box was found. It was adorned with representations of children holding garlands up on high. Unfortunately there was no inscription, nor anything which could furnish a clue to the period or the purpose of these sepulchral chambers.
Mr. W. Beach, M.P., the Provincial Grand Master of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, on the 9th September opened an exhibition of Masonic anti- quities at Shanklin. The exhibition, which consists of upwards of 1,400 jewels, medals, rare and curious documents, books, and other things, has been pro- moted by Mr. Alfred Greenham, the Master of the Chine Lodge, 1884, in aid of the Masonic Building Fund. Among the exhibits were a large number of Masonic jewels and medals ; a pack of Masonic cards ; collar and apron found on the field of Waterloo, and said to belong to one of the Bonapartes ; miniature silver gridiron jewel ; an old engraving with pro- cession of the " Scald Miserable Masons ;" playbill of the Theatre Royal, Leicester, of Masonic Bespeak, November, 1856 ; Masonic table found in Pompeii; Masonic salad bowl elaborately decorated ; and many other rare and curious relics and antiquities.
The parish church of Llanganten, a small village in Breconshire, about two miles from Builth Wells,i has been reopened after having undergone a thorough re- storation. Exceeding old age had reduced the original structure to a state of dilapidation which rendered it altogether unsuited to public worship. The old church consisted of a nave and a chancel, and, con- formably with what appears to be customary in the case of ancient Welsh churches, the walls were ex- teriorly whitewashed. These walls have been re- tained in the restored edifice, thoroughly repaired, and the whitewash removed. A totally new roof was found to be necessary, and new windows, filled with cathedral glass, relieved by a red bordering, have been inserted. A belfry has been erected on the western gable, and a porch placed at the western extremity of the south wall. The interior of the church has been greatly transformed.
A singular quest has resulted in a singular find. For some time past M. Yriarte has been seeking for
ANTIQUARIAN NEWS.
179
the tomb of Cresar Borgia. There were traditions to assist, but they seemed on the whole not very trust- worthy. It was known that Borgia had been buried somewhere in Navarre. His last years had been spent as a volunteer in the army of his brother-in-law, who was king of the country. But beyond the fact that he served in the army and was killed by a musket- shot at the siege of the small town of Viana, near the Ebro, nothing definite was known. It seems strange that a prince who found a chronicler in Machiavelli and who was once the terror of all central Italy, from the Adriatic to the Mediterranean, should have passed away with no definite note of where his ashes were interred. Had he been an ordinary exile the circum- stance might have been explained. M. Yriarte has, however, had strange success. Naturally the place where investigations should commence was the town where Borgia lost his life. But the search was fruit- less. Then the whole of Navarre was made the subject of inquiry. The records of churches and the archives of towns were investigated with results that only misled. At last M. Yriarte came on a clue. In the presence of the judge of the district the street in front of the church of Viana was ripped up, and there the coffin and the body were found. It is supposed that in some early restoration of the church a bygone bishop of the diocese, outraged at finding so bad a man buried in consecrated ground, had ordered the coffin to be removed ; but it seems strange that no tradition of the circumstance should have lingered at Viana.
The keeper of the archives for the Hungarian county of Marmaros found lately, stowed away with some ancient registers, a packet bearing this inscrip- tion: — Qualitas funis Marmcitici in penuria, A.D. 1786 (quality of the Marmaros bread in the year of want, 1786). The bread is partly composed of oat- meal, but the greater proportion of it is the bark of trees. The county authorities have directed the specimen to be preserved in the local museum.
The Earl of Chichester has presented to the Museum of the Sussex Archceological Society several articles of historical interest. They include the ducal crown of Thomas Pelhain, Duke of Newcastle ; a very elaborate Royal coat of arms, worked in gold and silver wire, supposed to be part of the Garter robes, and the degree granted to his Grace of Newcastle by Gottingen University.
A curious entry was found in Romsey Church register by a gentleman who was visiting the neigh- bourhood. Under the date March 13, 1643, it was recorded: — "William Morris, a soldier, hanged on the Swan sign-post." The statement has often been made thac such an occurrence took place, but it was rarely believed. The iron support is still on the house formerly known as the SWan, but the sign-board has been removed.
Remains of the greatest possible interest to anti- quaries have just been brought to light at Duffield. It was well known that the Ferrers family possessed a castle there in Norman times, and the supposed site was indicated by local archccologists. The castle was demolished in either the twelfth or thirteenth century. It appears that a son of the owner of the site, Mr.
William Harvey, lately turned up some of the turf, with the result that stonework was discovered, and when the surface was cleared the ground-plan was disclosed of a castle which competent authorities declare must have been, next to the Tower of London, the finest in England while it was standing. The Rev. J. C. Cox has since investigated the remains, conferring also with other antiquaries, and this is what he told a number of guests respecting the find : The Roman road from the Wirksworth lead mines joined Ryknield Street near thisspot, and probably there would be a Roman fort there. At all events he had very little doubt that on this site there was an earthwork in Anglo-Saxon times, for defensive purposes, and also for all the domestic and adminis- trative purposes. The Danes came thickly in Derbyshire, and probably there would be many con flicts in this neighbourhood before they were finally expelled, and this earthwork would be an important centre of attack and defence. There was little doubt that this had been the place where the Anglo- Saxon lord of the district held his court, and where many of the tenantry would come for refuge in times of war or excitement. At the time of the Conquest Henry de Ferrers decided to establish upon this site the castle, which would be one of the con- ditions of his holding the great barony which William conferred upon him in Derbyshire. Henry de Ferrers had 114 manors in Derbyshire alone besides others elsewhere. It had been thought that Duffield Castle was only of secondary importance — that Ferrers would make his chief place at Tutbury or elsewhere ; but these investigations, so interest- ingly made, told us that a very strong Norman castle was built here, very likely by the first Ferrers, or if not, very soon after his time. There could be no doubt about it being a place of first itn portance in the kingdom. lu fact it was almost second to none. The Tower of London was the only one of all the English castles known to exist at the time of the Conqueror that had a ground plan of such large dimensions. Norwich was the only one which exceeded it, and that was erected at a considerably later period. We heard a great deal about Rochester Castle, and it really was a magnificent pile, but this castle at Duffield was much larger. Rochester was 70 feet square, but this was 98 feet, or only 2 feet smaller than the Tower of London. The height of Duffield Castle, of course, could l)e only a matter of conjecture, but when we looked at the massiveness of its walls, which were several feet thicker than those of Rochester, he had not the least doubt that it stood at least 100 or no feet high. They would thus see that it was impossible to exaggerate the extra- ordinary interest of this discovery. The partition wall inside the keep was not in the centre. One of the apartments would be 63 feet by 41 feet, and the other 63 feet by 18 feet, and the walls were 15 feet thick generally all round. The apartments at Rochester were only 40 feet by 20 feet. He had done his best in the Public Record Office, to discover some particu- lars about the castle, and when it was destroyed. He had not found much, but doubtless there was more to be learnt. Some stated that it was destroyed by Henry II., in consequence of the disaffection of the Ferrers, and certainly they were in trouble at that
i8o
CORRESPONDENCE.
time; but they were in rebellion again under Henry III., and his belief was that it was destroyed by that king, about the year 1260. There was no visible trace of it when Reynolds wrote in 1769. It looked very simple to see that Henry III. "ordered" the castle to be destroyed, but it must have been exceedingly difficult to carry out the order. It had been found in modern times almost impossible to destroy the mass of con- crete of which the walls of these great castles were formed. There were indications at Duffield Castle to show that fire was used. A good deal of timber would be used for the roofs, which were not arched, and pieces of charred oak had been found in the ruins. The gritstone would be crumbled by the fire, and there was a red colouring on some of the stones, which would be produced by the action of fire.
On removal of plaster from the north wall of the chancel of Morwenstow parish church, now being re- stored, an interesting polychrome wall-painting was revealed. The forms are much obliterated by the dis- colouration and flaking off of the plaster, but the con- tours of two figures can be distinctly traced — apparently a female saint, with her left hand clasping a scroll or volume to her breast, and with her right arm raised in blessing or exhortation over a monk kneeling with hands devoutly clasped. The figures are outlined in dark red lines, and indications of bright green and yellow can be seen on the drapery and head-dress of the female figure. Behind her are ornamental forms suggesting a throne and pendant drapery. Nothing remains to determine whether these figures are or are not part of a larger composition ; but it cannot be doubted that we have here the central and most important figures. A water-colour drawing of the figures has been made, and is now in the vicar's possession. It is hardly necessary to add that every effort will be made to preserve this relic.
One of the finest fragments of tesselated pavement ever found in Colchester has been discovered in Culver Street, about five feet beneath the surface. It is Com- posed principally of white and black tesselhe, but there are also red, yellow, and pale blue colours in the central design. The pavement is remarkable for its perfect preservation and for the chaste elegance of its geometrical pattern, which probably points to an early period. By the energy of the Mayor (Henry Laver, Esq. ), an ardent archaeologist, arrangements were suc- cessfully carried out for raising the whole of the frag- ment and transferring it to the local museum. Portions of the plaster from the walls of the room were found on the surface of the pavement, together with the usual debris of bones, oyster-shells, etc., etc.
Corresponnence.
upon me was that the words— there pronounced "bout," "bouts" — referred to the ends left un- ploughed in the first instance owing to the plough going "about," or missed by the plough, which re- quire to be ploughed separately afterwards. I was not satisfied with Seebohm's suggestion, and Mr. Atkinson's, on the face of it, seems much preferable. He might have quoted the word "shooting-butts."
H. W, Just.
"BUTTS" OF FIELDS.
iAnte, p. 74.]
With regard to Mr. Atkinson's explanation of " but " and " buts " for the " ends " of a field, when in Northamptonshire last year the impression made
THE " BABINGTON ARMS."
\_Ante, p. 30.]
With reference to the in teresting account of the visit of the Derbyshire Archaeological Society to Kingston, I venture to remark that the so-called "Babington Arms" can by no means be classed as coat-armour. The rebus was, I believe, quite an unauthorized bearing, and entirely distinct in that respect from the bearings known as amies parlantes. The arms of Babington are argent, ten torteaux, four, three, two and one : in chief a label of three points, azure, and the child and tun is evidently one example of many in this country of punning allusions to surnames, by no means to be confused with duly certified heraldic charges.
S. G.
MOOTHOUSE— MANOR.
The noteworthy term " moothouse " ("gemot huy ") occurs among the landmarks in a grant of lands by Edward the Elder in 901, of which " the original " is said to be still preserved at Winchester {Ltber de Hydd, p. 86). Interesting as is the occurrence of this word in itself, it becomes more so from the fact that the compiler of the Liber equated it in his Middle- English version {Ibid., p. 87) by " the manere," and in his Latin one (p. 88) by "manerium." This sug- gests two inferences: first, that "manere" and " manerium" must have represented to such compiler a vazXiOi-house (for a "manor " could not be a land- mark) ; second, that, according to him, this manor- house must have been the direct successor and repre- sentative of the " moot-house " of 901.
These considerations are not affected by the editor's verdict that " both the text and the translations of Anglo-Saxon documents (in the Liber) sometimes evince an exceedingly imperfect knowledge of that language (p. xxii.). Moreover, as to this, one may be permitted to doubt whether such a rendering (p. 339) as " the old men's allotments " (!) for " J^arae eal'Sena ^ala " (p. 103) proves the editor's own superiority in that respect, or whether he is correct in rendering " pynsigestune " (p. 88) as " Wynsige's farmhouse" (p. 334) in 902.
It is curious to trace how our term " land-mark " has gradually changed its significance, when we see it, in these old grants of land, regularly used as "land- gemaera " (" lond-markys " — " terrarum termini ") in its original use of a bound or limit of an estate, together with that interesting compound, " the mark weys " (" mearc )>eges ").
J. H. Round.
Brighton.
CORRESPONDENCE.
i8i
" MAIDEN LANE."
\_Ante, vol. xii., pp. 68, 134, 182, 231, 278 ; vol. xiii.,
pp. 39, 86, 135, 182 ; vol. xiv., pp. 39, 86.
I have read with interest the correspondence lately published in your columns on Maiden Place Names. We have a single instance of its occurrence in this town (Nottingham), of which, thanks to our recently published local records, we are able to give the origin. The Nottingham Maiden Lane is situated between Barker Gate and Woolpack Lane, and was formerly known by a different appellation. The earliest notice of this lane now preserved occurs in 1376, when we hear of " the Horelane." We also read of it with the same spelling in the years 1391, 1401, and twice in 1410. In 1412 it is spelt or mis-spelt " Horylane." In 1460 we hear of " Feyremayden Lane," and in 1500 of " Fairemayden Lane," which forms un- doubtedly refer to the same lane, for in 1539 we hear of a garden and stable in a lane called " Fayremayden Lane or Horelane," which puts it beyond question. This proves that ' ' Hore ' — whore, from the old Norse " hora " (see Skeat). There is little doubt that "fair-maiden" is a playful euphemism for a harlot ; and this name only after a long struggle supplanted the blunt "Hore Lane" of earlier days. More re- cently the name was curtailed to Maiden Lane, the present appellation. As lanes bearing this name are often found to be situated in the lowest and most dis- reputable parts of the town, it may be inferred that they were often so-called on account of their being the haunts of " fair -maidens."
A. Stapleton.
Nottingham, August 26.
Equally with other correspondents, I have been much interested in this subject, as it has been dealt with from time to time in the Antiquary.
In accordance with Mr. Round's excellent suggestion I am glad to be able to furnish the following :
From time immemorial there has existed a narrow thoroughfare called Maiden Lane leading to Barnes Cray, from that portion of the Roman Road (the main-road to Dover from London) or Watling Street, which runs between Crayford and Dartford.
This Maiden Lane is from 200 to 300 yards in length, a few houses standing on one side, its eastern side.
If, as Mr. Taylor says, " Maydenhythe " means " the wharf midway between Marlowe and Windsor," in this case Maiden Lane might well be the lane mid- way between (portions of) the parishes of Crayford and Dartford. The eastern side of the lane is in Dartford parish and the western side in Crayford parish.
At the bottom of the lane are marshes, through which the small river Cray runs, together with many ditches, all emptying themselves into the Thames, or rather, that part of the Darent which runs through the Dartford marshes. Many human bones and bones of horses have been found in cleaning out some of these ditches.
Before the building of the Thames Wall or embank- ment, the ancient River Thames (especially at high- water) must have flowed right up to the foot of Maiden Lane.
But here, this then unconfined arm of the Thames, or call it the ancient River Cray if you will, flowed be- tween a considerably narrowed channel, compared with the shore-lines above and below this spot ; this narrower channel being caused by the spur of gravel and chalk on which Maiden Lane stands, and a cor- responding spur on the opposite shore.
The distance across would not exceed 150 yards. Above and below this point the shore-lines widen out considerably.
Centuries ago the channel may have been much narrower and the distance across much less than now.
On the higher lands, about half a mile north-west from this spot, is a considerable hill, steep and abrupt. This hill seems to have been called "Mount Nod" during many past generations, why so-called I have never been able to discover. I will not say that there is any connection between this " Mount Nod " and Maiden Lane ; but I cannot help venturing to suggest that the latter may have been an ancient trackway leading as a nearer way (to anyone coming from the eastward) to this very " Mount Nod," which from its elevated position might well have been the site of earthworks.
I use the term "nearer way," etc., assuming that the position generally assigned as the spot where the ford crossed the Cray is the right one.
" Mount Nod " is about equi-distant with Maiden Lane from the spot assigned to the ford — the Crecan- ford (Crayford), where in A.D. 457 Hengist, the first Saxon King of Kent, defeated the Britons.
No traces of earthworks on or near " Mount Nod " or in the immediate neighbourhood can now be found. The use of the spade and the plough for centuries has obliterated all such traces, if any once existed.
One thing, however, is certain, that in the fields at the foot of and near to " Mount Nod," human bones have been ploughed up from time to time.
I have in my possession many bronze rings, buckles, brooches, etc. ; a British stone-bead, and a small piece of pottery (probably Saxon), about 2\ inches high and quite perfect.
The mark of the skin of the thumb or fingers of the potter is very visible on the bottom.
These and many other objects of antiquitv have been found immediately near to " Mount Nod. '
I trust that the foregoing may be acceptable as a contribution by those interested in the subject of " Maiden Place Names."
H. W. Smith.
Belvedere, Kent.
BOXLEY ABBEY, KENT. {^Attte, p. 87]
An account of Boxley Abbey by mc, in the Anti- quary, has elicited the gratuitous animadversion of Mr. J. H. Round.
I stated that Boxley Abbey was founded by William dc Ypres, Earl of Kent, in 1 141 or 1 146. He is re- puted to have led one of the divisions of King Stephen's army at the battle of Lincoln in 1141, where, though the king was defeated, De Ypres effected his retreat and reinforced his army, which subsequently overthrew the Empress Maud at W^in-
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CORRESPONDENCE.
Chester, for which signal service in 1 141 he was made Earl of Kent, He was not so renowned an Earl of Kent as Earl Godwin, and few, perhaps of genealo- gists even, would care in the present day to investigate early authorities as to whether some 700 years ago he was actually created Earl of Kent, on which fact doubts have been cast, consequently I referred the reader generally to Sir Bernard Burke's Extinct and Dormant Peerages as an authority for the creation ; and when I state my reasons I feel convinced that candid readers will agree with me that I could not have given a better reference, notwithstanding Mr. Round's assertion to the contrary.
Sir Bernard Burke — a barrister, I believe, and there- fore it may be supposed possessed of a knowledge of, at any rate, the rudiments of evidence — is a genealogist by profession, and what is more, by repute. His work on Extinct and Dormant Peerages would have no merit and no sale if it was inaccurate. They who have at any time tested any part of it by personal re- search, know how carefully and cautiously it has been compiled. Sir Bernard Burke has been more than forty years before the world as a genealogist citi libct in arte sud credendiim est. An old friend of his and mine, an Oxford classman, describes him to me in a letter before me as "an unusually clever man." Why should he not then be as good an authority on a peerage creation as Mr. J. H. Round, who tells us, ex cathedra, " I can only say that my opinion" etc., etc., etc. ? I reply, Mr. Round's opinion is worthless on the point compared with that of Sir Bernard Burke, who has probably forgotten more of genealogies than the former ever knew. Mr. Round states that Sir B. Burke " is no authority whatever." I inquire to whom he refers, and for whom does he consider him- self entitled to speak ? Ulster King of Arms (Sir B. B. ) is known professionally and recognised as a sound authority, whereas Mr. Round is altogether unknown to the literary world, and necessarily of no authority to anyone but himself ; but he possesses the unfortunate habit of snarling at the heels of men by whose feet he might well sit and learn. Not long ago he wrote of Mr. Freeman (whose work on the Norman Conquest is one of the grandest of the present century) that "the Professor does not understand his own authorities." Now he in effect pronounces of one of the first genealo- gists of the day what Lord Chesterfield said of the Herald, that "the foolish man doesn't even under- stand his own foolish business."
The Rev. Mr. Brownbill and I raised the question whether the monks of Boxley Abbey previous to its dissolution were guilty of the traditional fraud attri- buted to them with respect to the Boxley Abbey Rood, and we ventured to express doubts whether their memory has not been dealt with too harshly ; on which Mr. Round remarks, in the Elijah Pogram style, or that of the Artful Dodger asking for his " priwiledges," that the subject is " too important in its bearing on the lives and beliefs of our forefathers to be treated as a matter of sentiment." My desire was to treat it as one of justice, not of sentiment ; I hold it to be as nefarious to traduce the dead as the living, if not worse.
It appears by no means clear that the Boxley Abbey Rood and others similar were much more than versions of the modem OberAnivietgau exhibition with mechani-
cal differences, the design being in all such cases more or less to stimulate religion by an appeal to the senses, as is all church music and church decoration.
In service high and anthem clenr,
As may with sweetness through mine ear
Dissolve me into ecstasies,
And bring all heaven before mine eyes.
The "beliefs and lives of our forefathers" at the time of the dissolution of monasteries, so pathetically appealed to, can be accurately demonstrated by fact. Half the nation then, if not a greater portion, adhered to what Melanchthon termed the old faith ; moreover, not twenty years after, the whole English nation was openly reconciled to Rome through the only real national voice — Parliament, which shamefully bar- gained away to Cardinal Pole the brightest gem of the English Crown, the royal supremacy in things ecclesias tical (for which Henry VHI. had so bravely contested), in exchange for the selfish engagement that the lands of confiscated monasteries which had been granted to laymen should not be taken from them, while Queen Mary righteously relinquished her own share, of which her father had robbed the monasteries, worth some ;i^6o,ooo a year. The lives and faiths of our fore- fathers in those matters is one of the last episodes in English history to cant about with an air of triumph.
Mr. Round tells us that the question of alleged fraud by the Boxley Abbey monks with their P.ood is not a point for inquiry at all, but we are to find out how the beholders accounted for the phenomenon. Truly for myself, as there is no reliable record that I am aware of handed down on that point, and all the beholders have long passed away from this world, I must leave it to Mr. Round's ingenuity to speculate about, since there are no possible means of solving so absurd a conundrum, my own, and I believe Mr. Brownbill's, question being merely confined to the very simple fact, " Has sufficient evidence been handed down to posterity to convince us that the Boxley Abbey monks in the exhibition of their Rood of Grace were guilty of fraud ? — ' Yes ' or ' No.' "
Mr. Round asks with innocent simplicity for some explanation as to the importance attached to the exposure of the Boxley Abbey Rood at Maidstone and at St. Paul's Cross. I venture to suggest that had he studied the history of that period carefully, he would have been at no loss to answer his own question. The "exposure" and as many other kindred "ex- posures " as could be got up were of the utmost con- sequence to Henry VIII., who, according to Southey's History of the Church, "failed not to take advantage of the temper which such disclosures excited." He had plundered and confiscated the lesser monasteries throughout England, and by so doing had roused the religious feeling of the country, as manifested in the insurrection termed the "Pilgrimage of Grace," which was caused almost entirely by the suppression of the religious houses, and was the revolt of the poor even more probably than of the rich. It was a toss-up whether or not it could be suppressed, when two or three strokes of good-luck enabled Henry to do so. " This unsuccessful struggle," continues Southey, " hastened the dissolution of those monasteries which had been spared hitherto ; it was pretended that by this measure the king and his successors would be greatly enriched, and that the people never again
CORRESPONDENCE.
183
would be charged with taxes "—so that if there was misrepresentation on one side, there was as much on the other. Subsequently he writes of "cupidity excited as it was, etc. ... by the juggling tricks which were now exposed." This he illustrates, inter alia, by " the Boxley Abbey Rood of Grace, which moved its head, hands, and feet, rolled its eyes and made many other gestures, which were represented as viiraculous, and believed to be so. , . . Shrines and treasures which it might otherwise have been dangerous to have invaded were now thought rightfully to be seized, where they had been procured by such gross and palpable impositions. From Beckett's shrine alone the gold filled two chests, which were a load for eight strong men !"
We have here then a complete answer to Mr. Round's inquiry as to the utility to the king of those so termed *' exposures ;" while the assertion of good honest Southey as to the manipulation of the Boxley Abbey Rood by its monks having been fraudulently repre- sented as miraculous, begs the entire question, and was denied by the accused. Mr. Brownbill and I have asked for evidence. I require facts, not assumptions. " Half the mistakes in the world," wrote Swift, " arise from taking things for granted."
The Cistercian was a good order, with excellent rules, so long as its monks adhered to them ; apart from their religious lives, they were useful. They promoted horticulture and the wool industry ; but it cannot be denied that in the sixteenth century several English religious houses of various orders had become the reverse of models of purity and sanctity of life : still they were not all thus corruptio optitnorum est pessima. Some of the official reports concerning them are clearly over-coloured, and even Bishop Latimer pleaded generally in their behalf. Each charge against any particular house should be judged on its own merits, not carried along the stream in a general flood of indignation against unproved deception.
"Is it the case," asks Mr. Round, "that every Holy Rood was necessarily a crucifix like the Boxley Abbey Rood of Grace?" The word Rood (Rode, Saxon) means crucifix, and this, in pre- Reformation days, was almost necessarily one of the adornments of each Christian church ; nor did Protestant Queen Elizabeth think it otherwise in the Reformed Church of England. When Dr. Nowel, Dean of Westminster, preaching before her, let fall some words against crucifixes, she cried out, in what has been described as "an awfuU voice" — "Stop that ungodly digression, Mr. Dean, and return to your text !" a rebuff that is stated almost to have killed him.*
I am at a loss to understand Mr. Round's remark, that the impossibility of removing the Boxley Abbey Rood "formed part of the story." It was un- questionably removable. John Hoper, a Maidstone man, described it as found in the monk's chamber, bound round with wax cloths; and after its " ex- positrt" at Maidstone, it was removed to London for that "ferocious brute," as my friend the late Mr. Waterton termed King Henry VIII., to jeer at, and Bishop Hilscy to have destroyed at St. Paul's Cross.
* A Rood might or miglit not be mamifacturcd from the re- puted wood of the true cross (the aspen), but whatever was termed a Rood was ex natunX reruni, if properly so called, a cross or crucifix.
The writer of an interesting notice in ih& Antiquary in January, on " Allington Castle," incidentally mentioned the " Rood of Boxley," and "the Abbot of Boxley " (not Boxley Abbey), on which I intimated that unless it was told in some way when this Rood was referred to that it was formerly at Boxley Abbey, a mistake was perpetuated by visitors occasionally asking at Boxley Church whereabouts the Rood used to be, and I stated in effect, that though to write of the Abbot of Boxley to those informed on such matters naturally implied an Abbey, in point of fact there had been no Abbot of Boxley. Mr. Round com- plains of this, and informs me that I myself wrote of the Abbot of Boxley. Undoubtedly I did ; but the two cases are totally different, as any fair reader would at once perceive. In an article on Boxley Abbey and its Hood of Grcue, by way of abbreviation, I named the Abbot of Boxley ; whereas the writer on Allington Castle in no way, through his entire article, named the Abbey as the place where the Rood of Grace had been, which, by a reader of that article, might well be taken to have been in Boxley Church.
The incident really is too trivial to refer to. I refer to it, to point out simply the straws and trifles on which some minds will quibble. " You cannot lay an egg," said Judge Jeffries to a junior counsel, "but you must cackle over it." Mr. Round cannot detect an imagined mistake, but he must proclaim it as an instance of his detective intelligence. So miserable a cavil is unworthy of any writer desirous to instruct or amuse the public.
Frederic R. Surtees.
Boxley Abbey, Sandling, near Maidstone, August 31, 1886.
"LIBERAL TITHES" AND "THE FOUR CHIEF OFFERING DAYS."
I shall be glad if some of your correspondents are able to tell me what " liberal tithes " are. In an old list of the parochial revenues of this district, after the tithes of corn, hay, flax, wool, kids, geese, etc., are often enumerated "liberal tithes," or "liberal and personal tithes." I also want to know which are " the four chief offering days" mentioned in the same list. Am I right in guessing Lady Day, Midsummer Day (Nativity of St. John Baptist), Michaelmas, and Christmas to be the four ? Easter Day was not one of them, since the "Easter offerings' are separately mentioned.
A. N. Palmer.
Wrexham.
DE SECRETIS MULIERUM. {Ante, p. 125.) In reference to your notice of Professor Ferguson's account of the two tracts, " Sccreta Mulierum" and "Liber Aggregationis," on page 125 of your last number, I will mention that I have them bound in one volume, and that the former is placed first ; in fact the latter has no separate title-page. The work was printed at Lyons by John Martin in the year 1584.
The same volume contains also a rather long tract, entitled " De Secretis Naturae," by Michael Scott.
C. L. Prince.
1 84
THE ANTIQUARY EXCHANGE.
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THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WOKING.
I8S
The Antiquary.
NOVEMBER, 1886.
Cfte ancient IPamt) of 2X[3ofeing.
Part I. LTHOUGH the name of Woking may be unfamiliar to the " masses," to philanthropists, and those who have hobbies, it is sufficiently well known. Persons studious of criminal statistics are aware that the parish of Woking contains two enormous prisons, currently believed to be greatly in favour with the criminal popula- tion, who are supposed to prefer the balmy breezes of the Surrey hills to the " cool shades of Pentonville," or the morasses of bleak Dartmoor. Those interested in lunacy know of the parish as containing one of the largest and best asylums in the kingdom ; while to persons troubled about the bestowal of their dead, the name of Woking Necropolis is as a sweet morsel. Those who hanker after things histrionic can relate dismal stories of the ill- fated Dramatic College, which began with many flourishes of trumpets and ended, quite deservedly, in profound obloquy. The thoughtfulness of those who provided a palatial building, full of sunless rooms, planted in the midst of a dreary waste, with no prospect save a railway embankment, for the people who are of all others the most gregarious, demands a poet to sing. When funds for the support of this delectable institution failed, the college was closed, and the poor old actors, duly pensioned, were permitted to again reside in the vicinity of the footlights, while the building itself lay empty and desolate many a year. Latterly it has been turned into a home for Hindoo students and bids fair to be as unsuccessful as before. Those charitable souls, and happily their name is legion, who care for the
VOL. XIV.
sick poor, know that Mr. Pearson has designed a beautiful home where such can regain health and strength in the pine-laden air which has long made Woking a resort for the weak of chest, and those who love floriculture know that here are some of the largest nurseries in the world for acacias and rhododendrons; but, adding all these interested persons together, probably more know of the existence of the parish from the simple fact that the only crematorium in England has been built within its boundaries, and passengers by the London and South-Western railway may sometimes see smoke ascending from a tall chimney half hidden amidst trees, which tells that some corpse is being reduced to a handful of ashes. For the first time in history, perchance, this building brought the name of Woking prominently under the notice of the Houses of Parliament, when a certain high functionary gave the lucid opinion that cremation was not legal, yet not unlawful. A pretty little squabble whether a certain representative should be described as the member for Woking or the member for Chertsey has recently brought the name of the place once more into notice.
For the purposes of these articles, Dramatic College, prisons and crematorium are alike non-existent ; they will deal with the past and not the present, and their aim is to show that within an hour's ride of Waterloo Station there lies an old parish which is a perfect mine of antiquarian interest.
Large as is the present parish — and I well remember the tired sigh which a certain vicar gave when he informed me it was the largest but one in the diocese — the ancient parish was still more extensive, embracing as it did the now separate parishes of Horsell, Pirbright and Pirford ; and to make my articles intel- ligible it will be necessary to divide my subject, and to treat first of the history of the parish, then of the customs of the manors, and finally of the buildings.
Before the notices in the Domesday Book, all that is definitely known of the parish is that in 796 Offa made a grant of certain lands to the church of Uoccingas. This charter, which is in Latin, is printed in the Codex Diplomaticus. It is somewhat remarkable that while Roman remains have been found at Send on the one side and Chobham on
o
1 86
THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WO KING.
the other, none which have been authenti- cated have been discovered within its borders.
On a piece of wild land, since enclosed, there were certain ridges and hollows which tradition states to have been the remains of Roman ironworks, but, though as ironstone and wood were once plentiful this is not improbable, no sufficient proof is forthcoming. At Newark Priory, on the very borders of the parish, masses of tiles exactly similar to those at Richborough are built into Early English work, but how they came there it is impossible to conjecture. Nor are there any Saxon remains, though some of the local names are clearly of Saxon origin, as for example Knap- hill. I have been informed by a local antiquary that the name Woking was derived from a Saxon chief Oker, who held the land from Woking to Wokingham, but for this I have been unable to get any satisfactory evidence. The manor and lordship of Woking, or Wochinges, was part of the demesne of Edward the Confessor, and con- sequently appropriated to the support of the royal household; it was rated at i5|- hides,* although, being in the possession of the Crown, it, according to custom, was exempt from taxation. It has long lost this privilege, but the inhabitants still regret it.
After the Conquest the manor continued in possession of the Crown, but the inhabitants probably felt the change keenly, for whereas the manor had previously been rated at ;^i5 ad numeramy it was now changed to the same sum ad pensum ; which, in those days of emphatically light money, must have made a terrible difference. Three virgates of land are recorded as being held by Walter Fitz- Other,t and previously by a forester. As Fitz-Other was a man of some note, and held other manors in the county, Manning is of opinion that this land was situate in the hamlet of Mayford, which was afterwards held by grand sergeantry.
Among other particulars in the Domesday Book, mention is made of a mill worth iis. 4d., and of a church of which Osbern, who
* Exclusive of the Manors of Pirford and Sutton, which had been detached from it by earlier grants.
t His principal lordship was Stanwell, in Middle- sex. He was a Norman who resided in England during the reign of the Confessor, and was at one time Governor of Windsor Castle.
was made Bishop of Exeter in 1074, was possessed, and that the Sheriff received 25s. a year.* According to the same authority there were 6 carucates of arable land, as well as one in the demesne; 33 villans and 9 bordars, who held 20 carucates more; 32 acres of meadow and woods which fed 133 swine. As the 133 swine were only the lord's portion, usually a tenth, the woods must have been very extensive and consisted principally of oak and beech. Both these trees are still common, and there is evidence that at one time a considerable part of the parish must have been thickly wooded ; but as unfortunately these woods, as was usual in the survey of Surrey, were only appraised by the number of swine they carried, it is impossible to estimate their exact extent. From the nature of the land, however, the greater part must then, as now, have consisted of wastes covered with broom and heather.
As the bordars seldom seem to have held more than an acre of ground each, the villans' shares must have amounted to about 60 acres apiece. In Woking these villans were pure, i.e. regardant, or literally tenants at will ; but besides these there were in all probability a number who held in free socage, and certainly some few who had special privileges, as such were always to be found on royal manors.
The manor remained in the hands of the Crown until the reign of Henry II., who soon after his accession afforested it, as he did the rest of his land in the county. In the second year of this King's reign Pagan, the Sheriff, in the annual return of the firm of the county, discharged himself at the exchequer of the sum of jQ\o in consideration of lands to that value held within the parish by the Earl of Warren. This land was probably what was afterwards known as the manor of Sutton, which was the property of Stephen while he was Earl of Monteigne, and which he had given to his son, the Earl of Warren. In the fourteenth year of this king's reign Woking had to pay 56s. 8d. towards the aid for marrying the King's daughter.
Richard I. was the first monarch to alienate the manor, which he gave with its advowson and all other appurtenances to Alan Lord
* Probably for his trouble in collecting the rents of the manor.
THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WOKING.
187
Basset, to be holden of the King in chief by the service of half a knight's fee ; and John during the first year of his reign confirmed the grant. (See Cart i John, p. 2, n. 45, etc.) On the death of Alan, his eldest son Gilbert inherited the manor, probably not unen- cumbered, for in the same year a writ was directed to the Sheriff commanding him to sell the corn which was growing on the land, presumably to pay outstanding dues. The first tragedy connected with the land occurred in the 25th year of the reign of Henry III., when Gilbert was killed by a fall from his horse while hunting. His only son, an infant, dying immediately after, his brother Fulc, Dean of York, was declared his heir, and did homage for the land. During the same year Fulc became Bishop of London. Four years later he is recorded as having paid 20s. towards an aid for marrying the King's eldest daughter, and nine years after this twice the sum towards another aid for knighting the King's son. Fulc died in 1259, and was succeeded by his younger brother Philip, who in the same year stands charged with iocs, due for his relief of one knight's fee. This lord must needs take part in the Barons' war, and was made prisoner by the King at the battle of Lewes, he being, however, sufficiently fortunate not to lose his land. He died in
I27|.
Philip's only surviving child was a daughter, Aliva. This lady must have married very young, for her first husband is said to have been the Chief Justice le De- spencer who was killed at the battle of Evesham in 1265 ; yet at the time of her father's death she was only twenty-six, and had married for her second husband the turbulent Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk. According to a survey made at this time the manor of Woking was worth j[^2() 9s. id. per annum, and was held of the King in chief by the service of half a knight's fee and a pair of gloves lined with minever or ermine. The lady Aliva died about 1281, when Roger Bigod, not relishing lands so broad and fertile slipping from his grasp, endeavoured tomakehimself tenant for life by pleading issue by her. Whatever his general character for truth, in this instance he was not believed, and a jury was impanelled to inquire concerning the birth of the alleged issue, whether it was
born alive, whether it was male or female, when and in what house it was born, by whom and in what church it was baptized, etc. This was more than the Earl could stand, so he withdrew his plea, and surrendered the lands to Hugh Despencer, son and heir of Aliva by her first husband.
Woking manor has been particularly un- fortunate in its lords ; so many have been at- tainted or have been scamps that an entertain- ing book might be made of mere sketches of their careers, and it would be one dealing with no small part of the history of the country. Strong though the temptation may be, this article, however, is no place to enlarge on the tragedy or comedy of their lives except as far as it concerns the devolu- tion of the manor of Woking, which, after the execution of Hugh le Despencer at Bristol in 1326, of course reverted to the Crown. From the survey then taken it appears that there was a handsome manor-house, or rather palace, for it contained rooms set apart for knights, treasurers, and great officers, and had a water-wheel for filling the moat. Among the profits were now reckoned certain customary rents, as for example one of io\ quarters of oats, worth los. 6d. and another of 35 cocks and a hke number of hens, the cocks being valued at a penny each and the hens at three half pence. Sixteen of the customary tenants were bound to carry out the lord's manure, and certain of the quarandelli to fill carts with the same ; but as the people refused either to do the work or compound for the same, this service is not valued, any more than was that of weeding the lord's corn, which was the duty of 24 tenants, who declined either to work or to pay, a refusal which says a good deal for Surrey indepen- dence. Sixteen tenants who held half a virgate apiece ploughed half an acre of the lord's land each at seed-time and another half acre during the winter. This was valued at 6id. an acre. The tenants, including the quardelli, were also required to mow 20^ acres of the lord's land and to carry the hay into his grange.
Edward IH. soon after his accession gave the manor to his half-uncle Edmund of Woodstock, Earl of Kent, who was seized thereof in 1329, when he fell a victim to the ambition of Roger Mortimer, and his estates
O 2
i88
THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WOKING.
were forfeited to the Crown. The survey shows that the value of the manor had greatly increased; among the fresh items are pannage worth 5s., a fishery worth 10s., salt silver (a composition payable at Michaelmas for the privilege of carrying salt) 4s. 6d., and a render of a pound of pepper valued at a shilling.
Mortimer is suspected of having used his influence over the Queen to get a grant of the manortohis younger son Geofferyand hisheirs, with remainder to himself; if so, he had his trouble for little, for after his execution, which took place in the following year, Edmund the son of Edmund of Woodstock, whose blood had been restoredby Parliament, hadrestitution of the estates. This lord died while a minor, when the estates devolved on his younger brother John, Earl of Kent, who died in 1355, when this manor was assigned to his widow as part of her dower. The only item of interest in the survey taken at his death is that the value of the mowing and harvesting performed by the customary tenants had fallen from 40s. to los., which is partly accounted for by the fact that the tenants were fewer in number owing to so much of the land being in the lord's hands, and partly by the steadfast way in which the tenants, doubtless demoralized by the frequent changes of lords, declined either to perform the work or compound for it.
The next owner was the sister of the late lord, Joan, commonly known as the Fair Maid of Kent. On the death of her brother, her husband. Sir Thomas Holland, who had issue by her, did homage and received livery of all the lands of her inheritance, the widow's right of dower of course being reserved. Joan's son Thomas, who was created Earl of Kent in 5 Richard II., came into possession on the death of his mother, and was duly succeeded by his son Thomas, afterwards Duke of Surrey, about 1397. This proprietor was one of the barons who entered into the miserable conspiracy to seize the person of Henry IV. in 1400, was captured at Cirencester, and promptly beheaded. At- tainder and forfeiture followed, but the King was magnanimous enough to restore the manor to his mother and her issue by the body of her late husband, who enjoyed it till her death in 1418, when the direct heir.
Edmund, Earl of Kent, having died without issue, a partition of the estates among the family took place, and this manor fell to the share of Margaret, wife of John Beaufort, Earl of Somerset. On her death it descended in due course to her eldest surviving son John, Earl and afterwards Duke of Somerset, who settled it on his younger brother David and Eleanor his wife for their joint lives. He died in 1443. His successor signalized himself by obtaining for the parish a charter for a fair to be held annually on the Tuesday next after Pentecost. (See Cart. 27 Henry VI., m. 25.)
Edmund fell in the battle of St. Albans, but his wife continued in possession by right of survivorship till her death, when, her son being dead, the manor by virtue of settlement fell in 1467 to Margaret, Countess of Richmond, the daughter of John, Duke of Somerset. On the attainder of Henry, Duke of Somerset, in the fifth year of Edward IV., it was escheated as part of his estate in reversion to the Crown, which kept possession of it during the reigns of the house of York. Edward IV. seems to have occasionally resided at Woking, and in 1480 kept part of his Christmas holidays at the palace.
One of the first acts of Henry VII. after obtaining the crown was to repair the palace and put his mother in possession ; and Margaret made it her chief place of residence till her death, the King dutifully coming to see her from time to time. In September, 1490, eight of his acts were signed here. (See Rymer, Foed. xii. 417, xiii. 397, etc.)
Of all the many owners of the manor, Woking has most cause to be proud of the Countess of Richmond. Her charity, as Oxford, Cambridge and Wimborne can testify, wasas discriminating as it was unbounded ; and Grafton seems hardly to have been too ecstatic when he says she was " a woman of singular wisdome and pollicie, and also of most vertuous life, perseiving that the King, by reason of his youthfull and lustie yeres, could not execute and minister his office and function, did from the beginnyng so provide and studie at all tymes, that she brought to pass that such men as were worthiest and of most integritie and godliness were advanced to highest authortie and bare the chiefest sway in the ministration of the courses of the publique weale."
THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WOKING.
189
After her death in 1509 Henry VIII. became the lord of Woking, and frequently used it as a summer retreat. " In the middle of September, 15 15," says Grafton, " he came to his manor of Okying, an thether came to him the Archbishop of Yorke, whom he hartily welcommed, and shewed him great pleasures. " During this visit a letter was brought to Wolsey from Rome, certifying his election as cardinal. A patent is dated from Woking, on loth September in this year, granting the advowson of Stoke to Robert Laverde. Aubrey accounts for the King's fondness for Woking by his having been nursed at Dorney House, near Newark.
Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth all held the manor. The first records in his journal that he visited Woking in August, 1550. Of Mary nothing is known, but tradition states that Elizabeth spent much of her childhood at Woking Palace ; and after her accession, her frequent visits to Sir John Woolley, her Latin secretary, who resided at Pirford, within the parish, make it probable that she some- times stayed at her manor-house. Kennington states that she did at one time reside here.
James I. does not seem to have used the place. In the eighteenth year of his reign he granted the manor with all its rights, members, and appurtenances to Sir Edward Zouch,* the marshal of his household, with remainder to others of his family, together with the adjoining manors of Bisley and Chobham, on condition that on the feast of St. James next ensuing he should carry the first dish to the King's table, and that at the same time he should pay £,\oo of coined gold in lieu and satisfaction of all wardship and other services whatever. This service was to be repeated after every fresh accession either to the manor or the throne ; and the King for his part covenanted that neither he nor his successors should take fines for wardship, marriage or peiner seisin, and that an incoming heir should enter on the manors without fine, livery or relief. (Full particulars of the manor at this time are given in Manning and Bray's Surre}\ vol. i., p. 123.)
This Sir Edward Zouchf seems to have
* Sir Edward seems to have been an only son ; the remainders were to uncles.
t See Weldon, Cotirt and Characler of King James I.
held the undignified ofl!ice of retailer of indecent stories and singer of lewd songs to the King ; but it is satisfactory to know that when he died in 1634 it was in the belief " that his sins were forgiven, and with the prayer that he might be buried in Woking Church by night." The inquisition taken after his death sets forth that " he died seized also of the office of Forester of Woking, alias Brerewood [Brookwood], alias AVindlesham Walk, and Frimley Walk in the [purlieus of the] forest of Windsor, and likewise of an annual sum of 40s. holden of the King by the service of calling the deer to the King's window at the castle of Windsor, on the first morning after his Majesty shall come hither after the feast of St. James next following the decease of any Lord of this manor, and of winding a call on the day of the King's coronation yearly in the walks in lieu of wards and all other services."
The next holder was James, the eldest son of the foregoing, who died in 1643 and was succeeded by his eldest son, who dying without issue in 1658, the manor descended to his brother James. This lord in 1661 obtained a charter from Charles II. permitting an annual fair to be held at Woking on the 1 2th of September (o. s.), and a weekly market on Tuesday. In 1665 he erected a market- house at his own expense, which has unfortunately been destroyed.
As the Zouches' grant was only to heirs male, and the foregoing owner having died without male issue, the manor reverted to the Crown for the last time, when (in 167 1) Charles granted it for a term of 1,000 years to George Villiers, Viscount Grandison, Henry Howard of little Walden in Essex, and Edward Villiers, to hold in trust for Barbara Duchess of Cleveland and her children by the King. After the Duchess's death in 1710 her assignees held the estate, until it was purchased by John Walter of Godalming in 1 7 15, whose son obtained, under a private act (21 George II., c. 9), the grant in fee simple, when he sold it to Richard, Lord Onslow, whose descendant is the present lord.
Besides this the ancient parish contains a number of less important manors, which will be briefly noticed in the next article.
A. C. BiCKLEY.
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lucilio Oanini : W Life anD
By C. E. Plumptre.
T has been well said that "all the thoughts of men from the begin- ning of the world until now are linked together into one great chain," but the links are of different sizes and of unequal brilliancy ; and it seems to me that in the natural and, in many ways, laud- able desire to do honour to those thirty or forty greatest names in religion, philosophy, and science that outdazzle all the others by their surpassing splendour, we are prone to treat with too little consideration those obscurer names which yet are as necessary to the stability, perhaps even to the existence, of the chain as the most brilliant ones amongst them.
At least, let me acknowledge for myself that I have a peculiar sympathy with those humbler seekers after truth — too great to be content with the ephemeral pleasures of the hour, not great enough to be the founders of a system that would bear their name through the ages that were to come ; too great to escape the obloquy that is sure to be the immediate penalty of honesty and originality, not great enough, or perhaps not fortunate enough, to be able to live the obloquy down ; the martyrs of their cause rather than the apostles of it; the sowers, not the reapers ; many of them indeed put- ting forward their views so tentatively, grop- ing as it were in the dark, that we feel they were deprived of the highest consolation of all : not only does posterity refuse to acknowledge that they found the light; for the most part they died unblessed by the certainty, even to themselves, that after all their search had not been in vain.
Europe has been busy of late celebrating the third and fifth centenaries of Luther and Wickliffe. Before f this year passes away, I am anxious to draw attention to the ter- centenary of a man who, if but little known now, was yet of sufficient importance in his * Being the substance of a paper read before the Aristotelian Society last year in commemoration of the tercentenary of Vanini. t This refers to 1885.
own day to pay the penalty for his opinions by being burnt alive for them.
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Catholic Church had in reality to protect herself against three different schools of opponents :
1. The Reformation : numerically and othenvise by far the most openly antagonistic, though whether the most really dangerous future centuries must decide; numbering amongst its numbers men of indomitable courage, of intense conviction, anxious to substitute one form of authority for another ; fervent ; honest ; reckless of humanity in per- secuting their opponents, yet in their turn not flinching from persecution themselves ; nay, at times seeming to court it, coveting as their greatest glory the martyr's crown.
2. The Renaissance, or learning and culture in general ; numbering amongst its members men devoted to the more refined pleasures of this world; scholarly, artistic, bright, good-humoured, though perhaps not entirely free from cynicism ; unfeignedly attached to learning, yet, speaking generally, not sufficiently so to run any great risk in prosecuting it ; complying with the religious customs of whatever country they might be in ; not openly antagonistic to any form of religion, because viewing all alike with a certain contempt ; and regarding with amaze- ment, unmixed with admiration, those enthusiastic reformers who seemed to enjoy persecuting others and being persecuted themselves with equal ardour.
3. The Philosophers, or seekers after truth — men who though differing greatly from each other in their conclusions, were yet alike in their rejection of authority as autho- rity ; in their earnest longing to be able to give some reason for the faith that was in them ; in their intolerance only of intolerance ; in their abstention from persecution them- selves; and (speaking generally, though not without exception) in their noble refusal to shelter themselves from the most atrocious persecution by the faintest approach to. a lie. The better known among these are Servetus, Galileo, Descartes, Spinoza ; the less known are Giordano Bruno, Ochino, Telesio, Campanella, and the subject of this sketch, least known of all, it may be, to readers of this generation. Yet in his time Vanini was
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celebrated throughout Europe for his philo- sophical opinions, which were not only new and uncommon, but peculiarly adapted to the taste of the age. They were written in a very pure Latin, and altogether displayed so much ability and industry as fully to warrant the following eulogium from an anonymous author of about a century afterwards, who, notwithstanding his praise, yet held Vanini's philosophical and religious opinions in the utmost detestation :
"You will find him a man of learning, very ambitious, subtle, of an easy address, jovial in conversation, and full of spirit and activity, which the various and surprising adventures of his life sufficiently testify, and endowed with such bright natural faculties that history can scarce produce his equal ; but as he misapplied his talent Providence made him as notorious in his punishment, his execution being so terrible that one cannot read it without being shocked."
Lucilio Vanini was born at Taurasano, a market-town in the kingdom of Naples, in the year 1585 ; the exact month of his birth seems to be uncertain. His father's name was John Baptista Vanini, steward to Don Francis de Castro, Duke of Taurasano, Viceroy of Naples, and afterwards ambas- sador of Spain to the Court of Rome. His mother was called Beatrix Lopes de Noguera, and came of a Spanish family of distinction. As he grew up to youth, his father sent him to Rome for the completion of his education, and he studied there principally philosophy and divinity. His tutor was a Carmelite friar called Barthelemi Argotti, a man famous for his great and varied learning. Vanini became greatly attached to him ; he men- tions him frequently in his works, and calls him " a phoenix of the preachers of his time." With nearly equal praise he mentions another Carmelite called John Bacon, " an ornament to the Averroists, formerly my preceptor, and from whom I have learnt to swear by none but Averroes." From Rome Vanini returned to Naples, where he continued his philo- sophical studies. As soon as his education was completed he became a priest, and speedily attracted considerable attention by his gift of preaching. Subsequently he became a student of law, and on the title- page of his Dialogues describes himself as
" Doctor in utroque jure." From Naples he went to Padua, where the purity of the air, the softness of the climate, and especially the companionship of men of letters, detained him for some years. He had little or no private fortune, and often found it a hard struggle to continue his studies. " But all is warm," he says, " to those that love ; have I not sustained at Padua the greatest frost in winter with a poor and thin dress, animated only with a desire of learning ?"
At last his labours were rewarded by the consciousness that he was really in possession of knowledge sufficient to enable him to go through all Europe to visit the universities and assist at the conferences of the learned. His favourite authors were Aristotle, Averroes, and Pomponatius. The system of Averroes, in particular, was so highly esteemed by him that he made it a text-book with his disciples.
From his own works I am led to believe that at the beginning of his career Vanini was a conscientious Catholic. He did not shut his eyes to the fact that faith and reason seemed at times to be strangely opposed to each other. But in common with many of his day, he seemed to have held that there was some intrinsic merit in accepting statements as true that were utterly beyond the capa- bility of verification. Indeed, in all ages, is it not a somewhat notable fact that belief without any grounds for belief has been held by the devout to be an act of peculiar merit ?
The works of Vanini are numerous ; but, so far as I am aware, two only, his Amphi- theatre and Dialogues, have come down to us, of which I will now give a brief descrip- tion. The first is entitled Amphitheatrum yEternce Providentice Divino-Magicum, Chris- tiano-Physicum, nee non Astrologo-Catholicum^ adversus veteres Philosophos, Atheos, Epicureos, Peripateticos, Stoicos, etc. It was printed at Lyons, 1615, and dedicated to the Count of Castro, protector of his family and his bene- factor ; and it was approved by four doctors, who acknowledge to have found nothing in it against the Catholic faith.
A few months after the publication of the Amphitheatre Vanini renounced his name of Lucilio for that of Julius Caesar, for what reason is not quite apparent. His enemies assert that it was through vainglory, imagining himself to be as great a conqueror in the
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realms of philosophy as Caesar in military tactics and generalship. But it seems to me far more probable that Vanini made the change through motives of prudence ; for in his short life we find him assuming three or four different names. At one time, in Gas- cony, he called himself Pompeio ; in Holland he was known as Julius Caesar ; in Paris as Jolio Cesare Vanini ; at Lyons he added to this the name of Taurasano ; and at Toulouse he was known as Sieur Lucilio.
In the year 1 6 1 6 was published his Dialogues, the title of which ran as follows : Jidii CcBsaris Vanini Neapolitani Theoligi, Philosophi, Juris utriusgue Doctoris de Admirandis Natnrcz RegincR Deceqtie Mortaliutn Arcanis. Libri quahcor. Lutetian, apud Adrianum Perier. An?io i6i6. Cum privilegio Regis. On the other side of the title-page was written the fol- lowing approbation : " We, the underwritten Doctors of Divinity of Paris, certify to have read these Dialogues of Julius Caesar Vanini, a famous philosopher, and we have found nothing repugnant to the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman religion in them ; but, on the contrary, think them well worth being printed. The 2oth May, i6i6. Signed, F. Edmond Corradin, Guardian of the Convent of Mini- mes, at Paris ; F. Claudius le Petit, Doctor Regent." These Dialogues are dedicated to Marshal Basompierre, and the dedication is an amusing illustration of the flowery, com- plimentary style so much in vogue on the Continent at that day.
"What shall I say," says Vanini to Basom- pierre in this dedication, " of the charms of your beauty ? It is by that means you have deserved the tenderness of an infinite number of ladies, more charming than the Helens of old. It is also that same beauty which triumphs over the conceitedness of atheists, and imposes on them silence, and suppresses their impiety. For when they but contem- plate the majesty and stateliness of your visage, they must readily own that even among mankind there are found some traces of Divinity."
Towards the conclusion of the dedication he becomes even more highflown in his ex- pressions. " If I were," he says, " a disciple of Plato, I should kiss and adore you as the soul of the world."
The Amphitheatre is less open to condem-
nation than the Dialogues, though it is not so guarded as to render it easy to understand how it should have received formal approval from four doctors. Its tendency is certainly not atheistic, but it is rationalistic. He de- scribes the design of the work in the preface.
" I propose," he says, " in this work to unfold and make plain all the mysteries of Providence ; but do not expect that I should take them from the declamations used by Cicero, nor from those dreams, or rather plausible ravings, of the divine philosopher, and yet much less from the absurd imperti- nences of our scholastics ; but I shall draw them from the source of the most hidden philosophy, as being best able to quench the thirst of curious minds."
The Amphitheatre consists of fifty chapters, or exercises, as Vanini prefers to call them ; and I will now, as far as my limited space permits, give an abstract of the most salient portion of it.
The first two chapters deal with the exist- ence and nature of God, in the second of which occurs a very fine passage too long to quote here. The next twenty chapters deal generally with the subject of moral providence. Vanini treats this question in a more equi- vocal way than the existence of God, in which, at all events in his earlier work, he seems to have had unhesitating belief. Os- tensibly his purpose is to refute the objections of various philosophers against the doctrine of Moral Providence ; but these objections are stated with a certain quiet force and clearness, and the answers with almost equal weakness, as it appears to me; whether because the facts of nature are really against special interposition ; or whether Vanini is here beginning tentatively to feel his way to disclosing his own doubts is not easy to decide. The latter portion of the Atnphi- theatre is occupied with the consideration of the monstrosities that occur in nature, such as the existence of the idiot, the deformed, etc. Vanini here again is very guarded, never- theless I think that his tendency is to give a distinctly materialistic interpretation of these occurrences. Then after submitting his work to the judgment and authority of the Most Holy Father Pope Paul V., Vanini concludes the Amphitheatre with the following fine passage :
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"La volont^ supreme, anim^e du souffle divin, emporte mon ame, qui va tenter une voie nouvelle sur les ailes de D^dale.
'' Qui osera mesurer la Divinity ineffable, qui n'a pas commence, et la d^crire dans les bornes dtroites d'un esprit poetique ?
" Origine et fin de toutes choses, la source et le principe, le but et le terme de son etre ;
" Dans son repos, Dieu est tout, en tous lieux et en tout temps, distribud dans toutes les parties, il est tout entier dans chaque endroit.
"Aucun lieu, aucunes regions ne le ren- ferment dans leur limites ; ils le possbdent ; mais, tout entier "k tout, il se dissdmine librement dans I'espace.
"Sa puissance supreme est de vouloir; son oeuvre est une volont^ invariable ; il est grand sans quantite et bons sans qualite.
" Ce qu'il dit est produit aussitot, I'oeuvre suit la parole ; il a parld, et \ sa voix tout \
" II voit tout ; seul il est dans toutes ses oeuvres ; le pass^, le present et I'avenir, il prevoit tout eternellement.
" Toujours le meme, il remplit tout de son etre et soutient toute chose ; il soutient I'univers, le meut et I'embrasse ; il le gouverne d'un signe de son sourcil.
" O Dieu bon, je t'en supplie, jette sur moi un regard, joins-moi k toi par un nceud de diamant, ton seul et unique but est de faire des heureux.
" Quiconque se reunit \ toi, s'dleve ; uni a toi seul il embrasse tout, \ toi qui t'epanches sur tout et h, qui rien ne manque.
"Jamais tu n'abandonnes un etre qui a besoin de toi, de ton propre mouvement tu donnes tout k toutes choses ; 5, I'univers tu subordonnes tout et toi-meme.
" Tu est la force de ceux qui travaillent, le port ouvert aux naufrag^s, la source ^ter- nelle qui repand la fraicheur dans les eaux.
" Repos supreme, paix et calme de nos coeurs, tu es la mesure et le mode des choses, I'espece et la forme que nous aimons.
" C'est toi qui es la regie, le poids, le nom- bre, la beaute ; toi qui es I'ordre, I'honneur et I'amour en toute chose ; le salut et la vie, le nectar et la volupt^ divine.
"Source de la sagesse profonde, lumibre veritable, loi vdne'rable, tu es I'esperance in- faillible, reternelle raison, la voie et la vdritd
"Gloire, splendeur, lumibre diJsirable, lumiere inviolable et supreme ; tu es la per- fection des perfections ; quoi encore ? le plus grand, le meilleur, le meme."*
The "Dialogues" are supposed to take place between two persons, Alexander and Julius Caesar, the latter being presumably Vanini himself Occasionally, but very rarely, a third speaker is introduced, called Tarsius.
The dialogues are sixty in number, and many of them of considerable length. I can therefore only draw the reader's attention to such among them as seem to me the most curious or important. The earlier deal chiefly with subjects connected with natural philosophy or natural history : the sun, moon, earth, the movement of the stars, the genera- tion of fishes, the generation and habits of bees, etc. The thirty-seventh dialogue, en- titled "De I'Origine de I'Homme," deals with a subject that has occupied the atten- tion of our greatest thinkers during the latter portion of this century, and is therefore of singular interest, because it shows that, crude as are many of Vanini's conjectures concerning the origin of man, through- out them all there is a certain adum- bration of that theory of evolution accepted now by all the best scientific intellects of our day. To readers of Vanini's own generation, and especially to such as were his enemies, this chapter was also one of the most preg- nant in the book, for notwithstanding that Vanini had sought to shelter his opinions under the form of a dialogue, in which the opposite sides of the subject are equally stated, he could not conceal the fact — per- haps, indeed, he did not wish to conceal it — that in his belief the doctrine that man had a natural, rather than a supernatural, origin, was not easy to refute.
The fifty-fifth dialogue is on Auguries, and Vanini, after discussing the strangely wide- spread belief in auguries amongst the ancients, incidentally touches upon a subject that I imagine must have perplexed many of the more thoughtful believers in revelation of his day, viz.. How comes it, that if God is omni-
* Pages 206, 207. I quote by the French edition of M. X. Rousselot, as being more comprehensible to the general reader than the original edition in Latin, which, however, I have by me for purposes of com- parison.
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potent, and if He is willing that all should be saved, so many — according to the Christian scheme of salvation — will perish ? Must not the power of the devil be greater than that of God ? It was against the will of God that Adam and Eve fell, and lost all mankind. The devil wills that all should be damned, and there are an innumerable many. Amongst the inhabitants of the earth the Roman Catholics alone can be saved. If from these are subtracted hidden heretics and Jews, atheists, blasphemers, adulterers, none of whom shall inherit the kingdom of God, scarce shall one be saved in a million. In like manner, under the law of Moses, all the universe was under the power of the devil — the Hebrews only excepted, that adored the true God, and who were the inhabitants of a small tract, not exceeding the extent of the island of Great Britain ; yet these also often forsook His worship, and became victims to the power of the devil.
The conclusion of the Dialogues is prin- cipally occupied with a somewhat melancholy description of the uncertainty of human life, and the transitory nature of earthly fame and glory; Alexander endeavouring to comfort Julius Caesar by reminding him of the very great reputation he had already attained at his still early age, and by insisting that inves- tigation into the secrets of Nature must be a supreme delight in itself.
Notwithstanding Vanini's submission of his works to the authority of the Church, and that he had been wary enough to couch his Dialogues in the necessarily ambiguous form of question and answer, they no sooner be- came generally known than they began to draw upon their author the gravest suspicion of heresy. Vanini fled from Paris and took refuge in Toulouse, where he lived for a few months in comparative retirement, under the name of Sieur Lucilio, surrounded, however, by a band of enthusiastic young disciples.
He could not have chosen a more unfortu- nate place of refuge than the city of Tou- louse. Neither Paris nor any city in Italy was so rampant against heresy as Toulouse. The mere fact that there was a young teacher of philosophy living very quietly was enough to excite the suspicion of the bigoted inhabi- tants ; and when it was found that he was none other than the author of the now too
notorious Amphitheatre and Dialogues upon the Secrets of Nature, the agitation became extreme. Yet upon investigation nothing could be brought home to him. Had not the whole of his works been submitted to the Sorbonne? and were not the Amphitheatre and Dialogues marked with the especial ap- proval of that body ?
At last a man of wealth and social stand- ing, called Franconi, and who had probably introduced himself to Vanini ostensibly as desirous of becoming his pupil, while in reality anxious to entrap him in his words, came forward and affirmed that the writings of Vanini were innocent compared with his conversation.
Such an affirmation was more than suffi- cient to justify an arrest in Toulouse ! A trial was therefore prepared, the Court sitting in solemn conclave, the accuser awaiting gloomily the appearance of the accused.
At length he enters ; a young man in years — having barely attained his thirty- fourth year, though somewhat older in ap- pearance— of benignant aspect and thought- ful appearance. He makes his way to the place of accusation, bows respectfully to those assembled, and accepts a seat pointed out to him. Then the all-important question is asked : What are your opinions concerning the nature of a God? He answers calmly and earnestly : " Nature evidently demon- strates to me the existence of a God ; nay, with our Holy Church I adore a God in Three Persons."
There is silence for a few moments ; then Vanini, perceiving a straw lying at his feet, stoops to pick it up ; and, after a slight pause, stretches forth his hand with the straw in it, and says :
" This straw obliges me to confess that there is a God. The grain being cast into the earth appears at first to be destroyed and whitens ; then it becomes green, and shoots forth out of the earth, insensibly growing. The dew assists its springing up, and the rain gives it yet a greater strength. It is furnished with ears, of which the points keep off the birds. The stalk rises and is covered with leaves; it becomes yellow, and rises higher. A little later it withers until it dies. It is thrashed ; and the straw being separated from the corn, this latter serves for the nourish-
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ment of men, and the former is given to animals created for man's use."
Vanini pauses for a brief space as he lays down the straw, and then continues :
" From the fact of the existence of this straw, I conclude it must have had an author; and if God be the author of the straw, so likewise do I infer that He must be the author of all things."
Then some one present — probably Franconi — seeking to entrap him into some unsafe answer, suggests: "Why should the existence of a straw lead you to infer that its author must be God ? Is not Nature herself suffi- cient to account for the production of all natural objects ?"
Vanini again stoops to pick up the straw, and answers :
" If Nature hath produced this grain, who hath produced that grain which preceded this ? If that also be produced by Nature, let us consider its foregoer, and thus go to the very first, which must necessarily have been created, since there can be imagined no other cause for its production."
Few other questions are asked him. But it matters little that his accusers have been unable to entrap him into any self-condemna- tory answers. His death had been predeter- mined by them, and they declare that his confession of a God had been wrung from him through fear and caution, not from con- viction. He is commanded to kneel, and then his sentence is pronounced : " In thy shirt, with a torch in thy hand, shalt thou make honorary atonement for thy sins ; after which thou shalt be drawn upon a hurdle to the place of execution, where, thy tongue being cut out, thou shalt be burnt alive."
Vanini listens quietly while his sentence is pronounced, and at its conclusion bows his head, murmuring half to himself, " I die as a philosopher."
Two slightly differing accounts of Vanini's execution have come down to us. They are both by contemporaries ; but as they are both written by men who hated him, and who fully acquiesced in the justice of his sentence, their descriptions must be taken only for what they are worth.
The first and most bitter is by Gramond, who, after fully relating the details of his trial, proceeds thus :*
* Hisforiarum Callia, Book III., pp. 209, 210.
" Notwithstanding, as the proofs against him were convincing, he was, by arrest of Parliament, condemned to die, after they had passed a whole six months in preparing things for a hearing. I saw him in the dung- cart when he was carried to execution, making sport of a friar, who was allowed him, in order to comfort and reclaim him from his obstinacy. Such momentary assistance is of little use to a desperate man. It would be better to allow these criminals, condemned to die, a sufficient interval to the end that they might have time to know themselves and repent, after having thrown forth all their rage and indignation. In France, they at once declare sentence of death to a criminal, and amidst the horror which the dread of the execution causes they carry him to it. In Spain, and all the rest of Europe, their method is much preferable. They allow criminals time sufficient to appease the horrors of death and expiate their crimes by penitence and confession. Vanini, wild and obstinate, re- fused the consolation of the friar accom- panying him, and insulted even our Saviour in these words : * He sweated with weakness and fear in going to suffer deaths and I die undaunted.^ This villain had no reason to say he died fearless. I beheld him entirely dejected, and making a very ill use of that philosophy he so much boasted of Being ready to be executed, he had a horrible and most wild aspect. His mind uneasy, and testifying in all his words great anxiety, although from time to time he cried out he died a philosopher. But that he departed rather like a brute cannot be denied. Before they set fire to the wood-pile, he was ordered to put his tongue out to be cut off, which he refused to do ; nor could the hangman take hold of it but with pincers in order to per- form the execution. There was never heard a more dreadful screech than he gave then. You would have taken it for the bellowing of an ox. The rest of his body was consumed by fire, and his ashes thrown into the air.
" Such was the end of Lucilio Vanini. That beastly scream (cri de bete) he gave before his death, is a proof of his small share of constancy. I saw him in prison, I saw him at the gallows, and likewise knew him before he was arrested. Given up to his passions, he wallowed in voluptuousness ; in prison he was a Catholic. He went to execu-
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tion destitute of philosophy, and at last ended his life raving mad. When living, he searched very much into the secrets of Nature, and rather professed physic than divinity, though he loved the title of Divine. When they seized his goods, there was found a great toad, alive, shut up in a large crystal bottle full of water; upon which he was accused of witchcraft ; but he answered that that animal being consumed by fire, was a sure antidote against all pestilential diseases. He often went to the Sacraments during his imprison- ment, and cunningly dissembled his inward sentiments. But when he found there was no hope of escaping he disclosed them, and died as he had lived."
The French Mercury differs somewhat in its account of the scene, especially as regards the behaviour of Vanini :*
" He died as freely and with as much con- stancy and patience as ever man did. For coming out of the prison he joyfully and briskly uttered these words in Italian : ' Let me go and die cheerfully as a philosopher.' But, moreover, to show his undauntedness in dying and the despair of his soul, when he was told to call out to God for mercy, he spake these words in the presence of a thou- sand spectators : ' There is neither God nor Devil ; for were there a God I would entreat him to consume this Parliament with his thunder as being altogether unjust and wicked ; and were there a Devil I would also pray him to swallow it up in some subter- ranean place. But since there is neither the one nor the other I cannot do it' " f
So died Lucilio Vanini ; leaving behind him but a very few disciples, not one of them, so far as I am aware, having done anything to make himself remembered. And the cause is not far to seek. Vanini was the founder of no system. He was a seeker after truth ; no one could justly call him a discoverer.
What part then does Vanini represent in
* Le Mercure Francois, pp. 63, 64, anno 1619.
t This account of Vanini's life and death is neces- sarily somewhat similar to that I have given in the chapter devoted to Vanini in the first volume of my History cj Panthcisvi (Triibner and Co.) ; and is from a French work entitled La Vie ct Ic? Seiitimenis de Lucilio Vanini, A Rotterdam. Aiui: Depensde Caspar Frit sell. 1717. But I have also consulted the Latin work of Gramond.
that great chain of thought to which I alluded in the beginning of this paper ? He was a martyr to that spirit of Rationalism which is the presiding genius of true philosophy, as it is the unflinching antagonist of superstition. He was a martyr to that spirit which insists upon knowing the why and wherefore of a doctrine before accepting it ; which will take nothing for granted ; which looks upon doubt as an imperious duty, and credulity as a fatal sin. True, his reasons are for the most part merely crude guesses. But in the century in which he lived it was an immense step gained to have the courage to make a guess at all.
We, the heirs and reapers of the fruits of that rationalizing spirit of which he was one of the martyrs, can hardly realize what we owe to it until we compare the civilized world as it is now, when it is partly governed by reason, with what it was then, when it was wholly governed by superstition. Look at the subject of medicine alone. Before the age of reason men were taught that cures must be effected by relics of martyrs and bones of saints, by prayers and intercessions, and that each region of the body was under some spiritual charge — the first joint of the right thumb being in the care of God the Father, the second under the blessed Virgin. For each disease there was a saint. A man with sore eyes must invoke St. Clara, but if he had an inflammation elsewhere he must turn to St. Anthony. An ague would demand the assistance of St. Pernel.* Think, too, of the number of innocent women who were burnt alive as witches because they suffered from hysteria or excitability of nerve. Again, how could the science of astronomy be cul- tivated when the appearance of a comet was looked upon as a sign of God's wrath, to be dealt with by prayers and penitential psalms? Well, Vanini was a martyr to that iconoclastic spirit which refuses any participation in|the sanctification of ignorance. Rather than bow down before her shrine he will risk his life. Take up any of his dialogues — where you will— on bees, on fishes, on the origin of man, on the monstrosities that occur in nature, and you will find that crude and in many ways erroneous as are his speculations,
* Draper's Intellectual Development of Europe, vol. ii., p. 122.
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197
each of them testifies to his belief that all these objects have a natural rather than a supernatural interpretation. He cleared the ground, so to speak, of dust and rubbish, leaving abler men than himself to erect a lasting edifice.
This is the office that Vanini fills in the history of thought — an office so useful and necessary that on this the tercentenary of his birth I trust the time devoted to him here will be considered not wholly wasted.
(barter 'Brasses.
By John Alt Porter.
Iks rbcrtxr t. !
(From the tomb of Henry Bourchier, K.G., Earl of
Essex, 1483.)
[HE number of brasses in England bearing the insignia of the Order of the Garter appears to be some- what uncertain. It has been stated, on the authority of Haines, that there are only five. A correspondent in Notes afid Queries for January 23rd last, gives but four. He has made a mistake, however, for one of these (Lady Harcourt, a.d. 147 i, Stanton Harcourt, Oxfordshire) is a recumbent figure of stone. The five brasses are as follows :
1. Sir Peter Courtenay, 1409, Exeter Cathedral.
2. Sir Simon Felbrigge, 14 16, Felbrigg, Norfolk.
3. Sir Thomas Camoys, 1424, Trotlon, Sussex.
4. Henry Bourchier, Earl of Essex, 1483, Little Easton, Essex.
5. Sir Thomas BuUen, 1538, "Erie of Wilscher and Erie of Ormunde," Hever, Kent.
An endeavour shall now be made to describe each of these in order.
The first is that of Sir Peter Courtenav (a.d. 1 409), much defaced, in Exeter Cathedral. Of this knight, Mr. George Frederick Beltz, K.H., has written very fully in his Memorials of the Garter. Courtenay's/A/Zr, in St. George's Chapel, at Windsor, is one of the most ancient
relics connected with the Order. It is square, without any inscription, and bears the arms of Courtenay, affixed to the fifth stall on the Prince's side. Sir Peter was the fifth son of Hugh, the second Earl of Devon, by Mar- garet Bohun ; and a younger brother of Sir Hugh Courtenay, one of the founders of the Garter. He received knighthood from the Black Prince, at Vittoria, in 1367, and appears to have added to the lustre of his birth ardent and romantic devotion to chival- rous exercises, martial skill, and undaunted valour. He died unmarried 2nd February, 1404-5, leaving his nephew, Edward, third Earl of Devon, his heir. His coat of arms were gules, three torteaux ; over all a label of three points azure, each charged with three annulets.
Courtenay was interred in Exeter Cathe- dral near the tomb of his father, the Earl of Devonshire. His gravestone, according to Cleaveland, was richly inlaid with gilded brass, containing his portraiture. There can still be traced the bascinet, helm, camail, epaulieres, coudi^res, taces, haubergeon, sword, sword-belt, misericorde, garter, spur- straps, and soUerets of plate. A canopy rises from the base of the border legend, between two shields, one bearing the arms of Courtenay, the other Courtenay impaling Bohun. Round all is the inscription, with eight beautiful foils at the corners and sides. Those at the corners were the largest. The two which yet remain show an eagle, or a hawk, preying on some smaller bird. The others contained shields, one of which is pre- served : Courtenay impaling Bohun.
The epitaph, as much as remained of it in the year 1735, ran thus :
►J- Devonie natus comes petrusq' vocatus Regis cognatus camerarius intitulatus Calesie gratus capitaneus ense probatus Vite privatus fuit hinc super astra relatus, Et qua sublatus de mundo transit amatus Celo firmatus maneat sine fine beatus.
The Earl of Devonshire's son, Peter by name, Kin to the King, Lord Chamberlain of fame, Captain of Calais, for arms well approved, who dying was above the stars removed ; And well beloved went from the world away To lead a blessed Life in Heaven for Aye.
In Felbrigg Church, Norfolk, is the famous brass of Sir Simon Felbrigge, which was placed by his own order, and in his life- time, upon the death of Margaret, his first
198
GARTER BRASSES.
wife. He intended to be buried by her side, but afterwards changed his mind, and directed to be interred in the church of the Friars' Preachers, at Norwich, in 1442. The Felbrigge brass displays the knight in com- plete plate-armour. The helmet is rather round at the top, and the emerases, or gon- fannons, are charged with a plain cross of St. George. The elbow pieces are in escallop form, a long sword is at Sir Simon's left, and at his right is a short dagger, embossed and gilt, as are his spurs. A skirt, or fringe of mail, appears beneath the lowermost of the traces. Round his left leg is the Garter, with motto, the first example of it in Norfolk. The right arm supports a banner, or pennon, having thereon the arms borne by Richard II. in the latter part of his reign — the cross patonce between five martlets impaling quar- terly semi-de-lis, and three lions passant guardant France and England. In a shield above the canopy on the knight's side the same arms are repeated, as they are on the opposite side also, but impaling quarterly I and 4 the arms of the empire, a spread eagle with two heads crowned, 2 and 3 the kingdom of Bohemia, a lion rampant queue fourch^e, being the arms of Anne, Richard's queen. The second and third quarters are now blank in the plate, but are thus given by Anstis and Blomefield. Suspended from the middle quarter is Felbrig, or, a lion salient gules. Hugh Bigot, Earl of Norfolk, who married Maud Mareschall, bore on one side of his seal himself in complete armour on horseback, and on the other side a lion saliant ; the field was parti per pale, or and vert, and the lion gules: so that the Felbriggs, as descended from him, varied only (as was customary) the field, but retained the lion. This lion saliant impales a spread eagle, the arms of his lady : below on each side is a fetterlock, Blomefield says "garters." This badge was used also by Edward IV. and the house of York. His supporters are not here, but are said to have been two lions, and his crest a plume of ostrich feathers ermined. On the corbel between the arches of the canopy is a white hart lodged, which should have been gorged with a coronet and chain or, the device, or badge, and also the supporter of Richard II. To this King in 1395 Sir Simon Felbrigg was appointed standard- bearer (an office formerly granted to persons
of none but tried courage and known military talents, and endowed with great per- sonal strength), in memory of which the royal standard is represented on the monu- ment. In the first year of Henry V. he re- ceived the robes of the Order of the Garter, and in the register of the Garter, 1423, he is styled senior, and the year following ordinis maxime senex. He died 1443. His first wife was Margaret, daughter of Primislaus, Duke of Teschen, nephew to Wenceslaus V., King of Bohemia, and consequently a near kinswoman of Anne, Queen of Richard II., to whom she was maid of honour. She died in 141 6 (Blomefield), and her figure is repre- sented on the stone with her husband's at Felbrigg. His second was Katherine, daughter of Ansketill Malory, Esq., of Win- wick, and relict of Ralph Grene, of Draiton. She died in 1459 (1444, Blomefield), and was buried by her husband at Norwich.
The inscription at the foot of the Felbrigg brass runs thus :
"Hie jacentSymonFelbrygge miles quonda vexillari' illustrissimi dm [regis Ricardi sediqui obiit ] die mensis Anno dni mcccc[ ] et d'n'a margareta quonda consors sua nocione [et generosa sanguine boemaj ac olim domi- cella nobillissime dni d'n'e Anne quondam Anglie regine que obiit xxvii die Junii A'd'ni Mcccc [xiii Quor aiabs ppiciet deus. Amen]."
We come next to the Camoys monument at Trotton, Sussex. This is in a good state of preservation. About the year 1400 Eord Camoys rebuilt, and probably much en- larged, Trotton Church. His large table tomb stands about three feet from the floor, and measures nine feet six inches by four feet six. It is of one entire slab of Petworth marble. The whole surface is inlaid with portraits, inscriptions, and arcades, profusely decorated and composed of brass plate, having the outlines engraved. The baron is in a suit of plate armour, cap-ct-pie, with collar of SS., and the Garter buckled on the left knee. This brass exhibits a fan-shaped con- di^re ; and another peculiarity is that, at the right-hand base of the canopy, is the letter N reversed, for the artist's mark. His lady, who is on his right side, he holds by the hand. She also wears the SS. collar. Her attire is that of the " sideless cote hardi" of the time. The cincture of an under tunic may be distinguished, with a
GARTER BRASSES.
199
flowing robe, and an elaborate reticulated headdress. She was living in 141 8, so that she may probably have survived her second husband also. The arms on the tomb are : I. Camois within the Garter; 2. Camois im- paling Mortimer, and the inscription :
" Orate pro animabus Thomse Camoys, et Elizabethae, ejus consortis ; qui quondam erat Dominus de Camoys, Baro, et prudens consul Regis et Regni Angliae; ac strenuus Miles de Garterio ; suum finem commendavit in Christo, xxviii die mensis Marcii A. D'ni M. cccc. xix quorum animabus propicietur Deus. Amen,"
Henry Bourchier, created first Earl of Essex at the coronation of Edward IV. in 1 46 1, is buried with Isabel Plantagenet, his wife, aunt of Edward IV., in the Bourchier chapel of the church of Little Easton, Essex. The Earl was born in 1404. He received the Garter 31 Henry VI., 1452, after along royal service. In 38 Henry VI. he was with the Earls of March and Warwick at the battle of Northampton, wherein Henry VI. was de- feated. For this attachment to his interests Edward IV. constituted him Lord Treasurer. He took part in the Barnet fight on the morning of Easter Day, 147 1, when his second son, Humphrey, Lord Cromwell, was slain. The Earl's monument at Little Easton is of ornamented Gothic. There are three arches on each side, and one at each end. These are supported by clustered columns, with ring capitals resting on the altar-tomb below, and sided by a longer arch at the head and feet, the whole surmounted by a cornice of oak leaves. In the spandrils of the three centre arches on one side are the words, " ths cberto b," and on the other, " ihs aie |Jite." The fetterlock of the house of York is sprinkled over other parts, as also on the slab of the tomb, where the brassless cavities retain its form, and that of the Bourchier knot, and of the Order of the Garter.
The Earl's figure is habited in the Garter and mantle of the Order, with the device and motto on his left shoulder. His head, bare, reclines on a helmet surmounted by the Bourchier crest, a blackmoor's head with a cap antique gules. Under his mantle he wears a complete suit of armour, with collar of suns and roses, the Edwardian badge ; a gorget of mail and a long sword is thrown across his left thigh. At his feet is an
eagle, a family cognizance from the time of Richard II. The figures of himself and wife are richly enamelled. It is stated that in 21 Edward IV. this Earl obtained leave to found a guild in the Lady Chapel of Ulting Church, CO. Essex. He died 4 April, 1483. Dugdale and Morant say that he was buried in the chapel of the Blessed Virgin at Bilegh, near Maiden, but this is an error. He was interred at Little Easton, of which he owned the manor. His wife survived him two years, and died October 2nd, 2 Rich. III. The in- scription on the ledges of the tomb has been torn away, as have also the shields, in quatre- foils at the sides, and from the wall of the arches at each end.
In the north chancel of Hever Church, in Kent, on an altar-tomb of black marble, is the Garter brass of Sir Thomas Boleyn :
" Here lieth Sir Thomas Bullen, knight of the Order of the Garter, erle of VVilscher, and erle of Ormunde, wiche decessed the 1 2 dai of Marche, in the jere of our Lord 1538."^
The peculiar orthography of this inscrip- tion betokens the hand of a workman igno- rant of the language. It is in Roman capitals, which took the place of the old letters towards the end of the reign of Henry VII. The brass is thought to have been executed abroad, probably in Belgium. The knight whom it commemorates was the father of Henry VIII. 's ill-fated Queen, Anne Boleyn. He is dressed in the full insignia of the Order of the Garter. At his feet is a griffin; a jewelled coronet is on his head, which rests upon a helmet having for crest a demi-eagle dis- played, issuing from a plume of feathers.
£Dn 0ome Miniature Painters ann aBnamellists to6o 6at)e floutisben \xi OBnglanD,
By J. J. Foster.
Part II.
EFORE leaving Nicholas HiUiard, I may reiterate Walpole's salutary caution that not every old picture is by Holbein, nor every old minia- ture by Hilliard or Oliver. In the Anecdotes of Painting a passage is quoted from the
200
ON SOME MINIATURE PAINTERS AND ENAMELLISTS.
second part of Meres' Wifs Commonwealth (published 1598) to show that there were many artists of reputation in their own time, some of whom are hardly known now even by name. Amongst these are the two Bettes, Thomas and John. Both were pupils of Mil- liard, but very little of their work has been identified : so that in the large collection shown at South Kensington in 1865 not a single example is ascribed to them. But in the Winter Exhibition of the Royal Academy in 1879, the Duke of Buccleuch sent portraits of Catherine de Balzac, Duchess of Lennox, of a Queen Elizabeth, by John Bettes; also one of Thos. Egerton, Lord Ellesmere (Lord Chancellor, 1603), by Thomas Bettes. And Dr. Propert is the fortunate possessor of a miniature of John Digby, Earl of Bristol, signed T.B., — Thomas Bettes.
To a foreigner, Clouet or Janet, who worked at this period, we owe many good miniatures, for the most part painted in oils, among them one of surpassing interest, which in thus described in Vander Doort's Cata- logue of Charles the Firsfs Cabinet.
"No. 23 item. Done upon the right light, the second picture of Queen Mary of Scotland, upon a blue-grounded square card, dressed in her hair, in a carnation habit laced with small gold lace, and a string of pearls about her neck in a Httle plain falling band, she pulling on her second finger her wedding- ring. Supposed to be done by Jennet, a French Umner."
The present keeper of the Royal Library claims for this portrait *' an authenticity without a shadow of doubt," and accepts it as •' a standard authority on the vexed ques- tion of the true features of the beautiful Queen." Janet also painted Francis II., Mary's first husband. Both these were lent to the Academy in 1879.
Another miniature painter who must not be overlooked is John Shute, or Shoote, as Llilliard calls him. He was born at Col- lumpton, Devon, and is reputed to have practised the art before Hilliard. In 1550 he was sent into Italy by the Duke of North- umberland, studied architecture at Rome, and left one or two works on the subject ; but of his paintings I am unable to trace a single example — probably they have all been ascribed to Hilliard.
We now come to a distinguished name in the history of miniature painting in England, viz., that of Oliver or Olivier, as the elder artist signed his drawings. Witness the superb full length of Richard Sackville, Earl of Dorset, clad in Damascened armour, and now in the Jones collection. This fine example from the Bale collection, which was sold at Christies' in 1880 for jQts^^ ^"^^ for which the owner refused ;^i,ooo, is signed Isaac OUivierus, fecit, dated 161 6.
There were two Olivers, Isaac, the father, and Peter, his eldest son and pupil. Lord Orford says, apropos of Isaac, he could find no account of the origin of the family, which is often supposed to have been of French extraction ; he adds : " This is of no import- ance : he was a genius, and they {sic) transmit more honour by blood than they can receive." Nichols, in his History of Leicestershire^ quotes an authority which relates that the family held lands at East Norton in that county.
The careers of these two distinguished artists extend over more than a century. Isaac was born in those dark days when Latimer and Ridley "lit the candle which, by God's grace, in England, shall never be put out :" to be precise, in the very year (1556) Cranmer was brought to the stake.
He died in 16 17, the date of Raleigh's execution, at his house in Blackfriars, a year after Shakespeare. What would we not give for a portrait of the latter by the hand of Isaac Oliver !
Isaac's eldest son Peter first saw the light in 1 601, the year in which Essex fell on the scaffold, and lived long enough to see Monk enter London and " the King enjoy his own again."
How great were the events of the years covered by the lives of these two artists ! For- tunately, whilst the number of their priceless works which have come down to us is by no means numerous, their faithful and exquisite art has preserved for us, and, let us hope, for many succeeding generations, the features of several of the most distinguished actors in the stirring dramas of their times. By the elder handthe Queen possesses a profile of Anne of Denmark, mother of Charles I. (long regarded as a portrait of Elizabeth), James I., a superb portrait of Henry, Prince of Wales ("the
ON SOME MINIATURE PAINTERS AND ENAMELLISTS.
20I
finest extant," says Mr. Holmes), and the celebrated full length of Sir Philip Sydney, seated under a tree. Lady Burdett Coutts owns several of the famous Digby collection, of which Walpole was so proud, notably Sir Kenelm Digby and Venetia his wife, and the group of the same with their children after Vandyck's noble picture at Sherborne. These hung in " the blue breakfast-room " at Strawberry Hill, and fetched at the well- known sale sums ranging from a few guineas to ;^i78 (the costliest of all being the first- named), a price which it is not too much to say is such as to make a modern collector die of envy. Lord Derby's collection con- tains an unfinished miniature on card of Robert, Earl of Essex, and another of Eliza- beth, Queen of Bohemia, both bought at Walpole's sale, the latter for thirteen guineas, whilst the former most interesting portrait, which has an undoubted pedigree, having belonged to Lady Wolseley, a descendant of Elizabeth's ill-fated favourite, went for seven guineas only. Talking of Essex, the Duke of Buccleugh boasts of a portrait of the Countess of Nottingham, besides Ben Jonson ; Lord Herbert, of Cherbury ; Lord Strafford ; Sir William Drummond, of Haw- thornden ; Elizabeth ; a crayon drawing, washed with colour, of " the hope of the Puritans," Henry, Prince of Wales ; Henrietta Maria (doubtful, seeing the painter died in 1617); Sir Philip Sydney (engraved by Vertue) ; a portrait of the painter himself; Lady Shirley, the reputed Persian Princess ; Richard Dudley, Earl of Leicester ; the second Earl of Essex, and others.
The most celebrated work of Isaac Oliver is the group of the three brothers Montague. This remarkable miniature, which measures ten inches by nine inches, now finds a fitting home in a noble Elizabethan house — viz., Burghley. It came from Lord Montacute's, at Cowdray, and represents three brothers of that lord's family, whole lengths, in black dresses relieved by lace collars and gold belts. Anotheryoungman, presumably a page, painted in a silver-lace doublet, is coming into the room. It is signed "I. O.," dated 1598, and is most exquisitely finished throughout.
Apart from the superlative quality and im- portant scale of this piece, fully justifying the term " invaluable " which Walpole applies to
VOL. XIV.
it in his Anecdotes of Paintings and making it perhaps the finest portrait miniature in existence, there are circumstances connected with it which make it of unusual interest. Thus, two of the brothers died quite young : one, John, just as he came of age ; the other, William, when only eighteen. All three re- sembled each other in a remarkable way, a peculiarity referred to in the inscription which it bears : '* Figurse conformis afiectus." Again, the picture escaped the fire at Cow- dray, there being only three others which were rescued on that fatal day in September, 1793. It came into the present Lord Exeter's possession through his mother, daughter of Stephen Poyntz, of Cowdray, who married the only sister of the eighth and last Lord Montague. It still exists in perfect preserva- tion to remind us of the strange fatality that marked the end of the race of Montague, when its last scion perished over the Falls of Schaffhausen, just as the old family mansion, at which Johnson wished " to stay four-and- twenty hours to see how our ancestors lived," was destroyed by the flames.
It is related that the messengers, one bear- ing tidings of the death of the last Montague by water, the other of the destruction of the home of his race by fire, met each other on the Continent.
It is commonly said that Peter Oliver was the pupil of his father, but if the date of Isaac Oliver's burial in the church of St. Anne, Blackfriars (where, by the way, the son erected a monument and placed a bust to his father), be correct, viz., 1617, there was not much time for tuition, as Peter was not born till 1 60 1. At any rate the young painter made the most of his opportunities, and turned out a miniaturist even excelling his father. Moreover, he did not confine him- self to portraiture, but copied, in water- colours, several capital pictures with signal success, says Walpole, who mentions several important works other than portraits. Of the historic miniatures, the same authority states there were thirteen in the cabinets of Charles I. and James II., and speaks of the dispersal of the former monarch's collection during " the troubles." He speaks also of the efforts made by Charles II. to bring them together again, and tells an interesting story of a visit paid incognito by that monarch to
p
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ON SOME MINIATURE PAINTERS AND ENAMEI^LISTS.
Peter's widow at Isleworth after the Restora- tion, and what that lady, who seems to have called a spade a spade, said of the persons on whom the King bestowed them when he acquired them. But want of space will not allow of its quotation. Nor can I do more than refer, in passing, to the painter's habit of making duplicates of his pictures, reserving one of each for himself. The find of a " wainscott-box " in Wales containing many " replicas " by Oliver of the Digby family I have already mentioned. Walpole appears to be in doubt as to the date of Peter Oliver's death ; Redgrave fixes it by the probate of his will as 1660, the painter being then aged 59. He was buried near his father. The church and its monuments perished in the Great Fire. There were two other Olivers living at this period — John, a glass-painter, and Isaac, his son, an engraver, not to be confused with the miniaturists. In dis- tinguishing the works of the latter it is im- portant to observe that the elder signed his productions with the monogram *, the younger with the initials "P.O." connected.
To this period, but somewhat later, belong the two Hoskins, also father and son, both named John, And here I may ask pardon for a digression to call the attention of the amateur and collector to the frequent dupli- cation of names — often, as in the case before us, having the same initials. Thus, to mention only some of the best known miniature painters, there were :
Two Bettes, John and Thomas, brothers.
Two Bones, enamellists, Plenry the father, and Henry Pierce, the son.
Two Collins, Samuel and Richard.
Two Coopers, Alexander and Samuel, brothers.
Two Cosways, husband and wife.
Two Crosses, Richard and Lewis.
Two Dixons, John and Nathaniel (the latter, by the way, is not mentioned by Red- grave).
Two Englehearts, George and J, D.
Two enamellists named Essex, viz., Wil- liam and William B., his son.
Richard Gibson, the dwarf, Susan his daughter, and William his nephew.
Charles Hayter and his more distinguished son, Sir George.
Two Hilliards, Nicholas and Lawrence, father and son.
Two out of the three Hones were miniature painters.
Two Hoskins, both John, also father and son.
Two Bernard Lens, besides A. B. Lens and P. P. Lens.
G. M. Moser, R.A., Mary Moser, R.A., his daughter, and Joseph Moser, an enamellist.
Another Newton (viz., Richard) besides Sir William.
Two Olivers, Isaac and Oliver, father and son.
As is well known, there were two Pelitots, father and son, and both Johns.
Two Plimers, Andrew and Nathaniel, brothers.
Andrew Robertson, the finest miniature painter Scotland has produced, had a less eminent brother with the same initial, Alexander to wit.
Two other Robertsons, brothers, viz., Walter and Charles, practised in Dublin, and there was besides a Mrs. Robertson.
Sir William Ross was the son of a miniature painter.
There were three Saunders of the same profession, and three Smarts, of whom two were named John, and were father and son, besides Anthony Smart and his two daughters; and many other instances of this puzzUng repetition of names could be given.
To return to the painters of the seventeenth century. Both the Hoskins hold an honour- able place. Of the father. Sir Kenelm Digby, in his Discourses, says that " by his paintings in little he pleased the public more than Vandycke." This is high praise indeed. Probably most modern critics would be dis- posed to take exception to a certain hotness in his flesh tints, and certainly would not dream of ranking him above Vandyck.
It is known that Charles I. and his consort sat to the elder Hoskins, The Queen ex- hibited a miniature by him of the first Charles in the Winter R.A., 1879, signed " L H. fc. ;" and another of Lucius Cary, Lord Falkland, signed " I. H. " connected. I note this, because his work is frequently signed with a monogram, the I within the H ; whilst his son John generally signed the initials " I. H. " separately. James II. was a patron of the younger man. The Duke of Buccleugh's collection is rich in his justly-prized works.
The fame of the elder^ Hoskins has been eclipsed by that of his nephew and pupil, Samuel Cooper, in whom it has been said
ON SOME MINIATURE PAINTERS AND ENAMELLISTS.
203
miniature art culminated. Besides his pre- eminence in his profession, Cooper was a linguist and an excellent musician. The latter accomplishment it doubtless was that endeared him to Samuel Pepys, who fre- quently mentions him in his JDiary — thus : " 1668. March 29. — Harris .... hath per- suaded me to have Cooper draw my wife's (portrait), which tho' it cost ;^3o yet I will have done." The next day he goes to "Common. Garden Coffee House," where he meets " Mr. Cooper, the great artist ;" thence presently to his house to see some of his work, '* which is all in little, but so excellent as, though I must confess I do think the colouring of the flesh to be a little forced, yet the painting is so extraordinary as I do never expect to see the like again." Then follows a description of several portraits he saw in progress. " Mrs. Stewart's when a young maid," before she was disfigured by the small-pox ; " my Lord Generall's picture" (there was a score of miniatures of Crom- well at South Kensington in 1867, nearly all ascribed to Cooper), and several others. He appears most struck by a miniature of " one Swinfen, Secretary to my Lord Manchester. . . . This fellow died in debt, and never paid Cooper for his picture. . . . Cooper," says he, " himself did buy it (from the creditors) and give ;^25 out of his purse for it, for what he was to have had but ;,^3o." Elsewhere Pepys speaks of the artist being " a most admirable workman, and good company." Evelyn, too, refers to him, and relates (Jan. 10, 1662) being called into his Majesty's closet when " Mr. Cooper, y'' rare limner, was crayoning of the King's face and head to make the stamps by for the new mill'd money now contriving. I had the honour to hold the candle whilst it was doing; he choosing the night and candlelight for y*" better finding out the shadows."
The Queen hasasuperb head of Charles IL \ also others of Geo. Monk, Duke of Albe- marle, and the youthful Monmouth. These form a trio of portraits which for character and expression, grace and truthful simplicity of manner, it would be impossible to excel. The two latter were to be seen at Burlington House, in 1879. Cooper's works are generally signed " S. C." connected, and nearly always painted on card, ivory not being used till
later. They are so well known, both at home and on the Continent, as to make it almost superfluous to say more about them.
Thomas Flatman — b. 1633, d. 1688 — is generally considered to have painted in Cooper's style, and I have somewhere seen it asserted that the interesting pocket-book full of unfinished miniatures at South Kensington, ascribed to Cooper, is really by Flatman. He used more body colour than his eminent con- temporary, and is certainly inferior to him. He seems to have been ambitious of literary renown ; but Granger says one of his heads is worth a ream of his ** Pindarics." Lord Rochester was severe on him, and calls him " that slow drudge,"
Flatman, who Cowley imitates with pains, And rides a jaded muse, whipt, with loose reins.
Vertue pronounces him equal to Hoskins, and next to Cooper.
But we must hasten on to say something about a far greater man, whose works merit a volume being devoted to them alone — viz., Petitot. What Sir Joshua Reynolds did to illustrate for us the eighteenth century, and to hand down to posterity the living present- ments of the men and women of his time, that did Cooper and Petitot for the seven- teenth century.
The former we naturally claim as all our own. The latter was born in Geneva, but practised in this country for some years, and one of his children (he had seventeen) became a Major-General in the English ser- vice. Hence English collections are particu- larly rich in his works, and the munificent bequest of Mr. Jones to the nation enables everyone who is interested to study them thoroughly — no less than fifty-eight examples at South Kensington being ascribed to the elder Petitot. Of these, eight are portraits of Louis XIV., and a considerable proportion of the remainder consist of the favourites and children of " la Grand Monarque," who fol- lowed the example set by Charles I., and when the painter, alarmed by the outbreak of the Civil War, left the English Court, gave him a residence at the Louvre with a pension. As in the case of Cooper, so with Petitot ; his life-story is well-known, and the unsur- passed beauty of his work is universally allowed. To Petitot, however, belongs this distinction, not merely has he left us minia-
p 2
204
ON SOME MINIATURE PAINTERS AND ENAMELLISTS
tures of exquisite beauty and refinement, perfect in drawing, and sweet in colour, but he was the first to bring to perfection the art of enamelling as applied to portraiture. His early trade of jeweller taught him the use of enamel ; then going to Italy with his brother- in-law, Bordier, he improved his art by the aid of the best chemists ; and when he came to England his experiments in vitrification and the choice of colours which will stand firing — in which he was assisted by Sir Theo- dore Mayerne, the King's chief physician — brought it to perfection. Some of Petitot's portraits are scarcely larger than sixpence, yet the clearness of definition of feature, and beautiful execution, leave scarcely any room for criticism. They are nearly always enamelled upon gold.
Exigencies of space will not allow of my saying more of the exquisite art which Jean Toutin discovered, and Petitot practised with such marvellous success, than that it adds to the difficulties of miniature painting, the risks of exposure to the heat of the furnace, and requires unlimited patience, care, and skill, the same plate being often " fired " as many as twenty times.
After Petitot, there were several enamellers of eminence who deserve more than a passing notice, such as Charles Boit, of French ex- traction, but born in Stockholm. He came early to this country, and worked as a jeweller. Failing in that line, he tried teach- ing drawing, and VValpole tells a story of an intrigue with the daughter of a general officer, that led to his being thrown into prison for two years, which he seems to have turned to account by practising enamel-painting (though how this was managed I confess I am not quite able to understand). What is certain is that he afterwards obtained very high prices for his work. In one case he is said to have had ;^i,ooo advanced on a large plate intended for the Queen (i\nne). But as he wasted ^C^oo or ;;^8oo in trying to fire it, one is not surprised to find that he got into difficulties, to escape which he fled to France, where he died about 1726.
C. F. Zincke was his pupil. This admirable artist was the son of a goldsmith at Dresden. He came to this country when about thirty years old ; was patronised by George II., and for forty years had large employment.
His eye-sight failed some twenty years before his death, at South Lambeth, in 1767. It is satisfactory to know that his numerous and beautiful portraits, distinguished by rare delicacy of finish and refinement, secured for him ample means.
James Deacon, a young man of promise, who died of gaol-fever, caught when serving as a witness at the Old Bailey ; Jarvis Spencer, a gentleman's servant, who became a fashion- able miniaturist ; Michael Moser, son of a sculptor at St. Gall, who was one of the most active founders of our Royal Academy, of which he was the first keeper; Nathaniel Hone, R.A., well-known by his quarrel with the Academy; Jeremiah Meyer, R.A., who came from Wurtemberg — were all enamellists whose works are highly and justly esteemed. Cotes, Collins, Shelley, Ozias Humphrey, Richard Cosway, Sir H. Raeburn, the Plimers, Edridge, the Bones, Andrew Robert- son, Chalon, Sir William Ross, and Thor- burn, bring this sketch down to our own times — to what I have termed the eclipse of the art, and must be reserved for a third and concluding article.
ancient Cross at (^osfortf), CumljetlantJ,
By Charles A. Parker, F.S.A., Scot,
N an article in the Antiquary of August, 1884, entitled " Deposit of Slag Iron, Nether-Wasdale, Cum- berland," by the Rev. Samuel Barber, I notice an allusion to this re- markable monument which runs as follows : — "Gosforth, where the noted Runic Cross stands in the churchyard (having long laid underground), is four miles away." And in the last issue of the West Cumberland Times is another article, apparently quoting from the current volume of the Church Quarterly Review, which states, " This cross must surely have been buried, or how could it have escaped destruction in the ninth century ?"
I submit that there is no evidence to show that this cross has even been moved, still less buried. It stands on the south side of the church, opposite the centre of the building
ANCIENT CROSS AT GOSFGRTH, CUMBERLAND.
205
and about midway between it and the churchyard wall, which is the position of all churchyard crosses in this neighbourhood, with the exception of St. Bees, where there is no burial ground on the south side. It is in its original socket, of three steps composed of red sandstone, having the same twisted grain as the cross itself, and much worn away by generations of heedless feet. This is supported beneath the surface of the soil by massive pieces of sandstone set obliquely. Local masons say that it is exceedingly good stone, and has been brought from a distance, and not taken out of the Gosforth Quarry. Local tradition maintains that it has always stood where it does now.
Gosforth -Cross is 14^ feet high, exclusive of the socket, and is believed to be the tallest ancient cross in Britain. The base of the shaft is circular, having a diameter of about 14 inches; the upper part is square, and tapers as it ascends until, just below the head, it measures only 5 inches across. To lift and remove this slender pillar unharmed would be a work of great difficulty and trouble ; had it ever fallen it must inevitably have broken.
Fragments of three other crosses, which formerly stood in the churchyard, are carefully preserved in the church. One of these monuments stood " at about 7 feet distance " from the present one, and was in situ up to 1789, in which barbarous age it was ruth- lessly cut down and converted into a sundial. The others had disappeared long before. In digging round the base of the sundial in 1882, I was so fortunate as to discover a fragment of one of them, nearly 3 feet long, with carving upon it in high relief, illustrating most clearly the myth of Thor's fishing for the great Midgard serpent. This fragment had lain there since 1789, and Mr. Barber has probably confused it with the present cross when he states that the latter " has long laid underground." Regarding the conten- tion that it must have been buried to escape the Danes in the ninth century, are we to apply the same argument to the Irton cross only 2 1 miles away, which is also perfect and in its original position ? Is it not likely that on the invasion by the dreaded Half-dene and his crew, who destroyed Carlisle so utterly " that for 200 years the city ceased to be a city," the natives would have enough to do to look after their own lives, those of their
wives and children and what belongings they possessed, to have time for so elaborate an undertaking as the taking down and burying of the cross ? A more probable theory to account for its survival is, that it escaped destruction by the Danes because they recognised upon it the symbols of their own heathen religion. The whole cross is, in the words of Professor Stephens, "redolent of heathenism." The invaders could not fail to recognise Lokd and Sigun, the fiend struggling with his bonds, and his unhappy wife stretching forth the newly emptied cup to catch the poison which drops from the serpent above. If this attracted their atten- tion they might also recognise Heimdall, Odin, Balder, the wolf and the great serpent, and turn away from a monument graven with figures of these supposititious beings, whose anger and power they dreaded. Low down on the cross stem is a large indentation, which has apparently been produced by several heavy blows. May this not be the work of a destroyer whose hand has been checked by some means — and not too soon ? I venture to lay these remarks before the readers of the Antiquary as those of one who has lived all his life in the parish, and has devoted his leisure-time for some years towards elucidating the history and meaning of this remarkable monolith.
lontion Cbeatres.
By T. Fairman Oroish.
IV. — The Fortune Playhouse.
IN dealing with the Globe and Blackfriars playhouses we have rendered an account of the thea- trical enterprise of the Burbage family, which commenced with the building of the Theatre, the first playhouse erected in this country. The prosperous career of Edward Alleyn, who, as a player, was the great rival of Richard Burbage, \vas partially described in our articles on the Rose, the Hope, and the Swan playhouses ; and now we have to continue the story of Alleyn's prosperity in the history of the Fortune theatre, which he built, and in which his
2o6
LONDON THEATRES.
fame and fortune alike grew apace. There is perhaps something commonplace in the prudence and resulting prosperity of AUeyn ; there are no vicissitudes or calamities to enlist our sympathy. His single misfortune, the burning down of his playhouse, he notes with the laconic brevity of one who could love Dame Fortune in all her aspects, although for him she almost invariably wore a smile. In all the records of him, and they are happily very numerous and complete, he appears a man self-possessed, clear-headed and methodical ; in no doubt at all as to his way and relative position among his con- temporaries. With the wealth that was the fruit of his sagacity and industry he founded Dulwich College, which exists to this day, to illustrate the possibilities of an actor's career three hundred and fifty years ago. This fact might well be recommended to the attention of those who in our time profess to think that the successful actor is made too much of, and has become out of focus in the social economy.
Alleyn was born on September ist, 1566, two years later than Shakespeare. His birthplace was in Bishopsgate, " near Devon- shire House, where now is the sign of the Pie," as Fuller stated. In connection with his father's property in Shoreditch, we find mention of Pye Alley and Fisher's Folly, by which name Devonshire House was formerly known. Alleyn was baptized at St. Botolph's, -Bishopsgate, and named after his father, Edward. The earliest mention of the elder Alleyn in the Dulwich records is in a bond, dated 1555. In this document he is styled "of London, yeoman," as again in 1557. In subsequent deeds, including his will, dated loth September, 1570, he uniformly appears as an " innholder ;" and in the entry of his burial at St. Botolph's, 13th September, 1570, he is described as "porter to the Queene," a title previously given him in one of the Dulwich documents in 1567. These circumstances of the father, a substantial innholder, with some kind of Court service, prepared the way for the son's career. The old English inns figure very honourably in the early chapters of our dramatic history, and we can imagine how the mind of Alleyn received its bent in quite tender years. He was ten years old when James Burbage came
and built the Theatre not far from his father's house in Bishopsgate, and we may assume that he was a spectator at the presentation of plays there and at the Curtain. How soon he turned actor we know not, although it is presumptively probable that he acted as a boy. The first record we have of him as a player is in 1586, when his name appears in a list of the Earl of Worcester's players. When quite a young man, namely, in 1592, or when he was twenty-six years of age, he was already famous. In Nash's Pierce Penny- lesse, published in that year, we read : " Not Roscius or ^sope, those tragedians admyred before Christ was borne, could ever perform more in action than famous Ned Allen ;" a similar comparison is made by Ben Jonson ; and Heywood says of him that he won
The attribute of peerless, being a man Whom we may rank with (doing no wrong) Proteus for shapes, and Roscius for a tongue.
In 1592 AUeyn married Joan, Henslowe's step-daughter, and from that time he became closely associated with Henslowe in theatrical enterprise. At the time of his marriage, Alleyn was a member of the Lord Admiral's company of players, and performed at the theatres in which Henslowe was interested. In 1593 the plague was raging in London, and he joined Lord Strange's company in a provincial tour. In 1594 his duties in connection with the Baiting began, and it appears from his diary, that he resumed performing in London this year, and so con- tinued till the close of 1597. It was probably at this time that Alleyn contemplated building a playhouse, which design soon took shape as the Fortune playhouse, with which we are here concerned. James Burbage had died in 1597, in the midst of litigation with Giles Allen, the ground-landlord of the Theatre; and his successors found it very difficult to carry on the business of that playhouse. There is probably some connection between the embarrassment of the Burbages, and Edward AUeyn's project for the building of a new playhouse. The Theatre was removed to the Bankside in December, 1598, or January, 1599. Alleyn acquired a lease of the site of the Fortune on December 22, 1599, and this site was not more than half a mile from that of the Theatre.
On the 8th January, 1600, one Peter
LONDON THEATRES.
207
Streete, a London carpenter, entered into a contract with Henslowe and AUeyn to build the new playhouse. He engaged to erect for the sum of ;i^44o " a newe house and stadge for a Plaiehowse . . . nere Goldinge Lane, in the parish of Ste. Giles withoute Cripple- gate of London." The new house was to be " sett square," 80 feet each way without, and 55 feet each way within; it was to be three storeys in height, and in its arrange- ments like " the late erected Plaiehowse . . . called the Globe."
It has been mentioned that AUeyn be- longed to the Lord Admiral's company of players, and it is evident that the Admiral, who at this period was Charles Howard, Earl of Nottingham, thoroughly approved of the new project and supported AUeyn in it. This appears from the Warrant which he issued on the 12th January, 1600, to the Justices and other officers of Middlesex, re- quiring them to permit his servant, Edward AUeyn, " in respect of the dangerous decaye of that House, which he and his Companye have nowe on the Banck [/.^., the Rose] and for that the same standeth verie noysome for resorte of people in the wynter tyme," to build a new theatre "neare Redcrosse Street, London," the place being " very convenient for the ease of the people," and the Queen having " a speciaU regarde of fauor in their proceedings." At about the same time the *' Inhabitants of ye Lordshipp of Fynsburye " addressed the Privy Council, certifying their willingness that the buUding of a new play- house by the Earl of Nottingham's servants within the lordship " might proceede and be toUerated."
In spite of the influence at his back, AUeyn encountered the usual opposition which the authorities invariably gave to play- houses and all connected therewith. To overcome this, a Warrant from the Privy Council, signed by the Earl of Nottingham, Lord Hunsdon, and Sir Robert Cecil, was issued on the 8th April following, to the Justices of Middlesex, "especially of St. Gyles without Creplegate," requiring them, by order of the Queen, to permit Edward AUeyn to *' proceede in theffectinge and finishinge " of a new playhouse, "in a verie remote and exempt place neare Gouldinge Lane."
There is a good deal of correspondence in
the Dulwich papers as to the acquisition of the site by AUeyn. The net result of the transactions are thus noted by AUeyn in a memorandum book, which was printed, with other of his papers, by the Shakespeare Society in 1843 :
What the Fortune cost me, Novemb., 1599 [1600].
First for the leas to Brew, 240;,^.
Then for the building the playhouse, S2Q^.
For other privat buildings of myn owne, l'2.o£,.
So in all it has cost me for the leasse, %2>o£,.
Bought the inheritance of the land of the Gills of the He of Man, which is the Fortune, and all the howses in Whight crosstrett and Gowlding lane in June 1610 for the some of 340;^.
Bought in John Garretts lease in revertion from the Gills, for 21 yeares, for loO;^.
So in all itt cost me I32C>^.
Blessed be the Lord God everlasting.
Although, as appears from the contract, the Fortune was built for both Henslowe and AUeyn, yet all the documents and correspond- ence as to the acquisition of the site, and of the freehold, are in AUeyn's name alone. We shall see that ultimately he became absolute holder of the whole property, and that it formed part of the endowment of Dulwich College.
In 1603, on the accession of James I., the style of the company acting at the Fortune became changed from that of the Lord Admiral's to that of the Prince of Wales's company of players. About this time there was a visitation of the Plague, and the theatres were accordingly closed. On the 9th April, 1604, a letter was issued from the Privy Council to the Lord Mayor and the Justices of Middlesex and Surrey, requiring them to permit " the three Companies of Players to the King, Queene, and Prince publicklie to exercise ther plaies in their severall and usuall howses for that purpose and noe other, viz., the Globe, situate in Maiden Lane on the Banckside in the Cowntie of Surrey, the Fortune in Goldinge Lane, and the Curtaine in HoUywelle in the Cowntie of Middlesex . . . except ther shall happen weeklie to die of the Plague above the number of thirtie."
In the Dulwich papers there is a statement in the hand of Edw. AUeyn of his expendi- ture on the Bear-Garden and the Fortune, 1602-1608, as foUov.'s :
208
LONDON THEATRES.
|
Bear-Garden. |
|
|
C s. d. |
|
|
1602 |
- 121 II 6 |
|
1603 |
- 118 07 0 |
|
1604 |
- 153 14 0 |
|
1605 |
- 092 12 4 |
Play Howse. I s. d. 089 05 o 004 02 o 232 01 8 108 14 3
|
486 04 10 1606 pd for ye building - 1607 of ye howse w'^*' may 1608 be counted to 360^^ |
434 02 II - 127 00 00 - 163 00 00 - 121 06 00 |
|
Some totall - 846 04 10 |
411 06 00 |
845 08 II
There is also a statement of receipts, but it is difficult to perceive the significance of the entry. The amount received from the Bear- Garden so much exceeds that received from the Fortune playhouse, that the object may have been merely to note the contrast. The days in question may have been days of special attraction at the Bear-Garden. The statement is as follows :
Rd at the Bergerden this yeare i6o8, begining at
Chrystmas holedayes, as fol(nveth, Rd one Mondaye, St. Stevenes daye iiij"- Rd one Tewesdaye, St. Johns daye vj"- Rd one Wensdaye, being Shilldermas daye iij'"-
xiij^-
Rd at the Forte'dme this yeare 1608, hegenynge at
CrystT?ias ho lad ayes.
Rd one St. Stevenes daye xxv''- Rd one St. Johnes daye xxxxv^- Rd one Chelldeimas daye xxxxiiij^ ix''-
This same year it was proposed to grant a lease to a player named Thomas Downton, of one-eighth of a fourth part of all " clere gaines in monye" arising from "any stage playinge or other exercise, commoditye or use . . . within the playhouse . . . com- monly called the Fortune," to hold the same for thirteen years, for a yearly rent of los. and ^£2^ IDS. in hand, the said Thomas Downton covenanting to pay a proportionate part of all " necessarye and needful charges," and to play " to the best and most benefitt he can within the playhouse aforesaid," and in no other "common playhouse nowe erected or hereafter to be erected within the said cittye of London or two myles com- passe." The deed was not executed, but the fact of the proposal is nevertheless interesting.
It was in these years, and at the Fortune theatre, that Alleyn's fame as an actor
reached its height. His most popular assumption of character was that of Barabbas in the Jew of Malta. This play had been one of the attractions at the Rose theatre, and now that Burbage was mono- polising public attention on the Bankside, Alleyn continued to earn applause and sup- port on the northern side of London. There was, as we have seen in treating of other theatres in which they were respectively interested, a rivalry between the Burbages and Alleyn, a rivalry between their respective companies, which became a personal one with the leaders of each. There are allusions to this in the Uterature of the period ; we find Ned Alleyn contrasted with Richard Burbage, and notices of wagers offered on their several achievements. There appears to be no record to show that Alleyn came in contact with the great luminary of Burbage's company, William Shakespeare. Yet the probability is greatly against their having been unacquainted. It is interesting to find in the Dulwich papers that in the year 1609 Alleyn records on the back of a letter the purchase of Shakespeare's Sonnets, which had recently been published. He gave sd. for his copy.
As we see from his memorandum above, Alleyn purchased the freehold of the For- tune and the adjoining tenements on 30th May, 1 610. Another important transaction at this period was the sale to Henslowe of his interest in the Bear-Garden. The date of this sale was February, 1610-11 ; the likelihood being that it was the February preceding the purchase of the Fortune free- hold. These steps would appear to have been preparatory to Alleyn's retirement from the stage. Quoting Mr. Warner's Introduction to the Dulwich Catalogue:
"In 161 2 Alleyn had probably left the stage, although still pecuniarily interested in it ; and while Henslowe was bargaining with Daborne for plays, he was living as a landed proprietor on his own estate, busy with the foundation of his College, which, more than his fame as an actor, has preser^-ed his memory."
Having acquired the freehold of the pro- perty and retired from the stage, Alleyn granted a lease of his playhouse, dated 31 October, i6i8, to Edward Jubye, William
LONDON THEATRES.
209
Bird, and others. By this instrument he leased " all that his great building now vsed for a playhouse and comonly called by the name of the Fortune .... betweene White- crosse Street and Golding Lane," in the par. of St. Giles without Cripplegate, London, with a taphouse, in the occupation of Mark Brighani, and piece of ground adjoining, to hold the same for 31 years at a rent of 200/., and " two rundlettes of wyne, the one sack and the other clarett, of ten shillinges a peece
Edward Alleyn for the foundation of Dulwich College.
We obtain an insight into the management of the theatre by a curious letter among the Alleyn papers. William Bird, one of the lessees, wrote to Alleyn, to the effect that, " one Jhon Russell," whom he appointed a *' gatherer," has proved so false that the Company have " many tymes warnd him from taking the box," and have now " resolud he shall never more come to the doore ;" but for
THE FORTUNE I'LAYIIOUSE.
price ;" with provisions that, if the said Edw. Alleyn die within the term, the rent be re- duced to 120/. for the residue, and that the lessees shall not " convert the said playhowse to any other vse or vses then as the same is now vsed," and that they shall receive a rent of 24J., to be reduced to 4^. at Alleyn's death, due from John Russell on a lease for 99 years, of a tenement of two rooms adjoining the playhouse.
In the following year, 16 19, Alleyn settled the property on his College. The settlement was made by Letters Patent from James L to
his [Alleyn's] sake, he " shall have his wages to be a necessary atendaunt on the stage," and if he will mend their garments they will pay him for that also.
It may be taken generally that the descrip- tion of the internal arrangements which we gave of the Globe applies to the Fortune. An interesting description of the interior of Venetian theatres as contrasted with London theatres, occurs in Coryafs Crudities, 161 t, p. 247 :*
* Harrison's Description ; New Shakspere Society, Ed. Y. J. Furnivall : Forewords to Part II., p. 63.
2IO
LONDON THEATRES.
" I was at one of their Playhouses, where I saw a Comedie acted. The house is very beggarly and base in comparison of our stately Playhouses in England : neyther can their actors compare with vs for apparell, shewes and musicke. Here I observed cer- tain things that I never saw before. For I saw women acte, a thing that I neuer saw before, though I haue heard that it hath been sometimes vsed in London ; and they per- formed it with as good a grace, action, gesture, and whatsoeuer conuenient for a Player as euer I saw any masculine Actor. Also their noble and fauorite Cortezans came to this Comedy, but so disguised, that a man cannot perceiue them. For they wore double maskes vpon their faces, to the end they might not be scene ; one reaching from the toppe of their forehead to their chinne, and vnder their necke, another with twiskes of downy or woolly stuffe couering their noses. And as for their neckes round about they were so couered and wrapped with cobweb lawne and other things, that no part of their skin could be discerned .... they sit not here in gal- leries as we do in London : for there is but one or two little galleries in the house, wherein the Courtezans only sit."
The French company of actors, with women players, which performed at Blackfriars 7 th November, 1629, and at the Red Bull on 22nd November, acted at the Fortune on the 14th December following. Collier gives the following entry from the office-book of the Master of the Revels :
" For allowinge of a French companie att the Fortune to play one afternoone this 14 day of December, 1629 — ^^i.
"Sir Henry Herbert bears positive testi- mony to the little success they met with on this occasion, in a memorandum subjoined to the preceeding entry : ' I should have had another piece, but in respect of their ill- fortune I was content to bestow a piece back;' so that he returned half his fee on a subse- quent representation of the unprofitableness of the speculation."
On December 9th, 1621, the playhouse was burnt down. Under this date Alleyn thus records the catastrophe : " this night att 12 of ye clock ye Fortune was burnt." In a letter from John Chamberlain to Sir Dudley Carleton, on the 15th of the month, the event is thus noticed :
" On Sunday night, here'was a great fire at the Fortune, in Golding Lane, the first play- house in this town. It was quite burnt down in two hours, and all their apparell and play- books lost, whereby these poor companions are quite undone."
Alleyn was soon busy with the work of re- construction. The following are entries in his diary bearing thereon :
1621. Dec. 9. Md. this night att 12 of y'' clock
y^ Fortune was burnt.
;^S.d.
1622. April 16. dinner at y« Hart in Smith-
feeldw' builders offy^ For- tune - - - -030
,, ,, 26. water to London d^- wine w'
y^ Fortune workmen \2^- • 016
,, ,, 29. I went to Westminster to metey^ workmenoffy'' For- tune : spent - - - o I o
„ May 3. I rec. 23;^ of Jacob of y^ exe- cution, and spent att diner w' hym and y^ Fortune builders - - - -070
,, ,, 6. I dind w' y^ Fortune work- men att Angells and spent 016
>» >i ^3- pd y^ first payment for y'= For- tune building 2^1, : spent - 016
,, June 12. I went to y'' Lord off Arundle : showed y^ Fortune plott.
,, ,, 17. I dind at y'= Fortune att
Smiths house : spent - O I 3
,, July 19. I seald y^ Leases of y^ For- tune.
,, Aug. 15. I went to y« Fortune to meet w* Mr. Tliicknis and others. I wase served w' a writt att Dorington's shut ye clarck off y® Counter.
On 20th May, 1662, Alleyn granted a lease to one Charles Massey, of one twenty-fourth part, of a " parcell of ground vpon part whereof lately stood a Playhouse or building called the Fortune with a taphouse belonging to the same," and other tenements, etc., for 51 years, Massey paying ;!^4i. 13s. 4d. towards the erection of a new playhouse. Similar leases were made to Price, Gwalter, Jarman, Margaret Grey and Bosgrave.
The misfortune which the Fortune com- pany experienced through the fire is thus noticed in Vox GracuH, or the Jack Daw's Prognostications, etc., for this year, 1623 : " The dugs of this delicate bed-fellow to the sun will so flow with the milk of profit and plenty, that (of all other) some players (if Fortune, turned Phcenix, fail not of her pro- mise) will lie sucking at them, with their fulsome forecastings for pence and two-pences, like young pigs at a sow newly farrowed, for
LONDON THEATRES.
2IT
that they are in danger to meet with a hard winter, and be forced to travel softly on the hoof."
By the suppression of the theatres the lessees were not able to pay their rents, and considerable loss accrued to Dulwich College. There are numerous documents in the Col- lege records to illustrate this, but the subject would not be generally interesting.
The end of the Fortune was one of decay. We find, on the i8th July, 1656, a report by Edward Jerman and John Tanner, who had been desired by the authorities of Dulwich College, " to vew y^ ground and building of the late playhouse called y^ Fortune." The Report states that " by reason y^ lead hath bin taken from y^ sayd building, y« tyling not secured and y^ foundation of y^ sayd play- house not kept in good repaire, great part of y^ said playhouse is fallen to y^ ground, the tymber therof much decayed and rotten, and the brickwalls soe rent and torne y' y^ whole structure is in noe condition capable of re- paire, but in greate danger of falling, to y^ hazzard of passengers hues;" and it is recom- mended that a street be cut from Whitecrosse Street to Golden Lane, and twenty-three tenements be built on the ground.
On 5th March, 1660, the Court of Assis- tants of Dulwich College, made an " order " for the lease of " the Fortune playhouse and ground thereunto belonging," the same having " for diuers yeares last past laine void and yielded no rent but bene a great losse to y^ Colledge," and being " at present soe ruinous y' parte thereof is already fallen downe, and y*" rest will suddainly follow."
In consequence of inability to find a tenant, notwithstanding " vtmost endeauours .... by posting bills in the Citie of London and putting it into the newesbookes," etc., an order was made for the sale of the materials of the playhouse. Hence the following ad- vertisement which a])peared in the Alcr- curius Politicus from February 14th to 21st, 1661 :
" The Fortune play-house, situate between Whitecrosse Street and Gelding Lane, in the Parish of St. Giles, Cripplegate, with the ground thereto belonging, is to be let to be built upon ; where twenty-three tenements may be erected with gardens, and a street may be cut through for the better accommo- dation of the buildings."
The materials were sold to William Beaven, who erected houses on the site. In the order made by the Court of Assistants for the lease to Beaven, the playhouse is spoken of as " now totally demolished." However, in the year 1819, when Wilkinson's Londina, from which our illustration is taken, was published, there appears to have been a vestige of the old building left. Wilkinson writes :
"The front of the Fortune Theatre dis- played in the annexed print, on which the royal arms and other mutilated figures and ornaments executed in stucco are still to be seen, is the whole of its exterior now apparent; its back court, part of which was covered by the stage, dressing-rooms, etc., is now laid out in mean tenements ; its garden and surround- ing walks and avenues, one of which, it ap- pears, was once called Armitage Alley, have been long since formed into a street, which still retains the commemorative name of Playhouse Yard, though Jeivs Row or Rag Fair would now be far more proper appella- tions. With respect to the interior of the front of this theatre, which having stood near two centuries, is rapidly hastening to oblivion, it was probably built in a more substantial manner (as it was consigned to the audience) than the back, in which we have just observed the stage, etc., were placed. It is a curious circumstance, still to be observed, that in the upper story the floor of the gallery yet remains; nay, the marks where the seats were fixed are to be discovered : this floor consequently descends in the same manner, though not perhaps so regular in its declination, as that of the gallery of a modern playhouse "
IDi0totical Documents connecteu toitf) tbe l^istorp of tfie COest 3Intiie,s at tfje JnDian anD Colonial OBr&itJition.
Bv Richard Davev.
T was fortunate for the West Indian Islands that they have been repre- sented at the Indian and Colonial Exhibition by a gentleman of cul- taste, Sir Augustus Adderley, who only done the commercial exhibits
tured has not
212 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE WEST INDIES.
of the Colonies under his direction the fullest justice, but has by no means neglected their artistic and, above all, their antiquarian and historical interests. He has created in the centre of the court a gallery which certainly would do credit to any museum, and which it is indeed a pity should ever be dispersed. Early this year he did me the honour of entrusting me with the mission of obtaining from the Eternal City whatever records of Columbus and his companions might be there. Furnished with letters from Car- dinal Manning, I was not long in obtaining an interview with Cardinal Simeone, Director of the Sacred Congregation of the Propaganda, who introduced me to the Secretary, Arch- bishop Jacobini. A minute search of the archives of this famous institution was imme- diately made ; but, unfortunately, it was soon discovered that nothing of any importance connected with my subject existed. Mon- signore Jacobini informed me he had heard tell by a contemporary that at the time of Napo- leon I. the archives of the Propaganda were carelessly packed in carts and conveyed to Civita Vecchia, whence they were embarked for France and Paris. Whilst passing through the streets of Rome, several bundles of most valuable papers were jolted out, and subse- quently picked up, and some restored to the Congregation. The rest, it can easily be imagined by this incident, were never fully returned, whilst almost all the earlier papers were retained in Paris. As a result, the present archives scarcely date further back than the commencement of this century. At the Vatican I was introduced to the learned and liberal-minded archivist, Monsignore Palmieri, through the kindness of Rev. Abbot Smith, of the Benedictines of San Calisto. He gave me every facility, and I discovered that vast quantities of unedited matter concerning the earlier history of America and the West Indies exists among the tremendous and rather confused ac- cumulation of papers of great value which are now hoarded in the famous library, but which are, thanks to the energy of his Holiness Pope Leo XHL, being put into proper order. These papers, however, are of a character which in an exhibition I felt sure would not be of any great interest ; moreover, there was, of course, no chance of
their being removed. I returned to Mon- signore Jacobini again, and with his permis- sion overhauled the small but most interesting Borgian Museum. Of course, that inestimable treasure, the first Borgian Map, at once riveted my attention, and I greatly wished — and used all my powers of persuasion — that it should figure at the Exhibition as possibly the earliest geographical record of the West Indies and of Central America extant. It is down the centre of this map that passes the original line traced by Pope Alexander VI. Notwithstanding his evident wish to oblige the Commissioner and the Committee, his Holiness the Pope reluctantly decided that he could not allow so extraordinary a relic of antiquity to leave its place ; but his Holiness courteously granted permission for the re- moval to London of the second Borgian Map, or "Diego Ribero," a document of much archaeological value, which has proved one of the greatest attractions at South Kensing- ton. It has been quite extraordinary to notice the groups of persons to be seen at almost any hour of the day studying with amused curiosity its strange delineation of the newly discovered world. The drawing is very perfect and beautiful, and was executed by Diego Ribero, geographer to Charles V. from 1494 to 1529. Down the centre passes a slight line dividing the newly found lands between Spain and Portugal, which is a repetition of the famous divisional line traced on the first Borgian Map. Although the map is full of absurd inaccuracies, it is nevertheless singularly clear for the early period in which it was produced. The West Indies are shown with precision, their names being given with considerable elaboration. America, on the other hand, is barely indi- cated, the coast alone being defined ; and Africa is introduced with the Nile wandering down to three lakes, situated just above what is now known as the Cape Colony. A number of very well-drawn ships are intro- duced, which, taken in comparison with the land, are of colossal dimensions, with inscrip- tions to the effect that they are either bound for or coming from the " Maluccas," by which it would appear that these were then considered the principal maritime port of the world. The arms of Pope Julius 11. — an oak-tree with twisted branches — are introduced on a
HISTORICAL D 0 CUMENTS CONNE C TED WITH THE WEST INDIES. 2 1 3
shield at the foot, notwithstanding the fact that the map is dated under Clement VII. As a specimen of Italian, or better Spanish, caligraphy of the sixteenth century, it is superb and in most perfect preservation. The Congregation of the Propaganda also lent a small but valuable atlas, showing the exact extent of the various Roman Catholic Mis- sions throughout the world ; and an engraved reproduction of the famous Marco Polo Map, a curious specimen of German geographical lore at the commencement of the fifteenth century, the original of which is engraved in brass, but which was found far too heavy to send. In this map the world is represented surrounded by water, and the general appear- ance of things is like that of a drop of Thames water as seen through a powerful microscope, so confused is the earth and water, and mixed up with extraordinary-looking living things.
Throughout the West Indies and British Honduras, and indeed all over both Americas, stone weapons and instruments have been discovered in abundance. A great number of them have been found in British Hon- duras, a country which still offers marvellous ruins and remains of a profound and myste- rious interest to the archaeological student. Some of those which have been kindly lent to the Exhibition seem, judging from their size, to have been used as sacrificial knives, whilst others made of blue flint are formed with shanks for their attachment to the stem or handle from 2 to 3 inches long. Several are so small and delicately shaped as to lead one to believe that they were originally employed as arrow-heads. The evidences concerning the early civilization of the West Indies and Central America are so conflicting, that it is almost an impossibility to arrive at the exact date at which these implements were made.
The splendid collection of ancient gold ornaments of Mr. Copeland Borlase throws much light upon the aboriginal civilization of the countries discovered by Columbus, in whose letters frequent mention is made of the existence of gold and silver ornaments. On one occasion he states that he was visited by a chieftain whose head-dress resembled a sun, and was made of pure gold. Although the objects lent by Mr. Borlase were dis- covered in British Honduras, still they
are Carib, and doubtless more or less like those worn by the natives of Jamaica, and of the other islands, which were inhabited by a comparatively civilized population. Many of these strange little flat gold idols bear a marked resemblance to Napoleon Bonaparte with his cocked-hat on. They are infinitely varied, and some designs re- call those ornaments which have been found in the Etruscan tombs, whilst others again are significantly Egyptian. The pottery found in British Honduras, and which is exhibited by the Commission, had it been discovered in Greece, would have caused little or no surprise in the antiquarian world, so close is its resemblance to what is dug up almost every day in Magna Graecia. The "God of Silence," however, a large figure under a glass case, is an imposing deity made of clay, and having an ornament which fastens its lips together.
Passing from the prehistorical to the his- torical period of West Indian history, Sir Augustus Adderley's gallery gives ample proofs of the completeness with which his idea has been carried out. A large collec- tion of ancient engravings, formed by Mr. Algernon Graves and myself, illustrate pictorially the life of Columbus. There are many portraits of the discoverer, but it is certain that they cannot all be authentic, since each one diff"ers from the other. That, however, most to be relied upon is a photo- graph sent by the Mus(^e Cluny, since the original is known to have been possessed by Francis I. The view of Genoa as it was in the childhood of Columbus, lent by Madame Beati, is very curious, as are also a rare collection of old prints representing his most famous contemporaries. Amongst these, perhaps the most strange is that of the Arch- duchess Helena Antonia of Austria, a lady who had the misfortune to have a very long thick beard. Naturally, she led a very secluded life, and when she did appear in public, was covered by a veil thrown over her head. This Princess devoted much of her income towards maintaining missions in the West Indies. The copy of De Bry, with some passages burnt and mutilated by the Inquisition of Havannah, is a rare and curious relic. Before leaving the subject of pictorial illustration, I must not omit to
214 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE WEST INDIES.
mention the portrait in oil of Columbus, lent by Mr. Graves of Pall Mall, a work of consider- able importance, having been painted by Sir Antonio Mora for the Archduchess Margaret, Governor of the Netherlands. It was taken by the English towards the middle of the sixteenth century from a Spanish galleon, and, after changing hands several times, eventually came into the possession of Mr. Cribbs, the well-known picture-dealer, and at his death it was purchased by its present owner. Washington Irving considered it one of the best portraits of the discoverer, and caused it to be engraved for the second edition of his Life of Columbus.
Whilst interested crowds daily throng this gallery, and spend only too much of their time over Mr. Tinworth's tricky fountain with its Biblical designs, the magnificent collection of old books relating to the West Indies is apt to be neglected. That these should be overlooked is, however, very natural, for certainly little amusement can be obtained by the perusal of their title-pages as seen through glass, and of course they can only be examined by special permission of the Commissioner. Those who, however, have been allowed to turn over the pages of these books will be amused as well as instructed on account of the vivid insight they afford of the manners and customs of the past. The greater part of the collection belongs to Sir Graham Briggs, Mr. Audley C. Miles, and Mr. Henry Stevens. I purpose now to enter- tain the readers of the Antiquary by giving some extracts from these old volumes, kindly placed at my disposal through the courtesy of the Commission, and I think that by their aid I shall be able to present a very fair idea of what life was in our West Indian colonies at a time when they were the veritable " gold- mines of fortune " of British commerce. Towards the middle of the last century their prosperity was at its height, and there was unbounded luxury and magnificence of living in the capitals of each of our settlements. In 1 741, we find the Island of Montserrat considerably occupied {The Laws of Mont- serrat from 1 741 to 1788) with the many " Breaches of the Sabbath," and a general neglect of " Public W^orship," to the scandal- izing of the Protestant religion, and by the encroachments of the "Scarlet Woman of
Rome." In order to put an end to this sad state of affairs, the rites and ceremonies of the Church are to be immediately placed on the footing of those of England, and "an able preaching minister is to be main- tained at a cost to the public exchequer of 14,000 lb. of sugar per'annum, or the value thereof in tobacco, cotton, wool, or indigo. " Moreover, the said minister can demand not exceeding 100 lbs. of sugar, or the value thereof as above, for the joining together any of the inhabitants of this island in the holy and lawful estate of matrimony." Mean- time, Trinidad is on the other hand gravely occupied over the encroachments of the Protestants. The island is still Spanish, and a mild form of Inquisition is in full swing, occasionally roasting a negro or so suspected of heresy or idolatry.
We obtain a singular insight into the manner in which the negroes were treated in some of the islands, notably in Montserrat, from the work above mentioned. Thus in 1670 an Act was passed forbidding the negroes to enter any plantation other than his master's after nightfall; and should any be found, the owner or overseer of such plantation has full power to punish them as he thinks fit. " And should any negroes harbour or conceal any such loiterers in their cabins, they shall be taken before the next Justice of the Peace, and there his or her owner shall, in the presence of the said Justice, exercise the punishment of 40 lashes."
Slaves are not permitted to enter a field of cane with any lights or fire whatsoever, as, " by their insufferable boldness in doing so, much damage has been done, and more like to ensue ; and this is enacted to prevent future inconvenience which may happen by such insufferable boldness."
In transgressing this law, should a slave happen to set fire to the canes, he or she " shall not only be whipped, but, if it pleases their master, be put to death in any fashion that he shall devise." If a negro steals a cow or any other head of cattle, he shall be brought before the next Justice of the Peace, and publicly whipped. This punishment did not appear to have been sufficiently severe; for in 1693 thefts had become so com.mon, that an Act was passed ordaining
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE WEST INDIES. 215
that " henceforth any negro that shall be taken stealing or carrying away stock, cattle, or provisions amounting to the value of twelve pence, shall suffer such death as his master shall think fit to award." Should a theft be proved against a negro, the value of which does not amount to twelve pence current money of the island, ** he shall only suffer a severe whipping and have both his ears cut off for the first offence, but for the second offence shall suffer death in the form aforesaid .... and it shall be lawful to shoot at, and if possible kill, any negro he shall find stealing his provision, provided such provision be not within forty foot of the common path, and that the party so killing hath not in the hearing of others ex- pressed hatred or malice against the owner of such negro." The white servants may, it appears, *' be kicked, but not whipped ;" otherwise, they are treated very little better than the slaves. Negroes caught without their tickets, authorizing them being absent from their plantation, are to be whipped with thirty-nine lashes by the constable who takes them, for which service " in each case he receives six shillings." Should a slave absent himself for the space of three months from his master's service, he shall suffer death as a felon, the owner in compensation to be allowed out of the public stock 3,500 lb. of sugar. Should an owner have a slave killed or maimed by another man's slave, he shall have his choice of the manner of the of- fender's death for the first-named offence, and for the second whether he shall be whipped, or the offence atoned for by com- pensation. In the Acts and Statutes of Barbadoes (1652), we learn that whosoever shall make a fraudulent and deceitful sale on that island of any " servants, cattel, negroes, or other flock or commodities, shall suffer 6 months' imprisonment, and stand in the Pillory two hours with his ears nailed there- unto, with a paper in his hat, signifying the cause of his punishment .... and whoso- ever shall be convicted of carrying away any goods whatsoever after the same have been legally attached, shall be sent to prison during 14 days ; and if before the 14th day he have not made satisfaction to his Creditor, he shall be put in the Pillory and lose both his ears."
To turn to pleasanter things, we learn (from A Short History of Barbadoes^ pub- lished in 1742) that nothing can exceed the magnificent manner of living of the planters. They have as fine houses as any in England, and are attended upon by regiments of negroes and white servants in gorgeous liveries. " Their plate and their china, their fine gowns and their genteel manners, eclipse anything that the writer has ever seen on his travels, and their hospitality cannot be imagined — an hospitality for which Great Britain was once so deservedly famed." At the time when England was divided into two factions, Cavaliers and Roundheads, although the planters naturally favoured one side or the other, they made a law amongst them- selves, forbidding the use of either of the two words, on penalty of giving a dinner to their neighbours. Many purposely made themselves liable to the penalty as a pretext for entertaining their friends. The Governors lived in these good old times in great state, notably those of Jamaica and Barbadoes. When they went to church, they were pre- ceded by pages in silver and golden liveries, by officers of state — in fact, their procession recalled in its magnificence that of the King himself in London going in State to St. Paul's. A good deal of jealousy is evinced at times amongst the citizens as to who is entitled to attend the Governor's entertain- ments; but when a great ball is given, the scene round Government House in James Town or Spanish Town must have presented a most picturesque sight. The ladies pro- ceeded thither in their Sedan-chairs, ac- companied by a veritable army of slaves carrying torches. There are some great beauties amongst them, for we discover (in Letters from Barbadoes) that the author is so impressed with "the majestic beauty of Miss Dolton," "with the divine Miss Gordon," •* the celestial Miss Alleyne," and with the
Sisters Carter, as two meteors bright, Shine glorious round, and diffuse light.
Balls and parties, routs and dinners, suppers and theatres, occupied the attention of West Indian ladies to an extent which would amaze their descendants.
It is strange to read the advertisements in the old colonial papers of the last century of
2i6 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE WEST INDIES.
" brockaded silk and satins, beaver hats, gold-headed canes, snuff-boxes, costly china, plate, and patch-boxes," which every vessel brings out, finding a ready sale among the luxurious inhabitants. No wonder that oc- casionally, as we learn from the Groans of the Plantation, the islands sometimes get embarrassed, and that money is so scarce, that large cargoes of negroes have to be exported for sale at Charlestown and New Orleans.
The streets of a West Indian city must at this period have presented a very picturesque spectacle. Here groups of great ladies — in hoops and sarcenets, and with powdered hair and " patches," escorted by their no less gay cavaliers in the daintiest satin garments with which the tailors of London or Paris could supply them ; with their white-clad servants at a respectful distance carrying their parasols and fans, or lagging behind with the heavily gilt Sedan-chairs — pass up and down under the shadow of the tropical vegetation, perhaps barely pausing to notice the public flogging of a couple of runaway slaves, or the edifying sight of a white servant, caught in the act of stealing, seated with his legs and arms in the pillory, and his nose and ears but freshly cut off. But here comes Dr. Hans Sloane, the famous naturalist, or Dr. Burton, a noted preacher, who oc- casionally goes the rounds of the various islands to exercise his eloquence, and obtain a series of good dinners in return for his pious endeavours to save souls. The con- versation is not exactly elevated, for there is little or no literature to be found, save such as comes out in packages from England — the Gentleman^ s Magazine, The Lady, The Tatler, Miss Frances Burney's last novel, or Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield. Through the open windows of the picturesque houses with large verandas one catches the tink- ling of the sempiternal spinette, and occa- sionally we learn that " a grand pinaforte " makes its appearance (from the Grenada Gazette, of which a complete file for the years 1792-3 is exhibited by Mr. J. G. Wells), and is considered a great novelty, being offered for sale at a very high price. The History of Barbadoes states that in 1733 Lord Howe became Governor, but fortunately for the colony did not hold this office long ;
" for if he had remained a few years longer, he would have ruined Barbadoes by his in- troduction of luxury." In short, ** the masters, and, in fact, all gentlemen, live like little sovereigns, ruling their numerous slaves with a rod of iron, and with their tables spread each day with the most luxurious fare imaginable."
In every island there was perpetual war being waged between the Governors and the people ; and no wonder that the people had cause to protest, for we learn that almost without exception the various Governors sent over were most tyrannical and cruel. This we see by the continual protests that were forwarded to England, and by the " Articles of Complaint " made out against certain of these gentlemen, to be submitted to the King. It appears to have been the opinion of many of these rulers that all that was required of them was to extort money from the people by every means in their power, legal or illegal, for their own private pocket. To rule the country fairly, and to keep it in a settled condition, a by no means easy thing in those times, appears to have been quite a secondary consideration to their one great aim of making money. A notable instance of this is a Mr. Lowther, who carried on the usual routine of extortion ; but in justice to the memories of the others, it must be said that for right-down badness he far outstripped them. He was sent out to Barbadoes in 171 1. He " swallowed up the taxes as fast as they were raised ; ships forced to the island by stress of weather are compelled to give him one half of their cargo, to save the other ; he seized without cause rich ships ; and he sus- pended Mr. Skeen, the Secretary, because he refused to allow him a pension of ;!£^4oo per annum out of the fees in office. He kept a cause of Haggot v. King hanging up in Chancery all the time he was Governor, only because Mr. Haggot would not consent to the marriage of a young lady under his guar- dianship, to a person to whom Mr. Lowther 010 ned he had sold her for ;^i5oo. And in order to accomplish his bargain, he was about taking her from Mr. Haggot when she was married ; and he did actually despoil him of the guardianship of her sister, declaring that no parent had a right to appoint a guar- dian to his child." When officially remon-
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE WEST INDIES. 217
strated with for some of his iniquities, Mr.
Lowther simply replied — '* D your laws ;
don't tell me of the laws. I will do it, and let me see who dares dispute it." Again, the Governor of the Bahamas, Mr. Elias Haskett, in 1 701-2, we are informed, was such an iniquitous personage that " he seizes all the claret and brandy imported into our port for his own use, and most unmercifully doth whip the Parish beadle " (surely this is enough to make the late Mr. Bumble turn in his grave) " and the tax collector." This gentleman's evil doings are related in a curious document of over twelve closely- printed pages by one Captain Cole, who it appears was deputed by the people of New Providence on his return to England to make an official complaint to the King of the goings-on of their Governor.
The Grenada Gazette, the curious old newspaper above referred to, throws consider- able light on the manners and customs of the period (1792-3). The details of the French Revolution are recorded with great minuteness, and it is evidently a subject of deep interest to the Gazettes numerous readers. The editor can scarcely contain his indignation as he records the sufferings of the French King and Queen, and he feels sure that God will punish the French people "for their barbarity and utter godlessness." He is certain that a judgment will fall upon them "for their iniquitous conduct, their cruelty, and their general viciousness. Oh," he exclaims, " I have scarce the power to tell the terrible news of this day — the French King and Queen are in prison ! The French, by their own madness and folly, have thereby prepared themselves and their heirs for the bitterest punishment of God !" The dreadful series of advertisements which disgrace every number of the Chronicle are curious. Thus is advertised for sale the cargo of the ship Elkn, consisting of 203 Gold Coast negroes ; and that of another ship, comprising 343 young slaves. " Both cargoes are in high health, and the terms of sale will be made as agree- able as possible to the purchaser." An estate in St. Lucia, comprising amongst the stock, " 250 negroes large and small, and six horses and five mules. There are among the negroes twenty tradesmen of great value." Also, wanted " a complete washerwoman. Anyone
VOL. XIV.
having one to dispose of may hear of a pur- chaser." Then we see advertisements for the recovery of runaway slaves, " for whom a genteel reward will be offered," whose backs are still sore from recent whippings, whose ears are cropped and noses split. These make no impression on the editor — the humane man who so deeply deplores the imprisonment of the French Royal couple. He is not ashamed to advertise "a pretty boy, nearly white, for sale, price ;^2o ;" or to call attention to Madame Marchand's an- nouncement that she is about to leave the colony and wishes to dispose of her stock-in- trade, consisting of " hardware, haberdashery, dry goods, a complete collection of the works of the best French authors, an excellent washerwoman, and two bedsteads." How- ever, to all according to their proper lights, it must be said that in 1792, throughout the West Indies, slavery was a thing by right divine, and continually in the paper above alluded to were appeals made to the owners to treat their slaves kindly. And perhaps, after all, the bulk of the negroes were a good deal happier than many free men are to-day ; for there was plenty of kindness shown to them. They were allowed three wives (perhaps many will think this was no very kind concession to them), and we read of small parties given to the negroes, at which servants dressed up in their mistresses' finery, and danced to a most unreasonable hour of the night, to the sound of the sacbut and the tabor. There is a pretty series of en- gravings in the St Vincent Court, represent- ing negro festivities in the olden times. They had all Sunday to themselves, and made pandemonium of the principal streets of Spanish Town and Nassau, until their doings had to be put a stop to. They used to sing, dance, and wrestle to their hearts' content, at which it is said "they were marvellously expert." When their goings on in the streets became unbearable, they were prohibited from singing or dancing in the vicinity of churches or genteel folks' dwellings. Their food is good, and their huts are at least weather-proof, for it is of course to the in- terest of the owners to keep their slaves in perfect health, they being of value. Never- theless, the negroes always felt themselves an oppressed race, and many were the
Q
2i8 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE WEST INDIES.
struggles they made to get free. They concocted plans whereby they hoped, by a general rising, to reverse matters, they becoming the masters, and the Christians their slaves. The plots were always dis- covered, however, and the ringleaders tor- tured, and afterwards put to death as an example to the others. One great difficulty that owners at one time had to contend with was to prevent the slaves hanging themselves, either from fear of a future punishment for a small fault, or if they are in any way threat- ened, which gave them an excuse for their act. Consequently owners never delayed a punishment. Whatever their religion was, they believed in a resurrection, and that after death they should go into their own country again, and have their life renewed. It is in consequence of such a belief that they en- deavoured to expedite such a state of affairs. An owner having lost several useful slaves in this way, " caused one of their heads to be cut off and fixed on a pole 1 2 feet high, and having done so, caused all his negroes to come forth and march round about this head, to show to the poor creatures that they were in error in thinking the dead returned to their own country ; for this man's head was here, as they all plainly saw, and how was it possible the body could go without the head ?" This simple theory was quite sufficient to convince them, and from that day the owner never lost another slave in this way.
Sometimes there is a play in one or other of the capitals of the various islands. Com- panies from England or France pay the principal cities a visit, and occasionally amateurs undertake to assist the professionals or to supplement them. The French theatre at St. George's, Grenada, has a great reputa- tion in the colonies. It is opened about six times a year, sometimes by an English and sometimes by a French troupe. We read in the Grenada Gazette that " On Saturday, the 31st August, 1792, Douglas was performed, Lady Randolph by a lady — her first appear- ance on any stage — and Old Norval by a gentleman. No admittance on any account behind the scenes. The gentility is invited to send their negroes early (to retain the seats), who are to sit in their places until five minutes before the curtain rises, when they are to give up their places to the proper
owners. The Manager reminds the audience to bring their own candles." The negroes filled the gallery, and were renowned through- out the colonies for their judicious criticism, the warmth of their applause, and the noise of their disapproval. Ladies of very great quality were accommodated with seats upon the stage. We see on one occasion the French company gives Nina Folk par Amour. This must be either CopoUa's or Paisiello's opera, composed about that time.
Cock-fighting, we learn also from the same journal, was a fashionable sport of the gentry. "On Saturday, the 31st Septr., 1792, at 10 o'clock, a match of 20 cocks will be fought, by 10 gentlemen. N.B. — A genteel dinner will be provided." In the same day's issue, we see announced the appearance in England of a new sect, called the Anti- Chartists, whom it describes as another branch of those iniquitous wretches who are opposed to the slave-trade.
Jamaica, then said to be the " wickedest place on earth," is spoken of in great detail in The British Empire in America, or the History of the Discovery, etc., of the British Colonies (published in London, 1708). It well deserved its name, for, in point of fact, the inhabitants at that time mainly gained their livelihood by trading with pirates, of which an enormous number infested these seas, making raids upon neighbouring Spanish islands, and carrying off immense treasure to Jamaica, there to spend it in debauchery. A certain pirate, Henry Morgan, was perhaps the most enterprising and daring man of his day. He was no petty thief, but did his work after a royal fashion. He commanded at one time 2,000 men, who manned a fleet of thirty-five vessels. One of his best cap- tures was the city of Puerto Velo, in Panama, where the treasure he seized amounted to 250,000 " pieces of eight," besides much rich stuff, etc. Innumerable were his suc- cesses, and incalculable the riches which he and his companions were thereby enabled to spend in Jamaica, rendering the island most prosperous. His exploits were, as before said, mainly confined to raids on the Spaniards, England's old enemies ; therefore his doings were winked at, until the Spanish Government made such representations to the English that they thought it right to
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE WEST INDIES. 219
interfere, and put a stop to Captain Morgan's proceedings. This gentleman terminated his career as a pirate by a coup de main, which brought into his exchequer 400,000 ** pieces of eight."
The same book gives some strange details of the earthquake in Jamaica on June 7th, 1692. In many of the streets of Port Royal there were several fathoms of water ; a great mountain split, and fell into the level land, covered several settlements and destroyed many people. One settler had his plantation removed half a mile from the place where it formerly stood. Part of a mountain, after having made several leaps, overwhelmed a whole family and great part of a plantation lying a mile off; and " a large, high mountain is quite swallowed up, and in the place where it stood there is now a vast lake, four or five leagues over." In all about 2,000 people perished by this catastrophe.
Owners will never consent to allow their slaves to become Christians, as will be seen from the following :
" I took a great interest in a certain slave, Sambo, who wanted much to become a Christian, and spoke to the master of the plantation on his behalf. His answer was that were Sambo once a Christian, he could no longer be accounted a slave, and thus owners would lose hold on their slaves. Were he in this case to do so, such a gap would be opened, that all the planters in the isle would curse him."
Still, from the same book we read that in Dominica " there are several high mountains in the midst, which encompass an inaccessible bottom ; where from the tops of certain rocks may be seen an infinite variety of reptiles of dreadful bulk and length. The natives were wont to tell of a vast monstrous serpent that had its abode in the said bottom. They affirmed that there was in the head of it a very sparkling stone, like a carbuncle, of in- estimable price — that the monster commonly veiled that rich jewel with a thin moving skin, like that of a man's eyelid ; and when it went to drink, and sported itself in the deep bottom, it fully discovered it, and the rocks all about received a wonderful lustre from the fire issuing out of that precious gem."
In the Nevis Court will be seen the
register-entry of the marriage of Lord Nelson in the parish church of that island.
Very singular also is the sales paper of the Byam estate in Antigua, from which we find the prices of slaves to have varied from jQio to ^150, " warranted sound." Some elderly ladies and gentlemen of colour are " thrown in gratis." Several copies of the slave Bible are also shown, in which all verses calculated to uproot the idea that slavery is not an institution by Divine right are carefully eliminated.
iaetiieto.
Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. By W. Robertson Smith. (Cambridge : University Press, 1885.) 8vo., pp. xiv, 322.
HE well-known theories of Mr. McLennan have in this book been applied to a par- ticular race. If the theories are worth anything at all as an explanation of the origin of society, they will be found to unlock some of the unexplainable phenomena, and to account for the observable phases of development in any given race. No one had attempted thus to utilize Mr. McLennan's researches until Professor Robertson Smith investigated the system of kinship and marriage in early Arabia. For his purpose the material avail- able was fairly accessible, and by what must have been a most exhaustive research. Professor Smith has succeeded in obtaining good and sufficient evidence for all the points which he undertakes to prove. The result thus obtained shows that the application of Mr. McLennan's theory to Arabian society success- fully accounts for facts not otherwise explainable, and successfully groups these facts in such a way as to set forth the lines of progress along which Ar.ibian society must have progressed. Could any other theory of the origin of society obtain the same results ? Mr. Spencer affirms that society began in monogamous groups, the family increasing and keeping together until it grew into the tribe. There is no evidence of this in Arabian society. What we see there is first a group of men and women bearing the relationship of brothers and sisters. The men seek their brides in other tribes, but always live with and defend their own tribes. The women have their husbands from other tribes, and the children born of these temporary marriages are the property of the mother's tribe — the male children to be food-winners and protectors, and the female children to be the mothers of future members of the tribe. As Professor Smith says, it is hard to conceive how such a state of society could have grown outjof a once monogamous group ; whereas the evidence, if taken further on, shows how the family gradually developed from the promiscuous group just described. First would come marriage by capture, then by purchase, and then would arise the desire on mans
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REVIEWS.
part to have children of his own, and not to hand them over to his wife's kin. The argument when stated at full, and having facts to support each stage, seems to us to be conclusive, but it would have been well if Professor Smith had noticed the forcible argu- ment put forth by Sir Henry Maine against this theory. Recognising the facts, as all must do, repre- sented by Mr. McLennan's researches, Sir Henry Maine says these were transitional in character and subsequent in development to monogamous social groups. There seems so much force in this when we recollect the curious example of the Cyclopes and other similar types of savage society, that it is a pity Professor Smith did not apply it to the observable phenomena of Arabian society. It is true that he suggests how hard it is to conceive that promiscuous marriage arose out of monogamous groups, but diffi- culties of this sort are not to be accounted for by what scientists of the modern days can or cannot conceive. But whether there is much or little in Sir Henry Maine's objection to the theory. Professor Smith has written a remarkable book, and one that must have considerable weight in all future researches into this fascinating subject.
Unique Traditions chiefly of the West and South of Scotland. By John Gordon Barbour. (London: Hamilton Adams, l886.) 8vo.,pp. 255. The author of this book "hath " a " unique" way of expressing commonplace remarks, and thinks it necessary to inform the world of his impressions of some antiquities in Caledonia. Some people may perhaps fall into his humour, but we must confess that for ourselves it is difficult to do so, and though the traditions of Scotland are ever fascinating, we prefer them in less questionable guise. Mr. Barbour has doubtless some good things to tell us, for he loves Scotland, and he loves traditions. Let him ask a member of the Folk-lore Society to instruct him in the method of his craft.
Cheshire Notes and Qtieries, a Quarterly Journal of Matters Past and Present connected with the County Palatine of Chester. Edited by E. W. BuLKELEY. (Stockport: Swain and Bearby.) 4to. Cheshire Notes and Queries is not so "chatty, learned, and useful " as its compeers in other counties, though we are far from saying it does not possess any of these qualities. Perhaps it is because in Cheshire one looks for so much that is interesting and valuable, that this particular part for June quarter has disap- pointed us. If this is the reason we shall be quite ready to acknowledge it in the future. In the present part " The Parish Registry of Stockport " is perhaps one of the most interesting communications.
The Church and the Stage. By William Henry
Hudson. (London: Triibner and Co., 1886.)
8vo.
This pamphlet describes the origin of English
drama within the bosom of the Church ; its rapid
growth in popularity ; the severance of its connection
with the Church ; the rise of the Puritan movement
and the onslaught it made upon the drama ; the
degradation of the drama in the post-Restoration
period; its emergence from the slough when the
vicious fashions of that age had passed away. The author very severely blames the Church for not having taken the stage in hand when it showed a better disposition. He truly enough urges that one actor, David Garrick, did more to elevate the drama than all the priests and Puritans who have ever lived. Under the heading of " The Present Position of the Controversy," the author presents a forcible bill of complaint against the clergy of to-day, who, as a body, " ignore the stage as much as possible." They feel that opposition would be useless, not to say ridiculous, and so satisfy themselves with a policy of silence. If this be so, the policy is safe, but the disposition it implies is not generous. The author concludes with a plea for peace, unity, and goodwill between Church and stage. This book is well-considered and well- written ; but to us it appears to suffer from over- elaboration, both of argument and of rhetoric.
London and Elsewhere. By Thomas Purnell. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1886.)
This book is exceedingly pleasant to read. The style is easy and polished, and the aim of the book deserves commendation. London and London life, past and present, is the chief theme of the book ; the "Elsewhere" of its title being Holland, two trips to which country the author very pleasantly describes.
The book is on all the bookstalls, and anything more than a short notice here would be superfluous.
The publication of such a book at a shilling is a practical protest against the " shilling dreadful ;" that the public will not be slow to take advantage of the change, there can be no doubt ; and the book merits success. The description of Swinburne's reading is of distinct literary value. Theatrical concerns are ex- posed to sharp criticism, in the chapters entitled " Keeping a Theatre," and " Actresses' Husbands ;" and the author shows considerable powers of satire in his treatment of these subjects. The book follows in the wake of Mr. Hutton's Litej-ary Landmarks of London, and lovers of London subjects will find it fresh and pleasant reading.
The Catalogue of the most Memorable Persons who had visible Tombs, plated Gravestones, Escutch- eons, or Hatchments, in the City of London, before the last Dreadful Fire. 1666. By P. Fisher. Revised and continued to 1700 by G. Blacker Morgan. Privately printed, 1886. (Hazell, Watson, and Viney, London.) 4to., pp. vii, 95. This forms the second volume which has been re- printed of Major Fisher's works, who was Poet Laureate during the Commonwealth. The quondam Laureate seems to have displayed much enterprise in antiquarian matters, and to have availed himself of any public calamity or excitement to bring his correla- tive works before the notice of the world. Hence, when St. Paul's Cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1666, Major Fisher published a book containing copies of the whole of the monumental inscriptions, with a genealogical account of the families, some of whose remains entombed therein were eventually calcined by the fire. In this work he gives copies of inscriptions found even upon coffins exhumed after the
REVIEWS.
221
fire — a course as interesting and valuable as it is unusual. This volume, also edited by M, Blacker . Morgan, we reviewed at length some months ago.
When the fire of 1666 had reduced the city to ashes, Major Fisher, always on the qui vive, immedi- ately published a book with the above title, thus taking advantage of the moment — by giving a synopsis of the inscriptions existing before the fire — to flatter the vanity of the then representatives of the families commemorated.
This work was complete so far as it went ; but in- asmuch as the names of the churches, where the in- scriptions were visible, are entirely omitted in Fisher's edition, these notices could not have been of much value or utility at the present day, had not this omission been to a great extent remedied by M. Blacker Morgan in his present issue. Considerable additions have been made to the entries in this catalogue, which are distinguished from Fisher's original entries, which indeed seem to form a very small portion of the work before us.
This work will be found to be of great utility to the genealogist ; while it commends itself to the bibliophile by the thick paper with rough edges and parchment covers in which it appears. The typo- grapical portion of the work is most tastefully executed, and much praise is alike due to the editor and to the printer.
Documents, chiefly unpublished, relating to the
Huguenot Emigration to Virginia and to the
Settlement at Manakin Town, with an Appendix
of Genealogies. Edited and compiled for the
Virginia Historical Society by R. A. Brock.
(Richmond, Virginia, 1886.) 8vo., pp. xxi,
247.
Here is another evidence of the attention now being
paid to the history of Huguenot families, in America
as well as in England. This volume cannot fail to be
of great interest to those investigating the subject,
but it will also be of great value to all genealogists on
account of the thoroughness with which it has been
compiled. The volume consists of a collection of
important documents concerning the lefugees, and
these are annotated with particulars respecting the
various persons mentioned. The documents are dated
from 1693 to 1744. There is an appendix containing
an account of the descendants of John de la Fontaine,
of Bartholomew Dupuy, of Rev. James Marey, and
of James Powell Cocke and Mary Magdalene Cocke,
and a full index adds greatly to the value of the
book.
Meetings of antiquarian Societies*
Cambrian Archaeological Association. — Aug. 23. — The sixth annual meeting of llic Cambrian Archajological Association opened at Swansea with an official reception from the Mayor (Mr. Rees) at the Royal Institution. The retiring president, Lord Tredegar, occupied the chair. A vote of thanks
havmg been passed to the retiring president, Mr. Dillwyn Llewellyn, the president elect, took the chair, and delivered an inaugural address. He urged the members of the association, while unable to avoid the radical obliteration of the remains of past genera- tions by the ravages of time and weather, to constantly watch against their spoliation by careless and destruc- tive men, to, in fact, consider themselves a vigilance society, and be always ready to prevent vandalism. Excursions were made on Tuesday to Margam and Neath Abbeys. About fifty members, including Mr. Dillwyn Llewellyn, the president, and Lord Tredegar, drove to Margam, where the remains of the abbey, which are situated in the centre of Mr. Talbot's grounds, were explored. Mr. Gamwell read an historical paper on the ruins. A move being made to Neath Abbey, a paper describing the remains was read by Mr. T. S. Sutton.
Sussex Archaeological Society.— Aug. 19.— This society held its annual general meeting at BexhilJ, Winfield, and Penhurst. They inspected the old churches of the three villages and several old resi- dences of historical interest. At Bexhill Church they were shown a fine sepulchral slab, which had been pronounced to be the finest monument of its kind in the South of England.
Cotteswold Naturalists' Field Club.— Aug. 17. — The fourth and last meeting of this club for the present season was held at Aust. An interesting object in the walk by the Severn side to Aust, a distance of about two miles, is Chessel Pill, now crossed by a bridge, carried over the weir and flood- gates. Here it was that Charles L landed when flying from the Republican soldiers, after being ferried over from the Black Rock, on the Monmouthshire side. Some sixty of the Republican troopers, who were pursuing the king, came to the Black Rock, and, finding he had gone over, drew their swords on the boatmen belonging to the passage, and compelled them to take them over. But the boatmen were Loyalists, and landed the troopers on the " English stones," some little distance from the Gloucestershire shore, which can only be reached from them at low water by fording a pool, and left them there ; but the tide was at the time rapidly rising, and the soldiers were all drowned. This event so angered Cromwell that he suppressed the passage, and it remained closed till about 1718. Arrived at Aust, the members at once proceeded to examine the grand section which the cliff presents of the deposits termed " Rhsetic," the beds of which at Patchway, Westbury, Coombe Hill, and Wainlode, have become classical in the annals of geological investigation, and with the grand sections of Penarth and Watchett, Up Hill and Purton, are unequalled in Great Britain and else- where, except only on the flank of the Rhaetian Alps and parts of Lombartly. The base of the Aust ClitT, like the bed of the river in front of it, is composed of the lower beds of the mountain liiEcstones, and these at low water are exposed, and are covered with sea- weed. Resting upon them arc the gypseous marls of new red, but it is a feature of the district that the entire series of the new red sandstone are absent, and indeed were never deposited, while the bands of gypsum give a bright and striking appearance to the cliff, though they are not pure enough to be used as plaster of
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MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
Paris. The special character of this section, and that which chiefly attracted the attention of the geologists of the party, is the great development of the bone- bed, or fish-bed, chiefly consisting of dark-grey crystalline siliceous limestone, or grit, and abounding in saurian and fish remains. Some hundreds of different forms of teeth and palates, belonging to the singular genus Ceratodus, have been found in this bone-bed, whereas at Westbury, not far off, there is a total absence of these remains of Ceratodi, though what peculiar condition could have existed in so short a distance to prevent the migratory habit of a genus of fishes must ever remain a singular and inscrutable problem. The members were fortunate in obtaining good specimens from the various beds, including a goodly number of teeth from the bone-bed.
Birmingham and Midland Institute, Archaeo- logical Section. — Aug. 13. — The members paid a visit to the Metropolis for the inspection of some of its antiquities. On arrival the party were conducted to the Guildhall, where they were received by Mr. C. Welch, assistant librarian, whoconducted them through the great hall, built in 141 1, and furnished with its present appropriate open roof in 1864 ; the library containing a large collection of books and MSS., most of the latter being modern purchases. In the museum in the crypt Mr. C. Roach Smith, F.S.A., who had come from Rochester expressly to meet the members, delivered an address. He said that to form some faint idea of what Roman London was — its extent and character— they must try to imagine the absence of all they had that morning seen, the long piles of splendid buildings, churches, St. Paul's, the Guildhall, and the Exchange ; and, upon a totally difTerent plan, to construct, in their mind's eye, ex- tensive villas, chiefly of one story, with wide, open spaces, crowded streets of low houses, interspersed with imposing public buildings and temples, not to be located by the streets as they now are, but with roads leading to and from the gates, the position of which are indicated by the modern names. Although written history is silent on the population of this large and important city during the 400 years of Roman occupation, yet the antiquary from existing remains has been able to reconstruct something, and from comparison of what has been found here and else- where to believe that in no year of that long, silent period could there have been wanting municipal regu- lations upon which were founded, in part, those of the j^resent day. There were guilds or fraternities much like those now existing, a proctor — answering to the mayor — laws, and magistrates. The remains of bronze equestrian statues showed the exalted public taste ; while the exquisitely finished bronze statuettes, the rich tesselated pavements and wall-paintings recalled private luxury. Recurring to the extent of the city, they could understand that by the well-known line of the Roman wall, extending along the Thames by Whitefriars, Ludgate Hill, by Moorgate Street and Tower Hill, where yet remains a fine fragment, but probably built in so as not to be easily seen. This wall was an extension of the original circumvallation, made probably not earlier than the time of Severus, and not later than that of Constantine. In the recent destruction of some of its foundations were revealed remarkable evidence, examples of which were now
placed before them, claiming their special attention. Many were obviously monumental — as that of the Roman soldiers — and formed parts of elevated and decorated erections. Why such monuments were broken up and used as building materials was palpable. Before the extension of the circumvallation they were on the outside of the walls, but when enclosed they came under the law which forbade sepulchral monu- ments and interments within a town, and reverence for ancestors then (as now) did not lead to their care- ful removal and preservation.
Dorset Field Club.— July 28. — The members of this club held their first meeting for the present session at Corfe Castle. On their arrival at Corfe the members proceeded to visit the Blashenwell Beds of the Post Tertiary Age, which were explained to them by Mr. Mansel-Pleydell. Returning to the town, most of the members visited the Museum, which has been in existence for many years, and is the principal depository of geological specimens of the Purbeck formation. The Rev. O. P. Cambridge produced a magnificent celt found by the Rev. H. H. House at Winterborne Thompson. Mr. T. Bond then, as a preface to the club's visit to Corfe Castle, made some general remarks respecting the stronghold. He said : "The real history of Corfe Castle, or rather of its use, commences with the Anglo-Saxon period, previous to which we know nothing whatever about it, and we can only proceed on conjecture. I make no doubt, however, that so remarkable a hill as that on which the Castle stands was used as a stronghold from the earliest period. I have no doubt it was originally fortified with earthworks, and I believe the two ditches are very ancient, though not quite in their present form. They have no doubt been greatly modified to meet the requirements of more recent for- tifications. There is some evidence of this as regards the inner ditch, which has manifestly been carried down the western face of the Castle hill before any bridges were erected across it. The middle and eastern portion of the ditch have been since modified more than once. The documentary history of Corfe commences with a grant of what was afterwards the manor of Kingston by King Edred, great-uncle of Edward the Martyr, in 948 to the Abbey of Shaftes- bury ; but William the Conqueror found it necessary to erect many fortresses to establish the possession of his new kingdom, and he was too keen an observer and too good a general to permit such a site, so im- portant for the defence of this coast, to remain in the hands of the nuns. He therefore persuaded or com- pelled the Abbess of Shaftesbury for the time to give it to him in exchange for the advowson of the Church of Gillingham. With the exception of the three great events, the murder of Edward the Martyr, the im- prisonment of Edward II., and the siege sustained by the gallant Lady Bankes, together with the final siege and ultimate betrayal in the seventeenth century, Corfe has played no conspicuous part in history. It was for the most part used as a State prison. At length it was sold by Queen Elizabeth to Sir Christo- pher Hatton, who became her Lord Chancellor. A successor of his sold it to Lord Chief Justice Bankes, whose gallant lady figures as the heroine of the spot, and to her descendants it now belongs. With regard to the structural history of the Castle, no doubt the herring-
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES,
223
bone wall is by far the most ancient fragment, and this, there is strong evidence to show, was built in the last decade of the seventh century. The keep follows in point of date, and this was built by the Conqueror before the year 1085. After this comes the great hall and adjacent buildings, including the north-east tower of the outer ward, which was built by King Henry III. Lastly, the rest of the outer ward was enclosed by King Edward I., the entrance gateway having been finished in 1280. Since that period no material alterations have been made, though no doubt alterations have been from time to time effected in the internal arrangement. The herring- bone wall is very curious and interesting. It evi- dently is of great antiquity, and it could not, as has been conjectured by a great authority who did not give it much attention, have formed part of the mural fortifications of the Castle. It appears to me, after having exhumed and traced the foundations, that the evidence is strongly in favour of its having formed one side of a church built by St. Aldhelm a little previous to the year 700. Where to find ' the Chapel of St. Mary in the Tower of Corfe,' as it is frequently described in the old accounts, was long a great puzzle, as no appearance of it could be seen in the fragments of the ruins of the keep. By climbing up, however, to the chamber over the stone vaulting of the gallery, was discovered architectural features which leave no doubt that here was the chapel in ques- tion. Chapels in keeps were commonly in some fore- buildings attached to the keep, and not within the four walls of the main building. There was another and a very small chapel situated at the north end of the great hall." He said the isolated precipitous hill severed from the chalk range on either side by the work of Nature, upon which the Castle now stands, received from the Anglo-Saxon the appropriate name of " Corvensgeat " or " Corvesgate," derived from a combination of the words " ceorfan " to cut, and •' geat," a gate. The foss which separates the Castle from the town of Corfe is spanned by a lofty and substantial stone bridge of four arches ; but there are no traces remaining of the drawbridge, which no doubt originally stood between the north end of the bridge and the Castle. The plan of the Castle is adapted to the shape of the hill on which it stands, its outer walls following and crowning the crest of the hill. The interest of the visitors was centred for some time in the curious fragment of herring-bone wall which stands near the Rutavant Tower. This, as Mr. Bond pointed out, is covered with lichen, and its antiquity is thus proved. The wall was orginally 71 feet in length by li feet in height, and Mr. Bond is of opinion that the long, narrow, isolated room which it enclosed was part of the church built by St. Aldhelm in the last decade of the seventh century, Mr. Bond accounted for the fragment having been preserved from the fact that there was a tradition no rain fell within the walls after the root was off, and that it was kept owing to this superstition. Other places point out the entrance to the Chapel of St. Mary, the Queen's Tower, the Hall, the Chapel and Tower of the Gloriet, the Well, and the Cokayne Tower. With respect to th? well, Mr. Bond said there was a tradition that Lady Bankes, the heroine of the Castle, threw her plate and jewels into it, and
that the property had not been recovered. It was said that anyone who could run round the well seven times with one breath might find the jewels. Bradford Historical and Antiquarian Society.
—August 21.— The members of the society were met at Otley by Mr. C. J. Newstead, who conducted them over the church. He said that it had been stated that a church existed in Otley in the time of Paulinus, and that it was burnt by the Danes during his tenure of the Archbishopric. Whether that be so or not, a church certainly existed at Otley in the early days of Christianity in Britain. Whitaker remarks that Otley was " one of the great Saxon parishes, and the parent of several others which were separated after the Con- quest," and at the time of the Domesday survey there was a church and a priest at Otley. Athelstan, about the year 938, after his subjugation of Northumbria, presented the Manor of Otley to the Archbishops of York, who have remained its lords till very recent times, when it was transferred to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. The earliest structure was probably mainly of wood, and was burnt down in the troubled period of the Conqueror. Otley also suffered from raids of the Scots, and there are many marks of fire on stones of the present building ; for instance, the Norman piscina within the altar rails, the stonework of the ambrey (or box for holy oil), now unfortu- nately hidden by the oak lining and door, and also the fragments of crosses in the baptistery, show marks of fire. The oldest parts of the present building are the chancel and north door, which are Saxon, or more probably Norman. In the chancel are the Nor- man piscina and a round-headed window on the north side. For many years the latter was blocked up, but was re-opened at the restoration of the church. The round-headed window on the south side was inserted at the same time, and is in the position of a window of the same period, as has been proved by traces of the old stonework in the wall. Remains of similar win- dows were also found in the east wall, in the north wall where the arch into the organ chamber now is, and also in the south wall near the present window. The present east window was probably inserted in the time of Henry VII., when the north aisle is sup- posed to have been added. The old Norman church probably extended to the west side of the transept arches, the remains of a wall having been found under a portion of the present floor, and apparently extending across the nave at that point. Remains of a plain doorway were also found m the north wall in the corner adjoining the chancel arch. The church was subsequently extended to the tower, and the chan- cel arch and the transepts were probably built at that time. The only remaining original window in the tower is of the Decorated or geometrical period, the window in the west wall of the north aisle and the window im- mediately adjoining it in the north wall l)eing of the same period, and most probably removed from their original positions when the side aisle was added. At this time the building had assumed the form of a Latin cross. At the restoration in 1870 the foundation of a wall across the c.-ist end of the north aisle was found. Thoresby in his diary mentions that he saw the cross of Sir Simon Ward on the capital of one of the pillars of Otley Church, but Mr. Newstead conjectured that the learned antiquary had confused Guisclcy with Ollcy.
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MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES,
Mr. Newstead then referred to the placing of a string- course above the nave arches in 1869, to the finding of a "witch-bottle" in the churchyard. The monu- ments in Otley Church related to the following : — (l) Sir Thomas Fairfax (died 1640) and his wife (this Lord Fairfax was brother of the poet, Edward Fairfax, the translator of Tasso, and was grandfather of the illustrious Parliamentary General, born at Denton, January 17th, 1612, and christened in Otley Church, January 26th, 1612); (2) Charles Fairfax, uncle of the " General," and author of the " Analecta Fair- faxiana ; " (3) the Palmes and Lindleys, concerning whom a mural brass, dated 1593, shows the descent of the Palmes of Naburn and the Lyndleys of Lyndley from the twelfth century ; (4) the Vavasours and Fawkeses. The Longfellows (ancestors of the poet) also belonged to Otley parish. The registers dated from 1562, and contain, under date May 7th, 1788, John Wesley's signature to a marriage. In the bap- tistery were fragments ot crosses, which have been declared on high authority to be Roman, Leaving Otley the party proceeded along the banks of the Wharfe and the Washburne to Leathley, where they were met by the Rector, the Rev. H. Canham, LL.B. The church was visited, where Mr. Canham observed that very little could be said or gleaned of the past history of Leathley. Hard by was Leathley Hall, the ancient house of the Lindley family, which about the time of the Restoration came into the hands of the Hitches, and from them descended by marriage to the Maudes, the last of whom sold the estates to Walter Fawkes, and they still remain a portion of the Farnley properties. The village of Leathley is very small, scattered, and rustic, and the old stocks are still close to the churchyard gates. The church is an ancient edifice, but its original features are almost concealed by alterations and repairs made at sundry times. The tower, however, is in its primitive state, the simplicity of its rude rubble walls being relieved in only a few places by very small round-headed openings. Origi- nally it appears to have been little higher than the roof of the nave, and to improve its stunted appear- ance it has been raised a little at a more recent date. Equally primitive is the interior of the church, the low, massive, round-headed chancel and western arches being apparently of Saxon or very early origin. An oak door, with massive iron fastenings, at the west end of the church was also of early date. Few memorials are observable anywhere within, but the fabric is in an excellent state of preservation. The Rev. Ayscough Fawkes was for a long time rector here, before his succession to the Farnley inheritance. The registers, or what remains of them, commence about 1674, and the earliest are almost illegible. What is left, however, Mr. Canham has carefully mounted in a portfolio, and copied also as far as practicable and necessary. In the burial-ground stone coffins have frequently been found, and these alone prove the anti- quity of the church. In the churchyard is also the base of an old cross, and the very threshold of the church is an ancient coffin slab.
Buxton Literary and Philosophical Society. — Aug. II. — The members of the above society proceeded to Bakewell. At the church the members were received by the Venerable Archdeacon Balston, D.D., Vicar of Bakewell, who gave a brief but interesting history
and description of this fine old church. This had been a church for several centuries before the Norman conquest. The church was re-built at a very early period, and it was thought in King John's time. Mr. Cox thought it was before that. It was a sort of collegiate place, and they probably knew that it was a very large parish. It was worked by means of chapelries, and by law any person in those chapelries which were new parishes, could come and claim certain things of him as Vicar of Bakewell. The Venerable Archdeacon then called attention to the architecture, and the arches in the south transept. Each of the aisles was said to have been apsed. The chancel was extended about the thirteenth century. The old spire was perforated. It was what they called a light spire, wholly different to the one now in existence. He specially drew their atten- tion to the chantry of the Foljambes, and to the beautiful stained glass window at the side, which was made by an old pupil of his, who was a member of the family. Some years ago, prior to the restoration, the tower piers showed signs of giving way. The south transept was in a dangerous state, and in 1 841, when it was taken down, they found most interesting monuments, many of which could be inspected in the entrance porch. Some were to be seen in Mr. Bate- man's museum. Not one of them was of later date than 1260, and there were many which belonged to the period before the rebuilding of the church. The Vernon Chapel was full of monuments. The head of Sir John Manners, as they would observe in the monumental figure, was the most remarkable he ever saw. In the course of restoration of this chapel there was found a skull immediately beneath the tomb in question, and, strange to say, it corresponded exactly with the shape of this remarkable head. The Vener- able Archdeacon then proceeded to call the attention of the party to the windows and the arches over them. The windows were what was called double lancet. There were two curious arches at the west end, while the western door, which was now made up, he thought belonged to the very oldest church, and would repay examination from the outside. The journey was resumed to Haddon Hall. Here Mr. A. E. Cockayne gave an introductory address in the courtyard. He reminded the company that^.William the Conqueror gave this place to William Peveril, the celebrated Peveril of the Peak. It remained in that family for some time, and then passed on to the Vernons. The building had never been a castle, but the walls were strong, and it was understood, when Richard Vernon got the place from King John at the close of the twelfth century, that there should be no embrasures to shoot arrows through. It w.is strictly for defence only. Mr. Cockayne then proceeded to point out the features of interest in the architecture, the oldest parts being the north-east tower and the lower part of the chapel. About the year 1200 there would be a small house within the present area. The old bell in the turret belonging to the chapel was now at Rowsley Church. The turret of course was 'of later date. The great hall at Haddon was one of the finest in the kingdom. Mr. Cockayne then alluded in passing to the Dorothy Vernon episode, the truth of which there was no jeason to doubt. The company then passed into the chapel, round
THE ANTIQUARY'S NOTE-BOOK.
225
which clusters so much interest. The glass in the east window, said Mr. Cockayne, was very tine indeed, but it was stolen, and probably taken over to the Continent and sold for a price. However, it had never been traced, and there was only a mere frag- ment remaining. The chapel itself originally must have been very handsome. The walls, now dis- figured with whitewash, were beautifully painted with scriptural figures. The arches were fine, but the points where they sprung from had been unfortunately defaced. Then there was a very handsome rood screen, and in the north side wall they would observe a door, from which emerged the sacristan. On the opposite side he drew attention to a squint in the wall, which was untouched, and then to the site of an altar in the side-chapel. Indeed, the altar slab of stone lay on the floor, and on it was cut the five crosses. To the right or south side of this altar was a corbal, or bracket in stone, which probably did duty for a statue or lamp to stand upon. Within the present plain screen, which would occupy the site of the original rood, Mr. Cockayne pointed out a portion of the carving of the latter. He called attention to the vestment chest, the font, and the holy water stoup just within the doorway. The chest and the stoup took them back 400 years.
C6e antiQuarp'0 il3ote^T5oolt.
Burning at the Stake at Lincoln.— In 1722
Elizabeth Elsom was burnt at the stake for the murder of her husband, at the public place of execu- tion in the castle ditch at Lincoln. She was brought out of the prison bare-foot, covered with a tarred shift, a tarred bonnet on her head, and her legs, feet, and arms coated with tar. She was drawn on a hurdle to the place of execution, and placed by the executioner on a tar barrel about 3 feet high. A rope which ran on a pulley through the stake was fixed about her neck, and after being drawn tight with the pulley the tar-barrel was pushed away, her body being fastened by three irons round it to the stake, that it might not drop when the rope was burnt. The fixing of the irons took about five minutes, the execu- tioner mercifully taking the opportunity of pulling the body downwards to ensure strangulation, which, how- ever, was strictly illegal. Wood was then piled round her, and set fire to. The fuel being very dry, and the quantity of tar great, the fire burnt with great fury ; but it was fully half an hour before the wretched woman's body was completely con- sumed. Five and twenty years later, April, 1747, there is a record of a certain Mary Johnson having been burnt at the stake at Lincoln, at the same place, for the same offence, the murder of her husband by poison ; but no jiarticulars are given of the execution. — Times, Sept. 10, 18S6.
Winchester Cathedral.— An ancient subscription list for the repair of the cathedral iias been discovered by the Dean of Winchester in his careful and scholarly search amongst the valuable records and MSS. of the library and wreck of St. Swithin's Priory. It carries
one back to the year 1654, the Cromwellian era, an d amongst the subscribers are several old Hampshire and Wykhamical names and authors. The Dean's in- vestigations are likely to add to local antiquarian history. The Cromwellian subscription list is verbatim et lileratim as under :
Dated the 20M of May, 1654. Itt being generally known that Trinity Churche, neere Winton, though it be a very emenent and useful! place for preaching and learning gods word, yett itt doth dayly decay for want of Reparacion Wee whose names are subscribed to pre- vent the mischeife that may happen by delay doe willingly contribute by way of advance mony for the present! towards the reparacion of the said Churche such summes as are sub- scribed and hereunder mentioned to our severall names.
It. s. d.
SirTho. Jervoyce, Knt 03 00 00 Robte. Wallopp, Esq. 05 oo oo
Nich. Love, Esq 04 00 00
Tho. Bettesworth,
Esq 05 00 oc
Richard Cobb, Esq. . . 04 00 00 Tho. Gierke, Esq 02 00 00
U. s. d.
John Hook, Esq 03 00 00
John Trott, Esq 03 00 00
"Robrt. Reynold, Esq. 03 00 00 Doctor John Harris . . 05 00 00 Mr. Richard Brexton 01 00 00 Mr. William Betts . . 00 10 00 Mr. Edmund Riggs . . 01 00 00
{Endorsed) Trinity Church
Catluderall repaires before ye retume of ye Ch. wth I had of Major Bctsworth.
Trinitie Church Debitor 7° ibr 1654. it. //. s. d. It. s. d.
pd. John Heylinge, pt. his Bill 39 04 09 . . 36 05 08
pd. Tho. Hidler, pr. Wm. Steevens 10 00 00
pd. Wm. Lardner, goeing for ye monye .... 00 05 00 pd. Barefoote, cleansing Gutteres 00 07 00
Summa 46 17 08
pd 41 1008
Rest due to Edm. Riggs 5 07 00
Reed. Edm. Riggs loooo
Rest due 4 07 00
it. pd. Wm. Steevens cr. more full 10 00 00
— 00 Received p. Tho. Betsworth, Esq.
//. s. d.
it. Rec. Rob. Reighnolds 03 00 00
Rec. John Trott, Esq 03 00 00
Rec. Mr. Brexton 01 00 00
Rec. Tho. Betsworth, Esq., full of sli 01 00 00
08 00 00
Trinitie Church Creditor.
Rec. 24. Sbr. 54. Sir Tho. Jervoyce
Rec. Rob. Wallopp, Esq
Rec. John Hooke, Esq
Rec. 7c. Jan., 1655, T. Betsworth, Esq.
Rec. Nich Low, Esq., pr. Joh. Tedylinge .. Rec. Tho. Betsworth, Esq
Rec. Rich. Cobb, Esq.
Rec. Doctor Harris ,
Rec. Tho. Clarke, Esq
Rec. Joh. Haylinge, pr. timber ,
Rec. Joh. Haylinge, pd. over wt. lojcct. I
lead
li. s. d. 03 00 00
05 00 00
03 00 00
02 00 00
04 00 00
02 00 00 04 00 00
03 00 00 02 00 00
06 00 00
07 10 08
Summa .
•.... 41 10 oS
A Tavern Club.— In Ned Ward's Secret History of the Calf's Head Club, or Republican Unniasq^d (1703), we read of the Golden Fleece Club, a rattle- brained society, which was originally held at a tavern in Cornhili, so entitled. Its members seem to have been a merry company of citizens ; each of them had, on admission, a characteristic name attached to him, as Sir Timothy Addlepate, Sir Niminy Sneer, Sir Talkative Do-little, Sir Rumbus Rattle, Sir Boory
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ANTIQ U ART AN NE WS.
Prate-all, Sir Nicholas Ninny Sip-all, Sir Gregory Growler, and so on. The club flourished for a time, but when its members began to experience the un- welcome bows and compliments of the Corn Hill and other City " 'prentices,' who used to salute the puta- tive pseudo-knights by their titles as they passed to and fro, the society migrated from the Golden Fleece in the City to the Three Tuns in Southwark, that they might be the more retired from the mock homage. — Cornh ill.
A Vanishing Village. — Mr. W. Lovell writes to the Daily News : — Referring to your notice of Mrs. Girling, it may be of interest to note that the old graveyard, where stood the old cruciform church of Hordle — once in the middle of the village — is now only a hundred yards from the sea. Nothing of it remains except some blocks of grey withers used for its foundation, and too large to be removed. Very interesting are these stones brought up from the shore, where now and then one or two may be seen at low tide tumbled from the drift above — the same stones as those at Stonehenge, left on the top of the chalk. Gone, too, are its mill and its six salterns, mentioned in Domesday, and the village itself removed inland. The sailors, however, dredging for cement stone or for fish, sometimes draw up great logs of wood, locally known as " mooles," which may perhaps tell of the salterns or the time when the forest stretched to the sea. The salterns of the Normans and the old English have suffered very different fates. In Normandy the sea no longer reaches to their sites, whilst here it has long since rolled over them.
Antiquarian l^ete.
-» —
MM. Marcel de Puydt and Maximilian Lohest, of Liege, announce the following discovery : In a cave at Spy, a few miles from Namur, they have found in the sandstone two human skulls of extraordinary thick- ness, resembling the celebrated Neanderthal skull. They have the same projecting eyebrows, and the same low sloping forehead of a decidedly simian character. It is suggested that these are types of skulls of the primitive race who dwelt on the Sambre. Among other objects discovered in the cave were thousands of flints carefully dressed on one side ; also specimens of jasper and agate, minerals not found anywhere in the neighbourhood, ivory breast-pins, red ear-pendants, and necklets of curious design. There were no representations of animals. All were found in the sandstone, three layers of which were plainly discernible. The remains of flints, etc., deposited in each layer indicated different stages of skill in workmanship. The lowest stratum was by far the poorest in the number of objects found, and in the quality of their workmanship ; but it was here that the skulls were found. A careful drawing has been made of the geological section of the cave, so as to mark precisely the point where the skulls were found.
Workmen have been busy very recently in demolish- ing the old-established Fox and Goose-yard, London
Wall, for many years occupied by Mr. R. Johnson, carman and contractor. The adjoining tavern with the sign of the Two Brewers has also been pulled down, except the lower part, where business is still being carried on. It was one of the oldest houses of the kind in the City, and the ancient woodwork alxjut it showed much solidity and strength. This part of London Wall has undergone many changes of recon- struction of late years, the old buildings being succeeded by spacious, well-lighted warehouses, with all modern improvements.
The original MS. of the missing Liber IV. of the Codex Calixtinus has just been discovered at Com- postella by Don Antonio Lopez Ferreiro. The book has for title, Qualiter Karolus Magtms doniuerit et subjugaverit jugo Christi Hispanias. The loss of it gave rise to a sharp discussion between the late M. Dozy, in his last edition of Recherches sur f Histoire et la Litterature d'Espagne peiidant le Aloyen Age, and Father F. Fita. The chapter contains one of the earliest versions of the Carolingian Legend, and its rediscovery will enable the Spanish Academy of History to proceed with the publication of a critical edition of the entire codex.
A Munich paper says that Professor Forel, of Morges, has discovered a splendid ice gallery in the Arolla glacier, where two branches of the glacier meet at the back of the Heren Valley. There Pro- fessor Forel found the gallery, which is about 9 feet high, from 18 to 36 feet wide, and 390 feet long, leading upwards. In one place it is crossed by a brook, and further up divides into two branches, one of which is at present impassable, as the brook runs through it, and the other turns to one side, and is quite dry and passable for another 300 feet. The ice in the whole gallery is beautifully clear, with alternating white and blue strata, causing a wonderful play of colour and light. In the upper part are very interesting icicles.
The townsmen of Banbury, desiring to renew the honours of their once famous cross, have obtained tenders for the " restoration " of the edifice, including the enclosure of the base by a flower-garden with shrubs, and the utilization of the stem, which we suppose is to be new, as a gas-standard ! The Town Council is about to consider the execution of the project.
A survey of H.M.S. Victory, Nelson's flag -ship, has disclosed the fact that many of her timbers are so rotten, that to repair the vessel with new planks is impracticable. Orders have accordingly been given for the more decayed sections of the ship's sides to be removed, and the spaces to be filled in with cement, which is to be covered with canvas on the inside.
The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple has just had presented to it an old relic of Clement's Inn, in the shape of the figure of the black boy which for so many years past occupied such a prominent posi- tion in the gardens of this now defunct inn. This figure, which is represented as kneeling, and with uplifted arms supporting a sun-dial upon its head, is considered to possess great merit as a work of art. It is stated to have been brought over from Italy about the beginning of the eighteenth century
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by the then Lord Clare, and was presented by him to the Society of Clement's Inn. The figure of the black boy has been placed in the Inner Temple Gardens on the terrace facing the Thames Embank- ment, and a few yards only from the structure where the annual show of chrysanthemums is held. The sun- dial, which is in an excellent state of preservation, and bears the date 1731, is being cleaned and re- stored, and will shortly be placed in position on the figure.
Our readers will hear with concern that the Croydon Corporation have decreed the immediate demolition of the ancient archway which spans that which was once the principal entrance to the archi- episcopal palace in that town. That battered arch- way, under which must have passed, in bygone days, statesmen and ecclesiastics on their way to attend councils at which some of the most momentous questions in our history have been decided, and later on witnessed the magnificence with which more than once Elizabeth kept her court there, will disappear unless steps are at once taken to prevent such a use- less piece of vandalism. Croydon now possesses but few external relics of her ancient days, and can ill spare one more brick or stone which can in any way illustrate to the casual observer the great antiquity of the town. The Surrey Archaeological Society, and archaeologists in general, should use any influence they may possess to prevent this piece of " Corporate vandalism."
An interesting archaeological discovery has been made in Kertch. During some street excavations in the Woronzafskaia the marble basement and pedestal once supporting a statue were laid bare. The inscrip- tion on one face of the pedestal, still in perfect pre- servation, records that the missing statue was raised by Marcus Aurelius in honour of Tiberius Caesar. A search is being made for the statue Pantikapaion, or Panticapaium of the Romans. The modern Kertch first came under the Roman domination on the tragic death of the poiscn-proof King of Pontus, Mithridates the Great or Sixth, whose son and successor, Pharnaces, became a Roman vassal.
The historical estate of Pyrgo Park, near Havering- atte-Bower, in Essex, has been privately sold by Messrs. Walton and Lee. It is not quite 700 acres in extent, but the princijjal feature of the estate is the magnificent mansion, built in 1852, by Cubitt. There are upon the property the ruins of an ancient palace existing in 1226, and at that time in the custody of Philippe Forester. It seems to have been originally the house for the Queen Consort and her jointure — Eleanor, Queen of Edward I., and Anne, Queen of Richard II., held it in dower. Joan, widow of Henry IV., died there in 1437, while in 1559 it passed to Sir John Grey, and afterwards to Sir John Chake, in whose family it remained until, by marriage, it became the properly of Baron Archer, of Umbers- dale, whose lady also died there in 1774, since which time, through a series of changes of ownership, it passed into the hands of the late vendor. General Fytche.
The foundations of a Roman villa of fine propor- tions have been brought to light at Folly Hill, Maidenhead, Berks. During the excavations (which
are still in progress) a Roman knife, a bronze pin, several coins, some fragments of Samian ware, and a hypocaust in capital preservation were discovered.
Since the annexation of Nice to France in 1870, the former Dominican church has been used as a military bakery. A short time ago it became neces- sary to examine the roof, and the architect was horrified to find in the garret about 600 skeletons, flung pele-7nile. Medical experts declared that they must have been buried at least three or four centuries ago. It appears that when Nice was occupied by the French troops in 1792, the monks were expelled from the building, and the church of St. Dominick was converted into a national bakery ; and it is sup- posed that in carrying out the transformation the graves in the floor of the church were emptied of their contents, which were transferred to the garret, and flung there in heaps. Most of the persons in- terred in that church must have been members of noble families of Provence or the neighbouring districts.
The sale by auction of the " Barley Mow " Tavern, in Salisbury Court, London, better known as Cogers' Hall, has caused considerable discussion in the Daily Neivs. The " Cogers' Society " has been in exist- ence considerably more than a century, as is attested by portraits still extant of its earlier presidents or " Grands " in the costume of their time. John Wilkes, Daniel O'Connell, and Curran figure in the list of its former members ; and many an eminent lawyer and aspirant to Parliamentary honours has in his student days sought practice in public speaking under its roof.
The decipherers of the papyri which have been brought to Vienna from El Fayoum have learned from one of them the existence of a town in Lower Egypt, all traces of which seem to have disappeared for the last twelve hundred years or more. The document is a papyrus, a little over 4 feet long by I foot wide, containing a marriage contract in Greek, and is well preserved. The date is not given, but it is believed to belong to the early part of the sixth century. The bridegroom was named Theon, the bride Maria. She had a fortune of her own amount- ing to one hundred gold pieces, and the future husband engages to find for her food and clothing, and every- thing suitable for an " ordinary legitimate wife."
It is reported from Rome that an oval picture of the Holy Family has disappeared from the Church of Sant' Andrea, at Urbino, Raphael's native town. It was a beautiful painting, greatly prized, generally attributed to Raphael ; but the critics were inclined to assign it to Timoteo Viti, one of his masters. The Government have ordered a strict inquiry into the occurrence ; and it is supposed that the picture is in some place of concealment in Romagna.
While a number of men were engaged in excavat- ing in connection with the construction of a new railway at Westhoughton, near Bolton, they found what appeared to be human remains, which, when touched, crumbled into dust. Beside the remains were a bayonet and dagger.
The ancient civic custom of marking the Corpora- tion swans was observed on Friday afternoon,
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Sept. 17th, at Stratford-on-Avont Among those present were the Mayor, members of the Town Council, the Borough Chamberlain, and other Corporate officials. The swans, after a diligent search, were found in the neighbourhood of Charle- cote, three miles distant, and having been driven within a mile of the town, they were captured by means of ropes and crooks, and subjected to the marking process. This consisted of puncturing a small hole in the web of the foot in the shape of a heart, the usual accompaniment of cutting the birds' pinions to prevent their flying any distance being on this occasion dispensed with.
With great solemnity the statue of Hugo de Groot (or Grotius) was unveiled on 24th September, in his native town. On the third centenary of his birth, in 1883, a committee was formed under the patronage of the late Prince of Orange, and by a public subscrip- tion, to which men of science all over the world con- tributed, a fund was raised for the erection of a statue to the jurist who, in his day, was the most eminent in Holland. Grotius was born at Delft on April 10, 1583. At the age of fifteen years he obtained the degree of doctor juris, and one year later he accom- panied the famous statesman. Olden Carneveld, as an Envoy to France, where Henry IV. presented him to the Court as the " Oracle of Delft and the wonder of the century." After having rendered great services to his country in several positions, he was condemned in 1619 to imprisonment for life, on the ground that he had taken part in a conspiracy against the Prince of Orange. He was interned at the Castle of Loe Westein, whence, however, he escaped by the help of his wife, Mary van Reighersbergen, and his servant, Elsje van Honweningen. The wife entered the prison in a trunk with books, changed clothes with her husband, and took his place, whilst he left the castle by the way she came. Subsequently he entered the Swedish service, and from 1635 to 1675 he represented Sweden at the French Court. When on his way, in the latter year, from Paris to Sweden, he came to Amsterdam, and met there with such a kind reception that he decided to return to his mother country ; but on this journey he fell ill at Rostock, and died on August 28, 1675. His body was removed to Delft, and buried in the new church, just opposite the spot where his statue was unveiled. After three centuries the Dutch people have paid their illustrious fellow-countryman the honour he de- served. The solemnity was very imposing. At half- past one o'clock the authorities and the guests of the committee were received in the Town Hall on the market-place, which was splendidly decorated. At two o'clock the ceremonies commenced with the national hymn. Mr. W. H. de Beaufort, Member of the Second Chamber, delivered an eloquent speech, in which he recounted what Grotius was as a scien- tific man, after which the statue was unveiled. It re- presents Grotius standing, with a mantle on his shoulders, a book in one hand, and a pen in the other. The statue is of bronze, modelled by Mr. Stracke, of Haarlem, the pedestal being of Swedish granite. When the statue was unveiled, a chorus of eight hundred and fifty children sang a cantata, com- posed by Mr. Nicolai, Director of the Hague Conser- vatoire. Mr. Cremers, President of the Second Chamber and of the Committee, in an appropriate
speech presented the statue to the Corporation of Delft. The Burgomaster accepted it on behalf of the City, and expressed the gratitude of the citizens for the gift. The Burgomaster laid a wreath of laurels on the pedestal, and a deputation of students from the University of Leyden placed several wreaths at the feet of the statue. The municipal authorities subse- quently held a reception in the Town Hall, where a narrative of the proceedings was drawn up, to be laid among the city archives.
Mr. Tattersall Wilkinson, of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club, has just made a discovery of some interest in the upper end of the Swindon Valley, Burnley, whose heights are thickly strewn with vestiges of Roman and aboriginal occupation— earth- works, tumuli, etc. He commenced his excavations near a point where a farmer had been at work before him, digging for a chest of gold which, according to a tradition of the locality handed down for genera- tions, lies buried somewhere on these upland wastes. Mr. Wilkinson digged lower than the farmer, and found charcoal among the clay subsoil. Imbedded in this deposit of wood-ash were found some calcined bones, apparently human, the relics of a body after cremation. He then commenced digging in the centre of a ring of seven stones that cropped up from the surface. For three feet there was clay, then at one point traces of a black mould. The loose com- post was taken off, and there was then laid bare a chamber 18 inches square. At the top was a layer of charcoal and white bones. On a stone being raised there was exposed an urn containing human remains. This was safely got out and conveyed to Burnley, where it was opened in the presence of a number of antiquaries from different parts of Lancashire. The urn has a deep rim or collar, but is destitute of orna- mentation. In it were found calcined remains and a bronze pin. The remains were apparently those of a mother and her child. The type of urn is said to belong to the Romano-British period.
Mr. Beecham is still continuing his exertions in the Ilelsfell bone cave, near Kendal, and fresh remains are being brought to light. The latest discovery is of much interest, consisting of bones of Cuvier's Choero- potamus, an animal described as being between the hog and the hippopotamus, and belonging to the first (eocene) period of animals. The parts discovered are in an excellent state of preservation. The only pre- vious discovery of remains of such an animal took place at Brinstead, Isle of Wight.
A man, while digging potatoes in the garden of an inn within the limits of the ancient Roman city of Caerwent (a few miles from the famous western Roman town, Caerleon), struck upon a beautiful mosaic floor about 14 feet square, with a passage lead- ing thereto. The pavement has since been com- pletely exposed to view, and shows a design, without figures either human or animal, of convoluted character. The tesserae are red, blue, and three shades of stone colour. The pattern has been some- what shattered towards the centre, as if by the roots of a tree which had grown above it. About a score of Roman coins were also found in good preservation.
The Sultan has given orders for the repair, at the expense of ;i^4,ooo from his privy purse, of the ancient mosque and tomb of the Sultan Ilderim BayazidatBrusa.
ANTIQUARIAN NE WS.
229
A Naples correspondent reports an important dis- covery at Pompeii. Near the eastern gate leading to Noccera, a street of tombs, similar to the famous one outside the western gate, has been found, which, it is believed, contains sepulchres of the highest interest. Unfortunately the excavation funds are just now very low, so that the scientific world will probably for some time to come be kept in suspense as to the pre- cise value and further details of these interesting relics of antiquity.
A long and very valuable report has been prepared for the Cumberland and Westmoreland Architectural Society by Mr. R. S. Ferguson, M.A., of Carlisle, on the results of the recent excavations of the Roman Wall in the neighbourhood of Carlisle. A Committee vras appointed to carry out the work, and a month or two ago a pilgrimage, extending over a week, was made along the wall. The Committee considered it would be desirable to ascertain how the wall crossed the various rivers of Cumberland, and, if possible, to find the piers of the bridges. It was also hoped to throw some light on the very vexed question whether the Roman Wall went over or round Burgh Marsh, but that problem still awaits solution. A number of trenches were dug and the wall found. One point selected for an opening was a clay pit in an angle between the Caledonian and North British Railways, where it was asserted the wall had been found when the latter railway was made. The explorers found the foundations of the wall at a depth of about 8 feet from the surface, raised upon the gravel below the alluvial soil. The stones of the wall had been taken away down to the very foundation, probably for building purposes, but one or two beds of ashlar, still in position, enabled the archaeologists to get the width of the wall, which is 7 feet 9 inches. On the west of the Caledonian Railway the wall was again found. Mr. Ferguson expresses the opinion that the Romans must either have embanked the riven Eden in a narrow and deep channel by heavy earthworks, of which there is no evidence at present to be seen, or they must have constructed a bridge of no less than fifty openings. It is intended to place stones to mark the spots where the explorations have been made. A number of other interesting discoveries have recently been made in Cumberland and Westmoreland, and reported to the Archxological Society of those counties by Mr. P'erguson. A labourer at work in a field at Stainemore Common, near Brough, West- moreland, found a small plainly-inscribed image of the Roman period. It is only a few inches in length, but it is in a state of excellent preservation. At CliburnXChurch, Westmoreland,^ an interesting in- scribed stone has been brought to light. Even more interesting is a beautifully floriated grave cover of a priest found in the Church of Castlecarrock, Cumber- land. The inscription reveals a rather remarkable fact — namely, an early and purely British name of the parish and church. " Beth of Cric " (a portion of the inscription) is pure Welsh, even in the present day, for "Crick (or Carrock's) grave," and undoubtedly points to the origin of the name of the church and place, and preserves the name by which the church was known to the earlier generations. A John de Bergh (probably the lohes de Beth of the inscription) was presented to the living of Castlecarrock by the Prior and Convent of Carlisle in 1346.
Corte^ponnence,
DEMOLITION OF A NORMAN BUILDING AT COLCHESTER.
Antiquaries will deeply regret to hear that the very remarkable and perfect remains of a structure of the early Norman period are being deliberately destroyed in this ancient town, which has already had to deplore, some forty years ago, the similar demolition of its " Moot-hall," of which the lower portion was, it is believed, of the same early date as the building now being destroyed.
This building, which lies to the north of the High Street, has walls nearly 5 feet thick. It consists of two stages, of which the lower is vaulted and has been little altered, it would seem, since its erection. The entrance and windows are boldly arched with tiles, according to the local manner of building, as are also some curious recesses in the wall, which can only be compared to piscinae in size and position, and of which the meaning has not been explained. The walls are of the rudest rubble masonry, though the face is still fairly even. The roof of the ground-floor is a plain barrel vault, the effect of rudimentary groining being produced (as in the Castle) by the intersection of the vaults springing from the windows. Faint traces of painting have been discovered in the walls of the upper stage, as also some fragments of early woodwork in one of the windows.
The strikingly close resemblance between the con- struction of this building and that of the famous Castle, make it difficult to believe that it can be of later date than the end of the eleventh century. Running as it does north and south, it cannot have been an ecclesiastical structure ; but beyond the fact that, in comparatively modern times, it was used, it is said, by " the Dutch Congregation" as their chapel, there is no evidence whatever, it would seem, as to its origin or its history. I have, however, elsewhere given my reasons for believing it to have been a fortified structure belonging to the borough, and, as such, of peculiar interest.
It may be added that, thanks to the Mayor of Colchester (Henry Laver, Esq.), who is ever zealous in the cause of local antiquities, a ground-plan of the vault has been drawn to scale, and that photographs of the building have been taken by Messrs. Angle, one of which shows the masonry of the vault with two of the arched recesses. I have secured further photographs of the details in the course of the demo- lition. A water-colour drawing of the interior was also executed before its destruction.
It should be explained that the " crypt " was un- fortunately filled with stores of iron when Colchester was visited by the Archaeological Institute in 1876, so that its existence and character are not so well known as would otherwise have been the case.
J. II. Round.
Colchester.
MAIDEN LANE.
\_Ante, p. 181, et a/.]
I quite agree with Mr. Prideaux {ante^ p. 39), that if we can get the sense of "embankment" (ground
230
CORRESPONDENCE.
heaped up) out of " maiden," it will be what we want ; but the question is — can we ? As he rightly says, " a careful topographical examination" is our only resource, and may prove that such was, in practice, its meaning. This is, of course, independent of its etymology. Mr. Prideaux, on this point, observes with truth of the favourite magh-dun deriva- tion, adopted by Mr. Hall :
What has a hill-fort to do with afield or plain, and how can they be united together ? Has Mr. Hall ever actually seen the words in combination, or is his etymology merely one of the
fuesses which were reprobated lately with so much justice by Ir. Wheatley ?
This etymology certainly appears to be one of those " made to order."
As to " Maydestrete " at Melcombe Regis, the co- incidence pointed out by Mr. Prideaux is obvious enough. I did not, however, call attention to it, because it was the practice at the time to create similar nuisances on every side, and the coincidence was therefore, in this case, probably fortuitous.
J. H. Round.
Colchester.
Since the above was written I have read Mr. H. W. Smith's instructive communication, and Mr. A. Stapleton's very interesting explanation of the Nottingham case. This latter would seem to be of considerable value, as positive evidence of an origin which may have applied elsewhere in town instances, and have been quite distinct from the "maiden" place-names in the country.
In Tomlins' Perambulation of Islington (see index) a full account is given of a local " Maiden {or Made, or Madan) Lane." Probably the name would be found, if we could collect a complete list, to be far more frequent than might be supposed.
BOXLEY ABBEY, KENT. \_Ante, pp. 87, 181.]
I should not have thought it necessary to reply to Mr. Frederic Surtees' letter {ante, pp. 181-183), but that it involves a point of some public interest, and affords an apt illustration of the dangers which beset those who write confidently on subjects of which they have not acquired the mastery.
The passage in my letter which Mr. Frederic Surtees assails with such singular vehemence is this :
" As to the founder of Boxley Abbey, Mr. Surtees (vol. viii., p. 49) takes Mr. Freeman to task for speaking of his earldom as doubtful,' and appeals to Burke's Extinct Peerage. I can only say that my researches on the subject have entirely con- firmed the opinion of Dr. Stubbs (for it is originally his), that this earldom is, to say the least, 'doubtful.' Nor can the popular compilation invoked by Mr. Surtees be accepted as of any authority whatever." — Ante, p. 87.
I need hardly say that, to those who have any acquaintance with these subjects, the idea of quoting Burke's Extinct Peerage as against the verdict of Dr. Stubbs (repeated by Mr. Freeman), is droll beyond expression. Mr. F. Surtees, however, writes :
"When I state my reasons I feel convinced that candid readers will agree with me that I could not have given a better reference, notwithstanding Mr. Round's assertion to the contrary."
I have read these " reasons " very carefully, and the only scrap of definite reason that I can find is that Mr. Surtees was once told by a friend of his that Sir Bernard Burke was "an unusually clever man."
But not content with vindicating Sir Bernard, Mr. Surtees proceeds to throw his aegis over Mr. Free- man as well. Now this is passing strange when we consider that I myself began' (ut supra) by defending Mr. Freeman's statement against Mr. Surtees' criti- cism ! Moreover, in his eagerness to champion Mr. Freeman, Mr. Surtees must clearly have forgotten (or, more probably, never read) that writer's famous article on "Pedigrees and Pedigree-Makers " {Contem- porary Review), in which he attacks Sir Bernard Burke in language I would not emulate, denouncing his pedigrees " sheer invention," " manifest false- hood," and "monstrous fictions" — nay, even as " hideous nonsense ;" and asking what could be "the state of his mind" when he issued such pro- ductions to the world ! After these comments of the Regius Professor on " one of the first genealogists of the day," Mr. Surtees will doubtless bitterly repent that he went so rashly out of his way to uphold Mr. Freeman's authority.
And now as to the point in question. Mr. Surtees asks why Sir Bernard Burke should not be
" as good an authority on a peerage creation as Mr. J. H. Round, who tells us, ex cathedrA, ' / can only say that my ojiinion," etc., etc., etc. I reply, Mr. Round's opinion {sic) is worthless on the point compared with that of Sir Bernard Burke, who has probably forgotten more of genealogies than the former ever knew."
The Sting of this elegant sentence lies, I regret to say, in a very gross tuisquotation of the words in my letter. These were {ut supra) :
"I can only say that my researches on the subject have entirely confirmed the opinion of Dr. Stubbs."
To quote an expression of Mr. Surtees, " I feel con- vinced that candid readers will agree with me " that he owes me an apology for having substituted (doubt- less by inadvertence) the word "opinion" for " researches."
For when I wrote as I did, it was on the strength, not of " opinion," but of exhaustive " researches." Mr. Surtees observes that " few, perhaps of genea- logists even, would care in the present day to investi- gate early authorities as to whether some 700 years ago he [William of Ypres] was actually created Earl of Kent." It may surprise him to learn that I am one of those " few," and that before I wrote on the point I had ascertained by special research among Charters, Pipe Rolls, Chronicles, etc., etc., that in no single instance before, in, or after 1141, is William of Ypres styled Earl of Kent. The sole ground for assigning him that title (as is correctly .given in Dugdale, Stubbs, and Doyle) is the foreign writer Meyer, who may well have misunderstood his exact status in England.
But, Mr. Surtees proclaims, Ulster is "a sound authority ;" nay, indeed,
"His work on Extinct and Dormant Peerages would have no merit and no sale if it was inaccurate. They who have at any time tested any part of it by personal research, know how carefully and cautiously it has been compiled."
Doubtless, they who peruse its preface may be awe- struck by the list of authorities appealed to and deeply impressed by such phrases as "the most
CORRESPONDENCE.
231
labprious revision — the most anxious and unremitting attention. . . . No available source of information has been neglected. . . . No trouble or research has been spared," etc., etc. But now let the veil be drawn aside, and to those who may honestly wish to know how " it has been compiled," the following extracts (which are those bearing on Boxley Abbey) will speak eloquently for themselves :
Burke. _ " In the heat of these feuds his lordship is accused of burn- ing the Abbey of Wherwel!, CO. Southampton, because the Nuns had harboured some of the partisans of the Empress ; but after peace was restored, he made restitution by found- ing the Cistertian Abbey, at Borley (jic), in Kent, anno 1144."
DOGDALE.
" It is reported of this Earl that in those times of hostility between Maud the Empress and King Stephen, he burnt the Abby of Wherwelle in com. Suthampt. in regard the Nuns of that House harboured some of the Empresses Followers. But, when the Times grew more calm and quiet, he founded an Abby at Boxley, in Kent, for Cistercian Monks in anno 1144 (a Step.)."i
I wonder how many of those who read such passages as that which I have quoted from the Extinct Peerage have any conception that what they are reading is simply " watered Dugdale," and that when they quote from " one of the first genealogists of the day," they are simply quoting a rkhauffe of that great antiquary's words which any one of them, I need hardly say, would be capable of constructing for himself. Thus when the "authority" of the writer is appealed to, it is not his authority at all ! And the really funny part of it is this. In Dugdale, *' Boxley " (like his other place-names) is printed in black-letter, and by those who have so little antiquarian knowledge as to be unfamiliar with black-letter, and to have never heard of Boxley Abbey, the " x " would easily be mistaken for " r." Thus it is that in the Extinct Peerage, "Boxley" becomes "Borley," and this, with the exception of the ludicrous anachronism of speaking of William of Ypres as " his lordship " (!), is the solitary alteration in Dugdale's account, for which we are indebted to the genealogical skill of that " unusually clever man," the compiler of the Extinct Peerage !
Whether my opponent has done Ulster a service in extorting from me these revelations, I must leave it to others to judge. I have said enough (pace Mr. Surtees) to justify my description of the work in question as a "popular compilation" which cannot be "accepted as of any authority whatever." Let us hope that, in future, when an authority is appealed to, it may be either the great Dugdale himself, or Mr. Doyle, whose Official Baronage is destined to supplant all others.
Lastly, as to the Rood of Grace. On this Mr. Surtees writes :
" I am at a loss to understand Mr. Round's remark that the impossibility of removing the Boxley Abbey Rood ' formed part of the story.' It was unquestionably removable."
Here I need merely quote the passage in Mr. Brown- bill's Paper to which I was referring :
" Now comes the consummation of the miracle ; the horse re- fused to stir an inch ; and when the man took the image off its back, he could not carry it away " (ante, vii. 165).
But I have already, it may be thought, devoted too much time to the criticisms of Mr. F. Surtees. To
those, however, who are anxious, like myself, to airive at the right and just conclusion on the delicate question connected with the Rood, it may be of interest to learn that my suggestions have elicited from the clergyman of an East Anglian parish the instructive fact that his own parishioners (not only the lower orders) had similarly expressed their con- viction to him, after witnessing the performance of a conjurer (which had been explained to them to be mere sleight-of-hand), that there was a supernatural " something in it " (i.e. miraculous wonder-working). I may also, in support of my theory, call attention to a dictum of Mr. Freeman (as Mr. Surtees thinks so highly of his authority) :
"An age which expects miracles is sure to find miracles, as an age which believes in witches is sure to find witches. That is to say, there will in most cases be a certain number of instances of real imposture ; but there will also be a number, most likely a much greater number, of instances in which men predisposed to expect miracles will in perfect good faith see miraculous agency in cases where a less credulous age will see only natural causes " (Preface to Giraldus Cambrensis, vol. 7, p. Ixviii).
A point of ethics such as that which I have raised is not to be dismissed by angrily sneering at it as an " absurd conundrum," nor even by jaunty and flippant allusions to ' ' Elijah Pogram or " the Artful Dodger." As to the personalities of Mr. F. Surtees, I may remind him that abuse is not argu- ment, and I will ask to be allowed to dismiss him with these words taken from a notice in the Academy (Aug. 14) :
" Mr. Round has made some sensible remarks on the ' Rood of Grace ' and other so-called miraculous images. We have no doubt that what he suggests is the true solution of many of the permanent miracles which have enraged Protestants and driven cultured Romanists to strange shifts of explanation or apology."
J. H. Round. Brighton, Oct. I, 1886.
TUN-GEREFA.
May we not find a trace of this early township officer in the field-name " Tunesgrafteghe" (alias " Toumsgraftegh "), which occurs in a deed of 24 June, 1308, relating to the Manor of Wye, among the "Battle Abbey Evidences" printed by Sir G. Duckett (Sussex Arch. Coll., xxxi. 163-4)? If so, the form may be of some importance, judging from Dr. Stubbs' note on gerefa: "It has been regarded generally as the same word with the German graf, .... but many other explanations have found favour. . . . M. Miiller would not ' be at all sur- prised if the Anglo-Saxon gerefa turned out to be etymologically unconnected with the German graf (Lectures, ii. 284) ; and this is so far probable, that whereas the fundamental, universal, and permanent idea of the gerefa is stewardship, the graf\% not, so far as appears, a steward at all, but primarily and uni- versally a magistrate. If, then, they are the same word, the English application seems to be most
Erimitive, and there is at least one link missing etween it and ihegraf" (Const. Hist., i. 82-3).
J. H. Round. Brighton.
232
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THE BRASSES AND GLASS OF MORLEY CHURCH.
233
The Antiquary.
DECEMBER, 1886.
C{)e I5ras0es ant) aia^s of
By F. Rought WiLsox.
HE retired village of Morley, to whose antiquated church we re- spectfully invite the readers of the Antiquary to accompany us for a little while, is situated about five miles (north- east) from the town of Derby. To reach it we must either avail ourselves of the railway as far as Breadsall (two miles from Morley) or we may walk or drive all the distance. The latter, if the weather be propitious, is the preferable mode of locomotion, as the route is not only picturesque but full of in- terest. Leaving the town at the north end, we pass down Bridge Gate, and over the River Derwent by the old bridge of St Mary, from which structure this, the oldest thorough- fare in the town, derives its appellation. To our right hand as we stand upon the bridge, we see, situated on an island, the first silk- mill erected in England, being the original fabric built by John Lombe, the pioneer of the English silk trade, in 17 16. The old decaying chapel of St. Mary-of-the-brigge may also be noticed standing on a fragment of an old pack-saddle bridge, the predecessor of the existing one, ui)on which we are staying for a moment. To our left hand, right away, up the river, nestling amongst a luxuriance of verdure, is the village of Darley Abbey, cele- brated in the printing world as the locale of a well-known paper-factory; but historically interesting as the site of a once extensive abbey of St. Augustine monks.
Leaving Bridge Gate, we ne.xt proceed along the Mansfield Road, finding ourselves, in a short space of time, in the village of
VOL. XIV.
Little Chester — a now rapidly increasing suburb of the borough. Passing through, we are reminded that here stood the Roman Station of Derventio, and that the Ryknield Street may be distinctly traced in the imme- diate neighbourhood. Tradition says that the foundations of a Roman bridge also may be seen here when the water of the Derwent is low. Turning to our right, we now find ourselves on the direct way for Morley, with scenes of nature on either hand calculated to make the walk extremely pleasant. On reaching an elevated point in the road we see below us in the valley the picturesque village of Breadsall, the sub- stantial spire of whose church (in which the remains of that famous sava?it, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, lie interred) rises up prominently from amidst the lowly cottages. While we pursue the rest of our journey, we may just as well recount briefly one or two facts in con- nection with the history of the small church about to be visited, and from which we are now but a very short distance.
The edifice of St. Matthew's is the parish church of a village which claims considerable antiquity. Certain it is that Morley was associated with the days of the Roman occu- pation, as coins and other relics of that period have been found from time to time here ; and the Roman road previously alluded to doubtless passed through the village. In Domesday Book it is mentioned as Morhi, when it " was held by Siward, under Henry do Ferrars." It afterwards became the pos- session of a family who took the name of Morley, one of whose descendants married, at the latter end of the fourteenth century, a Ralph Stathum, and with which gentleman the history of Morley Church commences. At what date it was first erected is not known, but during this Ralph Stathum's residence in the village, he appears to have made extensive alterations in the church — adding to an original Norman design several features of the Decorated period. Further particulars of these alterations we shall learn from the very fine series of brass monuments, which form such an attractive feature of the church, and which, together with its curious and valuable stained-glass windows, having arrived at the little edifice, we will proceed to examine. The church stands in an elevated
R
234
THE BRASSES AND GLASS OF MORLEY CHURCH.
position, and has a spire and bells. As we enter in at the gate we notice in the church- yard the shaft of an old market-cross, which has evidently been removed from some village- green or market-place to its present position. The interior of the church consists of nave and chancel, each with side aisles.
The first brass to which our attention is called is one from which it would appear that Ralph Stathum commenced his additions to the church by erecting a chapel, in which, as the late Rev. Samuel Fox says in his History of the Church* he was probably buried ; " but which chapel it was cannot with any degree of certainty be decided, as all the brasses have at different times been, unfortunately, removed from their original situations." The brass bears the following inscription :
Orate p aja Radulphi de Stathum, quonda dni de Morley qui istam capellam fieri fecit, & obiit XIII° die Junii A° dni Mill" ccc° Ixxx" et p aja Godythe vxis sue nup dne de Morley pdict que psentetn Eccliam cum campanili de novo construxit que obiit XVP die Maii Anno dni millo CCCC" XVIIP quar ajar & Peisdem exorantibs ppiciet deus ame.
*' This inscription gives a satisfactory clue to the date when the Stathum alterations commenced ; and it is confirmed by another inscription which was originally over the south door, as a matrix, corresponding with it, still remains. This brass has a portion broken off, and reads as follows." The letters are in relief :
Orate p ajabus Godithe de Stathum dne d' Morley Ricardi filii sui qui capanile istud & eccliam fieri fecert quibus tenent Anno° dni Millmo CCCC° tercio.
" A chapel was added to the East End of the original South Aisle about the time of Ralph Stathum, as appears from a canopy of a piscina which still remains in the South Wall ; and although there is no certainty with regard to it, it seems probable it was the chapel alluded to on the brass as having been built by Ralph Stathum. The building commenced by him was evidently continued by his widow Godith in her own name and that of her son Richard, although he had
* The History and Atiiiqnities of the Parish Chtirch of S, Alattheu', Morley, ittthe County of Derby, by the late Rev. Samuel Fox, M.A., Rector. Edited by Robert Bigsby, LL.D. (Bemrose and Sons, 1872.) To this work, now out of print, the writer has been much indebted, especially for the rendering of the inscriptions, some of which are almost undecipherable through age.
been dead some years. She built the tower and chancel, and gave the character to the church, which it continued to possess until a successor, who was probably John Stathum, from what is related of him on his brass, pro- longed the South Aisle to its present length, and erected a chapel at its termination." The inscription on the brass alluded to is as follows ;
Orate p aja Johis Stathum Armigeri, qu° dm dni isti' ville qui bene & notabilit' hanc eccle egit qui obiit VIP die Nouembris Anno. dni. Millmo. CCCC° liiio. Et p aja Cecilie vxoris eius que obiit XX Vo. die. Aprilis. A°. dni. M.C.C.C.C.° XLIIII° qr° ajabs ppiciet de'.
In connection with this John Stathum, there is another brass which bears the por- traiture of himself and Cicely, his wife, and was probably placed over their grave. The husband is represented as wearing a suit of armour, his wife being attired in the usual female dress of the century. Proceeding out of each of their mouths is a scroll which bears the inscription :
Set. Christofore ora pro novis. Above is engraved the figureof St. Christopher bearing our Lord upon his shoulders through water. The inscription beneath is in English, and runs as follows :
Here lieth John Stathum Squyer sometyme lorde of this towne, and Cecily his wife ; Which yat to yis Churche III belles, & ordyned iii^ iiii'' yerely for brede, to be done in almes among pore folk of y^ prssh i y" day of y® obit of dame Godith, sometyme Lady of y^ towne, the said John dyed the VI day of Novembre, ye yere of our Lord W- C.C.C.C LIIIP, and the sayd Cecily died the XXV day of April, the yere of our Lord Mt C.C.C.C Ixiiii' of Whos Sowles God have mercy. Amen.
In the South Wall of the chancel there is yet another brass having reference to Ralph, Godith, and the Stathum family in general. It has no date, and reads as follows :
ffor tho sowles of Rafe Godyth Thymis Elizabeth Cecill and John & of theyr suxcessores & for all cristen Sowles depfundis &c : pater noster «&c : Ave Maria : et ne nos : rege etnam &c : Dne exaudi ora- coem : W yis oriso Inclina dne &c : John Stathm ordynd yis to be said & more Writen in other divers bokis.
John Stathum left two sons, Thomas and Henry; the former died a.d. 1470; the latter, who succeeded him, died a.d. 1481. Upon an altar tomb of marble, standing on the North side of the South aisle, near the Chancel door, is the following inscription in brass in memory of the former :
THE BRASSES AND GLASS OF MORLEY CHURCH.
235
Orate p' aiabs Thome Stathum milit nupd ni huius ville q' obiit xxvii die Julii A°. dni. M° CCCC° Ixx" Et dne Elisabeth vxis er filie Robti langley Armigeri ac Thomasine alterius uxoris et ffilie Johis Curson Armigeri quor aiabs ppiciet deus. Amen.
Upon the brass are portraitures of Sir Thomas Stathum and his wives, and above them are figures of St. Christopher, St. Mary, and St. Anne. Scrolls proceed from the mouths of Sir Thomas and his wives, con- taining invocations to the Saints above them. The knight's invocation is " See Christofere ora p novis ;" that of one of the ladies is, " Sea. Maria ora pro novis ;" and of the other, " Sea. Anna ora p novis."
The estate of Morley, upon the death of Sir Thomas Stathum (who had no children) passed into the hands of his brother Henry, who died in 1481, leaving an only daughter. His tomb is situated in the south aisle under a canopy. His memorial brasses consist of the portraitures of a warrior and three females inserted in a marble slab, with the following inscription :
Orate pro animabus Henrici Stathum, nup dni huius ville qui obiit XXX° Aprilis Anno dni M° CCCC° lxxx° Et domine Anne filie Thome Bothe domini de Barton Elizabeth filie Egidii Seyndolk Et Margarete filie Johis Stanhop vxor ej' qr aiabs ppiciet de' amen.
Above all is the following curious distich : Thow art my brothur or my Sester pray for us A pater Noster.
The Stathum family, through the heiress of Henry, afterwards formed an alliance with the Sacheverells, in whose possession the estate remained for many years. The last brass we shall notice is one which contains the portraitures of Sir Henry Sacheverell, in his knight's costume, and Dame Isabella, his wife. The inscription says :
Hie jacent corpora Henrici Sachevrell de Morley in comitatu Derbe Milit & Isabella; vxoris eius : qui guide Henric' obiit xxi'' die Julii A° dni MCCCC LVIII.
Of this memorial Mr. Fox says : " The stone which contains this brass is very far from being in its original situation. The brass is small, and inferior to the earlier ones ; and the stone in which it is placed is ex- tremely rough and unfinished. This led to an examination of the under part of the stone, which was found to have once con- tained a very fine brass of an ecclesiastic, and had been surrounded by a border fillet, con-
taining an inscription. Those parts of the stone which were not cut away to receive the brass and fillet were highly polished The rivets were still quite perfect, and the pitch with which the brass had been embedded was quite fresh ! It is not unlikely that after this stone had been deprived of its original treasure, it formed part of the spoil which was brought from Dale Abbey."
The mention of this latter edifice brings us to the subject of the windows of Morley Church, which are of great interest. Before describing them, let us say that at the time of the dissolution of the monasteries the Abbey of Dale (situated not very far from Morley) was thoroughly dismantled ; and a great deal of its costly material was purchased and pre- sented by one of the Pole family to Morley Church. It thus received considerable ad- ditions— in fact, what is the north aisle of the church was originally the refectory of the Abbey; and the stained windows are the same which once adorned that famous monastic pile. These windows, however, during the early part of their existence at Morley, were not properly taken care of and valued; and consequently, in recent times, after a great part of them had disappeared, they had to be restored. This was efficiently done in 1847 by a London firm, through the liberality of T. O. Bateman, Esq. One of the two most perfect ones represents the legend of St. Robert of Knaresborough. This legend, however, during the restoring of the window was misinterpreted, being taken as representa- tive of a story in connection with the Abbey. The first compartment represents some monks shooting deer, with the inscription, *' St. Robert shooteth the deer eating his corn." The next is an interview of the King and some keepers ; the inscription is, " Here the keepers complayn to the King." The next compartment reveals a monk on his knees before the King, with the inscription, " Whereof he complayneth hym to the King." The King is represented saying, '* Go ye whome and pinn them." Accordingly, the next compartment represents a monk in the act of catching the deer, which are amongst his corn. The inscription is, " Here St. Robert catcheth the deer." The next com- partment shows, " Here the Keepers inform the King." The King commands, " Bid
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hym come to me." In the next compart- ment the King is represented on his knees, and saying to a monk, "Go ye whome and yoke them, and take ye ground with ye plough ;" and the inscription runs, •' The Kyng giveth him ye ground." In the seventh and last compartment connected with the legend, St. Robert is represented holding a plough drawn by deer ; and the inscription is, "Here Saint Robert plougheth wyth ye deer." The eighth compartment, which has no connection with the above, shows a monk reading a lecture to an erring brother, and saying, *' Take heed to thy ways, brother."
The subject which occupies one of the other windows, and which is very complete, is the " Legendary History of the Holy Cross."
To describe it in detail would occupy more space than we have at our disposal. Suffice it to say these windows are beautifully coloured, and add quite a glory to the church which has the good fortune to possess them. Many other very interesting features might be mentioned in connection with this little edifice ; but before concluding we may point out that the encaustic tiles which pave the floor at the east end of the north aisle arc also from Dale Abbey, and that some remains of Morley Hall exist in the west side of the churchyard.
iLonnon Cbeatre.o;
By T. Fairman Ordisu.
No. v.— Thk Red Bull. ^E have Cunningham's authority for stating that the Red Bull Theatre stood "at the upper end of St. John Street, on what is now [1850] called St. John's Street Road." In what ap- pears to be a very carefully prepared article, the editor of Wilkinson's Londina (1819) gives the spot more particularly. He says : " It stood on a plot of ground situated be- tween the upper end of St. John Street and Clerkenwell Green, the site of which is dis- tinguished in the plan of Clerkenwell parish, inserted in the first edition of Strype's Stow, 1720, and in that of London, published by
Rocque, in the year 1738, by the name of * Red Bull Yard.' This name it retained for many years afterwards, when it received its present one of ' Woodbridge Street,' in compliment to the college at Woodbridge in Suffolk, of which the ground forms one of the estates." The writer further states that he had failed to discover any trace of the old playhouse, and the fact of its disuse soon after the Restoration renders it probable that every vestige of it had long since disappeared. He also indicates a field of search by hinting that probably its exact position may be set forth in existing leases. The parish books of Clerkenwell were searched for him, but without result, as they contain accounts of recent date only.
The origin of the Red Bull is enveloped in mystery. Collier very reasonably sup- poses that it was originally an inn yard, and that it was converted into a regular theatre late in the reign of Elizabeth. He cites the following lines from a MS. ballad of the time of James I. :
The Red Bull
Is mostly full Of drovers, carriers, carters ;
But honest wenches
Will shun the benches, And not there shew their garters.
The performances at this theatre throughout its career appear to have been very popular, perhaps for the reason that they were far from being refined. It was probably used for other amusements than the regular drama. In a letter from John Chamberlain to Dudley Carleton, dated London, August 23, 1599, we read : " Last week, at a puppet play, in St. John Street, the house fell, six persons were killed, and thirty or forty hurt.""^^
The Red Bull players in the reign of James I. were designated the Queen's com- pany. Collier mentions documentary evi- dence in the Audit Office, nth James I., in the case of " John Woodward " against Aaron Holland, showing that the receipts of the theatre were very minutely divided, f Re- cently Mr. James Greenstreet has communi- cated to the AthencBum a valuable note on this case. | From this note it appears that the complainant's name was not "John Wood-
* Calendar State Papers, p, 306.
t Hist. Dramatic Poetry , i. 374.
X AtJienautn, November 28, 1885, p. 709.
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237
ward," as given by Collier, but Thomas Woodford. The records of the Court of Requests which Mr. Greenstreet communi- cates would seem to be the same that Collier mentions as having been in the Audit Ofifice. One of the documents is an order of the Court made in the suit, and bearing date May 15th, nth James I. (1613) ; the other a final decree in the same cause, dated June 23rd following. As Mr. Greenstreet observes, if we could see the bill of complaint which was the foundation of this suit, pro- bably we should find considerable material for illustrating the early history of the Red Bull Theatre, which at present is so obscure; but the condition of this class of records renders it very unlikely that the document will be available for many years to come.
From the first of these records we learn there was a suit depending before the King and Council, between " Thomas Woodford, gent. compl[ainant] against Aaron Holland, deft. Being, amongst other things, for and concerning the compl[ainant's] demaund of the eighteenth penny and eighteenth part of such moneys and other comodities as should bee collected or receaued for certen yeares, yet enduring, for the profittes of the Galleries, or other places in, or belonging to the Play howse called the Red Bull at the vpper end of St. John's streete, London, As in and by the said compl[ainant's] bill of complaint is declared ; Vnto w*^*" Bill the said deft, hath made answere." The Court made order that two " Counsaillours at lawe," being the counsel of the parties, should examine them, and if possible decide the matter before the ensuing Trinity Term. Mr. Greenstreet states that the other document is much damaged by damp, but we can gather that Holland had leased his share to one Philip Stone, gent., for fifty shillings per annum, with a clause of forfeiture for non-payment ; which lease Stone had since assigned to AVoodford, who, having failed to pay a quarters rent, 12s. 6d., Holland claimed to lake advantage of the forfeiture. It appears that Holland had expressed himself in his answer willing, if the complainant would satisfy his just demands, to make a new lease of the said share to Woodford in his own name, which arrangement tlie Court deemed equitable, and ordered the defendant to
execute such new deed or suffer a penalty of
Collier writes:* " George Wither in 16 13 published his Abuses Stript and Whipt, and he several times speaks of the Red Bull, and of the performances there, in terms of no great respect, coupling it with the Curtain, which seems to have been in no better reputation; in his first satire, for instance, he introduces a ruffling lover courting his mistress, and of him remarks : His poetry is such as he can cull From plays he heard at Curtain or at Bull.
Collier adds that in Albtwiazar, 1615, Trin- culo couples it with the Fortune — " Oh, tis Armellina ! now, if she have the wit to begin, as I mean she should, then will I confound her with compliments drawn from the plays I see at the Fortune and Red Bull, where I learn all the words I speak and understand not."
We have now to chronicle another obh- gation to Mr. Greenstreet. Prompted by Mr. Halliwell-Phillipps, this gentleman con- sulted a MS. index in the Record Office, with the result that he discovered some documents which throw much fresh light upon the history of the Red Bull and Cock- pit playhouses, t The documents consist of a bill of complaint filed in the Court 0I Chancery, May 23rd, 1623, and the sworn answer thereto. The complaint has reference to circumstances which arose in the year 161 2. In that year Thomas Greene, the principal actor of the Red Bull company, died, leaving a widow his sole executrix, who duly proved his will. Mr. Greenstreet after- wards discovered this will, which is dated July 25, 161 2. 1 It appears that Greene advanced certain sums of money to the Red Bull company, and was himself the owner of one full share of the profits, the value of which was estimated by his widow at ;^8o. In making his will he did not forget his comrades, for in that document we read : " Item^ I give and bequeath to my fellowes of the house of the redd Bull forty shillings, to buy gloves for them." One of the wit-
• Hist. Dravialic Poetry, iii. 132.
+ Communicated to the Athenantn, February 21, 1885 ; subsequently the subject of a paper read before the New Shakspere Society, April 10, 1885.
+ Communicated to the At/iaucui/i, August 29, 1885.
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LONDON THEATRES.
nesses to the Will was Christopher Beeston, who, we learn from the bill of complaint, was trustee for the Red Bull company, of which he was a member. After Greene's death his widow came upon Beeston (alias Hutchinson) for a settlement of her claim against the company. Ultimately it was arranged that the company should pay her during her life, and her son's, and that of the survivor, two amounts, viz., two shillings, and one shilling and eightpence, on each of the six days of the week that they acted. The amounts were paid for five years, when the son died and complications ensued. The widow had married one James Baskervile, and when her son, Francis Baskervile (apparently a step- son), died, Mrs. Baskervile tried to continue the reversion to her other son, 'William Browne.' In her anxiety to secure the annuity she had a deed executed settling it upon one William Jordon, in trust for herself and William Browne. In the meantime some of the actors were leaving the company and other actors were joining it, and the question arose as to how far a company which was so unfixed a quantity could be bound by such a liability. The documents do not tell us how the matter was settled, but various valuable and interesting facts are recorded. As touching the social status of players in that age, it is notable that they are severally styled 'gentlemen.' The records also con- firm the practice of sharers hiring other actors to play for them at wages, with no share of profits. The Red Bull players are distinctly styled the Queen's Company, and we learn that they were under the jurisdiction of the Right Hon. the " now Earl of Leicester, then Lord Chamberlain of the Household of the said late Queen Anne (of Denmark)." The proceedings of this dispute are dated in 1623, and the players are referred to as " now come, or shortly to come from the said Play-house called the Red Bull to the Play- house in Drury Lane called the Cockpit."
In the diary and account-book of Edward AUeyn, 29th September, 1617, to ist October, 1622, we find the following entries :*
161 7. I Oct. I came to London in ye Coach
and went to ye Red Bull - 002 ,, 3 Oct. I went to ye Red Bull and rec. for ye younger brother but 3:6:4: water - - -004
* Duhvich Catalogue.
Collier says that in 1622, according to Sir Henry Herbert's oflSce-book, " the players of the Revels " had possession of the Red Bull. The company which replaced the Queen Anne's at the Red Bull in 1623 was styled, after Prince Charles, the Prince's. These players, who appear to have acted at the Curtain since 1615, tried their luck at the Fortune in 1624, and when their Patron came to the throne in the following year, they continued their career at the Red Bull under the style of the Red Bull players.* The women-actors who acted at the Black- friars and the Fortune appeared likewise at the Red Bull on November 22, 1629. In 1630, in some lines prefixed to Davenant's Just Jtalia?i, acted at Blackfriars, Carew thus criticizes the players at the Red Bull and the Cock-pit :t
Now noyse prevailes, and he is tax'd for drowth
Of wit, that with the cry, spends not his mouth. —
When they admire, nod, shake the head, 't must be
A scene of myrth, a double comedy.
But thy strong fancies (raptures of the braine,
Drest in poetick flam.es) they entertaine
As a bold impious reach ; for they'I still slight
All that exceeds Ked Bull and Cockpit flight : —
These are the men in crowded heape that throng
To that adulterate stage, where not a tongue
Of th' untun'd kennell can a line repeat
Of serious sense : —
Whilst the true brood of actors, that alone
Keep naturall unstrain'd Action in her throne
Behold their benches bare, though they rehearse
The lesser Beaumont's or great Jonson's verse.
In the year 1639 the Red Bull players got into trouble. On September 29th, 1639, a complaint was made to the King sitting in Council at Whitehall, " that the stage-players of the Red Bull have lately, for many days together, acted a scandalous and Hbellous play, wherein they have audaciously re- proached, and in a libellous manner traduced and personated, not only some of the Alder- men of the City of London and other persons of quality, but also scandalized and defamed the whole profession of Proctors belonging to the Court of Civil Law, and reflected upon the Government." The Council ordered that the Attorney-General should call before him " not only the poet who made the said play, and the actors that played the same, but also the person who licensed it ;" and, having ascertained the truth of the complaint, to
* Mr. Fleay's Paper, R. Hist. Soc. Trans., x. 117. t Poems by Thomas Careza, 2nd edition, 1642, p. 162.
LONDON THEATRES.
239
proceed " roundly" and expeditiously against the offenders, " that their exemplary punish- ment may prevent such insolences betimes."* Perhaps it was this offence given by the Red Bull actors which led to a change which occurred in the following year, 1640.' Collier states, on the authority of Sir Henry Herbert, that the company which, prior to Easter,
Here, gentlemen, our anchor's fixed j and we,
Disdaining Fortune's mutability,
Expect your kind acceptance : then we'll sing
(Protected by your smiles, our ever Spring)
As pleasant as if we had still possesst
Our lawful portion out of Fortune's breast.
Only, we would request you to forbear
Your wonted custom, banding tile and pear
Against our curtains to allure us forth.
I pray take notice, these are of more worth —
TITE RED nULL THEATRE.
1640, held the Fortune Theatre, changed to the Red BuU.t There is a prologue in Tatham's Fancies Theatre, 1640, "upon the removing of the late Fortune players to the Bull," as follows :
* CaJ. State Papers, Doin., 1639, p. 529 ; see also Collier, Hist. Dramatic Poet., ii. 25. f Hist, Dramatic Poet., ii. 25 ; iii. 124.
Pure Naples silk, not worsted. We have ne'er An actor here has mouth enough to tear Language by the ears. This forlorn hope shall be By us refm'd from such gross injury ; And then let your judicious loves advance Us to our merits, them to their ignorance.
Collier takes the reference to the *' pure Naples silk " curtains to indicate that the Red Bull playhouse was at this time superior
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LONDON THEATRES.
to the Fortune. But other references in the lines militate against this inference. The new players ask the audience to forbear their custom of "banding tile and pear against our curtains to allure us forth." It is pretty clear that the players had brought their cur- tains with them • and there is something of condescension in the deprecation, "We have ne'er an actor here has mouth enough to tear language by the ears."
The Red Bull was the only theatre which survived the Roundhead domination. By stealth, and in constant fear of intrusion from the Puritan soldiery, dramatic performances of a crippled and debased description were continued; and at the Restoration this theatre was the first home of the drama on its return from exile.
Whitelocke records that on December 20, 1649, the stage-players at the Red Bull were apprehended by troopers, their clothes taken away, and themselves carried to prison.* On September 16, 1655, Jer. Bankes writes to Williamson : "At the playhouse this week many were put to the rout by the soldiers, and had broken crowns ; the corporal would have been entrapped had he not been vigi- lant, "t
In a record of the Council proceedings of January 8th, 1655-6, we read among instruc- tions issued to Major-General Desborow, that he is to suppress all horse-races, cock-fighting, bear-baiting, stage-plays, or other unlawful assemblies, by seizing the persons met on such occasions. J
The plays acted during this period were called drolls or farces. After the Restoration these were collected and published by Francis Kirkman. The first edition was published 1672 — "London : Printed by E. C. for Fras. Kirkman, next door to the Sign of the Princes Arms, in St. Paul's Church-yard, 1672." There were two parts, and in the following year these were published in one volume. Our illustration of the interior of the Red Bull is taken from the frontispiece to this curious book. The title is. The Wits, or Sport upon Sport, being a Curious Collection of several Drols and Farces.
* Memorials, ed, 1732, p. 435 ; quoted, Hist. Dramatic Poet., ii, 47. t Cat. State Papers, Dom., 1655, p. 336, X Ibid., p. 103,
The two chief drolls are "The Bouncing Knight, or the Robber Robbed," taken from Shakespeare's Henry IV,, Part I., which comes first in the series, and " The Merry Conceited Humours of Bottom the Weaver," from the Midsummer's Nighfs Dream.
In his preface, Kirkman says — "When the publique theatres were shut up, and the actors forbidden to present us with any of their Tragedies, because we had enough of that in earnest, and Comedies, because the Vices of the Age were too lively and smartly represented; then all that we could divert ourselves with were these humours and pieces of plays," which were acted "by stealth, and under pretence of rope-dancing or the like; and these being all that was permitted us, great was the confluence of the Auditors ; and these small things were as profitable, and as great get-pennies to the Actors as any of our late-famed Plays. I have seen the Red Bull playhouse," says Kirkman, "which was a large one, so full that as many went back for want of room as had entered ; and as meanly as you may now think of these Drols, they were then acted by the best Comedians then and nov/ in being ; and I may say, by some that then exceeded all now living, by name, the incomparable Robert Cox, who was not only the principal Actor, but also the Con- triver and Author of most of these Farces. How have I heard him cryed up for his John Swabber and Simpleton the Smith ! In which he being to appear with a large piece of Bread and Butter, I have frequently known several of the Female Spectators and Auditors to long for some of it : And once that well-known Natural, Jack Adams of Clerkenwell, seeing him with Bread and Butter on the Stage, and knowing him, cryed out, ' Uz, uz, give me some, give me some,' to the great pleasure of the audience." We learn that Cox and his fellows went about the country acting their drolls, and Kirkman says they were exceedingly populan He goes on to remark upon the advantage that the drolls entailed little expense in clothes, "which often were in great danger to be seized by the then Souldiers, who, as the Poet sayes. Enter the Red Coat, Exit Hat and Cloak, was very true, not only in the Audience but the Actors too, were commonly, not only
LONDON THEATRES.
241
strip'd, but many times imprisoned, till they paid such ransom as the Souldiers should impose upon them, so that it was hazardous to Act anything that required any good Cloaths, instead of which painted Cloath many times served the turn to represent rich Habits."
It is curious to find that immediately after the Restoration the players were threatened with a continuation of persecution. In an order, dated at Whitehall, August 20, 1660, made by the King, and addressed to Sir William Wylde, Recorder of London, Sir Rich. Browne, Alderman, and other Justices of the Peace, his Majesty says that he is in- formed that companies assemble at the Red Bull Playhouse, St. John's Street, at the Cockpit, Drury Lane, and at another in Salisbury Court, and perform profane and obscene plays, etc. The King therefore orders their rigorous suppression under penal- ties.* This order was probably a concession to the City authorities ; it did not hurt the players much, who now lifted up their heads and entered upon a prosperous time. In the following year, 1661, we find that Pepys visited the Red Bull. On March 23rd, there is the following entry in his diary : " To the Red Bull (where I had not been since plays come up again) up to the tireing room, where strange the confusion and disorder that there is among them in fitting themselves, especially here, where the clothes are very poore, and the actors but common fellovvs. At last into the pitt, where I think there was not above ten more than myself, and not one hundred in the whole house. And the play, which is called Alls Lost by Lust [by W. Rowley] poorly done ; and with so much disorder, among others, in the musiciue-room the boy that was to sing a song, not singing it right, his master fell about his cares and beat him so, that it put the whole house in an uproare." In a letter dated Queen's College, July 4, we read : " The manner of the King's re- ception is referred to the Dean of Salisbury and five others. The play is made by Dr. Llewellyn, but they are so in want of actors, that they fear being obliged to make use of the Red Bull players, now at Oxford. "t Kirkman refers to this visit of the players to the University in the preface quoted above.
* CaU State Papers, Doi/i., 1660- 1, p. 1 96. t H'iil., 1661-2, p. 32.
On October 30, 1662, Pepys records an anecdote of Killigrew's early connection with theatrical concerns at the Red Bull. The story was of " Thos. Killigrew's way of getting to see plays when he was a boy. He would go to the Red Bull, and when the man cried to the boys, * Who will go and be the devil, and he shall see the play for nothing ?' then would he go in, and be a devil upon the stage, and so get to see plays."
Other theatres, superior to the Red Bull, were soon started by Killigrew and Davenant, and the Red Bull dropped into desuetude. When Davenant produced his Playhouse to be Let, in 1663, it was entirely abandoned. "The Red Bull," he says, "stands empty for fencers : there are no- tenants in it but spiders."
Cbe ancient Parisfj of COoking.
By a. C. Bicklev. Part II. HE remaining manors within the parish may be dealt with with great brevity, not so much because they are uninteresting or unimportant, as that they are much so bound up with the one whose history was sketched in the last article. Woking Church Manor atid Advo7Vson. — The land belonging to the church formed a separate manor of vast size, and was no doubt the land referred to in the grant of Offa in 796. At the time of the survey,' as well as in that of Edward the Confessor, this manor was held by Osbern, who was made Bishop of Exeter in 1072, and died in
'■ The following is the entry in the Domesday Book: — "Osbern the Bishop holdcth Wockinges. He held it in the lime of Edward the Confessor. It was then rated for eight hides ; at present, for three hides and a half. The arable land is nine carucates and a half. There is in demense one carucate and an half and twenty villans and six bordars with eight carucates and an half. There are three slaves : one mill of 3od. ; fourteen acres of meadow and wood- land yielding twenty-eight swine. This manor hath and hath !iad a custom in the King's woods at Wockinges, i.e. the lord may liave in these woods 120 swine without pasnage. Two men, Ansgot and Ciodefrid, hold the manor of the Bishop, each of them four hides. And the value of the whole in (he time of King Edward and afterwards was ;^io. At present /^^ «os."
242
THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WOKING.
1 103. During the reign of Henry I. the tythes of Sutton {q.v.) were detached from it and given to the Priory of Lewes. Richard I. gave the advowson to Alan, Lord Basset of Wycomb, one of whose family transferred it to the Convent of Newark, at the dissolution of which convent the Rectory with its members became vested in the Crown, by whom it was retained till in 1609 James L granted it, with all its chapels and appurtenances, to " Francis Morrice and Francis Phelips, gent, of London ... to be holden of the King, his heirs and successors, as of the manor of East Greenwich, by fealty only, in free and common socage, and not in chief, nor by knight's service ; rendering annually to the King, his heirs and successors, the sum of ;^i9 6s."* This grant Manning considers to have been made in trust for Sir Francis Aungier, whose descendant, the Earl of Longford, in 1682, conveyed it to Maxi- milian Emily.
The register of presentations is singularly complete from 1291, but presents no names of interest. One John Shaw by name was ejected for nonconformity in 1596, the justice of which he did not allow, as, accord- ing to an inscription in the church now de- stroyed, he considered himself vicar thirty-five years after his institution in 1588. The in- scription was " Praefuit hie annos ter denos quinque Johannes Shaw, Pastor, quando fabrica facta fuit." The date seems to have been 1623 (Aubrey, vol. iil, p. 218). He died in 1625 (see Wood. Ath. Ox.).
Sutton was a large subsidiary manor of Woking. It is mentioned in the Domesday Book as being held by Robert Malet, the son of the Norman knight who was entrusted with the removal of Harold's body from Senlac to Waltham (Dugdale, ^«r., i. in). This lord was at one time Grand Chamberlain of England, but his attachment to the fortunes of Robert of Normandy caused his banish- ment in 1 102 and the escheature of his large estates to the Crown. At the time of the survey the manor was rated at 300 acres, although under the Confessor it had been rated at 500 acres : the woodland carried 250 swine, and there was a small mill.
After this forfeiture the King gave the manor and several others of the Malets' estates * Manning, vol. i., p. 142.
to his nephew, Stephen, Earl of Monteigne, who presented the tythes to the Prior and Convent of Lewes ; and on his accession to the throne gave the manor to his natural son William, Earl of Warren, to whom they were confirmed by Henry IL This lord, however, dying without issue, the manor returned to the Crown, and Henry after a short time conferred it on the famous Urrice Ingenitor. This owner also dying childless, John gave it to Gilbert, Lord Basset, the then lord of Woking, with which manor it descended till 152 1, when Henry VHL conferred it on Sir Richard Weston to hold by fealty, licensing him at the same time to impark 600 acres of meadow and pasture, fifty acres of wood and 400 acres of waste land. Weston was a gentleman of the Privy Chamber, and after- wards Master of the Court of Wards, besides holding several other important offices. His only son Thomas, who was also a gentleman of the Privy Chamber, was beheaded on Tower Hill in 1536 on account of his alleged criminal intercourse with Anne Boleyn. The land was disparked at some time prior to 1 64 1, when Richard Weston, great-grand- son of this unlucky lord, sold a part of it — that situate in Clandon parish — to Sir Richard Onslow. To this lord, the trusted statesman and soldier of Mary and Elizabeth, it is generally believed the introduction of canals into England is due ; and it was under his direction that a plan for rendering the river Wey navigable from the Thames to Guildford was carried out, a Bill to enable this being passed in 165 1. He is also said to have been the first person who introduced clover into this country {Alagna Brit, vol. v.), and altogether he seems to have been a general benefactor. The manor continued in the possession of his family till 1782, when the owner, Miss Mary Weston, dying unmarried, bequeathed it to John Webbe of Sainsfield, Herefordshire, who thereupon assumed the name and arms of his benefactress.
The manor-house which was built by Sir Richard Weston in the reign of Henry VHL, even in its mutilated condition — for a great part was burnt down during a visit of Queen Elizabeth — is one of the finest and oldest brick mansions in the kingdom. A descrip- tion, together with an account of the history of its owners, is given by Mr. Frederick
THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WOKING.
243
Harrison in vol. vii. of the Transactions of the Surrey Archceological Society, to which I refer my readers, for to give a cursory, much less a satisfactory, notice of so curious a building would be without the limits of this article.
" That part of the Tythes of Woking which accrued to the Manor of Sutton," says Man- ning, "was detached from the body of the rectory and given to the Priory of Lewes in the time of King Henry I., when this manor was a member of the Honour of Eye (see Mon. AngL, ii. 908) and in possession of Stephen, Earl of Montaigne, and is the same that is called in our Taxation Books the portion of the Monks of Stoke, i.e. that is of the Monks of Lewes who were possessed of the advowson of Stoke." These tythes at some unascertained time reverted to Woking, and in 1382 were appropriated to the Priory of Newark ("De novo loco juxta Guildford"). At the dissolution they went with the tythes of Woking, when they were sold to Mr. John Vincent, of Beach Hill, in Mayford.
There was anciently a chapel at Sutton, the vicar of Woking providing a chaplain to officiate thereat three days a week. Com- plaint was made to Bishop Wickham in 1381 by the inhabitants that the vicar neglected to do this, and the Bishop had to threaten to excommunicate him unless he did. The chapel has now long since disappeared, and there is no evidence of the time when service ceased to be performed therein.
Mayford was anciently held of the King by grand sergeantry, the service being the common one of attending or providing a person to attend the King in any of his wars within the realm for forty days, armed with a lance and a coat of mail. This was com- pounded for by a payment of 20s. a year. As mentioned in the account of Woking, Walter Fitz-Other was the first lord of whom we hear. In the reign of John, Geoffrey de Pourton held it {Testa de Nevil) and he was succeeded by Robert de Pourton, who died during the following reign, when Henry de Kinton and Walter de Langeford, his heirs, received service. Towards the latter end of the reign of Henry HL the sergeantry was purchased by Fulc, Lord Basset (see Woking), as appears from a survey taken in 9 Edward L, where it is stated to be annexed
to Woking and to have yielded 54s. rent. In 7 Edward I. the sheriff distrained on the land for the recovery of four years' fine, due from Aliva, wife of Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, to whom it then belonged, and as on the attainder of Hugh, Earl of Winchester, in 20 Edward II., it was forfeited to the Crown, it was granted with Woking to Edmund, Earl of Kent, since which time it has descended with that manor.
Crastock or Bridley was a small manor, the ICO acres comprising which Fulc, Lord Basset, Bishop of London, lord of the manor of Woking, purchased of the fee of Pirbright and annexed to his manor of Woking. It was occupied by sixteen villans, who paid 1 6s. a year in lieu of all services. As late as 1 8 14 it was still subordinate to the lord of the manor of Pirbright, to whom it paid 2s. and a pound of pepper, the first notice of which payment is in the tenth year of Edward III. A tythe of 2od. was also paid to the rector of Pirbright, and it had a Court Baron which was held at Bridley Farm. The devo- lution of the manor is clearly traceable, but presents no points of interest.
Cowshete is another small manor in what is now Pirbright parish ; it extends into the adjoining parish of Bisley — to the rectory of which it is annexed — and is held of the manor of Pirbright by the payment of a peppercorn. It got its name from a Thomas Couschete, who lived here in the reign of Richard II. The little that is known of its history is without interest.
Twitching, Aubrey in his History of Surrey says, was a small manor which lay *' towards Chertsey ; " but as no other writer notices it, and no records remain which throw any light on either its situation or history, Aubrey is probably mistaken as to its existence.
Brookwood, or Brocwud, was held in de- mesne by the Norman Kings of England with the rest of the manors of VVoking, and under the name of the Honour of Brucwod, was afforested by Henry I. immediately after his accession to the Crown. Richard I. gave it with Woking to Alan, Lord Basset, and since then the two manors have descended together. In the survey of 9 Edward I. it is called a forinsec wood, and the pasture is said to be common, from which Manning deduces that it was not in the manor of Woking \ and in
244
THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WOKING.
that of 20 Edward II. it is described as con- taining some 400 acres, and consisting of wood, waste and heath. In the Inquisition taken after the death of John, Earl of Kent, mention is made of a free chapel worth 40s. a year ; of this all trace has disappeared. It contains a modern house called the Her- mitage, which has replaced one of wood and stone, which Aubrey says was standing in his day, and which once belonged to the convent of Grey PYiars at Guildford. This earlier house is mentioned under the name of the Hermitage of Brooke, or Brokewood, in the grant to Sir Edward Zouch of Woking, and is described as hating a garden and several pastures, as well as eight acres of enclosed heath-ground, all charged with an annual rent or fee-firm which had been granted to Justinian Povey and Robert Morgan by letters patent in 6 James I.
Firbright, anciently Pirifrith, was, at the time of the general survey, a part of the manor and parish of Woking. Piri, Manning thinks, was possibly the name of some ancient proprietor, as it is the prefix of several names in the neighbourhood, as Piriford (Pirford) and Pirihill (a tything in Worplesdon, an adjoining parish).
The first mention of it as a separate manor occurs in the Testa de Nevil, where it is stated that Peter de Pirifrith held it by the service of half a knight's fee of the Honour of Clare. Fulc Basset, Bishop of London, it will be remembered, purchased a hide of land from this fee to annex to Woking (see Crastock). In 30 Edward I., John Trenchard died seized of this manor, which is stated to have been then held by the service of one knight's fee, and the survey then taken shows it to have been of the yearly value of ^^^ us. lold.; another survey made in the same year, how- ever, returns it as being worth £6 14s. i i^d., which shows that valuation was then as much a matter of guess-work as it is now. John Trenchard left an heir a minor, and the wardship seems to have been given to John de Drokenesford, Bishop of Bath and Wells, for by Esch. 8 Edw. II., n. 38, he appears as the holder, and six years later is granted leave to enclose as much of the waste ground as he thinks proper. The manor seems to have been chiefly held by the lords of Woking, and in the reign of Edward IV. it
became vested in the Crown, which held it till Henry VIII. granted it, in 1520, to Sir William Fitzwilliams — afterwards Earl of Southampton — for life.
Its subsequent history can be clearly traced, but although it passed through many hands the record would have little in- terest.
Firford Manor was given by the Conqueror to the Abbey of Westminster. The grant runs : " William I. Rex Anglorum, Vice- comiti et omnibus ministris suis in Suthreia, salutem. Sciatis quia pro salute anime mee concedo Deo et S. Petro Westmonasterii, et Abbati G. viii. hides de manerio Piriford, que in dominio meo sunt infra forestan de Windlesores, quietas a modb semper et liberas a scoto, et ab omni mea consuetudine, et censu pecunie que Geld vocatur Anglice. Testibus W, Ep'o Dunelm, et I. Tailbosc, post descriptionem totius Anglie," (Manning's Surrey, vol. i., p. 153). The grant was merely a confirmation of an older one, for in Domesday xi is mentioned that "the Abbey itself holds Peliforde."
In the 7 Edward I. the abbey claimed the following, among other privileges, as belong- ing to their estates at Pirford and Horsell : — " That they and their tenants should be exempted from all amerciaments, scot and geld, and all aids payable to the King and his Sheriff; from all contribution to works or bridges and royal residences ; that they should be at liberty to take at pleasure out of the woods, without let or hindrance of the foresters or any other person whatsoever ; that the lands, purprestures, and assarts, of them and their tenants, should be quit of all waste, regard and view of forests, and of all things to them pertaining. Moreover that they should be exempted from tolls in all markets and fairs, have a prison on their demense, attachment, execution of judgment, return of writs, and free warren throughout the same."*
On the surrender of the estates of the abbey in 1540, the manor became vested in the Crown, which held it till Mary granted it in 1558 to the refounded monastery at Shene: on the dissolution of this religious house, which happened within twelve months from the grant, it of course reverted to the Crown. * Quoted by Manning, vol. i., p. iS-3-
THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WOKING.
245
Elizabeth granted it to Edward, Earl of Lin- coln, the Lord High Admiral, for life, but the exact year is uncertain. '^" After his decease it came into the hands of John Wolley, who is recorded as having held his first court here in 1590. John Wolley, who was afterwards knighted, was, it will be re- membered, Latin Secretary to Queen Eliza- beth. Although he was, Manning says, a layman, he was made prebend of Compton- Dundon in 1569, and Dean of Carlisle in 1578. He died in 1595, and was succeeded by his onlyson, Francis, who was born in 1583, and died when twenty-seven, without issue. The manor, by virtue of a feoffment, now descended to Sir Arthur Mainwaring, of Ight- field, Salop, who sold it in 1590 to Rupert Parkhurst, citizen and alderman of London, and in 1635 Lord Mayor. This owner's family retained it till 1676-7, when they sold it to Denzil Onslow, member for Guildford in the first Parliament of George I., in whose family it still remains.
The manor has both a Court Leet and a Court Baron : at the former was appointed a constable and ale-taster for each of the four tythings of Pirford, Horsell, Sythwood, and Woodham.
Customs of the Manors of Woking,
PiRBRIGHT, AND PiRFORD.
Our knowledge of the more ancient cus- toms of the manor of Woking is chiefly derived from the different surveys which took place upon the manor changing hands, and the fullest list we could make would be very incomplete. The survey in 9 Edward L merely records the services to have been worth ^2 OS. 4d. annually, after the cost of board had been deducted, and the survey of 20 Edward H. is hardly more explicit. It states that sixteen were bound to carry out the lord's manure, sixteen had to plough half an acre of land both at spring-time and in the winter, and twenty-four had to weed the lord's corn ; and that all the customary tenants had to mow 20, J acres of the lord's meadow, and to make and carry the hay into his grange. Only the second of these services is valued, the rest the tenants neither compounding for nor performing. In 1331 the value of the
* Camden says he built a mansion-house here ; this is now destroyed.
services was £7, 2s. 7|d per annum ; after the death of John, Earl of Kent, at ten only, on account of there being fewer tenants, and at the time of the grant to Sir Edward Zouch at;^9 13s- lod.
Sir Edward had a number of disputes with his tenants respecting the customs of the manor, which in the end had to be decided in the Exchequer in 1633. The decision of the Court was :
1. The fines are declared to be uncertain and arbitrary.
2. The copyholders may take timber of oak, ash, and elm growing on their copy- holds, for repairing and amending the same, and all necessary bootes to be spent and used on their copyhold tenements by view of the lord, or his bailiff, according to the assize of the forest and not otherwise ; but not to take timber on one copyhold to be used on another.
3. If several copyholds be passed by one surrender, several fines or heriots (being heriotable) shall be paid, and several copies thereof made.
4. If a copyholder surrender part of his copyhold which is heriotable, heriots shall be paid for such parcels so surrendered.
5. As to digging and taking turfs, heath, fern, loam, gravel, clay, and ragstones on the waste, the lord is entreated by the court to let the tenants have the same in reasonable manner, and in places convenient by assign- ment, as aforesaid, and according to the assize of the forest, without entering into the coverts and layers of his Majesty's deer there.
6. If any copyholder die, his heir being within age, the custody of the body and land of such heir shall be committed by the lord to the next of kindred to the heir, to whom the land cannot descend, he being a fit per- son, at a reasonable fine, and upon reason- able security, the lord not to exceed the rates formerly used.
7. As to the rest of the customs and usages pretended by the tenants, the bill is dismissed.
Within the manor of Pirbright the custom- works, according to a survey taken in 1574, were :
I. They must mow, make, and carry for the lord two acres and an half of grass in
246
THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WOKING.
Law Mead, the bounds whereof do appear in the same meadow.
2. They must have, for mowing the same grass, i5d. only; for making the hay, i2d. ; lor carrying it into the barn, i2d. ; and must be paid as soon as they have done their work.
3. The lord must find them a man to mow before them, as well in corn as grass.
4. They must reap the lord's wheat and rye for meat and drink only till it be done : and when they have reaped two drifts they must have their breakfasts in the field. And if they want either meat or drink, they must go to the lord's fold, and take the best wether he hath, saving his bell-wether.
5. They must carry the same corn into the barn, and mow it (lay it in the mow) : and, if the carriage find them but till noon, they shall have 6d. only; if until the afternoon, 1 2d., and nothing else.
6. The same tenants must also mow, make, and carry all the lord's somertilth, viz., barley and oats, having for their hire i2d. only, if they work in the afternoon ; if but the fore- noon, 6d., and so for every sort of grain.
7. They nmst work but one kind of grain in a day ; and that day that they mow or reap they neither bind nor carry. Mowing or reaping is a day's work ; binding, another ; and carrying, the third.
8. Upon warning being given them to come, they shall come to work within an hour after sun-rising, and so continue all the day or till that day's work be done.
9. They do not work with the lord two days together, but one day with the lord and the second day for themselves. And if the lord like not the first day because he pre- supposeth it will be no harvest-day, they shall go home, and not come again before the third day ; and so they do with all their works.
10. The same tenents must likewise carry the lord's stable-dung and stable-dung that is spitter (sic) deep, or more. If they work till afternoon they shall have i2d. If they make an end before noon, but 6d.
1 1. They must have a dinner with the lord at Christmas.
The curious permission given to take the best wether, was a provision against the lord being niggardly in the matter of meat and
drink. The work performed varied accord- ing to the size of the holdings, the smallest only finding a reaper, the larger a mower, two reapers, a cart and a loader, or a mower, two reapers, and two pitchers.
The customs within the manor were :
1. The owner must drive the cart, and he must have a pitcher from above.
2. In carrying of dung every tenent charged therewith must bring his own dung- pot (sic).
3. There are kept in this manor, Court Leet and Court Baron.
4. Every tenent and copyholder shall pay unto the lord, upon every alienation or death of the tenent, his best beast for an heriott, and shall fine at the lord's will.
5. All and every tenent may compound with his cattle, in the commons of his manor and in the woods, sans nombre.
6. If any tenent fell any timber tree upon his copyhold without assignment, he shall forfeit his estate.
7. The tenents must have timber, for the amending of their houses by assignment.
8. The eldest son shall inherit his father's copyhold lands ; but the father may surrender the use of to which child he listeth.
9. If a surrender be delivered into the hands of any tenents, and they present it not within one year and a day, or at the next Court of the Lords, the surrender is void.
10. The widow of any tenent dying seized of any copyhold land, shall have no widow's bench (free-bench), nor any part of the hus- band's copyhold, unless she be fined in with her husband in his copy.
11. If there be no son the eldest daughter shall have the copyhold.
The customs of Pirford according to the rental and customary of the Abbot of West- minster in 1 3 Edward IV. were as follows :
1. That all the customary tenants of the same are bound to rebuild and sustain by their labour, from material furnished by the lord, 47 feet of his stabling, 50 feet of Oxstall, and two heads of the grange, being a moiety of the whole grange in length on the north side. And this work is valued at 2s. a year each.
2. That every acre of arable land in the same is worth 4d. a year, and every acre of meadow 3s., and every acre of pasture 3d.
THE ANCIENT PARISH OF WOKING.
247
3. Every customary tenant, holding a quarter of a virgate of land, or more, shall serve the office of Bailiff, if the lord appoint him : and, in that case, shall be quit of his rent stallage and other works and customs incident to customary lands; and shall re- ceive of the lord one quarter of white wheat in autumn, and shall have one horse at the keeping of the lord in winter, while he shall be in the lord's business, and pasture in the meadow of Wachelesham for the same in summer.
4. That the customary tenants there shall mow the lord's meadow, and shall receive of the lord 7s. 8d. and five cart-loads of fire- wood.
5. That every customary tenant, who owes any arrears of work, shall perform one arrearage at Guldeford or Stanes, or Hamme, or Kingeston, with his horse. The value of his work is one halfpenny farthing. But if he perform the arrearage, he shall receive of the lord one halfpenny.
Times of Payment. Rents and impositions for customary services, at St. Thomas, Whitsuntide, and Michaelmas :
Tallage at Michaelmas. Peter-pence at Lammas. Rents in white wheat at Martinmas. Pannage at Martinmas.
The services are valued as follows :
d. Damming the water, to overflow the lord's
meadows, once in the year . . . . o^ Mowing the meadows for three half-days . . 3 Spreading the hay for the same number of days . i^- Cocking the hay for two half-days . . .1 Stacking the hay one half-day . . . .0^ Stacking the corn one half-day . . . . i Arrearage of work ...,,, o\
These services might be performed or com- pounded for at the above rate :
d. Thrashing the corn for half a day . . . I Thrashing and winnowing white wheat, for every two hurdles . . . . . . . o^
Reaping and binding white wheat, for every half- acre ........ 2
Reaping and l)inding oats, for every rood . . i Filling of dung-carf, for every two days . . 2 Carrying and spreading of dung, for every two days ........ 6
Ploughing and harrowing, at sowing white
wheat and oats, each half-acre . . -2^ For making every hurdle . . . . . o^
Cutting of wood, for every half-day . . .1
These last-mentioned services are com- pounded for by the tenants at 40s. a year, to be paid by all the tenants which are liable :
Carriage of hay for every single day . . .3 Carriage of grain for every single day . . 2 Mending the inclosure of the lord's park, every 26 feet ij
These might be perfonned or compounded for.
I have been unable to discover anything about the customs of the other manors with- in the parish, except that the tenants of Crastock compounded for all ser\-ices by the annual payment of a shilling each.
%% 9@r» jFteeman accurate f
Part III. Cur in amicorum vitiis tam cernis acutum Quam aut aquila, aut serpens Epidaurus ? At tibi
contra Evenit, inquirant vitia ut tua rursus et illi.
Horace {Satires, i. 3, 26-9). Strike deep, Goth, Vandal, Frank, and Hun, Your hour at last is come ! Mr. E. a. Freeman {Miscellaneous Poems).
T is wonderful," says Mr. Freeman, in a memorable essay,* " how many of the absurd tales which fill the pages of Sir Bernard Burke may be at once cast to the winds by the simple process of turning to Domesday." Let us apply this same " simple process " to the work of the Professor himself, selecting for that purpose a passage in the heart of the Norman Conquest, relating to that period which he has made his own, that '* period in which" he himself reminds us, he is, of course, "most at home."t
We are told by Mr. Freeman that it was, "no doubt," when William marched on Exeter (1068), that
Dorchester, Bridport, Wareham, and Shaftesbury underwent that fearful harrying, the result of which is recorded in Domesday. Bridport was utteriy ruined ; not a house seems to have been able to pay taxes at the time of the survey. At Dorchester, the old Roman settlement, the chief town of the shire,
* "Pedigrees and Pedigree-makers" {Contem- porary Review, June, 1S77). t Ibid., p. 14-
24S
IS MR. FREEMAN ACCURATE?
only a small remnant of the houses escaped destruc- tion. (On the details see Appendix K.) These facts {sic) are signs, etc., etc.*
Alas ! the Domesday which records such " facts " is a Domesday Survey known to the Regius Professor alone. Indeed, one might be tempted to apply to this passage Mr. Freeman's graceful description of the state- ments of a brother historian,! "the whole business is pure moonshine," if it were not that, almost in the same breath, he com- plained of his victim's language as being " familiar almost to slang."
To refute Mr. Freeman's " facts " on Bridport, " there is nothing to be done," in his own words, "but to turn to the proper place in the great Survey."! Domesday knows nothing of this "fearful harrying." Domesday knows nothing of this "utter ruin." Dojuesday never tells us that not a single house could pay taxes at the time of the Survey. On the contrary, it tells us that five-sixths of the houses in the town could and did " pay taxes," and of the remaining sixth it tells us neither that they were de- stroyed, nor even that they were uninhabited, but merely that those who dwelt in them were too poor to contribute their share towards the geld ! Can he who appeals " to the law and to the testimony,"§ he who is ever sending us to " that great record from which there is no appeal," |! have here trusted to a faulty memory or to a too vivid and fertile imagination ? Nay, it is only, as he has observed of another, that he is " unable to construe his Latin," ^ or, to quote his criti- cism of yet another historian, that he has not read his Doinesday ^'' \i\\h. common care."** For what does the Survey tell us ? In Bridport "T.R.E. erant cxx domus .... Modo sunt ibi c domus et xx sunt ita desti- tute quod qui in eis mancnt geldum solvere non valent" (75). It needs no expert to
* Nonn. Co7iq., iv. 151 ("Second Edition, Revised"). N.B. The only difference in the "re- vised" edition is that ^' Domesdr.y, ICX5," is given as the authority instead of "Appendix K."
t Mr. Rule.
X Cont. Rev., p. 17.
§ Office of the Historical Professor.
11 Cont. Rev. {ui supra).
^ "The editor [of the Atinales Cavibrice] seems in many places unable either to read his manuscript, or to construe his Latin." — IV. Ritfus, ii. i.
"" Of Professor Pearson {iit infra).
interpret this entry. " Everyone who knows his Domesday "* can interpret it for himself. Its construction is simple : its meaning is clear. Only by ignoring the second " sunt," and by hurriedly taking "c domus et xx" for " cxx domus " (such a rendering in tke case of Wareham would leave not a house standing) could the plain sense of this passage be so flagrantly misrepresented. Mr. Freeman " cannot help noticing the strange perversion of the story of Swegen," which is found in the pages of Lingard-f No ''perversion" could be stranger than that which represents Bridport, on the authority of Domesday, as the greatest sufferer among the Dorset towns, when it is distinctly proved by Domesday itself to have suffered incomparably the least, and indeed to have relatively escaped scathe- less, not a house being there recorded as destroyed, while the destruction of houses in the other three towns was from thirty to sixty per cent. !
But we have still the " fact " about Dor- chester :
At Dorchester, the old Roman settlement, the chief town of the shire, only a small remnant of the houses escaped destruction. (On the details see Appendix K.)
Now Dorchester, in the first place, was at this period not " the chief town of the shire." For size, it was much exceeded both by Shaftesbury and Wareham ; in status, it was certainly not the shire-town, for that dignity was enjoyed by Wareham, not only the most populous of the four, but a royal residence, the seat of the sheriff, and the urban abode of the Thegns of the shire. But turning to the "small remnant" of the houses, we learn with surprise, on an inspection of the Survey, that there were eighty-eight houses standing, as against the hundred and seventy-two of King Edward's day. As there would seem to be some discrepancy between these figures and the above " small remnant," we seek, with no little curiosity, for "the details" in Appendix K. From Appendix K we are referred to the succeeding volume, where we at length glean, from another Appendix, that
At Dorchester, out of a hundred and seventy-two houses, no less than a hundred and twenty-eight were
""' English Tovj7is and Districts, 194. t Norm. Covq. (2nd ed.), ii. 630.
IS MR. FREEMAN ACCURATE 1
249
" penitus destnictae a tempore Hugonis vicecomitis usque nunc,"
Alas ! Mr. Freeman is here, indeed, caught in flagrante delicto. The entry in the Survey for Dorchester is as clear as that for Brid- port : "In Dorcestra T.R.E. erant clxxii domus .... Modo sunt ibi quater xx et viii domus et c penitus destructae." If Mr. Freeman's rendering of the Bridport entry implied almost incredible haste and careless- ness, what shall be said of such a case as this ? Only by utterly ignoring the "quater," could " quater xx et viii " {i.e. 88) be read as "twenty-eight," and, even then, in order to evolve Mr. Freeman's " hundred and twenty- eight," further violence must be done to the text, by supposing that the methodic scribe wrote "twenty and eight and a hundred"! Yet all this Mr. Freeman has done, and that Survey to which he appeals so loudly is itself the evidence of the fact. And the strange thing is that not only has Mr. Eyton proved scrupulously correct, as we might expect, in each instance, but even Ellis, whose work Mr. Freeman had before him, might have saved him from his errors by the perfect accuracy, both at Bridport and at Dorchester, of his own figures.* After this, it is difficult to repress a smile at the lofty tone assumed by Mr, Freeman, as he thus dismisses the work :
The well-known Introduction' by Sir Henry Ellis has its use till something better appears, but it is far from being up to the present standard of historical scholarship.'^
I might point to another striking instance in which Mr. Freeman, theie also, has come to grief over his Domesday ; and when we learn that, there also, he might have been saved from error had he but allowed himself to be guided by Ellis, it may occur to us that he must here have unconsciously iden- tified " the present standard of historical scholarship " — with his own.
Thus do we test Mr. Freeman's work by what he describes as " the truest of tests . . . the infallible touchstone of Doi7iesday.^^\ For, as he himself so truly observes :
The test is sure ; the test is easy ; the certain evidence which in earlier or later times can some- times not be had . . . can be had in the days of King
* Introduction to Domesday (1833-46), ii. 439. + Norm. Conq., v. 733. + Cont. Rev. (u( supra). VOL. XIV.
William by a process almost as easy as looking out a word in a dictionary.*
I only wish that considerations of space would allow me to show that these are no isolated instances, and that I have not acted unfairly in making the use of them that I have. Others, if wanted, are forthcoming. Meanwhile, to the query which heads this paper I reply as before, in the words of Shillingford : " I seide nay, and proved hit by Domesday."
To the Regius Professor "the truest of tests " has proved as fatal as the pebble from the brook to the Goliath of an older Philistia.
It is but a step from Domesday to Dane- geld ; for, as Mr. Freeman himself observes, " the payment and nonpayment of the geld are matters which appear on every page of the Survey ; and it is perhaps not too much to say that the formal, immediate cause of taking the Survey was to secure its full and fair assessment."t Remembering, then, this close connection of the Danegeld with that Survey which, Mr. Freeman tells us, " is one of the main sources of my history," | we might expect that at least on the Danegeld his statements would bear investigation.
But what do we find ? We first read :
It is commonly assumed, with great probability, but without direct proof, that the Danegeld of Domes- day is the same as the " mycel gyld " recorded in the Peterborough Chronicle to have been laid on by Wil- liam in the winter Gemot of io83-io84.§
We next read of this " mycel gyld " that it was " a tax of seventy-two pennies on every hide of land in the kingdom "||— a statement strictly accurate, for which the references are given.lT Lastly, we read as follows :
I am now fully convinced that both the great tax of two {sic) shillings on the hide laid on by the Con- queror in 1083-4 (see vol, iv., p. 685), and also that which followed the Survey (see vol. iv., p. 696), was strictly a Danegeld. Bishop Richard (Dialogtis d»
* Cont. Rro.,^. 17.
t Norm. Conq., v. 4.
Xlbid., V. 734.
§ Vol. ii. ("second edition, revised"), p. 599. In the "third edition, revised (1877)," this passage reads : " The Danegeld of 1083-4 is commonly looked on as the revival of the tax now taken off by Edward " (p. 616). The change is unimportant for my purpose, as I assail neither passage.
1: //'/(/., vol. iv. 685.
H "Twa and hundseofcnti pcancga " ( C//r<7«/V/<r) ; "se.x solidi" {Florame).
25©
IS MR. FREEMAN A C CUR ATE 1
Scaccario, 195) reckons the Danegeld at the same sum of two {sic) shillings on each hide.* That is to say that Mr. Freeman, after having himself stated the tax at six shillings on the hide, with his authorities for that statement, deliberately gives it at two shillings, referring for that figure to the passage in which he had shown it to be six ! And observe, that we have here to do with no " printer's error ;" for Mr. Freeman goes on to compare this rate with " the same sum of iivo shillings on each hide " in the Bialogas. Such amazing care- lessness, such reckless contradiction, might well seem incredible.!
Nor is this all. Mr. Freeman is also " fully convinced " that the tax " which followed the Survey" (see vol. iv., p. 696) " was strictly a Danegeld." For this conviction, however, he gives us no reasons. For it there is, indeed, no evidence. Against it there is surely con- vincing evidence. In the first place, the money then raised is spoken of as " sceatt," not as " geld," which latter is the term used for the tax of 1083-4, and also, as Mr. Free- man himself observes, in the Survey itself, for Danegeld. J In the second place, this same " sceatt " is distinctly described as no tax, but as the proceeds of fines and for- feitures which, in Mr. Freeman's own words, were wrung "from men by false accusations. "§ And in the third, a year or two later, we find this same word, " scotum," similarly used, to denote extortion. Among the concessions of William Rufus (we are told) on his accession, he " omnem injustum scotum interdixit."||
And, further, the above identification becomes stranger still when we find that though Mr. Freeman pronounces this "sceatt" to have been as "strictly a Dane- geld" as the "mycel gyld " of 1083-4, yet he ignores and wholly overlooks the " micel gyld " of 1067, though the expression " sette,"
* Norm. Conq., v. 8S3 (1876). t For the sake of clearness, I here append the two l)assages side by side :
The King [midwinter, 1083-4] I am now fully convinced
laid a tax of seventy-two that tlie great tax 0/ tiuo shil-
fennies on every hide of land lings on the hide laid on by
in the kingdom. — iv. 685. the Conqueror in 1083-4 (see
vol. iv., p. 685). — V. 883.
X Vol. v., p. 884.
§ Vol. iv., p. 696. The Chronicle runs, in Mr. Freeman's version, " where he might have any charge to bring against them, whether with right or other- wise."
i! Symeon of Durham,
then used (" se kyng sette micel gyld "), is, if anything, even more expressive of a re- gular tax than the "let beodan"of 1083-4, and that he similarly ignores the most im- portant imposition of that '* geld exceeding stiff" which the Conqueror "laid on men" immediately on obtaining the Crown (1066).* And yet he has himself quoted and com- mented on the passages in question in their placet We must, therefore, I think, attri- bute to Mr. Freeman the fact that even Dr. Stubbs himself has overlooked the "gelds" in question, for he assigns to 1084 the first imposition of a tax by the Con- queror, and quotes Mr. Freeman's Norman Conquest among his authorities for that statement. I
I brought forward, at the Domesday Con- gress, my views on this question, pointing out that they were directly opposed to Mr. Freeman's (and, consequently, to that of Dr. Stubbs), and giving record evidence in sup- port of my assertion that on this very im- portant historical fact his statements were fundamentally wrong.
But we cannot stop even here. For we read, lastly, as follows :
Six shillings on every hide of land was the regular amount as fixed by the last taxation of the Conqueror ; the taxation which the great Survey had enabled the Conqueror to levy with a regularity and certainty unknown before. (See vol. iv., pp. 685, 696, and App. QQ.)§
Here we have (i) the amount given as six shillings, with a reference to "Appendix QQ," in this same volume, where it is care- fully given at two ; (2) the " sceatt" of 1086 (extorted " by false accusations ") described as "the last taxation of the Conqueror," whereas, as we have seen, it was not " taxa- tion " at all, " last " or otherwise ; (3) this
* See Norman Conquest, ii. 599, where Mr. Free- man implies that the Danegeld is not mentioned, under the Conqueror, till 1083. See also the above quotation (v. 883), omitting all mention of these "gelds" of 1066 and 1067.
t Ihid., iv. 128.
X Const. Hist., i. 278-9. The view held by this eminent historian is that the only " extraordinary re- venue " of the English Crown at the time was the Danegeld. This, he holds, was first " imposed " by the Conqueror in 1084. Now, by his own definition of the " ordinary revenue," the " gyld " of 1067 must be excluded from it. Therefore, on his own showing, it must have been Danegeld. Q. E. D.
§ Norm. Conq., v., pp. 439-440.
IS MR. FREEMAN ACCURATE 'i
251
same " sceatt " described as levied " with a regularity and certainty unknown before " the Survey, whereas it was exactly on the contrary, essentially an ;Wegular and uncer- tain exaction (see the Chronicle), differing wholly from the Danegeld, which had, as we know, been levied at the regular and cer- tain rate of so many shillings on the hide.* (4) The amount of six shillings on the hide, described as *' fixed by the last taxation of the Conqueror " {i.e., this " sceatt " of 1086 f), whereas there is no evidence that the Dane- geld was ever " fixed " at six shillings at all (still less that it was fixed by this irregular " sceatt "), or even that so heavy (" hefelic ") a rate was ever exacted, save in the levy of 1083-4. Again, as Mr. Freeman has himself shown, when the Danegeld next appears, it is ttvo shillings on the hide.:}:
Finally, Mr. Freeman may be fairly asked on what possible ground he transformed the irregular exactions of 1086 into a uniform tax, and how he further knows that tax to have been "fixed" at six shillings on the hide ? For it is absolutely certain that this statement is based on an incredible muddle of his own.§ I will not say of him, as he has said of Professor Pearson, that
We simply see that he has not read his Chronicles .... wilhcommoncare.il
But I must ask him to refer to the passage he has quoted from the Chronicle (1086),
* See the " Gheld Rolls" of 1083-4.
t '* William's last tax," as it is styled in the head- line of iv. 697.
+ In the " Dialogus de Scaccario," ut supra. But we have more direct evidence in the earliest re- maining Pipe-Rolls (31 Hen. I. and 2 Hen. H.), in which it duly figures at that amount, evidence, I may add, which admirably confirms the specific statement of Henry of Huntingdon,
§ Here again, for the sake of clearness, I append the passages side by side :
He had yet to mark his last That [tax] which followed days in England by one more the Survey (see vol. iv., p. 696)
act of fiscal oppression. He was strictly a Danegeld
did after his wont, the chroni- Six shillings on every hide of tier tells us ; he gathered land was the regular amount " mickle scot of his men where as fixed by the last taxation of he might have any charge to the Conqueror, the taxation bring against them, whether which the great Survey h.ad with right or otherwise." Here enabled the Conqueror to levy is another step in the down- with a regularity and certainty ward course. William had unknown before (see vol. iv. , now sunk to wring money from pp. 685, 696, and App. QQ). — men by false accusations. — v. 439-440, 883. iv, 696.
'* Look here, upon this picture, and on this !" li Fortnightly Review (New Series), iii. 403,
and to see how absolutely inconsistent it is with that construction which he would place upon it.
In fact, the Professor's dealings with the Danegeld, under the Conqueror, might be thus concisely described. He has recorded unhesitatingly a geld where gelds are not mentioned, and where gelds are distinctly mentioned he has failed to perceive the fact. In one case, and in one only, he has, indeed, detected a Danegeld, but only (by sheer inaccuracy) to record it at the wrong figure, after the authorities themselves had carefully given him the right one.
The thought that will probably occur to my readers, after thus tracing the dealings of the Regius Professor with the Danegeld, is that which occurred to Mr. Freeman him- self, when treating of his own predecessor :
The wanderings of smaller writers will not seem wonderful when we read the strange and contradictory statements made by Sir Francis Palgrave.*
Lastly, there is no such authority on the subject as that to which Mr. Freeman refers {" Regge's Short Account of Danegeld : Lon- don, 1756 "),t the treatise in question being written by Philip Carteret IVeM. I hope that this correction may save others from the trouble which the error cost to me.
It will now have been seen that even those corrections for which I have had space in this paper will render it needful that Mr. Freeman should re-write a portion of his work. Whether, and how, I shall continue to enlighten him on the period which he has made his own, whether I shall show him where he has been inaccurate, or where he has failed to understand his authorities, must depend on the treatment these corrections receive. Willtheybe dulyacknowledged in the «"* edition of his work, or will the errors be tacitly dropped, " without note or comment," and the curious inquirer be informed by some youthful and ardent henchman that the Professor has, of course, detected his errors since the appearance of that " second edition," which had merely been " revised " at his hands?
J. H. Round.
• Norm. Cotiq., iii. 672. t Ibid., ii. 599.
njSaf
S 2
252 THE DOGES ESTABLISHMENT AND MEDIAEVAL TAXATION.
C6e Doge's OBstalJlisljment anu alenia^tjal Caration at Oentce.
By W. Carew Hazlitt.
CCORDING to the so-often-quoted coronation oath of 1229, the Doge was then entitled to 2,800 lire di pucoli=^7,o ducats of gold a year during his tenure of office, payable quarterly, in addition to certain tributes from depen- dencies in money or kind of not incon- siderable value. Among other items, the first magistrate was entitled to the proceeds of the tax on crawfish, and to two-thirds of the duty charged on apples imported from Lombardy and cherries from Treviso, The amount, however, was found insufficient ; it was successively raised to 3,000, 4,000, and 5,200 lire di piccoli, at which last figure it stood in 1328. This money, designed to meet the ordinary current expenses of the Crown, was deposited in the coffers of the Procurators of St. Mark to the credit of the Doge and his Council, who drew upon it as occasion might require. 5,200 lire were equivalent to about 1,730 ducats or ^1^865. But in calculating the enhanced grant the gradual decline in the buying power is of course not to be forgotten.
But while there was a disposition to place the expenditure of the Doge on a liberal footing, the Republic took early measures to guard the revenue against encroachment and abuse. With certain distinct reservations, all taxes, fines, dues, indemnities for homi- cide and battery, eightieths, fortieths, the pro- ceeds from the fish-market and the shambles, save the fish for the palace on Thursdays, from the cart or carriage-tax (caraticum) of Verona,* the duty on firewoodf (arbora- ticum) from the Anconese, and the income
* The duty levied on carts and carriages imported from the Veronese into the Dogado. The carriage was an evolution from the cart, and the gradual transition is readily traced by a comparison of old engravings. Even the splendid early hunting-equipage appointed for a great French lady, which we see in Lacroix, has not parted with all the indications of its humble origin ; and there is a curious anecdote of the rough old lawyer who, desirous of speaking with Queen Elizabeth as she was riding on a journey, shouted out to the coachman, " Stop thy cart, good fellow ; stop thy cart."
y Corresponding to the modern coal-dues.
of the Salt Office, were to be exempt from the interference of the Executive.*
A further point, in which the Constitution showed itself precociously strict, with at the same time a certain proneness to Oriental influence, was the reception of presents. Not only the Doge himself, but the Dogaressa and their children on arrival at full age, were required to make oath that they would decline, or surrender within three days to the common chamberlain, any gifts from subjects of the Republic or others, save flowers, plants, rose-water, balsam, and sweet herbs, or, where they were for the service of the household, cooked viands and wine, poultry and game. This prohibition was withdrawn or suspended, however, when a wedding was celebrated at the palace of any member of the reigning family.
A carefully organized scheme of fiscal economy became, as Venice developed itself, a first need. We have seen on all sides, as we have looked back, the same long-abiding failure to make commensurate provision for political and social requirements. The earlier centuries saw contentedly and pas- sively the mechanism of the Government conducted by feudal tribute or benevolences, forced labour and private munificence ; these were in the room, as they were of the nature, of direct taxation. The only ancient system of excise, before the Salt Office came into existence, and those other lately indicated ex- pedients, seems to have been the ad valorem tax levied on imposts ; and this was of two kinds, the ripatico and the teloneo. The former dealt with all products and goods which came from abroad ; the teloneo, as its name signifies, was a sort of octroi levied on the merchandise which found its way to Venice from various parts of Lombardy down the rivers debouching into the Gulf.
These twin sources of revenue were at the outset insignificant in value, doubtless ; but the wants of the State were correspondingly modest ; even the Trinoda necessitas of Anglo- Saxon and Anglo-Danish Britain scarcely existed here ; everywhere in the Middle Ages private enterprise and speculation undertook many burdens which, under the broader and more mixed constitutions of other countries
* Coronation oaths of A. Dandolo, 1192, and G. Tiepolo, 1229.
THE DOGES ESTABLISHMENT AND MEDIEVAL TAXATION 253
and of later epochs, were sustained by the general body of the community; and the pro- bability seems to be that the receipts from the customs were long perfectly adequate to the ordinary current expenditure of the admini- stration, until the charges on the exchequer, partly due to the gradual release from feu- dalism, necessitated a more elaborate and efficient system of finance.
Unlike their mediaeval analogues elsewhere, of whom there is no occasion to speak at large here, the Venetian Excusait del Ducato, or Uoge's Household and Body Guard, do not appear at any time to have exercised an abnormal and pernicious influence on the Constitution. Their number was limited. Their organization was not exclusively mili- tary. Their attendance on the Doge, and the services which they were to perform, were regulated by prescription. They were the feudal gendarmerie, which constituted, with the Watch, the only guardians of public order ; and out of them evolved that admir- able Militia of the six Wards, which, in the absence of regular troops, proved itself on many occasions of the highest value and efficiency, and which, in its occasional selec- tion, at a later epoch, for employment beyond the precincts of the palace and Dogado, acquired a nearer resemblance to the Hus- carls instituted in Britain by Canute.
Even in the case of a country so peculiarly constituted as Venice, the evidences of feu- dalism grow, as it were, under the collector's hand. A few examples have been given by me already elsewhere. In all hunting excur- sions, the provision of a suitable entertainment for the ducal party, whether the Doge him- self accompanied it or not, devolved on the Chioggians by custom, possibly at a time when Malamocco was the capital ; and the chase was followed at intermediate points, either within the Dogado or on the opposite line of coast. But the usage was different when public progresses were made through the islands; for the coronation oath of 1229 explicitly declares that the cost of these ex- cursions was to be defrayed by the Doge himself
Another factor in the mediaeval system of taxation is to be found in the wind and water mills, which supply, besides, a prominent illustration of the pervading and irrepressible
feudal instinct and spirit among a people so largely independent of their influence.
Throughout the Dogado, from at least the ninth century, mills abounded, both within the alluvial dominion and on its outskirts, more especially at or near the mouths of the rivers which discharged their waters into the Gulf Temanza was under the impression that floating mills, such as were employed on some of the Italian rivers, were formerly in use at Venice, and mentions a communica- tion which he had one morning with the Doge Marco Foscarini, who expressed a be- lief that such a contrivance would answer in the Republic. But the most material point here is the quasi-financial relationship be- tween the millowners and the Government. So far back as 819, the latter conceded to the Abbot of San Servolo complete exemp- tion from control or interference on the part of the ducal millers, the adjacent fisheries, and the residents in the neighbourhood ; and till 982 there stood near, and partly on, the site of the Monastery of San Giorgio Mag- giore a pond or lake, a vineyard, and a wind- mill, of which the latter was exclusively devoted to the wants of the palace opposite ; and moreover, when the donation of the fee or freehold of San Giorgio was made, the Doge reserved the familiar service of castle- guard — the feudal obligation of the owners of the land or estate to provide warders to take their turn by rotation at the palace.
The documents cited by Temanza appear to be somewhat incorrectly printed or origin- ally corrupt ; but it is easy to see from them that, besides these windmills, there were others worked with water by procuring an artificial fall. The Monastery of San Giorgio itself possessed three, of which two stood on that part of the Grand Canal formerly known as Basinaco or Businaco. In 1282 an engineer commenced the erection of a com- mon mill on a piece of marshy ground apper- taining to San Giorgio, probably where the Capuchin House of the Grazia subsequently was ; but he was stopped as an illegal in- truder.
In the treaty between the Republic and Pola in 998, the latter covenanted to send to the Doge annually 2,000 lb. of oil, and to the Dogaressa for the time being a free gift of cotton. The oblation to the Dogaressa was
254 THE DOGES ESTABLISHMENT AND MEDIEVAL TAXATION.
tantamount to a payment in kind of what is known to the Enghsh law as " queen gold," and which is sometimes described as a con- tribution to the queen's girdle. The mono- graph by Prynne on this curious subject deals at large with all the details, and in the last edition of Blount's Tenures of Lafid there are several illustrations of a usage which is not obsolete indeed, but lives among us at this moment in a shape compliant with modern demands. But the tribute from the Polans is, so far as we can see, a solitary example of the kind.
What was originally the style by which the Doge was addressed, we do not seem to possess the means of knowing. Perhaps nothing definite was understood either at the time or long after. But the phrases Most Serene Prince, Serene Doge, Serenity, Highness, crept into use. Much was left to choice or to chance. There was no prescribed rule. In the old days of Russia, the Duke of Moscow was called His Serenity. Both Russia and Venice may have borrowed the appellation from Germany. The Doge was Dux Venetiarum, not Dux VeneticB ; for he was the supreme chief of all the federated townships and clans which combined to form Venice. But his title was territorial. His jurisdiction extended over possessions which (so far as the original Dogado was concerned) showed no tendency to fluctuate or vary.
The head of the government declares him- self to be there by the grace of God in a document of the eleventh century. How much before that date such a thoughtful and once significant formula was employed we have seen stated nowhere. But to ascribe a divine origin to the power of men and women with organic wants and passions like our own was an early and a natural artifice. The reader of Plutarch will remember the passage in the life of Numa where that sagacious per- sonage declines to accept the crown till a favourable omen has been received from the gods.
Whenever he appeared in public or in state, the middle-age Serenissimo was pre- ceded by trumpets to herald his approach, that all ways might be clear; at his side noble youths, sumptuously clad, walked with waxen tapers in their hands, indicative, per- haps, of his illuminating influence on the councils of the Government \ and above his
head officers of the Household supported a silken canopy. The symbolical virtue of the taper is rather curiously illustrated by the procession of the Plebeians — who, in 1381, were ennobled for their patriotic services during the war of Chioggi — to the Basilica, each with a lighted one in his hand. It was like some act of penitential purification from the taint of birth. From time immemorial, as it still is among ourselves, the bray of the trumpet has been thought somehow to enhance the dignity and importance of royal persons and great officials. The President of the French Chamber marches behind two in full voice to his chair ; it is the crier's "Oyez," varied for the nonce; and the whole conceit demonstrates palpably enough the rottenness of the masquerade, with which our feeble and corrupt nature seems to shrink from dispensing.
Some one at all times, but from a period when ceremony entered into the political system as an unavoidable ingredient, and Venice became the scene of a court, all arrangements for receptions, entertainments, and household control appear to have devolved on a Common Chamberlain and his staff". The Camerarius Nostri Communis makes a figure in that momentously impor- tant record, the coronation oath of 1229, the most ancient which we possess in an un- mutilated condition ; but he unfortunately nowhere presents himself to us in a palpable shape. We merely discern him dimly behind the pageants, progresses, masquerades, water- fetes, and jubilees, which the long line of middle-age Doges were expected to have in honour of something or somebody ; we see him and his subordinates setting about the coronation or burial of my lord the Doge with the same unbiassed zeal ; arranging the details of a levee or drawing-room at St. Mark's with affectionate assiduity and minute- ness ; taking orders with becoming obeisances from his or her Serenity for a new set of arras or a wedding-supper. But the relations of the Doge to his Chamberlain were neces- sarily modified as the real authority of the Crown waned, and an intricate official machinery interposed itself between the Most Serene and those with whom his communi- cations were formerly unimpeded, and his desires final.
A MANX " BOGANE:
255
tain
By Rev. R. Corlett Covvell.
HE bogane* or buggane of ^'' gob ny skort''\ had his home on the north-east corner of North Barule. North Barule is a rugged moun- rising i,8oo feet above the sea-level. From a wide base it springs aloft for the last 1,000 feet almost perpendicularly on the eastern side, a precipitous pile of bare, grey rock, sullen and weird; Its summit is often wrapped in cloud, and some of its glens are, in their higher reaches, craggy, gloom-haunted ravines. It was in a subterranean cavern in a rocky neb of the mountain that the bogane usually dwelt. He was known by his awful voice, deep and sepulchral, and almost as loud as thunder — a voice that rose high, and shook the very sky, and was heard for miles around above the blast of the wildest winds, alarming the whole district.
Women wrung their hands, children cowered in abject terror, strong men turned pallid. Even the cattle fled for shelter, and the birds were arrested in their flight. The fishermen said it was of no use to go to sea when the bogane was active, for the fish hid themselves in the sea-weed in the bottom of the ocean. No man dared travel the road from Corna to Ramsey by night if ^^ gob ny skort" was out. (The name of the cave came to be applied to the ghost.) " Gob vy skori" was not exclusively a nocturnal ghost,, though he preferred the stillness of the night for his excursions. Sometimes he stalked abroad by day, but in the light of the sun was always invisible as the wind. It was only in the darkness that he was seen ; and those whose misfortune it had been to meet him declared that he was a gigantic man, with his face and hands besmeared with blood, and his garments dripping with the same; and that the expression of his countenance was terrible to behold. He had horns like a mountain-bullock ; his eyes flamed out of deep pits of sockets ; and his mouth revealed broken and shattered teeth of immense dimensions, and looked like the craggy sides of some granite cave ; while his tongue was * Bogane = a ghost, ■j- Gob 7ty j/(w/=peak, or headland of the chasm.
long and sharp as an ox-goad. But he was never known to hurt.
The story went, that long, long ago, in the dark times when Elian Vannin* was the abode of sea-pirates and smugglers, a brutal murder was committed on the lonely moun- tain-side. An innocent traveller had been way-laid, and, while his cries for help were drowned in the mingled roar of the wind and sea, had been foully strangled ; and the mur- derer vanished, and was never again seen. He was spirited away by the fairies to the regions infernal. But, it was said, that being too wicked for that doleful place, his ghost was banished to the scene of his crime, to inhabit the rayless depths of the cavern named "gob ny skort ;" and here he vented in awful untranslatable imprecations the agony of his remorse.
Now this bogane none could silence or drive away. The magic art, for which the island was famous, had been tried in vain. The Manx wizards could do wonders. They could charm away the most frightful forms of disease ; they could, by a word, staunch the flow of blood from the deepest gash ; they could hold converse with the inhabitants of the under-world; they could detect the criminal ; they had power over the forces of Nature, could stop the winged-songsters in their flight, could command the shoals of herring to enter the net— all this could they do, but they could not influence, in the slightest degree, the bogane of "gob ny skort." The two most famous wizards — Balla-yockey and Balla-whane— had tried their united art, again and again, but without avail.
But at last, an honest mountaineer, well fired with the fierce blood of barleycorn, on the occasion of Ramsey fair, determined to dislodge the ghastly, gore-stained spectre. Gripping his stout cudgel in his labour- hardened fist, and betting a shilling and a quart to boot, he swore he would put the bogane to flight. It was a dark night. The sky was like ink, and a bitter north-east wind swept across the unsheltered mountain-side, as he set out to climb the steep and lonely road. Not a tree, not a hedge could he see, as he groped his upward way. As he left the old cart-road and trod the edge of the * The Isle of Man.
2S6
A MANX " BOGANE."
moorland, there broke on his ear a loud bellow of so frightful a sort that his hair stood on end, and his teeth chattered. His heart almost failed him, and he halted in a reverie of terror. But soon recovering, he tightened his grip of the cudgel and pro- ceeded through the deafening roar that beat on his ear-drum with bewildering force. Nearer and nearer the grotto he approached. The path became increasingly rocky, and the difficulty of finding his way in the darkness very great The effects, too, of the strong ale were passing off, and his Dutch courage needed fortifying with real mettle. But Jem Kermeen was not the man to turn back. No ; onward he went. In half an hour he reached the mouth of the outer cave ; he plunged into the unrelieved gloom, stumbling over loose boulders, and slipping into shallow fissures, and sorely bruising his ankles and shins ; the dismal voice of the bogane all the time articulating itself in a deep " Halloo !" of surprise that anyone should dare to invade his haunt. At last Jem arrived at the mouth of an inner cave, the dreaded abode of the goblin, whose rage now seemed beyond all bounds, and whose voice alternately hissed like the foam of an angry sea, and roared like a forest of lions ; while from a deeper chamber there came the sound of an awful tramp, tramp, tramp, as if the giant were approaching slowly but cer- tainly to execute vengeance on the daring invader of his privacy. All this was enough to fill with alarm the bravest of men. But Jem, taking still firmer hold of his cudgel with both hands, and lifting his gruff voice to its highest pitch, demanded silence. " Silence," said he, " silence, ^<?^ ny skorl /" Suddenly, as if by magic, there was awful silence, more trying to Jem's nerves than the hurly-burly that had ceased. He could hear his heart beat, and the ticking of his watch seemed preternaturally loud. But now was the time for action — for words first — " Who art thou, thou big bogane? I'll tell thee who I am.* I am Jem Kermeen, son of Jemmy-Jem, Jem-beg, Jem-Moar of Leighy- ird-Ballure; a man of a brave race. Our * Kennish in his poems has the following note : " The ancient custom of the Manx was to call their children after the Christian name of the father ; and here my hero was the son of Jemmy, the son of Jem, the son of little Jem, the son of big Jem. Bej^ is the Manx for little, and Moar for big."
pitch-forks and scythes are the sharpest, as Cromwell's soldiers found out to their sorrow when they landed to take our tight little island. Dost thou think by thy senseless howl to scare a man of such heroic sires ? Come forth, I challenge thee, and show thy fiendish face afire with malice. Ah ! thou art a coward. Thou didst frighten a poor, old, helpless body like Alice Kerruish, poking thy crooked horns through her window, and growling in her cottage-porch like a mad dog." . . . Here the rising roar of the bogane drowned Jem's voice. Filled with fury, he rushed with uplifted cudgel to the spot where his ghostly enemy apparently stood. But lo ! the cave seemed to rock from end to end, and the ground on which Jem stood slipped from beneath his feet, and, amid a horrid reverberating crash, he fell, stunned, into an unsuspected cave that lay under the floor on which he had stood and held controversy with "gob ny skort." How long he remained in this condition it is diffi- cult to say ; but when he recovered conscious- ness, and collected his scattered wits, the first thing of which he was sensible was that the bogane was silent. Was "gob ny skort" dead — killed in the earthquake ? Jem held his breath, and strained his ears and eyes ; but no sound broke the stillness, save the cry of the night-hawk as it blended with the soughing of the breeze amongst the heather — a melancholy discord that came and went like some ghostly incantation ; and no object met his gaze but the sparks that seemed to start from his own disordered brain. His courage well-nigh oozed away, as he lay wait- ing in pain for the dawn of the morning light. AVhen at length the daybreak crept dimly in, and reached him in his woeful plight, he mustered strength enough to crawl up the sides of the lower cave, and through an aperture which led him to the cave imme- diately above. And what did he find ? The prostrate bogane ? Yes : Jem had finished the giant ghost. Never more would he scare, on wild- nights, the inhabitants of the parish of Saint Manghold. His voice was silenced for evermore.
When Jem trod heavily, in the darkness of the previous night, on the rock which formed the floor of the upper cave, as he flew to attack the monster, a piece of the rock which had been long Metached from the
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mass, and which had been gingerly held in its place, was dislodged, and rolled into a trumpet-like neck in the lower cave, which was now for the first time discovered. Through this neck the north-east wind had rushed with pent-up force, and made its un- earthly music of terror. The bogane of ^^ gob ny skort" was the north-east wind. His trumpet was an unsuspected cave, whose mouth was a narrow orifice in the rock, and whose keys were cracks and fissures in the disturbed strata.
And the Manx poet, who embalms this legend in his rhymes, sings :
* Jem saw that all was but a farce and vain —
'Twas but the wind — this phantom of the night. And for dislodging thus the haunting ghost
From out his awful subterraneous cave, He often got the peasants' hearty toast — "Here's 'Long may live Jem-beg- Kermeen the brave.' "
£Dn some a^iniature IPaintets anD oBnameUists tofto {jatie floutisbeli in OBnglanD,
By J. J. Foster.
Part III.
EW figures could have been more familiar to the dilettanti world of London, when George the Third was King, than that of Richard Cosway. Diminutive in person, but full of great airs, and always gorgeously attired ; notorious for his extravagant manner of life, and, let us add, equally well known for his hospitality and open-handed generosity; above all famous for his genius, he was for many years the object of caricature by envious rivals, and of bitter satire from that numerous class (perhaps not yet quite extinct) which, under pretence of lash- ing the follies of the age, gives vent to its jealousy of others more successful than itself
Some idea of Cosway's rapid rise to the front rank of his profession may be gathered from the fact that he first exhibited minia-
* Afoua's Isle and other Poems. By William Ken- nish, R.A. Simpkin, Marshall and Co. 1844.
tures at the Royal Academy in 1767, when he sent three ; he was elected Associate in 1770, and R.A. in 1772 — short intervals, even in those days of speedy Academic advancement.
Cosway figures in the well-known picture, by Zoffany, of the Life School of the Academy, at Somerset House ; and it may be noted that he is the only person present who wears a sword, besides Sir Joshua, the President. '
It cannot be denied that " Macaroni " Cosway was a fair target for ridicule ; indeed, he seemed to court the criticism so freely bestowed upon him.
He was, above all things, ostentatious — loved to adorn himself with gold lace, and to appear in sale-rooms in a mulberry silk coat profusely embroidered with scarlet straw- berries. (Fancy the effect which the appear- ance at Christy's of any well-known R.A., attired in such a manner, would have upon the aesthetes of our day !)
This resplendent being, who boasted of friendship with the Prince of Wales ; who filled his house and studio with costly works of art, jewels, china, silks, and gems; who entertained all the idle rank and fashion of those wild days, was believed to have begun his London career by waiting on the students and carrying in the tea and coffee at a drawing-school in the Strand.
Thus Smith, in his Life of Nollekens^ de- clares that Cosway rose, from being " one of the dirtiest of boys, to be one of the smartest of men." This is probably merely ill-natured exaggeration, of which there is a good deal in that entertaining work ; for Cosway's parents were well-to-do people (of Flemish extraction, by the way), living at Tiverton, and unlikely to allow the young Richard to have filled any such menial post.
The painter was not content with making himself the talk of the town by his social follies and extravagance. He professed belief in Swedenborgianism and animal magnetism; he had conversed, says Hazlitt, with more than one person of the Trinity. He could talk with his lady at Mantua, etc., etc. ; but it is with his graceful and delightful art that we are most concerned, and in its own way this has never been excelled.
Allan Cunningham has devoted a chapter of his Lives of Eminent British Painters to
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Cosway, and concludes a lengthy and not ungenerous notice by saying, " his works are less widely known than they deserve, and his fame is fading."
It is true Cosway's portraits do not seem to have won such Continental fame as those of the Olivers and Cooper ; and in the Louvre I have been able to discover but one single example, and that in the La Cazas collection ; but I very much doubt if his fame is fading — indeed, if pecuniary value be any criterion, his reputation is steadily growing.
Probably there is no one whose works are more keenly sought after by collectors ; and certainly there is no one whose miniatures are more often copied.
Imitators he had in his own day, we know; but it is a marvel whence come all the wretched, palpable, and flagrant forgeries which abound now.
In spite of the decay of miniature-painting which I have already lamented, there would seem to be a never-failing supply of copyists still at work, whose productions find their way into the market year by year, trash which sale- catalogues constantly label as by Richard Cos- way, R.A. And here it will not, I trust, be thought out of place to quote a warning which Mr. Tuer, in his book on Bartolozzi, has given collectors of miniatures :
" The almost priceless miniatures on ivory by Cosway and other painters of his school, of bygone celebrities and beauties, are being skilfully, though somewhat sketchily, copied and vended as originals ; and, judging from the number about, there must be a manufac- tory somewhere for their production. The spurious miniatures are usually in old papier mache frames, from which the once so com- mon silhouette or other valueless portraits have been removed ; but notwithstanding careful repairs with black paper, the indica- tions of change of tenancy are traceable ; the settings of old-fashioned lockets are turned to similar account. While, if genuine, one hundred guineas apiece would be cheap enough for some of them, five and ten guineas are unblushingly asked for examples worth — if they have any value at all — as many shillings. Amongst others the writer has seen, thus treated, portraits of Mrs. Cos- way, Mrs. Siddons, Mrs. Robinson, Lady
Waldegrave, Lady Northwick (mother of the celebrated trio of beauties known as ' The Three Graces '), Miss Farren (Countess of Derby), H.R.H. Caroline, Princess of Wales, and Mrs. Dawson Damer."
Having thus ventured upon a word of caution to would-be acquirers of miniatures, I shall presume to say a word more to those who are so fortunate as to possess them ; and it is this, Take care of thenu These valuables are exposed to more dangers than thought- less custodians ever seem to realize. In old days, when miniatures were universally and ostentatiously worn about the person, they were put in costly settings of jewels and precious stones. This has led, literally, to their undoing by the hands of pilfering ser- vants and others whose cupidity has been excited. It is sad to think how many price- less portraits are lost, some of them perhaps the sole representations of distinguished men. In large houses they have been often hung upon the wall here and there and every- where. One or two would not be missed, and so, little by little, the collection diminishes.
Apropos of the perils to which they are exposed, the writer well remembers the first miniature he ever possessed. Needless to say, it was of some one " young and divinely fair."
Being, in his eyes, a thing of beauty, he fondly hoped it would be a joy for ever ; but the Fates willed otherwise, for on returning home one evening he found that a small boy with a taste for art, who was allowed to roam over the house at will, had removed the treasured portrait from its frame, and care- fully licked the ivory clea?i, under the delusion, one must suppose, that it was good to eat.
But there are other dangers besides hungry boys. For instance, there is the devouring tooth of Time ever working destruction in two different ways, to which special atten- tion should be called. One fertile source of harm is damp, resulting in spots of mildew, which leave a red or yellow stain upon the ivory and sadly disfigure it. These, if detected in time, can be removed by com- petent hands — that is to say, by those of a miniature-painter, who should scrape away the stain and carefully fill in the colour again, matching the work as skilfully as he
ON SOME MINIATURE PAINTERS AND ENAMELLISTS.
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may. This is more practicable on ivory than on the thin cardboard or vellum used by the earlier painters, because the latter substances do not possess so hard a grain, and are more apt to show erasures.
Culpable neglect is the origin of another great foe to miniatures, viz., exposure to sun- light
I remember being shown, in a certain ducal mansion, containing art treasures of various kinds reaching back to Tudor days, a case of miniatures, several of which, ruined though they were, had every appearance of being Hilliard's work. The carnations had flown — indeed, the flesh tints were so bleached that the faces looked mere white masks, the features quite past recognition ; and no won- der, for these portraits had long been hung on the open shutter of the morning-room window — and a morning-room, we all know, is generally the brightest and sunniest in the house.
It cannot be too strongly impressed upon owners that miniatures proper should be kept in closed cases. If hung upon a wall (and surely unless placed close to the eye their chief excellence of minute finish and delicacy must be lost) they should be kept under glass, and shielded as much as pos- sible from their enemies, light and dust, by means of curtains, which, if placed on small rods, can be moved aside at pleasure, and allow of ready examination of the beauty of the work.
Naturally in the case of Enamels such dangers as I have alluded to above do not arise, and if they escape the risks of firing and are not chipped or cracked by unfair usage, they may be said to be practically indestructible.
I did not intend to enter upon the techni- calities of the art, but in answer to some correspondents I may remark that the methods by which enamels and miniatures (as the terms are generally understood) are produced are widely different, and a few particulars about them may perhaps be not unwelcome.
The earliest miniatures, as we have seen, were painted on vellum, and formed part of illuminated missals, and so forth. Holbein, and men who succeeded him down to the time of Cooper (when ivory seems to have
been introduced), generally used thin card, often a piece of a playing-card. Thin card is naturally very easily bent and broken, and the use of ivory was a distinct improvement, not only as being a more durable material, but as giving a better texture {tooth, as artists call it) to work on, and allowing of greater purity of tone.
Thorburn and the later professors used very large pieces of ivory, obtained by taking, by means of a lathe, a thin slice from the circumference of a tusk, rendering it flat by means of heat and great pressure, and then laying it down on a thick slab of indiarubber, which again was often placed upon a maho- gany panel. Sometimes two or three pieces were joined to make one subject The draw- back is that not only are such large pieces liable to crack, but the joins very frequently show in an unsightly manner.
So much for the material on which Minia- tures are painted.
The colours used are the ordinary trans- parent water-colours, with occasionally a little opaque colour for the high lights.
With Enamels the method is very different, and is a complicated process, difficult to describe in few words, for there are many kinds, and they have been used in one form or another from very early times. Passing by caskets, crozier-heads, diptychs, reliquaries, and other church ornaments of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and the exquisite and well-known Limoge enamels (of which the best appear to have been produced between 1530 and 1560), we come to a new method of applying enamel, discovered by a French goldsmith named Jean Toutin, about 1630. His process was improved upon by his pupils, and carried by Petitot to matchless perfec- tion.
In applying the art of enamelling to por- traiture, it will readily be understood that the difficulties are enhanced greatly. The design must be traced and cannot be altered or amended, and although the palette of an enamel painter is very rich in colours, since metallic oxides readily lend themselves to endless combinations with glass, unfortunately all kinds of colours are not equally fusible. The artist must, therefore, be thoroughly acquainted with the precise degree of tem- perature, and the length of time that each
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colour will stand without melting too much, and running into another.
Accordingly he places, usually on a gold plate, first a thin ground of enamel ; then the very hardest vitrifiable colour, then the less hard, and so on, under risk of failure at every step of the process.
The Limoge enamellers executed portraits of the families of Guise and Navarre on large plaques, some of which are to be seen at the South Kensington Museum. They are ex- ceedingly valuable and interesting, but lack modelling and finesse, and are very different from the minute and exquisite enamels of Petitot.
The more immediate successors of this wonderful artist have been mentioned, but there remain to be noticed two or three others who have successfully practised this difficult art nearer our own time. Of these, unquestionably Henry Bone, R.A., occupies the first place. Like so many other portrait painters, he, too, came from the West, having been born at Truro, in 1755. He was apprenticed to a china manufacturer at Plymouth, and began by painting flowers and landscapes on china ; then, coming to London at the age of twenty- three, he found employment as an enameller of watches and trinkets. In 1780 we find him exhibiting at the Royal Academy, and attracting such attention as led to his being employed by the Prince of Wales, and after- wards being appointed enamel-painter to royalty. He copied many of the works of Raphael, Titian, Murillo, and Reynolds, and his " Bacchus and Ariadne " was sold for 2,200 guineas. He also executed some eighty-five portraits of the great men of Elizabeth's reign ; these have been dispersed at prices probably below their value, copies though they are.
His son, Henry Pierce Bone, after painting in oil for many years, took up enamel paint- ing when his father's powers failed, and from 1833 to 1855, when he died, exhibited many portraits after contemporary painters and the old masters, with a few subject pictures.
William Essex, and William B. Essex, his son — the latter died at Birmingham in 1852; the former exhibited as late as 1862 — were, with the Bones, among the last enamellists who attained eminence during the present century in this country.
Returning to miniature painters proper, I ought to mention Samuel Cotes (not to be confounded with his brother Francis Cotes, R.A.).
Other men of some note are Shelley, who, though born in Whitechapel, rose to eminence in his profession ; and the two Collins, of whom Richard was the pupil of Meyer, and was appointed principal minia- ture painter to George HI. ; and Samuel, who, when practising at Bath, was Ozias Humphrey's master.
Humphrey deserves more than a passing notice. Like Cosway, he was born in Devon- shire, viz., at Honiton. When, in 1764, he settled in London, he had the encourage- ment of Reynolds, and two years later a miniature, which he exhibited in the Spring Gardens Rooms, gained for him royal patronage. In the company of Romney he went to Italy, and on his return some four years later, essayed large canvases, exhibiting whole lengths at the Academy, tjut without success ; the probable reason of his going to India, where he made money. Returning to England he found full employment, and was made R.A. ; but his sight suddenly failing he retired in 1797, and died in 1810. His lovely miniatures were signed in Roman capitals, the H within the O. Mr. Redgrave observes of his work that "without loss of originality, it possesses more of the character of Reynolds than any other painter."
There were two brothers whose portraits, being contemporaneous with Cosway and painted somewhat in his manner, have, from similarity of subject and costume, and resem- blance of style, been frequently taken for Cosway's. I allude to the Plimers : Andrew, who exhibited up to within a year of the date of Cosway's death ; and Nathaniel, his younger brother, who died in 1822. The finish of each was good, but the colour of the latter decidedly inferior, and both seldom or never attained to the nameless grace of Cosway.
Jeremiah Meyer, R.A., I have already spoken of in connection with enamellers.
His work was founded, it is said, upon a study of Reynolds, and is remarkable for life- like truth, and invariably refined and quiet, yet powerful colour.
The elder Bone was the son of a cabinet- maker, and so was Andrew Robertson, who.
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walking from his native town, Aberdeen, to London in i8oo to seek his fortune, was lucky in attracting the notice of Benjamin West, then President of the Academy. Like Cooper, Robertson was a musician, and it is thought might have been a greater painter had his love of art been undivided, though he never would have rivalled the friend of Mr. Pepys. He found fame and sufficient fortune to retire in 1844, and died one year after at Hampstead.
Another miniaturist who owed much of his advancement to the friendly notice of a President of the Royal Academy was Henry Edridge, who was permitted by Sir Joshua Reynolds to make copies of his portraits in miniature. His earliest works were on ivory, but his spirited drawings on paper, in which the figure is slightly touched in, with the head carefully finished, are better known.
He was a genuine artist, and was made an Associate in 1820; but grief may be said to have killed him, for losing a daughter in her seventeenth year, and soon after his only remaining child, a son, he never recovered the blow, and was buried in Bushey Church- yard by his friend Dr. Munro, the patron of Turner and Girtin.
Alfred Edward Chalon, R.A., may appro- priately be grouped with Edridge, whom, however, he survived many years.
Scotland has not produced many miniature painters of the first rank ; there are, how- ever, two or three exceptions. Andrew Robertson is one; Sir H. Raeburn, R.A., another; and Robert Thorburn, R.A., is a third. Sir William Ross, though of Scotch extraction, was born in London, and can hardly be claimed as a Scotchman.
Robertson's career we have already traced.
Fortune smiled upon Raeburn in early years. He was an orphan, who at fifteen was apprenticed to a goldsmith in Edinburgh. His master encouraged his attempts at minia- ture painting, which soon gained for him admiration, and, what was more, numerous sitters. On completing his time he set up as a portrait painter, having already practised in the larger medium of oil-painting. At twenty- two he gained the affections of a lady whom it is said he first met with on a sketching excursion, and just as Gainsborough did with "sweet Margaret Burr," introduced her in
his picture. One day she presented herself at his studio to have her portrait painted. The acquaintance led to happy marriage; the lady, a widow by-the-bye, bringing him, besides a fair face and an amiable nature, a nice property as dower.
Coming to London, he was kindly re- ceived by Reynolds, studied for two years in Italy, and pursued a most prosperous career in Edinburgh, where he died in 1823, having been knighted the year before on the occasion of George IV. 's visit to that city.
Robert Thorburn is another instance of rapid rise. Born at Dumfries in 181 8, by the time he was thirty years of age he had painted the Queen, the Prince Consort, and two of their children. As before mentioned, photography brought his earlier style of art to an abrupt termination. He therefore set himself to paint portraits in oil, and when his death recently occurred, the present generation had almost forgotten that he first made his name as a miniature painter.
Did space permit, much might be said of the struggles and difficulties which have at- tended the lives of miniature painters. Take, for instance. Miss Sarah Biffin, who was born without hands or feet, yet she learnt drawing, and in 1821 was awarded a medal by the Society of Arts. And I have seen facsimiles of exquisite work by W. Carter, an artist who, having neither hands nor feet, learned to draw with his mouth. Then there was Charles Brocky, Hungarian born, who began life as servant in a cook's shop, rose to the dignity of barber's assistant, and after sad privations found his way to Paris, and be- came a student in the Louvre. In 1839 he ap- peared as an exhibitor at the Royal Academy, and ultimately had the Queen as a sitter.
Probably few who lament the early close of a promising career, when a little more than one hundred years ago young Major Andre was shot as a spy in the American lines, are aware that he was a talented amateur and miniature painter.
But I must bring these notes to a con- clusion. In handling such a topic as the history of miniature painting — a subject ex- tending over several centuries — the writer is painfully aware that he has been able to treat it in a very imperfect and fragmentary manner. Encouraged, however, by tiie in-
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terest excited, and the correspondence with which he has been favoured, he has been induced to prepare something of a more comprehensive nature, in which he hopes to deal with the lives and works of the three hundred and fifty odd painters and enamellers who have flourished in England, and any contributions which may further such a work and render it more complete will be gratefully received.
In conclusion, he may be allowed to say that it is a reproach to this age, which has seen what might almost be termed a renais- sance in art in various directions, which so boasts itself of enlightened progress, that it should suffer such a delightful and profoundly interesting art to perish of inanition.
Why should the series of beautiful por- traits, many of priceless and perennial value, which many families possess, be interrupted ? Why should the present generation, how- ever modest it may be, suppose that it will be less interesting to its successors than pre- ceding ones have proved to it ? Are there none whose memories we desire to per- petuate ? Are there no brave and good men and beautiful women amongst us now ?
Photography does not even claim to perpetuate, and, besides, how far from de- sirable portraiture is too often the stiff and unnatural result of the photographer's lens, either so flattered by the "retoucher's" pencil as to be almost unrecognisable, or so cruelly faithful as to be like Vice —
"A monster of so frightful mien, As, to be hated, needs but to be seen."
My object, however, is not to disparage photography, but to urge that something better and of more abiding value should be sought; and remember, a demand soon creates a supply. "Non licet omnibus adire Cor- inthum : " it is not everybody whose purse permits of good oil-paintings of those near and dear to him ; but a miniature is a more modest matter, and probably within the reach of most readers of the Antiquary. Surely there can be no hesitation, when fitness for the contemplation and delight of suc- ceeding generations is in question, between a photograph and a miniature. Let us then do what we can to promote a revival of this beautiful art, and see that it shall not at any rate die of absolute neglect. This is a duty we owe to posterity.
antiquarian 3iottmg0 at auDington Cfjurcf), ^utrep.
By George Clinch.
HE situation of Addington upon the margin of Surrey is as pleasant as one could possibly desire. It is placed in a fertile valley among hay-fields and green hedgerows, and is over- looked by the Shirley Hills and the park belonging to the country residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The parish church, dedicated to St. Mary the Virgin, contains some features of considerable anti- quarian interest. The chancel is especially interesting. In its east wall, just above the communion-table, we may notice the curious feature of three Norman semicircular-headed windows of small size. Two other similar windows, from some indications in the exter- nal masonry, appear to have existed higher in the same wall, but they are now filled in. It is not improbable that these five small windows were intended to typify the five wounds in our Saviour's body. Such an explanation of this unusual feature is not inconsistent with the symbolism which formed so important a part in the spirit of Norman ecclesiastical architecture. Considerable por- tions of three walls of the chancel (viz., the north, east, and south walls) are of Norman work, and show that a church existed here at or soon after the Conquest, although Domes- day Book does not mention the fact. The lower part of the tower at the west end of the nave also contained indications of Norman work. The large pillars on the south side of the nave point to a later period, probably the middle or latter part of the thirteenth cen- tury. About the year 1773 the exterior walls of the body of the church were rebuilt with brick by Mr. Alderman Trecothick ; but that work was replaced or covered by flint-work in 1843, when the church was restored at the expense of Archbishop Howley. The church was again restored in 1876 at a cost of ^5,000, when the north aisle and vestry were added and much of the tower rebuilt The corbel-heads removed from the north wall at that time, and now in the churchyard, are interesting, and worth a passing glance. They are ornamented with grotesque figures, etc., and are said to have been taken from
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either side of a north door to the church, where they may perhaps have served as drip- stone terminations.
The monuments are somewhat more nume- rous than is usual in a small country church, and are very interesting. There are two brasses upon the chancel floor. That on the north side near the Leigh Monument commemorates John Leigh,* Esq., and Isabel his wife, in a marginal inscription, and there are effigies to themselves and their five children in brass. At each corner is the emblem of an evangelist, reminding one of the curious old prayer said to be still used by children in country districts,
Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Bless the bed that I lie on, etc.
The inscription engraved on a verge of brass which extends all round the slab of Sussex marble in which it is inserted, is as follows : " ^ Here liethe John Leigh Esquyer, and Isabel hys Wyfe, Dowghter of John Harvy of Thurley in Bedfordshyre, Esquyer, and sole sister of Sr. George Harvye Knight, which John decesseased the xxiiii daye of Aprill, In the yere of oure lorde God M' ccccc ix.t And the sayd Isabell desseased the viii th daye of January, In the yere of Chrystes Incarnacion M. ccccc xliiii on whos soules I pray God have Mercy." The figure of John Leigh, 25^ inches in length, represents a full-length figure of that gentleman, with a long gown reaching to the feet. A collar of ermine reaches in front down to the bottom of the gown, and the sleeves, which are full, are bordered with the same material. The hair reaches a little below the chin, and appears nearly straight. The figure of Isabel, the wife of John Leigh, is also represented in full, and is 24I inches in length. Her costume is interesting. A gown, close-fitting in the body and sleeves, falls down in graceful folds ; the feet, how- ever, are not hidden, as was usual in brasses of that period, but are shown partially. The shoes are broad and clumsy. The sleeves are trimmed with ermine. A girdle hangs loosely from the waist, and has a pretty fastening of three four-foiled flowers ; from them a long chatelaine reaches below the knees. The hood is of the angular type, which
"' lie was a justice of the quorum and Shcriflf of .Surrey in i486.
t This is an error : he died in 1502.
was quite in the fashion at that time, and has long lappets prettily ornamented From the mouth of John Leigh issues the following: " Deus misereatur raihi et benedicat nobis ;" and from the mouth of Isabel his wife issue the words : " Illuminet vultum suum super nos et misereatur mihL" In the same stone are three shields in brass bearing the arms of Leigh, Payne, Harvey, and Nernuit. Between the effigies of John I^igh and his wife is a small brass-plate, upon which are engraved the effigies of their five children. One of these children became afterwards the wife of Walter Waleys, of the parish of Cudham in Kent. In the church at that place there is a brass to her memory. It should be noted that, although now level with the chancel floor, this tomb was origi- nally an altar-tomb, and as such it is de- scribed by the antiquary Aubrey. Speaking of the side stones, he says they were "as plain as possible, having no other Ornament except two Shields and a Lozenge, heretofore enrich'd with Arms, but now defac'd." This was written in 1673,* ^"^ the side stones have now disappeared.
On the south side of the chancel is a brass to Thomas Hatteclyff", Esquyer. By Aubrey's account it would appear to have been formerly much nearer the altar than it now is. The effigy, 25^ inches in length, is a full-length representation of Thomas Hatteclyff" in com- plete armour, partly plate and partly chain, as was the fashion at that time. The high ridges upon the shoulder-pieces, and the two short-pointed tuilles are noteworthy. The effigy is represented with a long sword on the left-hand side, and a short sword or dagger on the right-hand side. The hands are folded in the attitude of devotion. The head is uncovered, showing the hair, which reaches down nearly to the shoulders. The Hon. H. A. Dillon's new edition of Fairholt's Costunu in England contains an engraving of a brass to Richard Gyll, who died in 151 1, which is much Hke the Hatteclyff" brass at Addington (see vol. i., fig. 223). Hatteclyff", however, died in 1540, twenty-nine years later than Gyll ; so it is very possible that this brass was engraved during Hatteclyff"'s lifetime, when
* Aubrey collected the materials for his book in 1673, although it did not ajipear until the year 1719. Sec Mr. Richard Garnett's article in the Dictionary of National Biography.
264
ANTIQUARIAN JOTTINGS AT ADDINGTON CHURCH.
the armour in which he is represented was fashionable. Above the effigy is a shield in brass, bearing the arms of Hatteclyff impaling those of Leigh and Pain quarterly. The in- scription, which has been carelessly placed upside down, is as follows :
" Of yo' charite pray for y'' soule of Thomas Hatteclyff Esquyer sutyme one of y^ fowre masters of y^ howsholde to our souaigne lord king henry y^ viii. & Anne his wyfe, wiche Thomas deptyd y' xxx day of August A° M' ¥= and xl."
The large monument in black marble and alabaster on the chancel's north wall, although not remarkable for beauty, is an object of very considerable antiquarian interest and importance. It commemorates several mem- bers of the family of Leigh, an ancient and in- fluential Surrey family. The upper part of the monument has two semicircular arched recesses in which are effigies in stone of Nicholas Leigh (died 1565), and Anne, his wife ; also John Leigh (died 1576), and Joane, his wife. All are kneeling,
As though they did intend For past omissions to atone, By saying endless prayers in stone.
The gentlemen are in their armour, and the ladies in loose gowns with ruffles and hoods. Under the left-hand recess, is this inscription :
Nicholas Leigh of Addington Esquier married Anne sister of Sr Nicholas Carew of Bedding- ton Knight by whom he had issue John Leigh. Malin. Elizabeth. Mari. Anne,
Under the opposite recess is the following :
John Leigh of Addington Esquier Sonne of Ni- cholas Leigh of Addington Maried Joane daugh- ter and heire of S' John Olliph Knight, by whom he had issue S'' Oliph Leigh Knight, John, Charles, Aiie, Joanne, Elizabeth and William. He ended this lyfe the 31st of Alarche 1576.
Aubrey mourns the sad condition in which he found the monument in his day. He says, " Above the Cornish was several En- richments, as Angels blowing of Trumpets, etc.; but those, with whatever else was there plac'd, are now quite demolish'd and gone, notwith- standing the whole Monument is encompass'd with a substantial Pallisado of Iron." It is probable that the three black marble shafts or obelisks which still remain at the upper part of the monument may have borne the " Angels blowing of Trumpets." The lower portion of the tomb has two compartments, wherein in full life-size lie figures of Sir
Olliph Leigh and his lady, Jane. Their cos- tumes are interesting, but I refrain from de- scribing them, as there is an excellent plate of the monument in the seventh volume of the Surrey Archceological Collections, accom- panying Mr. Granville Leveson - Gower's " Notices of the Family of Leigh of Adding- ton." At the bottom of the tomb is the following inscription (now almost obliterated, but this transcript is made by the aid of Aubrey's account) :
" Here resteth in Peace Sr. OUiphe Leigh of Ad- dington Knight who maried Jane daughter of Sr. Thomas Browne, of Bechworth Knight by whom he had Francis his onely sonne and Heire. He died the 14th day of Marche mdcxii, and in memorie of John Leigh his Father, and Nicholas his Grandfather, caused this Monument to be erected."
A short sword and helmet hang above the tomb. Nicholas Leigh, whose effigy is in the left-hand upper compartment of the monument, was the builder, in 1541, of a large house called Addington Place, the cellars and piers of the entrance-gates to which remain in Addington Park, near the bottom of "Spout Hill." Addington Place was demolished in 1780.
Many monuments mentioned by Aubrey as existing in Addington Church are missing ; among them are two brasses, one to " Emma filia Johannis Legh (1481)," and another to " Johannes Legh, et Matilda " his wife. John died in 1479, ^^d Matilda in 1464.
The last representative of the family of Leigh who held Addington Manor was Sir John Leigh, who died in 1737, leaving no surviving issue. The Genilemati's Magazine for May, 1733, contains the following curious notice of his marriage : " Sir John Leigh of Addington, Surry Bar. of 3000/. a year, aged near 70 : to Miss Wade, about 18, Daughter of Mr. Wade, Apothecary at Brom- ley in Kent, who lately cured Sir John of a Mortification in his toe."
In the belfry are four bells, and the follow- ing inscriptions relating to benefactions :
Benefactor Within this Belfry lieth the Body of Thomas Purdy whose Annu- ity of twenty Shillings a Year for ever toward the Repairs of this Steeple occasions this Grateful Remembrance of his Ueatli which happen'd on February y° 19 1646.
REVIEWS.
265
Benefactor Mr. Henry Smith Citizen and Alderman of London who Died and was Buried at Wandsworth in the Year 1627 left amidst and [sic) Exten- sive Charity twenty Shillings a Year for ever towards the Main- tenance of such poor of this Parish as receive no Alms.
amusing, and we close the book with an idea that the reading of it has been a couple of hours pleasantly spent.
laetJiete.
The Follies and Fashions of our Grandfathers. By Andrew W. Tuer. (London : Field and Tuer, 1886.) 8vo., pp. vi, 366.
Without any of the arts that combine to make a literary undertaking a success — that is, with scarcely any skilful workmanship in writing, with very ques- tionable taste as to printing and binding — we are bound to acknowledge that this quaint and amusing book has a character and fascination of its own, which makes one take it up at any odd moment of laziness or illness, and find something in it to attract attention. This is giving it high praise, but the facts being so, it is only fair to state them.
Mr. Tuer has hunted up for this book some of the old plates, giving specimens of the costume of the early years of this century, and charming they all are. Each month of the year 1807, just eighty years ago, has devoted to it three plates. Besides a plate of fashions for each month, January includes an illustra- tion of Hogarth for Iristram Shandy ; February has a print of David Teniers' "the Toper;" March, April, May, June have portraits of Lady Hamilton in different characters ; July has Hogarth's " Quack Doctors ;" August, a view of a park, by Wouver- manns ; September, Hogarth's musical group ; October, Hogarth's "Lecture;" November, a coaching scene, "Ten Minutes to Spare;" and December, "Ten Minutes Behind." Besides these there are other plates, a portrait of Lord Byron and a portrait of Wordsworth being specially notable.
Mr. Tuer's plan has been to reproduce from old magazines, under his own invented title, some of the choicest j^aragraphs suitable to his design. They consist of items on society, chit-chat, eating, natural history curiosities, wit, Irish bulls, sporting intelli- gence, art sales, book sales extraordinary, Bath plea- sures, curious advertisements, coaching stories, theatre notes, celebrated duels, election humours, gleanings in London, Vauxhall Gardens, a week of London life, Camberwell fair, Bartholomew fair, signs, etc. One paragraph on a cricket match, at Pennenden Heath in Kent, is highly interesting ; Kent winning, as it is said, "by 27 notches." Reviews of books introduce us to Mr. Walter Scott and Lord Byron when a minor. Of the latter, it is said that although his lord- ship " may be a gentleman, an orator, or a statesman, unless he improves wonderfully he can never be a poet." On every page there is something curious or VOL. XIV.
Christian Iconography ; or, The History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages. By the late Adolphe Napoleon Didron. Translated from the French by E. J. MiLLiNGTON, and completed with addi- tions and appendices by Margaret Stokes. (London : George Bell and Sons, 1886.) 2 vols. Didron has so long been regarded as the great authority upon the important subject of Christian iconography, that it would be quite out of place now to give any particular review of his original work. Unfortunately this has been for years incomplete, but until the author's death hopes were entertained that he would complete it. Although M. Didron did not compile a second volume, he energetically continued the study of the subject, and contributed papers to the Annates Archhlogiques (of which he was editor) and to the Rroue Franfaise, and he also prepared a large number of drawings in illustration of his researches.
Messrs. Bell and Sons have with much public spirit determined that the first volume shall no longer stand alone, and they entrusted the completion of the work, from the remains left by Didron, to Miss Margaret Stokes, who has performed the difficult task under- taken by her with great skill. The second volume, which now appears for the first time, contains an account of the representations of the Trinity as left by Didron, and an iconography of angels, devils, death, the soul, and the Christian scheme of salvation, concluded and edited by Miss Stokes. In this are used all the illustrations prepared by the author. The devil is shown in many and various forms, one of which shows him disguised as a woman attempting to seduce St. Paphnutius, the anchorite of the Thebaid. Most of the devil's other forms are horrible in their ugliness. The influence of the early drama upon iconography is a subject of great importance, which is here dealt with. We are loo apt to forget that in many instances the treatment by the old artists of their subjects was not due so much to imagination as to a realistic copying of the religious plays that were familiar to the people.
The appendix contains a translation of the text of the Biblia Paupertwi, and a translation of the curious Byzantine Guide to Fainting, in which the artist is instructed how to represent the wonders of the ancient law, and of the gospel, and how to represent the parables and the miracles of the saints. This im- portant work is now worthily completed, and the news of its appearance in its present form will be welcomed by all interested in art.
Robert Burns: An Inquiry into certain Aspects oj
his life and Characta- and the Moral Influence
of his Poetry. By a Scotchwoman. (London :
Elliot Stock, 1886.)
In a lecture delivered on May 19th, 1S40, Carlylc
said that had Burns lived to write even what he did
write, in the general language of England, there was
no doubt that the poet would already have been recc^-
nised as one of our greatest men. The fame and
influence of Burns do not decay, but grow and widen,
and the interest felt in his personality and career does
r
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REVIEWS.
not diminish. Lovers of Burns will do well to get this little book, which furnishes some good marginalia for the various biographies of Burns.
Principal Shairp's recent Life^ contributed to the "English Men of Letters" series, receives correction on some points, notably his account of Burns's con- cern with the theological dispute between the Auld Lights and the New Lights. The author and her readers are to be congratulated upon the admirable get-up of this little volume ; it has been put into the dress of the Book-Lovers' Library, which seems to hang about it like a giant's robe.
The Ncio Ens^laml Historical and Genealogical Register. No. clvii., vol. xl. (Boston: 1886.) A number of this interesting miscellany has reached us. It contains a memoir of William A. Whitehead, late Corresponding Secretary of the New Jersey Historical Society, with a good portrait. A biblio- graphy of his writings concludes the memoir, and gives an impression of industry, which is enhanced by the fact that to each of his numerous books he prepared a com- plete index. A letter, dated 1776, is printed in illus- tration of the history of the Pole family, and there is also a genealogy of the Andrews family. Some Notes and Documents concerning Hugh Peters are more generally interesting. An instalment is printed of the Church Records of Farmington, Conn., and in " Genealogical Gleanings in England," Mr. Henry F. Waters claims the discovery of the ancestry and parentage of John Harvard, as against Mr. Rendle, the South wark antiquary. Some "Notes on the Ancestry of Colonel William Willoughby " come next, followed by "Records ofWinchester,N.H., "and "The Wiswall Family of America." Under the title of "New England Gleanings," some clues are given to the Eng- lish residences of the settlers of New England. A valuable communication is given by Mr. Waters from the Sloane MSS. at the British Museum, being "A true relation concernynge the Estate of New England," ab. 1634 ; " Soldiers in King Philip's War," an im- portant subject, is continued, and there is a valuable article on the " Indian Names of Boston and their Meaning," with maps.
two Papers on Book-binding: Mr. Hoe's on Book- binding as an Art, and Mr. Matthews' on Book-bind- ing practically considered. There is also an account of a valuable Exhibition of Original Designs for Book Illustration.
Transactions of the Grolier Club, from its Fonndation in January, \Z%i„ to July, \%%<y. Parti. (New- York : The Grolier Club, 64, Madison Avenue. 1885.) The members of the Grolier Club have much cause to be gratified with the sumptuous and yet chaste printing of the First Part of their Transactions. The part is issued unbound, and when the volume is com- plete, we shall look with great interest at a binding which shall satisfy a society of specialists in the art of book-binding. A very concise and discriminating notice of the life and work of Jean Grolier opens these Transactions. The Organization of the Club and its Plans ; an Exhibition of Etchings ; an Exhibition of Illuminated MSS., and its first Publication, are severally described, and show the admirable organiza- tion and activity of this new Club. A report of an address by Theodore L. De Venire, on Historic Printing Types, is an admirable example of a subject which a society like this is capable of developing. The First Annual Meeting is duly reported, and also
Leicestershire Pedigrees and Royal Descents. By the Rev. W. G. DiMOcic Fletcher, M.A. Part I. (Leicester : Clarke and Hodgson, 1886.) The Vicar of St. Michael's, Shrewsbury, has un- dertaken a work in which he ought not to lack sup- port so far as his subscription list is concerned. The }ircsent issue has a plate showing the arms of Leicester- shire families, and the principal contents receive illus- tration in a large folding sheet showing the descent of Leicestershire peers from Henry VII. — the victory of Bosworth Field having an interesting connection with this subject — the arms, seals, etc. of Bellers ; ancient arms of Beler ; Falkener arms, etc. The arrangement of the work entails the use of various- sized type, and the printing appears to be very satisfac- tory. The same commendation is due to the illus- trations.
Our Lady of IValsingham. By the Rev. MORRIS Fuller, M.A. (London : Kelly and Co., n. d.) The account given by Mr. W^alter Rye, in his Popular History of Norfolk, of " The Image of our Lady of Walsingham," is succinct, and covers the ground ; but those feeling a special or local interest in the celebrated shrine at Walsingham, will find a more detailed account in the above booklet by the Rector of Ryburgh. There are some illustrations, too, which are certainly desirable as records of an inter- esting spot. These are three in number, being (l) Great Eastern Window of the Conventual Church ; (2) Refectory West Window ; (3) W^estern Piers, showing the foundations recently excavated. This old priory was the centre of much religious life and superstition in the era which Mr. Rye styles that of " the monks and friars." Anybody desiring initiation into that period could not do better than begin with Carlyle's rendering of the life of Abbot Sampson, of Bury, in Past and Present, which throws much light upon records like this of the old Walsingham shrine.
Meetings of antiquarian Societies,
Domesday Commemoration Conference.— Oct.
25-30. — The celebration of the eight hundredth anniversary of the completion of the Domesday Book w-as first mooted by the Athena:uin. The Royal Historical Society during last summer took the matter up, and a series of meetings for the inspection of MSS. and literary productions, and for the reading of papers more or less connected with matters affecting the contents of the Domesday Book was arranged. The exhibition of the Domesday Book, or rather books, first took place. The finest volume is a large folio, the second a large-sized octavo, not altogether uniform
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
267
in its scope with the first, and containing only the three counties of Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk. For the chance of seeing these volumes, as well as the two abbreviated copies, known respectively as the Abbre- viatio and the Breviaie, the public are indebted to the kindness of the authorities at the Record Office. The copy made in the fourteenth century of Boldon Book, or Survey of the Palatinate of Durham, taken in a.d. 1 183, was also shown, and a great number of later records, principally monastic chartularies. Exchequer books, CartK Antiquoe, and so forth. The visit of the party to the British Museum on Tuesday indicated still more clearly how large a number of manuscripts are ex- tant by which the many aspects of the Domesday Book may have light brought to bear upon them. Perhaps the most instructive, and certainly the most ancient docu- ment here shown was the brief notice of the " Number of Hides " in different districts and territoricsof England south of the Humber during the separate existence of the kingdoms of Mercia, Wessex, and Kent. This venerable document, written at first probably in the eighth century- -at any rate, recording a survey, in round numbers of hides, taken about that time — was copied by a scribe (who by wrongly dividing some words and joining others improperly together indicates that he did not know the language which he was copying), about the year 1000, on a blank leaf in a copy of JEMnc's Grammar. The contemporary copy of the Kent Survey, originally in the form of a roll, now inlaid in leaves, demonstrates the mediaeval prac- tice of carrying MS. rolls about the person until the outer parts are worn away by constant friction. The original Cambridge Survey, from which the Domesday Commissioners compiled their county return ; the Worcester Chartulary, containing a record of Domes- day and pre-Domesday suits relating to the lands of that see ; an unpublished record (in the form of a charter) of the great lawsuit heard at Penenden Heath. An important exhibition at the British Museum was that of three Anglo-Saxon M.SS. of the eleventh cen- tury, wherein was shown the method of ploughing. The first of these was the Harley Psalter, with a drawing in colour, with a (inc pencil or brush, of a man ploughing with a primitive plough, drawn by two oxen directed simply by the goad, and with no head- gear nor driver. The other MSS. were Anglo-Saxon Calendars, and give a drawing and a picture of a plough drawn by four oxen led by a driver with a long goad, but with no headgear. Another feature in the exhibition was that of selected specimens of Anglo- Saxon charters with boundaries, and the most cursory examination of the boundaries, which enclose con- siderable tracts of land, manifestly polygonal and fol- lowing natural as well as artificial features, militates against the dictum that agriculture in the Domesday period was confined to rectangular plots, preserving for the most part strictly defined proportions as to their contiguous sides. Mr. H. Hall read a paper at the Record Office, treating principally on the history and fortunes of the Domesday Book as a volume, and gave instances of its importance as a record admitted in all the courts, and examples of its employment by way of undisjiuted evidence in mediaeval lawsuits. In the evening Canon Taylor delivered a popular lecture. Mr. Stuart Moore read a paper which dwelt more in detail with the statistical contents of the Domesday Book. He pointed out that the Survey was framed,
designed, and carried out in the spirit of perfect equity, and he laboured to redeem King William's character from the adverse criticism in which contemporary and later chroniclers have almost unanimously indulged. Mr. Moore considers that the preparation of a full bibliography of Domesday Book, including not only printed portions of the text and separate papers and essays, but notices of matters referred to by the record, would be the first step towards the simplification of the critical study of the Survey. Mr. J. H. Round read a short paper principally devoted to the exposure of a remarkable misconception by Prof. Freeman in relation to the Worcester lawsuit between Bishop Wlstan and the Abbot of Evesham. Canon Taylor read a paper, or rather two papers, partly read, partly extemporary, on Domesday wapentakes and land- measures. The Canon claimed the credit of a new discovery with regard to the constitution of the hun- dred and the wapentake, seeking to prove that the Anglo-Saxon hundred or military unit was gradually being converted into the Danish wapentake or naval unit of assessment, which represented three hundreds. Mr. J. H. Round then stated the heads of his paper on the Domesday hide. A paper by Mr. Jas. Parker on "The Church in Domesday," was in the main a review of the circumstances attending the transfer of the seats of the bishoprics from towns to cities about 1075, and a formidable array of statistics concerning the number of manors held by bishops in various coun- ties as indicated by the Doinesday record. Mr. W. de Gray Birch next read a paper on the " Materials for the Re-editing of the Domesday Book." Mr. Birch advocates the preparation and publication of a uniform series of Domesday volumes, with collations of the text of the lx>ok itself, with the Codex Exonietisis, the hujuisitio Elievsis, the British Museum Domesday in the Arundel collection, the Abbreviatio and Breviaie at the Record Office, the Kent Domesday in the Cot- tonian Library, the Worcester extract, and other similar texts, as well as with contemporary charters and pre-Domesday boundaries, which may be neces- sary for the critical examination of the statements in the vSurvey. A short paper by Sir Honry Barkly criticized an incorrect entry in the cliartulary of St. Peter's, Gloucester, and demonstrated the accuracy of the Domesday entry relating to the tenure of the manor of Nympsfield or Nymphsfield, therein styled Terra Regis. The Domesday surveys of Surrey and Sussex were the themes of two highly interesting papers, the first by Mr. H. E. Maiden, the latter by Mr. Y. E. Sawyer, F.S.A. Mr. Maiden had accu- mulated for Surrey a considerable amount of tabular information which was greatly appreciated. He exhibited a map which showed that there was no southern boundary of the county, except the undefined track of virgin forest of the Andreds-weald. In the same way Sussex had but a doubtful boundary on the north. This led to some curious results in the work of the commissioners, who rated onchide in Compton, CO. Sussex, as being in Surrey ; while Worth, now reckoned in Sussex, at the time of the Domesday was taken in Surrey. Lodsworth, now in Sussex, but then in Surrey, is another example. Geological strata and conditions here, as in other counties, appear to have considerably affected the cultivation of certain parts, the unproductive Wealden clay being as a rule unin- habited, while the fertile grecnsand is almost con-
T 2
268
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
terniinous with the Domesday homes and populations. The calculation made by Mr. Maiden of one Surrey church to every 350 of the population is an independent indication of the probable area of Anglo-Saxon churches, the extant specimens of which in many cases would have difficulty in finding room for that number. The English tenants in chief were few and not wealthy ; only the useful members of society appear to have been able to retain their holdings, such as the inter- preter, the huntsman, and the goldsmith. Mr. Maiden also pointed out the unexplained fact that in some hundreds the bordarii predominate to the exclu- sion of the cotarii, while in others, not contiguous, the reverse takes place. Mr. Sawyer treated the neighbouring county of Sussex pretty much in the same way as Mr. Maiden had Surrey. He suggested also the formation of copious indexes, not only of the best known names of places, but of all orthographical variations, and of the names of fields and small locali- ties. The instances of phonetic spelling which he adduced were remarkable, and he thought dialect gave the key to the identification of obscure Domesday places. The closing day was chiefly devoted to another paper from Mr. Round, on the " Finance of Domesday." In it he criticized Mr. Freeman's state- ments relating to the condition of the town of Colchester in the Domesday period. As for Bridport, Mr. Freeman had written that not a single house- holder could pay the King's taxes, whereas about five-sixths of the whole number had paid, the re- mainder being too poor. The subject of Danegeld has never been properly studied, although it has an important bearing on the land-measures, the geldable hide and geldable carucate being different from the " carucata ad arandum." The final paper was by Mr. H.J. Reid, F.S.A., on the Domesday Church. His object appeared to be to show that the number of churches was large, and could not be computed out of Domesday, because many churches known to have been in existence have no mention in its pages. Altogether, the conference may be considered as a success, if it only awakens an interest in a subject so many-sided as our great national record ; and we hope that the volume to be published will stimulate the research which it cannot exhaust.
Buxton Literary and Philosophical Society. Excursion to Arbor Low and Youlgreave.— Sept. 15th. — Arrived at Arbor Low, the party was met by the Rev. R. C. Roy, Vicar of Youlgreave, who pointed out the features of interest. In the centre of the group of stones is fixed a notice board, which states that the spot is placed under the Ancient Monuments' Act, 1882, and, therefore, is under Government protection. Mr. Roy gave a most interesting description of the place. He began by stating that Arbelows, or Arbor Low, is next in extent and importance to Stonehenge, and was justly con- sidered one of the most interesting monuments of antiquity in Derbyshire. This curious memorial of an ancient population was situated, as they observed, on a piece of gently rising ground, commanding an ex- tensive prospect towards the north east. It consisted of a circular area 150 feet in diameter, surrounded by a series of rough unhewn blocks of native limestone, of various shapes and sizes, ranging from six to seven feet in length, and from three to four feet in width.
The stones forming the circle, instead of standing in an upright position like the Nine Ladies on Stanton Moor and other so-called Druidical remains of the same class, lay horizontally upon the ground, and inclined towards the centre, where there were two or three larger stones supposed to have been originally a cromlech. There were in all from 30 to 35 stones in the group, but as some of them had evidently been broken it was hard to determine the exact number. The opinion prevailed amongst the neighbouring peasantry — and the belief was not yet, he was led to understand, quite obsolete — that it was impossible for anyone to count these stones correctly, and also that treasures was buried beneath one of them. The area on which the circle stood was surrounded by a deep entrenchment about 18 feet across and circumscribed by a vallum ; in other words, a rampart, or embank- ment, of some 20 feet in height. The earthworks remained in a very perfect state of preservation. The entrances on the north and south sides of the enclosure were distinctly traceable. Near the south entrance, like the north 30 feet wide, to the circle were the remains of a barrow or burial mound. This was opened in the year 1782 by a Mr. Hayman Rooke, when the fragments of an urn, some half- burned bones, and the horns of a stag were dis- covered. This barrow was also opened by a great local searcher after antiquities, namely Mr. \V. Bate- man, father of the present Squire of Middleton Hall, who made some interesting discoveries. There was a tradition that a great battle was fought between the Britons and Romans on Hartington Moor, and it was just possible that this so-called Druidical circle might be the burying ground of the heroes who fought and fell in this encounter, or in another which was said to have taken place somewhere in the neighbour- hood. The journey was then made to the pretty and interesting village of Youlgreave, when the party pro- ceeded to inspect the fine old parish church dedicated to All Saints. The massive grey tower of this well restored edifice is seen at a distance to great advantage in the landscape. It is of perpendicular design, well buttressed, and crested with eight crocketted pinnacles, each of them containing niches for statues, which latter have long ceased to exist. By the way it may be mentioned that the parapet is embattled, and large gargoyles project from it on every side. The belfry stage possesses two effective windows on each face, whilst over the west door is a three light with flatly pointed head, the head moulds terminating with the Tudor rose. Under the tower against the north wall the eye is immediately arrested by a quaint inscription on a stone, which reads thus : — " Hie jacet Raphaelis Bradbury de Youlgrave, qui obiit vicesimo primo, die Aprilis, Anno Dni 1685." Immediately above the inscription are the arms of Bradbury. The Vicar gave a lucid description of the church and the work of restoration, which it will be remembered was carried on during the vicariate of the Rev. William Malam, M.A., now Vicar of Buxton, a clergyman who was then, and is now, deservedly beloved by Youlgreave parishioners. The chancel was, no doubt, much later than the earlier part, which was Norman. The chancel, as they observed, was long, and had been well restored, the stall work and the roof being in oak. The monuments had migrated. The
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
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monument of a knight, cross-legged, and with his heart clasped in his hands, was believed to be the effigy of Sir John de Rossington. It had been placed within the altar rails, where he hoped it would be free from interference. It was of the latter end of the twelfth century. The next monument in point of age was that of the Cokaynes. This elaborate altar tomb was placed in the centre of the chancel, and was that of Thomas Cokayne, of Harthill, who died in 1488. It was known as a miniature tomb. The family resided at Harthill Hall, and they had land as far as Ashbourne, in the parish church of which they were the possesssrs of several monuments. The head of the effigy on this tomb rested on a helmet with his crest of a cock's head and a wreath. The sides were panelled with angels carrying shields, which were emblazoned with the family coat of arms. This Cokayne was said to have fought with a cousin in a duel and thus met with his death. He would draw their attention to the fact that the upper part of the tomb, which was the older, was in a beautiful state of preservation. The lower part was modern. One of the descendants of the family having asked that he might be permitted to restore the portion that had ceased to exist, consent was given, and thus they witnessed the peculiarity of ancient and modern work conjointly. The next monument he would call attention to was of the date 1492 — it was the Gylbert memorial. In the east wall of the north aisle they saw this alabaster bas-relievo. In the centre of the group was the Blessed Virgin Mary, with our Lord being central ; on the left of this was the father of the family and his six sons, while on the right was depicted the mother with her ten daughters. The inscription in Latin stated that " Here lies under this stone the bodies of Robert Gylbert, gentleman, of Yolgref, and Joan [or Joanna], his wife, which John died 2nd day of November, A.D. 1492, which Robere indeed caused the screen of this chapel to be made in the aforesaid year, and the same Robert died." Below the figures were three shields. In the corner near to this curious monument was a mural slab which the Vicar said used to be in the floor of the south aisle. It was a valuable brass, and he had it put in the wall on purpose to preserve it. It too was a Gylbert. The habit worn by the figure depicted was Elizabethan and the date of interment was 1620. In the south wall of the aisle was another alabaster monument, which had been richly coloured. Beneath an arched recess were the figures of the husband and wife, kneeling in prayer, and below them the effigies of their eight children. An inscription related that " Hero lies Roger Rooe, of Alport, knight, who died 30th April, A.D. 1613." Mr. Rowe, one of the present members for Derby, was a descendant of this family, who were connecteil with the Vernons, as the coat of arms showed. Next the Vicar drew attention to a fine old brass, representing a female figure, and bearing the following curious inscription : —
Fridswide Gilbert to the grave Hath resigned her earthly part. Her soule to God that first it gave, On angel's wings went with her heart. A vertuous maide she liv'd and died ; Hurtful to none, but good to all, Religious, modest, hating pride ; These vertues crowne her funerall. John Gilbert, marchaiit taylor, of Lond6, brother to her.
In the wall in the north-west side is a bit of old carving, which has been preserved. It is the effigy of a pilgrim with staff in hand and wallet. The font, said the Vicar, is indeed curious. It is very ancient, and possesses a stoup for holy water, or, to be more correct, a chrismatory. This is attached to it. There are only three of such kind known in this country. The font is pre-Reformation, but the present architects lost all trace as to the rude figures which it bears on the bowl. The windows in the Church are fine, and the altar is properly raised. The reredos is of marble, and the spaces on either side the marble altar cross are filled m with gold mosaic, Salviatis work. At the conclusion of the inspection a portion of the party walked to Robin Hood's Stride, and there inspected the hermit's cave, the Vicar accompanying, and pointing out at this latter place a carving of the Crucifixion in the rock in excellent preservation.
Berwickshire Naturalists' Club.— Aug. 25th. — The fourth meeting of this club was held at Peebles. The party went up the valley of the Tweed, Professor Veitch acting as guide. The first object to arrest the attention was the new Parish Church in process of erection at the end of High Street. Passing through the Old Town, the party saw the tower of St Andrew's Church, which, though the rest of the edifice has well-nigh disappeared, looks as if it would stand for a long time. A drive of about a mile brought the visitors to Neidpath Castle, where the first halt was made. This ancient fortress belonged originally to the Frasers, who are represented in the north of Scotland by the Lovat and Saltoun families. By marriage with a daughter of Sir Simon Fraser, it came into the possession of the Hays of Yester, one of whom built the portion of the castle which is now standing. The family were, some two hundred years ago, obliged to sell the castle and estates to the Duke of Queensbury, whose descendants, the Earls of March, held them for some generations. They now belong to the Earls of Wemyss, the March family having become extinct on the death of the last Duke of Queensbury. The tower is of great strength, the walls being eleven feet in thickness. A fine staircase leads upwards for a considerable distance, but the upper part of the ascent has to be performed by means of a narrow spiral stair of considerable steepness, with many of the steps much worn. Once reached, however, the summit presents a magnificent view to the eye of the visitor. The banks and rocks which confine the winding Tweed, the river itself, as it flows over its gravelly bed, forming now and then sullen pools, which again break into glittering streams, the fair (save for the church already mentioned) town of Peebles lying close at hand, the valleys covered with crops and woods, and the heath-clad hills rearing their purple summits to the sky, combine to form a picture of smgular beauty. The Club then took their way up the valley of the Tweed. On the left was passed the Manor Water, up which, on the road to Megget Water and St. Mary s Loch, is to be found the cottage once occupied by the original of the Black Dwarf, who figures in Sir Walter Scott's novel of that name ; while a little further on the Lyne Water joined the Tweed from a different direction. The next stoppage was made at Stobo Church. Part of this building is very ancient, belonging to a period anterior to that to which any
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MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
other ecclesiastical structure in the valley of the Tweed can be ascribed. The tower — the oldest part — is, from its architectural features, believed to be Saxon, the nave and chancel being Norman. The tower (and, indeed, the whole edirice) has a striking and picturesque appearance from the outside, and admit- tance is gained by a curious old porch — later, however, than the building to which it is attached. To the archway is fastened a complete set of the "jougs," with chain, collar, and padlock ; and the hewn stone at the sides is deeply furrowed from some cause or other, some thinking that the marks were caused by women sharpening the ends of their spindles as they sat in the church porch, while others supposed that they were made by the men sharpening their arrows as they entered and left the church. At the first view on entering, the inside presents a staggering contrast to the exterior. The eye wanders in succession to plaster, whitewash, stained wood, open seats, windows of coloured glass, illuminated texts, a smart Anglican pulpit perched on a salient angle of the wall, and a harmonium — in short, the newest ecclesiastical fashions of the day. In the interior was found a monumental tomb with a shield at the top. This shield, the wafer box, and the holy water dish are preserved in the church. Against the north wall of the nave are the remains of what may have been a crypt. A short drive then brought the party to the extensive gardens of Stobo Castle. On reaching the mansion they were received by Sir Graham Montgomery, and conducted through the mansion by him. In the rooms are some fine paintings by Raeburn. The route then lay up by the side of the Tweed, by way of Drevah, and across the Biggar Water to Drummelzier Castle, the farthest point of the day's excursion. This ruin and the property adjacent, it is said, originally belonged to the Veitches, who were "harried" by the Tweedies, a turbulent race, who have not survived the quietness that followed the union of England and Scotland. From their hands it passed, early in the 17th century, into those of the Hays, the Duns Castle branch of that family possessing it till 1 83 1, when Sir James Montgomery purchased it, but relinquished it in favour of a Mr. White, whose descendants now own it. It appears to have been a very strong place ; there are shot-holes below the windows, and there was a means of surrounding it with water from the Tweed. The state in which it is allowed to remain deserves the severest reprobation, as it is utterly uncared for, and appears to be falling into a state of decay, from which it might easily be preserved. A little to the east was seen the old peel-tower of Wrae, once, like Drummelzier, the property of the Tweedies ; and to the south appeared the hills of Stanhope and Moss- fennan. On the journey homewards along the right bank of the river Drummelzier Church was reached, and the reputed grave of Merlin the Wild, the Scottish seer, who flourished in the sixth century. Some place his grave at a thorn-tree, and others in a gravel mound not far off. Either spot is close to the Powsail Burn, a little above its junction with the Tweed, and was the subject of a prophecy which ran as follows : — When Tweed and Powsail meet at Merlin's grave, Scotland and England shall one monarch have. This event is said to have happened on the day when James VI. of Scotland was crowned King of England.
Tinnis, or Thanes Castle, the ruins of a strongholdi were passed on an eminence to the right of the road, and a short drive brought the party to Dawyck, or Dalwick. The lands of Dawyck belonged from time immemorial to the Veitches. This family spent a great deal of money in the public service, were never repaid, fell into a state of indebtedness, and had to see these lands pass from them in the beginning of the eighteenth century. The property was acquired by the Naesmyths, also an old Peeblesshire family, represented at present by Sir James Naesmyth, Bart., whose great-grandfather, the second baronet, was a distinguished botanist, and a pupil of Linnreus.
Bradford Historical and Antiquarian Society. — Sept. 1 8th. — The members of the society were met at Halifax by Mr. John Lister, M.A., and Mr. Leyland, who kindly brought plans of Halifax Church both in its ancient and modern form. Mr. Lister read a paper in the crypt on "The Church and its Associations." The parish church is a fine structure, 193 feet long by 65 feet broad, and is divided into chancel, nave, side aisles, and two chapels. The oldest portion is that to the north, as to the age of which authorities differ. Mr. Leyland was of opinion that it is part of the Saxon Chapel, and Mr. Lister expressed the belief that it is Early Decorated of the thirteenth century. The rest of the church is Perpendicular of the fifteenth century. Subsequent to the preparation of Domesday Book, Halifax Church is known to have been a Rectory, the last Rector being a Frenchman, William dc Chaumence. Camden says that " his flock was in danger to be starved for want of food, in regard the present Incumbent did not understand the English tongue." Chaumence was promoted to the Bishopric of Loson in 1273, and the Rectory was presented to the Priory of Lewes by Earl Warren. The church was then made into a perpetual Vicarage, and Ingolard de Turbard was inducted first Vicar in the following year, 1274. The building of the church remained without modification until the middle of the fifteenth century, when Dr. Wilkinson, who was the seventh Vicar, made considerable alterations and additions. The east end of the church was extended, and the great east window of seven lights put in. The screen and roodloft separating the nave from the choir were, however, not disturbed. The whole of the windows on the south and west were replaced with others in the Perpendicular style. The tower at the south-east corner, being either unsafe or small in proportion to the extended building, was pulled down to the slope of the roof, and a new square tower, 118 feet high, was erected at the west end. Either at this time or previously the walls were ornamented with extensive fresco paintings, representing scriptural subjects. Remains of these paintings were discovered during the alterations recently made by Sir Gilbert Scott, when all the plaster was removed from the walls. The Willoughby chapel, 1494, the chapel of Archbishop Rokeby, 1525, on the north side, and the Holdsworth chapel, 1554, were subsequently added. This last has been reopened, and is now used for early celebration and prayers. There are ten bells in the tower, and a library of ancient books in the crypt, where are also a cross of gold and the registers from 1539. A visit was next paid to the ancient Manor House close by, and also to the mound or stand of the gibbet of old
MEETINGS OF ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES.
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Halifax, on which, between 1541 and 1650, fifty-three persons were beheaded. The party then proceeded to Elland Church, where the Rev. Francis Musson, the Vicar, met them. One feature of this edifice is the east window of five lights, without tracery, designed to illustrate incidents in the life of the Virgin (the church being dedicated to St. Mary), and is principally of old glass. In the north-west window of two lights are the arms of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. The church, like that at Ilalifax, is principally Perpendicular, contains two chapels, chancel and nave, and square tower at the west end with four bells. After partaking of tea at the Savile Arms, the company paid a visit to the New Hall, an interesting domestic building of the fourteenth century. In what was once the dining-room there is a large window of nine lights, a spacious gallery round three sides, the Royal arms over the fireplace, and elaborately-carved wainscoting and large settle. The porch has an oriel chamber with a round window, and carved tracery over the handsome entrance. The house is now occupied by Mr. David Gledhill.
Archaeological and Architectural Society of Durham and Northumberland. — Sept. 22nd. — The sixth meeting of the present year of the Society was held, when visits were paid to Ponteland, Belsay, Bolam, and Whalton. The party drove from Newcastle to Ponteland, where the church and the inn were examined, and descriptions were given by Mr. Charles C. Hodges. Belsay was next visited, and by the courtesy of Sir Arthur Middleton the castle, with its fine pele tower of the 14th century, was inspected. The grotto was also seen. On reaching Bolam the church was viewed ; and the Rev. J. R. Boyle read a pa]:)er, "The History and Architecture of Bolam Church." At Whalton, the Rev. John Walker acted as guide at the church, and then showed the pele ower at the Vicarage.
Derby Archaeological and Natural History Society. — Sept. 22. — It was with no small degree of general surprise that a few months ago the intelligence was received that some archoeological remains had been discovered in what is known as the " Castle orchard " at Duffield. The appellation of the locality of the discovery and other traditional facts had always suggested historical associations ; but that any solid remains of that once important edifice were in existence was never dreamed of even by so sanguine an antiquary as Dr. Cox, Some excavations for building purposes made by the owner of the pro- perty (Mr. Harvey), with the result of finding a frag- ment of stone-wall, followed by a careful examination of the ground by a party of interested gentlemen, who formed themselves into a committee, have resulted in the discovery of something more than a mere stone or two of this Derbyshire stronghold. Indeed, so successful have the excavators been that a complete ground-plan of the remains, which has been litho- graphed and circulated, was prcjjared without much difficulty. Naturally interested by the discovery of such important relics of the past history of their county, the study of whose antiquities forms the motif o{ their existence as a body, the members of the Archaeological Society paid a visit to Duffield, to ex- plore the much-t.ilked-of "find." On reaching Duftield the site of the castle was at once made for.
It is situated upon a piece of high ground just out- side the village, to the left of the turnpike-road lead- ing to Belper. WTien arrived at the spot, most of the ladies and gentlemen were astonished to see the ex- tent of the disclosures made through the process of excavation. The appearance was of a large building recently demolished. There was not merely a shape- less mass of masonry, but the substantial foundations of a fortress of considerable strength, rising up in some places to a height of one or two feet. There were also large pieces of black-looking timber, and some trays for exhibition containing most extensive collections of ancient pottery and other relics found in the vicinity of the site. Mounting an elevated position amidst the ruins, and with the members of the expedition gathered around him. Dr. Cox (who kirtlly acted as cicerone) proceeded to descant upon tl.j history of the building whose remains were now under inspection. He said it was a custom of our castle-building progenitors, in choosing a site upon which to erect their strongholds, to select the site of some older residence ; and thus, on account of the splendid locale of Duffield Castle, he had conjectured at the time of the discovery that relics of earlier periods than that of the Normans would most likely be found among the dc'bris. That surmise had proved to be correct, as traces of times even so far back as the Celtic period had been decidedly brought to light ; also many proofs of association with the Roman occu- pation. With reference to the latter period, Dr. Cox stated that a Roman cross-road, leading from the lead mines at Wirkworth to the great Rykneild Street (crossing the Derwent by a ford), could be traced ; and between the flags of a paved footway leading to the ford he had found several pieces of Roman pottery which might be seen in the collection now on view. The interesting remains of the castle, he pro- ceeded, which had been so successfully disclosed, were those of a Norman keep of exceptional magni- tude and strength. It must have been, indeed, larger than that of the well-known example at Rochester, and, therefore, only excelled in size and strength by the Tower of London. Amongst other interesting archxological features. Dr. Cox drew attention to the thickness of the walls, and to a Norman well of great depth, which had been dis- covered by one of the workmen. This latter " find " was made increasingly interesting by the fact that the staves of the Norman bucket and the corroded handle had also been unearthed. Much surprise, said Dr. Cox, had been expressed that more was not known of the past historical associations of the castle. That, he remarked, is explained when we remember that very little is known at all of the Norman period of English history. The only public records we have of places during that age refer to those belonging to Royalty. Then the affairs of the Crown alone formed the theme of the chronicler's pen. Duffield Castle and its extensive domains was the private residence of the Ferrerses, from whose family the first Earls of Derby sprang. " During the rebellion of Prince Henry against his father Henry II., Robert, Earl Ferrers, held Duffield Castle .igainst the King. On his submitting to the King in 1 1 74, his castles at Duffield and Tutbury were handed over to the Crown and ordered to be demolished." Duffield Castle w.os
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afterwards rebuilt, but finally razed to the ground in Henry III.'s reign. The pieces of charred timber that have been disclosed appear to indicate that the de- struction was chiefly wrought by fire.
Cambridge Antiquarian Society.— Oct. 25. — The Rev. G. F. Browne, B.D., president, in the chair. Thanks were voted to the Rev. G. W. Searle, M.A., for the present of a Roman tile from the south transept of St. Alban's Abbey ; and to Mr. J. H. Bloom, for five panes of stained glass, excavated in 1854, at Castle Acre Priory. A communication from the Rev. C. W. King, M.A., was read, upon a tablet lately presented to Trinity College Library, bearing the following inscription :
M • VERRIO
T • F • FAL • FLACCO
CELSVS FRATER
"To Marcus Verrius, son of Titus, of the Falerina Tribe, his brother Celsus " [erected this monument]. The words are cut in the round bold characters used in the later years of the Republic, but which did not outlast the first century of the Empire ; the material is a well-preserved slab, 28 inches long by 18 inches wide, of Parian marble, for the quarries of Carrara were but recently worked when Pliny wrote. The Verria was a plebeian family, and the Falerina in which it was registered a rustic tribe : Flaccus was the actual name of the deceased, for the Nomen and Tribtis of the Verria gens had been (as was the rule) assumed by his father, originally a slave, upon becoming a freed-man of that family. That Flaccus was a word of some Italian dialect (probably Oscan, from the analogy cf Maccus) cannot be doubted ; nor that with Bassus Varus and the like, it denoted some personal pecu- liarity of the man who bore it — perhaps lop-eared, for its Latin derivative, yfaraVZ/w, is applied to anything that droops. From Suetonius we learn that Verrius Flaccus was the son of a freed-man, as was the father of his contemporary and namesake, the poet Horace. Induced by his high reputation as a school-master, Augustus appointed him tutor to his grandsons, Caius and Lucius, with a salary of one hundred sestertia (;^l,ooo) a-year: he also lodged Verrius together with his whole school of twenty boys in the Palace, stipu- lating, however, that he was not to increase the num- ber. One novel point in his system seems to have been to set his pupils themes for declamations in which they should compete for a prize, which was a book valuable for its antiquity or its beauty. He added to his reputation by drawing up a set of Fasti (kalendar of the months), of which fragments, contain- ing January, March, April, and September entire, were found in 1770, among the ruins of the forum of Prseneste. The seven quotations that Pliny makes from Verrius prove him to have been a high authority in matters of archeology. — Professor E. C. Clark suggested that the inscription reads M. F. Alarei Ftlio, and remarked on the position of the name of the tribe before the cognomen Flacco, referring to a similar instance in the case of an inscription now in the possession of the Earl of Povvis. He also men- tioned the existence of a probably forged inscription relating to the same person, in which he was repre- sented as belonging to the trilnis Falatina, instead of Falerina. The error of the forger he considered to
arise from the story of Flaccus's migration to the Palatine, as reported by Suetonius. He added that Flaccus was the author of the book De Verborum Signijicatione attributed to Festus.
[We regret being obliged to defer'our report of the Chester Archaeological Society meeting. It will appear in our next issue.]
Cfje antiquatp's il3ote=T5oolt»
Chained Books. — Hereford offers the finest specimens of chained libraries now to be found anywhere in the world. In 17 15, Dr. William Brewster left a chained collection of books to All Saints' Church, of Hereford, and it may still be seen there. More remarkable, however, is the library of Hereford Cathedral, which remains to-day the very image of an ancient monastic library. Its books are in cases of open shelves. Each book is attached to a chain, which ends in a ring sliding on a horizontal iron rod running the whole length of the shelf. The rods are fastened by locks at the end of each case. The chains are long enough to allow the reader to place the book upon a desk before the shelves. Even the library catalogue is riveted to its desk, and all accessions to the books are chained now just as in old times. The method of fastening the chains to the volumes makes it necessary for most of the books to have their fore edges turned outward, and this, too, is a very antique fashion. This quaint old chained library of Hereford Cathedral includes some such rarities as a manuscript Wycliffe Bible, Caxton's Golden Legend, and Higden's Polychroniion, printed by Wynkyn de Worde. St. Paul's Cathedral in London has a relic of the ancient monastic library ; it is a vellum folio in Latin, with its old chain attached. The library of Wells Cathedral was chained in former days, and some of its volumes still retain the rings to which the chains were linked. In 1481 Sir Thomas Lyttleton bequeathed to the convent of Hales-Owen a book ' ' which I wuU be laid and bounded with an yron Chayne in some convenient parte within the said church, at my costs, so that all preests and others may ?6 and rede it whenne it pleaseth them." Fox's Book of Martyrs was often chained in the churches. Many of the rare tomes of the Oxford Bodleian Libraryused to be chained, and when James I. visited it he declared that were he not a king, he would desire no other prison than to be chained with so many good authors. When John Selden's books were given to the Bodleian in 1659, over £2'^ were spent in providing them with fetters. Not until the latter half of the last century did the Bodleian Library shake off all its shackles.
The First Silk-mill in England. — Mr. F. Rought Wilson writes in the Christian Miscellany, that not long ago learned antiquaries were shocked to hear that a scheme was afloat to demolish the first silk- mill ever erected in England. Happily, however,
THE ANTIQUARY'S NOTE-BOOK.
«73
the efforts of a righteous indignation saved the vener- able structure, and to-day it stands on its island-bed in the River Derwent, at Derby, the pride not only of the inhabitants of that town, but of England gener- ally. Here it was that John Lombe, the pioneer of the English silk-trade, manufactured the first silk pro- duced in this country. This was in the year 1718. Prior to that period, the Italians enjoyed a practical monopoly of the art of silk -throwing. But in the year 17 15 Lombe, who is described as an intelligent young English mechanic of good family connections, set out for Italy with the intention of wresting the prize from its foreign possessors. Engaging himself as a helper at one of the Italian factories, he studi-
thirteen stone arches, which support the thick walls. The length of the building is 1 10 feet, and the height 55 feet 6 inches. It is five stories high, and there are eight rooms, lighted by 468 windows. It is ap- proached through iron gates of superb design, with Lombe's monogram interwoven. Lombe's success from the first was extraordinary. But treachery was at work. The Italians, seriously offended at the trick that had been played them, employed a woman to come over to England and devise a plan for putting, the object of their malice to death by slow poison. How the deadly draught was administered has never been known ; but Lombe was taken suddenly ill, and after lingering in agony for three days, died. Such
THE FIRST SILK MILL IN ENGLAND.
ously watched his opportunities for noting down the various parts of machinery used in the formation of the silk ; but the strict vigilance of his employers almost baffled him. Failing to ol)tain his object by fair means, he at last had recourse to bribery. Some fellow-workmen were corrupted ; and, with their assistance, Lombe managed to take drawings of the coveted invention. After their arrival the first step taken was to look round for a place in which to com- mence operations, and the town of Derby was selected. Here a lease was obtained from the Cor- poration of the island in the river, and a factory of huge dimensions was designed. Meanwhile rooms were hired at the Town Hall, where, after obtaining a patent from the Crown, Lombe erected his machinery and spun his first specimens. At last, at a cost of £^,0,000, the present mill was erected. It stands upon a foundation of immense oaken piles, covered with stone-work, on which are turned
was the sad death, at the early age of twenty-nine, of the father of the English silk trade.
Fairy Builders of the Cromlechs. —The crom- lechs or stone holes are constructed with three flat stones or slates placed edgeways in the ground, en- closing three sides ofa square or parallelogram as sup- ports or walls, with one at the top as a cover, usually larger than the others ; and having one side open, usually the north or north-west. There is usually also a flooring of slabs. These comlechs are not .as numerous at Rajan Koloor and Ilajinitji as the kistvaens, or closed cromlechs, hut there are still many, and all exactly correspond with the cromlech called Kitt's Co'.y House, near Aylesford, in Kent, with those at Plas Newydd, in Anglesea, and those in Brittany and the Nilgherries. The measurements of the one at Rajan Koloor are as follows : upper sl.ab is 12 feet 3 inches long by 10 feet 6 inches broad ; side slabs, 12 feet long by 7 feet broad, including
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OBITUARY.
2 feet in the ground ; there were others differing very little indeed in measurement, and all forming noble groups. The belief is prevalent at Jiwasji that the Mora people, supposed dwarfs of three spans high, constructed the remains at Rajan Koloor, Yemmee Good, Hajinitji, etc. These remains are also attri- buted to the fairies and dwarfs by the superstitions of Wales, Dorsetshire, Cornwall, and Brittany, etc. — Bombay Asiatic Society, vol. iii., pt. 2, pp. 180-182. ' Books. — In Barnaby Rich's A'New Description of Ireland, 1610, occurs the following curious passage, as applicable to the present day as to that on which it was written, especially having in view the article on Mr. Gosse, in the Quarterly Review, and Mr. Ralston's noble letter in the Athenaum of Nov. 6. We recommend this letter to all our readers. The passage from Rich is, " One of the diseases of this age
is the multitude of books It is but a thriftlesse
and a thanklesse occupation this writing of bookes ; a man were better to sing in a cobbler's shop, for his pay is a penny a patch ; but a booke-writer, if hee get sometimes a few commendations of the judicious he shall be sure to reepe a thousand reproaches of the malicious."
Expressions Used for Drunkenness. — In the Gentleman' s Magazine for 1770 (pp. 559-560) is an amusing list of words and expressions commonly used to denote a drunken person. It is reprinted in the Dialect volume of Mr. Gomme's Gentleman'' s Magazine Library (pp. 142-146). A much earlier' list of such words and expressions, and one containing many not to be found in the later list, is given in Thomas Hey wood's Philocothonista, 1631;, as follows: "To title a drunkard by, we (as loath to give him such a name so gross and harsh) strive to character him in a more mincing and modest phrase as thus — He is a good fellow, A boon Companion, A mad Greek, A true Trojan, A stiff Blade, One that is steel to the back, A low-Country Soldier, One that will take his sowse, One that will drink deep though it be a mile to the bottom. One that knows how the cards are dealt, One that will be flush of all four, One that bears up stiff. One whom the Brewer's horse hath bit, One that knows of which side his bread is buttered, One that drinks upse-freeze. One that lays down his ears and drinks, One that drinks supernaculum, One that can sup off his cider."
©tJituarp,
THE LATE REV. WILLIAM BARNES, B.D.
There can be little doubt that foremost amongst Dorset worthies will always be placed the name of William Barnes.
The familiar figure, clad in knee-breeches, silk stockings, and buckle-shoes, of the gentle scholar and poet who has just passed away will no more be seen amongst the scenes he loved so well and described so faithfully ; but his many friends and neighbours, to whom he was endeared by the simple sweetness of his nature, and who are proud of their Dorset Burns, as they call him, will not readily let his memory fade as a man, whilst as a writer he had long made a fame for
himself which has travelled far beyond his native county.
He was born at Rushay, just as the present centur}' dawned, in an old farmhouse near Sturminster, Newton, in the vale of Blackmore, since burnt down, and came of yeoman stock, which held lands in Gillingham parish as long ago as the time of Henry VIII. From his mother, Grace Scott, he inherited intellectual tastes, and as a boy he was placed in the office of a Mr. Dashwood at Stur- minster. In 1823 he took a school at Mere ; leaving this in 1835, he opened another at Dorchester, where in later years, by the way, he had Thomas Hardy, the novelist, as a pupil. In 1838 he entered St. John's College, Camliridge. In 1844 he published his first collection of Dorset poems ; in 1862 was presented to the living of Carne, close to Dorchester, and at its peaceful little rectory he died on the 7th of October, 1886, at the ripe age of eighty-six. Quite lately he published a " Glossary of the Dorset Dialect " — indeed, his mental faculties remained clear to the last, and the writer cherishes the recollection of an afternoon not many months ago, spent in his society, when, as the sun sank into the west, the old man eloquently dis- coursed with unabated interest on Celtic and Anglo- Saxon antiquities, on speech - craft, fast • fading customs of country life, and other kindred topics, in which he was so deeply versed. Philologist, student, and clergyman though he was, Barnes was above all a son of the soil. Rural life he knew the lights and shades of as only a poet, born and bred amongst it, can know them, and this it is which gives his " native wood-notes wild " their beauty and their value, so that in all lands where English speech is known men will read with delight the poems of William Barnes.
antiquarian f^^'m.
In the making of some repairs lately at the Acro- polis, the workmen found near the stairway at the northern wall some old pillars in a state of perfect l^reservation. The Athenian archreologists are of opinion that they belong to the period before the Persian war.
Some excavators in the bed of the Cher have dis- covered, near the city of Bourges, an enormous Gaulish boat, formed of a single oak trunk. It is in excellent preservation. It has been hauled to the Hotel Cujas, Bourges, where it will form one of the leading elements of the collection of the antiquities of the province of Berry.
Sir John Savile Lumley, British Ambassador at Rome, has offered to present to the Nottingham Castle Art Museum a collection of specimens of clas- sical antiquity, which he has made on the site of the Temple of Diana, near Rome. The collection com- prises a large number of objects and fragments in terra cotta, bronze, and marble, as well as specimens of money inscriptions. At a meeting of the Notting- ham Town Council lately, it was decided to accept the offer, for which a cordial vote of thanks was accorded.
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Recent excavations have laid bare the ruins of the Cathedral at Vladimir Volynsk, which was erected in the twelfth century, and was dedicated to the Assump- tion. The builder, Mstislav Iziaslovich, evidently in- tended to make his work one of the finest of Russian churches of the twelfth century. It occupied an area but little less than that of .St. Sophia, at Kief, and exceeded it in length. In the sanctuary portions of a fine mosaic pavement have been found. The remain- ing interior space contained a large number of tombs of the archdukes and bishops. A mound, distant two versts from the town, has also been excavated, and the walls of a very ancient church, probably the earlier cathedral, have been discovered. Portions of frescoes and inscriptions are now being investigated.
The Dean has lately taken advantage of some dry weather to examine the ancient well in the crypt of Winchester Cathedral. It is thought that as this well is not centrally placed to the columns of the crypt it very probably is of earlier date, and may be Saxon or even Roman in origin. The well is steined throughout its depth (8 feet 4 inches) with fine wrought stone. It widens somewhat at the base, where its diameter is 32 inches, decreasing to 29 inches at the surface, which is not far above the water-level of the stream, and the contiguous water-courses of St. Ethel- wold, the great Saxon bishop. The base of the well is closed with a hard bed of fine concrete. There is no evidence of any spring, and the water supply, such as it was, must have come from the natural percola- tion of the surrounding moisture.
The Vossische Zeitung reports that at Hagiri Deke, the site of the ancient Gortyna, a colossal statue of Pentelican marble has been lately disinterred. Un- fortunately the head is wanting, and one arm. The other arm is broken off, but was found with the statue. The statue represents a richly-attired woman, with one foot forward as if in the act of setting out to walk. On the base there are traces of an inscription, which would make it the work of Eisidotus of Athens. The statue has been placed in the museum lately estab- lished at Heraclea. Grotyna has lately been pro- minently mentioned as a place where abundant rciuains ought to be found ; it was there that Halb- herr and Fabricius found the ancient legal inscription. The Berlin paper says that Dr. Schliemann is at Con- stantinople, endeavouring to obtain a firman authoris- ing him to undertake explorations at Gortyna and Cnossus, on the same conditions under which the Germans have been allowed by the Greek Govern- ment to carry out their excavations at Olympia.
The Ancona paper L'Ordine announces that Count Politi-Flamini, a well-known collector of autographs, has in his possession at Recanati a number of auto- graph letters and other documents of Michael Angelo, and other letters and papers hitherto unknown, relat- ing to him and his affairs. The Florentine archivist, Milanesi, published in 1855 almost all the letters of the great artist, and what autograph documents were to be found in the British Museum and the Museo Buonarolti at Florence. Among them was the con- tract for the facade of San Lorenzo, signed by Leo X. and Michelangelo. A duplicate of this contract, signed by both, is in Count Flamini's collection. There arc also letters from Pope Clement \TI., from ses'eral cardinals, from Cosimo Medici, and Vasari,
and especially several from his nephew, Leonardo Buonarotti. There are several from Michael Angelo's father, Ludovico, which prove how highly the father esteemed his son, and how warmly his affection was reciprocated.
Hundreds of people were attracted to Ox Hill, Leatherhead, by the discovery of a quantity of human remains in a field adjoining the high road. The grounds for a new mansion are being laid out, and about two feet under the surface, in a chalk bed, were found, several feet apart, two well-preser\'ed skeletons. The root of a tree had grown through from the top of the skull of one and out at the ear, and the roots of trees were twined about the other skeleton, the head of which had been forced off by one of them. Alto- gether portions of six or seven skeletons were dis- covered, and it is thought that further discoveries of a similar character may be made. The Surrey Archae- ological Society has been invited to visit the spot.
Visitors to the Louvre will now see among the ancient sculptures a handsome statue of one of the Dioscuri, where previously there was but a nameless torso. The change, says the AthetKrum, has come about in this manner. During the French excava- tions at Carthage in 1884, which were conducted by M. S. Reinach, the torso came to light ; the most vigilant search could not discover the head and right leg, which were wanting to complete the statue. Some months ago at a sale-room in Bond Street there appeared a head and right leg in marble, which were said to have been found at Carthage. They were purchased at the desire of Mr. Murray, of the British Museum, and were sent thither to await an oppor- tunity of acquiring them for the national collection. But M. Reinach, to whom they were shown, suc- ceeded in proving that they belonged to the torso which had been found by him. Mr. Murray there- upon waived his right to buy them, and the Louvre is now the richer by a statue which, if a little rude in execution, is nevertheless a bold and striking study from an earlier original of a fine style.
The townspeople of Kirkwall have celebrated the four hundredth anniversary of its incorporation as a Royal borough, the first charter having been granteil by King James III. in i486.
Mr. Alexander G. Murdoch is preparing a series of articles on " The Violin in Scotland ; or. The Story of Scotch Fiddles and Fiddle-makers." He is hopeful of being thus able to rescue from oblivion not a few of those obscure but clever geniuses who have in their day and generation made or played on that delightful instrument. Every Scotch town, village, and hamlet has had, or at present has, its born fiddler or fiddle- maker, or both.
The Italian Ministry have directed that the great collection of musical works, which formed part of the Musical Library in Rome, shall be transferred to the Accademia di Santa Cecilia. This collection has been described as the richest of its kind in the world, and the catalogue of musical works which it contains as the most complete in existence.
The Rev. Thomas Burns, of Lady Glenorchy's Parish, Edinburgh, is preparing for the press a His- tory of Old Scottish Communion Cups, Baptismal Plate, and Tokens. The work will be illustrated with
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upwards of fifty plates, which will show the different types of communion vessels at present in use in the Church of Scotland. A collection of communion plate is being exhibited at the Edinburgh Interna- tional Exhibition, which contains contributions from upwards of one hundred parishes in Scotland.
The village of Eyam, in Derbyshire, besides being painfully memorable on account of a visitation of the great plague, is rich in historical associations. The chief road to the village is now called the Ligget, a name derived from the Saxon word Lyd, or Lid, sig- nifying cover or protect. From an early period in English annals down to about a century ago a strong gate was closed at nightfall, and here " watch and ward" was kept. "Every effective man," says Wood, the local historian, " who was a householder in the village, was bound to stand in succession at this gate from nine o'clock at night till six in the morning, to (question any person who might appear at the gate wishing for entrance into the village, and to give alarm if danger were apprehended." The watchman had a large wooden halbert, or "watch bell," for protection, and when he came off watch in the morning he took the " watch bell" and reared it against the door of the person whose turn to watch succeeded his, and so on in succession." It is believed that Eyam was one of the last villages in England to give up this custom.
The site of the ancient Olbia, in the government of Kherson, is now being explored by the Russian archse- ologist, M. Sourouzan, who has discovered indica- tions which will probably enable him to trace the course of the city walls, and determine the position of the agora, the public cemetery, and the main quay. The kourgani or tumuli of the locality are also being excavated under the direction of the same archae- ologist.
The Archaeological Society of St. Petersburg pro- poses to form a museum of Christian antiquities, of which it is believed a plentiful supply can be obtained from the numerous churches and monasteries of the Russian empire.
During some excavations lately undertaken by Mr. Eowles, builder, in a plot of ground at the back of and adjoining the Salvation Army Barracks, Col- chester, a number of skulls and other human bones have been turned up. Eight or nine skeletons were unearthed, some of the skulls being in an excellent state of preservation, whilst others were considerably the worse for age. A quantity of Roman pottery was also discovered, several more skulls have been found, and as only a small portion of the land has been ex- cavated, there is reason to suppose that there are many more in the neighbourhood. The soil is gravelly, and is just outside the old town wall. The bones in many cases were only about two and a half feet below the surface of the ground. The bodies appear to have been buried in various directions, some being found lying in a north-west direction. This appears to indicate that the spot was not a Christian burial- place. It has been surmised that the bodies may have been those of soldiers killed during the siege and hastily interred, but no accoutrements have been found, and.the theory is negatived by the fact that some of the remains seem to be those of women. It is traditionally reported that at the time of a certain
plague in Colchester bodies were buried in the ground adjoining St. John's Abbey, where human bones have frequently been found. There were several epidemics of "plague" in Colchester — one in 1348, when several thousands are said to have died, one in 1578, one in 1603 and 1604, one in 1631, and one from August, 1665, to December, 1666, during which time no less than 4,731 are said to have died. In the week June 15 to 22, 1666, the deaths from plague in Colchester were 195. It is not likely that all the dead were buried in one part of the town during this great pestilence. It is known that there was one pesthouse at this time at Mile End. There is nothing to prove that these bones are not Roman, but it sterns not improbable from the way they were interred that they may have been the bones of the victims of the great pestilence of 1665-6.
At Cherchell, in Algeria, a fine statue of Hercules has been discovered ; and at Rome, in the ground belonging to the National Bank and the Villa Spitho- ever, discoveries have been made, of which a muti- lated statue of Diana, and another of a young Spartan woman, are reported as most important.
George Wallace, tailor and clothier. High Street, Fisher Row, Edinburgh, was charged at the Mid- Lothian Justice of Peace Court with using in trade a wooden yard-measure which was unstamped. Wallace said that the measure was an heirloom in the family. It was about 100 years old, and had been in his pos- session for fifteen years. During the twenty-nine years he had been in business no officer had ever questioned him on the subject of measures, and he was unaware that stamping was required. "The heir- loom, a substantial-looking rod of hard wood, was produced in court.
The old Glasgow College, High Street, is just now in process of demolition, to make room for the new College Street Railway Station. A few months since, Mr. John A. Mann, of Millar Street, Glasgow — the Scottish Vuillaume of fiddle-making, and a dealer of acknowledged probity— secured some choice pieces of fine old pine from the interior College buildings, which were found to be as dry as a bone, and full of a porous ta7ig and sonority which promised the highest results. The actual masonry of the College was begun in the year 1632, and was completed in 1656.
The buildings of the Eanca Nazionale in Rome are being added to, and, in clearing the ground for the new foundations, the workmen came some days ago on the remains of a Roman house in good preserva- tion, which the experts declare to belong to the third century. The walls have paintings, as it seems, of Biblical subjects, mixed with some mythological figures — e.g., Pegasus on Helicon, /I'sculapius with his serpent, and some Muses. 'There was also a grave containing a skeleton, which was all the more remarkable because interments within the city were not allowed.
The Bund announces that Professor Forel, of Morges, in the Canton of Vaud, has discovered a natural gallery which goes right across the lower portion of the glacier of AroUa, in the Eringerthal, in the Valais. It constitutes a natural grotto in the heart of the glacier, and was explored to a distance of 250 metres (273 yards) by the professor and some fellow members of the Swiss Alpine Club from Geneva,
ANTIQUARIAN NE WS.
277
Neuchatel, and the Canton of Vaud. The average width was from 6 to 10 metres, broadening out here and there to fully 25 metres ; the height varied from 2 to 3 metres. At the spot where the party stopped, the cavern divided into two galleries, the exploration of which they reserved for another time. The glacier was found to rest direct on the ground.
A lucky find was made the other day by a book- lover as he was prowling about in the ever-delightful and fruitful Booksellers' Row. This was no less than the original " one -farthing " edition of R. H. Home's Orion. The poem, it will doubtless be recollected, was published in 1843 ^' '^he ridiculously low price of one farthing, as a sarcasm upon the low estimation into which epic poetry had fallen. The fortunate possessor of the copy in question gave but twopence for a book which, on the rare occasions that it makes its appearance in a second-hand bookseller's list, is usually priced at from thirty shillings to two guineas.
Nearly four hundred objects of interest to lovers of ecclesiastical art have been this year brought together for the Loan Department of the Art Exhibition held annually during the Church Congress. The list was headed by Mr. Athelstan Riley, who sent a Syriac New Testament of the year 1222, containing all the books of the New Testament except the Apocalypse, and some choice specimens of ivory and wood carving from Russia. Silversmith's work is well represented both by ancient and modern examples. Biblio- graphers find a great deal to interest them in book rarities, which include a missal of the fourteenth century (13), sent by Major Taylor : The Booke of the Common Fraier (Edward VI. 's first Prayer Book), printed in 1549; The New Testainent, illustrated, printed in 1552(168); Aurelii Augustini Upuscula Plurima (S. Augustine), printed in Strasburg in 1489, a beautiful specimen of early printing (169), these last three being some of the loans of the Rev. L. R. Ayre. Many interesting autographs are shown, those of Archbishops Laud and Cranmerand " O. Cromwell" being among the number.
The parish church of St. Columb Minor was re- opened recently after restoration. The church con- sists of chancel, nave, and aisles to both, and a very fine tower. The greater part of the present edifice was built at the latter end of the thirteenth century, to which period belong the arcades, which are remark- ably fine. They were in a bail state and threatened to fall. The ancient roof of the chancel was found gone beyond repair, but the earlier and still more interesting roof of the nave and aisles has been care- fully renewed, such timber as was necessary for its restoration being taken from the old roof of the chancel.
In demolishing a house in Arlington Street, London, for the purpose of enlarging the Bath Hotel, a fine painting of Hercules and Omphale was discovered at the back of an ornamental screen on the drawing-room floor. It is in excellent preservation, but received some slight injuries from the picks of the workmen before its presence became known. The house had once belonged to Sir Robert Walpole, and was the birth- place of his son Horace.
Early in November an interesting inspection was permitted by the Dean of Winchester of the bones of
Cynegils, 641, first Christian King of Wessex, fifth in descent from Ccrdic, and founder of the Cathedral ; of Ethel wulph, 857, son of Egbert, and father of Alfred the Great ; of Ed red, brother of Athelstan and grand- son of Alfred. The occasion of this rare view w.-is a permission given to an enthusiastic antiquarian artist, Miss Corrie, to sketch two of the original coffers or shrines of Henry de Blois, the Conqueror's grandson. This great prince and prelate enshrined the bones of some of the Saxon monarchs (inclusive of Queen Emma and three prelates), and Bishop Fox in his architectural alterations " re-chested " them in the Renaissance receptacles, which are, we believe, a unique group of historic memorials. In the two chests, on the north and south arch wall nearest the high altar, are enclosed two of the supposed chests of De Blois, and to sketch these was the occasion of the "view." The chest on the north contains the bones of the Founder Cynegils and of Ethelwulph himself, a benefactor of the Minster ; and the chest on the south the bones of Edred, the son of Edward the elder. Carefully removed from Fox's chests, and placed on the wall of the parclose, a fair view was had from a scaffold, in use at the reredos, of the bones and their receptacles. Taking them in their historic order, that of Cynegils and Ethelwulph was a ridged box, much as pictures of early shrines have handed down those receptacles of "canonized bones" to us, painted red ; its roof was decorated with a freely painted design of cone-shaped flowers, and a running edge of elegant design — the whole wonderfully vivid and fresh, although 700 years have passed since its artist had used his brush. Upon elegant intertwined and single labels or scrolls were painted, in letters similar to those cut on the adjacent coffins of Edmund the son of Alfred, and Richard the son of the Con- queror, said to be of De Blois's episcopate, these in- scriptions :
" Hie Kynegilli tumuli ossa jacent et Adulphi ;"
and, in allusion to Cynegils' munificent endowment of lands at Chilcombe still owned by the Cathedral : " Hie fundator de Chittecombe datorum."
The skulls in the chest were well preserved, and one remarkably handsome ; the other had a smaller fore- head, and a ridge right across the region over the eye- brows. Edred's (955) chest was much larger ; in fact, a massive oaken box with a flat top. The bones of the grandson of Alfred were there, and the exterior of the chest was decorated in a most singular manner. Covered with a bold lozenge-shaped design, which re- mained very fresh, and seemed even older than Cyne- gils' chest, the spaces within the lozenges on either side had bearded heads (three), and as many female heads vigorously painted, and at the upper part of each side were depicted crowns. There were remains of inscriptions, but these had perished almost, but may yet be conjecturally arrived at. That those privileged to look on these relics saw the bones of the first Christian king and convert to Christianity, and of Edred, the brother of Athelstan, cannot be doubted. The bones and their original chests were again replaced in Fox's cists. In the other chests rest the bones of Egbert, 837 ; of Canute, of Emma, of Kenulph, 714; of Edmund, and of VVinai, Aiwin and Stigand, bishops. It should be noted that some
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ANTIQUARIAN NEWS.
doubt exists as to whether the rightful bones occupy their respective chests. The historic Minster of Wessex is fortunate in having such a tnie antiquary and scholar as Dr. Kitchen as its Dean.
A street similar to the Old London street in the Exhibition grounds, which was erected in 1884, is being erected in New York city on Broadway, near Eighth Street. It is intended that the shops shall he occupied, as at the "Healiheries," by workmen, with the object of providing, as far as practicable, useful comparisons between ancient and modern handicrafts. It is also intended that some of the shops, especially on the first-floor, shall contain selections or exhibits kin<lred to the subject. The plan is somewhat differ- ent from that at Kensington, as it includes two street?, parallel to each other, with cross street, alley, and open square at the end ; and many beautiful old houses will be erected, of great historical interest, which did not appear at Kensington, including the Tabard (Chaucer s inn), the Falcon, Bankside (Shake- speare's daily haunt), the house of Elias Ashmole, Sir Paul Pindar's house, not the existing portion ; Sweedon's Passage, Grub Street, close to Milton's house ; Sir John Lawrence's house in Great St. Helen's, a portion of the Charterhouse, Butchers' Row, the Old Queen's Head, identified v^ith Sir Walter Raleigh, a bit of Old Hungerfcrd Market, a portion of the Old Savoy Palace, Nell Gwynnc's house, the cellar of the old Devil Tavern (Ben Jonson's) under Childs' Bar>k, where Simon Wadloe officiated, the original of "Old Sir Simon the King," and other old houses not yet decided upon.
On Thursday, October 21, the North Staffordshire Field Club and Archaeological Society celebrated the attainment of its majority by a conversazione and loan exhibition in the Town Hall, Stoke-upon-Trent. Prof. Bonney, P'.R.S., delivered an address " On the New Red Sandstone of Staffordshire." The exhibi- tion included a facsimile reproduction of the Bayeux tapestry.
Mr. R. S. Ferguson and Mr. W. Nanson, late Deputy Town Clerk of Carlisle, are going to edit a volume entitled Some Municipal Records of the City of Carlisle. It contains a brief history of the Cor- poration of Carlisle, or Guild Mercatory, and its re- lation to the eight trading guilds. The curious by- laws of the Corporation and of the guilds are printed from the originals, and are copiously illustrated by extracts from the Court Leet Rolls and from the minute books of the Corporation and of the guilds. The work gives also a complete history of the long fight between the Guild Mercatory of Carlisle (the Corporation) and the trading guilds.
On the 19th of March last, the six hundredth anni- versary of the death of King Alexander III. of Scot- land, a meeting was held at Kinghom, Fifeshire, at which it was resolved to erect a memorial to mark the spot where he was killed. A large committee was appointed, and of the sum required upwards of ;if 200 has already been subscribed. Among the con- tributors last month is the Queen, who has promised a donation oi £,\^.
Dr. Barratt, of London, has offered to present to the Museum of General and Local Archeology at
Cambridge two large cases containing a collection of Roman antiquities, chiefly objects in bronze and glass, altars, etc. The collection is not only valuable in itself, but it will form the nucleus of a department not as yet represented in the museum.
The Earl of Carnarvon, says the Athenceum, has recently come into possession of the autograph MSS. of the famous Lord Chesterfield's Letters to his Son.
The Corporation of the City of London will shortly publish, for private circulation, a history of the Guildhall.
The terrace of the palace of Saint-Germain has been selected as a site for the cast of Trajan's Column, w'hich was long lying in sections in the cellars of the Louvre. In the chateau two chambers have been arranged in the styles of Henry IV. and Louis XIV. The former king had little regard for that building, and erected another chateau ; but Louis XIV., before he was attracted by Versailles, was an admirer of Saint-Germain, and is supposed to have expended about ;if 300,000 on the place. The king afterwards placed the chateau at the disposal of James II. At a later time it was used as a prison.
The renowned old Abbey of Coggeshall and the Abbey Farm adjoining were put up for sale at Cog- geshall, on November nth. In addition to the lands (containing about X28 acres) there still remain some of the original monastic buildings. According to the Cottonian MS. (Nero D 2), in the British Museum, the Abbey was founded in 1 142, by King Stephen and Matilda his Queen, by a grant by them to the Abbot and Convent of Coggeshall. The monks were of the Cistercian Order, and probably came from Savigny, in France, In the latter part of the seventeenth century, the Abbey belonged to Sir Mark Guyon, whose daughter Elizabeth married Edward Bullock, Esq., of Faulkbourne Hall, Essex, and the property about this time became vested in the Bullock family, with whom it remained till the sale thereof to the present owner in 1880. It is hoped that these interesting relics of the past, pos- sessing, as they do, great interest to the antiquary and archoeologist, will fall into proper hands, and not meet the fate now overtaking many of our historic piles in other parts of the country.
At a recent meeting of the Honourable Artillery Company, held at the Armoury House, Finsbury, it was resolved, on the motion of Captain Woolmer- Williams, "That the Court at its next meeting do take into consideration the best means of celebrating the three hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the incorporation of the regiment, occurring on August 25, 1887." It is understood that the event will be made the occasion for great festivities, which will be attended by a representative number of <he members of the Ancient and Honourable Artillery Company of Boston, U.S., an "offshoot" of the regiment which was founded by a member of the Honourable Artil- lery Company of London, who emigrated to Boston in 1638 — a hundred and one years after the incor- poration of the parent stem by Royal Charter of Henry VIII.
CORRESPONDENCE.
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Corregpontience.
THE AUTHORITY OF PEERAGES. lAnte, p. 230.] A correspondent is very severe on Burke's Heraldry, but what is to be said against Nicolas ? I quote the following: "William de Ipre, created Earl of Kent in 1 141, ob. 1162 s.p., when his honours became ex- tinct." This is from "A Synopsis of the Peerage of England ... by Sir N. H. Nicolas." Surely Mr. Surtees and others may believe this, and how can it be disproved ? Others may doubt it and say evidence is wanting ; given an opinion against an opinion, cannot we agree to differ?
A. H. Oct. 28, 1886.
THE LONGEVITY OF VANDALISM.
On the side of the high-road to High Rochester {Bremenitim) stood a series of foundations or bases of Roman tomi)s. They attracted the notice of Mr. Roach Smith in one of his pedestrian excursions. He sketched, and Mr. W. IL Brooke etched them. Plate 30, opposite page 153 of vol. iii. of the Collectanea Antiqua, accurately represents the de- scription given by Dr. Bruce in 1851, on page 327 of the first edition of his Roman I Fall. He says they arc about half a mile distant from the station, close by the road on its south side. "Three of them are square ; the fourth, which is the largest, is circular. The masonry of all of them is remarkably fresh. The circular tomb has two courses of stones standing, besides the flat stones which form the foundation. On clearing out the interior, a jar of unburnt clay was found ; it had no bones in it. The natural soil was found to have been acted upon by fire to the depth of more than a foot." Within the area a coin of Alexander .Severus was found. On page 163 of vol. iii. of the Collectanea Antiqita, Mr. Roach Smith states that "upon one of the lower stones of the circular base is carved the head of an animal re- sembling that of a fox. These tombs must have belonged to persons of some consequence in the more flourishing days of Bremenium."
" With a powerful antiquarian society at Newcastle, and on the very heels of the Congress of the Ikitish ArchKological Association, it is painful to hear that these interesting remains are being dislocated and carted away by the demand for building or draining purposes.
" In such cases, how easy it would have been for the landlord to have inserted a clause in the tenant's lease to ])rotect important objects of antiquity !"
Sir John Lubbock's Act for the Preservation of Ancient and Historical Monuments is surely applicable in a case of this kind, and only requires the interference of a local authority to put it into force. But before these lines are read I fear not a vestige of these remains will be left.
Charles Moon Jessop.
98, Sutherland Gardens,
November 10, 1886.
ANCIENT CROSS AT GOSFORTH, CUMBER- LAND.
[Ante, p. 204.]
It is probably true that " there is no evidence to show that this cross has ever been removed, still less buried ;" but there is, I think, some evidence in the cross itself that it never was exposed to any danger from heathen invaders in the ninth century, for this simple reason — that it was not then in existence. I should not like to dogmatize on such a subject ; but I shall venture to say that an examination of this most interesting monument convinced me that it could not be older than the beginning of the eleventh or perhaps the end of the tenth century. History seems to con- firm this view. The cross evidently belongs not to the Celtic period, but to what may be called the Celto-Scandinavian period — the period which followed the re-introduction of Christianity into the country — or rather, more correctly, into certain parts of the country which had been overrun by various tribes of unbelievers, and practically restored to heathendom. This relapse, and the absorption of a new element of race, had a permanent influence on the art as well as on the manners and customs of the natives. The process of re-conversion was a slow one ; and there can be little doubt that throughout Cumbria alien religious ideas retained their hold for centuries. It is quite easy to understand how, in such circumstances, a Christian monument should have been reared still " redolent of heathenism." Indeed, this and all other difficulties suggested by Mr. Charles A. Parker dis- appear if we suppose that the cross was erected about the period I have named. Apart altogether from in- herent evidences of age, we seem to have here a most interesting indication of the state of matters in the locality about the end of the tenth century. In these rude sculptures we can read of mixed races and mixed faiths, of civilization once more emerging from anarchy, and of the gradual crushing of one species of super- stition in the wide but ever-tightening folds of another ; and thus, too, we readily recognise the significance of the Christian emblem over-shadowing those symbols of an effete heathenism, subordinate but not yet utterly supplanted in popular esteem. Mr. Parker refers to distinctively Scandinavian features in the sculpture — is it not more likely that these appeared for the first time in Cumberland after the ninth century than before it ?
JOH.N HONEYMAN.
Co €on:e0ponlient0.
F. W. (Gateshead). —Thanks for your very generous
offer. We accept with thanks. S. E. M. — Our space is too valuable for what after all
is a profitless task. See Mr. Ralston's letter referred
to, an/e, p. 274. F. T. O. — Sec Marshall's Genealogy's/' s Cuu/e, sub
THE ANTIQUARY EXCHANGE.
Cfte antiquary €rct)ange»
Enclose ^. for the First I2 Words, and id. for each Additional Three Words. All replies to a number should be enclosed in a blank envelope, with a loose Stamp, and sent to the Manager.
Note. — All Advertisements to reach the office by the i^th of the month, and to be addressed— The Manager, Exchange Department, The Antiquary Office, 62, Paternoster Row, London, E.G.
For Sale.
Small collection of English and Roman coins ; also a few rare eighteenth century-tokens. State wants. — W. H. Taylor, Erdington.
Grand cross-hilted, two-edged Grusader sword. Date, twelfth century. Very rare. Price ;i^i5- — Can be seen on application to S. J. B., 29, Druid Street, Hinckley, Leicestershire.
Monumental Brass rubbings, is. 2>d. each. " Feuilles des Bois," Poesies par Le Comte de Fleury ; Paris, 1873 ; presentation copies, 3 vols., los. 6d. A. Reminiscence of the Great Exhibition, 1851 ; pre- sentation copy, <)S. Three Legends of the Early Church ; Reithmuller, i868, 4^. 6d. Roman coins, 45. per dozen. Princess Ida, illustrated by Major Seccombe, 5^. — Sparvel-Bayly, Ilford, Essex.
Heroines of Shakspeare, 48 plates, letterpress, etc., published at 31J. 6d., for 15^-. (new). — 119, care of Manager.
Several Old Poesy, Mourning and Curious Rings for Sale. — 306, Care of Manager.
In one lot, or separately, about 200 quaint, curious, and rare books, including Ogilby's America, 1671 ; Vinegar Bible, large-paper copy ; old plays, tracts, chapbooks, manuscripts, etc. — D. G. G., Buildwas, Ironbridge, Salop.
Bibliotheca Britannica ; or, a General Index to the Literature of Great Britain and Ireland, Ancient and Modern, including such foreign works as have been translated into English or printed in the British Dominions ; as also a copious selection from the writings of the most distinguished authors of all ages and nations. Two Divisions — first, authors arranged alphabetically ; second, subjects arranged alpha- betically. By Robert Watt, M.D. Glasgow, 1820. Eleven parts, paper boards, 4to. ; price ^4. — W. E. Morden, Tooting Graveney, S.W.
Dictionnaire de la Langue Fran9aise, contenant l"- Pour la Nomenclature ; 2°- Pour la Grammaire ; 3°- Pour la Signification des Mots ; 4°- Pour la Partie Historique ; 5"- Pour I'Etymologie. Par E. Littre, de I'Academie Fran9aise. 5 vols., 1878. Half-calf; strongly bound. — Offers to 119, care of Manager.
Antiquary, vols. i. to iv. (vol. i. in Roxburgh, the rest in parts), for sale. What offers ? — Address D. C. Ireland, 7, Stone Buildings, Lincoln's Inn.
Pickering's Diamond Greek Testament. Good copy ; newly bound in polished morocco (by Ramage). Gilt on the rough. — Offers to 100, care of ^lanager.
Several good brass rubbings. — Apply by letter, L., 109, Peckham Park Road, London.
Lord Braboume's Letters of Jane Austen ; 2 vols, in one ; newly half-bound in red morocco ; fully lettered ; interesting to a Kentish collector. — Offers to loi, care of the Manager.
The New Directory of Second-hand Booksellers ; large paper copy ; interleaved ; bound in Roxburgh ; 4J. 6d. — 102, care of Manager.
Sub-Mundanes ; or, the Elementaries of the Cabala, being the History of Spirits, reprinted from the Text of the Abbot de Villars, Physio-Astro-Mystic, wherein is asserted that there are in existence on earth natural creatures besides man. With an appendix from the work " Demoniality," or " Incubi and Succubi." By the Rev. Father Sinistrari, of Ameno. Paper covers ; 136 pp. ; privately printed, 1886 ; 10s. 6d. — 103, care of Manager.
The Hermetic Works ; vol. 2. The Virgin of the World ; or, Hermes Mercurius Trismegistus, now first rendered into English by Dr. Anna Kingsford and Edward Maitland, 1885 ; 134 pp. ; cloth boards ; los. 6d. — 104, care of Manager.
A marvellously fine old oak elbow-chair, carved mask head, flowers, foliage, and date, 1662. Price and sketch on application. — Akers, 19, East Raby Street, Darlington.
Speed's County Maps, 1610; almost any county; 35. each. — William Newton, 20, Weltje Road, Hammersmith.
Pair leglets ; also helmet, chain armour, several swords, pistols, and other articles for disposal. — 311, care of Manager.
Following old oak for disposal : Carved oak chest, eight-legged table, four-legged table ; also few other pieces of old oak. Will send sketches. — Dick, Carol gate, Retford.
The Manager 7uishes to draiv attention to the fact that he cannot undertake to fonvard post carps. or letters, unless a stamp be sent to cover postage 0/ same to advertiser.
Wanted to Purchase.
Dorsetshire Seventeenth Century Tokens. Also Topographical Works, Cuttings or Scraps connected with the county. — ^J. S. Udal, the Manor House, Symondsbury, Bridport.
Cooper's Rambles on Rivers, Woods, and Streams ; Lupot on the Violin (English Translation). S., care of Manager.
Views, Maps, Pottery, Coins, and Seventeenth Cen- tury Tokens of the Town and County of Nottingham- shire.— J. Toplis, Arthur Street, Nottingham.
Old Stone Busts, Figures, Animals, or Terra Cotta Casts. — Price, etc., by post to "Carver," St. Donat's, Bridgend.
Maria de Clifford, novel, by Sir Egerton Brydges, about 1812-18. — Address 310, care of Manager.
Blanche on Costume, Duke of Newcastle Horse- manship, Gambado on Horsemanship, Sporting Magazines, Jack Mytton, Histories of Nottingham- shire ; also lists curious books. — S., Carolgate, Retford.
INDEX.
Aberdeen, Formation of Archaeological Club in, 131.
Silver Coins discovered in, 35,
131-
Accounts of Henry VI., 06-101.
Acropolis, Discovery of Pillars at, 274.
Addington Church, Surrey, Antiquarian Jottings at, 262-263.
Akrom, America, Sepulchral Cave dis- covered at, 177.
Albertus Magnus, De Secretis Mulienim of, 183.
Alexander III. of Scotland, Anniversary of Death of, 278.
Algeria, Discovery of Statue at Cherchell, 276.
AUeyn, Edward, and the Fortune Theatre, 205, 211.
American Gold Coins found in United States, 84.
Andrews (W. F.) on Monumental Brasses in Hertfordshire Churches, 49-51.
Angelo, Michael, Collection of his Auto- graph Letters, etc., 275.
Animal, Extinct, Bones of, found, 3B-39.
Remains discovered at Helsfell
Bone Cave, 228.
Anne of Denmark, Visit of, to Bath, 66- 69. _
Anthropological Institute Meetings, 32.
Antiquaries, Society of, Meetings, 31.
Antiquities in Corea, 175.
Archa;ological Association, British, Meet- ings, 129, 172.
Institute Meetings, 32, 129-
130-
Archway at Croydon, Demolition of, 22;;. Areley-King's Churchyard, Epitaphs in,
163. Arlington Street, Demolition of Walpole's
House in, 277. Arms on Glass in St. Martin's Church,
Liskeard, 114-116. Arolla, Glacier of, 276. .'\rt Exhibition, 277. Artillery Company, The Honourable,
Fiftieth .\nniversary of, 278. Arts in Rome, 130. Asiatic Society Meetings, 32. Athens, Discoveries during E.xcavations
at, 177. Atkinson (Rev. J. C.) on Common Field-
Names, 72-76, 116-118. Authors, Discouragement of, 274. Aymestrey Church, Restoration of, 84. Ayr Old Bridge, Closing of, 85,
Babington Arms, Note on, 180. Babylonian Literature, Tablets Illustrative
of, at British Museum, 178. Banburyshire Nat. Hist. Society and Field
Club Meetings, 127. Barbour (J. G ), Iradiiions of West and
South of Scotland, Reviewed, 220. Bari (Apulia), Byzantine Diplomas found
at, u5. Barnes (William), Obituary Notice of,
274. B.irratt (Dr.), Presentation of his Collection
of .Vntiquities to Cambridge Museum,
278. Basiliii of St. Stephen discovered at Jeru- salem, 178. Basing House, 29. Bath, Visitors to, teiiif. James I., 1-6, 64-
69. Nat. Hist, and Antiquarian Field
Club Meetings, 32-33. Bathing in Open baths, te»tj>. James I., i.
Bells in Wentnor Parish Church, 133.
Berwickshire Naturalists' Club, Proceed- ings cf, Reviewed, ^6.
Berwickshire Naturalists' Club, Meetings, 269.
Biblical Archaeology, Society of. Meet- ings, 32.
Bickley (A. C.) on the Ancient Parish of Woking, 185-189, 241-247.
Birchington, Subterranean Caverns at, 132.
Birmingham and Midland Institute Meet- ings, 222.
Blackfriars, Old London Wall discovered at, 36.
■ — Theatre at, 22-27, 55*58, 108-
"3- .
Blenheim Picture Sale, 133.
Blunt (R. G.), Our Forefathers in the Dark Ages, Reviewed, 168, 171.
Boat, Prehistoric, found at Brigg, 39.
Ancient Gaulish, found, 176, 274.
"Bogane," A Manx, 255-257.
Bombay, Frescoes in the Ajanta Caves at,
37- Bones, Extinct Animal, found, 38-39. Human, discovered in Stone CofHn,
176. Books, Early List of (1327-8), 175-176.
Chained, 272.
Discouragement of Authors of, 274.
on Irish Secession in 1695, 134.
Old, Relating to the West Indies
at the Colonial Exhibition, 214.
Renovation of, in Paris, 131.
Borgia (Ca;sar), Tomb of, discovered, 179. Borgian Map of West Indies at the
Colonial Exhibition, 212. Bourges, Discovery of Boat near, 274. Bowling Greens, Account of, 164-168. Boxley Abbey, Kent, 87, 181-183, 230,231. Bradford Historical and Antiquarian
Society Meetings, 34, 127, 223, 270. Brasses, 168.
Monumental, in Hertfordshire
Churches, 49-51.
Bearing the Insignia of the Garter,
197-199.
of Morley Church, 233.
Bread a Hundred Years Old, found at
Marmaros, 179. Bremenium, Demolition of Remains at.
Brick Architecture in Essex, 173. Bridges over the Thames at lulham, 13-
Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society Meetings, 77.
British Sluseum, Assyrian Antiquities at, 178.
Brock (R. A.), Documents Relating to the Huguenot Emigration to Virginia and Settlement at Manakin Town, Re- viewed, 221.
Bronze Pin, Roman, found in Cinerary Urn, 228.
Broughty Fcrrj', Stone Coffin discovered near, 176.
Brushfield (T. N.), Bibliogiafhy cf Sir W. Kaleigh, Reviewed, 27.
Buildings, Ancient, Society for Protection of, 32.
Burghley, Lord, at Bath, 2.
Burning at the Stake in 1722, 225.
Burns (Robert), An Inquiry into certain Aspects o/his Life and Character, etc.. Reviewed, 265.
Centennial Demonstration of, 133.
(Rev. Thos.) on Old Scottish Com- munion Cups, etc., 275.
Burton (R. F.) on Galland's Arabian
Nights Translation, 86. _ Bury Nat. History Society Meetings,
'74- Buxton, Literary and Philosophical Society
Meetings, 224-225. Buxton Philosophical Society Meetings,
33-34, 268. Bygones relating to Wales, Reviewed,
76- Byzantine Diplomas discovered, 85.
Caerwen', Roman Pavement discovered, at, 228.
Cambrian Archaeological Association Meet- ings, 221.
Cambridge Antiquarian Society Meetings, 28, 272.
Museum of Archseology, Pre- sentation of -Antiquities to, 278.
■ ■ Harvest Custom, 176.
Carlisle, Municipal Offices of, 17-aa, ii8- 122, 135, 154-162.
Edition of some Municipal Re- cords of, 278.
Carthage, Statue found at, 275.
Carving at Leighton Buzzard Parish Church, 132.
Castleacre Priory, near Swaffham, Negli* gence at, 177.
Caudle<ups in Pottery, 6, 7.
Cave, Sepulchral, discovered at Akrom,
'77' Caverns, Subterranean, discovered at
Birchington-on-Sea, 132. Cemetery (Prehistoric), Discovered in the
Potomac, 38. Chapel discovered at Jerusalem, 178. Chasemore (.\.) on Old Fulham and
Putney Bridge, 13-17. Cher, Gaulish Boat found in the, 176, 274. Cherchell, .Algeria, Discovery of Statue of
Hercules in, 276. Cheshire Notes ami Queries, Reviewed,
220. Chester, Opening of Museum at, 132
St. John's Church at, 129.
Chesterfield's (Lord) Letters to his Son,
MSS. of, 278. Christian Custom at Grimsby, 10. Clement's Inn, Relic of, 226. Clinch (G.), Unpublished Letters to Lord
Romney comuiunicated by, 63-64. Clock, Old, in Wentnor Parish Church,
'33- Clubs, Golden Fleece, 225-226. Coffins, Stone, discovered at York, ij3
176.
. J3
Discovered near Broughty ferry
■ Discovered at Vienna, 36. " Cogers' Hall," London, Sale of, 217. Coggeshall Abbey, Sale of, 278. Coins, English, discovered in Aberdeen, 35.
of Edward II. discovered at
Aberdeen, 131.
Gold, discovered in Stone Coffm,
176.
Gold, found near Luton, 176.
Roman, discovered at Milverton, 35.
— — — Roman, found at Caerwent, 228.
Silver, found at Spittal Gai Works,
37.
— ^ Mexican, found in United State*,
84.
Colchester Grammar Schools, Register of, 36.
Demolition of Norman Build- ing at, 229.
28:
INDEX.
Colchester, Discovery of Bones at, 276. Tesselated Pavement discovered
at, 180. Colonial Exhibition, Historical Documents
relating to the West Indies in the, 211-
2ig. Columbus, Engravings of, at the Colonial
Exhibition, 213. Compostella, MS. of Codex Calixtinus
discovered at, 226. Cooper (S.); Miniature Painter, 202-203. Corea, Antiquities in, 175. Corfe Castle, 222-223. Cornwall, Antiquities of Godolphin, 83-84.
Royal Institution Meetings, 173.
Correspondence, 39, 85-87, 180-183, 229.
231, 279. Cot tcb wold Naturalists' Field Club Meet- ings, 221. Coverdale's Bible, Renovation of Copy of,
131. Cowell (Rev. R. C.) on Manx Customs,
149-150. _ Cradles, Designs in Pottery, 6-7. Crespigny (Mrs. P. C.) on Underground
Southampton, 52-5^. Cromlechs, Fairy Builders of, 273. Cross (Stone) at Gosforth, Cumberland,
204. Croydon, Demolition of Archway at, 327. Cumberland, Bones of Extinct Animals
found, 38. Ancient Cross at Gosforth,
204-205, 279. and Westmoreland Archaeo- logical Society Meetings, 79. Customs, Scandinavian, Surviving among
the English, 137-147 ; Manx, 149-150. Davey (R.) on Historical Documents re- lating to the West Indies at the Colonial
Exhibition, 211-219. Deerhurst, Saxon Chapel at, 77. Dtlft, Unveiling of Statue of Grotius at,
228. Derby, First English Silk-Mill at, 272. Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural
History Society Meetings, 30, 271. Devizes Castle, Sale of, 37. Diana, Temple of, near Rome, Antiquities
from, presented to Nottingham Museum,
274. Didron (A. N.), Christian Iconography,
Translation of, Reviewed, 265. Dioscuri, Statue, found at Carthage, 275. Documents, Historical, relating to the
West Indies at the Colonial Exhibition,
211-219. Dog-whipper, Office of, 83. Doge's Establishment and Mediaeval Taxa- tion at Venice, 252-254. Domesday Commemoration Conference,
266. Dorset Field Club Meetings, 222. Douthwaite (W. R.), Gray's Inn : its
Hi::tory and Associations, Reviewed,
126. Drunkenness, Expressions used for, 274. Dudley Collection of Porcelain, Sale of,
35-36. Duiilield, Remains of Castle discovered at,
179. Duhvich College, Documents relating to
the Fortune Theatre at, 207-211. Durham Brasses, 168.
Castle, Old Oak Tables in, 38.
1 — and Northumberland Archaeo- logical, etc.. Society Meeting, 271.
Earthenware discovered in Tomb in Italy, '33-.
Ecclesiastical Art Objects, Exhibition of, 277.
Edward I. Coins temp., discovered, 35.
II., Coins of, discovered at Aber- deen, 131.
Egypt, Archaeological Excavations in, 132.
Ruins of Palace discovered in, Si-
Egypt, Existence of Town discovered, 227.
Eleanor, Queen, Cross at Waltham, Re- storation of, 131.
Enamellists and Miniature Painters in England, 199-204, 257-262.
England, Newspapers in, in 1824, 130.
English Race, Scandinavian Elements in the, 137, 147.
Silver Coins discovered in Aber- deen, 35.
Engraving, Art of, in Rome, 130.
Epitaphs, Curious, 162-164.
Essex Archaeological Society Meetings, 173-174.
Etruscan Art, Remains of, discovered in Italy, 133.
Exchange, Antiquary, 40, 88, 136, 184, 232, 280.
Exeter Cathedral, Office of Dog-whipper at, 83.
Eyam, Derbyshire, Ancient Customs at, 276.
Family History, Irish, 101-108. Farrar(R. H.), Index to tlu Obituary and
Biographical Notices in the Gentleman s
Magazine, Reviewed, 76. Ferguson (Prof. J.) On a Copy of Albertus
Magnus' De Secretis Muiierujn, printed
by Macklinia, Reviewed, 125. Ferguson (R. S.) on Municipal Offices of
Carlisle, 17-22, 118-122, 154-162. Field-names, Common, Notes on, 72-76,
116-118, 180. " First-Foot" Custom, 8586. Fisher (J.), Catalogtie of the Most Memor- able Persons who had Visible Tombs . . ,
in the City 0/ London be/ore the last
Dreadful Fife, i666, Reviewed, 220-221. Flatman (J.), Miniature Painter, 203. Fletcher (Rev. W. G. Dimock), Leicester-
shi7-e Pedigrees, etc., Reviewed, 266. Fleay (F. G.), Chronicle History of Life
and l-Fori of Shakespeare, Reviewed,
27-28. Flints discovered near Namur, 226. Flonheim, near Worms, Excavations at,
131. Florentine Straw Industry, Notes on, 122-
Folkard (A.)on Multiplication of Surnames,
89, 96. _
Folk-lore of Lincolnshire Village, 9-12. Forest, Post-glacial, discovered near Hull, ^ 133-
Fortune Theatre, 205-211. Fossil-tree discovered at St. Etienne, 84. Foster (J. J.) on some Miniature Painters
and Enamellists who have flourished in
England, 199-204, 257-262. Freeman (E. A.), Accuracy of, as an
Historian, 150-154, 247-251. Frescoes copied from Ajanta Caves, 37. Fulham and Putney, Old, Bridge, 13-17. Fuller (Rev. Morris), Our Lady of Wal-
singliam, Reviewed, 266.
Galland (M.), Translation of Arabian Nights, 86.
Games, Old English. See " Bowling Greens."
Garter Brasses, 197-199.
Gateshead, Discovery of Old Seats at, 84.
Gavelkind in Wales, Note on, 135.
Gibbs (R.) on Parish Umbrellas, 39.
Glacier of AroUa, Discovery of Natural Gallery in, 276.
Glamorganshire, Restoration of Llantwit Major Church, 177-178.
Glasgow College, Demolition of, 276.
Glass, Heraldic, formerly in St. Martin's Church, Liskeard, 113-116.
of Morley Church, 233.
Gloucestershire Notes and Queries, Re- viewed, 76.
Godolphin, Cornwall, Antiquities of, 83-84.
Gokewell Nunnery, 147-149.
Gold-wasbi^js in Coica, 175.
Gortyna, Statue disinterred at, 275. Gosforth, Cumberland, Ancient Cross at,
204-205, 279. Gray (James), Proverbs and Maxims from
Burmese Sources, Reviewed, 77. Grolier Club Transactions, Reviewed,
266. Grotius, Unveiling of Statue of, at Delft,
228. Guildhall, History of, 278. Gyles (A.), Directory of Second-hand
Booksellers, Reviewed, 27.
Hagiri Deke, Statue disinterred at, 275.
Hampshire Field Club Meetings, 28-30, 37, 172.
Hampton, Parish Registers stolen from Church at, 131.
Hanging on a Sign-post at Romsey, 179. _
Hare (N.) on Heraldic Glass formerly in St. Martin's Church, Liskeard, 113-116.
Harrow Churchyard, Epitaphs in, 162.
Harvest Custom, 176.
Hats. See " Florentine Straw Industry."
Hazlitt (W. Carew) on Odysseus and his Singer, 69-71.
on Revival of Irish
Secession, 134.
on the Doge's Estab- lishment and Mediaeval Taxation at
Venice, 252-254.
Old Cookery Books,
Reviewed, 77. Hellenic Society Meetings, 32. Helsfell Bone Cave, Discoveries at, 228. Henry VI., Accounts of, 96-101. Heraldic Glass formerly in St. Martin's
Church, Liskeard, 11VI16. Hereford, Chained Books at, 272. Heren Valley, Ice Gallery discovered, 226. Hertfordshire Churches, Brasses in, 49-51. Herts Natural History Society Meetings,
127-128. Heywood's " Philocothonista," quoted,
^74.
Hilliard (Nicholas), Miniature Painter, 200.
Hills (Rev. F. R.) on Epitaphs, 162-164.
Hingeston-Randolph(Rev. F. C), Register of Edmund Stafford, Reviewed, 28.
Hodgetts (J[. F.) on the Scandinavian Elements in the English Race, 137-147.
Honeyman (J.) on Ancient Cross at Gos- forth, Cumberland, 279.
Hooton Pagnell Church, Restoration of,
132.
Hordle Village, Gradual Disappearance of, 226.
Home's (R. H.) " Orion," Copy bought for Twopence, 277.
Hudson (W. H .), Church and Stage, Re- viewed, 220.
Huguenot Society of London, Proceedings of. Reviewed, 169.
Etnigration to Virginia, Docu-
■ments relating to, Reviewed, 170.
Hull, Post-glacial Forest discovered near, 133-
Human Skeletons found at Nice, 227; Re- mains found at Westhoughton, 227 ; in Swindon Valley, 228.
Huntingdon (U.S.A.), Coins discovered at,
Ice Gallery discovered, 226.
Ikerrin, the Family of O'Meaghers of,
101-108. Implements, Flint, found in Prehistoric
Cemetery, 38. Stone, found in Post-glacial
Forest near Hull, 133. Ingatestone Church, Esse.x, 173. Ipswich, Restoration of St. Nicholas
Church at, 134. Old, Illustrations of. Reviewed,
170. Irish Family History. See "O'Meaghers." Secession, Revival of, 134.
INDEX.
283
Italy, Art Institutions in, 130.
Discovery of Site of Vetulonia, 133.
James I., Visitors to Bath tem^., i-6, 64-
69. Jerusalem, Discoveries during Excavations
at, 178. Jessopp (C. M.) on Demolition of Roman
Remains at Bremenium, 279. Jewitt (Llewellyn) on Quaint Conceits in
Pottery, 6-9.
Obituary of, 35.
Just (H. W.) on " Field Names," 180.
Keats' Endymion, Copy of, discovered, 37.
Kertch, Pedestal of Roman Statue dis- covered, 227.
Keys discovered in Graves at Flonheim, 131-
king (A. J.) and Watts (B. H.) on Visitors to Bath temp. James I., 1-6, 64-69.1
Kirkwall, Celebration of Anniversary of Incorporation at, 275.
Knightlow Hill, Payment of Wroth Silver on, 135.
Knox Oohn), Sale of Sermon of, 131.
Lazar or Leper Hospitals, 127-128.
Leatherhead, Find of Skeletons at Ox Hill, 275.
Leighton Buzzard Parish Church, Restora- tion of, 132.
Leicestershire A rchitectural and A rcfueo- logical Society Transactions, Reviewed,
=7- Letters, Original, Unpublished, of Lord
Romney, 63-64. Lincoln, Burning at the Stake at, 225. Lincolnshire, " First-Foot" Custom in, 8s.
Folk-lore of, 9-12,
Liskeard, Heraldic Glass in St. Martin's
Church at, 113-116. Llangarten Parish Church, Restoration of,
178. Llantwit Major Church, Restoration of,
177-178. London, Relic of Clement's Inn, 226.
Sale of " Cogers' Hall," 227
(Old) Street, at New York, 278.
Theatres, Blackfriars, I22-27, 55-
58, 103-113.
The Fortune, 205-211.
The Red Bull, 236-241.
Wall, Portion of, discovered, 36.
Demolition of Fox and
Goose Yard, 226. Louvre Museum, Objectsof Ancient Art at,
85. Lovell (W.)on Underground Southampton,
'35-
Lumlcy (Sir J. S.), Presentation of Anti- quities to Nottingham Museum by, 274.
Luton, Gold Coins found in Farmhouse near, 176.
Maiden Lane, Place Name, 39, 86, 181, 229.
Maidenhead, Roman Villa discovered at, 227.
Malvern, Naturalists' Field Club, 79.
Man, Antiquity of, in North Wales, 85.
Manor of Woking, Holders of, 185-189.
MS. of Codex Calixtinus discovered, 226.
Manx " Bogane," 255-257.
Customs, 149-150.
Note Hook, Reviewed, 27, 170.
Maps, Earliest, of West Indies at Colonial P^xhibition, 212-213.
Marco Polo Map at the Colonial Exhibi- tion, 213.
Marriage Laws, Early Irish, 102.
— — Laws among the Scandinavians,
139-
Customs, Lincolnshire, 11, u.
Marmaros Bread, temfi. 1786, Specimen of,
found, 179. Martinengo-Cesaresco, Countess, Essays
in the Study of Folk Songs, Reviewed,
77- Mary Queen of Scots, Parents of, 86.
Masonic Antiquities, Exhibition of, at
Shanklin, 178. Mayday Customs, Lincolnshire, 11. Mexican Coins discovered in United States,
84. Milverton, Roman Coins discovered at, 3^. Miniature Painters who have Flourished in
England, 199-204, 257-262. Moothouse, Occurrence of, in Grants of
Lands, 180. Morgan (J.), Romano-British Pavements :
a Jlistoryo/i/teir Discovery, Reviewed,
124-125. Morley Church, Brasses and Glass of, 223. Morwenstow Parish Church, Restoration
of, 180. Mosaic Floor, Roman, discovered at Caer-
went, 228. Mozart, Memento of, found, 178. Municipal Offices, Carlisle, 17-22, 118-122,
135. i54-i62- Murdoch (Alex. G) on " The Violin in
Scotland," 275. Music at the Blackfriars Playhouse, 112. Musical Library at Rome, 275.
Names, Field, 72-76, 116-118, 180. Namur, Human Skulls discovered near,
226. Necklace (Pearl), discovered in Grave at
Flonheim, 131. Needlework, Ancient Tapestry, 58-63. New England Historical and Genea- logical Register, Reviewed, 266. New Year's Day Customs, Lincolnshire,
12, 85. New York, Old London Street at, 278. _ Newcastle Society of Antiquaries Meeting,
79. 81. Newspapers in England, Number of, 130. Nice, Human Skeletons discovered in
Church at, 227. Norman Architecture in Wentnor Church,
133; in Tansor Church, 134. Building, Colchester, Demolition
of, 220.
North Burton, Skeletons discovered at,
38. Northampton Museum, Additions to, 177. Northumberland, _ Archjeological, etc.,
Society of, Meeting, 271. Northwich, Cheshire, Early Salt Works
discovered at, 176. Note Book, 81-84, 175-176, 225-226,^ 272. Nottingham Museum, Presentations of
Antiquities to, 274. Nottingliam Borough Records, vol. iii.,
Reviewed, 170-171.
Oak G.iulish Boat discovered, 176.
Furniture, Old, in Durham Castle,
38.
in Tansor Church, 134.
Obituary Notices, 35, 274.
Odysseus and his Singer, 69-71.
Offices, Municipal, of Carlisle, 17-22, iiS-
122, 135, 154-162. Olbia, Ancient, Exploration of Site of,
276. Oliver, Isaac and Peter, Miniature
Painters, 200-202. O'Meaghers of Ikerrin, Family of, 101-108. Ordish(T. F.) on London Theatres, BKick-
friars, 22-27, 55-58, 108-113, 205-211, 236-
241. Ornaments, Ancient Gold, at the Colonial
Exhibition, 213. Personal, discovered in Graves
at Flonheim, 131. Oswald Kirk, Restoration of Church at,
38. Ox Hill, Leatherhead, Find of Skeletons
at, 275.
Painters and Enamellists (Miniature) in
England, 199-204, 257-262. Painting of Raphael, Disappearance of,
Palace (Pharaoh's), Discovered in Egypt,
81-83. Palmer (A. N.) on Gavelkind in Wales,
135-
Pannal Church, Yorks, Restoration of, 132.
Pans, Collection of Death-Warrants, temp. 1808, at, 131.
Parish Umbrellas, 39.
Pavement, Tessellated, discovered at Col- chester, 180.
Peacock (E.) on Spanish Dollars in Eng- land, 86.
■ on Gokewell Nunnery, 147-
149.
Peacock (M.) on " First-Foot " Custom, 85-86.
Peerages, Authority of, 279.
Penny (A. J.), An Introduction to t'le Study 0/ Jacob Boehme's Writings, Re- viewed, 125-126.
Peterborough, Discoveries at, 37.
Scientific and Archao-
logical Society Meetings, 128.
Philological Society Meetings, 32.
Philosophy of Lucilio Vanini, 190-197.
Pig, Customs connected with the, 10.
Pigment, Old, discovered at Tansor Parish Church, 134.
Pilpay, Fables of. Reviewed, 77.
Place-names, 72-76.
Maiden, 86.
" Maiden Lane," 229-230.
Plumptre (Prof.) on Lucilio Vanini, hLs Life and Philosophy, 190-197.
Plymouth, Historic Streets of, 41-49-
Politi-Flamini, Count, his Collection of Michael Angelo's Autograph Letters, etc., 275.
Pompeii, Discovery at, 228.
Poole's Cavern, Discoveries in, 33-34-
Porcelain, Sale of Dudley Collection of, 35-36.
Porter(J. A.) on Garter Brasses, 197-199.
Posset-pots, Designs in Potterj', 7^.
Potomac, Prehistoric Cemetery discovered in the, 38.
Potterj', Quaint Conceits in, 6-9.
found at B. Honduras, at the
Colonial Exhibition, 213.
Presbyterian Field Club ISleetings, 79.
Prideaux (W. F.) on Name of Maiden Lane, 39.
Prince (C. L.) on the De Secretis Muhcrum of Albertus Magnus, 183.
Punishments in 1722, IBurning at the Stake for Murder, 225.
Pumell (Thomas), London and Elsewhert Reviewed, 220,
Putney, Old, Bridge, 13-17.
Pyrgo Park Estate, Sale of, 227.
Raleigh (Sir W.), Letters of, i-a. Ramsay (Sir J. H.), Accounts of Henr>'
VI. by, 96, 101. Raphael, Disappearance of Painting by,
227. Red Bull Playhouse, 236-241. Revenue of the Croy/n, temp. Henry VI.,
96-101. Reviews qf New Books, 27, 77, 168, 124,
319, 3^5. Rich (Barnaby), " A New Description of
Ireland," 1610, quoted, 274 Richborough Camp, Sale of, 84. Ring, Gold, discovered in Grave at Flon- heim, 132. Rochester, High, Demolition of Roman
Remains at, 279. Rome, Art Institutions in, 130.
Musical Library in, 275.
Discovery- of Statues in, 276.
Discover!' of Ancient House in,
276. Antiquities, Proposed Museum of
276. Roman Coins found at Caerwent, »a8. discovered at Milverton, 3.
284
INDEX.
Roman Remains found in Swindon Valley, 228 ; at Caerwent, 228.
■ Statue, Remains of, found at Kertch, 227.
Villa discovered at Maidenhead,
■ Wall, Report on, 229.
Romney, Lord, Letters of, to the Duke of Leeds, 63-64.
Rorasey, Hanging on Sign-Post at, 179. _
Round 0. H.) on Village Community in England, 86 ; on Mary Queen of Scots, 86 ; on Boxley Abbey, 87.
on Municipal Offices, Car- lisle, 135.
Is Mr. Freeman Accurate?
by, 150-154, 247-251.
— on Moothouse, 180.
on Norman Building at
Colchester, 229 229-230
231-
" Maiden " Place • name,
■ Boxley Abbey, Kent, 230-
— Tun-Gerefa, 231.
Rundle (Rev. J. S.), Antiquities of Godol-
phin, by, 83-8^. Ru&iian Antiquities, Proposed Museum of,
276.
St. Alban's Architectural and Archaeo- logical Society Meetings, 30-31. St. Columb Minor, Church of, 277. St. Etienne, France, Fossil-tree discovered
in, 84. Saint-Germain, Palace of, 278. St. Mark's Day Eve, Custom on, 11. St. Michael's Church, Southampton, 54. St. Neot's Old Bridge and Priory, 30-31. St. Ninian's Cave, Damage done to Crosses
in, 177. St. Petersburg, Museum of Antiquities
projected by Archaeological Society of,
276. St. Thomas's Day Customs, Lincolnshire,
12. Salt Works, Early English, discovered,
176. Sandwich, Richborough Camp near, 84. Sanson, Collection of Death ■ Warrants
formerlj' belonging to, 131. Sarcophagi discovered at Jerusalem, 178. Scandinavian Elements in the English
Race, 137-147. Scarborough, Restoration of St. Andrew's
Church near, 38. Scotland, Old Communion Cups, etc., in,
^75. . . .
The Violin m, 275.
Scottish History Society, Formation of,
37-
Meetings, 174.
Sculpture of Horse presented to British Museum, 176.
Seats, Old Chiselled, discovered at Gates- head, 84.
Sh.-ikespeare's Estate at New Place, Title- deeds of, discovered, 85.
Memorial Window, 37.
Shored itch, Shakespeare Memorial Window at St. James's Church, 37.
Silchester, Account of, 28-29, 37-
Silk-mill, First English, 272.
Simpson (R. T.) on Payment of Wroth Silver, 135.
Skeletons discovered at North Burton, 38 ; in the Potomac, 38.
discovered in Church at Nice,
227.
Skulls, Human, discovered near Namur,
Smith (C. Roach), Retrosffctlons: Social and Arckitolcgical, Reviewed, 168-169.
Smith (H. W.) on " Maiden Lane " Place- names, 181.
Smith (W), Morley: Ancient and Modem, Reviewed, 76.
Smith (Prof. W. Robertson), Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, Reviewed,
210.
Southampton, Underground Relics in, 52-
o 54. 135- .
Spanish Coins discovered, 37.
Dollars in England, 86.
Spittal Gas Works, Coins discovered at,
37- Staffordshire, North, Field Club, etc.,
278. Stapleton (A.) on Maiden Place-names,
181. Statue, Bronze, discovered at Athens, 177. Pedestal of, discovered at Kertch,
227.
Discovery of, 275, 276.
Stevens (H. W. P.), Old Barnet, Re- viewed, 76. Stone Coffin discovered near Broughty
Ferry, 176. Stone Implements discovered near Hull,
133 ; Coffins discovered at York, 133.
Seat at Tansor Parish Church, 134.
Stones, Old, in St. Nicholas Church,
Ipswich, 134. Stratford-on-Avon, Swan-upping at, 227. Straw Industry, Florentine, Notes on, 122-
124. Streets, Historic, of Plymouth, 41-49. Surnames, Multiplication of, 89-96. Surtees (F. R.) on Boxley Abbey, Kent,
181-183. Surtees (S.) on Maiden Place-names, 86. Sussex Archaeological Society Meetings,
22. — ; Archaeological Museum, Presenta- tions to, 179. Swan-upping at Stratford-on-Avon, 227. Swindon Valley, Burnley, Roman Remains
found in, 228.
Tansor Parish Church, Restoration of,
133-
Tapestry, Ancient, 58-63.
Tavern Club, 1703, 225-226.
Taxation, Mediaeval, at Venice, 252-254.
Terra-cotta Objects discovered at Athens, 177.
Terrington, Restoration of St. Peter's Church near, 131.
Theal (G. McCall), Kaffir Folk-Lore, Re- viewed, 77.
Theatres, London, 22-27, SS"S8, 108-113, 205-211, 236-241.
Ting Stones among the Scandinavians, 141. _
Tomb discovered on Site of Vetulonia, 133-
Tombs, Street of, discovered at Pompeii, 229.
Tradition in Corea, 175.
Trajan's Column, to be set up at Saint- Germain, 278.
Treasure, Buried, Tradition of, at Burnley, 228.
Treasure-trove, Regulations as to, 176.
Tuer (Andrew W.), 'I'he Follies and Fashions of our Grandfathers, Re- viewed, 265.
Tun-Gerefa, Township Officer, 231.
Turf-cutting, Customs connected with (Manx), 149-150.
Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club Meetings,
Umbrellas, Parish, 39, Urn, Roman Cinerary, found in Swindon Valley, 228.
Vanini (Lucilio), his Life and Philosophy,
190-197. Vases, Fragments of, discovered at Athens,
177. Vaults, Ancient, at Southampton, 52-53. Venice, the Doge's Establishment and
MediiEval Taxation at, 252-254. Vetulonia, Discovery of Site of, 133. Viana, Tomb of Ca;sar Borgia discovered
at, 179. Vick (W.) on St. Nicholas Church, Ipswich,
.134- Vienna, Coffins discovered at, 36. Villa, Roman, discovered at Maidenhead,
227. Village Community in England, 86.
Gradual Disappearance of, 226.
Violins, Scottish, 275.
made of wood from Old Glasgow
College, 276. Vladimir Voljmsk, Excavations of Cathedral
at, 275.
Wales, North, Discoveries proving Anti- quity of Man in, 85.
Wales, Custom of Gavelkind in, 135.
Walkins (Rev. M. G.) on Lincolnshire Folk-Lore, 9-12.
Wall-painting discovered at Morwenstow Church, 180.
Walpole's House in Arlington Street de- molished, 277.
Waltham, Queen Eleanor's Cross at, 131.
Warrants, Death, formerly belonging to Sanson, 131.
Wentnor Parish Church, Restoration of,
, 133-
West Indies, Documents relating to, at the Colonial Exhibition, 211-219.
Westhoughton, Bolton, Human Remains found at, 227.
Westmoreland, Bones of Extinct Animals found in, 38.
Brasses, 168.
Wigtownshire, Damage to St. Ninian's
Cave in, 177. Wilson (F. Rought) on Brasses and Glass
of Morley Church, 233. Winchester Cathedral, Bones of Saxon
Kings, etc., at, 277.
Well in, 176, 275.
Subscription - list
for Repair of, 225. Wine Vaults, Ancient, at Southampton, 52 Woking, The Ancient Parish of, 185-189,
241-247. Vvood-Martin (\V. G.), Lake Dwellings of
Ireland, Reviewed, 169. Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club Meet- ings, 78. Worms, Excavations at, 131. Wright (W. H. K.) on Plymouth Streets,
41-49. Wroth Silver, Payment of, 133.
Yard-measure, Unstamped, an Heirloom,
Prosecution for Use of, 276. York, Stone Coffins discovered at, 133 ;
Restoration of Walls at, 133. Yorkshire Brasses, 168.
Archaeological and Topographi- cal Society Meetings, 128-129.
; Geological and Polytechnic
Society Meetings, 171.
Naturalists' Union Meetings, 80.
Notes and Queries, Reviewed,
76,
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY
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