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THE

APPLE CULTURIST.

A COMPLETE TREATISE
FOR THE PRACTICAL POMOLOGIST.

TO AID IN PROPAGATING THE APPLE, AND CULTIVATING
AND MANAGING ORCHARDS.

ILLUSTEATED WITH ENGRAVINGS OF FRUIT, YOUNG AND OLD TREES,

AND MECHANICAL DEVICES EMPLOYED IN CONNECTION WITH

ORCHARDS AND THE MANAGEMENT OF APPLES.

^ By SERENO EDWARDS TODD,

AUTHOR OF "TODD'S YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL," "AMERICAN WHEAT CULTURIST,"
" TODD'S COUNTRY HOMES," and "HOW TO SAVE MONEY."

NEW YORK:

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

FRANKLIN SQUARE.
1 8V1.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871,
Haepeb & Brothers,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

DEDICATED

REV. THEODORE LEDYARD CUYLER, D.D.

My Highly - esteemed Feiend,— Understanding, in a measure, your cheerful
zeal and co-operation in every philantliropic enterprise which tends in any way
to render the world wiser, and mankind better and happier, and knowing your
appreciative taste for luscious apples, permit me to dedicate to you a little vol-
ume on the culture of your favorite fruit.

The foundation of our holy religion lies in the virtuous industry of the people.
Hence, in our efforts to render the human family the recipients of the greatest
good, we need to educate their lower faculties ylrs^. If we teach a nation to culti-
vate bountiful crops of fine wheat, and to produce large supplies of excellent ap-
ples and other fruit, we have secured a foundation on which it will be compara-
tively easy to develop the finer and nobler faculties of the soul. Taking this)
view of the duties of our mortal state, it is a cheering thought that, while we
played and ate apples together in the days of boyhood, we may labor side by
side— I at laying the foundation, and yourself in lifting up and fortifying a glori-
ous superstructure of manhood— in society, where virtue, religion, and truth are
the crowning excellences.

If we go where no boughs laden with choice fruit bend to kiss the rosy cheeks
of guileless children playing beneath, and where no waving grain rolls in the
summer breezes like a sea of gold, we shall find a pall of heathenish darknesa
resting on the people like a mighty incubus. Hence, I send out this little book
to the world, with the hope that it will perform the duties of a philanthropic pio-
neer in preparing the rough ways of civilized life for the more complete enjoy-
ment of an elevated manhood. I trust it may be found a timely vade Tnecum in
the hands of young men who have a desire to establish happy homes and to cul-
tivate choice fruit.

Superb apples are the product of Eden. A good boy with a hatful of Sweet
Boughs and a pocketful of gingerbread will always be found a more tractable pu-
pil when getting his lessons in the Catechism, than if the stomach were distend-
ed with heavy animal food of a stimulating character. A home without children
and destitute of apples, is like a beautiful grove without the cheering songs of
birds. What delightful memories dance in the sunshine of our boyhood, as our
thoughts revert to the homes of our early years, on fair Cayuga's fertile slope in
Central New York, where the pathway of life was embellished with apple-trees
which seldom failed to shower down golden luxuries in great profusion ! Those
were halcyon days in our happy experience. Fond memory delights to linger in
the extensive apple-orchards where bountiful supplies of Sweet Boughs, Swaars,
Spitzenbergs, and other choice varieties rendered material aid in smoothing the
asperities of our buoyant existence ; and we often wish we were boys again—
if it were possible to begin a new career with our present experience— that we
might again rejoice in the delight which once swelled the young heart at the
sight of hatfuls and pocketfuls of ruby apples.

With my best wishes for your success in all your labors of love, and that your
last days may be replete with joy and gladness,

I remain your faithful friend,

SERENO EDWARDS TODD.
Brooklyn, L. T.

/4S

SERENO EDWARDS TODD, Esq. :

My deae old Peiend and Sohool-mate,— I thank you heartily for the'pleasant
compliment of linking my name with your savory treatise on my favorite fruit.
The very reading over of that goodly catalogue of varieties— from the "Early Har-
vest " and the ** Strawberry," on to the "Newtown Pippin " and the " King-apple "
—carried me back to the cellar and the apple-bin of my boyhood. When you and
I went to the district-school together, we crammed our pockets with " Swaars " or
"Greenings" for the noonday lunch. What French confections are to city-bred
children, that were a hatful of apples and a pocketful of hickory-nuts to us home-
spun lads in the dear old free, broad country. A book that recalls those days is
as "sweet to me as the breath of new-mown hay."

May your latest volume be as popular and useful as its many predecessors from
your fertile pen, wisheth

Yoar friend of yore,

THEO. L. CUTLER.

Lafmjette Avemie Church, Brooklyn, Dec, 15, 1870.

PREFACE.

I sing of the apple, with roseate bloom,

That flourished in mazes of verdurous gloom

In Eden's fair bowers — in tint and in shape—

The apple that vies with the peach and the grape.— Edwards.

From early boyhood the writer of this little treatise has been
practically engaged, more or less every year, in the propagation of
apple-trees and the management of orchards. As there is no little
manual on " Apple Orchards " in all our agricultural and pomolog-
ical literature which a beginner may study as a reliable guide in
every branch of apple culture, and as the author in early life was
obliged to advance from one step to another, in the rearing and
management of apple-trees, by the slow and often uncertain way
of determining the better practices by experiments, he feels war-
ranted in preparing a small volume, in which are embodied the
successful results of the experience of more than forty years.

Most of the works on pomology are either too voluminous and
expensive to meet all the requirements of men who need a cheap
book containing brief directions for beginners, or the writers have
assumed that their readers already possess a pretty correct under-
standing of that branch of pomology which treats of the correct
mode of propagating apple-trees, and the most satisfactory manner
of managing apple orchards in order to produce profitable crops
of fruit.

Every beginner will always encounter certain difficulties in the
production and management of apple orchards ; and he must nec-
essarily learn how to overcome them in a reliable and satisfactory
manner, either by experiments conducted frequently, amidst per-
plexing doubts as to the ultimate results, or he must be ftimished
with the results of numerous experiments made by practical po-
mologists, which he can rely upon wTith the same confidence that
he would feel if he had worked out the same results on his own
grounds. -The aim of the author, therefore, has been to supply

6 PREFACE.

inquiring beginners with the fundamental knowledge which one
must possess before he can proceed satisfactorily in the cultivation
of apples, and to record such results of long experience as will en-
able any intelligent person to perform the operations required in
the management of orchards, or of the apples, in the best and most
approved manner. Hence a satisfactory answer to almost any ques-
tion that an inquirer after pomological truth touching the apple
may desire to have practically elucidated, may be found in some
one of the chapters of this little book. Reliable facts, conveyed
in plain and intelligible language, have moved the author's pen,
rather than any desire to roll out beautifully-rounded sentences to
please the fancy more than they would instruct an humble in-
quirer after truth.

There are many thousands of young men in all parts of the coun-
try who need the aid that such a practical treatise on the apple
will furnish. The writer has endeavored to present every subject
in such a manner that a beginner will be able to perceive and to
appreciate what should be done, as well as what is not allowable.
Apple orchards seem to be failing — for which there are plausible
reasons ; and we have endeavored to show intelligent beginners
the true causes of failure, to direct their operations in such a man-
ner that there shall be no such thing as a failure of the apple crop.
We have recorded nothing that has not been put to a practical
test, and found, by long experience, to be reliable. We have also
endeavored to encourage beginners to plant an orchard early in
life, and to manage the trees in such a manner that they will never
lack a liberal supply of good apples.

The author has been writing more or less on fruit for thirty years
past ; and some of the articles have been published in the " Cul-
tivator " and " Country Gentleman," in the " American Agricultur-
ist," " New York Times," and " New York Observer," while edito-
rially connected with those journals ; some in " Moore's Rural New
Yorker " and in the '' Working Farmer," all of which have been
reconstructed and revised. With the exception of a few small il-
lustrations reproduced from electrotypes taken from " Downing's
Fruits and Fruit-trees of America," and a few also from the " Amer-
ican Entomologist," through the courtesy of its publishers, the il-
lustrations have all been engraved by the publishers of this book.

Sereno Edwakds Todd.

Brooklyn, L. I.

CONTENT S.

Introduction Page 9

CHAPTER I.
Propagating Apple-trees.— Grafting and Budding 19

CHAPTER II.
Proper Preparation of the Soil for Orchards 56

CHAPTER III.
Laying Out the Ground for an Orchard 70

CHAPTER IV.

Removing and Transplanting both Old and Young Trees 84

CHAPTER V.
Pruning and Training in the most successful Manner Ill

CHAPTER VI.
General Management of Orchards. — Renovating old Orchards 144

CHAPTER VII.
Failure of Orchards, and the practicable Remedy 194

CHAPTER VIII.
Exterminating noxious Insects, and proper protection of Orchards
from Animals 227

CHAPTER IX.
Gathering and Management of Apples 283

CHAPTER X.
General Principles of Pomology, and a Pomological Glossary 317

YELLOW BELLFLOWEE.

Symmy'm8.—Be]]e Flenr, Bellefleur Yellow, Lady Washington, Warren Pippin,
Bishop's Pippin of Nova Scotia, and Reinette Musque. The engraving, as to form,
is a fair representation of the Yellow Bellflower. The fruit is usually large and
beautiful ; skin smooth, pale lemon yellow, often with a beautiful blush on the
side next the sun. The flesh is tender, juicy, crisp, with a slightly sub-acid flavor.
Before the fruit is fully ripe, it is considerably acid. Season, November to March.
The trees are excellent bearers, and moderately hardy. This variety commands
a ready price in market, as the fruit is large, and usually handsome. The Yellow
Bellflower is an excellent apple for pies and apple-dumplings.

INTRODUCTION,

We come with a handful of apple-seeds red,

To plaut with the spade in a deep mellow bed :

When tempests of winter, in fury sweep by.

On earth's gelid bosom the tiny seeds lie.— Edwaeds.

Apples of some varieties are cultivated successfully over
a greater breadth of country than any other fruit. No oth-
er trees can be relied upon for a regular supply of choice
fruit every year, for a great number of years, with more
certainty of a crop, than apple-trees. On every hill and in
every valley, on every plain and mountain between the cold
and backward localities of Maine and Canada, to the ex-
treme border of the Golden State, apple-trees, if correctly
propagated and properly managed, will not fail to reward
the tiller of the soil with abundant crops. More than this,
there is no other kind of fruit cultivated that can be made
to mature during such a long succession of months as the
apple. And then the almost unlimited variety as to the
taste and quality of fruit, constitutes another consideration
of transcendent importance. We have varieties which are
fully ripe and delicious before the last days of rosy summer
have faded away, and a regular succession afterwards of
choice varieties that are in season until there is an encour-
aging promise of another crop. Apples are one of the
greatest luxuries that people can depend upon as a regular
article of food. They are excellent while in a crude state,
and superb when cooked in a score of different ways.
Adults like them, and children love them. All kinds of

1*

10 INTMODUCTION.

domestic animals, from the noble carriage-horse down to
the cackling poultry, will devour apples — especially sweet
ones — with great avidity. And such food, in connection
with other articles, will always be found profitable.

"For dumplings, pies, or even apple-stew,
What could our cooks or our good housewives do,
If by perchance the apple should step out ?
Sore grief would seize on many bosoms stout."

An eminent French physician says the decrease of dys-
pepsia and bilious affections in Paris is owing to the in-
creased consumption of apples, which fruit, he maintains,
is an admirable prophylactic and tonic, as well as very
nourishing, and easily digested.

The proper contemplation of the production of a large
apple-tree, from a tiny seed, with branches bending beneath
a bountiful crop of luscious fruit, is a source of sublime
and interesting thought to every reflecting mind. The
swelling of the germ in the seed-bed, the bursting of the
envelope of the kernel, the starting of the thread-like roots,
and the formation of a stem, constitute germination of the
seed; and the more complete growth and development of
the radicles, stem, branches, leaves, and flowers embrace the
idea of vegetation. The unfolding of the fruit- buds, the
development of the flowers, and the perfection of the fruit,
constitute fructification.

All these operations, when taken collectively and studied,
so that the different processes of growth and development
shall be appreciated, will give the intelligent poraologist
such an insight into fruit-growing as will tend to supply
our markets, and the tables of both rich and poor, with an
abundance of the cheapest luxuries of mortal life. The
production of a fruitful apple orchard, from the time it is
set until it comes into bearing, is necessarily a question of
time — to say the least, requiring from five to eight years,

INTRODUCTION. 11

under the most favorable circumstances, to obtain any thing
like a supply of fruit for the use of a family.

There is no way a man can so effectually rear a monu-
ment to posterity, and one for which he shall receive their
blessing, as by planting a fruitful apple orchard that shall
yield a luxury in its wealth of delicious golden fruit. To
the young, there is nothing about the farm more attractive
than the orchard. They have a constant, insatiable appe-
tite for fruit — for apples, peaches, cherries, pears, nectar-
ines, grapes, melons. The country is not the country with-
out them. The green fields, the majestic forest-trees, the
cool springs and the meandering streams, are all engraved
indelibly upon their memories. And when they review the
happy days of childhood, and think of

"The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild-wood,"

fond memory lingers longest about the old apple-trees that
have so often filled the pockets, hat, and baskets with boun-
tiful supplies of luscious fruit.

The production of a fruitful apple orchard, and the an-
nual care and protection of the growing crop of fruit, con
stitute not only a delightful, elegant, and scientific occupa-
tion, but, where the locality is such as to afford market fa-
cilities, it is really one of the most profitable in the whole
range of agriculture. Good ripe apples are not only ob-
jects of great beauty, highly conducive to health, but they
are an important article of domestic consumption and
household economy. They furnish the best and cheapest
desserts, that enter largely into a variety of dishes. They
supply t^e table during the summer and fall months, when
crude, dried, and preserved, and they last through the win-
ter. Good apples are at all seasons, and in all their various
forms, useful and delightful, both in health and in sickness.
When we contemplate the perfection to which apples have

12 INTRODUCTION.

been brought by proper care and culture, we are amazed at
the neglect, the utter and almost criminal neglect and con-
tempt of which they have, for two centuries, been the sub-
ject in the states of the South, and to a great extent now
are. The idea has prevailed, and still prevails, that we
have a claim upon nature for a fruit crop without assisting
in its production ; and when it fails we blame nature, the
trees, the soil — any thing and every thing but ourselves, to
whom the blame chiefly belongs. Every man who has a
farm or a garden should raise fruit, and attend carefully to
his trees. If he raises it only for domestic use, he will be
repaid for his trouble tenfold. If so situated as to be able
to throw it into market, he will find it one of the most
profitable of his crops. Under the old plan of planting an
orchard and leaving it to itself, a generation passed before
it was productive ; but under modern culture it yields its
fruits in a few years. For instance, we find it stated by a
reliable authority, that in a single garden, apple-trees, the
fifth year from setting out, yielded a bushel each ; peach-
trees, the third summer, bore three pecks ; and a Bartlett
pear, two years from transplanting, gave a peck of superb
fruit. None of these trees were an inch in diameter when
transplanted, nor was their treatment better than that
which every good farmer bestows upon his carrots and
potatoes. The apple orchards of America are a striking
characteristic of the energy, ambition, and persistent utility
of a nation which is a unit in power, efiiciency, and nobility,
which can not be found on any other portion of our globe.
Hon. Horace Greeley once wrote : " If I were asked to
say what single aspect of our economic condition most
strikingly and favorably distinguished the people of our
Northern States from those of most if not all other coun-
tries which I have traversed, I would point at once to the
fruit-trees which so generally diversify every little as well

INTRODUCTION. 13

as larger farm throughout these States, and are quite com-
monly found even on the petty holdings of the poorer me-
chanics and workmen in every village, and in the suburbs
and outskirts of every city. I can recall nothing like it
abroad, save in two or three of the least mountainous and
most fertile districts of Northern Switzerland. Italy has
some approach to it in the venerable olive-trees which sur-
round or flank many, perhaps most, of her farm-houses, up-
holding grape-vines as ancient and nearly as large as them-
selves; but the average New England or Middle State
homestead, with its ample apple orchard and its cluster of
pear, cherry, and plum trees surrounding its house, and dot-
ting or belting its garden, has an air of comfort and mod-
est thrift which I have nowhere else seen fairly equalled.

On the whole, I deem it a misfortune that our Northern
States were so admirably adapted to the apple and kindred
fruit-trees, that our pioneer forefathers had little more to
do than bury the seeds in the ground and wait a few years
for the resulting fruit. The soil, formed of decayed trees
and their foliage, thickly covered with the ashes of the prim-
itive forest, was as genial as soil could be ; while the re-
maining woods, which still covered seven-eighths of the
country, shut out or softened the cold winds of winter and
spring, rendering it less difficult, a century ago, to grow
fine peaches in Southern New Hampshire than it now is
in Southern New York. Snows fell more heavily, and lay
longer, then than now, protecting the roots from heavy
frosts, and keeping back buds and blossoms in spring, to
the signal advantage of the husbandman. I estimate that
my apple-trees would bear at least one-third more fruit if I
could retard their blossoming a fortnight, so as to avoid
the cold rains and cutting winds, often succeeded by frosts,
which are apt to pay their unwelcome farewell visits just
when my trees are in bloom, or when the fruit is forming

U IXTMODUCTION.

directly thereafter. An apple orchard in full bearing, the
tempting fruit blushing among the foliage, or covering the
ground with a profusion of golden " nuggets ■ ' such as no
mine can yield, has a fullness of beauty which, while it
charms the eye, appeals not less successfully to other senses.
Hon. H. T. Brooks once said in an agricultural address,
when alluding to the value of the apple : " By no earthly
process, in my opinion, can so much nutriment be so cheap-
ly extracted from four square rods of ground as by planting
an apple-tree in the centre, and giving it good cultivation.
Apples need the ground, the whole of it, and all it contains,
but "immemorial usage" allows an apple-tree no rights
that husbandmen are bound to respect. It is haggled and
mangled, roots and branches, and the soil exhausted in the
production of other crops. Charging the apples with the
ground they actually grow upon and appropriate, they give
far better returns as food for man or beast than corn, wheat,
or potatoes. New York, particularly Western New York,
has a character at home and abroad for fruit. If a better
apple country was ever made, I confess I never heard of it.
We occupy the precise position where the tree is hardy and
healthy, and the fruit comes nearest perfection. I know of
no ordinary farm crop that at all compares, during a series
of years, with apples, if we take into the account the small
expense at which they are raised. Should we reduce the
yield to one half-barrel to the tree, apples would still be our
most profitable crop. I boldly claim that the average of
our orchards could be doubled by good cultivation. An
acre of ground that will produce forty barrels of good fruit
ought to be excused from growing grain. Whatever grain
or root crops are grown upon it, detract, doubtless, more
than they are worth from the apple crops. We can not,
without great expense and trouble, return to the soil all the
elements which our wheat, corn, and potatoes take from it.

IXTMODUCTION. 15

When I hear of trees standing near a wood-pile, in the cor-
ner of a fence, near the barn, or the hog-pen, or the kitchen-
door, I am prepared for a big yield. The great majority
of our apple-trees are either starved or go very hungry.
A free application of barn-yard manure is indispensable to
the continued growth and productiveness of our orchards.
Ashes, lime, plaster, and perhaps other mineral fertilizers,
may be used to great advantage. It should be remembered
that the apple-tree is subject to the general laws of vegeta-
ble growth. You can not have large and fair fruit if the
soil is poor, hard, and dry. The earth should be mellow, to
secure suitable moisture in hot, dry weather, and to impart
needed nourishment. Begging pardon of the Pomological
Society, a tree knows better where to put its roots than any
man can tell it ; and the apparently stupid roots understand
far better than any of our reputedly wise chemists what
elements are essential for the production of a bountiful crop
of fine fruit."

A Succession of choice Apples. — Every family that is in
possession of only a few roods of good ground — even if
much of the surface be rocky and comparatively untillable
— should have a succession of crude apples, suited to every
season of the year, adapted to different tastes and to various
household uses. If a person has the land, there can be no
possible excuse for not having a bountiful supply of supe-
rior fruit in six to ten years, unless we accept the shallow
pretext so often advanced, " a want of time " to cultivate
the trees. Every man fritters away every season, to no sat-
isfactory purpose, far more time than would be required to
plant an orchard and take proper care of the number of
trees requisite to supply his family with crude apples dur-
ing the entire year. The apple is quite different from per-
ishable pears, peaches, plums, and other kinds of fruit,
which must be consumed to-dav, or they will be worthless

16 INTRODUCTION.

to-morrow. The choice varieties of apples are now so ex-
tensive that, by proper management, in our latitude — New
York city — any family that will appropriate only a part of
one acre to a few trees of good varieties which will mature
in succession may begin to gather crude, ripe apples about
the first of July, while they may still have in the cellar a
small supply of old apples. When on the farm, we fre-
quently ate new apples of the Early Harvest variety and
Roxbury Russets on the same day, even when we had no
facilities for keeping apples, except a good cellar beneath
the dwelling. We give herewith the names of a few vari-
eties which will furnish a succession from the middle of
July of one season, to the same period — or even later —
of the following season : Early Harvest, Tallman Sweeting,
Early-Sweet Bough, Fall Orange, Early Chandler, Williams,
Garden Royal, Porter, Gravenstein, Mother, Hubbardston's
Nonsuch, Rhode Island Greening, Ladies' Sweet, Peck's
Pleasant, Baldwin, Roxbury Russet, Early Joe, American
Summer Pearmain, Benoni, Early Strawberry, Red Astra-
chan. Summer Pippin, Duchess of Oldenburgh, Twenty-
Ounce, Hawley, Tompkins County King.

One tree of each of the foregoing varieties, if properly
cultivated, would supply a small family with all the fruit
they would need during the year, before the trees are half-
grown. Those persons who desire extensive orchards can
add other varieties to suit locality or the market. By re-
ferring to the voluminous treatise, " Downing's Fruit and
Fruit-trees of America," the reader will find a description
of almost every known variety of apples, a list of which it
is impracticable to give in this small work.

The man who desires to have a good apple-orchard has
only to avail himself of the facilities within his reach on
any soil between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, where
it is practicable to raise fair crops of cereal grain ; and ap-

INTRODUCTION. 17

pies in copious abundance can be produced on dwarf trees
in four or five years, and on standards in six to ten years.
A well-balanced brain and a skillful hand will not fail to
produce fine fruit.

We have in mind an old farmer in Ohio who felt prompt-
ed, when a young man, to plant an orchard ; but he had im-
bibed the erroneous notion that the man who plants apple-
trees seldom lives to partake of the fruit. When at the
age of forty, fifty, sixty, and at seventy, he looked back
with regret that he did not plant an orchard when he was
a young man. As he passed the age of threescore-and-ten,
he resolved to plant an orchard; and the trees came into
full bearing so soon that he lived to eat the luscious frait
of his labor for several years, and to get drunk on the cider
made from the apples of those trees which were planted at
such a late period in his life. Apple-trees, like our chil-
dren, will grow up so quickly that we are surprised to con-
template how soon they are filled with fruit. If one-half
the money that is now expended by the laboring classes for
tobacco and intoxicating beverages, the pernicious influen-
ces of which fill the land with crime, and spread unhappiness
and desolation around the fireside, were employed to culti-
vate apple-trees, or to purchase fi'uit, many apothecary
shops would be closed at once for lack of patronage ; quacks
and doctors would be obliged to seek other employment;
and unhappy homes would be changed to places of delight.
A small fruit-orchard is far more valuable, for any family,
than bonds, mortgages, or money at legal interest.

BED CANADA.

Synonyms Poland, Richfield Nonsuch, Stee'ie's Red Winter, Old Nonsuch of

Massachusetts. This is an old variety, which has been almost run out by inju-
dicious management of the orchards. With good cultivation the tree is very pro-
ductive. The fruit is of medium size, oblate, inclining to a conical form. Skin
yellow, and usually shaded with deep red crimson, somewhat striped or splashed
on the sunny side. The core is small and close. Flesh white, tender, crisp,
abounding with a refreshing juice. In quality, superior. Season, January to
May.

THE

APPLE CULTURIST.

CHAPTER I.

PROPAGATING APPLE-TREES.

"Here embryo apples in tough rinds compressed,
Are folded in beauty, on each floret's breast.
The sunshine of April and breath of sweet May,
Shall lift up the plumule and spread out the spray."

The apple is propagated by planting the seeds, by graft-
ing, and by inoculating, or budding ; and it may be propa-
gated by cuttings and layers. The core of an apple is fre-
quently thrown aside, where a seed sometimes finds a mel-
low seed-bed ; and the next season a young tree appears.
Birds frequently drop apple-seeds in a bed of fine mould,
where the embryo is preserved, until circumstances favor
germination. Young apple-trees frequently spring from
the seed in the remains of decayed apples.

Apple and pear seeds are usually collected in autumn,
separated from the pomace, mingled with moist sand, and
kept in a cellar till the following spring, when they are
planted in drills as one plants beet-seeds, in a well-prepared
seed-bed. In some instances, the pomace i^ scattered in
drills, and covered with fine and mellow soil, in late au-
tumn. When large quantities of young trees are required,
the seeds are sometimes sown broadcast like grain, and har-
rowed in ; and in many instances the seeds are put in with

20 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

grain drills, about as deep as seed-wheat and barley are
covered — say two inches deep in a mellow seed-bed. We
have in mind a friend in Illinois, who wrote that he would
drill in forty bushels of apple-seeds in the spring of 1870,
distributing that quantity over eighteen acres.

As there is a tough covering on the outside of apple and
pear seeds, they will germinate more readily if they can be
planted in autumn, or early in the spring, so that they may
be frozen and thawed two or three times before the grow-
ing season has commenced. And yet, apple-seeds will ger-
minate without having been frozen, provided they are not
allowed to become dry after being separated from the core.
If seeds be planted as soon as they are taken from the core,
they will often germinate, and appear in the seed-leaf in
eight to twenty days, according to the moisture and warmth
of the seed-bed. We have taken seeds from an apple, plant-
ed them in a mellow-bed, in June, some of which germina-
ted immediately, and others remained in the ground till the
following spring. Some pomologists contend that apple-
seeds, and seeds of other fruits, should be buried in the
fruit. But as there is usually a chance to select the best
kernels if the cores are first dissected, which is quite as
important as to choose the most desirable ears of Indian
corn for seed, when this is done, the fruit should be cut in
quarters, the inferior kernels separated, one or two of the
largest and plumpest returned to the core, and the entire
apple buried about two inches deep in a mellow seed-bed.

Raising Seedlings. — The practice of raising seedlings, or
young stocks, from the seeds by planting the half-developed
kernels of the half-grown and half-matured fruit of a miser-
able variety of the poorest kinds of cider- apples, which
swine would almost refuse to eat, is about like attempting
to produce fine cattle from the meanest and most miserable
scrub that could be found in the country. Like will pro-

FEOPA GATING APPLE-TREES. 21

duce like. The stock of a grafted tree will exert a won-
derful influence on the productiveness of the bearing tree.
(See Glossary.) It can not be expected that the half-de-
veloped seed of a half-grown and half-ripened, small, knot-
ty, scabby, one-sided, worthless apple can ever produce a
fine and prolific tree. Is it possible for apple-seeds to im-
part certain prominent characteristics of excellence to the
future tree and fruit, which were never possessed by that
variety ? The truth is, that the best seeds must be select-
ed for fruit-trees, and the inferior kernels rejected, if we
would produce hardy and prolific trees.

How Apple-seeds vegetate. — An apple-seed germinates
like the kernels of leguminous plants, such as beans, clo-
ver, and flax. The embryo (Fig. 1) expands,
and a radicle appears at the pointed end of the
seed, which grows downward, as the stem is
formed upward. Instead of a spike being sent
to the surface of the ground, such as appears
from a kernel of cereal grain, the apple-seed is
thrust upward, on the end of the stem, through
the soil, to the surface of the ground. This Enlarged view
fact suggests the eminent importance of cover- of au app£
ing every seed with fine mould or mellow earth. ^^^
A covering of heavy clay will often become so compact
that the stem can not elevate the kernel to the surface. As
soon as the apple-seed appears above the surface of the
seed-bed, the kernel separates into two equal parts, each
portion being held by the stem ; and the two lobes assume
the form of leaves. Xhe accompanying illustration (Fig. 2,
p. 22) is a fair representation of a young apple-tree soon
after the kernel has appeared above the surface.

There are several fundamental requirements to be ob-
served by the tiller of the soil, in order to effect the germi-
nation of apple-seeds. In the first place, a certain amount

22

THE APFLE VULTURIST.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

of moisture must reach the germ. If the
external coating of the seed has been al-
lowed to become very dry and hard, seeds
will often remain in the soil, if planted in
the spring, until the next spring, before the
tough shell will permit moisture to quick-
en the germ. When apple, locust, and oth-
er seeds have become dry,
let them be thrown for ten
seconds or so into boiling
water, then turned quickly
into cold water, repeating
the process twice or thrice,
. until the hard shell is soft-

A young apple-tree in

the seed-leaf. ened, and the seed will ger-
minate in a few days after they are planted.
By a short and quick scald, and sudden cool-
ing, the heat does not have time to reach
the germ. But let me caution every be-
ginner against the mistake that a celebrated
agricultural editor once made in boiling his
seeds for several hours, to soften the hard
shells. The shells of chestnuts, butternuts,
and other nuts, as well as peach and plum
pits, are so impervious to water, that moist-
ure can not reach the germs. Hence the necessity of soak-
ing a long time, and exposing these to the action of frost,
in damp mould, or sand, so that the glue which unites the
two parts of a shell may be dissolved, thus permitting the
moisture to reach the embryo or germs.

Another indispensable requisite is heat in connection with
moisture. Gentle warmth alone can not produce germina-
tion ; neither can moisture alone cause a seed to germinate.
The two — moisture and heat — must exist in a proper de-

A diminished view of
a young apple-tree
after a few inches
in length of the
phimule have ap-
peared.

PJtOPAQATING APFLE-TREEH. 23

gree, or apple-seeds will never germinate. Still another
condition essential to germination is warm air. Apple-
seeds, if buried too deep, where they are supplied with
moisture and heat, without air, will soon mould and decay.
Three things, then, must all combine harmoniously to pro-
mote germination, or an apple-tree can never be produced
from a seed.

Propagation by Grafting.

But when the smoother stem from knots is free,

We make a deep incision in the tree;

And in the solid wood the slip inclose,

Where it unites and shoots again, and grows. — Vikqil.

Grafting is the insertion of a cion in a living stock.
The philosophy of grafting consists in making a cleft, or
slit, in the end or side of the stock, and fitting one end of
the cion to the cleft so neatly that the pores between the
bark and the wood of the cion will correspond with the
similar pores in the stock. When cions are inserted in a
stock in this manner, they can scarcely fail to grow. It is
of little consequence how a cion is grafted, provided the
inside bark of both cion and stock coincide, so that the
flowing sap may readily pass from the stock into the cion.
But the cion and stock must be united with such precision
that the surface of one will fit the surface of the other, wa-
ter-tight. When a bad fit is made, the surface will soon
oxidize, and prevent 'all union.

Modes of Grafting. — The different modes of grafting are
alluded to as cleft grafting, whip grafting, American whip-
tongue grafting, splice grafting, shoulder or chink grafting,
crown grafting, saddle grafting, side grafting, dovetail-side
grafting, summer grafting, root grafting, stock grafting,
spur grafting, and grafting by approach, or inarching,
which is a curious way of attaching a portion of the cion
to the stock to which it is to be united, while another por-
tion still remains on the parent stem. Branches of two

24 TUJi] APPLE CULTURIST.

different trees may be united at the extremities, " by ap-
proach," like Fig. 23, if the parts be neatly fitted, and held
firmly by means of splints, until the union is complete.
The different modes will be shown by illustrations.

Grafting into different Species. — Beginners who do not
possess a correct understanding of the laws of both vege-
table and animal physiology are often ambitious to try ex-
periments in grafting or budding a given kind of fruit on
a tree of some other species. In numerous instances, by
not understanding what can be done, and what is imprac-
ticable, they have committed ludicrous blunders. As stated
under Species, apples may be produced by inserting apple-
tree cions, or buds, in a pear-stock. And pears, in the same
manner, may be produced on apple-stocks. We have often
seen pear-cions inserted in " thorn-apple " stocks ; and have
frequently read recommendations, by writers on pomology,
as to grafting pears on thorn-stocks. But we have never
met with, nor read of, satisfactory success in such experi-
ments. Pears and quinces, also, belong to different species
of fruit; and yet the product of pear-cions on a quince-
stock is a satisfactory success. Apples, pears, and quinces
have so little aflinity with peaches and plums, that they
can not be produced on a peach or plum stock. Nor can
peaches or plums be produced on apple-stocks.

Apple-cions may be set in the maple or willow; but
were they to live and grow the branches would never yield
fruit. We have frequently seen it stated, in agricultural
journals, that apples and pears have been produced satis-
factorily on the young stocks of the mountain ash; but
we have never met with a person who has seen the fruit.
A gentleman near Goshen, N. Y., assured us that he had
been successful in grafting the cions of the English walnut
on his young sweet -walnut -trees. But walnuts will not
grow on the chestnut or butternut trees, nor, vice versa;

PROPAGATING APPLE-TBEES.

25

simply because there is not sufficient affinity between the
stocks and the cions.

FAMEtrSE.

Synonyms.— Pomva.Q de Heige, Sanguineus, Snow. Frm<.— Size, medium ; form,
roundish, somewhat flattened; skin, smooth; color, a greenish-yellow ground,
mostly overspread in the sun with a clean, rich red; in the shade the red is pale,
streaked, and blotched with the dark red ; stem, slender ; cavity, narrow and fun-
nel-shaped ; calyx, small ; basin, narrow and shallow ; flesh, remarkably white,
tender, juicy, negative character, but deliciously pleasant, with a slight perfume ;
core, close, small, compact ; seeds, light brown, long and pointed ; season, Octo-
ber, and to December. Tree. — Hardy, healthy, moderate grower, of a rather di-
verging habit, with dark-colored shoots, and long, narrow leaves, bearing annu-
ally a fair crop, with a profusion in alternate years.

Propagating by Root-grafting. — Volumes have been writ-
ten touching this subject, to show that root-grafted trees
will not endure so long as other trees which have sprung
from grafted stocks. In many of our Western States, re-
ports have been made by practical pomologists, who have
instituted inquiries and numerous experiments to test the
duration of such trees; and in most instances that have
come under our observation, root-grafted orchards have
nearly all failed after a few years, especially on large prai-
ries. In some instances, there has been no apparent differ-

2

26 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

ence, which may be accounted for by the fact that in these
cases strong tap-roots were sent down deep into the sub-
soil, which supplied the growing trees with suflScient moist-
ure. It will doubtless be found that, when root-grafted
trees fail, they are destitute of tap-roots, or large-branch-
ing roots, to supply moisture in dry weather, when the
roots near the surface of the ground can not obtain the
necessary amount.

Any one at all conversant wdth the habit of the different
varieties of apple-trees knows that there is a great differ-
ence in the growth and hardihood of the original stock.
This subject is not half enough considered by the orchard-
ist. Let him go into a nursery where all the different vari-
eties are growing in a good soil, each shading and protect-
ing the other thickly in the rows, under good, and frequent-
ly forced cultivation, and he will at once suppose they are
all alike thrifty, hardy, and promising. But such is only
the fact while in the nursery. Some varieties are tender,
slow of growth, and never hardy when exposed in the
orchard to the fierce heats and cold blasts which alternate-
ly shine upon and sweep over them. Other varieties
are hardy, vigorous, and stalwart under all circumstances.
Others still there are which bend and writhe about, scarce-
ly knowing which way to grow. These different modes
of growth are original properties of the wood itself, nat-
ural, organic, and only to be corrected or overcome by care
and attention in the subsequent training of the trees.

An intelligent pomologist writes that the result of this
process of raising trees by root-grafting is, that after ten
or twelve years standing in the orchard, with equal care
and cultivation, some trees are twice or thrice the size of
others. Some are feeble and decaying, from innate weak-
ness or exposure to outside influences; while others are
strong and vigorous as oaks or maples. We think it will

PROPAGATINO APPLE-TREES.

27

be proved, as a rule^ that fruits of high quality are usual-
ly more refined and delicate in their wood than those of
coarser and harsher taste ; that the common seedling is usu-
ally hardier in its stock than the highly cultivated " graft ;"
and, therefore, that the common seedling reared up to a
size fit for transplanting into the orchard, and then grafted
branch high, or at the point where its limbs diverge into
the branching top, is better as stock than those which are
root-grafted.

WESTFIELD BEEK-NO-FirBTHBB.

(S^/nonyTTW.— Seek-no-further, Red Winter Pearmain, Connecticut Seek-no-far-
ther. Fruit.— ^\ze, medium ; form, regular roundish conical, broad at base ; color,
generally a light yellow ground, with the sunny sides striped and splashed with
red ; small russet dots, surrounded with shades of a light russet-yellow ; there is
often considerable russet around both stem and calyx ; stem, long and slender ;
cavity, open, regular ; calyx, usually small, and generally closed, or nearly so ; it
is, however, sometimes partially open, and always with short segments ; basin,
regular in form, and of moderate depth ; flesh, yellowish, tender, sub-acid, with a
pleasant Pearmain aroma ; core, medium ; seeds, ovate. Season, November to
March.

28 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

A hundred years ago, pomologists seldom thought of
propagating apple-trees by root-grafting. When they ate
a good apple, their first idea was to plant the seed. By this
practice, and by not cutting off the tap-roots, they obtained
trees that were bountifully productive for a long time. The
bare fact that pomologists have had occasion to feel assured
that root-grafted trees are sometimes not so productive as
seedhng stocks, should be sufficient reason for abandoning
entirely that manner of propagation.

This question has been discussed extensively in Illinois ;
and many intelligent pomologists would not accept root-
grafted trees as a gratuity. One gentleman stated at the
pomological convention that he had made observations for
several years, and had come to the conclusion that, for that
region, trees worked standard high are better worth a dol-
lar a tree than such as are root-grafted with a dollar as a
gratuity. He had found such shy bearers as Early Harvest,
Pryor's Red, etc., to bear well when worked on stocks. The
rule had been found general, with some exceptions. He
had found budded trees to bear good crops in six to eight
years. He mentioned cases where the Swaar and Baldwin,
when root-grafted, had not borne in fifteen years. Other
trees, budded fi'om good bearers, had borne good crops in
seven years. He had never found a productive Rhode
Island Greening tree, when root-grafted, at any age ; but
stock-grafted trees were always productive, when old enough
for bearing.

Side or Summer-grafting. — This mode of grafting is
known to very few persons ; and yet it is superior to every
other method. It is in a large degree free from the objec-
tions urged against cleft-grafting, and is so simple and easi-
ly executed, that the merest novice, armed with a knife,
string, grafting-wax, and a piece of soap, can graft a tree as
well as the professional propagator.

PBOPAOATINQ APPLE-TREES.

29

Fio:. 4.

stock aud ciou for
side-grafting.

When a cion is to be set on the side of a branch, or small
tree, make a slit on the stock, precisely as when a bud is
to be inserted, as represented by the illus-
tration (Fig. 4). Next, commencing at the
top of the slit, raise the bark on each side,
to admit the lower end of the cion, which
should be prepared before the slit is made.
The cion should be short, not more than two
inches long. One bud on it will suflSce. A
long cion is more liable to get displaced than
a short one. Shave off the lower end true,
and with a sloping cut, as shown by Fig.
4 herewith given, and crowd the prepared
end down in the slit, in the same naanner
that a bud is inserted. The end of the cion
should fit neatly. If the stock be small, the
end of the cion may be hollowed out a trifle with a small,
sharp gouge. It will be necessary to touch the edges of
the slit made for the reception of the graft Fig. 5.
with a piece of soap ; otherwise root-lice, which
are in the tops of the trees in summer, will
enter the wound, and prevent the union of the
stock and graft. Now bind the parts together,
using strong cotton twine for large branches,
or, for small ones, strong, coarse, woollen yarn,
or such materials as are used in budding. The
accompanying illustration (Fig. 5) represents a
stock just grafted in this manner. After the
ligature is tied, cover the wound with a thin
plaster of wax. Good cions, neatly fitted, if
inserted at the time the annual layer of new ^-^
wood is being made, will unite with the limbs
as readily as buds. One of the eminent advantages of side-
grafting is, that a new branch may be started on the side

Side-grafting.

30

THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

Fig. 6.

of a tree, or limb, where there are no branches, and where
it is desirable to fill up with a limb any naked space, for the
sake of symmetry.
Another Mode of Side-grafting is performed by cutting
off the branch, or the stock to be grafted, the
same as for cleft-grafting. Then, instead of
splitting the stock, make a cleft, or recess, for
the cion (Fig. 6), with a back-saw, as represent-
ed below (Fig. 8), which has a thin blade at-
tached near the ends of the saw, for shaving
off the sides of the saw-kerf true and smooth,
as fast as the saw enters the stock. Fig. t.
Such a saw may be satisfactorily
employed for grafting grapes and
other kinds of fruit. It matters not
how the cleft is made, if the inside
bark of the cion fits neatly, with a
gentle pressure, to the inside bark
of the stock. When a stock is two or more
inches in diameter, six or more cions may be set
around the edge without splitting the end. The
ends of the cions (Fig. V) must be fitted true
with a sharp knife, and be pressed into the cleft
firmly. After the cions are set, apply a coat of ^ cion formed
grafting-wax that will not melt and run down f5*^e -^graS
in hot weather. Success in side-grafting will ^"g-
always depend more on skill in fitting the cion to the stock
than in any thing else. Side-grafting also possesses this
very important ad-
vantage over cleft-
grafting : the cions,
when set in a large
stock, are frequent-

Fig. 8.

Illllillillllllllillllillllliiillllllllilllllli

'y*>!jjiij.'Ai-kii!jJii»>!*iii'i.

ly crushed by the

A grafting-saw, with blades for shaving out the sides
of the recess like Fig. 6.

PROPAQATINO APPLE-TUEEti.

31

Fior. 9.

jaws of the stock, so that there is no vitality left in the part
of the cion within the cleft. Large numbers of cions are
destroyed by this means. When cions fail in cleft-grafting,
rain enters the fissure, the cleft opens, and the end of the
limb decays, to the serious injury of the tree. When fitting
cions for this kind of side-grafting, it is important to pare
the end of the stock smoothly with a sharp knife; then
make a shoulder on both sides of the cion and cut and fit
until the shoulder on both sides will set down tight to the
inner bark of the stock. A cion will rarely fail to grow, if
there is a good fit at the shoulder.

Dovetail Side-grafting. — I have never known a more suc-
cessful mode of grafting both apple and pear stocks than
this, which is more particularly adapted
to large stocks with thick bark than
to small ones. The stock is sawed off
squarely, the end shaved smoothly, and
dovetailed gains cut in the bark for the
cions, as shown in the illustration (Fig.
9), representing the cleft or gain in the
bark. A narrow strip of bark, say one
inch long by one-sixteenth or so wide,
is removed. Then, as the knife-blade
is guided by a small straight-edge, to
aid in making a straight cut, the edge
of the bark is bevelled on both sides

of the gain, so as to give the cleft a Dovetail side-grafting.

dovetail form for holding the cion. The width of the gain
or cleft should depend on the size of the cion. Fit the
lower end of the cion, as represented by the illustration, by
cutting away about one-half true and smooth, with a square
shoulder. Then shave off each side, true, down to the in-
side bark of the cion. If the gain be too narrow, dress it
a trifle wider. In case a gain is made too wide, prepare

32

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

A stock crown
side-grafted.

Fig. 10. another cion. The cion should fit so neatly
that the end may be pressed down into the
gain as tightly as practicable without lifting
the bark of the stock. See that the end of the
cion fits well to the bottom of the gain, and
also that the shoulder sets down tight on the
end of the stock. Several cions should be set
in one large stock, like Fig. 10. If the grafting
is performed when the cambium is abundant,
almost every cion will live. Let the wounds
be covered at once with a coat of wax. In
most instances, it will be advisable to wraj^
several thicknesses of prepared ligament around
the stock after a thin coat of wax is applied.

Spur-grafting. — This mode of grafting is practised but
little. We have set cions according to this style ; but they
are not as likely to live as by side-grafting. Hence it is
alluded to simply to show how grafts are set in this manner.
Procure a "firmer" chisel, say three-eighths of an inch
wide, grind the edge in the form of a round-pointed spear.
Drive this instrument perpendiculary down through a grow-
ing root of an apple-tree, withdraw it, crowd in a cion hav-
ing a wedge-shaped end, cover the wound with wax, and
the cion is ready to grow. The tool must be sharp and
smooth, so as to make a clean cut; and the cion must be
crowded in quickly, before the fissure closes. Let the tool
be driven into the limb of a tree in the same manner, and a
cion inserted. Cions should be set in this manner when
the cambium is abundant. But even under the most fa-
vorable circumstances, side-grafting will be found prefera-
ble to this method.

Cleft-grafting. — The usual manner of grafting stocks from
one to three inches in diameter is illustrated by Fig. 11, p.
33. The stock, b, is first sawed off with a fine-toothed saw.

PROPAGATING APPLE-TBEES.

33

like Fig. 8, when the end of the stock -pig. ii.

is shaved smoothly, so that one can
readily see the point of union between
the bark and the wood. The blade of
the grafting-knife, shown below (Fig.
12), is then driven into the stock, 5,
to split it, as represented. After the
stock is split, the chisel, or wedge of
the knife, is driven in the middle of the
cleft, to hold it open while the cions, a,
are being set. The blade of Fig. 12
should be about six inches long, be-
sides the handle. The heavy part,
which constitutes the head of the chis- cieft-giaftiug.

el, should be about three eighths of an inch square, and the
chisel should extend about one inch below the shoulder.
The chisel at the base should be one-eighth of an inch thick,
which will be sufficiently thick to open any cleft, except for
a very large stock. This combined tool will be found more
convenient than to have the chisel at the end of the knife,
as it will maintain the balance with less difficulty. The

blade should be one-
eighth of an inch
thick on the back.
A wire hook is pro-
vided in the handle

for suspending the
Grafting-knife and chiseL ^ i i* i i

tool irom a branch

when a person is grafting the top of a large tree. The ci-
ons, a, are dressed off true, like a long wedge, and inserted
so that the point of union between the bark and wood, on
both the stock and cions, will exactly coincide. A sharp
knife should be employed for making cions, and the ends
should not be dressed too blunt nor too slim to fit the cleft.

2*

34

THE APPLE CVLTUBI8T.

Pig. 14.

Fig. 13. Many times the stock will close so firmly on the
cions, as has already been stated, as to crush the
ends. The grafter, when removing the chisel,
must watch the pressure of the sides of the
stock on the cions ; and if the ends are liable to
be crushed, a small wedge, as shown
in Fig. 13, must be driven in by the
side of the chisel, so that the cions
may not be injured. Graf ting- wax
is now applied, as represented by
Fig. 14, by pressing it into all the
crevices, and covering the wound be-
tween the grafts. Great care must
Cleft held open ^^ observed, after cions are set, not
by a wedge. ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^1^. 15 represents

a small stock cleft-grafted, with only one cion, , . -^ ^m
made with a shoulder, as shown by Fig. 16.^^^^^^
Pig, 15. The cion should be set, and «SSk co?eSci

taken out, and fitted with a with wax.

sharp knife until each shoulder will set

Fig. 16.

Fior. IT.

down to the stock water-
tight. Then the cion will
scarcely fail to live.

Figure 17 represents the
manner in which small trees
are often grafted. A cion,
h, about two inches long, is
fitted, as shown, to the stock,
a. If the cuts are made true
and smooth, and the two
parts be properly united, a
graft seldom fails to grow.
The cion is bound to the stock with grafting-
wax, which will hold it in the proper position Spiice-grafting.

Cleft-grafting, with a
shouldered cion.

PROPAOATING APPLE-TREES.

35

until a union is effected. The wax for this purpose should
be tempered with a larger proportion of resin, so that it
will be hard after it is applied to the wound.

By the different parts of Fig. 18, American whip-tongue-
grafting is represented in the various stages. The parts

Fig. 18.

|1 ' y
American whip-tongue-graftmg.

shown at a, 5, c, represent a stock prepared for the cion,
f, e. At k and I, the stock and cion are united. At h, the
ligature is applied. At ^, the work is shown covered with
grafting-wax. After the graft has begun to grow, a sharp
knife should be drawn through the back part of ^, to cut
the bandage. Then the growth of the wood will not be
obstructed. It is eminently important that every stock
grafted in the foregoing manner should be examined in
ten days after the cions are set, for the purpose of re-graft-
ing, where the cions fail to grow, and also to release the
ligature. When stocks are very thrifty, the grafts will fre-
quently expand, in a few days, to such an extent as to bury

36

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

Fig. 20.

Fig. 19. the strands of the twine into

the tender bark, to the serious
injury of both stock and graft.
Fig. 19 represents another
plan of American whip-tongue-
grafting, in which a is a cion,
b a stock. At c the cion and
stock are united. At d the
union is wrapped with a nar-
row strip of
cloth satu-
rated with
grafting-
wax. Fig-
ure 20 rep-
American whip-tongne-grafting. rCSentS Still

another style of whip-grafting, in which
a is the stock, h the cion, and c /''"^\
the two united, ready for the wax.

Before a person ' attempts to
graft valuable stocks by whip-
grafting, he should procure a bun-
dle of twigs and a sharp knife, and
spend one or two hours during his
leisure evenings in educating his
hands to handle a sharp knife with
skill and precision, in making
" neat fits " between the stock and
cion. It will be found a great con-
venience, also, to employ a small
stick having a groove on one side,
into which the stock, or the cion, whip-grafting large stocks.
may be placed when the end is being dressed off.

At Fig. 21, on the following page, a style of saddle-graft-

PROPAOATINQ APrLE-TMEES.

31

ing is shown, which will require no
explanation, as the illustrations show
how the fitting of cion and stock is
done. Fig. 22, below, represents the
manner of saddle-grafting stocks that
are larger than the cions. The butt-
end of each cion is split, shaved, and
made to fit neatly to the stock, as
shown. In some places, one piece is
held down to the stock by means of
small nails, or upholsterers' trimming-
tacks. This latter style of grafting is
practised but little; and it is repre-
sented here more for the novelty than
for its utility. One great advantage

Fig. 21.

Saddle-grafting small
stocks.

Fig. 22.

Saddle-grafting large stocks.

of setting grafts like Fig.
21, is, no bandage will be
required to hold the cion
on the stock. Good wax
is all that will be nec-
essary. When stocks
are grafted where they
sprang from the seed, and
where the apple-trees are
to grow, if the cions are
fitted neatly, like Fig. 21,
they seldom fail to grow
rapidly.

At Fig. 23, represent-
ed on the following page,
the tops of two small
trees are brought togeth-
er, and the side of each
one shaved off true, so as

38

THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

Fig. 24.

to make a close union, when the parts are
bound securely and covered with wax,
and the tops are held apart, and in the
desired place, by a stay bound from tree
to tree. At Fig. 24 the manner of in-
arching is represented, which will re-
quire no further
elucidation than
the cut will give.
Inarching is fre-
quently employ-
ed to connect
the ends of two
branches above
the fork of a
valuable tree, to

Inarching, or grafting by ap-
proach.

Grafting by approach.

prevent one or both sides from be-
ing split down by a furious wind.
The two parts to be united must be
held by means of stiff splints of wood, until the union is
perfect and strong.

Inoculation, or Budding.

In that smooth space a narrow slit we make,
Then living buds from bearing trees we take:
Inserted thus, the wounded bark we close,
In whose moist womb the tender infant grows.

Deyden's Virgil.

The operation of budding consists in cutting a bud from
a young twig and inserting it beneath the bark of another
branch, or in bringing the bud and stock together in such a
manner that a union will readily take place between the
two. The future tree and fruit will always partake of the
character of the tree from which the bud was taken.

Satisfactory success in budding will always depend on sev-
eral contingencies; such as, 1. The condition of the stock

PROPAOATINQ APPLE-TREES. 39

and bud. Budding can not be performed successfully when
the bark of the stock will not peel easily. Buds must be
set when there is a bountiful supply of cambium^ or muci-
laginous material in a semi-fluid state between the bark
and the wood of the stock, to facilitate the vital adhesion
of the bud. By making a slit in the bark of the stock,
one can readily perceive whether the cambium has become
too hard to unite with the bud, or whether the supply is
still insufficient to effect a union. 2. Varieties of the same
species are always more successful than a bud taken from
a branch which is not closely allied to the stock. Apple-
buds should be inserted on apple-stocks, pear-buds on pear-
stocks, and peach-buds on young peach-trees. 3. The bud
should always be taken from a shoot of the present or the
preceding year's growth, and inserted in a stock not over
two years old. Buds are seldom inserted in stocks over
one year old. If buds are set in the latter part of summer,
a stock of the present season's growth is chosen. 4. It is
important to take such buds as have come to full maturity,
as a half -mature bud will often fail to produce a shoot,
even were it to live. We have sometimes inserted imma-
ture buds, which have adhered to the stock, but which
pushed out no stem for two years after. 5. The inner
surface of the bud must be fitted so neatly to the corre-
sponding surface of the stock, that a union can not fail,
provided the operation is performed at a proper period in
the growing season. 6. Mechanical skill and dispatch are
essential to satisfactory success. The incision should be
made neatly; the bark lifted a trifle, without disturbing
the cambium beneath it ; and the bud should be cut from
the twig, inserted, and the ligature applied in a few sec-
onds.

The best Time to Inoculate. — The best period of the year
to bud must always be determined by the growing stocks.

40 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

When the cambium is in a semi-fluid state — whether in
spring, summer, or autumn — insert the buds. In this lati-
tude, most buds are inserted during some one of the sum-
mer months, or in September. In stocks that continue to
grow late in the season, buds are frequently inserted in
September, and some in October, but August is prefera-
ble.

Cause of Failure. — Beginners are sometimes surprised to
find, after budding a lot of thrifty young stocks, that almost
every bud has failed ; and they are quite at a loss to account
for the failure. But experience shows that the failure is
caused by the over-luxuriance of the stock, and the thin,
watery condition of the sap. If the operation had been de-
ferred until the sap had thickened, the result would have
been reversed ; and instead of only one in a hundred suc-
ceeding, there would have been only one per cent, of fail-
ures. The cherry is more liable than any other sort of
fruit to " drown out " the bud, as it is called. Hence the
best time to bud cherry-stocks is just as soon as they be-
gin to slacken their growth and show a yellow leaf here
and there. If this time is chosen, and the work done skill-
fully, there need be little fear of failure. Trees which are
not growing vigorously should be budded early. As soon
as wood sufiiciently ripe to furnish buds can be found, if
the bark on the stocks will peel, it will not be too early.
When a large quantity are to be budded, the work should
be taken in hand early, so as to get through in season, com-
mencing with the least thrifty.

The object of budding is the same as of grafting, viz., to
propagate a desirable sort of tree or plant. The only dif-
ference between a bud and a cion is that the latter is a de-
velopment of the former. Fruit can generally be obtained
by grafting from one to two years sooner than by budding.
But when a variety is very rare, we can, by budding, get

PR OPA QA TING APPLE- TREES.

41

new limbs from single eyes ; whereas, in grafting, we have
to use three or four eyes. Some trees, moreover, propa-
gate more readily by budding than by grafting. The stone-
fruits exude so much gum, when grafted, that it is hard to
succeed in the work. Then, too, in all kinds of fruit where
grafting has failed, or been forgotten in spring, budding
may be resorted to in summer. Then, if budding fail in
summer, the same stocks may be grafted the succeeding
spring.

As has been stated, the shoot from which the buds are
taken must be of the current year's growth, and must be
mature. This maturity will be shown by the forming of
buds at the axils of the leaves, and of the terminal buds.
The best buds for working will be found along the middle
of the shoot. If it is necessary, in order to have the buds
ready to meet the growth of the stock, that the scion or
branch from which buds are to be taken should be made
to hasten its maturing of the buds, pinch off the ends of
the shoot one or two weeks before the buds are to be set.
In from eight to twelve days the remaining buds will have
ripened and fitted themselves for forming new branches.

If this pinching is
the branch left on
buds, after ripen-
ing, send out new
branches, and make
a sort of second
growth. The ac-
companying illus-
tration (Figure 25)
represents the cor-
rect way of holding
cutting off a bud.
when cutting the

done early in the season, and
the tree, the result is, the

Manner of holding the knife to cut
off a bud.

the cion and the knife, when
If the cion is small, place it,
bud, on a stiff stick, as shown

42

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

Fig. 26.

Fig. 27.

Fig. 28.

in the diagram. Then a bud can be cut off with far greater
precision than if no stick were employed. Never attempt
to cut off a bud with a dull knife. Let the blade be ground
to an edge ; then whet it on a fine-gritted oil-
stone, so that the cut can be made true and
smooth. If a bud be haggled •off with a dull
knife, and the surface is not straight and even,
the union will be quite uncertain. When cut-
ting off a bud, employ a drawing cut of the knife.
Cions for Budding. — Always select the terminal
shoots for budding. Then, as soon as the shoot
is cut from the tree, let every leaf be cut off, as
represented by the figure, as the leaves rapidly
exhaust the liquid
in the bud when its
connection is sepa-
rated from the root,
and thus impair vi-
tality. The buds of
the upright shoots
of a tree are said to
make more vigorous
growth than buds
DuaaiDg. from lateral shoots;
and buds from bearing trees
are said to form fruit sooner
than buds from young trees.

A good Budding-knife is all-
important, as one can not use a
large pruning-knife for remov-
ing the buds advantageously.
A knife with a thin blade, round-
ed at the point, will be found
most convenient. The most important consideration is, to

A pair of budding-kuives.

PROPAGATING APPLE-TREES. 43

have a thin and narrow blade with a keen edge. A rough-
edged razor is no more certain to make a painful shave
than a rough-edged budding-knife is to make an unsuccess-
ful bud. It requires a good knife, a steady hand, and con-
siderable practice to cut off buds handsomely, well, and
quick. As to taking out the particle of wood attached to
the bud, it matters little, if the cut be good and not too
deep. In taking out the wood, great care is necessary to
avoid taking the root of the bud with it. Then, when the
bud is in its place, it must be well tied up. Nice, smooth,
soft strips of corn-husks applied wet, like narrow ribbons,
are the best and most convenient in common use. Every
part of the cut must be wrapped so firm as to exclude air
completely ; and this should be done as quickly as possible,
as the air soon blackens the inner surface of the bark, and
prevents the perfect union of the new parts that are placed
in contact.

Different Styles of Budding. — There are in vogue three
styles of budding, all of which are substantially the same.
The difference will be perceived by the following illustra-
tions (Fig. 29, p. 44), each of which will give the beginner
so much of an insight into the process of inoculation, that
even young boys and girls may bud rose-bushes or young
fruit-trees with satisfactory success. The ordinary process
of budding, denominated Shield-htidding or T-budding, is
represented by the accompanying designs, of which a is the
representation of the stock, and h is the bud. The follow-
ing will furnish a correct idea of the manual operation:
After selecting a smooth place on the stock, a, make a cut
with a sharp, round-pointed knife, in the form of the letter
T, about one inch long. Be careful, when cutting, to press
the edge of the blade only through the bark into the semi-
fluid cambium, and not into the wood of the stock. Now
lift the corners of the bark with the knife ; then cut a bud,

44

THE APPLE CULTUMIST.

Fig. 29.

Shield-budding.

Fig. 30.

b, from the twig
(Figure 25), as
shown by the line
around one bud,
and thrust it care-
fully down into
the sheath, c. If
the piece to which
the bud is attach-
ed be too long,
cut off the upper
end, so that the
ends will fit close-
ly to the bark of
the stock, c. Now pass a ligament around the stock, both
above and below the bud, as at t?, and
tie the end securely. The small piece
of wood that is cut off the twig may
be removed if it will separate easily.
But it will be quite as well to allow
it to remain.

The terminal bud of a twig is some-
times inserted, instead of a side-bud.
The terminal bud may be employed, if
a neat fit is made between stock and
bud, more success-
fully than if a side-
bud were used.

Fig. 31 repre-
sents the manner stock, a, and bud, &, shown
of performing an- eeparaey.

7iular budding, or ring-budding, which
is done by taking a piece of bark, say
three-fourths of an inch long, on which

Fig. 31.

Annular budding.

PROPAGATING APPLE-TREES. 45

there is a good bud, from a twig a little smaller than the
stock. Then remove a piece of the same length from the
stock, and wrap the piece that bears a bud around the
stock, and secure it with a soft and elastic ligament. Young
stocks of nut-bearing trees, that have thick bark, are fre-
quently budded in this way with more satisfactory success
than by the T-style of budding. Cotton and linen ligaments
are objectionable for closing the lips of the bark, as there is
but little elasticity in such materials. The ligaments should
be somewhat elastic, so that the strands may yield a trifle,
as the stock enlarges by growth.

Management of Buds. — After the buds have been set
about six days, each one should be examined by some com-
petent and careful person who will exercise proper judg-
ment in removing the ligaments from the buds that have
adhered firmly, and in loosening the ligaments around oth-
ers, when the strands are so tight as to form creases in the
bark. When the lips of the T-cut have not united with the
cambium, so as to hold the bud, the ligament should remain
on longer. As soon as the bud has united firmly with the
stock, the ligament should be removed. Buds that are set
in the latter part of summer are not expected to send up a
stem until the next spring. Then, early in the growing sea-
son, the stock should be cut off about one-eighth of an inch
above the bud, not square across, but a little slanting, so
that the wound will heal soon. Grafting-wax should be ap-
plied to the wound as soon as the cut is made, that the
wood may not dry up, to the injury of the bud. If shoots
from buds push upward too rapidly for their strength, a
small stake should be set near the stock, to which the tender
stem should be tied with soft shreds of old cloth, to prevent
the wind from breaking the young shoots off ; or the shoot
may be secured like Fig. 32, represented on page 46. In
many instances, the stock is cut off so near the bud that, if

46 TKE APPLE GULTUBIST.

Fig. 32. • grafting-wax is not applied, the wood of the
stock dries up so rapidly that the young shoot
withers and dies.

Budding vs. Grafting. — Budding has some ad-
vantages over grafting. — 1. Budding requires
less skill than grafting. Consequently, a young
beginner may insert three or four buds in one
small stock, with the assurance that one or
more will live. Whereas only one cion can be
set in a small stock. 2. In case four buds were
a to fail, the operation may be repeated every ten
» days without checking the growth of the stock,
which is impracticable when cions are set in

by grafting. 3. Varieties of fruit can be bud-
Manner of tying , , X • -I • r 1 • -1 -I
the shoot, a, to dcd With satisfactory success which can not be

the stock, 6. t i • i • -•

propagated by grafting. In this latitude po-
mologists rarely attempt to graft the peach. But we have
seen it stated that in the latitude of Georgia there is no
difficulty in grafting the peach successfully. Many other
trees and bushes may be budded which can not be graft-
ed with success. But old stocks can be grafted in which
buds would never live if they were inserted. In such in-
stances, the process of grafting is superior to budding. A
young tree may be sawed off at the collar of the stem and
cions inserted, which will often grow two to four feet high
before winter. In case the graft should fail, sprouts would
probably start, which could be budded in August. Hence
the eminent advantage of understanding both operations,
and knowing how to employ either process advantageously
when the other fails. If branches of a large tree were graft-
ed, and the cions should not live, the young sprouts, which
will usually start at the end of the stub, may be budded in
August. Many beginners who did not understand how to
take advantage of a failure have, in consequence, lost sev-

PROPAGATING APPLE-TREES. 47

eral years' growth and value of their trees. Our own prac-
tice always has been to bud young stocks in August or Sep-
tember. Then, if the buds failed, the stocks were grafted
the next spring close to the ground.

Management of Apple-trees in Nurseries. — The following
constitutes the practice of many nurserymen : They collect
apple-roots about as large as goose-quills, keep them in
sand in a cellar, cut them in pieces about four inches long,
graft each piece, during the winter, within doors, pack the
grafted stocks in bundles, and plant them out in rows in
the spring where a nursery is to be formed. Some plant
them thus : Thrust a spade into the soil, so as to have the
spade extend equally on both sides of the mark for the
row ; now push the spade from you, and then withdraw it.
This operation will leave a wedge-shaped hole ten inches
deep, seven long, and about two broad. It is necessary to
have another man to put in the grafts; he should put in
two, each two inches outside of the mark left as a guide,
holding them till the first or spade-man repeats the opera-
tion with the spade, which will be three to four inches
from the edge of the first hole. In making the second, the
soil is pressed against the grafts in the first ; and thus the
operation not only makes the new hole, but closes the last ;
and while the spade is being withdrawn, the second man
gets the grafts for the new hole. There is no time lost
from one operator waiting for the other. Set only half an
inch above ground. The young trees are then cultivated
in the same manner as a crop of carrots. All weeds are
kept down, and the ground is kept mellow and loose. Af-
ter they have grown an inch or two they are sprouted,
which consists in taking all the sprouts off but one, the
best. In the fall they should all be taken up and stored in
the root-cellar ; and during the winter, trim the roots and
top, and cut the top to within an inch of where it started ;

48 THE APPLE GULTUBIST.

the roots should be trimmed small enough to enable you to
plant them in the nursery-row with the spade. The sec-
ond year plant these yearlings in the nursery, the same as
the year before. Rows four feet, plants one foot apart in
the row, leaving an inch above ground. Sprout as before.
In the fall and during the winter, trim them to whips, leav-
ing only one straight shoot. The third year let them grow
as they may. In the fall and winter, trim them to whips
and top them at four feet. The fourth year, during sum-
mer, trim off any limbs that are too low on the trunk to be-
long to the head. In the autumn the trees will be ready to
transplant. Some nurserymen transplant their young trees
but once. Such a practice will produce young trees of fine
appearance; but we do not recommend this mode of pro-
ducing an orchard. If we were to plant a hundred orchards,
the trees should never be produced in such a manner. Let
the seed be planted where the trees are to grow. We are
well aware that nurserymen will hoot at this, because it en-
dangers their business of selling trees. But such trees can
rarely be relied upon, any more than a herdsman can de-
pend on the veriest scrubs of neat cattle for superior ani-
mals, simply because they have not been bred according to
the requirements of vegetable physiology. This is the
most economical way to produce apple-trees to sell to peo-
ple who do not understand the difference between a valua-
ble, hardy, and prolific tree, and one that is worthless. Not
one-fourth part of the seeds from which the thousands of
fruit-trees in nurseries have sprung were any more fit for
producing valuable trees than the half-ripe and shrunken
kernels of wheat and other grain are suitable for choice
seed.

The True Way to produce Fruit-trees. — A beginner may
listen to the talk of those who have fruit-trees to sell ; and
yet, if he desires to obtain trees that will supply him with

PROPAOATINQ APPLE-TREES. 49

fruit, and be a choice heritage to his successors, let him be-
gin right by selecting the seed from apples or pears with
his own hands; plant them where the trees are to grow;
bud the young trees; and train and cultivate them for a
few years, until they have obtained sufficient size to require
but little more care.

Now, then, what does a beginner desire to accomplish ?
What end has he in view, near or remote, in the future ?
"Why, simply, the object to be attained is, hardy , thrifty^
productive trees, which will not fail to yield fair crops of
excellent fruit every season. There is but little difficulty
in accompHshing all that may be desired, if one can find a
hardy fruit-bearing tree in his vicinity. It is assumed that
the stock of a fruit-tree will exert a marked influence on
the production of the fruit with which it may be grafted.
The Rhode Island Greening is a fair bearer in all sections
of the country, where the tree has not been starved. The
English Streaks and the Romanites are also hardy, and
naturally prolific. Select a few of the fairest apples of
these varieties, or the seed of any other hardy variety, and
plant only the largest and most perfect seeds from the
fruit. In some of the specimens there may not be a single
seed fit to plant. In others, one seed only can be found.
The same principle will hold good with pears or any other
fruit. None but the best seeds must be selected. The fruit
of any pear-tree that is hardy, and has produced a crop ev-
ery season for several successive years, may be selected,
from which to obtain a supply of seed for raising young
pear-trees. As soon as they are removed from the fruit,
before the kernels have been allowed to dry, mingle them
with sand a little moist, and keep them in a cool cellar un-
til cold weather. Then plunge the box in the ground, so
that the seeds will freeze. Early in the growing season,
stake out the ground, which is supposed to be as mellow

3

50 THE APPLE CULTURIST,

as a carrot-bed, run a crowbar down four feet into the
earth where each tree is to stand, make a large hole, fill it
with rich soil, and plant two or three seeds about one inch
deep. Stick the seeds point downward, so that they will
come up without difficulty. Cover them with fine loam.
The seeds should not be planted more than one inch apart.
If they all grow, the best stem only should be allowed to
stand. A strong stake should be driven into the ground
before the seeds are planted ; and the seeds should be stuck
in about six inches from the stake, on the south side. The
object of the stakes is to protect the young trees. If the
soil is sufficiently fertile to yield fair crops of grain or po-
tatoes, the tap-root of every young tree will strike four feet
into the earth the first season; and the tops "will grow
like sparagrass and spread like applesas."

As soon as the young trees are large enough, they should
be inoculated with buds taken from the topmost branches
of trees that always bear a bountiful crop. If the land be
kept clean, and if the surface or coronal roots are not mu-
tilated and torn from the stump, every tree, at the end of
ten years, will have attained a height of over twenty feet,
and will be loaded with fruit ; while many ordinary nursery-
trees, planted in the usual manner, will never yield a fair
crop. If an orchard is produced in this manner and re-
ceives proper care, the trees will yield bountiful crops for a
hundred years. (See illustrations, p. 22.)

Why every Fanner should produce his own Trees.— When
a person purchases an apple-tree, he has no assurance that,
if it ever produces fruit, the product will be the variety
that he bargained for. Neither has he any assurance that,
if the tree bears, it will yield even one-fourth part of a crop.
Stocks of young trees are often produced from the poorest
seeds of a very poor growing tree, a shy bearer, and a worth-
less variety. Then, if the cions of a shy bearer and a ten-

PBOPAOATING APPLE-TREES, 51

der variety be worked on inferior stocks — as they often are
in large nurseries — what can be expected from the tree?
There are untold numbers of apple trees of this character
all over our country ; and they can never be made to yield
abundant crops, even if the tops are regrafted and the soil
renovated. It is well known that many tree-peddlers are
not over-scrupulous in their business. They will sell a per-
son any variety of fruit-trees he may desire to purchase,
whether they -have such trees in their possession or not.
This is frequently done. Tree-peddlers have told us that
they have often sold any variety of apple-trees that they
had in their possession, for other varieties that were called
for. They received their price for the spurious trees, which
was all they cared for.

It will usually require six to ten years to determine an
error, or trick, or fraud, in the purchase of fruit-trees. And
even then, no person who hates strife and the uncertainties
of legal contests would undertake to ferret out a swindler
in the purchase of fruit-trees ; but there may be the trees,
after ten or twenty years, comparatively worthless — cum-
berers of the land. There are but few orchards in the
country in which more or less worthless trees can not be
found.

Again, even when excellent apple-trees are ordered of a
reliable nurseryman, it often happens that all the small
roots are thoroughly dried up and killed before the trees
are transplanted where they are to grow. Tree-diggers
are frequently ordered to take up several thousand trees
with a horse-digger, leaving hundreds of them lying in a
hot sun, and exposed to drying winds for half a day, or
even longer. Then, before the roots are wrapped in moss,
there is not a vestige of vitality in many of them. In many
instances, a car-load of fruit-trees is shipped several hun-
dred miles, when they are tumbled into a hay-rigging and

52 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

carted about town all day, exposed to drying winds and
sunshine, and frequently to cold and frosty nights, which
will destroy the vitality of every root. We have often
travelled on steamboats and cars, where we have seen fruit-
trees without any protection, piled in the open air, where
the roots have dried to death in a few hours.

A farmer purchases, for example, a supply of apple-trees
to be sent one or two hundred miles. As orders at the
nursery may be large, the operation of digging must com-
mence early in the season. The trees are dug up before
the frost is really out of the ground ; and before they can
reach their destination, they are often frozen and dried, al-
ternately, for two weeks. The great wonder is, that those
who attempt to produce orchards with purchased trees suc-
ceed half as well as they do. But immense numbers of
failures in all parts of the country show conclusively that
there are grave faults somewhere.

Another objection to nursery trees is the fact that, in
many nurseries, the young trees have been forced into an
unusually large and tender growth by frequent applications
of stimulating manures. The nurseryman produces trees
to sell. He has no further concern than to prepare for the
market such trees as will supply an active demand at an
exorbitant price. Hence he piles on the manure, and pro-
duces in the shortest possible period the largest possible
growth. He will not be responsible for the results after
the trees have been transplanted into an orchard. Beauti-
ful young trees removed from a nursery, where the soil is
as rich as a fertile carrot-bed, to land of ordinary fertility, or
to a poor soil, will usually receive a " set-back," or " stunt,"
from which they seldom recover.

The foregoing suggestions will furnish sufficient reasons
for starting young fruit-trees of any variety of fruit on
such ground as may be chosen for the orchard, that they

PMOPAGATING APPLE-TREES. 53

may not be checked in their future development. Hence
one will always be more certain of having hardy and thrifty
trees when they are obtained from a nursery where the
land is in rather a poor state of fertiUty than from a nurs-
ery where the soil is rich. But, after all, the correct way
is to plant the seeds where the trees are to grow. By
adopting the plan herewith recommended, a person can
produce a fruitful orchard much sooner than by purchasing
his trees.

Practical Operations. — In 1843 we received the catalogue
of a nurseryman who was recommended to be " thoroughly
reliable as to the genuineness of every tree that was order-
ed from his nursery." His apple-trees and pear-trees were
represented in his catalogue as being very large and fine —
"four to five feet high" — hardy and thrifty, and would
be shipped for fifty to seventy-five cents each. As we de-
sired to start an orchard, we forwarded the money, and
gave an order for the trees early in the spring. After the
season for planting trees had so far advanced that we had
thought^ it quite too late for transplanting, our trees ar-
rived. But, instead of being thrifty and large, suitable for
transplanting, some of them, for which we sent seventy-five
cents each, were only one year old, and some had only been
budded the previous season. They had been exposed to
the air for so long a time, that it was only by the best care
that life was preserved, without one inch of growth, till the
next season. Many of our neighbors were treated in the
same manner by the same nurseryman. And yet we knew
him for more than twenty years, up to the day of his death,
as " a reliable nurseryman !"

Prepared Bandages for Budding and Grafting.— Cut cot-
ton cloth, such as sheeting, into narrow strips, say half an
inch wide, and sew the ends smoothly together in the same
manner as carpet-rags are prepared. Then wind the long

54 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

strip on a small stick loosely, and in a diagonal direction,
so that a portion of the roll will not fall off the stick with-
out unrolling. Prepare one or more bunches of an oblong
form, as large as a man's fist. These shreds may be made
also of under-garments that are worn out; or a yard or
two of light shirting may be cut into strips one-fourth of
an inch wide and sewed together. Now put one pound of
beeswax, one pound of resin, and one and a quarter pounds
of tallow into a deep vessel, and melt it by a gentle heat.
Then plunge the balls of bandages into the boiling liquid,
holding them below the surface until the liquid has forced
all the air from the interior of the balls and saturated the
cloth. This may be determined by observing when bub-
bles of air cease to rise from the surface of the liquid. By
this means grafting-wax is simply applied to a bandage in
a very economical manner ; and the bandages are in a con-
venient form for use at any time and for all kinds of graft-
ing and budding, as it will not unwind of its own accord.
In cool weather, if the wax with which the roll is saturated
should be too hard, keep it in a vessel of warm water while
using it, so that the wax will be sufficiently plastic to work.
Such bandages require no tying, as the ends will adhere to
the stock or bandage. Furthermore, there will be sufficient
elasticity in such bandages to allow the stock to expand by
its growth, and no cracks will be formed in the wax, as
there is when nothing but the clear wax is employed. Af-
ter the bandage is applied to the stocks, a little wax may
be spread over the end where the saturated bandage does
not cover the wound. The width of such bandage-material
should be increased for large stocks.

Another Way of making Grafting-wax. — Any smaller
quantity may be made by observing the correct propor-
tions. Add tallow to make it softer, and resin to render
the wax harder. Take six pounds of resin, two pounds of

PBOPAOATING APPLE-TBEEIS. 55

tallow, and two pounds of beeswax; pulverize the resin
first, and put into a clean, dry iron pot over a slow fire ;
stir constantly, until it is all dissolved ; then add the tal-
low and wax, and stir the mixture until it is melted ; pour
the mass into a vessel containing cold, clean water; com-
mence immediately at the edge of the wax, and pull pieces
of it, as you would pull molasses-candy, rubbing your hands
first with tallow ; and continue to do so, now and then, un-
til it is finished ; but work it no longer than is necessary
to take the water out. Separate it in rolls six inches long,
and a little thicker than a candle. Put these rolls on a dish
or pie-pan in the cellar until wanted for use. They will
keep for years. One day before using, hang them in the
kitchen, not near the fire, and they will become • pliable.
Always have a piece of tallow near, to rub the hands while
using the wax, as tallow will prevent it sticking to the fin-
gers. Less beeswax and more tallow may be employed, if
desirable. Grafting-wax may be made without beeswax;
still, a small proportion of beeswax will render the mixture
much more valuable.

Liquid Grafting-wax. — Figure 33 represents a vessel for
p,{ 33 containing liquid grafting-wax, to be ap-

plied with a small paint-brush. The large
outside vessel may be of cast-iron or tin.
A common tea-kettle will subserve the same
purpose. A small tin pail, to receive the
wax, is placed in the opening of the kettle.
At the top of the wax-kettle there is a
broad flange to support it. The wax in

Pot for grafting-wax. ii i , . , -, -, , ,

the small kettle is heated by the hot water
in the large vessel, without danger of burning it.

66 THE APPLE VULTURIST.

CHAPTER II.

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL FOR AN ORCHARD.

Now, long before the planting dig the ground

With furrows deep, that cast a rising mound ;

And hoary frosts, after the painful toil

Of delving hinds, will rot the mellow soil. — Deyden's Virgil.

The manner of preparing the ground for an apple-orchard
will depend very much on the character and condition of
both the soil and the subsoil. The whole ground for an
apple-orchard should be pulverized twenty inches deep, so
thoroughly that the roots of the young trees will spread
rapidly through the entire seed-bed. A person who is about
to plant an orchard must exercise his own judgment in re-
gard to deepening the soil, as the ground in many places is
so porous and mellow that roots of growing apple-trees will
strike down six or eight feet. Where a person can thrust
a spade or shovel down, without difficulty, through the sub-
soil, all the preparation requisite will be simply to plough,
manure, and scarify the surface-soil, as the ground is usually
prepared for a crop of carrots or onions. But where the
compact subsoil extends up to the second rail of the fence —
as it is said to, along the slopes of some of our Northern
lakes and rivers — a great deal of work must be done before
the ground will be in a suitable condition to receive the
trees or the seed. It will pay well to perform this job in
the most thorough manner, as it is a piece of work that is
<Ione for life. If not performed thoroughly, before the seed
is planted or the trees are set, it must go undone. By a
proper pulverization of the subsoil twenty inches or two
feet deep, where the subsoil is compact, trees will gi'ow

FREPAKATION OF TEE SOIL.
Fig. 34.

67

DB. grant's "iona great trenoh-plough."

The cut of a large plough, herewith given, Fig. 34, represents one of Dr. C. W.
Grant's huge implements, which he ordered to be made by the " Peekskill Plough
Company," of Peekskill, N. T., for the purpose of pulverizing the soil to a great
depth on Iona Island, where his celebrated vineyard is located. With a strong
team of four to eight good mules, horses, or heavy oxen, such a plough will cut
farrows, by running twice in a place, thirty inches deep. The implement is made
very strong, and is well adapted to the purpose for which it was intended. Of
course, where the substratum is full of boulders and bars of hard-pan, it would be
difficult to draw any plough as deep as thirty inches ; yet on many kinds of soil
every square yard may be thoroughly broken to that depth.

larger in ten years than they would have grown in twenty
years, if the subsoil had not been broken up so finely that
the roots could spread deep and wide. Small, narrow, and
deep post-holes in a compact subsoil will not answer. We
want to put in the subsoiler beam-deep, this way, cross ways,
cornerways, and diagonally, so that every particle of the
hard stratum may be broken up. It is always best, if prac-
ticable, to keep the thin stratum of soil or surface-mould
on the top of the subsoil, especially where the under-stratum
is compact, heavy, and less fertile than the surface-soil.
The writer once prepared heavy land for an orchard by
throwing the ground in high ridges with a three-horse
plough. As there was no sod on the surface, a ridge was
formed midway between the places for the rows, and the
ground was ploughed several times, until a broad and deep
middle furrow was produced where the trees were to grow.

3*

58

THE APPLE GULTURIST.

Fig. 35. The ground was then

staked out, when
holes six feet in di-
ameter were dug
twenty inches deep-
er in the hard earth
than the plough had
been drawn. Mel-
low soil was then
carted from anoth-
er field, and shovel-
led into the holes.
About half a wag-
on-load was deposit-
ed in each hole. As
one man shovelled
from the wagon, an-
other returned the
hard earth that had
been removed from
the holes. Rich turf
was also ploughed up along the highway and
carted into the holes. After they were filled,
the ridges were all ploughed down level, after
which the trees were set in their places. The
ground alluded to was so compact and hard that
in most places it was necessary to run the plough
three times in one place, with a man on the beam, before
we could work the implement down a foot below the sur-
face-soil. Then, when we came to deepen the places where
the trees were to be set, every inch of the earth had to be
dug up with the sharp point of a digger's pick. Two men,
by laboring faithfully, after the ground had been thoroughly
subsoiled, were able to prepare the places and set out only

PREPARATION OP THE SOIL. 59

ten to twelve trees in a day. But the rapid growth of the
trees and fine crops of fruit assured us that such labor had
not been misdirected. The truth is, roots of fruit-trees
can not spread downward in such compact ground, except
at a very slow and unsatisfactory growth, from year to
year.

How to Plough Deep.

The plough with ill holding turns quickly aside.— Tom Tussee.

When preparing the ground for an apple-orchard, where
the substratum consisted of a compact calcareous, gravelly
clay, the ploughing was done with a heavy yoke of oxen,
and a span of horses forward of them, attached to a deep-
tiller-plough, with which, by going twice in the same place,
with a man on the beam, we could cut a narrow furrow
eighteen inches deep. A very short yoke was used on the
oxen, so that the plough could be adjusted to cut only five
or six inches in width. The ground was such that the
plough would frequently encounter boulders as large as a
man's head, and sometimes much larger. Many such stones
would throw the plough out. But if the team could not
draw them out with the plough, every one was dug out with
a pick and crowbar. This was a slow way of preparing
ground. But the process was thorough. As the work was
performed in late autumn, when there was Uttle else to be
done with a team, we had ample time to put the plough
down to a uniform depth over the entire field. Such prep-
aration of the ground paid satisfactorily in the luxuriant
and healthful growth of the trees.

The illustration given on page 60 (Fig. 36) represents a
common plough, with an adjustable subsoil attachment for
preparing ground for fruit-trees. One of the advantages of
such a plough is, the best soil can be kept on the surface —
where it always should be — and one man can hold an im-

60

THE APPLE CULTVRIST.

plement that does the work of two ploughs
when held by two different men. In case a
light mucky soil were resting on a heavy
subsoil, it would be advisable to turn up
the compact subsoil, and mingle it with
the light soil by cross-ploughing several
times before the trees or apple-seeds were
planted. A few days' work with a double
team and an extra hand, when preparing
the ground for an orchard, will be labor
judiciously appropriated. If the ground is
in sod, and the soil is heavy, the prepara-
tion for trees should commence a year or

Pig. 36,

The true way to ride a plough-beam.

more before the seeds or trees are to be planted. It is folly
for a man to plant trees of any kind in grass ground. Grass,
clover, weeds, and grain, if allowed to grow near trees, will
retard their growth far more than one would suppose. As
a rule, this is true. And yet we have seen fruit-trees, on
deep alluvial soils, send out branches on every side, one to
two feet annually, even when the surface of the ground
around them was covered with a tough sod, and yielded a
heavy burden of grass.

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.

61

represents a transverse

Pig. 37.

Trench-ploughing. — Figure 3 7
section of trench-
ploughing, as the
ground will appear
after having been
ploughed by such an
implement as is il-
lustrated on page 57.

If the land is not so a section of treuch-ploughiug.

stony as to hinder the use of a trench-plough, by adjust-
ing it to cut a furrow-slice about twelve or fourteen inches
broad, the whole ground may be thoroughly pulverized to
a depth of two feet. In order to perform the task well, the
plough must cut narrow furrow-slices.

Under-draining Orchards. — Figure 38 furnishes a per-
spective of two rows of apple-trees, between which there is
a deep tile-drain. When such drains are made, the joints
ot the tiles should be covered with collars, and the hardest

An under-drain between the rows.

earth should be placed on the tiles, rather than mellow soil,
in order to prevent roots of trees from entering the joints,
and enlarging to such an extent as to obstruct the water-
passage. All under- drains between rows of fruit-trees
should be three or four feet deep.

62 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

Drains between the Rows of Fruit-trees. — The ground
for another orchard was prepared in the following manner :
Stakes were set to indicate the rows of trees, thirty-three
feet distant, each way. As the subsoil was a heavy, reten-
tive calcareous clay, it was deemed necessary to put a deep
under-drain between all the rows. The ground was plough-
ed by cutting very narrow furrow-slices, and going twice
in a place, making a deep middle furrow midway between
the rows. Then a good tile drain was put down, in no
place less than thirty inches, and in many places four feet
deep. The land was then ploughed again, turning back
furrows to the ditches, and finishing deep dead furrows
where the rows of trees were to stand. The tiles drew all
the surplus water, so that the heavy and compact soil was
greatly improved in its friability. But there are hundreds
of orchards that would never be benefited by drains be-
tween the rows; and there are untold numbers of fruit-
trees of all kinds which have never yielded half a crop of
fruit, simply because the ground has been kept too wet and
cold during two or more months in the former part of the
growing season. There are frequently some portions of an
orchard which are excessively wet, while most/)f the ground
would never be benefited by under-draining. When young
apple-trees do not grow luxuriantly where the soil is deep
and fertile, and when the leaves do not seem to be healthy,
it is a certain indication of one of the following difficulties,
namely: The ground is too wet and cold; or borers are
working in the stem ; or the tap root has been cut off ; or
one was never sent down into the subsoil to bring up
moisture in dry weather, and such inorganic material as
the growing tree requires ; or the soil round about the tree
is not kept free from noxious weeds, injurious grass, and
other crops.

If the rows are to be laid out in the quincunx style, stake

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.

63

them out so that the trees will stand in one direction, ex-
actly parallel with the under-drains. By starting correctly,
the rows may be made to run in any desired direction, ei-
ther down a slope or across a slope, in a diagonal line. If
tile-drains are made a rod from apple-trees, there will be
very little danger that roots will ever fill the water-passage,
provided the tiles are put down three feet. Were the tiles
laid beneath or near the rows, roots would be liable to ob-
struct the water-passage in a few seasons. There need be
no apprehension of rendering heavy land too dry by under-
drains between the rows.

The fruit of the Swaar is usually large, regularly formed, roundish, or roundish
oblate ; skin of a greenish-yellow when first gathered; but when fully ripe, it is of
a fine golden color, dotted with numerous distinct brown specks, and sometimes
faintly marbled with gray russet on the side and around the stalk ; flesh yellow-
ish, fine-grained and tender, with an exceedingly rich and aromatic flavor, and
spicy smell. The core is small, and the skin tender. The trees are very produc-
tive on good land ; season, from December to April.

64 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

The best Soil for Apples. — The most desirable soil for ap-
ples is one where there is a liberal supply of both clay and
sand. Indeed, apple-trees must have both clay and sand,
or they will not yield abundant crops of fruit for a long
time. Consequently, a good fertile loam, which supplies
both, will be found an excellent soil for an apple orchard.
In numerous instances, a deep alluvial soil — if it happens
to be of the right character — will be found excellent for
either apples or pears. The fact that the roots of an ap-
ple-tree must be supplied with clay and sand, enables the
beginner to improve his ground for apples, when either
clay or sand is lacking, or when there is an excess of clay,
and a deficiency of sand, and vice versa. Where the soil
is deep and light, composed largely of sand and muck and
leaf-mould, let two or three tons of clay be spread on the
surface of the ground, in late autumn or winter, where
each tree is to- be planted. Then, in the spring, as it will
be fine, let it be mingled with the light soil. On the con-
trary, if the soil is heavy, add sand, muck and leaf -mould ;
and mingle such additions thoroughly with the soil. Pile
on, also, gas-house lime, old and quick-lime, leached, un-
leached, and coal ashes, chip-dirt, sawdust, fertile street dirt,
scrapings of the manure-yard, tan bark, leather shavings,
refuse of woollen mills, and all such manurial material as
can readily be obtained. It will pay to cart sawdust two
miles to put around apple-trees, as such material will fur-
nish much of the best quality of food for the hungry roots
of growing trees. Good barn-yard manure is also excellent
for growing trees ; and there is no danger of applying too
much of it. But all such articles should be worked into
the soil, where the roots can feed on such portions as will
promote the growth of the trees and the development of
the fruit.

We have met with scores of orchards in New Jersey

PHEPARATION OF THE SOIL. 65

where the soil was deficient in clay; and after one or two
fair crops had been gathered, the proprietors invariably
complained that their trees did not yield even medium
crops of fruit. But they did not seem to understand that
apple-trees must have a supply of clay, as well as sand, in
order to yield well. We have in mind large numbers of
men who have fruit-trees on the light soils of New Jersey
and of Long Island, who have always complained that their
fruit-trees are failing, and that varieties are dying out.
The fact is, there was nothing available in the soil out of
which the roots of trees could produce apples. Conse-
quently, those very men would report that in their locali-
ties " such and such varieties are complete failures ;" when
two tons of clay, a few bushels of lime, a top-dressing of
ashes, and a dressing of rich compost, would have caused
every branch to hang down with plump and luscious fruit.
A gentleman of our acquaintance, at this suggestion, spread
two wagon-loads of clay round about a barren fall-pippin
tree, and the next season there was a bountiful crop of
fine fruit. These suggestions wiU give a beginner a fair
idea of the requirements of growing apple-trees, and of the
chief operations in preparing the soil for a profitable or-
chard.

What growing Apple-trees require. — By referring to the
analytical constituents of apples, it will be perceived that
there is a large percentage of potash, phosphoric acid, some
soda, some lime, and some phosphate of iron in the fruit.
If these ingredients are scarce in the soil, we may succeed
in producing fine-looking trees, but they will not bear fruit,
except inferior crops of small, knotty, scabby, and one-sided
specimens, simply because the roots can not find a supply
of fruit-producing material in all the space they occupy.
Bones, fish, dead animals, hair, leather shavings, and genu-
ine superphosphate, and good marl, will supply very irapor-

66 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

tant ingredients to make large and luscious fruit. x\shes
of all kinds — especially unleaclied wood-ashes — will supply
potash, which is of eminent importance in the production
of fair and plump fruit. Hence every gallon of soap-suds
should be poured round about growing trees. During the
production of all kinds of cereal grain, grass, vegetables,
and fruit, Nature forms out of sand and potash a kind of
liquid glass, which is spread over the leaves, stems, and fruit,
to fortify the tender parts from the injurious effects of rust
and mildew. Hence, if we top-dress growing wheat with a
hberal supply of sand and wood-ashes, the stalks and leaves
will be very harsh and stiff, and of a bright color, as Nature
was supplied with an abundance of the right kind of mate-
rial to form a glassy coat of mail over the surface of every
part of the plant. Hence rust could not penetrate the
glassy covering. Now, then, if we pile on the wood-ashes
and sand, or soap-suds, an elastic, glassy covering will be
spread so thickly over the surface of every apple, that rust
and cracks on the fruit will seldom be met with. Were a
person to cast a barrel or two of soft soap into the street,
almost every thoughtful man would rebuke him for such a
wanton waste of valuable fertilizing material for fruit-trees
or for grain. And yet, after a barrel of soap has been dis-
solved and diluted in the wash-tub, it is quite as valuable for
fertilizing purposes as before it was dissolved. There is
very little danger of spreading too large a supply of wood-
ashes around apple-trees. The roots must be fed with
proper materials for developing the fruit. Three or four
bushels of lime spread around a bearing tree, as far out as
the branches extend, will often produce a fair crop of fruit.
The carcass of a dead horse, or cow, if cut up into small
pieces, and buried where the roots of an apple-tree will feed
on the flesh and bones, will often make an indifferent bearer
yield a bountiful crop. Marl is also excellent when used in
the same way.

PBEPAHATION OF THE SOIL. 67

Requisite Elements of Fertility. — Whatever earthy ingre-
dients are found in the wood, bark, and fruit of trees must
be derived from the soil ; and if the soil in which they are
planted does not contain all these ingredients, the trees, or
the fruit, or both, must necessarily fail. The mechanical
condition of the soil is of as much importance in fruit-cul-
ture as its chemical constitution. In its preparation, there-
fore, the aim should be to secure good depth with perfect
drainage. The object is to maintain a moderately luxuriant
growth with early and thorough maturity in the wood ; and
this can be best attained in comparatively poor soils of mod-
erate fertility. As a general rule, a soil which is dry, firm,
mellow, and fertile, is well suited to the cultivation of fruit-
trees. It should be deep, to allow the extension of the
roots ; dry, or else well drained, to prevent injury from
stagnant water below the surface ; firm, and not peaty or
spongy, to preclude disaster from frost, mildew, and rust.

Most soils in this country may be much benefited for all
decidedly hardy kinds of fruit, as the apple and pear, by
good manuring. Shallow soils should be loosened deeply -
by heavy furrows and manure ; or, if the whole surface can
not be thus treated, a strip of ground eight feet wide, where
the row of trees is to stand, should be rendered in this way
deep and fertile for their growth. The manure should be
thoroughly intermixed with the soil by repeated harrow-
ings. The only trees which will not bear a high fertility
are those brought originally from warmer countries, and
liable to suffer from the frost of winter — as the peach, nec-
tarine, and apricot ; for they are stimulated to grow too late
in the season, and frost strikes them when the wood is im-
mature. It, however, happens, in the ordinary practice of
the country, that where one peach or apricot tree is injured
by too rich a cultivation, more than a hundred suffer by
diminished growth from neglect.

68 THE APPLE CULTUMIST.

One Error in manuring the Ground, when an orchard is
growing, consists in applying too much carbonaceous ma-
terial, when there is already too much, but a scarcity of
mineral or inorganic material. Most soils contain a suf-
ficient quantity of carbon, in the form of leaf-mould and
muck, for the requirements of fruit-trees, provided there is
no lack of inorganic elements in the soil, such as alumina,
potash, and soda. Granite soils are among the best for
fruit, as this rock abounds in feldspar and mica, both of
which contain potash. As these rocks disintegrate and en-
ter into the composition of the soil, they supply one of the
most necessary elements for the formation of good trees
and fruit. Some of the best orchards we have ever seen
were on alluvial (loamy) soils, lying upon limestone rocks
which came up near the surface. One of the best soils on
which to raise fruit is that just cleared of a forest. The
surface should be rolling or descending, and moderately dry
and rich. Such ground needs little or no preparation. The
roots of the forest-trees, as they decay, keep it loose and
mellow, and afford the exact food necessary for a rapid
and healthy growth of the fruit-trees ; and in most instan-
ces, the soil abounds plentifully in those elements which are
requisite to form the most perfect fruit. Another consid-
eration, and a very important one, is, that fruit-trees grown
on recently-cleared forest land are much less liable to be
diseased than those grown on old land.

Any one going from an old settled country to a new one
will not fail to observe the remarkable difference between
the trees and fruit of the one and the other. How much
more thrifty they are in the latter than in the former, and
how much larger, fairer, and more perfect the fruit usually
is on new land than on old.

Orchards on Rough Land. — There are thousands of acres
of rough, broken, rocky, and uneven ground, in many States,

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 69

which have never been ploughed, but vrhich would be more
valuable for orchards than for any other purpose, were
apple-trees properly started on them. In many localities in
New England, boulders cover the surface of the ground so
completely that a team can scarcely be driven across the
field. But the soil is generally of a superior quality for
fruit of almost every kind, and especially for apples. Were
the boulders removed, so that the ground could be plough-
ed, the land would yield abundant crops of cereal grain of
almost any kind. But the boulders will hinder the growth
of apple-trees but little, as such rocky soils are usually so
porous and friable that roots will strike deeply and at a
great length every season.

The most economical and expeditious way of starting an
orchard on such ground is to commence, at one corner of
the plot, to stake out the places for the trees. In many in-
stances every boulder that would be in the way can be re-
moved with crowbars and cant-hooks. Occasionally, how-
ever, a. large boulder weighing ten or more tons may be
lying exactly where a tree should stand. In some instances
such large rocks can be buried in a hole dug close by, of suf-
ficient depth to receive the entire stone beneath the surface.
Whenever a rock is to be buried in such a manner, a strong
brace should hold it from tumbling in before the hole is
ready.

After the plot is properly staked out in quincunx order,
drive a stake into the ground, a few inches from the points
where the trees are to grow. Then make deep holes with
a crowbar, as directed on another page ; fill the holes with
mould, sand, or mellow earth, and plant the apple- seeds in
late autumn, as directed. Apple-trees will grow rapidly on
such ground, and will yield abundant crops of fruit.

70 THE APPLE GULTUBIST.

CHAPTER III.

LAYING OUT THE GROUND FOR AN ORCHARD.

"Now mark out the quincunx in hexagon lines,
And orderly stake it for trees or for vines;
If circles or triangles cover the ground,
At each intersection the quincunx is found."

Many beginners are often at a great loss how to com-
mence laying out an orchard correctly, so that the trees
will stand in straight rows, at a right angle, or in the hex-
agonal or quincunx order. One can guess at a right angle,
in some instances, with satisfactory accuracy; but some-
times a person may feel confident that his stakes have been
stuck at a right angle, when he has found, to his disappoint-
ment, that the angle was surprisingly obtuse, or acute, as
the case may be. If the rows are begun crooked, stake
after stake may be altered without being able to form
straight lines, and with only an increase of the confusion.
If the first tree, in a row of fifty, be placed only six inches
out of the way, and be followed as a guide for the rest, the
last one will deviate fifty times six inches from a right line,
even if the first error is. not repeated. We have seen large
apple-orchards with rows nearly as crooked as this. To
say nothing of the deformed appearance to the eye, crooked
rows prove exceedingly inconvenient every time the ground
is planted and cultivated with crops in rows. It is a very
easy task to mark out the ground for an orchard or vine-
yard, having the rows running at right angles, or in the
quincunx order, without the aid of a surveyor's compass.
The trees should stand in straight rows, first, for the sake
of the workmanlike appearance ; and, secondly, for the sake

LAYING OUT THE GROUND. 7l

of convenience, when ploughing and cultivating the ground.
When one sets out fruit-trees in crooked rows, the little
crooks, which might have been avoided by a moment's f oi-e-
thought, often annoy through life, like mortifying mistakes
in one's moral career, which can never be corrected. Hence
the eminent importance of commencing correctly to mark
out the ground, so that every row shall be as straight as
can be desired.

The proper Distance apart. — ^Most persons when about to
plant apple-trees, unless they have exercised themselves to
think how much space an apple-tree, when full-grown, will
occupy, are liable to make egregious mistakes by setting
their trees decidedly too close in the rows. We have
known many intelligent farmers set their young apple-trees
only ten feet apart ! After one tree had been planted, a
distance of ten feet was measured from the tree, when an-*
other tree was set erect, and the eyes were glanced around
to measure the range of the branches. The first impres-
sion was, that the tops would scarcely fill the apparently
great arda assigned to each tree. Hence trees were plant-
ed more than twice as close as they should be. The first
apple-trees that we ever transplanted were set about twen-
ty-seven feet apart. As we stood at our little tree — as
boys are accustomed to, when setting out trees — and look-
ed at those little whips, and then cast the eye about the
large area that must be filled before the branches would
touch each other, we thought, as a thousand other farmers
do who have planted their trees too close together, that we
should be an old man — were life prolonged — before the
branches would meet each other. But see how soon

"Tall oaks from little acorns grow."

Seventeen years after the little whips were planted, we
measured the height and breadth of the tops; and the

72 THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

height of one Benoni-tree, of fine proportions, was twenty-
one and a half feet, and from the centre of the body to a
point directly below the ends of the lateral branches, was
fifteen to seventeen feet on all sides. If the branches of
the other trees had spread out laterally with the same ra-
pidity, their extremities would have interlocked a distance
of four feet on all sides. Some pomologists insist that the
distance between apple-trees should never be less than forty
feet; while others say thirty feet; and others thirty-three
feet ; and some, even forty-eight feet apart. By a proper
investigation of this subject, it will be seen that the proper
distance will depend on the kind of trees to be transplant-
ed. The correct idea is to plant the trees at such a dis-
tance apart that, when they have attained their full size,
the lateral branches will not interweave each other. If
trees be set so close together that the branches of one tree
will grow among those on each side of it, the trees will not
be as productive or healthy as if they were farther apart.
Fruit-trees must be entirely isolated, in order to flourish
and be productive. There should always be suflicient space
between the tree-tops to permit a person, when gathering
fruit, to carry a ladder in an erect position between the
trees. If apple-trees stand two rods, or thirty-three feet,
apart, in every direction, and if the trees are pruned cor-
rectly, from the first and second years of their growth, so
that an area of fifteen feet on each side of every tree is
properly filled with bearing branches, no one will ever have
reason to complain that his trees were planted too closely.
It would be a very easy thing to train some kinds of apple-
trees to extend their lateral branches twenty feet each way,
from the stem of the tree. But there would be no gain in
such wide-spreading tree-tops. Most of our influential and
experienced pomologists agree as to the distance of thirty-
three feet for planting apple-trees, except for certain varie-

LAYING OUT THE GROUND. 73

ties, like the Westfield Seek-no-further, Northern Spy, and
some others, the tops of which are never incHned to spread,
like the Tompkins County King. It is an excellent practice,
when planting an orchard, to plant varieties that grow erect,
alternately, with such trees as have wide-spreading tops.

Rows at Right Angles. — The diagram herewith given
(Fig. 39) will aid the intelligent . Fig. 39.

pomologist in staking out ground ^J
so that the rows will run at right
angles, with as much accuracy as if
the angle had been formed with a
compass. The first step will be
to prepare as many stakes as there
are trees to be planted. Then set ^^^y^^g out a right angle,
a row of stakes, say thirty-three feet apart, on the front
side of the orchard, represented by the line A B. The most
convenient way of measuring will be to make a light pole
of the desired length, so as to avoid all errors in measuring.
IN'ow, to find the correct angle, stretch a chalk line, A B, in
the line of the first row of stakes. Then stretch another
line, C D, as represented, so that the lines will cross at E,
exactly at the desired corner of the plot. Measure with a
ten-foot pole on the line A B, six feet from the central in-
tersection of the lines at E, and thrust a pin through the
line. At eight feet from E, stick another pin through the
line C D. If the lines cross each other at a right angle, the
measurement will be, as indicated by the diagram, six, eight,
afid ten feet, from pins to the corner, and from pin to pin.
The next step will be to set a row of stakes in the line C
D. Fig. 40, page 74, will enable the operator to proceed in
setting the remainder of the stakes. Having set all the
stakes in the line A B, let them be set also in the line A D.
Then lay out the angle A B C, as shown by the diagram, and
set the stakes from B to C ; after which, measure the dis-

4

74 THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

tances from D to C, and set the

Fig. 40. AT

^ ^ * + * * • ,* stakes. A row of stakes now ap-
pears on every side of the orchard.
If the soil is smooth and mellow,
******* the most expeditious way will be
******* to make a mark by dragging a
^ * * ♦ * ♦ ♦ heavy chain from one side of the

orchard to the other ; then set the

******* '

stakes where the marks intersect.
******* One person can stake out the

Kows at right angles. i • .i • •,! .i

ground in this manner with the
most satisfactory exactness. After the stakes are all set,
cast the eye along each row, and if any stake is one inch
out of the line, let it be adjusted. Another good way, after
setting the outside stakes, is to let one person set the re-
maining stakes, while two other persons — one on each side
of the orchard — direct where to plant each stake, by sight-
ing across the plot, from one outside stake to another. A
ten-acre field can be staked out, according to the foregoing
plan, in a few hours after the stakes are provided. A good
substitute for one-half the stakes would be large corn-cobs
stuck in the stake-holes, after the correct point has been
found by employing tall stakes.

Planting Trees in the Quincunx Style. — The ancient
quincunx style of planting trees consists in setting one tree
at the central intersection of two lines crossing each other
in a diagonal direction, from four trees set in the form of a
hollow square. (See Quincunx, p. 329.) But trees can not
be placed so uniformly over the ground when planted in
this manner as when set out in the usual way, with rows ex-
tending in two directions. The modern quincunx style of
planting trees consists in setting them in such a manner
that the distance from one to another, throughout the or-
chard or vineyard, shall be uniform. In other words, any

LAYING OUT THE GROUND.

75

Synonyms.— ^iQQWB Eed Winter, Butters, Eed Baldwin, Pecker, Woodpecker,
and Felch. The fruit is of good size, roundish, striped with crimson ; in the sun-
shine, the apples are often of an orange and red color, covered with a few russet
dots, and with radiating streaks of russet about the stem ; flesh, yellowish-white,
crisp, with an agreeable mingling of the saccharine and acid, which constitutes a
rich flavor. The tree is a fine bearer, vigorous and upright in growth ; season,
from November to March. The Baldwin is one of the most profitable apples
raised for market.

four trees will be found to stand at the angles of a plot of
ground of a rhomboidal form, and any tree in the orchard
within the outside row will stand exactly in the centre of a
circle, in which circle six other trees are standing all at a
uniform distance apart. If apple-trees, for example, be set
thirty feet apart, in the usual manner, or in the old quin-
cunx order, one row more of trees may be set on one acre,
by adopting the modern quincunx style; and yet all the
trees will be thirty feet distant from each other over the
entire orchard. Planting fruit-trees or grape-vines in the

76 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

modern quincunx order, distributes them more uniformly-
over the ground than if planted in any other manner.
Whatever is put out in this style will stand in straight
rows in four different directions. Indian corn, or any
other crop that grows in hills, may be cultivated in the
quincunx order more satisfactorily and profitably than if
the rows were to cross each other at right angles. When
rows are formed in the modern quincunx order, the horse-
hoe may be run four different ways between them, thus en-
abling the cultivator or horse-hoe to do the work of pulver-
ization, or rooting up the weeds and grass, more thorough-
ly than when the implement can be driven only one or two
ways.

Planting trees and grape-vines in the modern quincunx
order has frequently been recommended as the most desir-
able way of putting them out. But the writers told every
thing about the operation except what a practical man de-
sires to know, and what a beginner must understand before
he can proceed to lay out the ground correctly. Some writ-
ers— who probably never attempted to stake out ground
in the quincunx order — have even given the number of feet,
inches, and fractions of an inch, from tree to tree, when
measuring at a right angle. But working-men, who are not
accustomed to measuring inches and fractions of inches,
need a more convenient and expeditious way of staking out
ground than to measure with a two-foot rule, from one
point to another, on the surface. When the ground is cor-
rectly laid out in the modern quincunx order, the plot be-
tween any three corners, or between any three trees, will be
exactly in the form of an equilateral triangle. If, for exam-
ple, it were desirable to mark out the ground in a large field
for planting Indian corn or potatoes in the modern quincunx
order, the correct and easy way would be to do the mark-
ing as usual, all one way, first, by commencing on the long-

LAYING OUT THE G MOUND.

11

est side of the field. Then, after the marks have all been
made in one direction, the cross-marking should be com-
menced near the middle of the plot, or where the rows
will be the longest, marking each way from the middle of
the field. The idea will be to run the marker across the
first marks at an angle of about sixty degrees. The cor-
rect direction may be readily ascertained by the aid of a
surveyor's compass. But an inexperienced beginner sel-
dom has the advantage of such an instrument; and even
if he does possess one, there are thousands who must rely
on some more simple and cheap device, to aid them in the
performance of such a job.

The accompanying illustration, representing a sweep for
marking out ground,
is a figure of a device
which we have em-
ployed in laying out
the ground for grape-
vines and fruit-trees.
The sweep was made
by securing two light
strips of wood, A A,
to the stakes B B,
with small round
bolts, or with large wood screws, so that the horizontal
bars may be turned a little, like a hinge. The stakes should
be about five feet long, two inches in diameter, either round
or square, and pointed, so that the lower ends may be thrust
into the ground at pleasure. With such a device, two boys,
or illiterate laborers, who do not know an angle from a par-
allel of latitude, may proceed to mark out ground for any
thing with as much facility and dispatch as an experienced
surveyor can do it with a compass. It will be very difficult
to do the work wrong if the first row is only staked out

A sweep for markiug out the places for trees.

78

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

* * *
* * *

* *
*

Fig. 42.

Length, 29 rods.

d

* * * * *

|c * *
* * *

* *
*

straight. It will be understood that the stakes of the sweep
must be set as one would adjust the points of dividers, or
the points of a mechanic's compass, just as far apart as the
trees are to be planted. After the sweep is ready for use,
the following diagram will aid still further in finding the

exact spot where
each tree or vine
is to stand.

We will sup-
pose, for exam-
ple, that a field of
% a square or irreg-
3 ular form is to be
i planted with ap-
^ pie-trees to stand
I thirty feet apart.
Commence on
the longest side
of the field, and
stick one row
of stakes in a
straight line, ex-
actly thirty feet apart. The distances should be indicated
with the points of the sweep. See that this row of stakes
stands in a straight line. If there be any crooks in the
first row, the same trifling variation will be multiplied as
the marking progresses. Let the stakes be driven at least
one foot into the ground, so that the point where the tree
is to stand may not be lost. IN^ow, to ascertain the places
for the trees in the second row, take up the end stake in
the first row, and plant one point of the sweep in the stake-
hole at a (Fig. 42). There should be one person at each
end of the sweep. The point of the sweep at a should be
held securely in the hole while the person at h describes

*

c e
& /

The modern qniucunx order.

LAYING OUT THE GROUND. 79

a part of a circle with his point of the sweep, about where
he judges the tree must stand. Now let a caiTy his end of
the sweep to c, and plant the point in the stake-hole, and
hold the sweep firmly while the operator at h makes a
mark with his point of the sweep across the first mark.
Here, then, will be three points indicated with as much
mathematical precision as if they had been found by the
aid of a surveyor's compass. The beginning is practically
as perfect as any piece of work can be ; and if the opera-
tors will be careful to plant every stake exactly at the cen-
tral intersection of the marks made by the point of the
sweep, as at «, b, c, the stakes will all stand in rows satisfac-
torily straight when the work of laying out the ground
has been finished. Let the person at b thrust the point of
the sweep into the ground, and set a stake in the hole.
Then carry the end of the sweep to €, and make a circular
mark, say four feet in length. Now let one of the points
of the sweep be placed in the stake-hole at f, and the place
where the circular marks cross each other at e will be the

Fig. 43.

'^^\ .'^^ y^- '^x /^^ ^-
/ \\\/7/ \V\ /// \\\ /// \\\ /// \\\ /// \

I i^ii^.-...:::;^---^ •

Orchard laid out in the modern quincunx order.

80 THE APPLE CULTVRIST.

point to make a hole for the stake at e. This explanation
will be sufficient to enable any person of ordinary intelli-
gence to stake out his ground with as much dispatch as
the stakes can be set in the usual manner. After the
stakes have all been put in their places, should some of
them vary from a line, they may readily be set straight.
If the ground be all marked out in circles just touching
each other, the points at which the circles intersect will
show the places to plant trees.

Staking out Ground in Triangles. — The ground can be
staked out in triangles with no other measure than a ten or
twenty foot pole, with as much accuracy as it can be done
with a surveyor's compass. We will suppose, for example,
that the trees are to be set thirty-three feet apart. In the
first place, make a light pole of the desired length, thirty-
three feet, and set a row of stakes on the longest side — if
there be any difference in the distance — of the ground, as
represented by a o, in the diagram, page 78. Let the stakes
be small and straight, and at least four feet high. Now let
one person hold one end of the pole at the end stake, a,
while another makes a mark at the other end, c. Then let
the end at a be carried to b, while the end at c is retained
at the same point where the two marks at c intersect. Let
a small stake be set at e. Next place the pole from b to ^,
and from e to /. At e and c will be the places to set trees.
Let the stakes at a c be set perpendicularly. Now let a
stake be set up at d, so that a c and d will stand in a line.
Then set a stake every thirty-three feet — or the length of
the measuring-pole apart — in the line from c to d. Let the
measuring be done with accuracy, and let the stakes be set
perpendicularly. This second row of stakes will constitute
a reliable guide to aid in finding the correct points for other
stakes. Now with the measuring-pole find the point for
another stake at g, by placing one end of the pole at o, and

LAYING OUT THE GROUND. 81

the Other end at g. Having set a stake at o, and one at g,
measure with the pole, and set stakes in the line o g d, the
length of the pole apart. The principal points of the entire
plot are now fixed with such accuracy that one person may-
stand at h, and move towards a, while another sets all the
stakes in the row, o k. After a row has been set from a to
o, a row across the ends at d k, another row from a to d,
and from o to d, the remainder of the stakes can be stuck
at the desired points, without measuring, by simply setting
each stake in a line, in two directions, with those stakes that
have been driven in the right places.

It will be perceived by the two diagrams given on pages
74 and 78, that they both represent a plot of ground twen-
ty-nine rods long by twenty-seven and a half wide, em-
bracing just ten square rods over five acres. The spaces
indicated between the places for trees, as may be seen, rep-
resent exactly two rods, or thiity-three feet. The points
may be counted in the diagrams quite as well as if a five-
acre lot were before us all properly staked out. If trees
were to be planted on two such plots, there would be a gain
of space for thirty trees by planting in the quincunx order,
while no two or three would be crowded. If the trees were
to be set only half the distance apart, there would be a gain
of space for sixty trees, as any one can calculate for him-
self.

In case it were desirable to set pear-trees, peach-trees, or
grape-vines in the quincunx order, all that will be requisite
is to make a pole of the desired length, and set a row of
stakes six, ten, or sixteen feet apart, on one side of jthe plot
at a 0, Fig.. 42. Then proceed to measure with the pole as
directed, to find the proper angle for setting the other rows.

Another way for marking out ground in a triangular form,
or in the quincunx order, is to procure three poles of a uni-
form length — say sixteen and a half feet long — and bolt or

4*

82 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

^^s-44. nail the corners together,

as represented by Fig. 44,
which will give the same
results as laying out by cir-
cles, or as directed in the
preceding paragraphs. It
will be seen that three poles
of equal length, placed with
the ends together as repre-
sented, will give the exact
angle for a hexagonal fig-

A triangular rule for laying out orchards. ^^.^^ f^j. ^^ equilateral tri-
angle, and for the modern quincunx order. Let a piece of
plank be nailed in each corner as shown, and a two-inch
hole bored at the end of each piece for stakes, and a rule
will be produced for laying out; ground for trees which any
person can use without making mistakes. After a person
has used such a rule for a few minutes, he will be pleased
with the great convenience of the arrangement. Three
straight and smooth stakes will be required — one for each
hole or corner of the rule.

We once marked out the ground for grape-vines, in this
manner, eight feet apart ; and also the ground for peach-
trees, sixteen feet apart, by the assistance of a boy, who
quickly learned to set his stakes with satisfactory accuracy.
If the operators are careful to measure accurately, there
will be no more difficulty in planting trees in the quincunx
order than m rows running at right angles.

To facilitate the labor of getting every tree in the de-
sired position, procure a board, h (Fig. 45, represented on
the following page), about ten feet long and eight inches
wide, and scollop out a half-circle for the stake, a, which
stake represents the exact point where the tree is to stand.
When the hole is about to be dug, where the stake, a.

LAYING OUT THE GROUND.

83

stands, place the board to the stake, as shown; then put
two smooth stakes, c, c, through holes, into the ground.
The stakes, c, c, must Fig. 45. remain until the tree is

now the stake, a, and
the board, h, back over
a, tree in the scollop where
the hole was dug. By-
fixtures, one
plant trees
most sat-
isfactory A gauge-board. accuracy,
without having a second or third helper to hold the tree. If
the stake a is in the correct spot, the tree will stand in line.

in its place. Remove
board, J, dig the hole, put
the stakes c, c, and set the
the stake a stood before
using such
person can
with the

TEANSCENBENT CRAB-APPLE.

Fruit, medium to large for its class ; roundish-oblong, flattened at its ends,
slightly but regularly ribbed ; golden yellow, with a rich, crimson red cheek in
the sun, covered with a delicate white bloom; when fully ripe, the red nearly cov-,
ers the whole surface. Stem, long and slender, set in an open, deep cavity ; calyx
closed, with long reflexed segments ; flesh, creamy-yellow, crisp, sub-acid, a little
astringent until fully mellow, when it is pleasant and agreeable ; seeds, full and
abundant ; leaf, broad, oval, with an acute point, and narrow, sharp, regular ser-
ratures ; season, early autumn to winter. The stem is represented much shorter
than it usually appears on most of the apples.

84 THE APPLE CULTUEIST.

CHAPTER IV.

REMOVING AND TRANSPLANTING BOTH OLD AND YOUNG

TREES.

The crowded roots demand enlargement now,

And transplantation in an ampler space.

Indulged in what they wish, they soon supply

Large foliage, o'ershadowing golden flowers.

Blown on the summit of the promised fruit.— Cowpee's Task.

The chief idea to be kept in mind, in order to transplant
any tree with satisfactory success, is to take up every root
and rootlet without the least mutilation, and bury them all
back again in a mellow seed-bed, no deeper nor more shal-
low than they were when taken up. If this could be done
properly, no tree would ever suffer injury from a removal.
The act of planting a tree is an important one. We com-
mit it to the soil, as we would send a youth into the world,
to sustain a separate and independent existence. Nursed
no longer under the eye of the propagator, it must contend
with the storms, floods, and vicissitudes of climate, with a
broiling sun and killing frost, developing as it best may its
system of branches, buds, leaves, blossoms, and fruit, ac-
cording to its nature, for our especial benefit, as well as to
add to the beauty of this pleasing world. How scrupulous-
ly careful, then, should we be in planting a tree — an apple-
tree, perchance, which we expect to pour an annual offering
of rich, glowing, and luscious fruit in our lap ; or a pear,
whose melting gifts are eagerly sought after by impatient
cultivators, too willing to reap the harvest before they have
sown the crop, with intelligence, skill, and perseverance ; or,
still more pleasing, the soft and roseate peach, so often nip-

REMOVING AND TMANSFLANTING TREES, 86

ped in the bud by stern winter's frost. There are few op-
erations in our husbandry in which so much want of reflec-
tion, not to say gross and willful neglect, is displayed as in
the transplanting of trees, whether for fruit or ornament.
It must, however, be admitted that in this, as in all other
branches of rural industry, great improvement has taken
place within the last thirty or forty years, since agricultur-
ists commenced to read and reason on the princij)les that
are involved and brought into action and practice of every
branch of their business, as well as in the manufacturing of
leather, iron, or any other article. Roots of trees usually
strike downward instead of upward; and nearly all kinds
of trees, whether fruit or forest trees, send out a system of
roots just below the surface of the ground. If w^e exam-
ine the forest-trees — unless they are standing on a very
loose and porous soil — we find that, although the tap-voot%
of trees may strike several feet deep in the earth, there is a
system of numerous roots near the surface of the earth, on
which the trees depend almost entirely for sustenance. Let
earth be hauled and placed around a flourishing tree, a foot
or more in depth, and that tree will soon send out a sys-
tem of roots all around it near the surface of the soil. It
is absolutely essential that all the interstices among the
roots be well filled, settling the fine earth, if need be, by
pouring in water. If large cavities are left the frost may
destroy them. This is the reason that some persons have
been unsuccessful in keeping trees through winter.

Suggestions to be observed when Transplanting Trees.—
Beginners in fruit-culture will do well to read over the fol-
lowing concise rules, until they thoroughly understand the
correct theory and practice of transplanting any kind of
trees or vines :

1. When a tree is taken up, endeavor to take at least one-
twentieth part of the small roots. The practice usually is

86

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

to leave so many of the roots where a tree grew, that it is
no exaggeration to say that^Ae roots were left behind.

2. Trees should always be set about as deep as they stood
before digging up.

3. A small or moderate-sized tree at the time of trans-
planting, will usually be a large bearing tree sooner than a
larger tree set out at the same time, and which is checked
necessarily in growth by removal.

KING OF TOMPKINS OOXTNTT.

S't/nonyms.— King Apple, Tom's Bed, Tommy Eed. The fruit of this apple i8
very large and globular, inclining to conic, sometimes oblate and angular : the
ground color is usually of a yellowish hue, shaded with red, striped and splashed
with crimson ; the flesh is yellowish, sometimes rather coarse, but juicy and ten-
der, with an exceedingly agreeable and rich vinous flavor, delightfully aromatic
This is one of the choicest varieties for almost any locality ; season, from De-
cember to March. The tree has a large and spreading top, and produce^ abun-
dantly.

REMOVING AND TRANSPLANTING TREES. 8 '7

4. Manure should never be placed in contact with the
roots of a tree in setting it out ; but finely pulverized earthy-
compost may be employed. Young trees may be manured
to great advantage by spreading manure over a circle whose
radius is equal to the height of the tree, in autumn or early
winter, and spading this manure in, in spring.

5. If the roots of a tree are frozen out of the ground,
and thawed again while in contact with air, the tree will be
killed. If the frozen roots are well buried, filling all cavi-
ties before thawing any at all, the tree will be uninjured.

"" 6. Never set young trees in a grass field, or among
wheat or other sowed grain. Clover is still worse, as the
roots go deep, and rob the tree roots. The whole surface
should be clean and mellow ; or, if any crops are suffered,
they should be potatoes, carrots,, turnips, or other low hoed
crops. If an area round about each tree, as far as the
branches extend, be properly mulched with coarse manure,
grass or clover may be cultivated in an orchard.

7. The roots extend nearly as far on each side as the
height of the tree ; hence, to dig up the soil by cutting a
circle with the spade, two feet in diameter, the spade will
sever nine-tenths of the roots ; and to spade a little circle
about a young tree, not one-quarter as far as the roots ex-
tend, and call it " cultivation," is like Falstaff's men claim-
ing spurs and a shirt collar for a complete suit of clothes.

8. Watering a tree in dry weather affords but temporary
relief, and often does more harm than good by crusting the
surface. Keeping the surface constantly mellow is much
more valuable and important; or if this can not be done,
mulch well. If watering is ever done from necessity, re-
move the top earth, pour in the water, and then replace
the earth; then mulch, or keep the surface very mellow.
Shrivelled trees may be made plump before planting, by
covering tops and all with earth for several days. Water-

88 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

ing trees before they expand their leaves should not be
done by pouring water at the roots, but by keeping the
hark of the stem and branches frequently or constantly
moist. Trees in leaf and in rapid growth may be watered
at the roots, if done properly, as directed.

9. Warm valleys with a rich soil are more liable to
cause destruction to trees or their crops by cold than
moderate hills of more exposure, and with less fertile soil,
the cold air settling at the bottom of the valleys during
the sharpest frosts, and the rich soil making the trees grow
too late in autumn, without ripening and hardening the
wood of the branches.

10. Drain the ground if it is at all wet; and commence
the work of pulverization and subsoiling at least one year
before young trees or seeds are planted.

11. Remember that fruit-trees need to be fed every year,
in order that they may yield large, smooth, and luscious
fruit. Trees can not concoct fruit out of material that will
not make fruit.

12. Recollect that it is far better to procure trees from a
poor soil than from one that has been highly manured ; and
it is better still to rear your own trees from the seed where
they are to grow.

13. The excavations where trees are to stand should be
so broad that the roots can readily spread to the next row
without meeting with unbroken ridges of hard-pan.

14. Beware of planting fruit-trees too deep, especially on
heavy soils. On light, loamy soils they should be set, in
some instances, four to six inches deeper than on a heavy
soil, according to the lightness and porosity of the land. It
is a safe rule, however, to set no deeper than the trees stood
in the nursery ; and this can easily be determined by their
appearance at the base. Every fibre should be extended in
its proper direction, and carefully surrounded with compost.

BEMOVING AND TRANSPLANTING TREES. 89

Xo cavities should be left in covering the roots, nor should
one be injured by the hand or spade.

15. Let every tree be transplanted as soon as practicable
after it is taken up, and let the roots always be protected
from sunshine and drying winds until they can be buried in
the soil. Drying and exposure to the air always injures
roots. The longer the exposure and the greater the drying
process, the greater, of course, is the injury. Digging up
trees when destitute of leaves, and leaving them an hour or
two in the shade, produces little or no harm; but they
should not be allowed to remain in the sun, nor be exposed
for a whole day to the wind. If they can not be set out or
packed immediately, they should have the roots plunged in
a bed of mud, to give the surface a thin coating ; or the
roots should be immediately buried in mellow soil or sand,
until further operations are commenced with them.

16. When trees of any kind are purchased, it is always
better, in every respect, to choose young trees, say two or
three years old, that are vigorous and bushy, than to pur-
chase large ones, four or five years old. As a rule, fruit-
trees that are far brought are dearly bought; and a person
seldom orders trees from a distance but once. By looking
around, most persons can find good trees in their own town.
But the safest and best way is to raise the trees where they
are to grow. It does not require so long a time to rear an
orchard as many seem to think.

Practical Operations. — The illustration herewith given
(Fig. 46, p. 90) will give the beginner a more definite idea
of the great extent of the roots of a young tree, and of the la-
bor required in transplanting a fruit correctly. After the ex-
cavation has been made sufficiently broad and deep to receive
every root when extended to its full length, place the gauge-
board, h (Fig. 45), over the pins, c, c, and set the tree with the
body in the scollop, holding it erect with one hand while a few

90

THE APPLE VULTURIST.

Fig. 46.

Extent of the roots of a young apple-tree.

shovelfuls of mellow soil
are scattered over the
roots. If the ground is
at all compact in the bot
tom of the excavation,
make a deep hole with a
large crowbar, to receive
the tap-root, if there is
such an appendage; and
if a long lateral can be
obtained, let it be thrust
down into the hole, af-
ter which fill the hole
with mellow soil or rich
mould. The object of
the tap-root is to supply
the tree with moisture in
hot and dry weather. If
the ground is poor, let
a load of mellow soil be

carted from a distant field, or plough up the turf along the
highway for the purpose. Spread out the little fibres, and
cover them with rich, mellow soil. Much of the success of
transplanting depends on bringing the soil in contact with
every fibre, so as to leave no hollow to cause the decay of
the roots. Not only must this be secured by patiently fill-
ing in the cavities among and under the roots, but, where
the trees are not small, it is customary to pour in a pail of
water when the roots are nearly covered with soil. The
water carries the liquid mould to every hidden part. After
the water has settled away, fill up the hole. Avoid press-
ing the earth about the tree with the foot. In windy
situations it will be necessary to place a stake each side of
the tree, to hold it upright ; or, if large stones are at hand,

REMOVING AND TRANSPLANTING TREES.

91

Fig. 4T.

place a layer of them near the tree, which will not only
secure the tree from moving to and fro, but will often pre-
vent teams and implements from passing over small trees.

Before any tree is transplanted, the end of every mutilated
root should be cut off smoothly. If roots have been bruised
badly, it is always better to cut off every thing beyond the
bruise.

Staking Fruit-trees. — The accompanying illustration (Fig.
47) represents the correct way of staking trees. When a
stake is driven down near a small tree, i^ often obstructs the
growth of the roots ; and if a large stake
is driven after a tree is transplanted, a
root is sometimes badly mutilated. But
if stakes are set as represented by the fig-
ure, they will not interfere with the roots.
Fruit-trees should never be staked for
the purpose of holding a tall and slender
tree erect. When a young tree has run
up so slim that the wind often bends the
top half way to the ground, the true way
is to cut the central stem off, say a foot
or more, for the purpose of inducing the
tree to grow more stocky and bushy.
(See Pruning.) When a hundred or
more of such stakes are needed, let a log of some durable
timber be sawed into stuff, say two inches square. Then let
the pieces be thoroughly seasoned before they are driven into
the ground, and let the lower ends be well smeared with coal-
tar. A hole should be made with a crowbar, the stake driven
in firmly, the upper end sawed off in a horizontal direction,
and a piece of board nailed to the top of the stake. Each
board should have a hole bored through it near one end ;
and when it is to be put on, let it be split in two through
the hole, and the pieces nailed to the top of the stake. Pieces

Staking a small tree.

92 THE APPLE GULTUMIST.

of canvas should be drawn into the hole, to prevent in jury-
to the bark as the tree is blown to and fro by the wind. In
some instances young trees are not rooted with sufficient
firmness to prevent the stem from working a large hole in
the ground at the collar of the tree. When the ground is
frozen, if such trees are not held by a stake, the bark is often
worn entirely through to the wood by the incessant swaying
of the tree.

Excavating with a Scraper. — One of the most satisfactory
modes of excavating for fruit-trees that we have ever prac-
tised is to stake out the ground, and then plough a small plot,
say eight to ten feet wide by fifteen feet long, hitch the
team to a good dirt-scraper (Fig. 48), and scrape the loos-

Fig. 48.

A two-horse cast-iron scraper.

ened earth each way from the point where the stake stood.
After all the loosened earth is scraped out, hitch again to
the plough. It may be necessary to employ a piece of log-
chain one or two feet long between the plough-clevis and
whiffle-trees, with a man on the beam if the ground is very
compact. Let the wheel beneath the beam of the plough be
adjusted so that the plough may enter only four or five inches.
Then let one person "ride the plough-beam" (see the illus-
tration of a man riding a plough-beam, p. 60), and the team

REMOVING AND TBANSPLANTINO TREES. 93

will be able to draw the plough through the heavy and solid
earth. If no gauge-wheel is employed, the plough will ofteii
plunge in so deep that the team can not pull it through.
Excavations can be made with plough and scraper two feet
deep in a very economical manner, when one has a ^ood
team. After the earth has been removed to the desired
depth, let it be returned with the scraper, until the depres-
sions are sufficiently full to receive the trees. Then set up
a stake where the tree is to be planted, and proceed to ex-
cavate for another tree.

We once tested this mode of preparing holes for fruit-
trees, and found that a man and boy, with a span of horses,
could excavate a hollow about two feet deep, and return the
earth in about one hour per hole. But it paid well in the
growth of the trees.

Setting Trees on the Surface of the Ground. — As has
previously been stated, there is danger of planting trees too
deep, as many of the roots strike downward into the earth,
as naturally as the tops stretch upward into the air, when
there is not some impenetrable obstruction to hinder their
ramification through the soil. None except the annual feed-
ers near the surface of the ground are found to tend upward,
as they push out from a main root, or branch of a root. In
case a tree is planted too deep, a new system of roots will
be thrown out from the stem, one or two inches beneath
the surface of the soil. No matter how deeply tap-roots
and branch-roots may be sent downward, it is a habit of
fruit-trees to produce a complete system of roots, rootlets,
fibres, and feeders so near the surface of the earth, that the
countless number of minute mouths may imbibe the moist-
ure and plant-food soon after the small particles begin to
descend from the surface.

A knowledge of these facts once warranted an experi-
ment in planting trees directly on the surface of the ground.

94 THE APPLE CULTUEIST.

In the spring of 1843, when planting the first trees for our
own orchard, there were a few places where holes could
not be dug with a spade, as the earth for several feet in
depth was composed of fragments of slate and small boul-
ders. Neither could the ground be ploughed. A thick
and tough sod of Kentucky blue-grass rested on the sur-
face; but roots of trees could spread among the stones
without difficulty. Hence we resolved to try the doubtful
experiment of setting trees without digging any holes.
Stake-holes were first worked down through the stones
with a crow-bar, and stakes were driven in firmly to sup-
port the trees. The roots were then spread out on the
grassy sod as a tree was held near a stake, after which a few
bushels of mellow soil were shovelled from a loaded wagon
around each tree, sufficient to cover the roots with about
two inches of mellow dirt. The body of each tree was
then tied firmly to the stake ; and the surface of the ground
round about the trees was mulched with coarse, strawy
barn-yard manure, covering an area of about eight feet in
diameter. Pieces of boards, old rails, and brush were laid
on the mulch to prevent fowls from removing the coarse
material. Amidst the sneers of those who knew that such
a mode of planting was superlatively ridiculous, and could
never prove at all satisfactory, we waited in doubtful sus-
pense for the result. The trees that were set in mellow
ground, around which the surface was kept clean and free
from vegetation, grew a few inches higher and broader,
while every tree that was set on the grassy surface threw
out branches of good ripe wood, laterally and vertically,
from one to four feet in length, before winter. The first
season some gentlemen called to learn the secret of such a
wonderful growth, and measured the new wood just before
the leaves had fallen, and found many branches over four
feet in length. After the first season, the branches did not

REMOVING AND TRANSPLANTING TREES. 95

grow faster than those on other trees. Every tree that
was planted on the surface succeeded in a most satisfac-
toiy manner, and yielded as much fruit as any others. In
1868 we saw them bending beneath a bountiful burden of
fruit. In after years we planted many trees on the grassy
surface, always with the most satisfactory results. On
stony fields, in rocky dells, and on lawns, where the ground
can not be ploughed, and where disturbing the sod is ob-
jectionable, there is no more satisfactory way of planting
trees of any kind, or bushes, than to spread out the roots
on the sod and cover them with a little mellow earth ; then
mulch the surface.

Effects of Planting too Deep. — The roots of trees are
things of life ; and they must have the benefit of the air as
well as the growing branches. Almost any fruit-tree may
be killed in one or two seasons — except when it stands in
certain favored spots — simply by filling earth around it,
say two or more feet deep. Many a valuable tree, stand-
ing in a low place, has been killed in consequence of the
earth being filled in around it when grading the surface of
the ground.

We well remember a large apple-tree, now in full bear-
ing, which was taken up in the winter, with a large ball of
frozen earth at the roots, and placed in a deep hole in the
orchard. It was probably set too deep ; because, for nearly
fifteen years, that tree did not flourish well nor produce
fruit even tolerably fair. But as soon as it sent out a sys-
tem of roots near the surface of the ground, it began to
grow rapidly, and to bear abundantly, and is, at the pres-
ent writing, a flourishing and productive tree.

The first apple-trees that we transplanted were set too
deep, as we found, three years afterwards, that they were
sendnig out a system of roots all around the bodies, near
the surface of the ground, while about four inches belmo

96

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

PEOK'S PLEASANT.

Synonym.— 'WvMz Apple. The fruit is rather above medium size, roundish, a
little ribbed, and in most instances slightly flattened, with an indistinct furrow on
one side. The skin is smooth, and green when first gathered, often covered with
a little dark red. When fully ripe, the fruit is covered with a beautiful clear yel-
low, having a bright blush on the sunny side near the stem, where the surface is
marked with gray dots. The flesh is yellowish and fine-grained, juicy, crisp, and
tender, with a delicious, highly aromatic, sprightly sub-acid taste ; quality, good
to best ; season, November to March. This apple passes for an excellent apple
both for market and for culinary purposes.

these were the main roots ; and as soon as these new roots
had attained a suitable size the trees began to flourish lux-
uriantly.

The mice gnawed one of our apple-trees, more than two-
thirds of the distance around it, for two feet above the sur-

REMOVING AND TRANSPLANTING TREES. 97

face of the ground. We raised a mound of mellow earth
around it, a few inches higher than it had been gnawed, and
covered it with sods. The next season the hens scratched
away some of this earth, and we discovered that there was
a system of young roots from six to ten inches long just
below the surface of this mound. From these considera-
tions, it is safe to conclude that there is great danger of
planting trees too deep, and that the most proper depth is
not more than two or three inches below the surface of the
ground. We always fill the holes for trees even-full with
the general surface of the ground, before the trees are
placed in their position; and we have always found that
they would settle down in a few months as far as they
should ever be set. If the soil is well pulverized beneath
the roots, they will soon occupy the whole space below, and
will take a firmer hold of the earth than if they were placed
as deep in the mellow-bed as they stood in the nursery.
Allowance must be made for settling, when the soil is very
wet.

Transplanting in Autumn, or in the Spring. — The ques-
tion is, which season is the better one ? In some instances
autumn is preferable, and in others spring offers advantages.
If the condition of soil and trees are the same, we have
never been able to perceive any difference. Still both pe-
riods have their advocates; and there are about as many
arguments in favor of one season as the other. If the work
be well performed in the spring, just before the buds begin
to swell, trees can not be transplanted in a more favorable
period than that. When apple-trees are set out in spring,
they come fresh and vigorous from the ground, from which
they are withdrawn easily, the soil having been mellowed by
the winter frost. As soon as out, they are ready to recover
by immediate growth from the effects of removal ; the buds
swell and expand into fresh leaves, and new shoots rapidly

5

98 THE APPLE CULTVRIST.

spring upward. More than this, if trees are taken up in the
spring, before the buds expand, and are transplanted at
once, the mutilated roots will heal and send out new root-
lets sooner than if they had been planted in autumn. Our
long experience is decidedly in favor of spring planting for
every thing that must be transplanted. But a far better
way is to plant the seed where trees are to grow, and thus
avoid transplanting. When trees are planted in autumn
the roots take no hold of the ground until the next spring.
Hence a crowning and unanswerable argument in favor of
planting in the spring of the year is, that it is far better for
trees or vines of any kind to have a vital connection with
the soil during the drying and cold weather, than for all
vital connection to be severed for from four to six months.
This fact alone is sufficient to show that spring j^lanting is
preferable to autumn. But if trees can not be properly
managed in the spring, and if they can not be planted till
late in the growing season, it is better to plant in autumn.
We have observed that during several years past many
Western and North-western farmers have reported the loss
of thousands of apple-trees, all in consequence of being
planted in the spring.

Double - planting Orchards. — The practice with some po-
rn ologists, when they first commenced planting apple-or-
chards, was to set a row of peach-trees alternately between
the apple, in two directions, by which they were enabled to
plant out twice the number of peach-trees on a given area
as there were apple-trees. Then, by the time the apple-
trees had attained sufficient size to require the space occu-
pied by the peach-trees, most of the peach-trees would have
reached the limit of their existence, so that they could be
removed. The results were eminently satisfactory.

The question is frequently asked, at the present day,
whether dwarf and standard pears, peaches, plums, or other

REMOVING AND TRANSPLANTING TREES. 99

fruits could be planted in the intervals of the apple-trees
without injury to the latter? In most instances, with fair
cultivation, on a fertile soil, apple-trees, thirty-three feet dis-
tant, will in the course of some sixteen to twenty years near-
ly cover the whole ground, and will be injured, more or less,
in their thrif tiness and productiveness, by other trees grow-
ing between. But, as the trees are many years reaching
that size, and remain quite small for a time, reliable pomol-
ogists are inclined to favor this practice, where it is desired
to make the most of the land for fruit-trees, provided a con-
tinued and enriching system of cultivation is adopted, by
applying manure, turning under clover, and an occasional
broadcast dressing of lime or ashes. J. J. Thomas says,
touching this subject, that the roots of the peach, as we
have found by decisive experiments, extend quite as far as
the height of the tree ; and therefore they soon form a net-
work of roots over a circle whose diameter is twice as great
as the height of the tree. Apples do nearly the same ; and
consequently, in a few years after setting out the orchard,
the whole surface of the ground is covered with the roots
of each, a few inches beneath the surface. The peach-trees
will, therefore, soon interfere with those of the apple, and
necessarily retard them. The apple-trees, after the lapse
of a few years, will be lessened in growth by the peach-
trees. But the latter probably will have paid for this dam-
age by their crops of peaches ; and generous manuring may
nearly compensate for the loss. At all events, we have
known the practice to succeed well on good soils; but, as
the apple-trees advance, it would be best to keep the peach-
trees well shortened back.

Dwarf pears will prove of no injury whatever to young
apple-orchards ; for the dwarfs must have, of necessity, good
cultivation and manuring, which will ultimately benefit the
apples. The roots of the dwarfs are short, and never ex-

100 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

tend very far; and consequently will not soon interfere
with the apple roots. They will, however, suffer serious
loss from the overshadowing influence of the apple-trees as
the latter reach the age of sixteen or twenty years ; and the
dwarfs must not be expected to succeed after that. If in
ground by themselves, the few pears that succeed best as
dwarfs may be expected to flourish, with proper manage-
ment, at least fifty years. We would not in any case recom-
mend standard pears or plums among apples.

Planting an Orchard on New Land. — In many instances
it is desirable to plant an orchard as soon as the forest is
removed, before the land has been stumped and ploughed.
If the soil does not require under-draining, it will be an
excellent practice to put out the trees or plant the seed as
soon as the brush and other rubbish can be disposed of.
We have sometimes seen fruit-trees planted a few feet
from a brush-heap or a pile of stumps, which have been
killed by the heat 'when such rubbish was burned. Occa-
sionally the place for a fruit-tree will be found where a
stump is standing. Let such stumps be taken out at once,
and thus provide an excellent hole for setting a tree.

There is often a wonderful advantage in planting an or-
chard on new land when the ground is full of roots. By
the time the roots of fruit-trees have got a good start, the
roots of the forest-trees will begin to decay. Then the
roots of fruit-trees will spread rapidly in the places of the
old roots, the decayed material of which will promote a
much more rapid gi'owth of the fruit-trees than if they had
been planted on old ground. This fact will explain, in a
good degree, why fruit-trees flourish more satisfactorily in
a new country and on land just cleared, than on old ground
of the same quality.

Cutting off the Tap-root. — Read about the Habit of
Trees, in Glossary. The recommendation to cut off the

liEMOVJNG AND TliANSPLANTlNG TREES. 101

tap-root of every tree when it is to be transplanted, once
became so imperative, that some pomological writers even
went so far as to recommend placing a broad flat stone
beneath every tree, so that it could not reproduce another
tap-root. Most writers at the present day, and most nur-
serymen, will say : " By all means prune of£ the tap-root
close to the stem." But such a practice is a serious delu-
sion. Nature indicates, as has been already stated, that
most trees, shrubs, and plants will flourish most satisfac-
torily, endure longer, and be every way better when they
send a strong tap-root deep into the ground. And this
fact is more particularly true when the subsoil is so porous
that a long tap-root will readily strike downward as far as
the stem grows upward. Were it not a habit of the tree
or plant to send down such a tap-root, it would be advisa-
ble to cut it off. But many nurserymen will persist in cut-
ting this root off at all hazards ; because, they say, ten roots
will push out at the end of the stump where the tap-root
was severed, which will be more serviceable to the growth
of the tree. The office of the tap-root is to supply the
growing plant or tree with moisture in hot and dry weath-
er, when the surface-roots can not absorb one drop from
the soil. Cut off the bruised end, and encourage a tap-root
to grow on every tree and bush. (See p. 90, Fig. 46.)

Lateral Extension of the Roots of full-grown Apple-trees.
— If we could lift a large apple-tree with all its roots un-
broken from the earth, probably, to our great surprise, we
should see roots on every side reaching farther away, with
a thousan4 open mouths, than the entire extent of the long-
est branches. TuU found that common turnip-roots ex-
tended at least three or four feet from the plant ; and there
is no doubt that many weeds throw out their fibres quite
as far. A. J. Downing, in his directions for the manage-
ment and manuring of trees, indicated that the roots of

102 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

a tree were contained within a circle no larger than the
spread of the branches. J. J. Thomas says that the roots
of common grass are found to run two feet, and sometimes
much more. If, then, the tree-roots are but two and a half
feet long, making the circle five feet, they would meet and
come in contact with grass-roots two feet farther off, or
four and a half feet from the tree, requiring a circle of nine
feet at least to prevent the exhausting influence of the
grass. When the tree is two or three years older, this cir-
cle would need to be doubled in size. In other words, the
whole system of digging small spaces, and mulching small
circles about young trees, possesses very little utility when
compared with broadcast cultivation — the only mode that
should be adopted in orchards and gardens. A tree, there-
fore, ten feet high, whose branches cover an area five feet
in diameter, reaches with its roots the circumference of a
circle at least twenty feet in diameter. The area of the
twenty-feet circle is sixteen times greater than that of the
five- feet circle. Thus Downing, in his directions, omitted
at least fifteen-sixteenths of the space covered by the roots.
There are many cultivators who do not keep the whole sur-
face mellow, that loosen a circle of soil one-half as large as
Downing directed. Nothing is more common than to see
trees ten or fifteen feet high with a pile of manure a foot
or two in diameter at the base of the trunk. The tree can
not, as a matter of course, derive any more benefit from
such an enriching than a starving man could be fed by
stufling crackers into his boots, with his hands tied behind
him. If there is any one thing of great importance to fruit-
raisers, and which they are especially deficient in appreci-
ating, it is a knowledge of the wide extension of the roots
of trees. A greater number of essential operations in their
culture is founded on this knowledge, than on every thing
else connected with vegetable physiology. Many cultiva-

KEMOVINQ AND TMANSPLANTINQ TMEES, 103

tors know that trees throw out their roots to long dis-
tances ; but with this knowledge merely they seem entirely
satisfied. They only assent to it, and let it pass. They
seem to have no practical appreciation of it. Their expe-
rience in cultivation seems to have no connection with such
knowledge ; and we should naturally suppose, from their
actions, that they thought trees ten feet high had roots
only fifteen inches, instead of fifteen feet long. It may be
laid down, as a general rule, that the roots extend in each
direction from the foot of the tree as far as its whole
height, and in many instances much farther. We see
proofs of this fact where such trees as the locust and sil-
ver poplar throw up suckers at great distances from the
trunk. The nurseryman who passes between his rows of
salable trees is not often aware that the whole surface of
the ground beneath his feet is covered with a net-work of
roots, often extending the breadth of two or three rows.
When he digs the trees by placing the spade a foot from
the stem, he does not know that he cuts off and leaves nine-
tenths of the fibres in the ground. The planter who sets
them, out supposes tliat for several years the roots only oc-
cupy a small circle, which he may spade and enrich, and
thus afford them- all the cultivation that is necessary. The
roots of growing apple-trees require quite as much lateral
space as the longest branches. It is too common an error
to suppose that if the branches of trees have light and air
enough, nothing further need be provided. But the facts
already stated show that the tops may be far from meet-
ing, and yet the roots may long since have become inter-
laced. Witness the extent of roots, p. 90, Fig. 46.

All intelligent pomologists and tillers of the soil, as far
back in ages past as we have any account, have appeared
to understand the importance of preparing the soil for all
kinds of trees in such a manner that some of the roots will

104 THE APPLE CULTURIBT.

Strike downward as far as the toj) extends upward. Hence
Virgil, who wrote nearly two thousand years ago, when al-
luding to this subject, says :

"High as his topmost boughs to heaven extend,
So low his roots to hell's dominion tend."

Removing large Trees. — It is desirable many times to re-
move trees which are twenty feet or more high, the bodies
of which are four to six inches in diameter. Winter is the
time to do this work. Some kinds of deciduous trees, like
the maple and elm, which are not so dependent on a tap-root
as many other kinds of trees, may be removed with more
assurance of success than many of the nut^bearing or cone-
bearing trees, which will not, in some instances, flourish at
all satisfactorily after the tap-root has been disturbed. As
maple -trees do not strike their roots so deep as many other
trees, large maples may be removed in cold weather with
less difficulty than almost any other kind of growing trees.

The correct way to take up a large tree is to remove the
leaves and loose mould on the surface around the tree, and
dig a channel about six or eight inches deep around the body,
about three or four feet from the centre of the tree. Then
fill this channel with leaves, and press them down close, to
exclude the frost from a small portion of the earth between
the ball that is to be removed with the tree and the remain-
ing banks. This channel must be cut before the ground
freezes. Then, after the ground has frozen six or eight
inches in depth, take up the trees, set them on a sleigh, or
stone-boat, haul them where they are to be planted, and
drop each tree in a hole previously prepared. Many trees,
when removed in this manner, will continue to grow as lux-
uriantly as if they had never been taken up. A great many
new houses, having no shade-trees near them, can be pro-
vided with large trees at a small expense, if suitable trees
can be obtained within a distance of two miles.

REMOVINO AND TRANSPLANTING TREEH.

105

Fig. 49.

By boring an inch hole througli the body of the tree, to
receive a large clevis-bolt, we have lifted trees alone, with
a system of gin-poles and tackle-blocks, which would weigh
— the ball of earth and the tree — more than one ton. The
hole in the tree should be filled with grafting-wax, to jire-
vent decay, after the tree has been planted in its desired
locality. By having a windlass for winding up the slack
rope of a set of tackles, one man can lift. any tree that it
would be safe to take up. Some care should be exercised
that the ball is not planted deeper than the tree grew. As
soon as a tree is dropped in its place every hole should be
filled with earth ;
and it would be
well to spread a
few inches in
depth of straw
over the roots,
to protect them
from injury dur-
ing very cold
weather.

The accompa-
nying engraving
(Fig. 49) repre-
sents the appara- Apparatus for removing large trees.

tus which we employed in removing large trees. It con-
sists of a set of shears about sixteen feet long, with a wind-
lass attached to the single shear, around which the slack
rope of the tackles is wound when the machine is worked.
A good stiff pole or stick of timber, twelve or fourteen
feet long, is fastened to the tree with a large clevis and
chain, by boring a hole through the tree for the bolt of the
clevis, as near to the ground as can be. It will be difiicult
to hitch a chain around the body of a tree without wound-

5*

106 THE APPLE GULTURIST.

ing the bark. One end of the pole is supported by a strong
bench three feet high, standing on planks to prevent its
sinking into the ground. With the tackles hitched to the
other end of the pole, the tree is lifted high enough to allow
a sleigh, or stone-boat, to be backed under it, to receive the
tree with the ball of earth.

When trees were to be removed, our practice was to dig
a trench about them, about eight or ten inches deep, or
more, according to the size of the tree and extent of the
roots. This was done one year before the trees were re-
moved, so that the roots in the ball of earth might send out
a large number of minute fibres, which would not be there
if the trees were removed as soon as the roots were severed
by cutting the trench.

The next thing of first importance is, to have the holes
dug before a tree is brought to the ground. Even if they
are filled with snow, it can readily be removed when trees
are ready to be placed in them. Holes should always be
dug sufficiently large to receive the ball of earth without
resting on the edges ; and care should be exercised to have
the trees no deeper in the soil than they naturally grew.
Trees of considerable height should be stayed uj) with four
guy-wires, to prevent the winds fi-om blowing them over.
These guy wires should be fastened to the tree with small
staples driven into the tree, and to stakes driven into the
ground. When trees are small, we may dispense with the
pole and bench, and hitch the tackle directly to the tree;
and in unloading trees, we seldom used the pole and bench.

We once removed several evergreens from the forest,
from twenty to thirty feet in height, and four to six inches
in diameter; and those which were unloaded directly into
holes already prepared are now alive; while all of those
which were unloaded on the north side of the house, and
the roots covered with moss and straw until the ground

BEMOVINO AND TRANSPLANTING TREES.

107

POUND KOY

S'T/nonym.— Winter-pound Royal. The fruit is large, roundish-oblong-conical,
with a surface slightly uneven ; color, pale, yellowish-white, occasionally with a
I'aint blush, and, when ripe, marked with a few large, ruddy, and dark specks ; the
flesh is very tender, breaking, fine-grained, with a mild, agreeable, aromatic, sub-
acid taste ; season, December to April. The tree has a broad spreading top, and
requires the best of cultivation to insure good crops of fruit.

thawed — as we had seen recommended in some agricultu-
ral papers — died the same season. When the machine is
hitched to a tree, and we have lifted on it almost enough to
start it, take a lever or crowbar, and loosen the ball of earth
a little all around the trench. This precaution will some-
times prevent the ball of earth from breaking, and the break-
ing of some part of the machine also. With such a ma-
chine, we have often gone two miles from home, and re-

108 THE APPLE (JULTURIIST.

turned with a large tree and ball of earth six or seven feet
in diameter and eight inches in thickness, loading and un-
loading entirely alone ^ in two hours and a half. We men-
tion this fact to show the efficiency of the machine, and
that it may be handled and worked advantageously by one
man who knows how to handle such an apparatus.

Instances are of common occurrence where it is desirable
to remove valuable fruit-trees in the summer or late in the
spring, when we can not avail ourselves of a frozen ball of
earth. When the writer was about seventeen years of age,
a valuable pear-tree was to be removed, in order to make
room for the wood-house. It was so old and large, that
every one thought it absurd to attempt to transplant it
with any expectation of its living. We had eaten too many
delicious pears from that tree to see it cut down, which was
the orders ; but, in laudable obstinacy, we took it up in the
middle of June and transplanted it, and it bore pears the
same year, and is a valuable bearer even at the present
writing.

We have seen a great many valuable fruit-trees cut down
which might have been taken up and transplanted with very
little injury to their productiveness. When a few tall shade-
trees are wanted at once, such an apparatus will be found
of great convenience in taking them up.

Removing large Trees without Tackles. — A farmer in
Western New York recently came in possession of a large
young orchard, the trees of which were standing in the
quincunx order, and were about as thick again as they
should stand. He removed every other row — over four
hundred trees, from' seven to ten years' standing. He wrote
that the expense of removal was about forty cents each.
He employed long levers and a broad stone-boat, and three
men to load and unload the trees. According to his own
account, the labor was performed in a very rough and un-

REMOVING AND Tit ANSPL ANTING TMEEIS.

109

Fig. 50,

skillful manner ; and yet only eight trees in every one hun-
dred failed to grow the next season. If such an apparatus
as Figure 50 had been employed, and if a circle had been
cut around every tree the previous spring, the cost of trans-
planting would have been much less per tree ; and not one
tree would have died.

A Tree Machine on Wheels. — If a person were to have
twenty or thirty trees to
remove, the expense of
making a frame, to be
placed on the wheels of
a common wagon, would
cost but a few dollars.
Two pieces of scantling,
say three by six inches
square, for sills, could be
placed, edge up, on the
bolsters of a wagon; then
two windlasses should be
fitted to the upper side of
the sills, as shown by Fig.
50, around which chains
may wind. The windlass-
es should be made of
some hard and tough tim-
ber, about six inches in di-
ameter, with two one and
a half inch holes bored at right angles through each wind-
lass. When a tree is to be lifted, remove the windlasses
and one sill from the wagon, and place the vehicle in posi-
tion with the reach or coupling of the wagon close to the
body of the tree. Then lay the sill and windlasses in their
places, and lift the tree clear from the ground, and drive
carefully to the place for transplanting. An inch auger-

Removiiig tiees with a frozen ball of earth.

1 1 0 THJi] AlU'LE CUL T URIST.

hole bored through the body of a tree, to receive the bolt
of the clevis, will not injure the tree in the least, if the hole
is afterwards filled with grafting-wax. We have bored a
hole through many trees five or more inches in diameter,
when about to remove them, and we have never known one
to be injured by the hole.

Transplanting as Trees grew. — It has been asserted,
times without number, that trees should always be marked
before they are taken up, so that they can be transplanted
just as they grew originally, with respect to the points of
the compass. Some philosophers, within a few years past,
have stated as a fact that there is an unknown influence
operating on fruit-trees, which induces the tops to incline
towards the south east. We have been told, also, that peo-
ple should always sleep with their heads due north. All
these things may be of importance. But we do not repose
any confidence in one of the suggestions ; and it is extreme-
ly doubtful whether any one actually does know any thing
positively with regard to th^Q facts in the case. Many trees
have been turned half way around when they were trans-
planted, and they produced bountiful crops. But no person
has ever been able to afiirra that he knows that some or all
of those trees would have been more productive if they had
been transplanted exactly as they originally stood.

PMUNING AND TMAININO. Ill

CHAPTER V.

PRUNING AND TRAINING.

Cautious the pruner pinches from the second stalk

A tiny pimple that portends a future sprout.

None but his steel may touch the twigs doomed to the knife.

The limbs at measured distances, that air and sun

Admitted freely, may afford their genial aid,

To ventilate, and warm, and swell the fruit and buds.

Cowpeb's Task.

The Philosophy of Pruning. — PruniDg and training fruit-
trees correctly is the most difficult of all the operations
connected with the propagation of trees and the manage-
ment of orchards, as no set of rules or recipes can be given
for the pruning of fruit-trees which will enable a person
unacquainted with the principles of vegetable growth to
become a successful practitioner. A tree is not simply an
individual organism or unit, like a man or a horse — it is a
" Mutual Benefit Society," composed of a number of indi-
viduals, amounting sometimes to many millions, each one
being capable, under favorable circumstances, of maintain-
ing its own existence, not only when in connection with,
but when separated from, the community in which it was
produced; or it may easily be transferred to another soci-
ety, and will there grow and reproduce its kind with undi-
minished vigor. Hence, for any one to tell on paper when
is the proper time to prune a tree or not to prune it, under
all circumstances, would be a task which has never as yet
been done, and which we do not expect to perform in this
place. But it is not difficult to state what effects usually
follow pruning at a given period when different parts of
a tree or plant are pruned. The cultivator should have a

112 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

perfect understanding of what he desires to accomplish by
pruning. Before he severs a single bud, he should under-
stand the laws of vegetable physiology, so far as they affect
the flow of sap. There is no chance for correcting bad
mistakes in pruning. If one pinches off a bud that should
remain^ it will be ruinous to the form of the tree or bush.
The practice, with a great many persons who have had the
management of orchards, has long been, and even now is,
to allow the trees to grow at random for several years, and
then walk into the tops with axe and saw, removing half
the branches. There was never a more ruinous practice to
any kind of trees; and there was never a more egregious
error promulgated, than to allow a bush or tree to grow at
pleasure for a few years, and then give it a thorough and
severe pruning. The ruinous consequences of such prun-
ing are manifest, wherever large apple-trees are found, in
the decaying trunks at those points where large branches
were cut off; and because the wounds were so large, Na-
ture could not heal them.
Pruning Trees of any Kind is a Science.—

The novice at pruning, like urchins at school,

With long observation must study each rule:

Why prune in the summer ? Why prune in the fall ?

Or why in the winter? Or why prune at all?— Edwaeds.

When a surgeon is about to amputate a man's limb, he
can assign a satisfactory reason for the operation. So
when a pomologist is about to prune off certain branches,
he should first ask, What do I propose to accomplish by
removing this part of the tree ? Sometimes, when he thinks
that the removal of a branch will improve the general shape
of the tree, let him bend the branch a little out of its nat-
ural place, so as to show how the tree would look if this
limb were cut off; and if the result is not satisfactory,
don't cut it. There is a tendency to trim too much. Be-
ware of this overdoing the matter. There was a time when

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 113

excessive pruning was very fashionable even among pro-
fessional orchardists ; but they have learned better. The
current of opinion is setting so strongly the other way
now, that some are advocating no pruning at all. Proba-
bly this will be found as much the other extreme ; and in
due time we may expect the true mode to be settled upon.

When we make a peculiar motion with an ox-whip, well-
trained oxen understand the movement, if not a word is ut-
tered. The motion means something. When a horse feels
the whip, the blow of a good driver has a peculiar signifi-
cation. A blow from an axe, a cut with the pruning-saw,
a slash with the pruning-knife, and a pinch with the thumb-
nail, all have a peculiar signification as affecting the growth
of the tree and the development of branches. The growth
and development of an apple-tree are so completely under
the control of law, that a skillful pruner can make the
branches assume almost any desired form. If he pinches
or cuts wrong, the branches will grow wrong. If the
pruning and pinching are performed in accordance with
the law which controls the flow and circulation of the sap,
every branch and twig will spread out, or stretch upward,
just as the flow of the sap has been directed in a lateral
direction, or vertically. Those persons who understand the
philosophy of pruning, know that by pinching off the ter-
minal bud, the upward, rampant growth will be checked,
and the shoot will begin to enlarge in thickness and to in-
crease in strength, and to send out lateral branches where
nothing but buds existed. The true reason for this phe-
nomenon is, the sap, which was before strongly attracted to
the leading stem, is now distributed more equally among
the other branches.

If we wish to make a tree or shrub " grow low," and
extend its lateral branches in every direction as much as
possible, we pinch off the tip ends of the leading, vertical

114 THE APPLE VULTURIST.

stem, aud thus induce the sap to flow more abundantly in
the lateral branches. Young grafts, or inoculates, often
shoot up two or three feet, if allowed to grow long, slen-
der, and fragile ; and such are liable to be destroyed by the
first strong wind, unless they are supported by a stake. If
it is our aim to make a tall tree by promoting the growth
upward, we have only to cut off the lateral branches all
round this leader, and thus induce as much of the sap to
feed the leading sprout as is possible. But there is great
danger of cutting off too many of the lateral branches. It
would by no means be attended with the best results in
promoting the growth of a tree upward, to trim it to a
bare stem, leaving but a small bush near the top. If all
the lateral branches are cut off close to the leading stem,
and only a very small top left, if there be a strong healthy
root, that very small top can not use up all the sap, and a
reaction will follow; and sometimes such a reaction is at-
tended with deleterious consequences to the tree. On this
point thousands of young farmers, in their eagerness to
promote the upward growth of their young fruit-trees, by
trimming small trees to a single stem, with nothing but a
few buds or bunches of leaves near the top, have found
that their trees grew slowly when every thing — aside from
this excessive pruning — favored a rampant growth. The
truth is, if a tree has a healthy, strong root, the leading
stem will grow upward much faster by clipping off the
ends of the lateral branches — unless it has a very heavy
top — than it would if we cut off most of them close to the
stem. The leaves of a tree are its lungs ; and there must
be leaves on a tree in proportion to the sap that is sent up-
ward by the roots. When there are not leaves enough to
elaborate the sap, stagnation of the sap ensues in some
trees and shrubs ; while in others, numerous buds from the
body of the tree will start, and long slender sprouts will, if

PMUNINO AND TRAINING. 115

allowed to grow, soon form a heavy top. By continuing
to pinch off the extremities of the branches that are push-
ing upward, the lateral branches can thus be induced to
spread out in a direction to make a low-topped tree. Be-
fore young tillers of the soil can be expected to understand
why, when, and how to prune a fruit-tree correctly, they
must read and think, and think and read, and make inquiry
and observations on this subject for years.

Why we Prune. — We prune trees and vines to promote
fruitful ness, to prevent the production of much small fruit,
to produce fairer and larger fruit, and to make trees grow
of a more desirable form and symmetry. At one time, we
prune or pinch to induce a tree-top to spread out broader
and to produce a lower top. At another time, we want the
branches to push upward rather than laterally. Sometimes
Nature sends out several rival shoots, all of which can not
be fully developed ; or, if they could, it would not be desira-
ble to allow so many to grow. Hence a part must be cut
away. When trees and vines are permitted to grow with-
out pruning, it frequently occurs that four branches are
formed where there should be only one. Hence, after a few
years, one or more of these branches must fail and decay.
To appearance, Nature made a mistake in starting too many
branches. Hence she must divert all the sap into one or
two, and dispose of the supernumerary ones as best she
may. Nature does a vast amount of pruning, both in fruit-
trees and in the forest. Branches are often allowed to de-
cay and drop off the parent stem, because they were not
needed. But such a mode of pruning is far from being
scientific and artistic. And yet, it is the only way that
Nature can perform this important operation. Hence we
prune to aid Nature in performing her task as perfectly as
possible. But pruning trees and vines is an operation re-
quiring the skill of the pruner in connection with the efforts

116 THE AITLE CULTUMIi^T.

of Nature. She often starts a score of buds on a stem,
only a small portion of which should be permitted to grow.
Here the judgment and skill of the pruner must be brought
into exercise just as the buds are beginning to develop.
Nature has afforded an excellent opportunity to choose one
or more of the most desirable buds for the future branches,
and to destroy the others before the energies of the grow-
ing tree have been largely employed in producing large
branches, which must be cut off as soon as they are formed.
Some American pomologists of the present day advocate
the utter abandonment of pruning fruit-trees ; and they
have pointed to productive trees of beautiful form and
symmetry as evidence that Nature does not need the as-
sistance of art in the production of fi'uit-orchards. But it
is never safe to leave any tree entirely to the operations of
Nature, as some trees will grow about as nearly correct in
every particular as can be desired, while others will assume
the density of a thicket, and others still will send out long,
slender branches and twigs, having only a few fruit-buds
at the extremities, reminding us of a far-reaching and cov-
etous person for the acquisition of a broad extent of coun-
try, which he has no ability to occupy or cultivate. Nature
will sometimes do all necessary pruning; but she will be a
long period doing it. Hence we pinch and prune, to aid
Nature both in facilitating her operations, and in perform-
ing her allotted tasks in a skillful and artistic manner. As
has already been stated, many trees will grow and develop
almost every branch and bud in a symmetrical and artist-
ic manner. So, many children seem to grow up to man-
hood and w^omanhood complete ladies and gentlemen, with-
out any apparent training. Still, there is a law in fruit-
culture which requires the exercise of the cultivator's
judgment in pinching and pruning; and he who under-
takes to evade or ignore it in the neglect of his fruit-

PRUNIXG AND TRAINING. 117

trees will find his well-deserved punishment in miserable
fruits.

Beginning to Prune. — We have, for example, a young
grafted tree (Fig. 46), the top of which it is desirable to
train, from year to year, until a neat and symmetrical head
is formed, similar to Fig. 51. During the first two to four

An apple-tree properly trained and pruned.

seasons, according to the rapidity of the growth of the
young tree, no other pruning-tool than the thumb-nail will
be required, providing the pruning is done at the proper
time. All the low branches, spurs, and leaves should be
allowed to grow, as a young tree can not flourish without
leaves. But, after the branches have grown about one foot
long on each side, let the ends be pinched off, say one-fourth
of an inch, sufficient to check their lateral extension, to
cause the stem of the tree to grow more stocky, and to in-

118 THE APPLE CULTUEIST.

duce the sap to push the central stem upward with more
rapidity. But, while it is the aim to promote the upward
growth of the central stem, the pruner must exercise judg-
ment over the upward growth, that it does not shoot up too
tall and slender. If the central stem does not develop in
size and lateral proportions fully equal to the upward
growth, let the top be pinched a trifle, which will induce
the head to thicken-up. In case the topmost bud or buds
start upward before the body of the stem and side branch-
es have become sufficiently stocky, pinch the bud alluded
to again, and keep the upward growth back, and thus pro-
mote the thickening of the main stem. Many young prun-
ers, in their eagerness to get tall trees, have rubbed off all
the buds on a slender stem, except a small number near the
top ; and the consequence was, that the growth was very
slender and feeble, so much so that there was nothing but a
central stem, and that was so slender that it could not stand
erect without a stake. In order to have the central stem
grow with the greatest rapidity, we must reserve stems and
leaves around it, clear to the ground. But the pruner must
avoid the error of promoting a long and slender growth to
the neglect of a stocky development. If the central stem
does not enlarge in size, so as to be of a fair proportion to
the height, keep the topmost bud pinched off, and thus stop
the upward growth entirely until every part is thickened-up
in a satisfactory manner. Then the central stem may be
allowed to push up another foot. The great aim is to get
every part started correctly.

Low or High Heads. — ^If it is the purpose of the pruner
to form low heads, so low that one can step from the ground
on the first branches, let him select four branches, or buds,
say two feet from the ground, to be trained as the first sys-
tem of lateral branches. About twenty inches above these
choose four other buds for a second system of branches;

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 119

and so continue to do as the central stem pushes upward,
rubbing or cutting off all buds and twigs on the central
stem between every two systems of branches. The central
stem will push upward two feet or more annually, if the
soil is fertile and properly cultivated. But it will be more
satisfactory, every summer after the central stem has pushed
upward about twenty inches, to pinch the topmost bud, and
stop its upward growth for the season. Then, the next
year, it will send out a system of lateral branches at the
point where the growth of the previous season ended. In
case it is desirable to form high heads, so high that a horse
can travel beneath the lower branches, let the first system
of limbs be commenced about five feet from the ground,
after which proceed according to previous directions. All
through the growing season, the pruner must watch his
young trees every week, to see if the tops are growing uni
formly on every side. One branch may be pushing out too
rapidly, and robbing its fellow of a proper proportion of
sap and space. Let the terminal buds of such aspirants be
pinched a little, and continue to pinch them until others are
even with them. When too large a number of twigs push
out on the sides of lateral branches, cut off those that will
not be needed. If a sub-branch begins to push away more
rapidly than those around it, pinch the end, to keep its
growth within desired bounds. By attending to pinching
at the proper time, a pruner will be able to make his tree-
tops assume almost any desired form.

How to Prune. — Before a person proceeds to pinch off a
bud or cut off a branch, he should be able to state to an-
other person, what kind of a tree, as to form, he desires —
what he proposes to effect by pinching off a bud or sever-
ing a branch, and how his tampering with buds and branch-
es will accomplish the end in view. The first important
point is to obtain a definite and correct idea of what you

120

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

The fruit is of a medium size, oblate-conic, frequently round, or nearly so, and
smooth, with a yellow grouud beautifully striped with red, covered with a light-
colored bloom, beneath which is a ehiuing skiu. The flesh is white and juicy,
sprightly acid, fragrant and agreeable ; seasou usually, at the North, August and
September. The tree is an upright and spreading grower, a good bearer, and
produces fair crops of frnit when only a few years old. It is usually a very hardy
variety, and the leaves are large and heavy.

wish to do before you touch the tree. A general vague
conviction that fruit-trees need pruning, or thinning out
to keep an open head, by removing weak and conflicting
branches, constitutes the whole stock of information with
which most persons commence the yearly attack upon the
orchard. There is no careful study of the habit and pecu-
liarities of each species of tree; no thought of what each
individual tree has done in the past, or is expected to do in
the future, whether it is prematurely forming fruit buds,
or running to wood too luxuriantly; no special care for a

PRUNING AND TRAINING.

121

Pig. 62.

Pruning ■ aaios. — When pruniug
trees, the branches of which are
too large to be cut off with a strong
pruning-knife, a praning-saw or
two (Fig. 52) will be desirable.
A and B represent the most ap-
proved style of such saws, copied,
by permission, from R. H. Allen's
Catalogue of Agricultural Imple-
ments, one of which has coarse
teeth, for cutting oflf large branch-
es, and the other fine teeth, for
small branches.

Fig. 53.

Pruning-saws.

Pruning- shears.

Pruning- sTiears, like the above
(Fig. 53), will frequently be found
convenient when clipping the ex-
tremities of small branches.

A Combined Pruning - chisel and
Saw. — Figure 54 represents a con-
venient instrument for pruning old
trees, while the operator stands on
the ground. The end of a stiff
pole enters the socket; and small
branches may be severed with the
chisel by means of a thrust, or
they can be sawed oflf at the de-
sired place. Such a combined in-
strument will be found efficient for
I'emoving sprouts and dead branch-
es from neglected trees. The saw
should have fine teeth, or it will be
difficult to make it work. In some
instances, the saw will cut more
satisfactorily by changing ends
with it.

yl

A pruning-saw
and chisel.

weak but important shoot which is receiving too little
nourishment, because a gourmand above it is monopolizing
all the sap and sunlight; no calculation for future years,
that the foundation now laid shall be the basis of a suffi-
cient number of branches, filling advantageously every part
of the tree, while none shall crowd or interfere with its
neighbors.

In most instances, the tree is said to need pruning, and

6

122 TEE APPLE CULTURIST.

the attack is made. The saw and axe are brought, and in
a single hour one-third of the top is cut out. A tree should
never, in this sense, need pruning. The difficulty should
be avoided, rather than remedied ; so that, instead of fell-
ing great branches, the finger and thumb, or at most the
pruning-knif e, will be sufficient to direct the growth of stal-
wart limbs. The direction of a skillful pruner always is
to fix in your mind the general form of a perfect tree of
the variety you are about to operate upon, and to this ideal,
as nearly as possible, train your subject ; not, of course, ar-
bitrarily, or in one year, but, by patiently studying the pe-
culiarities of your tree, bring it gradually to the desired
form. In respect to the shape, fruit-trees may be classified
into globular, or round-headed trees, like the apple ; semi-
globular, or goblet-shaped, as the peach ; and the conical,
like the pear and the cherry. It is important that, while
we divert Nature from her wonted course to fulfill our es-
pecial ends, we do no violence to her principles. Faults
there are to be corrected, deficiencies to be supplied, but
always obediently to the guidance of nature. There is a
typical form, then, for each variety of tree, which should be
regarded from the commencement. A pruner must set up
before the mind a beau ideal of the form of tree or bush
desired. Then, all through the growing season, the buds
should be watched closely. If a bud appears where a
branch is not desired, pinch it ofP; and leave buds on the
main stem wherever a branch is desired. Grafts from ci-
ons that were set last season should be examined frequent-
ly, to see if the main stems and lateral branches are all
growing uniformly. The pruner must understand the man-
ner of growth common to the variety he is about to prune.
All apple-trees do not grow alike. Hence, for a pruner to at-
tempt to compel a tree having a natural tendency to a certain
form to assume another, would be attended with much un-

PBUNINO AND TBAININQ.

123

Fig. 55. availing trouble, and probably with positive injury
^^7 to the productiveness of the tree. The great diffi-
l I culty is to make the lower branches grow thrifty,
if / and in due proportion to the upper ones. The
whole secret lies in the management of the huds.
Every shoot and branch commences life as a bud ;
and it is in infancy that their proper number and
position must be determined. " Leave no more buds
upon a shoot whose growth you wish to increase
than can be maintained in perfect vigor. This will
generally be about one-third of the number of buds
produced ; so that of those shoots designed to re-
ceive the largest development, two-thirds of the
^kuife^" ^^^* year's growth must be cut off. These should
be shortened-in before they start in the spring. If
still the upper branches grow too strong, summer pinching
will furnish the requisite discipline for them. We have
always found it a ^. .

^ Fig. 56.

and cori'ect
rule, when pruning
a fruit-tree of any
kind, to imagine
that a full-grown ap-
ple-tree was stand-
ing before us, with
no supernumerary
branches, and no
limbs crowding each
other, or riding one
on the other, like
the cut of a tree,
Fig. 56, which repre-
sents an apple-tree
that has been train-

An apple-tree trained with a high top.

124 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

ed from its first year's growth until it had developed into
a perfect tree that needs no pruning. The top, as may be
seen, is well filled up with bearing branches ; the form is
symmetrical, the head high, and the pruning has been such
that a person can climb about in the top, when gathering
the fruit, with little difficulty. This is only one model. Al-
though every apple-tree can not be expected to have a top
exactly like this, unless it is of the same variety, still those
that grow differently may be trained so that the form will
be quite as symmetrical as this. One great aim of the
pruner must be to have the middle of the top filled up with
bearing branches. Then he must avoid pruning in such a
manner as to have wide-spreading tops, with only a large
bush on the end of a long branch.

When to Prune. — One respected pomologist, in reply to
such an interrogation, will respond, "Whenever your knife
is sharp " — implying that doing the work well is more im-
portant than the selection of any particular period. An-
other authority declares : " The season for pruning is usual-
ly midwinter, or at midsummer. It is, however, the prac-
tice to perform what is called the winter pruning early in
the autumn^ An author who has penned about twenty
pages on pruning, is so diffuse and indefinite, that all a be-
ginner can gather is, " Prune in winter for wood, and in
summer for fruit." A. J. Downing, whose writings are re-
peatedly quoted as reliable authority on fruit, says : " We
should especially avoid pruning at that period in spring
when the buds are swelling and the sap is in full flow, as
the loss of sap by bleeding is very injurious to most trees,
and in some brings on a serious and incurable canker in the
limbs. Our experience has led us to believe that, practical-
ly, a fortnight before midsummer is by far the best season,
on the whole, for pruning in the Northern and Middle States.
'Wounds made at this season heal over freely and rapidly."

PRUNING ANL TMAINING. 125

Another reputed authority says: "The best time for a
general pruning is at the close of the first growth of sum-
mer, 15th of June to 16 th of July." Another pomologist
says : " J'une is the time to prune fruit-trees. Limbs taken
off at this season will begin immediately to send out a
ring of new wood just where it is needed, and will thereby
protect itself in the soonest possible period from external
harm." Still another writer — whether he ever pruned a
tree or not, does not appear — says : " From the middle of
June to the first of September is claimed to be the proper
time in which to perform this important operation. Most
persons have observed that trees show in August and the
early part of September what is called a new growth. On
this growth the color of the foliage is a lighter green, and
has every way the appearance of being more recent than that
of the rest of the tree. And so it is. By the time that mid-
summer comes, most of the sap that flowed up in the spring
has gone to the branches, and aided in expanding buds and
blossoms, and in sending out new leaves and extending the
twigs. When the tree has done this, the superabundant
sap returns down the tree through the bark, and increases
its diameter. The tree has now a season of rest. The sap-
vessels are comparatively empty, so that if its branches are
cut the wound will rarely bleed. The returning sap, we
suppose, soon forms a green, healthy ring about the cut in
the bark, and the remainder of the cut dries and shrinks
before the sap is again in motion. This season of rest, then,
of three or more weeks, is the b6st time to prune. It has
its inconveniences, we are aware, but they are of less con-
sequence than the injury of the tree. No harm comes to
the tree, we believe, if pruned in the autumn, soon after the
leaves have fallen. The tree is then also in a comparative
state of rest, and may be cut judiciously without injuring it."
Still another assumed authority proclaims: "Always prune

126 THE APPLE CULTURI8T.

in winter, when there is no foliage on the trees." Another
author, who knows how to prune trees far better than how
to instruct an inquirer after truth, says : " The correct pe-
riod of pruning is when the tree needs it." This is philo-
sophically and practically correct. And yet the phrase re-
quires an intelligent qualification which we will endeavor
to record, so that a beginner may not be in doubt as to the
proper period of pruning.

When a tree has been allowed to grow at random for
several years, so that the top is like a thicket, it should not
be pruned during the growing season ; yet it may be pruned
at any time after the leaves have fallen, until the buds ex-
pand in the spring. No doubt every practical pomologist
will concur in this declaration, as it is always far better for
a tree to remove large branches at that season of the year
when the sap is in the least motion. But when young trees
are to be pruned and trained, more or less pinching of buds,
and removal of twigs with a knife, must be done during
the entire growing season. Hence, to affirm that the best
time to prune is when one has a sharp knife, is about as
correct as the direction to train children when one is in
possession of a rawhide or rattan. As young children re-
quire daily training from the cradle to manhood — not when
they are asleep — so young trees require care and pinching
of buds, if necessary, from the first year of their growth un-
til their branches are bending beneath a load of fine fruit.
When the young tree begins to grow in the spring of the
year, if every bud and branch is not growing correctly, then
is the time to pinch or prune, as the case may be. We
do not let our dear children, when they first begin to walk,
tottle off the door-step, run into the fire, or grow up in
vice, disobedience, and immorality, and then give them a
cruel chastisement for their conduct. But we begin to
lead, direct, and mould in the hud. So we must begin in

mUNINQ AND TH AIMING. 127

early spring-time to pinch off certain buds that would grow
into branches which would have to be cut off. Here lies
the great secret of scientific pruning and training — pinch-
ing off a bud that would make a branch which must be cut
off. A pruner who is master of his employment, can glance
at a young tree, see where there are buds, and in three min-
utes prune it with his thumb-nail, so that the tree may need
no more care for the entire season. Again, another young
tree, like a perverse youth, may require pinching a little
every month during the growing season. These sugges-
tions will furnish a beginner with some correct notions as
to the proper time for pruning.

Trees which have been properly managed during their
whole growth will never need the cutting away of large
limbs, unless they have been injured by teams or broken
by snow or wind. Pinching buds and cutting off branches
will always depend so much on circumstances, that a begin-
ner must first make himself familiar with all the operations
of pruning before he will be competent to train fruit-trees
of any kind. When he has learned how to prune correctly,
he will have a more perfect understanding as to the most
proper period during the entire year. He must bear in
mind that we often prune to diminish nutritive vigor, and
prune to increase it; to diminish the generative or fruit-
producing tendency, and to increase it ; to encourage the
feeble, and reduce the over-luxuriant. By a variation in the
same process, under favorable circumstances, we can para-
lyze the leaf-bud, producing thereby a blossom-bud ; and
we can stimulate the blossom-bud until a leaf-bud will be
developed.

Where to cut off Branches. — Kature has indicated, even
in the smallest twig, the proper place to cut off a branch.
By examining a branch close to the body of a tree, it will
be seen that there . are creases, beads, or rings running

128

THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

Fig. 57.

around the branch. The place to sever a branch, there«
fore, is close to the ring around the stub at A. Then the
wound will heal much sooner than if the ring were re-
moved, making the cut smooth with the body of the tree.
Many tree-jnurderers often cut off limbs several inches
from the main stem. This is the true and effectual way to
make trees decay at the heart. This illustration (Fig. 57)

will elucidate that point with suf-
ficient clearness to enable a pruner
to see at a glance what most prun-
ers have never thought of. If a
tree has been properly pruned,
there will be no occasion for cut-
ting off large branches, except in
rare instances. In case branches
should be injured in any way, so
that it would appear necessary to
cut off the limb close to the body
of the tree, the cultivator should
know exactly where the right
place is. A limb as large as a
How to bolt a forked tree: where man's arm or leg may be sawed

to cut off branches. t<o •> t •, ->

oil a large tree, and the wound
heal over readily, provided a clear and smooth cut be made,
as indicated, and the surface be covered with a heavy coat
of grafting-wax, and the wax covered with a piece of strong
paper, as previously directed.

Some pruners have recommended, when taking off large
limbs, not to make the cut parallel with the stem, but start
the knife on the lower side of the branch, a little up from
the base of it, and bring it out on the upper side exactly
where the branch parts from the stem, so that the cut, when
made, will form, measured down the trunk, an angle with it
of 65 or VO degrees. If a branch is cut off smooth, parallel

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 129

with and close to the trunk, the wound, it is contended,
will be one-third larger, with no advantage, and requiring a
greater effort of the tree to recover. But by starting the
cut a little way out from the stem, and cutting upward ex-
actly to it, the wound is not only smaller, but sap will de-
termine more strongly to the base of the cut, which will
soon cause the wound to be covered. Such wounds should
be pared smooth, in order that they may quickly heal over.
Others will persist in cutting off large limbs from one to
two inches from the rings around the base of the branch,
as shown at A (Fig. 57). Such long stubs will almost al-
ways decay ; and if they are large, the entire stub will rot
clear to the heart of the tree.

How to Cut off large Branches. — Limbs of fruit-trees are
sometimes broken down by snow or by a furious wind, so
that it becomes necessary to cut them off close to the body
of the tree. When the amputation of a large branch is
important, let it be sawed first, at least one-third off, on the
under side, say six inches from the central stem. Then run
the saw down on the upper side, to Fig. 58.

meet the under kerf. After the limb
has dropped to the ground, saw off
the stub with a smooth cut at the
rings, as directed p. 128, and cover
the wound with wax at once. This
precaution is necessary to prevent the
branch from splitting down, like Fig.
58, before it is sawed off, and thus
making a large wound on the side of
the tree. Such large branches are
frequently cut off with an axe, which Branch splitting down when
will leave the wound very jagged; ^^^^ ^^io"gy.

but if a sharp pruning-saw be employed, the surface of the
wound will be smooth, and will quickly heal over.

6*

130

THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

An apple-tree pruued wrongly.

^5^-69. Injurious Prun-

ing.— Fig. 59 rep-
resents a style of
pruning which has
been, and still is, in
vogue from Maine
to California. The
system may prop-
erly be denomina-
ted tree - murder-
ing. Let this be
compared with the
well - pruned tree,
p. 117, and it will
be perceived at
once that the sys-
tem illustrated by
Fig. 59 is exceedingly defective. And yet, this is a fair
type of the form which the usual treatment of fruit-trees
produces. It may be perceived that the whole growth
of young wood and leaves is in the upper part of the
tree-top. This occurs in obedience to a law of vegeta-
ble growth, which gives greater development to the termi-
nal buds, and to those shoots which are nearest to the ex-
tremities of the branches. This tendency is very much in-
creased by the pruning which has been practised by the
cultivator, who evidently had a very indefinite idea of the
objects to be obtained by this operation. Yet, having heard
from his infancy that fruit-trees should be pruned, with
such generalities for his guide in the way of instructions
as " thin out the top," " take out weak or decaying branch-
es," " keep the head of the tree open," etc., he has applied
axe and saw to the limbs most conveniently reached, es-
pecially as he finds these to be the weaker branches. In

PRUNING AND TRAININO.

131

GKIMES'8 GOLDEN PIPPIN.

(Synonym.— Grimes's Golden. This excellent apple originated in Virginia ; and
in its native locality the tree is prolific and hardy. The growth is upright-spread-
ing ; the fruit is of medium size, roundish-oblate, and slightly conical ; skin, some-
what uneven ; the color is a rich golden yellow, sprinkled with small gray and
light-colored dots; flesh, yellow, compact, crisp, tender, juicy, sprightly, sub-acid,
with a peculiar aroma. In quality, it ranks good to best ; season, December to
April. A fine pie-apple.

many orchards we may see long, bare arms, utterly desti-
tute of any twigs, fruit-spurs, or foliage, for eight to twelve
feet from the body of the tree. The author has been in
more than one apple-tree top, some of the large limbs of
which were perfectly bare for fourteen feet in length ! On
the end of these long arms there were branches and twigs
about equal to a small tree five or six years old. Is any
person possessed of sufficient wisdom to tell of the advan-
tage resulting from such long and bare arms ? We have
never met with such a savant. Nature always makes a des-
perate effort to correct the errors of a tree-murderer, by

132 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

sending out numerous sprouts to shade the bare arms of the
tree, as represented by the cut on p. 130. This fact shows
that all the vacant space within the head of the tree should
be occupied by bearing branches; and the upper side of
horizontal arms should be covered with fruit-spurs and
leaves, or small branches, to shade the surface of the large
limbs. Many a valuable tree has been seriously damaged
by the scalding heat of the sun pouring dow^n on a large
limb or on the side of a leaning tree.

Forked Trees to be avoided. — Many fruit-trees are more
inclined to produce a forked than a single stem. A forked
top should never be allowed to form, as such tree-tops are
exceedingly liable to split apart at the fork, to the great in-
jury of the tree, and frequently to its entire destruction.
It is very easy to prevent the formation of a fork. When
two small shoots become- rivals, let one of them be kept
back by pinching, and be trained as a lateral branch, or let
it be cut off smoothly close to the other stem. A fork
should not be allowed to form on any of the branches, as
one or the other will most assuredly split down, either be-
neath the heavy burden of fruit or when some person steps
on it, while gathering the fruit. There is no gain in any re-
spect by allowing a tree to grow into a forked top. The
tree will not be so symmetrical, neither will it yield any
more fruit. Hence, if a fork has been allowed to form, so
that the branches are as large as a man's arm, it will be far
better to saw off one fork than to allow the top to increase
in size. But see that the w^ound is covered with a heavy
coat of grafting-wax and paper. In case a forked tree-
top has attained a large size, let a half-inch iron bolt be put
through the body six or eight inches above the junction of
the forks, and let the nut be screwed up tightly. Let a
large flat head be made on the bolt, and let a w^ide washer
be placed beneath the nut. Should there be two lateral

PRUNING AND TEAINING.

133

branches which can be united by ap- Fig. 60.

proach-grafting, the two forks may be
kept from spUtting down by this ar-
rangement. When pruning young trees,
let the pruner keep this one thought
bright, to avoid forked tops and forked
branches. (See Fig. 57, p. 128.)

Doty's Combined Pruner and Pruit-
plucker. — The illustration herewith giv-
en represents a useful and eflScient tool,
which has been perfected by Wm. M.
Doty, of New York city, for pruning
berry-bushes ; and which is an admira-
ble edge-tool for pruning any kind of
fruit-trees. At the left side of Fig. 60,
the pruner and plucker is represented
as ready for use. At a the little sack
is represented, which is employed to re-
ceive an apple when, the chisel severs
the stem. At b the knob on the end of
the piston is represented. The piston,
b, plays back and forth through the me-
tallic sheath, c. At e an enlarged view
of the metallic hook is given, which ap-
pears in the upper end of the left-hand
figure. At/, a thin wide chisel is repre-
sented, which moves back and forth on
the side of the hook e, when the tool is
in use. At ^ a spring is shown, which draws the chisel back
after it has been thrust forward to cut off the branch that
may be received in the hook, e. A shoulder is formed on
the piston, near the iron knob b, by not dividing the pole
quite its entire length, which, striking agfiinst the end of
the hook-holding portion, arrests any surplus force of stroke

Doiy's combined pruner
and fruit-plucker.

134

THE APPLE GULTURIST.

without injury to the machine. In case a branch is not
entirely severed with one stroke, the chisel, being detached
from the piston, remains at the point to which it was driven
at each stroke, until through, when the sjjring withdraws it.
By employing a long handle, such a device will be found
convenient for cutting off twigs, shortening-in branches,
thinning out tree-tops, clipping off cions, cutting out cater-
pillars' nests, pruning all kinds of berry-bushes and grape-
vines, and gathering choice specimens of fruit from high
branches.

Training Fan-shaped Heads. — One of the most beautiful
forms for training the tops of apple-trees, is to train the

branches in the
form of a fan, like
Fig. 61, which
represents one of
a number of ap-
ple-trees trained
in this manner
by an amateur
pomologist living
on Long Island,
whose trees, at
the present writ-
ing, are about
twelve feet high,
and fourteen feet
broad. The gen-
tleman stated to us that he entertained the conviction
that those trees are not so productive as they would
have been, growing in the same places, if the heads had
been allowed to assume their natural form. But there
were no satisfactory grounds for holding such a belief,
as those fan-shaped trees were quite as productive as

A fan-shaped apple-tree.

PRUNING AND TRAINING.

135

others near them. We recommend this form of training
only for gardens, and other places where space is limited.
Still, a person can produce more than twice the amount of
fruit on an area of two rods square — four square rods — by
having that amount of ground occupied by three fan-shaped
trees, than one tree would yield if allowed to grow in its
natural form.

The great advantage of training an apple-tree in the
form of a fan is, all the branches, from the central stem to
the extremities of the longest arms, can be filled with fruit,
most of which will appear on the outside of the branches,
where it will receive the full benefit of the sunlight and air.
When of this form, the annual cutting back of straggling
twigs or rampant branches can be performed more advan-
tageously than if the head were round. Besides this, heads
of such a form are more convenient than round heads, when
hunting depredators, when thinning out the fi'uit, and when
gathering it ; as fruit-ladders can be placed close by either
side, within reach of every apple on the tree. There is no
doubt that it would pay — where ground is scarce — to raise
three fan-shaped trees on the same
ground that is appropriated to one
tree with a globular or conical head.
In addition to the foregoing advan-
tages, the trainer has all the oppor-
tunity that can be desired to renew
the bearing twigs, by cutting them
back.

Fig. 62 represents a young tree
which is being trained with a fan-
shaped head. The dotted lines in-
dicate where the ends of the branch-
es should be cut back, when they

grow too long and slender. Training a fan-shaped tree.

Fig. 62.

1 36 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

How to Train a Fan-shaped Head. — The true way is to
begin when the young tree commences the second year's
growth, by leaving one bud on the south side of the main
stem, say twenty inches above the surface of the ground for
a lateral branch ; then, nearly opposite of this branch, leave
another bud, on the north side ; and pinch off all others.
Then, about twenty inches apart, on both the south side and
the north side, leave buds to push out for branches, and en-
courage them to grow in the desired direction. If any buds
or twigs appear on the east or west sides of the upright
central stem, let them be removed. It is desirable that the
branches extend nearly north and south, that the fruit on
both sides of the tree may have the benefit of the sun more
uniformly than if the branches were trained east and west.
After the central stem has attained a height of six feet, it
should not be allowed to grow upward more than one foot
annually. After it has grown about a foot, pinch the ter-
minal bud, so as to check the upward growth, and make the
stem grow more stocky and strong. If any one of the lat-
eral branches should push out faster than those above or
below it, pinch the extremity, and keep the growth back,
so that the branches above and below it may have an equal
chance to spread. The branches will require attention ev-
ery week, for the purpose of maintaining a uniform growth.
After the lateral branches have begun to spread out, buds
will appear on them, a portion of which must be pinched
off. About six inches from the central stem, encourage a
bud to send up a fruit-spur, and so train upright shoots
six inches apart on the upper side of every lateral branch.
Great care must be exercised lest some of the branches
shoot outward or upward too rapidly. The entire space
between all the branches must be filled up with fruit-bear-
ing twigs. There will be a sufficient number of buds to
form an upright shoot, as often as is desirable, if the lateral

FKUNING AND TRAINING. 137

growth is not permitted to shoot away too slender. And
the same is true of the upward growth of the central stem :
if it is allowed to push upward ad libitum, in many instan-
ces buds will be wanting. In some instances, a branch may
require a stay to hold it for a few weeks in the desired po-
sition. For this purpose pieces of lath may be secured to
other branches first ; then the perverse branch can be tied
to the lath. It should be remembered that all the train-
ing alluded to should be performed during the growing sea-
son. By watching the first development of the buds, it
will be an easy task to train the young and tender twig in
the desired direction. But let a twig grow at random for
a few weeks, and the trainer will need the aid of numerous
stays to hold the branches and sub-branches in the desired
position. The foregoing suggestions are particularly appli-
cable to young trees that have sprung from the seed, where
they are to grow, or to any young tree which has not de-
veloped any branches.

Training Nursery-trees. — There are two ways of train-
ing nursery-trees with a fan-shaped head, one of which is
to remove the entire top when the tree is transplanted, and
train it as directed in the preceding paragraph, as the new
shoots push out from the stub of the tree; and another
way is, to tie, or secure by pieces of leather, horizontal sticks
for stays, extending across the top already formed. Then
let the branches be spread out and secured by loops of leath-
er put around the branches, and the ends fastened with nails
to the stays. We once spread out the branches of an ap-
ple-tree twelve feet high, forming a fan-shaped head, fast-
ening them to horizontal stays, and completed a satisfactory
job. Some of the branches on the west side had to be re-
nioved entirely, and some of the vacant spaces on the upper
side of the remaining limbs had to be filled by inserting
cions by side-grafting. (See Fig. 5, p. 29.)

138

THE APPLE VULTURIST.

A fan-shaped tree.

Renewing Apple-trees. — The fan-shaped system, as was
hinted at on a preceding page, enables the pomologist to
renew the bearing branches with more facility than it can
be done when the head of the tree is of any other form.
When the bearing shoots have become too old to yield full
crops, let a portion of them be cut away entirely, or in part,
after which new shoots and new fruit-spurs will appear,
which may be trained at pleasure, according to the direc-
tions of the preceding pages. Fig. 63 indicates, by the cir-
cular dotted line, where the branches may be cut back, when
it is desirable to renew the bearing twigs. This is easily
accomplished by summer pruning, done generally in July or
the fore part of August, and even later, when the season of
growth is extended. It is not necessary to prune severely
to produce the desired effect ^ it will be sufficient to clip off

PIWNINQ AND TRAININO.

139

OAKADA BEINETTB.

Synonyms, numerous.— White Pippin ; (erroneously) Yellow Newton Pippin.
Fruit.— Size, large to extra large ; form, varying, generally roundish flattened,
slightly oblique, angular, much ribbed, especially towards the crown or calyx ;
color, light greenish yellow, with frequently a faint blush of red on the sun-exposed
side ; many small dark green specks, surrounded with light green suflFused beneath
the skin, slightly russeted ; flesh, yellowish white, juicy, crisp, tender, sharp, sub-
acid, sprightly, aromatic; core, small, compact; seeds very dark brown, almost
black ; season, December to May. Tree.— A very strong, vigorous, upright grower
while young, forming a large, spreading, open-orchard tree, quite hardy, produc-
tive, and profitable. An old French variety, described nearly two centuries ago.

the ends of the prominent shoots from time to time, as they
may be pushing forth to excess. Pinching should be done
late enough in the season to prevent after-growth, or should
be kept up until such growth is impossible.

140 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

When it is desirable to renew apple-trees having globular
or conical heads, the cutting back and thinning out must be
performed by an experienced pruner, who undestands ex-
actly what he desires to accomplish. In cutting back for
the purpose of renewing the growth and improving the
productiveness of a tree, we should endeavor not only to
have the top well balanced, but open also, so that the air
and light can have free access to all parts of the tree. A
free circulation of these is necessary to vigor and vitality
in the interior of the top ; the want of it is what causes so
many dead twigs around the body and large limbs of the
tree. The fruit which grows in the centre of the top is
often shut out from the light and air, and is consequently
wanting in flavor and maturity. Some, on this account,
have recommended an effort, by pruning, to throw the fruit
wholly on the outside of the tree. We have seen what were
undoubtedly many good attempts at this — trees where the
interior was all cut out, and each limb had a likeness to
the caudal appendage of a mule, the brush all at the extreme
end. We think the better way is to thin out the twigs on
the outside, and admit the light and air to the more shel-
tered portions. One advantage derived from this would
be, that in seasons when late frosts or severe storms destroy
the fruit on the outside, a portion of that within would
probably escape injury. Whatever may be the style of
pruning, there shoilld never be any necessity for removing
large limbs. Every branch not wanted should be taken off
while small. It is impossible to grow apples fair and well-
flavored on a tree crowded with superfluous branches. Its
sluggish circulation and dense foliage, which excludes the
sun, can furnish nothing but gnarly and insipid fruit. As
the apple-tree always branches low, this inclination should
be respected. Trees with low heads stand firmer, their
trunks are less exposed, and their fruit is much easier gath-

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 141

ered. If the limbs come close to the ground, they operate
as a mulch, keephig the soil loose and moist. Trimming
should always be carefully done, the branch being smoothly
cut, without leaving a stub to die and produce decay, and
prevent the healmg over. More than this, whenever a
branch over one-fourth of an inch in diameter is pruned
off, the wound made should be covered with wax the same
hour, or day at least, as previously suggested.

Root-pruning. — Unfortunately for the writer, he knows
only enough about law to keep out of cases of litigation ;
and only enough about root-pruning to advise pomologists
to let Nature take care of the growth of the roots. Few
persons, probably, have investigated the subject of root-
pruning more thoroughly than we, having from boyhood
been on the watch for a single instance or experiment in
root-pruning which afforded even a shadow of an argu-
ment in favor of the practice. We have read many recom-
mendations of root-pruning, and have conversed with many
cultivators who were advocates of the practice. But when
we have summed up the whole matter, by inquiring for
the evidence, aside from an assumption — an ipse dixit — the
whole conclusion and evidence were resolved into this: "I
can not prove, positively, that root-pruning was beneficial ;
but I am satisfied that the practice is advantageous." We
are not left in any such uncertainty with regard to the ad-
vantages of top-pruning. We have frequently read direc-
tions for severing such and such roots, which it would be
easy to show should not be pruned at all ; and, if severed,
the tree must sustain a severe injury. The truth on this
subject is, that the instances in which an apple-tree needs
root-pruning are like angel's visits.

The operation of root-pruning is usually performed about
as skillfully as top-pruning would be, were the branches
thinned out by shooting repeated charges of large " grape-

142 THE APPLE GULTURIST.

shot" through the tree-tops with a cannon. In some in-
stances, where the soil is so rich as to induce the branches to
continue to grow late in the summer, and even during the
months of autumn, if the growth is not checked by pinching
the spray in time to allow the cambium of the tender twigs
to solidify, the new growth will die during cold weath-
er. Root-pruning will check that rampant growth ; and if
the pruning should be severe, the flow of sap will be cut
off to such an extent that the young twigs can not be ma-
tured. If the flow of sap be cut off, the rampant growth
will be checked, frequently, to the serious injury of the
tree. Young shoots must be supplied with sap while the
cambium is solidifying. Hence, the true way to manage a
tree or bush, when it continues to grow rampantly, late in
the season, is to pinch the terminal buds instead of severing
the roots. This operation will stop the lateral and upward
extension of the branches, and the sap and cambium will at
once begin to develop the buds, thus inducing fruitfulness,
and promoting the maturity of the green wood and Render
branches, so that before cold weather every twig and shoot
will be fully ripened, and prepared to endure the rigors of
winter without injury. By pinching the terminal twigs
late in summer on some trees, and late in September on
others, the pruner will have complete control of the growth
and development of the branches. But let him undertake
to effect the same object by root-pruning, and there will be
more danger of injuring the trees than of securing the ob-
ject in view. A tree should never be root-pruned except
by a person who has had extensive experience in the cul-
ture of trees. Let beginners beware of this unnatural and
dangerous process of mutilating the roots. If the terminal
shoots of a tree seem disposed to continue to grow after
the period has passed when all the wood should have been
fully ripened, take the pruner, Fig. 60, p. 133, and clip off

PRUNING AND TRAINING.

143

the ends of all those twigs that can not be reached with the
hand. In some instances, twigs may commence growing
again, and will require a second clipping. By treating a
tree in this manner for one or two seasons, this rampant
growth can be so controlled that the great flow of sap will
promote abundant fruitfulness rather than surplus wood.

HUBBARPSTON'S NONSTJOH.

A fine, large, early winter fruit, which originated in the town of Hubbardston,
Mass., and is of first-rate quality. The tree is a vigorous grower, forming a hand-
some, branching head, and bears very large crops. It is worthy of extensive or-
chard culture. — Fruit large, roundish-oblong, much narrower near the eye. Skin
smooth, striped with splashes and irregular, broken stripes of pale and bright
red, which nearly cover a yellowish ground. The calyx open, and the stalk short,
and in a russeted hollow ; fiesh yellow, juicy, and tender, with an agreeable
mingling of sweetness and acidity in flavor ; season, October to June.

144 THE APPLE CULTUMIST.

CHAPTER VI.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS.

Be mindful, when thou hast entombed the shoots,
With store of earih around to feed the roots ;
With iron teeth of rakes and prongs, to move
The crusted earth and loosen it above.— Vibgil.

The duties of an orchardist are only begun when the
young trees appear where they are expected to produce an-
nual crops of fruit. We offer this suggestion for the pur-
pose of waking up those " take - it - easy " cultivators, who
have imbibed the erroneous impression that, after they have
planted apple-seeds, and have thus produced trees as high
as their shoulders, or have transplanted trees from the nur-
sery, their labor and anxiety as to the future orchard are
ended ? There was never a more palpable delusion. Young
apple-trees will require more care, at certain seasons of the
year, than a flock of sheep ; and during a large portion of
the growing season, the orchardist must spend a great deal
of time, and expend much labor in his orchard. If the soil
is thoroughly cultivated, he must examine every tree fre-
quently, to see if all the branches and twigs are growing
correctly. At the same time, he must not neglect to wage
an incessant war against noxious insects. All these duties
must be attended to at the proper period. We can not
have a general time of cultivating the soil, of pruning, or of
combating noxious insects. The irksome duties in a young
orchard which demand attention to-day, may need to be re-
peated to-morrow and the next day. The man who pur-
poses to produce a profitable orchard of beautiful trees.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHAMDS. 145

which will yield bountiful crops of fruit for an age after he
has passed away, must begin right, plant right, train right,
and cultivate right. Then his reward will be as certain as
the vicissitudes of the seasons.

Stirring the Soil in Orchards. — ^Many young orchards
that are growing where the soil is thin, having a compact
substratum beneath, are often root-pruned to their serious
injury when the ground is ploughed. Young fruit-trees
seldom have any roots to part with. Consequently, every
rootlet that the plough severs tends to retard the growth
of the tree. But where the soil is so porous that most of
the roots strike deep, and spread out below the range of
the plough, that implement may be employed for working
the soil. None but a careful and intelligent teamster should
be permitted to work around fruit-trees with any imple-
ment ; and for several feet around every tree, the plough
should not be permitted to run more than two inches deep.

The entire soil where an orchard is growing should be
either mulched, or cultivated, or hoed over so frequently
during the growing season, that all vegetation will be kept
completely subdued. Indian corn, potatoes, turnips, car-
rots, or beans, may be cultivated between the rows every
year for ten years. But the ground round about each tree,
as far as the branches extend, should be left entirely free
from vegetation. A few inches in depth of the surface
should be kept stirred with hand-hoes, or horse-hoes, or har-
rows. Great care should be exercised in keeping all imple-
ments from wounding the bodies of young trees. A care-
less booby will frequently do many dollars' damage with
the whiffletrees, plough, or harrow. A spade should not be
used around fruit-trees to the injury of the roots; A spad-
ing-fork is better, as the tines will crowd the roots aside,
seldom breaking even the small ones. Then, as the hard
soil is broken up with fork-tines, removed from the roots,

7

146 TEE APPLE CULTURIST.

and returned to them thoroughly pulverized, all the little
fibres will be brought into contact with different portions
of soil that have not been exhausted of their fertility. Thus
comparatively new earth will settle around the roots, so
that in a short time the spongioles will begin to absorb
plant-food. Now, if a spade be used, such a large propor-
tion of the roots will be severed, that much of the source
of plant-food will be cut off. Forking around fruit-trees is
recommended only in certain instances. Mulching is better
than hoeing and spading, or scarifying with a horse-hoe.
When the soil is only a few inches deep, and the subsoil so
compact that but few roots can enter it, a careless man with
a spade will "cut off more than half of all the roots, which
are the main sources of nourishment; and the growth of
the tree or plant will be retarded quite as much as if it had
just been transplanted. When a spadeful of soil is filled
with small rootlets and fibres, the spader had better be
spending his time in idleness, than mutilating the roots of
either ornamental or fruit trees.

Many an excellent orchard has been nearly ruined by di-
recting some strong ploughman, who has been accustomed
to plough new land, to rip up every square foot deeply.
After fruit-trees have commenced bearing, the ground
should not be touched with a plough within a distance of
eight feet from them. If the soil requires renovating, top-
dress and mulch it. If it is so porous that the roots will
strike down readily below the reach of a common plough,
as roots of trees always do where there is no compact
substratum, there will be but little danger of mutilating
the roots of fruit-trees. A ploughman should possess suf-
ficient knowledge to judge correctly touching this subject.
In many sections of country, the surface-soil, resting on a
compact hard-pan, is so thin that a plough, if run ten inch-
es deep, would cut off almost the entire system of roots.

'GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS.

147

A Thill Horse-hoe. — The best horse implement that I
have ever met with for scarifying the soil in an orchard is
represented by Fig. 64. With such a hoe the surface of

A thill horse-hoe with cast-steel teeth.

the ground can
be scarified two
or three inches
in depth, much
faster than a
score of men
I can accomplish
the same labor
with hand-hoes,
orwithspading-
forks and rakes.
As this implement is guided by thills and handles, the teeth
can be run very close to the young trees, and be held to
just skin the surface as it passes the trees. By this means
the surface-roots of young trees will not be mutilated.

How to Plough around Trees. — ^If there is a grassy sod
near the trees, it will be almost impossible to cut it all up
with the plough. Before the ground is ploughed, a spade,
or a bog-hoe, should be employed to cut up and turn over
an area of at least four feet in diameter. Then there will
be no necessity for running the plough too close to the
trees. If the plough is drawn by oxen, great care must
be exercised by the driver to keep the team from rushing
astride of a tree that the oxen can bend to the ground.
Well-trained oxen will often hook their under-jaw around
the body of a small tree as they are passing it, and bend
the top to the ground in an instant. They like to demolish

148 THE APPLE CULTUBI^T.

trees that they can bend to the ground. That the plough-
man may have complete control of his plough, there should
always be a gauge-wheel beneath the forward end of the
beam, so that the ploughman may lift his plough entirely
out of the ground at pleasure. Also, when the plough ap-
proaches a tree, the ploughman should lift on the handles,
gauging the depth of the furrow at pleasure, near the trees.
If roots appear near the surface, let the plough run only
two or three inches deep as it passes the trees. When
horses and whiffletrees are used, the whiffletrees should not
be more than twenty-two inches in length, and the driver
should exercise great care to prevent the injurious contact
of the whiffletrees with the tender trees. If there is no
sod on the ground, it is an excellent practice to do the
ploughing near the trees with one horse, or with two horses
geared ad tandem — one forward of the other. So long as
trees can be bent sideways, one person should be employed
to bend the trees away from the team, and to elevate the
outer end of the whiffletree while passing each tree. Oth-
erwise, young trees will be seriously damaged by whiffle-
trees. A slight touch with a whiffletree will frequently
remove a piece of bark as large as a man's hand. Such
wounds will be a great injury to the growth of young
trees, unless they are covered immediately with a heavy
coat of grafting-wax. To say nothing of the injury to
fruit-trees by wounding the smooth and straight stem, it
looks bad to see young trees stove up by unskillful and
heedless ploughmen. We have in mind a young farmer
who cultivated a large young orchard for more than ten
years ; and not a scar could be found on one of the trees.
No one except himself was permitted to manage a team
or to handle an implement near those trees.

Muzzles for Teams. — No team, whether ox, ass, or horse,
should ever be permitted to come near young trees of any

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF OR CHARD li. 149

kind until a good muzzle is se- Fig. 65.

cured over the mouth, as repre-
sented by Fig. 65. A pair of wire
muzzles may be obtained at most
hardware stores in large cities for
about twenty-five cents each, which
will be serviceable for an age, if
properly taken care of when not
in use. Muzzles are usually fast-
ened to the bits of a horse's bridle, ^ wire muzzle ra the nose of a
and to the heads of oxen, by tying

a strong cord to one side of the muzzle, and passing it over
the top of the animal's head to the other side. A good
muzzle may be made in a few minutes with narrow strips
of firm leather. Every intelligent teamster knows so well
that he does not need to be told, that most teams will crop
off the entire growth of one season at a single bite, when
they are passing a tree ; and nothing but good muzzles will
prevent such a casualty.

Harrowing Orchards. — Most kinds of harrows are apt to
operate roughly when drawn near young trees. Many times,
when the driver has made fair calculations for the imple-
ment to pass a tree, the opposite side will encounter some
obstruction, or hang in the hard soil, and thus be the means
of throwing the opposite wing of the implement so forcibly
against the body of the tree as to make a large wound.
This is especially true of such harrows as have bands of iron
near the ends of each arm. To avoid injuring trees, Mon-
roe's Rotary Harrow will be found an excellent implement
for harrowing orchards, with which it is almost hnpractica-
ble to injure a young tree when the implement is drawn
past it, as the point of the harrow that might come in con-
tact with the tree will remain stationary against the bark
until the implement has passed so far along that every part

150 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

will move away from the tree, leaving it uniDJured. If this
harrow had no other points of superior excellence, orchard-
ists would do well to keep one expressly for working among
fruit-trees. But it ha%been in us*e for so long a period, that
tillers of the soil are familiar with its great superiority for
all kinds of harrowing, and especially for harrowing in ce-
real grain.

Cultivating Young Orchards. — One of the most efficient
implements for this purpose is represented by Fig. 66, the

Fig. 66.

Nishwitz's disk scarifier.

pulverizers of which consist of several sharp-edged circular
disks about one foot in diameter, being concave on one
side and convex on the other. When the wheels or disks
are cast, a round steel pin, about three fourths- of an inch in
diameter, is inserted in the mould, thus furnishing a steel
journal for each disk. A bolt, with a nut at the upper end,
is passed through a socket-standard, which holds the disks
in their position. When the scarifier is in use, the disks
are set at any desired angle to the line of draught, and each
disk thus pulverizes and turns over a narrow furrow-slice.
I'he disks operate by cutting, lifting, and turning over a
few inches in depth of the entire surfa'be of the land.
Wherever it has been thoroughly tested, this implement
has given excellent satisfaction as a scarifier, or as an imple-
ment for covering seed-grain. The wooden frame consists

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF OECHARDS. 151

of two pieces of hard, tough timber, about two inches iu
thickness by seven or eight inches wide, held in position by
the cross-bar, which is firmly bolted to the side pieces. By
taking out the bolts which secure the cross-bar, the wings
can be spread farther apart or brought nearer together, as
represented by the cut, copied, by permission, from the cat-
alogue of agricultural implements of the " Peekskill Plough
Works," Peekskill, New York.

Advantage of Working the Surface. — When ground is
ploughed in the former part of the growing season, and the
surface is cultivated or worked with a gang-plough every
two weeks during the summer, the substratum will be kept
so moist that the roots of growing trees will spread with
far greater rapidity than it would be possible for them to
extend if the ground were more dry and hard. Every ob-
serving tiller of the soil knows that ground on which wheat,
oats, or grass is growing, during hot and dry weather will
often be as dry as ashes, while the same kind of soil by the
side of it, which is being summer-fallowed, will be quite
damp. The leaves of the growing crop pump up and evap-
orate the moisture in the ground. By summer-fallowing
the ground where young apple-trees are growing, the entire
plot is kept moist, and as soft as the ground was early in
the spring. Of course soft and damp ground — not wet land
— in hot weather, greatly promotes a healthy growth of the
trees, so that in many instances young apple-trees will grow,
where the soil is thoroughly worked, twice as rapidly as if a
crop of grain or grass were cultivated on the same ground.

We have heard "gentlemen farmers" contend earnestly
that a crop of grass, and even a heavy crop of weeds, will
operate in a most favorable manner in dry and hot weath-
er towards keeping the ground damp by the shade of the
leaves and branches. If the growing plants did not pump
up immense quantities of water, their reasoning would be

152 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

sound. Frequent working of the soil in hot weather greatly
augments its capacity to condense moisture from the at-
mosphere, and to retain it after it has been absorbed. Cul-
tivation is essential to the thrifty growth of any apple-tree.
The difference between the size of trees when cultivated,
at the end of five years, and of those allowed to stand in
grass, will be greatly in favor of the former. It is not the
land we wish to improve, but the tree ; it is not potatoes
and beans we desire to raise, but to fit the soil in such man-
ner that hereafter it will give food enough to the tree to
enable it to raise large crops of apples. Every tree should
be tilled like a hill of corn or potatoes. Yearly, as the
roots extend, a wider space around the trunk should be cul-
tivated. The whole ground should be spaded and hoed,
mulched and manured, or scarified from row to row.

Ridging Fruit-orchards. — The aim should always be to
keep the surface of the ground as level as a lawn. Apple-
trees should never be " earthed up," as is sometimes done,
by ploughing the ground in ridges, and turning the fur-
rows at every ploughing towards the trees. J. W. Clarke,
of Wisconsin, gave an account recently of the fatal injury
to a young orchard on a farm which he had recently pur-
chased. He says that, "the owner having left the State,
the land was rented to three or four successive tenants, and
each one took the easiest way to plough the ground ; and,
as the result proved, the surest to destroy the trees. At
every ploughing, for five years, the ground was ridged up
against the trees, so that when I took possession the stems
were earthed up, on an average, eighteen inches, and some
of them considerably more, above the depth they were set,
and of course above that at which they stood in the nursery."

"The result was that, between 1857 and 1861, one-half the
trees were, half rotted through, above the general level of
the ground, but below the tops of the ridges, which stupid

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 153

laziness had formed ; over two hundred fine young trees
were rotted, broken off, and destroyed by the tenants in
that heedless fashion."

The probabihty is, that most of those trees had been
badly wounded with ploughs and harrows, which injured
them more than the ridges. Nevertheless, it is an injuri-
ous practice to increase the depth of the soil near young
trees to any considerable extent.

Mulching Material for Apple-trees. — Doubtless many
persons have noticed how much more productive an apple-
tree seemed to be, when the surface of the ground round
about was covered with chips, or chip-dirt so thick as to
kill vegetation. Tan-bark and sawdust will subserve the
same purpose. If those persons who live near tan-works
or saw-mills would get the tan-bark and sawdust, and mulch
the trees every year, or every second year, and pile on both
coal ashes and wood ashes, they would soon have abundance
of choice fruits, as well as thrifty trees. There is too much
of our woody material allowed to waste, which, if applied
to lands on which trees are grown, either fruit or orna-
mental, would soon show its beneficial effects. It is folly
to think of raising a bountiful crop of grass or grain near
apple-trees, and to get an abundant crop of fine fruit at the
same time. The mulching material can be applied in the
winter, when laborers and teams have little to do. It will
pay well to haul tan-bark, sawdust and planing-mill shav-
ings two or more miles, when a large load can be carried,
for the especial purpose of scattering it round about fruit-
trees, unless trees are standing on a deep and fertile soil,
so abundantly supplied with fruit-producing material, that
nothing more is required. It will pay to spread coal ashes
round about trees so abundantly that no grass or weeds can
come up through the ashes. Any kind of straw, leaves,
wild grass, sedge, or flags, may often be employed for

V*

154

THE APPLE CULTUMIST.

AUTUMN 8TRAVVUERKY.

Fruit, medium, roundish, slightly conical, nearly the whole surface covered with
bright red streaks on yellow ground ; stalk, slender, about an inch long ; basin,
ribbed; flesh, yellow, very tender and juicy, with a fine sub-acid flavor. Tree,
thrifty. Ripens early in autumn, and keeps well. Very productive ; one of the
best early autumn apples.

mulching young apple-trees. On light and sandy soil, it
would be an excellent plan to spread two or three tons of
clay round about each tree. Then, after the frost and rains
of winter had thoroughly pulverized the clay, let it be fork-
ed into the sand. After which, apply a dressing of mulch.
When mulch is applied in the spring of the year, let it
be spread over the surface barely thick enough to prevent
grass growing. A thin mulch will keep the soil moist,
when without it the surface would be as dry as dust.
Five dollars' worth of mulch will often save ten dollars'
worth of labor in hoeing and watering plants. Many peo-
ple remove all the weeds and grass to the street, when such
things should be spread around growing vegetables or trees.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF OMCHABDS. 155

By many beginners, who do not understand how to ap-
ply mulch, a small heap of material is piled up close to
the foot of the tree, without one moment's reflection as to
the position of the roots that need the benefit. Now it
may be laid down as a rule which is not far from being
correct, that the length of the roots which radiate on all
sides from the base of an apple-tree is about equal to the
height of the tree itself. If, for example, a young fruit-
tree is ten feet high, then we may infer that the roots form
a circle about twenty feet in diameter, the base of the tree
constituting the centre. Over this gi'eat surface, the finer
and more inconspicuous roots form a net- work of fibres;
and to derive full benefit from manure, cultivation, and
mulching, a broad space of ground must be covered with
manure and mulch.

Wood Ashes for Apple-trees. — Many of my readers, doubt-
less, can recollect instances where a fruit-tree has stood near
a large heap of leached ashes; and sometimes the ashes
have been thrown out of the leach for several years, so that
every noxious weed and grass has been killed by the lib-
eral top-dressing of wood ashes. But the fruit that was
produced on the tree near the ashes was always plump and
smooth. I well remember, when a small lad, that there
were two peach-trees near my father's leach, around which
the leached ashes had destroyed all vegetation; and the
old trees seemed to chng to life with the desperation of a
drowning man. But the fruit was always large, and very
smooth and luscious, as long as there was sufficient vitality
in the last twig to produce a fruit-bud. This fact assured
me that fruit-trees require wood ashes. Consequently, after
I commenced operations on my own farm, every bushel of
ashes was spread around fruit-trees ; and many loads were
hauled five miles to be scattered around fruit-trees. The
result was, that in after years, when fruit-trees in all that

156 THE APPLE VULTURIST.

vicinity yielded scarcely a family supply of fruit, my trees,
that had been top-dressed with ashes, bore bountiful crops
of smooth fruit. I have in mind several old trees which
would yield annual crops of small, gnarly, knotty, rusty,
one-sided fruit of little value, until after I had made a port-
able pen, about eighteen feet square, around each tree, in
which two fattening shotes were kept, about two weeks per
tree, until they had rooted up every inch of the turf and
destroyed the grass. Then several bushels of unleached
wood ashes were scattered around those trees, as far as the
roots extended. The result was, bountiful crops of plump
and smooth fruit every succeeding season; and I meet
with farmers every year who tell me that their apple-trees
and Vergalieu pear-trees which stand near their leach, and
that have been top-dressed with ashes, yield bountiful crops
of luscious fruit ; while the same kind of trees near by, that
have not been supplied with ashes, seem to be failing ; and
the fruit on them is rusty, one-sided, and very inferior. I
once had an Early Harvest apple-tree that always yielded
small, knotty, and cracked fruit, until a few bushels of un-
leached ashes were spread about it, after which the fruit
was superb.

Bones for Apple-trees. — There is no more valuable fer-
tilizer for apple-trees on most soils than bones, and the flesh
of animals and fish. It has been recorded by reliable au-
thority that near the graves of Roger Williams, the founder
of Rhode Island, and his wife, there stood a venerable apple-
tree which had sent two of its roots into the graves of Mr.
and Mrs. Williams. The larger root had pushed its way
through the earth till it reached the precise spot occupied
by the skull of Roger Williams. There, making a turn, as
if going round the skull, it followed the direction of the
backbone to the hips. Here it divided into two branches,
sending one of them along each leg to the heel, where both

GENERAL 3IANAGEMENT OF ORCHAMD^. 157

turned upward to the toes. One of these roots formed a
slight crook at the knee, which made the whole bear close
resemblance to a human form. There were the graves,
emptied of eveiy particle of human dust. . Not a trace of
any thing was left. There stood the guilty " apple-tree,"
as it was said at the time, caught in the very act of " rob-
bing the grave." The fact proved conclusively that bones,
even of human beings, are an excellent fertilizer for fruit-
trees ; and the fact must be admitted that the organic mat-
ter of Roger WiUiams had been transmitted into the apple-
tree ; it had passed into the woody fibre, and was capable
of propelling a steam-engine ; it had bloomed in the apple-
blossoms, and had become pleasant to the eye ; and more,
it had gone into the fruit from year to year, so that the
question might be asked, Who ate Roger Williams ?

It is known to chemists that all flesh, and the gelatinous
matter giving consistency to the bones, are resolved into
carbonic acid gas, water, and air, during decomposition,
while the solid lime-dust usually remains. But in this case,
even the phosphate of lime of the bones of both the graves
was all gone. In the same manner, all kinds of bones,
when buried near growing vines and trees, will be literal-
ly devoured by the hungry roots; and the once beautiful
forms that lived and moved will be transformed into lus-
cious food, to maintain others who may exist hereafter.

Scraping the Bodies of Apple-trees.— This practice is re-
peatedly recommended as an important means of producing
a fine crop of fruit. But v/e can conceive of no practical
advantage in scraping old trees so thoroughly as to remove
all the shaggy and dead bark, except to destroy insects,
their eggs, and their refuges. The rough and shaggy bark
of an apple-tree will be found advantageous to the health
and productiveness of a tree, as the covering is provided by
nature for their protection against the adverse influences of

158 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

climate, and for maintaining in even balance that degree of
warmth most favorable to the healthy exercise of their vital
functions ; and perhaps the fact is not sufficiently realized
how admirably suited this external covering is for such a
purpose. Wood, in the direction of across the grain, is a
non-conductor of heat in an eminent degree ; and the outer
layers of bark are even greatly more so. Hence we would
never advocate the practice of scraping the bodies of fruit-
trees simply to promote their fruitfulness. The practice
promotes no such end. When the bodies of trees are
scraped, the denuded parts should be protected with a coat
of pitch and tallow. (See p. 159 for a cut of a tree-scrap-
er.) The, chief reason urged in support of the practice is,
that it lightens the trees of a load of dead and useless mat-
ter which can not be of further benefit ; but, on the contra-
ry, when allowed to remain, it is only a harbor for insect
enemies, and for the growth of moss and lichens. It is
doubtless true that the depredations of insects have been
lessened by the process. But as for lichens, we are at a
loss to understand how they can be hurtful to trees; for,
although growing upon them, they live exclusively upon
food drawn from the atmosphere. It is not claimed that
trees derive any benefit from those epiphytes, unless in bleak
and exposed situations they supplement the bark in afford-
ing protection. But when found in excess upon apple or
pear trees of immature age, they may be accepted as a sign
that, from some cause or other, those trees are not in such
satisfactory condition as could be desired. Want of thrift-
iness in trees favors the growth of lichens ; and this may be
induced by a variety of causes, either singly or in combina-
tion, such as impoverishment of the soil, want of drainage,
or exposure to the rigors of a severe and variable climate.

The long strips of dead bark hanging from the bodies of
large hickory-trees are of more service than injury. In no

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 159

supposable case need the pomologist hope to better his pros-
pects by the use of a scraping-knife; for, from whatever
cause trees cease to increase perceptibly in diameter, out-
side appliances can no more impart fresh vigor to them,
than the under-fed and over-driven roadster, all of whose
bones stick out, can be made sleek and fat by the use of the
curry-comb, so long as generous feeding, careful driving,
and a good stable are ignored. In the vegetable kingdom,
the fitting of means to ends is so close and intimate as not
to be safely disturbed ; while, at the same time, they seem to
Fig. 67. indicate that the practice we oppose is out of
harmony with the plans and purposes of nature.
Hence, when we remove the dead bark of an
apple-tree, we should first understand what the
effect is to be on the tree. We would never
scrape or shave off the dead bark without being
able to tell how the operation will promote fruit-
fulness. So long as a tree continues to yield
fair crops of apples, the bark should not be
tampered with. Fig. 67 represents a scraper
of convenient form, which consists of a trian-
gular piece of steel, about three inches from
corner to corner, with the edges ground or filed
sharp for scraping. A stiff broad hoe may be
Tree-scraper, employed instead of such a scraper.

The editor of the Practical Farmer, Philadelphia, says :

" Some over-wise people have an idea that when a tree gets mossy and bark-
bound— the latter but another term for the want of growth and weakness conse-
quent upon neglected cultivation— it is only necessary to slit the bark up and down
the stem with a jacknife, and it will at once spread out and grow. This is sheer
nonsense. Dig about and cultivate the roots, and the bark will take care of itself,
with a scraping oflF of the moss, and a washing of the stem with ley or soap-suds,
or chamber-slops, which last is quite as good. The increased flow of the sap, in-
duced by a liberal feeding of the roots, will do its ovm bursting of the ' hide-
bound ' 'bark, which is simply its enfeebled condition as a consequence of its pov-
erty of root. No one thinks of turning out a bony, half-starved calf in the spring,
iato the clover-field, with the skin on its sides all split through with a knife, in or-
der to add to its growth. And this last proposition is quite as sensible and phil-
osophical as the other. Nature takes care of itself in these particulars. Sap iu

160 THE APPLE CULTUMIST.

plenty is what the blood is to animals. Its vigorous flow reaches every part of its
composition, and gives to each its proper play and function. We can show fre-
quent instances of a decrepit shrivelled branch, by the throwing open and manur-
ing of the roots, and a thorough pruning of the whole top, increasing from an inch
to two inches diameter in a single season, and without assistance, as it grew,
bursting and throwing off its old contracted bark as freely as the growth of a
vigorous asparagus-shoot would develop itself during a warm shower in May.
Such nostrums are only the invention of the head to excuse the laziness of the
hands."

Girdling and Peeling Trees. — During the former part of
summer, and sometimes as late as the first of August, the
bodies of apple-trees may often be denuded of every parti-
cle of bark, from the ground to the branches, with excel-
lent effect, in some instances, on the productiveness of the
tree. But such an operation must not be performed too
early, nor' too late in the growing season. There must be
a liberal supply of cambium, or new wood in a semi-fluid
condition, between the old bark and the wood. Then, if
the old bark be removed, the cambium will form a new
coating of bark, instead of another concentric ring of new
wood. We have frequently seen apple-trees completely
stripped of the bark, clear up among the limbs. On such
trees, before the end of the growing season, a smooth and
thick bark had been formed, wherever the old bark had
been disturbed.

The object in view is, to promote fruitfulness. In many
instances, " ringing " the body of a tree, or the main branch-
es, by removing a strip of bark quite around them, half
an inch or an inch wide, will have the desired effect. In
some instances, a sharp knife has simply been run around
the limb, cutting through the bark, without removing any
portion. Ringing of branches will sometimes promote ear-
ly maturity. We have often seen branches loaded with
mature fruit, more than a week previous to the time of ri-
pening of the same kind of fruit on other branches of the
same tree. Then, again, we have ringed branches with our
own knife, and no effect whatever could be perceived in

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARD 161

the productiveness of the branches, or early maturity of
the fruit.

The philosophy of ringing branches, or peeling off the
bark to promote fructification, consists in this : that the op-
eration retards the growth of the branches, which tends to
promote fruitfulness. But some of our most reliable po-
mologists contend that all such operations are highly inju-
rious to the trees, because they are unnatural. We would
not advise the practice, except when the bark is old and
the trees " bark-bound."

Thinning out young Fruit.— This is a practice that has
numerous advocates, and only a limited number to practise
it. Ever since we commenced the cultivation of fruit-trees
and grape-vines, we have not failed to thin out the fruit —
especially of young trees — with as much care as the same
trees were pruned. When young apple-trees or pear-trees
have been covered with blossoms, and a sufficient number of
specimens have set to make several quarts of fruit, our prac-
tice has ever been to clip off all but three or four specimens,
particularly if the branches of the trees were growing slowly.
It is exceedingly detrimental to young trees to be allowed
to mature much fruit while they are growing vigorously.

The most convenient instrument for thinning out fruit
is a small pair of sharp shears, with w^hich to cut the stems.
One man will be able to thin out the fruit on a large num-
ber of trees in a day, if he can handle his shears with facil-
ity. When the young fruit hangs in clusters, always cut
out the poorest specimens. Do not be chicken-hearted
about such a job, although it appears terribly destructive
to your crop of fruit. Faint-hearted women will hold their
breath at the sight, and even venture to scream as the
young fruit falls. But act the part of a wise and skillful
pomologist, and thin out all the clusters. The crop will
certainly be more abundant, and more valuable also.

162 THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

Hon. M. P. Wilder, President of the American Pomolog-
ical Society, says that

" One of the most important lessons which experience has taught us, is the neces-
sity of thinning oar crops of fruit ; and no operation, in the whole round of fruit
culture, has been so much neglected. It is not strange that the young cultivator,
delighted with a fine show of large pears on a young tree, or an abundant crop of
grapes on a young vine, should, in the pride of his heart—and not knowing the
impossibility of the tree or vine bringing them all to maturity without a tax on
its vital powers, of which the eflFect may be felt for years— permit them to remain.
It is true that the labor is great, but so is the profit ; and oftentimes it happens
that the labor of thinning a crop makes all the diflference between absolute un-
salableness and a high price in the market. Not unfrequently a pear-tree will set
so much fruit that it can not bring any part of the crop to a size which will render
it salable in a crowded market, when, if one-half, or even a larger part, of the
fruit had been removed, the remaining specimens would have sold quickly at the
top prices of the market. One of our farmers, near Boston, always thins his
fruit ; another, adjoining his orchard, neglects it. The location and treatment of
these two orchards, in other respects, are much the same ; but the former realizes
for his crop of Baldwin apples about four dollars and a half per barrel, while the
latter, standing by his side in the market, receives less than three dollars and a
half for his. The case is still stronger with the pear, which, growing on smaller
trees, is more easily thinned ; and the prices obtained for the fruit afi'ord a better
remuneration for the labor of thinning. While those properly thinned and cared
for will command four dollars per bushel, those of the common run will not bring
more than two dollars ; and this rule applies not only to fruits, but to all vegeta-
ble productions. Every one has observed that the overbearing of a fruit-tree one
year is likely to result in barrenness the next. Hence the necessity of thinning
our fruits, so as to avoid exhaustion of the tree, and to keep up a regular succes-
sion of good fruit. Even the Baldwin apple, which, from its great productive-
ness, bears only on alternate years, we think, might, by thinning, be made to bear
annual crops. Not merely the form, but the color, is improved by thinning ; for
without sunlight fruit can never attain perfect color. "When apples are crowded
in clusters, they are particularly liable to be attacked by disease ; and therefore
the neceseity, if we wish perfect specimens, for removing a part, so that no two
fruits shall touch each other. This necessity is especially strong in the case of
the peach and plum, and early apples, where rot is liable to be communicated by
contact. These should be so severely thinned, when young, as to make it certain
that they will not touch each other when fully grown. "

Making Letters on Growing Apples. — ^It is a curious fact,
which many pomologists will doubtless be glad to know,
that a person may produce his name in beautiful letters in
the skin of an apple, thus : Cut paper letters out of a news-
paper, say one-fourth of an inch square, spread a coat of
mucilage on one side of each letter, and stick the letters on
the surface of an apple that is growing in the sunlight. The
letters should be put on before the apples have turned red.
In ten to twenty days the apple will be red, except beneath

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 163

the letters, which will be of a light color. After the apple
is done growing, the paper may be removed, and the letters
or figures will remain as permanent as the color of the fruit.
Many a person would be delighted with the idea of sending
a large and beautiful apple to a respected friend or lover,
with his or her name in beautiful plano-relievo^ formed on
the smooth surface of a ruby apple by Dame Nature's own
delicate touch, in shades and* tints of unrivalled beauty.
Another manner of recording a name and date is to simply
cut through the skin of an apple in the shape of the letters.
A name may also be made by punching the skin with a
bodkin in the form of letters. The wounds will heal so that
the scars will form the letters of the name intended.

Preparation of Apple-trees for Winter. — In some instan-
ces, when an apple tree is standing where every thing favors
a luxuriant growth, the branches will keep green until cold
weather and frost has destroyed the foliage. A strong,
perfect, and healthful animal will endure the rigors of our
Northern winters with far less injury than a poor, weak, and
half-grown beast. The same principle will be found to hold
good in the management of apple-trees. If their shoots
and buds are full and plump, and well supplied with health-
ful material contributed from clean, healthy leaves, the
chemical movements which attend growth will assist great-
ly in maintaining the tree against cold, by the heat which
is developed. In a thin, weakly tree, this force is wanting.
Hence the eminent importance of watching the growth of
young trees early in autumn, when the growth is rampant,
for the purpose of clipping the extremities of luxuriant
branches, to hasten the maturity of the new wood. Untold
numbers of valuable fruit-trees at the West and North-west
have been lost during cold weather, from no other cause
than the one here alluded to — luxuriant growth in late
autumn. In many instances, trees have grown but little

164

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

KHOI>E I8LAN11 GEEENING.

(Sywowyms.— Burlington Greening, Jersey Greening, Russine, Grunling von
Rhode Island, and Bell Dubois. The fruit is large and roundish, a little flat-
tened, quite regular, but often obscurely ribbed, dark green, becoming greenish-
yellow when ripe, sometimes showing a dull blush near the stem. The flesh is
yellow, fine-grained, tender, crisp, with an abundance of rich, slightly aromatic,
lively acid juice. For market and for culinary purposes, it has few superi-
ors. Season from November to April. The tree is vigorous, and usually hardy.
At the South the fruit is said to drop too early in autumn to be a profitable
apple.

during the summer, on account of drought. When the
autumn months have been exceedingly favorable for the
growth of all kinds of trees, and when young branches have
continued to push out until freezing, weather has put an
end to all vegetation, if trees have not been prepared for
winter, of course many of them must be utterly destroyed
by the cold.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 165

Another thing in preparing apple-trees to endure the
winter without injury — in addition to the foregoing — is a
mulch or covering for the surface, with some vegetable ma-
terial in a state of decomposition, which will shelter the
roots and impart warmth, evolved by its slow combustion ;
and the more valuable this mulch will be if nitrogenous
matter is included, as in stable manure. This application is
of vastly more benefit, when applied in the autumn, than if
left till spring, not only on account of the shelter it affords,
but because of its advancing a strong growth early in the
spring, which becomes well ripened before winter ; whereas,
manure applied in the spring, especially if raw, often does
not become effective until late in the season, when the wood
should be ripening instead of growing. A ripe, well-var-
nished and finished coat of bark is to the tree what the coat
of hair is to the animal ; and the effect of a small break or
rent in it shows how important its perfect condition is, es-
pecially that of its outer skin or epidermis. It must be
remembered that the dark only ripens well in full light.
Trees, therefore, must have their wood both well fed and
thoroughly ripened, or they will not possess sufficient vital-
ity to endure the extreme cold of our Northern winters.

Certain writers at the present time are advocating the
efficacy of root-pruning as the most reliable way to promote
hardiness during the winter. But it will be found that by
employing such an instrument as is illustrated on p. 133 to
clip the terminal shoots, and thus induce the new wood to
harden before cold weather, apple-trees will endure the cold
more satisfactorily than if they had been root-pruned.

Protecting Apple-trees from Stock and other Animals.—

If cattle and horses may enter to crop,

Young trees are in danger of losing the top. — Edwards.

Horses and colts will nip off the branches and gnaw off
the bark of young trees; horned cattle will browse the

166

THE APPLE CULTUMIST.

tender twigs, hook the tops, and break the stems down by
rubbing unceremoniously against the bodies of young trees ;
and sheep, calves, and goats will frequently gnaw off all the
bark within their reach. Horses, mules, and neat-cattle
should never be allowed to run loosely in a young orchard.
Sheep may run in an orchard if the bodies of the trees are
first protected. The most convenient manner of protecting
from sheep, goats, calves, rabbits, and mice, is to procure
strong, coarse paper, or some coarse, cheap canvas ; cut it
in strips of the right breadth to wrap around the tree, and
lap not less than two inches. If a piece is passed twice
around, it will do no harm. Then secure the edge by driv-
ing large tack-nails — carpet-tacks — into the tree. Then
apply a coat of coal-tar to the paper or cloth. Such cov-
ering should be removed during the summer. We have
never heard of a protection that is equal to this for cheap-
ness and efficiency. Such material may be taken off the
fore part of every summer, and kept till the leaves have
fallen. Small nails driven into a tree will not injure it. In
many localities, when snow drifts deep around trees, rabbits
will run on the surface and gnaw the bark, if not protected
five or six feet from the ground. If coal-
tar be applied to the bodies of young trees,
X\"^'^^^ there is danger that the poisonous mate-
^.^v ^/^ rial in it will injure the bark. I once ap
s/^v.V'!^--^^ plied coal-tar to a valuable apple-tree ten
years old ; and in less than eight months
every root and branch was killed by the
tar.

Fig.. 68 represents a young tree having
the stem wrapped with tarred paper, and a
mound of earth cast up around it, to turn
Protected from mice, away field-mice. When a mound of earth

rabbits, sheep, and . ," t , ^ .i -. j

goats. IS placed around a tree, the tarred paper

Fig. 68.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 167

need extend only two or three inches below the top of the
mound.

Trees blown over. — A furious wind frequently turns a
large apple-tree over, or blows it so nearly up by the roots
that the body stands at an angle of forty -five degrees. If a
tree be a valuable one, it may be straightened up at a small
expense. If the subsoil is compact where the tree stood, let
it be dug up and thoroughly pulverized, the deeper the bet-
ter. Then hitch a strong rope or chain to another tree or
post, and one end to the tree-top, having a system of tackles
between the tree to be set up and the anchor-post. Let the
rope pass over the top of two poles, bolted together in the
form of a letter A, standing near the tree to be set up.
When all things are ready, hitch a team to the slack-rope
of the tackles, and set the tree up. Let the top be held
erect until it is secured by four strong guy-wires, extending
from the top to strong stakes of durable timber set firmly,
three feet deep, in solid ground. After two years, if the
soil is not too wet and compact, the new roots will have
taken such a firm hold that a hurricane could not blow the
tree over.

Manuring Orchards. — The land where, some orchards
are growing needs to be well manured before the trees are
set out; and the surface should be top-dressed every two
years. Any thing and every thing may be spread on the
surface. Moderate doses of lime, more generous ones of
wood ashes, are always profitable. Phosphates of all kinds
are useful if buried beneath the surface. Even Peruvian
guano, if applied at all, should be slightly dug in, late in
the fall, so as to become thoroughly divided by winter
rains. Good barn-yard manure spread over the surface of
the ground is excellent. But coarse organic manure should
not be put in contact with the roots of young trees. The
more offal from the slaughter-house one has to put around

168 THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

apple-trees, the more scrapings of the manure-yards, the
more chip-dust, the more fish, flesh, and bones of dead ani-
mals, the more of leather-shavings and hide-clippings, horn
piths and hoofs, hair and old plaster, and all such articles,
the better it will be for the growing trees. Apple-pomace,
spread say one inch thick around a large tree, will be found
a good manure, especially for old trees. If applied too
bountifully, pomace will kill all vegetation, and the roots of
the apple-trees. My father was accustomed to spread pom-
lace about three inches thick over Canada thistles and el-
der bushes ; and that thin top-dressing would destroy every,
root of every plant — no matter what it was — clear down
through the subsoil. Of course, if pomace be applied too
bountifully, it will kill the roots of apple-trees.

Garbage for Apple-trees. — Many of our most successful
pomologists beheve that there is no danger of applying too
much manure to bearing trees. Their fruit shows that
such a theory is correct, provided fertilizing material of
the required kind is employed. Many famihes in cities,
villages, and even in the country, cast away enough fertil-
izing material in jone year to equal the manurial value of
several tons of the best Peruvian guano, which is sold to
tillers of the soil for about eighty dollars per ton. Many a
family throws out at the back door a sufficient quantity of
garbage from the kitchen — consisting of apple-peelings, po-
tato-peelings, bits of meat and bread, fragments of bones,
feathers of fowls, and soap-suds — to produce all the fruit
or vegetables that the same family would consume, if such
material were properly applied to the soil. Many families
cast into the garbage-barrel more than five pounds of pieces
of bread, meat, and bones every day, every pound of which
is more valuable as a fertilizer of the soil than a pound
of guano. Other families waste several barrels of soap an-
nually, every gallon of which is of more value to spread

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHABDS. 169

around fruit-trees than a pound of Peruvian guano. After
a box of hard soap, or a barrel of soft soap, has been dis-
solved in the wash-bowl or wash-tub, its manurial value
still remains in the water; and the fertilizing material is
in a far better condition to feed growing plants and fruit-
trees than before the soap was dissolved. Every barrel of
good soap is worth from five to six dollars to spread
around grape-vines or fruit-trees of any kind, as soap is the
choicest quality of fertilizing material for bearing trees,
and even for flower-beds. The more we can apply, the
more productive the trees and the soil will be.

The great practical point, then, will be how to save it.
In our own kitchen a garbage-pail is provided, into which
egg-shells, apple-peelings, fragments of beef, mutton, fish-
bones, and every thing of this character, is thrown; and
as often as the pail is half filled, the contents are buried
around our trees or grape-vines. The soap-suds are all car
ried into the yard, when the sun does not shine, and poured
around trees, vines, flowers, or vegetables. It would be an
excellent practice to provide a large tierce, molasses-hogs-
head, or water-tight box, place it on a stone-boat, like Fig.
69, or on a pair of
low runners, and let
it stand in a hollow
a few rods from the
kitchen, where it could
receive all the dish-wa-
ter and soap-suds. As
soon as it is full, let a

team be hitched to the ^ liq^^id fertUizer apparatus.

sled, and the whole drawn to the fruit-yard, or to a lawn,
where the contents could be let out on the ground in a few
minutes by opening a valve, or withdrawing a large plug
near the lower side. Whoever will practise this mode of

8

170 THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

saving and applying valuable fertilizing material for a few
years, will see a surprising improvement in his bearing
trees, grape-vines or grass -land, where such substances
were distributed. Better manure can not be desired. Be-
sides this, the cost of it is comparatively nothing.

Under-draining old Orchards. — I have met with a large
number of old orchards in New England, New York, Ohio,
and other States, many of the trees of which do not yield a
crop of any value, and never have, on account of the excess
of water in the soil. And yet the proprietors of those
trees are looking to some climatic influence, or to some
"east-wind," or to a degeneracy in the variety, as the cause,
beyond man's control, to which the failure of fruit must be
attributed, when the cause is purely local, and might have
been removed years ago. Old apple-trees will not flourish
where there is an excess of water. In many instances, we
have observed that apple-trees standing where the soil was
kept thoroughly charged with water late in autumn, during
the winter, and for two months in the spring, would be
so seriously injured that they could not recover during the
summer. When the pores of the soil are all filled with
water, week after week, instead of warm air, an apple-tree
can not thrive luxuriantly, nor yield satisfactory crops of
fruit, until the land has been under-drained. (See p. 61.)

Management of Dying Trees. — It would be folly and labor
lost to attempt to rejuvenate an old, dying apple-tree. There
is a limit to the duration of apple-trees, as well as to human
Hfe, so that, after an apple-tree has been dropping a branch
here and there for several years, and the body has begun to
decay, we can not make a profitable tree of it, any more
than an old, blind, lame, and foundered horse can be re-
juvenated. The very best way to treat such trees is to
dig them up, and start another tree of some valuable varie-
ty where the old one stood. Direct the digger to excavate,

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHAUDS. I7l

with pick and shovel, all around the old tree, three feet
deep, and seven feet in diameter, cutting off the roots as
he digs. Any experienced digger will sever an old tree in
two hours, so that a team can roll it away. Let such work
be done in the winter, or early in the spring. Then the
ground will be in readiness for a young tree. As the old
roots decay, the new roots will fill their places. Should
there be a lack of apple-producing material in the soil, it
should be supplied. Many people will cling to an old ap-
ple-tree so long as it will yield only half a dozen poor apples,
when a young tree would produce several bushels of superb
fruit.

Forming the Tops of bearing Apple-trees. — Fig. 70 repre-
sents a model dwarf apple-tree having a conical top. (See
definition oi Pyramidalin Glossary.) In order to produce
a true top, lash a small pole to the central stem of the tree,
as represented, then let a line extend from the top of the
pole to the end of a sway-har, one end of which is scol-
loped out to fit the body of the tree. Let the sway-bar be
of sufiicient length to carry the line beyond all the branches.
Then, with the pruner (see Fig. 60), clip off the ends of all
the branches that extend beyond the line. If it is desirable
to form a round head, the Hne will be a reliable guide, by
clipping off the ends within a given distance of the line, on
every side, as represented by the diagram. A small block
tacked to the tree beneath the end of the sway-bar will
keep it from dropping to the ground. Such a device will
be found exceedingly convenient when forming tree-tops of
any other style.

How to Spread the Tops of Trees. — It seems to be a hab-
it with certain trees to send their branches more erect than
in a horizontal direction. This is particularly true of the
Gravenstein apple and Bartlett pear-trees, and many other
varieties. It is decidedly objectionable to have all the limbs

172

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

Fig. 70.

A pruning-gauge, to aid in giving ttie top a conical form.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 173

shoot upward, forming a top so close that a person can not
ascend between the limbs to pluck the fruit. Moreover,
the fruit will be fairer, larger, and better, if the branches
grow at a greater distance from each other, so as to let in
the light of the sun and admit of a more free circulation of
air through the dense foliage and thickly-set fruit. When
there is ample space between the trees, fasten horizontal
spars of wood to the main stem of the tree-top, and push
the limbs outward each way from the middle of the top,
and tie them in the desired position, with soft strings, to
the ends of the horizontal spars. A more convenient way
will be to pass a narrow strip of leather around a branch
and nail it to the wood. The limbs may be fastened in
the desired position by such means, and kept there for one
season, when they will remain spread out, thus rendering it
more convenient to move around in the tree-top when prun-
ing, thinning the fruit, or plucking it. In some instances,
only a few of the boughs grow erect on one side of the tree,
which may be thrust outward and secured by sliort spars of
wood on one side of the middle of tlie tree-top. If no animals
are allowed to run in the orchardj a small wire may be se-
cured to a limb, and fastened to a stake driven in the ground.

When limbs of trees have been bent down too low by
any means, if the central stem is sufficiently stiff, such limbs
may be elevated and wired-up for one season, after which
they will maintain their position. Young trees require
much attention when growing, to make every branch stand
in the most desirable direction.

Grass in Orchards. — One pomologist will recommend the
culture of red clover or grass, where a young orchard is
growing. Another will denounce the practice of permit-
ting grass to grow among trees of any kind. The advo-
cate for clean cultivation argues that grass draws moisture
from the soil faster than rains restore it ; that the soil, not

174 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

being stirred, becomes closely packed. The roots of the
trees also fail to get a good supply of moisture when it is
most wanted. The tree is exhausted in its effort to mature
the crop. Besides this, if grass is allowed to grow round
about fruit-trees, the roots are deprived of the best kind of
a mulch — a mellow surface, frequently worked. It is a fact
which can not be refuted, that heavy clay loams, which have
a great capacity to absorb moisture, can be kept moist by
frequent stirring of the surface during very dry weather,
when a thin dressing of mulch would fail to keep the ground
moist. But some soils are too porous to be kept moist by
frequent stirring.

Well, what shall a beginner do, when authorities disa-
gree ? Adopt the system of management in which they will
agree. When young fruit-trees standing in grass ground
send out luxuriant shoots at the end of every branch, over
one foot long annually, the trees are growing fast enough ;
and it would not be advisable to cultivate the surface, as
the trees might be stimulated to produce a growth too lux-
uriant for the hardiness of the young branches. On the
contrary, if the entire soil is kept clean and mellow through
the growing season, and the annual growth of the branches
does not exceed one foot in length upward and laterally, it
is a certain indication that every tree needs a few bushels
of ashes, a bushel or two of lime, or a dressing of clay, or
sand, or muck, or barn-yard manure, or the soil needs under-
draining. Grass would be ruinous to such trees. When it
is desirable to keep the ground in grass, spread a bountiful
top-dressing, and mulch round about every tree. There is
an excellent influence exerted by the character of a thin,
mellow surface on the roots of a growing tree. These
roots may be at the first only half a foot below ; yet daily
stirring but an inch of the surface may quadruple the
growth of the length of every branch.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 175

The Twig Blight. — In many localities of the West, and
occasionally of the East, this scourge of apple-orchards has
appeared. In some instances, it has scarcely attracted at-
tention. The true cause of the blight has not yet been dis-
covered. Most pomologists conjecture and guess that some
noxious insect is the cause of the great injury sustained
by the trees. Still, repeated examinations with magnifying-
glasses have revealed no evidences of the work of insects,
as no stings, larvae, or eggs have been discovered.

The most satisfactory explanation is the rather tantalizing
one attributing the death of the twigs to the invasion of
minute parasitic plants — fungi. Then, if fungi may be re-
lied on as the true scourge, we have a remedy, which con-
sists of thorough cultivation of the soil with scarifiers, a
liberal top-dressing with lime and wood ashes, and a proper
preparation of the twigs for cold weather, by pinching the
terminal buds or clipping the luxuriant branches before the
growing season has ended, so that the new wood may be
thoroughly matured before cold weather.

Swine confined near Fruit-trees. — When swine are con-
fined in a pen around fruit-trees, they should be watched
closely, lest they strip all the bark from the trees. More
than this, the pen should not be kept around one tree over
ten to fifteen successive days. Fattening swine that do
not receive a supply of grass, or fruit, or vegetables, will
often devour every mouthful of bark that they can reach,
whether it is found on the roots or the body of a tree.
Strips of boards may be nailed firmly to a tree to protect
the bark from swine. We have often heard it remarked
by old men, that " it is sure death to a fruit-tree if swine
are yarded around, and allowed to root much about it, and
to sleep near the body of it."

That this is not always the effect of yarding swine
around fruit-trees, will appear from what we have to state

176

THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

MYLES 8 NONPAKEIL.

Synonyms.— Oh\o Nonpareil, Cattail Apple. Fruit— Size, large ; form, ronnd-
ish flattened ; color, red and yellow marbled and splashed, and with many scat-
tered gray dots ; stem, short to medium, small ; cavity, regular, open ; calyx, par-
tially open; basin, medium depth, smooth and regular; flesh, yellowish white,
juicy, rich, tender, mild, sub-acid ; core, regular, partially open ; seeds abundant,
plump, and full ; season, last of September to early December. In many locali-
ties, this valuable apple is highly esteemed both as a market variety and as a su-
perb fruit for culinary purposes. In other places, it does not succeed so satisfac-
torily as is desirable.

respecting a pear-tree, and a cherry tree, with which we
once experimented. The pear-tree was upward of twenty
years old, and had never produced any ripe fruit. It was
usually well loaded with young fruit, much of which would
swell to the size of a large hen's egg, and then would be-
come knotty, full of cracks, wilted, and would all fall to the
ground, long before it was time for any of it to ripen.
Neither pruning nor manuring appeared to have any amel-
iorating effect. We often examined scores of the fallen

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS, 111

fruit, in order to ascertain whether or not the curculio, or
some other marauder, were not the cause of such an un-
timely casting of the fruit; but not a vestige of an insect
could be discovered. With no expectation of ever gath-
ering any ripe fruit from that tree, we determined to test
what was looked upon as one of the whims of our illustri-
ous progenitors ; and, accordingly, two shotes were yarded
beneath the tree, in an iuclosure about one rod square.
They were kept there about two months. Their bed was
close to the body of the tree, under a few loose boards. In
this yard, holes were made with a crowbar, into which
kernels of corn were dropped. The whole ground was
rooted over and over, to the depth of eight to twelve inch-
es ; and many of the roots were torn up. This was in Au-
gust and September. The next season, instead of seeing a
dead tree — the result of recklessness, as was prognosticated
— every branch was well filled with luscious fruit, and those
trees continued to yield bountiful crops every season, as
long as we were in possession of them. The cherry-tree
was a few rods from the pear-tree, and was literally loaded
with fruit every season. But previous to that treatment it
never ripened. Some of it would rot. Some would wilt
and dry up. Some would be covered with black knots,
and some would become almost ripe, and then drop to the
ground; no traces of insects could be found. The hog
remedy was applied thoroughly^ and every season since it
has borne a large supply of as good cherries as ever birds
picked.

From these facts it would appear that, if yarding swine
about fruit-trees is generally injurious, here is an excep-
tion. If swine were permitted to sleep close to the body
of a tree, and to root about incessantly for a whole season,
we are not prepared to say that the effect might not prove
fatal. There can be but little doubt, when fruit-trees have

8*

178 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

stood in grass ground for a number of successive years,
and for some unknown reason fail to produce fruit, that if
swine were confined about them for a month or so, the ef-
fect would be such on the trees as to render them produc-
tive. Perhaps, digging about them with a spade, and ma-
nuring, would be attended with the same result. We have
our eye on several trees in that neighborhood, which boro
no fruit for many years ; but when the plough was applied
to the soil beneath them, they brought forth good crops.
The facts also furnish an unanswerable argument in favor
of cultivating the soil about fruit-trees, if nothing more.

It is an excellent practice to allow swine to have the
range of an orchard after the trees have come fully into
bearing, as they will usually devour all the fruit that drops
prematurely, and thus destroy the larvas of noxious insects
that may be in the fruit. In some instances, swine are per-
mitted to root up the entire ground, which may sometimes
be an advantage to bearing trees. Still, we have no faith
in such a system of cultivation. If the soil were thin, rest-
ing on a compact substratum, most of the roots would be
found near the surface of the ground. Hence, root-pruning
by swine would work greater injury than benefit to the
trees. A Western fruit-grower writes: "I have two or-
chards of sixty trees each ; in one my swine are allowed to
run from spring till the early apples ripen. A field crop of
any kind is never taken from the soil. This orchard never
fails of giving a full or fair crop of apples. The other is
kept in grass, which is mowed annually, and no stock is al-
lowed to run among the trees, as this can not well be done.
The result is, the orchard is not worth any thing for fruit,
and very little for hay."

Re-grafting old Apple-trees. — It is exceedingly difficult
for any person, however capable he may be of communi-
cating advice touching the management of orchards, to di-

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 179

rect what shall be done with this or with that old tree,
which he has never seen. The very best treatment that
many old apple-trees can receive is, to cut them down at
once, and remove root and branch. On the contrary, an
enormous loss is often sustained by cutting down old nat-
ural trees, instead of re-grafting them, simply from a want
of knowledge of the best mode of performing the work.
After an orchardist has really determined to re-graft his
old apple-trees, the following will be found the most ap-
proved and satisfactory manner of treating them : Before
the sap begins to flow in the spring, trim ,all the small
branches from the large limbs of the tree perfectly smooth,
to a small tuft on the ex-
treme ends, as represented
by Fig. 71. This will cause
the branches to throw out
large quantities of suckers
in all directions, most of
which should be rubbed off,
except in such places where
you would like to place a new
branch on the hmb, at which
points one of the most thrifty
should be left. These, tak-

,, r ,, J. ^, ^ Manner of pruning an old apple-tree.

mg the luU sap oi the tree,

will usually, in two summers, be of sufficient size to graft,
when they may be cut off and grafted, some eight or nine
inches fi*om the limb, leaving room enough for re grafting,
if the first by any means should fail. Where wounds are
made as large as a cent, a coat of grafting-wax should be
applied at once. After the old tree has been grafted, it
will have the appearance of Fig. 72, p. 180. When the
grafts are well started, perhaps the summer following, the
tuft of old branches on the outer ends of the limbs should

180

THE APPLE GULTURIST.

Fig. 72.

An old apple-tree re-grafted.

all be cut ofP close to
the grafted stock, aud
then carefully waxed
over. In this manner
one can put an entire
new head on an old tree
without removing any
of the large branches,
and can have the new
branches appear in al-
most any place that may
be desired on the old
limbs. The grafts being

on small stocks, soon grow over, and adhere strongly, with-
out the danger of a rotten or defective stock; and in
five years one may reasonably expect a bearing orchard,
with as perfect and handsomely formed heads as fancy or
skill may desire. Instead of grafting the young shoots
thus thrown out in consequence of the pruning, they may
be budded, if desired, the same year that the pruning is
performed, provided every chance is allowed them for
growth, by rubbing off a part of the supernumerary shoots.
Large bearing trees may be obtained by a renewal of old
ones, in much less time than by transplanting young trees.
Yet, after all, one needs to exercise a vast amount of judg-
ment as to the propriety of re-grafting old trees, as we
have suggested. If they are thrifty and prolific, let them
be grafted. On the contrary, if they are indifferent bear-
ers, and are on the decline, let them be dug up at once, and
a young tree started.

When one attempts to re-graft, or to renew old apple-
trees by removing the old top and producing a new one,
it will be found of eminent importance, after th^ branches
have all been trimmed, to watch the development of new

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF 0RCHAMD8. 181

shoots. It is very unwise to allow all the new shoots to
grow at random, and, after they have attained a large size,
give the tree a severe pruning. The true way to manage
such trees is to watch all the young shoots as if each one
were a separate tree. After numerous buds have started,
let a part be pinched off, while they are so tender that
pruning can be done with the thumb-nail. Let such shoots
as are to be budded be favored. A person must ascend
into the tree-top frequently, to control and regulate the
growth of the young shoots. A vast deal of timely care
must be exercised to make the young shoots grow properly
before they are budded ; then, after the buds have begun
to push upward and laterally, that timely care must be con-
tinued through the entire growing season.

The modus operandi of renewing the top of an old ap-
ple-tree by grafting is usually performed in two different
ways. The first is by grafting the smaller limbs on the
extremities of the branches, where they can never become
any thing but mere twigs, while the body of the top must
ever remain filled with the natural branches ; and the fruit
of the new top will appear chiefly at the extreme ends of
the boughs, leaving the long, bare, and unsightly arms to
annoy and exhaust the tree by its effort to throw out and
support its ten thousand suckers. This is the kind of
grafting usually practised by most of those itinerants who
perambulate the country as professional grafters, who, be-
ing too lazy to travel, and being fairly mounted in the tree,
set themselves to work, on the logical principle that, the
nearer the extremities, the greater the number of branches ;
and the larger the number of cions they can set, the more
remunerative their job will be. As a rule, such interlopers
are very unscrupulous, having no regard for the success
gf their labor further than the development. of the leaves,
which is usually the standard by which the pay is regu-

182 THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

lated; neither have they any regard to the kind of fruit
that is set, seldom failing of a job for the want of the vari-
ety of fruit desired. But before there is time for the fruit
to prove itself, they are gone to parts unknown, to practise
their deception on other localities. We would caution the
public against employing this class of peregrinators as un-
safe and unfit for their employment.

The other method of grafting large trees is to saw off
large branches and insert the cions in these stumps, bring-
ing the grafts nearer the body of the tree, and exempting
it from the growth of the natural branches, or the pest of
suckers ; while it gives the cions an opportunity of attain-
ing to some size, by removing them farther from the termi-
nus of the capillary attraction, and bringing the weight of
fruit more evenly over the tree. But this method, too, has
its objections ; the stocks being large, the grafts will re-
quire time to grow, so as to cover and adhere firmly and
strongly to the stock. Hence, many of the young and ten-
der grafts will be liable, while in full leaf, to be split off by
the force of a strong wind ; and, as they will usually come
into bearing before the grafts cover the stump, they often
split off with the weight of fruit ; and unless there is more
pains taken than is usual to keep the wounds properly waxed,
the stump will begin to decay before they are grown over ;
and this will often prove a defect that will destroy the graft.
It is a common occurrence to see a large and thrifty graft
full of fruit broken square off by the wind, at the point
where the cions were set in the large stock. Hence it will
be found preferable, as a general rule, to trim the branches
of a tree in early spring, as directed by Fig. 71, and inocu-
late the young shoots that are sent out on the bare limbs.
By this means, a beautiful top can be formed quite as soon
as by any plan of grafting. The chief aim should be to
form suitable limbs at proper distances from each other,

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP ORCHARDS. 183

over the whole extent of the tree. It is highly important
to preserve the symmetry of the tree-top. The practice of
having a little bush at the extremity of a long limb on each
side of the tree should be guarded against. There is a wise
law of limitation to be observed in the growth and develop-
ment of apple-trees. Grape-vipes are sometimes trimmed
twenty to thirty feet, without a bearing branch or twig.
Such vines would be far more productive if the small top
that produces the fruit could be placed near the root of the
vine. So with apple-trees : if the little bushes at the ends
of long and naked branches could be placed near the trunk
of the tree, there would be much more fruit.

Every tree, when it has attained its full size, has thrown
out its branches to a certain extent. But why do they
stop there ? Why does not the tree continue to extend its
branches as long as it is vigorous and healthy ? It is sim-
ply because the body and limbs are composed of small and
minute pores ar grains, which act by capillary attraction, in
which the sap rises. Hence the tree extends to a height
and distance, graded exactly in proportion to the minute-
ness of the pores of the wood. This is the reason why the
beech, the hemlock, the spruce, and the pine each attain to
a different altitude, when growing side by side in the same
soil. When a branch has attained its full distance, it can
not be extended by grafting beyond its own limits. Hence
the importance of cutting back long and bare branches, with
a view of filling up all the space in the centre of the tree-
top. We frequently see a persistent effort made by Dame
Nature, when apple-trees have been all trimmed out at the
middle of the top, to^^^ up that vacant space by producing
new shoots every season. Therefore, when all the branch-
es but the grafts are removed, the more grafts there are to
use the sap, the sooner the tree will be relieved of its press-
ure and disposition to form wood, and produce fruit in-

184 THE APPLE CULTUBIST,

stead. It is not essential that grafts should make just the
article required for bean-poles at the end of four years, but it
is important that their growth should be a medium between
that of a little wood added yearly to the natural branch-
es and the extra stimulus of a few more twigs near the
body of the tree. With judicious pruning and a moderate
growth, more side-branches will be sent out on the grafts,
so that in a short time the outer surface of the tree will be
covered with a new set of branches, completely shading the
unsightly arms. When a person attempts to produce a new
top on an old tree, he should know something of the art of
pruning and training trees correctly. It is not enough that
he possess skill to cut off a limb and set a cion in it, so that
it will grow. When one has really decided to graft a tree-
top, it is a common practice to graft about one-third of the
top one season, another third the next season, and so on, in
which case the operator commences at the top, sawing off
such limbs as he desires to graft. All the branches that
are to be grafted should be removed before one cion is set.
It is an excellent practice, also, to saw off each limb twice.
The first time it should be severed half a foot or so above
the place where the cions are to be inserted. The object
of this practice is to prevent injury to the stock below the
grafts. The workman should always commence at the top
of the tree, and work downward ; then no grafts will be in-
jured. (See How to Grafts p. 23.) There are so many
modifying conditions and circumstances incident to pro-
ducing a new tree-top, that we feel much dissatisfied with .
the foregoing instructions. This branch of pomology must
be learned by practice rather than from books.

Fig. 73, p. 185, represents an apple-tree which is to be re-
grafted by installments. The branches, a, a, a, a, are to be
grafted the first year. Those designated by h, h, should be
grafted the second year ; and those at c, c, c, the third year.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS.

185

An old apple-tree-top reuewed by grafting.

This illustration gives the Fig. 73.

reader merely a general
idea of the details. The dia-
gram is not a perfect mod-
el, as the centre of the tree-
top has been pruned away-
much more than the branch-
es should be in a real tree.
Care of the new Shoots.
— The task of putting a
new top on a tree is only-
commenced when the cions
or buds have begun to
grow. Some of the suck-
ers should be allowed to
grow till the grafts themselves can form sufficient shade,
and use all the nourishment in wood and fruit. Suckers
will then cease to be troublesome. A thick coating of al-
burnum will be found on these bare arms, where before it
hardly equalled paper in thickness. A rapid and thrifty
growth will follow in consequence, thoroughly renewing the
age of the tree, as well as fruit, in the least possible time.
And yet, when a tree is so thrifty and luxuriant as to send
out a profusion of suckers, while the grafts are growing
rapidly, it would be wrong to remove them all, or to keep
the growth down, lest the grafts be stimulated too greatly,
and some of the sap should stagnate. Every graft on a
tree requires as much timely care as a young tree. Hence
the great labor of producing a new tree-top. If several ci-
ons have been set in a stock, and they all begin to grow,
the best and most promising one only should be suffered
to grow. The usual practice is to allow all to grow for a
year, and then trim out the redundant branches. But such
a practice is not to be commended under any circumstances.

186

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

DUCHESS OP OLDENBTma.

l^mY.— Size, medium to large ; form, roundish, flattened ; skin, smooth, with a
light bluish bloom ; color, light and deep rich red, washed, striped and splashed
on a yellow ground ; stem, short ; cavity, acuminate ; basin, deep, wide, even,
regular ; calyx, large, nearly closed ; flesh, slightly yellowish-white, sharp, sub-
acid, juicy, and, when well-ripened, pretty rich ; season, September, and often
keeping into October. Tree.— An upright, vigorous, hardy, and healthy grower,
with dark-colored shoots, and broad, dark-green, coarsely-serrated leaves. A
profuse bearer, apparently adapting itself to all soils and situations, and yielding
a fruit of great value for marketing and for cooking purposes. It is of Russian
origin.

One graft on the end of each stock will be far preferable
to two or three. In many instances, there will be such an
abundance of sap that sprouts will burst forth, and out-
grow the grafts, unless they are pinched back.. It is a very
common occurrence to see grafts struggling for existence
between strong and luxuriant sprouts, which choke them
to such a degree that they are almost ruined. When a
new tree-top is being produced, if it is desirable to develop

OENEItAL MANAGEMENT OF OBCHARDS. 187

branches which will make a well-balanced and symmetrical
top, the new grafts must not be neglected when the first
begin to grow. Every one should be examined frequently,
and pinched, if necessary, or trained so as to grow into a
beautiful portion of the tree.

Ploughing old Orchards. — Perhaps the land around the
trees has already been ploughed too much. If so, plough-
ing the ground again will operate like applying whip and
spur to a jaded horse, after he has been urged and whipped
and spurred, until he has galloped so long and so far, that
the poor brute is just ready to drop from exhaustion.
There are instances in which ploughing the ground of an
old orchard will be the means of rendering the trees pro-
ductive. Yet they are so rare, that it is safe for us to re-
cord our protest against ploughing such ground, as there
is a far better way to make the trees fruitful. If the land
is covered with a tough sod, we would never disturb one
square foot of it with a plough. The surface-soil round
about such old trees is full of roots, ready to devour all
the fruit-producing material that can be found in ther upper
stratum of the earth. The mere process of breaking it up
with a plough will not promote its fertility to such an ex-
tent that the trees will yield a crop of fruit. Besides this,
those old trees do not need such a severe root-pruning as
they will be obliged to suffer if the ground is ploughed.
The far better way will be to feed the hungry roots by
applying fertilizing material to the surface round about
each tree, as far as the branches extend. Pomace is excel-
lent when spread on the surface, as it will furnish a boun-
tiful supply of apple-producing pabulum. But let not
pomace be applied too bountifully near a tree, lest it de-
stroy every root. A layer two inches deep will effectually
destroy every thing that has life beneath it for several
years; while six to ten bushels — according to the size of

188 THE APPLE GULTURIST,

the tree — spread evenly and thin around each bearing tree,
will greatly promote its fruitfulness. If the soil is light,
sandy, or mucky, apply a dressing of marl, or clay, say one
inch deep, as far as the branches extend. After this appli-
cation, spread a liberal dressing of ashes and lime. There
is little danger of applying too much. In late autumn,
spread half a wagon-load of rich barn-yard manure around
each tree. The next season, if the trees have been properly
trained, pruned and scraped, there will be thrice as much
fruit as if the land had been ploughed.

Straightening leaning Trees. — No fruit-tree will be so
productive when the entire top and body havfe been blown
partially over, as it will when in an erect position. When
a tree leans, sprouts will almost always start from the up-
per side of the body, or branches, and grow perpendicular-
ly. By this means, the largest proportion of the sap will
flow into the erect stems, while the horizontal part of the
top receives only a limited supply of nourishment. When
it is desirable to straighten up a leaning fruit-tree, set a
post in the ground, say twenty feet from the tree, to which
a chain, or rope and pulleys, may be attached, and the tree
straightened up and secured with a strong wire, extending
from a stake in the ground to a strap around the main part
of the tree. In case a tree is large and well rooted, let the
earth be excavated on the upper side and a few of the
larger roots loosened, and the earth removed beneath them,
so that the top of the tree may be brought up with ease to
the desired position. There is no better time than early
spring-time to perform such jobs, as new roots will often
start out from those that have been severed, and continue
to grow till the end of the growing season. The guy-wires
will always hold trees in position, until the roots wiU keep
the top erect. If long branches grow too erect, it is easy
to wire them down to the proper position, when the wires

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF OBCHABDS, 189

may all be removed after one season. As a general rule,
leaning fruit-trees are neglected quite too much.

When to cease Scarifying a young Orchard. — Every am-
bitious pomologist appears to think — as by some sort of
instinct — that after a few years the land round about ap-
ple-trees must be stocked down to grass. There are in-
stances where it would be a decided advantage to the
young trees that are now producing a few bushels of ap-
ples each, to have the land stocked down. But such cases
are rare. So long as the branches ripen the wood satisfac-
torily before cold weather, the ground should not be stock-
ed down. On the contrary, when trees continue to grow
so rampantly in late autumn that the extremities of the
twigs do not ripen before the end of the growing season,
it will be better to stock the ground down to grass or clo-
ver, for the purpose of checking that luxuriant growth late
in the season. As has been already stated in another part
of this work, let it be distinctly understood, and constantly
borne in. mind, that the young trees must be cultivated ;
the soil must be constantly stirred, and kept clean, until the
orchard has fairly got under way with a thrifty growth.
This is best effected by continuing the culture several
years. As pomologists are often unwilling to work with-
out an immediate return for their labor, a naked fallow
among the trees will too often be neglected ; but a partial
crop between them will be an incentive to giving the or-
chard just such attention in the way of cultivation as it
requires. J. J. Thomas says, touching this subject, that the
length of time that this culture should be continued will
depend upon the condition of the trees, and the character
of the soil and surface. The orchard should have assumed
the most thrifty growth before the cultivation is suspend-
ed, whether this may have required three years of culture
or six. On hilly lands, with a soil disposed to wash into

190 THE APFLE CULTUBIST.

gulleys, we can not continue the ploughing with impunity,
but must use such an alternation of crops as will obviate
the necessity for constant open culture. This may be ar-
ranged by a rotation of clover with corn or potatoes, which
will be a valuable alternation, since this legume is itself
almost a cultivator of the soil, rendering it loose and mel-
low, while, at the same time, the surface is clothed, and the
soil is bound together by its roots. Moreover, the red clo-
ver plant attracts much of its sustenance from the atmos-
phere through its abundant foliage, and the radicals sink
deep into the subsoil in search of nutriment. It will al-
ways be found a safe rule to cultivate young orchards until
the trees are ten to fourteen feet high, and of a correspond-
ing proportion as to breadth of top ; after which, stock the
land down, and mulch the surface around the trees, if they
require it, instead of scarifying it.

Neglected Apple-trees. — The country is replete with such
disfiguring blotches of the homestead or orchard. A neg-
lected apple-tree appeals more strongly to the eye of the
pomologist after it has shed its leaves ; and in too many in-
stances the tree is hastily cut away, leaving but its stump
as an unpleasant reminder of the loss of a valuable old
friend, which might have been saved by a little timely care.
Where the early training of a tree has been neglected, there
are often several leaders forming the top. In this case, an
acute bifurcation is to be carefully prevented by checking
and shortening the weaker side. If we neglect this, there
is danger of the tree splitting from top to bottom when
loaded with its first heavy crop.

Every fruit-tree should grow a little every season, as the
growth of new wood every year is Nature's provision for
the healing and repair of wounds, for the increase of size in
trees, and for productiveness. If a fruit-tree do not grow
at all, it can not be expected to produce a crop of fruit.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 191

Hence, when a tree has been neglected so long that the en-
tire top has become a dense hedge of brush, with the branch-
es all intertwining so closely that a person can scarcely
climb into the top, the first thing to be done is to commence
the work of thinning out the supernumerary branches. Per-
haps Dame Nature has already begun to prune in her own
slow manner, as she prunes forest-trees, by withholding the
annual flow of sap from certain branches until they die and
drop to the ground. A good pruning-saw will be found the
most convenient instrument for this purpose. Do not make
a clean sweep of every branch, but thin out gradually, here
and there, cutting away the poorer boughs first. Let the
aim be to thin out the crooked and weak twigs and branch-
es first. Where two limbs cross each other, so that one
rides on the other and interferes with its growth, let the
poorest one be cut away. Let the centre of the top be thin-
ned out to such an extent that a person can climb around
among the boughs. If the extremities of the limbs are
very bushy, take the pruning-shears (Fig. 53), and thin out
the old twigs, so that new spray may be produced, which
will bear fruit. Let the branches be cut off smoothly, as
directed on page 128, Fig. 57, at a, after which take the ket-
tle of liquid grafting-wax (see p. 55) into the tree-top, and
smear all the wounds. This treatment will give a neglect-
ed tree such a start, that, if the soil is rich, a crop of fine
fruit may be expected in two years after the pruning.

Renewing Stunted Trees. — It frequently occurs that ap-
ple-trees— and the same is true of other fruit-trees — after
being removed from the place where they sprang from the
seed, or from the nursery-row, fail to grow at all satisfac-
torily, and, in many instances, they barely live from year to
year. The difficulty in such cases is, the trees were too old
to be taken up with removing a ball of earth without the
roots ; or the tap-root and a large proportion of the laterals

192

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

were severed, and left in the ground when the tree was re-
moved ; or the tree was taken from a rich and deep soil,
and transplanted in very uncongenial and poor ground, where
there was perhaps no surface mould at all, and where the
entire ground is hard and almost impenetrable by roots of
any kind. Any one of these conditions or circumstances
will be sufficient to give a tree an almost fatal stunt. In
many instances, the sub-soil is so thoroughly saturated with
water, that the roots can not spread downward.

Fig. 73i.

A SLiriOB IN THE OKOHARD.

When stock of any kind are permitted to feed in an orchard where all the water
is collected in under-drains, a sluice, like Fig, 73^, will be found a source of great
convenience in providing clean water for them to drink. A plank box, six to ten
feet long, without bottom or top, is sunk, as represented, so that the water, flow-
ing through a drain, may enter the box at one end, and run out through a hole at
the other end into the ditch, and pass off. Sheep and swine can walk down on
either side of the sluice, thrust their heads into the large holes in the side planks,
and drink without fouling the water. Homed cattle and horses can also drink
at the same watering-place. The ground should be excavated on both sides, and
paved with small stones, so that the feet of animals will be as low as the water in
the sluice.

Management of young bearing Trees. — As soon as a well-
trained apple-tree begins to bear, the only pruning required
is the annual reduction of the leader, in order to thicken

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 193

the trunk at the base, removing any rival shoot that may
threaten to compete with it, and taking out a little useless
spray from the centre of the tree, if the branches are too
thick and are in each other's way. One great object being
always, in pruning, to promote hardiness and fertility, these
two points must be always kept in view. As soon as an
apple-tree is able to bear, permit a moderate production of
fruit, but do not allow a heavy crop. It is better to have
a few fine, well-formed apples at first, near the body of the
tree, than a lot of miserable half-grown specimens dangling
in the wind at the end of the limbs. Wherever a tree has
been so neglected that it has two or three leaders w^hich
can not be cut down to one, without wounding and nearly
girdling the limb selected to remain, it is better to retain
them all, and prune the whole into a compact oval or dis-
taff form; and, therefore, the limbs spreading at a right
angle should be carefully reduced, not immediately at the
trunk, but at a convenient distance, some few inches from
it ; for it is better to make an elbow — which, in pruning, is
generally to be avoided — than to leave a branch too long
whose length will destroy the regular oval shape of the tree.
In many instances, there is such a desire to have young
trees produce a bountiful crop of fruit, that a young or-
chard is kept in an unthrifty condition for many years,
from no other cause than overbearing while the trees were
growing rapidly. Our own practice has ever been to clip
off, in many instances, seven-eighths of all the young fruit,
as the growth of the branches was of more importance and
value than the small quantity of fruit that would be pro
duced at the expense of the future hardiness and vigor of
the bearing shoots. It will be found more injurious to
young trees to bear a bountiful crop of fruit than for
young animals to produce young before they, have attained
a proper age for propagating their species.

9

194 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

CHAPTER YII.

THE FAILURE OP ORCHARDS, AND THE PRACTICABLE
REMEDY.

The price of our apples, of peaches, and cherries,

The price of fine currants, of pears, plums, and berries,

Is measured by combats with foes in a tilt,

With war to the knife, and the knife to the hilt.— Edwakps.

The failure of apple-orchards is a theme of common con-
versation in all localities where apples are cultivated. In
the majority of instances, pomologists assume that apple-
trees and pear-trees fail to produce such crops of fruit as
were once raised in certain localities, because the varieties
are running out. They feel confident that they have
guessed correctly on this point. But the assumption is a
great delusion ; and we can convince any intelligent pomol-
ogist that the conclusion is erroneous. If the same quahty
of soil can be secured, and the same surroundings as to
protection by forests, and if the cions from the topmost
boughs of old trees that have once borne bountiful crops
of fine fruit, but have now failed, could be set in young
stocks as hardy as the stocks were which were employed
sixty or eighty years ago, we should see trees loaded with
just as fine fruit as the old trees ever produced. The truth
is, there is a limit to the productiveness of all kinds of fruit'
trees. Old animals cease to bear. And why should not
trees grow old and barren? Forest-trees reach a limit in
their growth, and decay. And can it be expected that ap-
ple-trees will continue to bear after they have passed the
maximum limit of life ? Durham cattle die : but the breed

THE FAILURE OF ORCHARDS, AND ITS REMEDY. 195

. — the variety — does not deteriorate. If old trees cease to
bear, and die, the variety of fruit does not fail, if cions from
the branches be set in young stocks. If a piece of ground
be cleared of the forest, by burning every thing to ashes on
the land, as farms used to be cleared, and heavy bodies of
growing timber be left standing, to protect the young or-
chard, there will be no complaint of failure of fine fruit.
The trouble is in the culture and treatment of the growing
trees. The young orchards that ought now to be yielding
bountiful crops of fine fruit have been produced and culti-
vated in the most perfunctory manner. And then, because
it is impossible for trees to bear under such circumstances,
pomologists have assumed that there is " something in the
air — some pernicious east wind that blasts the embryotic
fruit, or the varieties are running out !"

1. Now then, let us sift the evidence, point by point, and
take an honest view of the subject, by comparing the past
with the present. Four- score years ago, the stocks into
which cions were set were produced from more hardy va-
rieties than the stocks of the present day. N'ow, nursery-
men plant the seed of any kind of fruit. It can not be
denied that the stock exerts a wonderful influence on the
productiveness of the bearing tree.

2. Four-score years ago, fruit-trees were set in a virgin
soil which, in most instances, had been top-dressed bounti-
fully with unleached ashes, which are an almost indispens-
able requisite in the production of fine fruit. But now
inferior trees are planted in an inferior soil, without wood
ashes and other fertilizing materials, which growing fruit-
trees must have before they can produce a bountiful crop.

3. Four score years ago, almost every orchard was shield-
ed by a belt of forest-trees. But now, cold and fierce winds
sweep over the country for a long distance, raking young
orchards in a fearful manner.

196

TEE APPLE CULTUMIST.

4. A large proportion of the orchards all over New Eng-
land, and many other States, have been almost ruined by
stupid management. As the soil had become very much
impoverished, in consequence of having yielded a long suc-
cession of bountiful crops of fruit, and the trees began to
show the results of injudicious management, some stupid
wood-chopper would be directed to prune the trees ; which
would be performed by cutting off about half of the entire
top, and in numerous instances more than half; and large
limbs, six to eight inches in diameter, have been chopped
off, making such broad wounds that they could never heal
over. Hence, the wood began to decay, so that thousands
of valuable apple-trees, that once yielded full crops of fruit,
decayed to the heart, often becoming hollow. Such man-
agement and treatment of fruit-trees is surely sufficient to
effectually annihilate the most hardy and prolific variety of
pears or apples that has ever been cultivated.

The diagrams of two murdered trees (Fig. 74), which
were originally engraved for the "Annual Register," will
furnish a fair idea of the system of management adopted
by untold numbers of farmers. The trees have been ruined

by some tree-murder-
er, who has cut and
carved, right and left,
leaving long and un-
even stubs, which, in-
stead of healing over,
have decayed. Be-
sides this, the land
has been cropped un-
til the soil has no
more fertility left
in it, either for pro-
Apple-trees badly managed. ducing apples or any

THE FAILURE OF ORCHARDS, AND ITS REMEDY. 197

Other crop. Large sprouts have been allowed to grow from
the collar, and the trees have received such ruinous treat-
ment that they are nearly worthless. Let the reader com-
pare these ruined trees with the fine-appearing illustration
on p. 117. An axe is no more suitable for trimming apple-
trees than such an edge-tool is for cutting one's finger-nails
or his hair.

5. Four-score years ago, noxious insects, grubs, beetles,
curculios, borers, caterpillars, worms, and aphides, seldom
injured bearing fruit-trees more than enough to thin out
the superabundant crops. But now, if a man plants an
orchard of the very best and hardiest varieties of apples,
he must watch for grubs in the roots, for borers in the
bodies of the trees, dispute his title to the fruit with innu-
merable caterpillars, with army-worms, canker-worms, and
many other worms, with untold numbers of the codling,
moth, the irrepressible curculio, in a hand-to-hand contest,
and with uncounted numbers of aphides, which are ready
to suck.the last drop of sap from every growing tree.

From the foregoing suggestions, every intelligent pomol-
ogist will perceive what difficult influences and formidable
enemies of both the apple-trees and the fruit must be en-
countered when an effort is made to produce a crop of
apples.

We well recollect, when a small lad, that the father of
the writer, and most people in that vicinity, had their or-
chards cut to pieces in the most stupid and wanton man-
ner, by men who knew no more about training and pruning
fruit-trees than the verdant son of Erin who cut down a
young orchard when he was directed to prune the trees.
We have seen many large and prolific apple-trees, after the
bodies had literally decayed to the heart, in consequence
of the large wounds, standing on two prongs before the
trees died. None of those orchards that were hacked so

198 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

unwarrantably, ever recovered from the fatal injury of
such stupid pruning. Is it any wonder that fruit-trees
fail to bear, when treated thus? Is it not rather a won-
der that varieties maintain their identity as well as they
have done?

Worthless Trees. — In addition to the foregoing causes of
failure, there are other causes of serious failure in the pro-
duction of apples, which a beginner must understand be-
fore he can calculate on success. With nurserymen who
have trees to sell, and who have no further anxiety than
simply to produce trees which will command a high price,
a tree that will never produce a satisfactory crop of fruit
is just as good as one that will yield annually a bountiful
crop. There are untold numbers of worthless apple-trees
sold every season, which will never yield one-fourth the
amount of a fair crop ; and yet, to all external appearances,
they were, when transplanted, smooth, thrifty, and superior
trees. If a tree has not been produced properly, it can
never be expected to yield a satisfactory crop of fruit ; and,
when apple-trees that have been produced as such trees
should be grown, are not managed correctly, they will not*
yield a supply of fruit. The nursery business has been en-
gaged in by such a large number of persons, who are ut-
terly ignorant of the fundamental requirements in order to
produce bearing trees, that our country is overstocked with
worthless fruit-trees, which appear all right ; but which,
with superior management, will never yield a satisfactory
crop of fruit. Every intelligent, jomc^^ca/ pomologist, if
he has exercised himself to observe what influences affect
growing fruit-trees, both favorably and injuriously, knows
that an apple-tree which has been produced by setting a
cion in a piece of the root of a young tree that has sprung
from the half-ripe seed of a miserable apple, can never be
made to yield satisfactory crops of fruit.

THE FAILURE OF OUCH AMD ti, AND ITS REMEDY. 199

Woodpeckei's.—Hheve are several kinds of woodpeckers ofgreat value to pomolo-
gists, namely, the Eed-headed Woodpecker, the Hairy Woodpecker, and the Gold-
en-winged Woodpecker. Fig. 75 represents the parent bird feeding a grub to a full-
grown fledgeling. At the lower part of the picture, a young woodpecker, almost
large enough to try his pinions, is represented as looking out on the world from
his nest in an old tree. Although woodpeckers will eat good fruit, they should
not be destroyed, as they perform an excellent service in exterminating noxious
insects while the fruit is growing. We have never known them to do any other

Fig. 75.

RED-UKADEl) WOOT>PECKER8.

damage than to eat cherries and mulberries. They are so shy, that it is not diffi-
cult to frighten them away from fruit-trees by means of a few men of straw, sus-
pended from the end of a long pole, so that the wind will keep the images in mo-
lion. The length of this bird is nine and a half to ten inches ; alar extent, seven-
teen inches ; bill, light blue ; legs, bluish-green ; iris, dark-hazel ; head, neck, and
throat, crimson ; back, wings, and tail, black, with bluish reflections ; secondaries,
rump, lower part of the back, and under parts of the body, white. Female, less
brightly colored ; young, head and neck dull gray, varied with blackish.
The Red-headed Woodpecker is well known throughout the United States. In

200 THE APPLE GULTUBI8T.

spring and summer, it is seen in almost every region. Their return northward in
Pennsylvania is about the 1st of May. About the middle of that month, they pre-
pare their nests in the large limbs of dead trees, adding no materials to the cavity
which they smooth out for the purpose. Sometimes several perforations are found
in the same tree ; but living trees are seldom occupied by them. The same tree
is employed for years in succession by a pair of these birds. The eggs, usually six
in number, are white, marked at the largest end with reddish spots, in which last
particular they differ from all others of the genus. The first brood appear about
the 20th of June. Both the eggs and young of this, as of many other birds, often
fall a prey to the common black-snake. These birds are exceedingly agile, se-
curing with ease the beetles seen from their perch. When the fruit is all gone,
their facility in detecting insects under the bark of trees is remarkable. Alight-
ing upon the trunk, one of them will stand motionless for a few moments ; then
he will strike the tree with his bill, and seem to be listening to hear the sound of
the borer's auger in the bark, or an iuch or more in the wood of the apple-tree.
Woodpeckers seem to have been made with an especial reference to the work of
destroying borers in all kinds of trees. After a borer has worked his way two
inches into an apple-tree, unless he plugs his passage tightly after him, the wood-
pecker will thrust in his long, har-
poon-formed tongue, as represent- Fig* 76.
ed by Fig. 76, and haul the fat borer
out and devour him.

The Hairy Woodpecker, which is
often known as the "Sap-sucker,"
is frequently killed on account of
the erroneous notion, cherished by

some persons, that this bird pecks a wood-pecker's head with the barbed tongue extended.

holes through the bark of fruit-
trees, to feed on the cambium (see Glossary), when the faithful little bird is taking
out grubs. It is a common occurrence to see hundreds of holes like the depres-
sion of a large gimlet made in the bark of trees, at the bottom of which the bird
found a grub. Had those depredators been unmolested, they would have made
a complete honey-comb of the body of the tree in two or three years. Through
profound ignorance, many persons often destroy, in a relentless manner, some
of their most faithful benefactors.

The Golden-winged Woodpecker— -called also the Yellow Hammer, High Holder,
Tucker, and Flicker, in other parts of the Union, being seldom known by the
name of Golden-winged, employed by naturalists — may be said to be one of the
least destructive of the birds regarded as injurious to agriculture, while it lives to
a great extent on insects and borers that infest fruit and other trees. This bird is
especially recognized by it^ flicker, flicker, flicker, flicker, which, at a little distance,
is like the sound made by a mower as he whets his scythe. At all times animated
and happy, these birds are peculiarly so at the love-making season of early spring,
when their voices may be heard in the utterance of joyous sounds, and when the
coy female is pursued by several males until she has indicated her preference,
which produces no strife, as the rejected lovers at once fly off elsewhere to woo.
The song of the male, at this season, is not unlike a jovial laugh, nor by any means
unmusical. As soon as mated, each pair immediately proceed to excavate the
trunk of a tree, and to fashion a place for themselves and their young. The hole
is at first made horizontal, and then downward about six or eight inches. They
caress each other on the branches, climb about and around the tree with apparent
delight, rattle with their bilfs against the tops of the dead branches, chase away
the red-heads, and feed abundantly upon ants, beetles, and larvae. Before two
weeks have passed, from four to six semi-transparent eggs are laid. Two broods
are thus produced in each season. The movements of one of them upon the side
of a tree or upon the ground are very quick, though it only alights upon the earth

THE FAILURE OF ORCHARDS, AND ITS REMEDY. 201

to pick up a beetle, caterpillar, or other insect, or perhaps a grain of com. The
young of this species frequently have the whole upper part of the head tinged
with red, which, at the approach of winter, disappears, when merely a circular
line of that color is to be observed on the hind part, becoming of a rich vermilion
tint. Some writers have denounced this bird as unfit to live. But we have seen
no evidence that it is not a useful bird.

Fig. 11.

NKST OF A BAI.TIMOUE ORIOI.E.

The Orchard Oriole is one of the most valuable birds that pomologists can en-
courage to dwell among their fruit-trees, as they subsist almost exclusively on
noxious insects. The Baltimore Oriole is another bird of great value in apple-
orchards. It is exceedingly difficult for crows or hawks to take the eegs or the
young of these birds out of their nests, as every nest is usually suspended beneath
swaying branches, as represented by Pig. 11. A pair of Baltimore orioles were
accustomed to build their nest every year on a favorite pear-tree near the writer's
dwelling, in Central New York, several years ago; and it was an admirable sight
to observe the wonderful skill displayed by those birds in building their nest.
The first step was to procure a piece of wrapping-twine, one end of which was
wrapped three times around a horizontal branch just beyond the fork of a branch,
and the end was tucked beneath the main strand, so that the greater the stress or
weight on the string, the tighter it woixld clasp the branch. ^The other end was
then wrapped about the opposite branch of the fork, allowing the middle to hang

9*

202

THE APPLE CULTUUmT.

down in the form of a basket or an oblong ponch, Fig. 77. Several such strings
were attached to the branches with wonderful precision. Strong spears of grass
were also employed and woven in among the pieces of twine, as a basket-maker
weaves or braids a basket. All this is performed with the bills. We could pen
pages of interesting matter touching the natural history of the orioles ; but we
have only space to implore farmers, and every one, not to " destroy the goose
that lays the golden egg." Spare the orioles. Encourage them to abide in the
fruit orchard. Do not allow ill-natured boys to stone them, nor cruel sportsmen
to shoot them. They will destroy an immense number of noxious insects. Let
children be taught in early life that the orioles are their best friends, to whose
eflforts many a fine crop of fruit is justly due.

Fig. 78.

QOLPEN OKIOLE8 AND NEBT.

The Golden Oriole, illustrated by Fig. 78, is one of the useful little birds that
flourishes for a few months during the former part of the growing season near
human habitations. Birds of this variety seldom feed on fruit. They carry large
numbers of worms and bugs to their yonng ones ; and their chief food, at all
times, consists of noxious insects.

THE FAILURE OF ORCHAUm, AND ITS REMEDY. 203

Apple-trees starved out. — That inquirers may perceive
what views other writers entertain touching the cause of
failure in orchards, we herewith quote from the " Canada
Farmer," the editor of which says : It is no uncommon
thing to meet with single trees, or even whole orchards,
once productive, that have become barren, either yielding
no fruit whatever, or a few scrubby specimens — mere apol-
ogies for the products formerly given. In such cases you
will perhaps hear it said that the trees have failed, or be-
come exhausted ; whereas the truth is, that the soil is ex-
hausted. Such phenomena are viewed *as among the mys-
teries of the vegetable kingdom; but they are among the
simplest and most easily explained facts to be met with out
of doors. It would be difficult to find any thing more ir-
rational than the course pursued by many in regard to
fruit-growing. A young orchard is planted out, and forth-
with sown to a grain crop, in which the trees stand during
the summer months, like storks in a rush-pond, their heads
just peering over the nodding grain. Year after year a
similar course is pursued. The land is expected to bear as
much of some sort of crop as though an orchard had never
been thought of. After much hard struggling, half the
trees, perhaps two-thirds, are found to have survived, and
they begin to bear a Httle fruit. At last, by a stretch of
leniency, the orchard is seeded down ; and, after one or two
mowings, converted into hard-run pasture. Who ever thinks
of manuring an orchard ? or what fool would dream of giv-
ing up the land to the trees, and manuring it well, and cul-
tivating it thoroughly ? Yet if, after the worst possible
usage, the trees do not bear plenty of choice fruit, either
the nurseryman is blamed, or the climate is cursed, or, for-
sooth, the trees are exhausted ! The theory of rotation of
crops, in general farm practice, is based on the fact that
constantly growing the same produce exhausts particular

204 THE APPLE GULTURIST.

elements in the soil ; and this fact, no doubt, often accounts
for the barrenness of fruit-trees and the failure of orchards.
The soil is robbed of its nutritive properties year after year
— no new supply is furnished — and out of nothing, nothing
can come. The practical lesson is obvious : we must feed
our fruit trees if we expect them to feed us.

Itinerant Grafters. — Taken as a class, they are no more
reliable than Jew peddlers who are selling stolen goods.
They have wrought irreparable mischief in many a thrifty
orchard, by cutting off such a large proportion of the
branches, that almost every tree received an injurious — al-
most fatal — set-back, by having too much of the top re-
moved at one time. In almost every part of the country,
people have been outrageously deceived by itinerant graft-
ers. They traverse the country, and take orders to do
grafting at so much apiece for all that live, or at so much
for each cion set, ready pay. When the season of grafting
comes, a few workmen come along with a wagon-load of
cions, containing, professedly, every variety that could pos-
sibly be called for, all procured from the most responsible
source; and as a proof of this, a catalogue of some well-
known nurseryman is exhibited, and, it may be, a forged
bill or invoice, while the cions were, in many instances, cut
from some of the orchards they had been grafting in. Thou-
sands of orchards have been ruined in this way. We have
in mind an orchard which has been grafted by one of these
rogues, and, instead of having some three or four select
sorts, he had a, collection of vile rubbish, mostly natural
fruit ; and, in some cases, three or four different sorts were
grafted on a tree. We might cite cases of this sort which
have come to our knowledge, enough to fill a dozen pages.
In some parts of the country, people are more cautious and
careful than formerly, so that few men now are willing to
trust unknown, irresponsible persons with the important

THE FAILURE OF ORCHARDS, AND ITS REMEDY. 205

duty of grafting their fruit-trees. Not so, however, in some
parts of the West and South, where, we are informed, the
speculation is in full blast. It is but just to say, in this
connection, that there are honest men engaged in this busi-
ness of grafting — men in all respects worthy of confidence
— and the service they render to fruit-culture is very great.
"What we have said will be no detriment to them ; for they
have characters to sustain them and to inspire confidence.

The remedy for this source of injury to an orchard is —
when trees are to be grafted — to procure cions from thrifty,
bearing trees, during the winter, and let the grafting be
performed by some intelligent person who understands
something of the science of pruning fruit-trees.

Want of proper Pruning constitutes a prominent cause of
failure in the productiveness of many apple-trees. When
some kinds of apple-trees are permitted to grow ad libitum,
as if branch-extension were the great desideratum, and ex-
pend all their forces in the production of wood-growth, they
can produce little or no fruit. Indeed, it is not possible for
any tree to perfect a fruit-germ, and not again in some way
disorganize it, unless the wood-growth shall cease in time
for the leaves to elaborate a sufficient quantity of plant-
food to grow both leaf and fruit the following year, or until
a part of the leaves shall attain to nearly or quite their full
size. That this is so, will be apparent when we consider
that the leaves which first appear in the spring were form-
ed in the buds the previous year, perfect in all their parts,
and in the embryo state contained each individual cell
found in them when fully grown. As growth begins in
the spring, the small cells which were formed in the previ-
ous year begin to expand. Each individual cell thus en-
larges, until all the cells of which these leaves are composed
have attained full size. Here, for example, is a tree in
possession of a full-grown leaf. This leaf did not form it-

206 THE APPLE VULTURIST.

self, but was formed by the tree in the preceding year. To
produce and sustain this cellular enlargement, there has
been stored, the previous year, a large share of nutriment
in the buds and in other parts of the trees. This nutri-
ment must not only be sufficient to feed the embryo leaves,
but also be sufficient to produce the small warty excres-
cences— the rootlets and spongioles. These new leaves and
spongioles are the tree's laboratory. The first growth of
leaves and spongioles was made, with the exception of
moisture, wholly out of the materials that were stored by
the tree during the growth of the previous year. When
these vegetable stores are in sufficient supply to do this,
and nourish the fruit-germs also, then we shall hear little
about imperfect fertilization. On the other hand, had the
food been consumed the previous year, by ripening the
over-crop of fruit, or by making a very succulent growth,
then the tree would not have a sufficient amount of plant-
food to perform its three-fold office in the production of
leaves, roots with their spongioles, and fruit. In this con-
dition, a part of the leaf, and a larger part of all the fruit-
buds, yield up their nourishment, which goes to the pro-
duction of root and leaf growth. The tree, therefore, is
barren of fruit for the summer, its whole growth being re-
quired to recuperate its own vigor. Such trees bloom free-
ly, and then cast their blossoms. When this occurs, unin-
formed persons often attribute it to want of fertilization, or
suppose that the rain must have washed away the pollen.
The true remedy is, adopt the means recommended, p. 167,
for the purpose of promoting fruitfulness.

Want of Protection in Winter. — We are aware that round
about New York and Boston, and other localities, where
orchards rest in the very bosom of the sea, the pomological
authorities scout at the idea of protection. In many local-
ities in Southern latitudes, fruit-trees do not require any

THE FAILURE OF OMCUABDH, AND ITS liEMEBY. 207

protection from winter winds and cold storms. Hence we
do not advocate universal protection. But, at a distance
from the ocean, in most localities, apple-orchards have suf-
fered extremely — often fatally — for want of the protection
which a belt of timber will afford.

Lewis Ellsworth, who is acknowledged to be reliable au-
thority at the West, writes that the loss in fruit-trees in
Illinois, within the last three years, is millions of dollars,
which is attributed ta the cold winters and dry summers.
But he asserts that, to a great extent, this result has arisen
from their standing unprotected in a soil underlaid with
a retentive clayey-loam subsoil, which characterizes most
of the prairie lands. He has adopted the practice of ridg-
ing his land by repeated ploughings, commencing at the
same ridges, and ending at the same dead furrows. Where
nursery-trees were formerly thrown out by freezing, since
ridging, they stand throughout the winter without injury,
and make a better growth in summer^ He recommends
the ridging system for all orchards, each row of trees being
placed On the centre of the ridge.

We have no doubt that the thorough draining of such
ground would lessen the effects of severe winters on fruit-
trees in other regions as well as at the West.

Belts of Timber around Fruit-orchards. — We will sup-
pose, for example, that an orchard is to be planted on a
broad prairie, where the cold winds of a North-western
winter can rake the surface of the earth for twenty to thir-
ty miles ; and suppose, farther, that a few neighbors are in
possession each of fifty acres of land. Let them all co-ope-
rate in establishing belts of forest-trees as effectual wind-
breakers, around every fifty-acre plot. By working in con-
cert, as joint owners of land build line fences, heavy belts
can be established in a few years.

The first step should be to break up a strip of ground

208 THE APPLE CULTUIilST.

not less than four rods wide, early in autumn. Let the
ground be ploughed deep. Then scarify the surface with
cultivators and harrows, until the whole strip is reduced to
a fine tilth. Now stick four rows of stakes about one rod
apart, lengthways of the plot, where rows of trees are to
grow. The two outer rows will be about eight feet from
the border. Hoed crops may be cultivated on such ground
for a few years. Or the surface may be worked oocasion-
ally with a horse-hoe, to subdue the grass and weeds, and
to keep the soil moist. Crops of cereal grain should never
be raised where such trees are growing, as the aim should
be to promote the development of every tree, by keeping
the soil moist and free from vegetation during the growing-
season. If grass and grain are not allowed to grow around
such trees, every one will shoot upward, in good soil, from
two to four feet annually. In ten years, by proper cultiva-
tion, a dense belt may be formed thirty feet in height, en-
tirely around a fruit-orchard. But let grain and grass be
cultivated among the trees, and the tops will not stretch
upward more than one foot in each year.

What Trees to cultivate. — The aim should be to select
such varieties as can be propagated easily, which will
grow rapidly, mature their branches thoroughly before cold
weather, be hardy during the winter, and make valuable
timber. Among such varieties may be mentioned the but-
ternut (tTuglans einerea), the black walnut (Juglans nigra),
the yellow locust {Rohinia pseudicacia) ; in some localities
the chestnut {Gastanea vesca) will flourish satisfactorily.
Some Western pomologists recommend for this purpose.
Cotton-wood, Tree Willow, and Silver Leaf Maple, -which
will in a few years make an effective screen for an orchard
and farm crops, all of which will grow rapidly, and most of
which will yield durable timber. There are also other trees
which would be, perhaps, preferable to these in certain lo-

THE FAILURE OF ORCHABDIS, AND ITS REMEDY. 209

calities. But, whatever the varieties may be, the trees that
will grow most rapidly and the taller should always occu-
py the middle of the belt. If slow-growiug varieties be
planted in the middle rows, and rapid growers on the out-
side, the trees in the middle of the belt will soon be over-
grown, and their natural development choked down.

Just before cold weather, mark out the ground in the
quincunx order, and plant the nuts or seeds about eight feet
apart, except the two outside rows, which should consist of
hardy evergreens that can be obtained most conveniently
from nurseries or the forest. Hemlock, cedar, and pine will
grow rapidly, if every one has a good tap-root. Hence it
will be important to select very small trees, which have a
tap-root. The same is true with all nut-bearing trees. It
will be found far more satisfactory to plant the nuts where
the trees are to grow, so that the tap-root may not be in-
jured, than to attempt to transplant trees from nurseries.
A protecting belt can be formed much sooner, and the trees
will all be of a more uniform height, by preparing the ground
as suggested, and planting the nuts and seeds in autumn,
than by taking trees from the nursery. Pine-trees will sel-
dom flourish satisfactorily without the aid of a tap-root to
bring up moisture in hot and dry weather.

Necessity of Protection. — Let the reader understand that
we are not advocates of universal protection. It is only
advocated in localities where deep snows fall, where pro-
tracted cold weather and piercing winds prevail, and where
the surface of the earth round about trees freezes up so
tight and to such a depth as to check all the circulation of
the sap in the roots. Where trees and the ground are
thawed out the next day after freezing up tight, no timber-
belts will be needed. We should remember that apple-
trees are things of life — living and breathing existences, as
much as many other specimens of animate nature, which

210 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

BEl) ASTEAKHAN.

Sj/nont/ws.— Deterdiug's Early, Astrakhan Rouge, Eother Astrakhan, Abe Lin-
coln, and Vermilluu d'Ete. This beautiful apple has come to us, through Eng-
land, from Russia. Its introduction into this country is quite recent ; but it is
now seen in our markets, and sells as well as any other variety of the same sea-
son. It generally bears well, and is in all respects worthy of a place in every col-
lection. Fruit is rather above the middle size, very smooth and fair, roundish, a
little narrowed towards the eye. Skin almost entirely covered with deep crimson,
with sometimes a greenish-yellow in the shade, and occasionally a little russet
near the stalk, and covered with a pale white bloom. Stalk deeply inserted.
Calyx set in a slight basin, which is sometimes a little irregular. Flesh quite
white, crisp, moderately juicy, with an agreeable, rich, acid flavor. Ripens from
the last of July to the first of September, according to locality.

are endowed with powers of locomotion. A vital fluid cir-
culates through every radicle and hair-like rootlet, through
the stem, every branch and minute twig, thus maintaining
the healthful existence of every bud within the folds of
which is enveloped the future fruit, or nothing but a leaf.
Countless numbers of mouths are ever open to catch the
pearly rain-drops and the minute tidbits in the well-pre-
pared soil, which are conveyed to the buds to expand the
blossoms and develop the luscious fruit. The genial breezes

THE FAILURE OF ORCHARDS, AND ITS REMEDY. 211

of the spring, the glowing sunlight, the refreshing showers
of summer, the pelting storms and intense cold of winter,
all exert more or less influence on the vitality of a fruit-
tree. There is more or less circulation of the vital fluid
through the roots, stem, and branches, at ail seasons of the
year. Although the circulation may be feeble during the
reign of stern winter, when the whole vegetable kingdom
is bound in icy fetters, still there is a living, breathing, ac-
tive vitality in every branch, twig, and bud.

Any one who has access to a growing tree may satisfy
himself that this suggestion is not based on some ground-
less theory. By severing a live limb from the parent stem,
covering the end with wax, and securing the amputated
branch in the tree-top, where it will be exposed to the same
influences of alternate heat and cold, it will be seen, after a
few weeks have passed, that the severed branch is drying
up. This fact assures us that there is a constant transpira-
tion through the bark and buds. Consequently, if the
branches and buds do not receive a supply from the roots,
the last drops of moisture will be taken out of the green
bark by the piercing and drying winter winds. We all
understand how rapidly the cold and driving winds of win-
ter will suck out and convey away the last atom of moist-
ure in a wet board or a wet garment. When " Old Boreas "
has drawn his big fiddle-strings up to concert pitch, so that
swaying forests keep time with his music, which makes the
vast plains roar, and hill and valley echo with the sound of
a tempest, the searching, driving, and drying wind will
have the moisture of the trees, if — to use the emphatic
phrase of a boorish rough — the last drop " must be taken
out of the hide." Hence, if the ground be frozen up solid,
as far down as the roots extend, every mouth must be
stopped ; and, consequently, the supply of moisture for the
buds and twigs will be cut off. Then, if cold and drying

212 THE APPLE CULTUMI8T.

winds prevail for many successive days and weeks, who
does not perceive that the very life-sap of a growing tree
must yield to the imperative demands of the furious wind ?
This perpetual draught of the drying wind on the scanty
supply of sap and moisture, which is sucked out through
every pore of the buds and bark, exerts such a deleterious
influence on the productiveness of the fruit-tree, that the
embryotic fruit is destroyed, and the vitality of the tender
branches so seriously impaired that the trees can scarcely
survive during the growing season. These suggestions fur-
nish a philosophical reason why it is found so exceedingly
difficult, in the West and North-west, to obtain fruit-trees
that will endure the rigors of our Northern winters.
Every intelligent pomologist will readily understand and
appreciate the conditions, circumstances, and influences to
be encountered if one attempts the cultivation of a fruit-
orchard.

The question will then arise, Is there any practical reme-
dy ? And is it available ? Yes, perfectly so. If a plot of
ground be cleared in the centre of a forest, and an orchard
planted, the fury of the drying winds will be spent on
the breast-work of forest-trees, and the draught for moist-
ure will be less severe on the buds and branches. The
ground, also, will not be frozen to so -great a depth. And,
as a consequence, the circulation of the vital fluid will not
be so completely obstructed. Hence the embryotic fruit
will not have the last drop of moisture sapped from the
dormant buds. Therefore the vitality of a fruit-tree will
suffer but little injury from protracted periods of cold and
drying weather. All these conditions and circumstances
are controlled and regulated by natural laws, which are as
reliable as the vicissitudes of the seasons. And it is the
business of pomologists to study the operations of the laws
which affect vegetation, and to make an application of the

THE FAILURE OF ORCHARDS, AND ITS REMEDY. 213

knowledge gained in one thing to the successful accom-
plishment of another purpose.

Now, then, if pomologists will observe all the funda-
mental requirements in the production of fruit-trees, by-
selecting the best kernels for bearing trees, and cultivate
and train in strict accordance with the laws of vegetable
physiology, then encircle their young orchards with a com-
plete wind-breaker of trees, and cover the ground round
about the trees with straw or sawdust, to prevent the
frost from closing the tens of thousands of minute feeders,
which must supply the branches and buds with moisture,
even in cold weather, such an occurrence as a failure, of
fruit, in consequence of the severity of a long and cold
winter, would be rarely met with, save in the records of the
past. We have the cheering promise of seed-time and har-
vest while mortal life is prolonged. Seed-time has never
failed. If the fruit-harvest is cut off, we must look for the
cause of such a failure in the system of management adopt-
ed in the production and care of the trees.

Many of the wise pomologists of America are beginning
to wake up to a proper appreciation of the serious mistake
of their fathers in denuding their farms of the last acre of
forest-trees; and many are beginning to repair this great
injury done by the stupid managers, by establishing belts
of deciduous and evergreen trees entirely around their
farms, to protect not only their fruit-trees, vines, and bush-
es, from the scathing influence of cold winds, but with a
view of shielding the winter crops of the field from the
same influences which have nearly cut off " the staff of life "
in those localities where bountiful crops of golden grain
were harvested, so long as the tender wheat-plants were
protected from the drying and withering influences of cold
winds by the surrounding forests.

Management of Girdled Trees. — The true way in the

214

THE APPLE CULTUmST.

Fig. 79.

raaDagement of orchards is not to have any
trees girdled. But sometimes mice, sheep,
pestiferous goats, or rabbits, will gain access
to fruit-trees, and girdle the bodies in a few
minutes. A friend of mine in Central-New
York, who has several thousand fruit-trees,
had over one thousand young standard trees
completely girdled by mice during the latter
A stem ofa tree that part of March, while a deep snow was lyins:

has been girdled ^ ' ^ J &

by mice. on the ground. Previous to that time the

mice had never injured a tree. Some of the trees, which

were from one to two inches in diameter, pig. gi.

were girdled over a space of six inches

above the surface of the ground. Such

casualties are of frequent occurrence. His

trees were all saved but sixty; and those
would have survived if
they had not been sub-
mitted to a bungler.
The accompanying il-
lustration (Fig. 81)
will show how the
girdled portions were
bridged with pieces of

^t^^^r\2^ living branches taken

gnawed by mice. ^^^^ ^^^ tree-topS.

The main idea is to insert four or more
pieces of live branches in the stem of the
tree, with one end above the girdle, and
the other end below it, so as to maintain
the connection between roots and stem,
which has been cut off by the removal of
the bark. In many parts of the country a young tree four years

„ , _ . , , after the girdle was

neld-mice are so numerous that, unless bridged.

Fig. 80.

THE FAILURE OF ORCHARDS, AND ITS REMEDY. 215

fruit-trees are protected by some effectual means, they will
gnaw nearly every particle of green bark from the body of
the tree, for several inches from the ground; and some-
times, when deep snow is piled high around fruit trees,
mice will dig holes through the drifts until they arrive at
the trees, and girdle them several feet from the ground.
Mice seldom gnaw trees that are not surrounded by a bank
of snow at least several inches deep. They never work
above the snow, nor girdle a tree that is not surrounded
with grass or some other material that will serve as a pro-
tection to them while they are committing their depreda-
tions. Trees that stand so exposed to the wind that all the
snow, grass, leaves, and other rubbish will be swept away,
are never in danger of being injured by mice.

The usual means employed to protect trees from mice
consists in raising a mound of earth around each tree a
foot or more high, as shown by Fig. 68, p. 166. As the
marauders work along beneath the grass or snow, the bank
of earth turns them away from the tree. When trees are
standing in grass-yards or lawns, where the earth is smooth
around the bodies, sods may be transported from some
other place and fitted closely to the trees, and then re-
moved before the growing season commences. If the snow
falls deep around trees, or drifts are formed around the
bodies, by stamping the snow all around the trunk of each
tree, mice will turn away from the snow that has been
packed closely, and not dig a road through to the tree.
These remedies have been found effectual, for many years
past, wherever the means have been employed. But the
labor of packing the snow, when it is deep, around all the
trees above the mound of earth is often neglected, to the
ruin of many trees.

Another remedy, which has recently been employed with
sati|^ctory success, is winding coarse paper or old cloth

216 THE APPLE CULTUBIST. .

around each tree, securing it with small twine, and after-
wards smearing the outside with a coat of coal-tar or pitch.
If the tar were applied to the bark of the trees, no animal
would gnaw the bark. But coal-tar is so poisonous to trees
and plants that, unless the bark is very thick, it will soon
destroy all the vitality of the bark. Two thicknesses of
coarse brown paper will absorb a heavy coat of tar, so that
none of it will reach the bark, nor adhere to any thing that
might come in contact with it. Paper tarred after it has
been put around trees will secure the bark from being
gnawed off by goats, sheep, rabbits, and all other animals.
As soon as the growing season has commenced, the tarred
paper may be removed, although there is no danger that it
will injure a growing tree were it kept around it during
the summer. This manner of protecting trees from almost
every foe will not cost over two to four cents per tree.

Meadow Mce.— There are several species of this kind of mice, some of which are
found in almost every State in the Union. We shall notice only the Prairie-mead-
ow Mouse (Fig. 82, p. 217), the Wood-meadow Mouse (Fig. 83, p. 218), and the
Long-haired Meadow Mouse (Fig. 84, p. 219), the female, and (Fig. 85, p. 220)
the male. Where several species are found in one locality, they are common-
ly considered by farmers as one animal, known under various names, as Short-
tailed Field Rats or Mice, Bear Mice, Bull-headed Mice, Ground Mice, Bog Mice,
etc., while many persons call them moles, though they are not in the least related
to that family. The food and general habits of the diflerent species are much
alike, though some prefer high and others wet ground ; while others inhabit the
woods, prairies, etc. All the species burrow, and none climb trees. Their com-
mon food is the grasses and other herbaceous plants, their seeds and roots, and
the seeds and acorns, as well as the bark of trees, in the woods, with grain and
vegetables, when inhabiting cultivated fields. Some kinds, at least, lay up stores
of food for winter. All are active at this time, moving about in the coldest weath-
er, and never hibernate like marmots. One characteristic, certainly, possessed by
all the species in common, is their ability to destroy the products of the farm. In
a nursery, where apple-seeds were planted in autumn, I have observed that, during
fall and spring, so many of the seeds were dug up by these mice as to leave long
gaps in the rows of seedlings, the empty shells of the seeds being found lying
about the rows from which they had been taken. They congregate in stacks of
grain and hay, sometimes in exceedingly great numbers, destroying all the lower
parts, by cutting galleries through them in every direction.

The greatest mischieif done by meadow mice is the gnawing of bark from
fruit-trees. The complaints are constant and grievous, throughout the Northern
States, of the destruction of orchard and nursery-trees by the various species of
arvicolse. The entire damage done by them in this way may be estimated, per-
haps, at millions of dollars. This is especially the case at the West, where i^care

THE FAILUBE OF ORCHARDS, AND ITS REMEDY. 217

is taken to protect the trees
against them, careless or-
chardists allowing grass to
grow about the roots of
their fruit-trees, and thus
kindly furnishing the arvic-
olse with excellent nesting-
places in winter, and ren-
dering the trees doubly lia-
ble to be girdled. In the
nurseries in Northern Illi-
nois, we have seen whole
rows of .young apple-trees
stripped of their bark for
a foot or two above the
ground. Thousands of
fruit-trees, as well as ever-
greens and other ornament-
al trees and shrubs, are at
times thus killed in a nurs-
ery in one winter. The
mice are most mischievous
in winters of deep snow.
One reason why fruit-trees
are most girdled in times of
deep snow is, that the mead-
ow mice can then better
move about, at a distance
from their burrows, being
protected by the snow, un-
der which they construct nu-
merous pathways, and are
thus enabled to travel com-
fortably in search of food,
always to be obtained in
abundance where there is
any kind of perennial grass,
or the seeds of annual
plants. Aided by the snow,
too, they climb up at the
sides of the trees to gnaw
the bark at a considerable
height from the ground.
Rabbits are often accused
of gnawing bark from trees,
when the mischief has real-
ly been done by meadow mice. All the species alluded to are exceedingly pro-
lific. When unmolested, the female will frequently rear three litters in one sea-
son, and each litter will frequently number six or seven young mice. The male
Prairie-meadow Mice are always very pugnacious, biting and striking at any thing
thrust towards them. When much teased in this way, they sometimes turn on
their backs, snap with their teeth, and strike with all four feet. When enraged,
they utter a low, harsh, creaking note, resembling that of a very young puppy. If
hurt, their voices are clearer and sharper. Sometimes they chatter their teeth in
anger.
The males of nearly every species, when they can not escape into some secure

10

218

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

refuge when attacked by persons, will attack their aggressors with great fierce-
ness. We have often extended the toe of one boot into the fore-front of the battle,
when an infuriated mouse was the invading foe, and the plucky little fighter would
leave the prints of his sharp teeth in the leather. Thus much for the natural his-
tory of the foregoing species of mice. The chief practical consideration is, how
to prevent their ravages ?

Meadow mice of all kinds have numerous enemies. All kinds of hawks cap-
ture a great many. Cats destroy large numbers ; and skunks, when they can find
a nest of young ones, will devour an entire litter. They often construct their

nests on the surface of the
ground, in the grass, in
stone-heaps, beneath boards
and pieces of rails, in old
ant - hills, beneath old
stumps, and in the ground.
Hence, every farmer and
gardener should keep sev-
eral active cats — not old
and indolent pussies — but
young and fierce mousers,
which should be fed well
every day with milk. A
young female cat is far bet-
ter than a male ; and if the
female be allowed to rear
two or three kittens, she
will destroy large numbers
of mice. A well-fed female
cat will catch more mice,
when well fed on milk and
fragments from the table,
than if she be compelled to
subsist wholly on mice. If
a cat be allowed to rear two
kittens, she will hnnt mice
a large proportion of the
time ; whereas, if her kit-
tens be killed soon after
their birth, pussy will have
but little inclination to hunt
mice.

The refuges of mice must
be destroyed. Let all the
old pieces of rails and bark
be placed on end, and let
old log-heaps and piles of
brush be burned, so that
cats and other animals can
seize them before they can
reach a refuge. When mice
are met with in meadows,
and when one is ploughing,
let every one be killed.
When old rail-fences have
settled down close to the
ground, and the tall grass

THE FAILURE OF ORCHARDS, AND ITS REMEDY. 219

has fallen down in the
nooks, mice want no
better refuge. Hence,
let the fence be lifted
with a lever, and a large
stone or block of wood
placed beneath each
corner; and let the
dead grass be raked
into heaps for manure.
Mice frequently burrow
among the stones of un-
der-drains, and there
build their nests and
propagate. In such in-
stances, let old nail-
kegs, fish-kegs, old but-
ter-firkins, and barrels
be sunk in the ground,
so that the top will be
even with the surface
of the ground. A large
number of mice will be
trapped in such recep-
tacles, as they will jump
in and can not climb
out. Boxes two feet
deep may also be set in
the ground as traps for
mice. Cats will take
them from such traps,
or they can be speared
with a fork. It is an ex-
cellent practice to sink
several barrels in differ-
ent parts of an orchard.
Let two or three holes,
one and a half inches
in diameter, be bored
through the staves about
eight inches from the
upper end ; then let the
barrel be sunk in the
ground, so that the holes
will be even with the
surface. The mice vdll

be attracted to the barrels in the night and enter the holes. In addition to all the
foregoing suggestions, we have found it an excellent practice to set a few sheaves
of corn-stalks in round shocks at different parts of the orchard, beneath which a
few nubbins of corn were placed. The tops of the stalks were bound so tightly that
the entire shock could be lifted by one man from the ground. In cold weather the
nocturnal marauders would leave their haunts and collect beneath the shocks of
stalks. Every day we would lift the stalks and let the cat take the victims. There
are some other ways of exterminating meadow mice ; but none are more conven-
ient and effectual than those alluded to. The war with mice must be waged unre-
mittingly during the entire year. Meadow mice often do great damage in under-

220

THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

drains. When large numbers come from adjoining woods to a field of grain,
or towards an orchard, let several barrels be sunk in the ground, as suggested,
between the woods and the orchard. If water settles in the barrels, all the better
they will be for mice-traps, if a few leaves and some grass be strewed on the sur-
face of the water.

When an orchard is located near the forest, where mice and rabbits abound, the
only reliable means of protecting trees is represented p. 166. Before cold weather
has sealed the surface of the ground, a quantity of sti'ong paper should be procured
and wrapped around the trees, as already directed. This job should not be neg-
lected, with a view of doing it at some convenient period in the winter. In case
a deep snow should fall, mice may ruin half the trees in a single day. If coarse

canvas or old sail-
cloth can be obtain-
ed, such material will
be preferable to pa-
per ; and if removed
with care from the
trees, the pieces may
be used many years.
In some instances
the wood - meadow
mice have made
a general stampede
from a near forest.

Naturalists have
described numerous
species of field-mice.
There are over twen-
ty species of the Ar-
vicola avsterus (Prai-
rie-meadow Mouse).
In many instances
owls destroy large
numbers. Hawks will
spy them from a dis-
tance as they soar
through the air, and
will dart down and
swoop up their prey
with surprising agil-
ity. We have fre-
quently seen a hawk
dart from the top of
some tree in the open
field and swoop up a
mouse more than two
hundred feet distant
from the tree. Snakes
also devour more or
less of these pests
of the orchard and
grain - fields. Yet
field-mice are so pro-
lific that all their
foes united do not
exterminate them.

THE FAILURE OF ORCHAMDS, AND ITS REMEDY. 221

Culture of Apple-trees on Prairies. — A great many per-
sons, who pass for shrewd and intelligent men, do not hesi-
tate to affirm that apples can not be grown with satisfac-
tory success on the Western Prairies ; and they will point
to the untold number of failures on the prairies as incon-
trovertible evidence that their assumptions are reliable.
Yet our doctrine is, that bountiful crops of apples can be
grown on any ground that will yield fair crops of wheat,
provided the trees are produced and cultivated as directed .
in the former part of this book.

Dr. J. A. Warden, who is accepted authority at the
West, states, in the " Prairie Farmer Annual," that it has
been too much the custom, in many portions of the West,
to accept as true the oft-repeated dogma that orchards can
not be grown on the prairies. It is surprising that such a
notion should still prevail among many of our large farm-
ers, since the contrary has been so fully proved in every
county, and in almost every township. The failures, in al-
most every locality, maybe traced to some, or to all of the
following causes: 1st. The bad condition of the trees plants
ed; 2d. The bad selection of varieties; 3d. The want of
suitable preparation of the soil; 4th. Bad planting, and
want of suitable cultivation and training; 5th. Exposure
to the elements, and to the depredations of stock and wild
animals.

This bad condition of the trees may arise from the dan-
gers or delays of long transportation ; from carelessness in
handling and defective packing ; from frosts, when exposed
to the air ; or simply from drying of the roots, when care-
lessly exposed, after they have been received. It is unfor-
tunately true, also, that some nursery-trees are badly grown,
especially when they have been much crowded, and when
the nurseryman has injudiciously sacrificed stockiness foj*
height. Thus the blame is distributed all the way from a

222 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

proper selection of the apple-seeds to the final operation in
the management of the bearing trees. Bad selection of va-
rieties has been a frequent source of failure in attempts to
establish Western orchards. It was most natural for men
to desire, in their new homes, the same fruits to which they
had been accustomed in their old ones. Hence, they intro-
duced chiefly the varieties of New England, many of which
have proved worthless on the prairies ; and, strange to say,
some of those which have suffered most from winter-killing
originated in the Eastern States ; while some of the most
hardy varieties have come from the South. The labors of
Western pomologists have at length enabled us to select
lists of hardy varieties that have withstood the severe or-
deals of such winters as those of 1856 and 1863.

The want of suitable preparation of the soil has been a
too common explanation of the failures complained of, par-
ticularly the want of drainage in low and flat lands, with a
retentive subsoil. This is a matter which can be soon
overcome with the progress of agriculture. The opening
of the country, the introduction of thorough drainage, and
the perfecting of the surface-drainage, will enable farmers
to grow orchards where they have previously failed. Peo-
ple must learn that the ground must be well prepared for
the orchard, as for any other farm crop ; that the trees
need cultivation, especially while they are young ; and when
older, that they require the sole occupancy of the ground.
At the same time, it will be generally understood that Na-
ture should be aided and directed in the formation of the
trees by judicious training and pruning. Trees planted out
in the open prairies, exposed to the winds, sunshine, and
storms, without any protection, must be expected to suffer
in the change from the sheltered nursery-plat on which they
were produced, and that, perhaps, in a different soil and cli-
mate, certainly under very different conditions from those

THE FAILURE OP OECHARDS, AND ITU REMEDY. 223

of the open field. If, in addition to this, they be so neglect-
ed as to suffer from the attacks of mice, gophers, or rab-
bits, and to the inroads of animals of larger growth, so as to
be barked by mules or sheep, and browsed upon or broken
down by horned cattle, we need not wonder at the state-
ments that have been made regarding the impossibility of
growing orchards in the prairie.

Another prominent peculiarity in the lands appropriated
to orcharding in the Western country consists in their gen
eral flatness. This necessitates their open exposure to the
winds, which sweep with great force across the plains ; and
when the dew-point is low, evaporation from all living tis-
sues is greatly increased, which causes the trees to dry
away fearfully. The same flatness of the laud favors the
accumulation of surface-water, which makes the ground
wet and clammy, requiring judicious efforts to effect suit-
able drainage over extensive tracts of country. It is emi-
nently important that such flat land, where the subsoil is of
a retentive character, should be thoroughly under-drained.
Under-draining, in many instances, is the only requirement
to insure the success of apple culture.

When the land is very flat, if it has not been under-
drained, it will be well to plough it in lands, gathering the
furrows repeatedly on the same line, so as to ridge the sur-
face as high as possible where the trees are to stand, so that
the dead-furrows will make an open ditch for the water,
and the gather-furrows raise the roots of the trees* above
general water-level. These ridges and furrows should be
made in the direction of the slope of the natural surface, if
any can be detected ; otherwise the ditches must be made
deeper at one end than the other. It is rarely the case that
the surface-water will not find an outflow at one end or the
other of a ten-acre field. Towards this the ridges and fur-
rows should extend. Besides the foregoing considerations,

224 THE APPLE CULTUEIST.

orchards on the prairies must be shielded by belts of ever-
greens during the severity of winter. By heeding all the
suggestions alluded to in the preceding paragraphs, and
particularly the directions laid down in Chapter I., a failure
of an apple-orchard will be of rare occurrence. >''

Cause of Barrenness in Apple-trees. — Barrenness and in-
different productiveness of apple-trees arise from numerous
causes. In most instances, the difficulty is in the barren
soil rather than in a tree. Yet, when a part of the trees
are productive, the evidence is conclusive that the fault is
in the tree. In many instances, some of the largest trees
in the orchard rarely yield a bushel of fruit, while those on
either side of them yield abundant crops. Dr. Hull, an
eminent pomologist, states that apple-trees that expend all
their forces in the production of wood-growth can produce
little or no fruit. Indeed, it is not possible for any tree to
produce a fruit germ, and not again in some way disor-
ganize it, unless the wood-growth shall cease in time for
the leaves to elaborate food enough to grow both leaf and
fruit the following year, or until a part of the leaves shall
attain to nearly or quite their full size. That this is so, will
be apparent when we consider that the leaves which first
appear in the spring were formed in the bud the previous
year, perfect in all their parts, and in the embryo state con-
tained each individual cell found in them when fully grown.
In order to produce an abundant crop of fruit, the exten-
sion of the shoots must cease a long time before the end of
the growing season, so that the wood may mature and the
fruit-buds develop.

The question may arise, if there is no addition to the
number of cells, how do the leaves grow ? The answer is,
that the only difference we can see, between an embryo leaf
and one fully grown, is in the size of the leaf-cells. As
growth begins in the spring, these small cells, which were

THE FAILURE OF OUCHARDJS, AJVB ITS REMEDY. 225

formed in the previous year, begin to expand. Each in-
dividual cell thus enlarges, until all the numerous cells of
which these leaves are composed are of full size. To fur-
ther illustrate this, let us suppose, in a brick wall, that each
brick at the same time was gradually to expand to several
hundred times its present diameter, and you have just what
takes place in the growth of an embryo leaf. Here we have
a tree in possession of a full-grown leaf. This leaf did not
form itself, but was formed by the tree in the preceding
year. To produce and sustain this cellular enlargement,
there had been stored, the previous year, a large share of
nutriment in the buds and in other parts of the tree. This
nutriment must not only be sufficient to feed the embryo
leaves, but must also be sufficient to produce the small
warty excrescences — the rootlets and spongioles. These
new leaves and spongioles are a tree's laboratory. And
those leaves and spongioles first grown were made, with
the exception of moisture, wholly out of the materials that
were stored by the tree during the growth of the previous
year. When these vegetable stores are in sufficient supply
to do this, and nourish the fruit germs also, then we shall
hear little about imperfect fertilization. On the other hand,
had the food been consumed the previous year, by ripening
an over-crop of fruit, or by making a very succulent growth,
then the tree would not store a sufficient amount of plant-
food to perform its threefold office in the production of
leaves, roots with their spongioles, and fruit. In this con-
dition, a part of the leaf, and a larger part of all the fruit-
buds, yield up their nourishment, which goes to the produc-
tion of root and leaf growth. The tree, therefore, is barren
of fruit for the summer, its whole growth being required
to recuperate its own vigor. Such trees often bloom freely,
and then cast their blossoms. When this occurs, unin-
formed persons often attribute its barrenness to want of

10*

226 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

fertilization, or suppose that the rain has washed away the
pollen. When an apple-tree ripens its wood early in the
season, and ceases to grow late in autumn, if the soil is fer-
tile, the fault is in the tree ; and the sooner it is removed,
the more satisfactory it will be for the propvietor. Some
trees are naturally poor bearers, or no bearers at all, and
they can never be made to yield a crop of fruit.

FENOUILLET JATTNB.

SyTumyrm.—'DrKp d'Or, Pomme de Charact^re, Embroidered Pippin, and Cloth
of Gold. This beautiful apple is of French origin. The fruit is covered usually
with a yellow gray russety net-work. The stem is beautifully dotted with small
dark specks ; slender, and in some specimens short and stout. The basin is shal-
low; taste, sub-acid, and fine-flavored. Season, early autumn, continuing until
cold weather ; tree, vigorous, regular, and spreading, and a prolific bearer. This
beautiful variety has not as yet been introduced and cultivated except by a small
number of pomological amateurs. We have never seen the fruit in the New York
market. A few nurserymen who cultivate rare varieties, have grafted a few trees
with cions taken from a " Cloth of Gold " tree. By communicating with gentle-
men who cultivate extensive nurseries near New York city, or Kochester, or Chi-
cago, 111., a few cions or young trees may readily be obtained. By means of su-
perior cultivation, the size may be greatly augmented.

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 227

CHAPTER YIII.

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS FROM APPLE-ORCHARDS.

The army-worm, canker-worm, palmer-worm, slugs,

The joint-worm, the drop-worm, the borer, and bugs,

Like rapacious armies, when seizing their prey.

United, spread ruin through branches and spray.— Edwaeds.

The Increase of noxious Insects. — It has been affirmed
by some pomologists and tillers of the soil that in propor-
tion as we increase improved fruits, just in that propor-
tion will fruit-insects, and fruit and fruit-tree diseases in-
crease. A recognition of this fact will each year, as we
multiply orchards, become more and more apparent. Hale's
Early peaches, at first, will be free from rot. Pear-trees
will bQ measurably exempt from pear-tree blight; vines
free from Vine-hoppers, and grapes free from Grape-cod-
lings and rot. From some cause not yet well understood,
all, or nearly all, our young vineyards are, for the first few
years of fruitage, free from rot ; and then ever afterwards
subject to it. The same is true of cherry, peach, and plum
rot. Therefore, to those engaging in pomological pursuits,
a knowledge of the several difficulties likely to be encoun-
tered should be recognized ; and, so far as known, the rem-
edies for each difficulty must be promptly applied. For
many years past, only a small proportion of the people who
attempt to grow fruit have been careful to exterminate one-
fourth part of the noxious worms and insects on their prem-
ises. Hence they have multiplied with surprising rapidity.
Consequently, as orchards and crops of fruit have increased,
and insects have been allowed to flourish unmolested where

228 V THE APPLE CULTURIST.

they found congenial quarters, it has frequently appeared
that the increase has been without a parallel. But noxious
insects are sometimes an incentive to prompt indifferent
pomologists to dispute their right to the growing fruit.
The "American Entomologist" affirms that more than two
dozen species of noxious insects — among which the varie-
ties are unknown, as to numbers — are now met with as
formidable depredators in the apple-orchards of many of
the States. Some subsist upon the root ; some burrow into
the trunk; some infest the bark; some select the opening
buds ; some devour the expanded foliage ; and others, final-
ly, revel upon the fruit. Thus beset by enemies on every
side, it would seem that the good old apple-tree must ere
long succumb, and cease to occupy its place in the family
of plants ; and this would undoubtedly be the case if all
these enemies were permitted to go on unchecked in their
operations. But owing to the incessant antagonism of
parasitic foes, insectivorous birds, and human ingenuity,
the ravages of these insects are kept within bounds, and
the apple-tree still lives. Of these numerous enemies of
the apple-tree, five hold a bad pre-eminence — namely, the
Round-headed Borer {Saperda Mvittata), the Oyster-shell
Bark-louse (Aspidiotus conchifonnis), the Canker-worm
{Anisopteryx vernata), the Tent-caterpillar {Clisiocampa
Americana)^ and the Apple-worm {Garpocapsa pomonella).
Of these the most conspicuous, and in some seasons and lo-
calities the most destructive, is the insect generally known
as the Tent-caterpillar (Fig. 95, p. 253).

The true Way to exterminate Depredators. — We might
swell this volume to hundreds of pages touching the natu-
ral history, habits, and metamorphoses of noxious insects,
worms, and caterpillars, all of which would be interesting
and instructive; but the great practical consideration is,
will such a fund of information render any practical aid in

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 229

saving fruit and fruit-trees from the ravages of such depre-
dators? Well-conduQted experiments have been made so
frequently, to repel insects, worms, and caterpillars, that it
is safe to assume that fruit of nearly every kind must be
saved, while growing, by active vigilance on the part of po-
mologists. New depredators have been visiting our fruit-
trees every season for a number of years past ; and for years
to come others, now unknown, will probably appear. There
may be some remedy discovered to head them off ; but the
most reliable one of all will be to " catch 'em and kill 'em."
It would seem, in many instances, as if the caterpillars, the
Army-worm, the Canker-worm, and numerous other depre-
dators that subsist on the leaves of apple-trees, would cut
off the entire apple-crop, if we do not "catch 'em and kill
'em." The Tent-caterpillar, in many instances, is " doing
his level best" to devour every leaf on apple and cherry
trees. There is no possible way to prevent their ravages,
unless we " catch 'em and kill 'em." Entomologists may pen
interesting paragraphs about the origin, hibernation, met-
amorphoses, and the habits of noxious insects and worms,
and suggest nostrums to repel them and check their rav-
ages ; but, after all that may be said or written, if we save
our trees and fruit, in most instances we must " catch 'em
and kill 'em." Apple-tree Borers, Peach-tree Borers, Cur-
rant Borers, Pear-tree Borers, and borers for almost every
tree and plant that dares to grow, are incessantly working
their gouge-shaped augers night and day. Hence, the only
watch-word should be: "Catch 'em and kill 'em." All
through the growing season, every employe on the prem-
ises should be instructed, wherever he sees a noxious insect
at work, to drop all other employment, and " catch 'em and
kill 'em." We have tried the " shoo-fly " remedy quite too
long, without any satisfactory results. If we fray them
away, they are back to their work of devastation before we

230 THE APPLE CULTURIHT.

can return. If we "catch 'em and kill 'em," they never
have a resurrection.

Near neighbors, when insects or depredators of any kind
are numerous, should all labor in concert to exterminate
noxious invaders. So long as one or two persons, having
orchards, neglect to destroy depredators on their ground,
vigilant pomologists may put forth their efforts in vain to
save their fruit from the ravages of the curculio and cater-
pillars. At Vineland, New Jersey, all the inhabitants of
the town, of 1 2,000 people, where they haVe heretofore pro-
duced the finest fruit in the country, rely on no other rem-
edy than to "catch 'em and kill 'em." We may depend
on the efficacy of hellebore to destroy the Currant-worms ;
but as yet, no reliable means have been found to keep the
hordes of insects from destroying the leaves, the blossoms,
and the fruit of cherry-trees, plum, peach, and apple trees,
except this — "catch 'em and kill 'em." Every pomologist
should instruct those in his employ to keep a watchful eye
for all manner of depredators, and to "catch 'em and kill
'em" as quickly as they would dispatch a rattlesnake. The
price of fruit is unremitting vigilance and war to the knife,
with the knife to the hilt. Numerous other modes have
been strongly recommended, such as covering the trees
with lime-wash or tobacco-water, smoking the trees daily,
placing putrid substances under them, spading-in the rising
curculios, cutting canals under the trees to fill with water,
laying brick pavements, making mortar floors, and other
modes hard to apply, and of little or no efficiency.

Exterminating Moths, Millers, Flies. — A large proportion
of insect enemies originate from millers or flies, many of
which are seen on the wing at evening, or at any time at
night. Most persons understand how common it is for mil-
lers to fly round about a lighted lamp, and frequently dart
directly into the flame. We have often known doves and

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 231

swallows to fly down to our barn-lamp when we have been
about the out-buildings. This fact will often enable po-
mologists to destroy insect enemies by thousands simply
by setting a lighted lamp or candle within a glass jar, or
beneath a bell-glass, so as to attract millers to the light.
But all such glasses must be open both at the bottom and
top, as a short piece of lighted candle let down to the bot-
tom of a tight glass jar will burn only for a few minutes.
The burning wick must be supplied with fresh air. A com-
mon barn-lamp, set in the centre of a large milk-pan con-
taining a quart or more of water, sweetened thoroughly
with cheap molasses, will often constitute a trap that will
attract and decoy into the sweet liquid a large number of
millers, which would scatter an untold number of eggs, ev-
ery one of which would produce a worm or caterpillar that
would destroy more or less fruit. It has been frequently
recommended to kindle small fires in different parts of an
orchard with shavings or straw. In many instances, mil-
lers will fly directly into the burning fire, and be destroyed
at once by the flames. (See page 268.)

Some writers have recommended oil instead of sweetened
water. Others have suggested that the bell-glass or globe
of the burning lamp be smeared with oil or molasses, so
that the nocturnal invaders may stick fast in the glutinous
material when they fly near the light. Downing alludes
to an experiment of the kind in France, during which it
was stated that 30,000,000 millers were destroyed in one
vineyard. As this is a large number, we must make prop-
er allowance for the great distance this story has travelled.
Doubtless, during such a long and perilous journey, as
many as two right-hand ciphers have been accumulated.
Nevertheless, we can recommend this mode of destroying
millers in orchards and vineyards ; and melon-bugs may be
exterminated, not in myriads, as Downing affirms, but in

232 THE APPLE GTJLTUBJHT.

large numbers. When millers fly into our dwelling, and
flutter about the lamp in the evening, by destroying them
a large number of caterpillars or other noxious depredators
may be exterminated.

Bottle-traps for Insects. — One of the most convenient and
eflicient ways to trap many kinds of insects, bugs, beetles,
and millers, is to procure a large number of small bottles,
and fill each about half full of switchel, adding a few spoon-
fuls of cider-vinegar to a quart. Then make little shelves,
and nail them to the side and limbs of the trees, as shown
in Fig. 51, page 117, for receiving the bottles. The insects
will find this aromatic beverage, and will collect in large
numbers within the bottles, so that the contents will have
to be changed sometimes every day. Some writers have
recommended to suspend such bottles by a cord. But it
will be found a much more satisfactory way to place the
bottles on small shelves, as many insects will not climb
down a cord to a swaying bottle. We feel confident that a
person will never suspend his bottles more than once if he
can procure such little shelves as we have recommended.

The Canker-worm {Anisopteryx vernatd). — This pest of
our fruit-orchards is distinguished from most other cater-
pillars that attack the apple, by having but four prolegs at
the end of the body. The normal number of such prolegs
in caterpillars is ten ; and it is the lack of the foremost six
which obliges this insect to span or loop, from which habit
the characteristic name Geometridoe has been given to the
family to which it belongs. The Canker-worm is by no
means confined, in its destructive work, to the apple ; for it
likewise attacks the plum, the cherry, the elm, and a variety
of other trees. The full-grown worms vary greatly in the
depth of shading and in the ground-color — different shades
of ash-gray, green, and yellow, almost always occurring in
different individuals of the same brood. This same varia-

EXTEEMINATINO NOXIOUS INSECTS. 233

tion in color is common to most other span-worms. Pro-
fessor Riley once stated that the word canker-worm has
formed the heading of so many articles in Agricultural and
Horticultural journals, during the last ten or twelve years,
and its natural history has been so fully given in the stand-
ard work of Dr. Harris, that one almost wonders where
there can be a reading farmer who does not know how
properly to fight it. But we must remember that new
generations are ever replacing those which pass away, so
that the same stories will doubtless have to be repeated to
the end of time. Facts in Nature will always bear repeat-
ing. Hence, as it may be laid down as a maxim that no
injurious insect can be successfully combated without a
thorough knowledge of its habits and transformations, we
will first recount those of the Canker-worm, and afterwards
state the proper mode of extermination.

The figures herewith given represent a full-grown Can-
ker-worm, and the same pest in its different stages. The

Pig. 86. Fig. 87. Fig. 88.

Larvae of the Canker- Miller of the Canker- Female moth of the

worm. worm. Canker-worm.

eggs of this insect are very minute, short, and cylindrical,
and are deposited close together in rows, forming batches.
They are glued together by a grayish varnish which the
mother moth secretes, and they are attached to the trunk,
or to some one or other of the twigs of the tree, each batch
consisting of upwards of a hundred eggs. As the leaves
begin to form, these eggs hatch into minute, thread-like
span-worms ; and in from three to four weeks afterwards

234 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

they acquire their full size, when they appear like Fig. 86.
After the Canker-worm has attained its full size, it either
crawls down the tree or lets itself down by means of a silk-
en thread, and burrows in the ground, where, at a depth of
two or three inches, it forms a rude cocoon of particles of
earth intermixed with hair. Within two days after com-
pleting the cocoon, the worm becomes a chrysalis of a light-
brown color. The sexes are now distinguishable, the male
miller, shown at Fig. 87, being slender; while that of the
female is much larger, and destitute of wing-sheaths (Fig.
88). In the New England States, the worms descend into
the ground during the last of June, where most of them
remain till early the following spring, though many of them
change to moths and issue during the mild days of early
winter.

Manner of Extermination. — The sole object of the female
moth of the Canker-worm, after she leaves the earth, seems
to be to provide for the continuance of her kind ; and she
instinctively places the precious burden, which is to give
birth to the young which she herself is destined never to
behold, upon the tree whose leaves are to nourish those
young. All her life-energy is centred in the accomplish-
ment of this one object; and she immediately makes for
the tree upon issuing from the ground. Consequently,
any thing that will prevent her ascending the trunk will, in
a great measure, preserve the tree from the ravages of the
worm. Numerous, indeed, have been the devices to accom-
plish this desired object. Tar, applied to strips of old can-
vas, sheep-skin, or stiff paper ; refuse sorghum-molasses, or
printers' ink, applied in a similar manner ; tin, lead, and rub-
ber troughs to contain oil, tin-plate collars sloping down-
ward, belts of cotton-wool, etc., have all been used with
satisfactory results, in most instances, according as they
have been used intelligently or otherwise. All these ap-

. EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 235

pliances, of whatsoever character, are divisible into two
classes; first, those which prevent the ascension of the
moth by entangling her feet and trapping her fast, or by-
drowning her ; and, second, those which accomplish the
same end by preventing her getting a foothold, and thus
causing her repeatedly to fall to the ground, until she be-
comes exhausted and dies. The most economical, efficient,
and least troublesome manner of exterminating this pest is
to provide numerous bottles of sweetened water, as repre-
sented by Fig. 51, p. 11 Y. If two or three such bottles be
placed near the foot of each tree, almost every miller will
be trapped. The orchardist must know that many of the
moths issue in the fall of the year, and that the applica-
tions must be made at least as early as the former part of
October ; and that the tarred bandages must be kept sticky,
through all mild weather, till the leaves have appeared in
the following spring. Furthermore, he must know that
many of the moths — ^frustrated in their efforts to climb the
tree — will deposit their eggs near the ground, or anywhere
below the tar ; and that the young worms hatching from
them are able to pass through a small crevice, or over a
fine straw. Thus, if troughs are used, they must be fitted
over a bandage of cotton-wool, so that when the trough is
drawn tightly around the tree it will do no injury, and
will, at the same time, cause the cotton to fill up all inequal-
ities of the bark. The joint must likewise be kept smeared
either with tar or molasses, and then the worms will not be
able to pass. In the neglect to thus fasten them lies the
secret of failure which many report who use such troughs.
Young worms can march over the smoothest glass by the
aid of the glutinous silken thread which they are able to
spin from the very moment they are born.

It will require much persevering effort, time, labor, and
expense to continually renew the applications of tar on ev-

236 THE APPLE GULTVRIST.

ery tree in a large orchard during so many months of the
year. But bottles of sweetened water may be quickly re-
newed after the contents have been cast out. The old
adage, " What is worth doing at all, is worth doing well,"
was never truer than in fighting this insect. Apply the
remedy thoroughly during two successive years, and you
will have utterly routed the enemy ; and this is more espe-
cially the case where an orchard is not in too close proxim-
ity to a forest or to slovenly neighbors. Fail to apply the
remedy, and the enemy will, in all probability, rout you.
The reason is simple. The female being wingless, the insect
is very local in its attacks, sometimes swarming in one or-
chard, and being unknown in another which is but a mile
away. Thus, after it is once exterminated, a sudden inva-
sion is not to be expected, as in the case of the Tent-cater-
pillar, and of many other orchard pests ; but when the Can-
ker-worrd has once obtained a footing in an orchard, it mul-
tiplies the more rapidly, for the very reason that it does not
spread fast. As it is always easier to prevent than to cure,
it were well for the owners of young orchards, in neighbor-
hoods where the Canker-worm is known to exist, to keep a
sharp look-out for it, so that upon its first appearance the
evil may be nipped in the bud. In the same manner that it
is exterminated in the individual orchard, it may, by concert
of action, be exterminated from any given locality. When
once the worms are on a tree, a good jarring will suspend
them all in mid-air, when the best way to kill them is by
swinging a stick above them, which breaks the web, and
causes them to fall to the ground, when they may be pre
vented from ascending the tree by the tin flange around the
tree (Fig. 51, p. IIV). Birds will destroy a large number of
these pests, when they are young and tender, in the larva
state. There will be no difficulty in exterminating the Can-
ker-worm from every orchard, if proper efforts are employ-

EXTEMMINATINO NOXIOUS INSECTS.

231

ed at the right season of the
year. The full-grown larvae
must be crushed by hand or
with the insect-crushers (Fig.
89), which may be made of
wood, or be purchased at hard-
ware stores.

.The Curculio {Bhynchmnus
nenuphar), " Little Turk." —
The great mass of mankind are
comparatively ignorant with re-
gard to the real character and
habits of this depredator. We
pretend to know but little about
it. And yet many who assume

to be familiar with what is called insect-crushers, or pmcers.

the " CurcuHo," do not know any more about it than the
writer. We have the Apple Curculio and the Plum Curcu-
lio, and several other kinds of beetles called " the Curculio."
But we have searched in vain through all our horticultural
and pomological journals to find a description or an allu-
sion to the curculio, in which the difference between the
two is pointed out. So much has been written ''on the
habits of this one little insect, and on the best means of
protecting our fruits from its injurious work, that one al-
most tires of repeating those established facts in its history
which all who are interested should know. There are yet
some mooted points to be settled in the natural history of
our curculio. There are actually many fruit-growers who
do not know a curculio when they see one. The curculio
is such a formidable enemy to our choice fruit, that every
country boy ought to be taught to understand the char-
acter of this depredator, so that he may not be in doubt
when he meets with one, any more than when he sees a

238

THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

Fig. 90.

The Plum Curculio.

tent-caterpillar, as to the name by which the foe may be
called.

"We herewith give life-like illustrations, from the " Amer-
ican Entomologist," of both the Plum Curculio and the
Apple Curculio. Figure 90 is a magnified representation

of the Plum Curculio in its
various stages. The mag-
nified grub at a represents
the curculio in the larva
state. The horizontal line
beneath it represents the
natural length when it is
found in the fruit. At h
the insect is represented in
the pupa state. The ver-
tical line on the left side of
it shows the natural length.

a, magnified larvae ; 6, the chrysalis ; c, a —,, . , 7 . .

magnified beetle ;d, a fall-sized insect on IniS pupa, OV ChrysallS, IB

greatly magnified. Its col-
or is that of a whitish grub. At c the perfect insect
is represented as magnified several times. The mark be-
neath the illustration represents the usual length of a full-
grown 'insect. The color of this " little Turk " is some-
times brown, black, or of a clay-yellow. At 6? a curculio of
full size is shown on the surface of a small plum, in one side
of which the crescent mark of the curculio's proboscis ap-
pears, such as is made on the young fruit when an egg is
deposited beneath the skin. Fig. 91, On the opposite page,
represents the Apple Curculio, which, to appearance, is a
very different insect from the Plum Curculio. At a is a
diagram of the depredator of natural size. At ^ is a mag-
nified side-view. At c we have a back view of the same
insect. The usual color of this insect is a dingy gray, in-
clining to red rust behind. The Apple Curculio spreads

EXTEBMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS.

239

7 o

The Apple Curculio.

with extraordinary rapidi- Fig. 9i.

ty, and destroys the great-
er part of the apple crop in
many localities. The Ap-
ple Curculio makes a round
cut difficult to see with the
eye. The worm remains
where the egg was laid
until it matures, when it
comes out and goes into the
ground. The curculio can
not fly under a temperature of Vt) degrees. They fly against
the wind ; but as yet no one has been able to determine the
extent to which they migrate. The Apple or Four-humped
Curculio {Anthonomus quadrigihbus) is a much smaller in-
sect, with a snout which sticks out more or less horizontal-
ly and can not be folded under, and which is as long as the
whole body. This insect has narrow shoulders and is broad-
er behind, where it is furnished with four very conspicuous
humps, from which it takes its name. It has neither the
polished black elevations nor the pale band of the Plum
Curculio. In short, it differs generically, and does not at-
tack the peach. What we have to record in this connec-
tion respecting the curculio will be chiefly of a practical
character.

The Plum Curculio, commonly known all over the coun-
try as "the curculio," is a small, roughened, warty, brown-
ish beetle, belonging to a very extensive family known as
Snout-beetles (Ourculionidce). It measures about one-fifth
of an inch in length, exclusive of the snout, and may be
distinguished from all other North American Snout -bee-
tles by having an elongate, knife-edged hump, resembling
a piece of black sealing-wax, on the middle of each wing-
case, behind which humps there is a broad clay -yellow^

240 THE APPLE GULTURIST.

band, with more or less white in its middle. The snout
of the Plum Curculio is scarcely as long as the head and
thorax together, and can be folded back between the legs,
where there is a groove to receive it. The Plum Curculio
is broadest across the shoulders and narrows behind ; and,
moreover, the black sealing-wax-like, knife-edged elevations
on the back, with the pale band behind them, characterize
it at once from all our other fruit-boring snout-beetles. It
is in this hard, shelly, beetle state, that the female passes
the winter, sheltering under the shingles of houses, under
the old bark of both forest and fruit trees, under logs, and
in rubbish of all kinds. As spring approaches, the insect
awakens from its lethargy ; and, if it has slept in the forest,
it instinctively searches for the nearest orchard. In Cen-
tral Illinois and in Central Missouri the beetles may be
found in the trees during the last half of April ; but in the
extreme southern part of Illinois they appear about two
weeks, earlier; while in the extreme northern part of the
same State they are fully two weeks later. Thus, in the
single State of Illinois, there is a difference of about one
month in the time of the curculio's first appearance on
fruit-trees ; and the time will vary with the forwardness or
lateness of the season.

How they Oviposit. — The curculio first commences to
puncture fruit when the specimens are of the size of small
marbles, or of hazel-nuts, though she may be found on your
trees as soon as they are in blossom. Alighting on a small
peach, she takes a strong hold of it, and with the minute
jaws at the end of her snout makes a small cut just
through the skin of the fruit. She then runs the snout
slantingly under the skin, to the depth of one-sixteenth of
an inch, and moves it back and forth until the cavity is
large enough to receive the egg it is to retain. Then she
turns around and drops an Qgg into the mouth of the cavi-

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 241

ty. After this is accomplished, she resumes her first posi
tion, and by means of her snout pushes the egg to the end
of the passage ; and afterwards deliberately cuts the cres-
cent in front of the hole, so as to undermine the egg and
leave it in a sort of flap. The whole operation requires
about five minutes; and her object in cutting the crescent
is evidently to deaden the flap, so as to prevent the grow-
ing fruit from crushing the egg. Now that she has com-
pleted this task, and has gone off to perform a similar op-
eration on some other fruit, let us from day to day watch
the egg which we have just seen deposited, and learn in
what manner it develops into a curculio like the parent
which produced it, remembering that the life and habits of
this one individual are illustrative of those of every Plum
Curculio that ever had, or that ever will have, an existence.
We shall find that the egg is oval and of a pearly-white
color. Should the weather be warm and genial, this egg
will hatch in from four to five days ; but, if cold and un-
pleasant, the hatching will not take place for a week, or
even longer. Eventually, however, there hatches from the
egg a soft, tiny, footless grub, with a horny head ; and this
grub immediately commences to feed upon the green flesh
of the fruit, boring a tortuous path as it proceeds. It riots
in the fruit, working by preference around the stone, for
from three to five weeks, the period varying according to
various controlling influences. The fruit containing this
grub does not, in the majority of instances, mature, but
falls prematurely to the ground, generally, before the grub
is quite full-grown. We have known fruit to lie on the
ground for upward of two weeks before the grub left,
and have found as many as five grubs in a single peach
which had been on the ground for several days. And
yet it is an unusual occurrence to find more than one or
two grubs in a plum. Some entomologists have stated

11

242 THE APPLE CULTUEIST.

that curculios rarely deposit more than one egg in a plum
or apple.

"When the grub has become full-grown, however, it for-
sakes the fruit which it has ruined, and burrows from four
to six inches in the ground. At this time it is of a glassy,
yellowish-white color, though it usually partakes of the col-
or of the fruit-flesh on which it was feeding. It is about
two-fifths of an inch long, with the head light-brown. In
the ground, by turning round and round, it compresses the
earth on all sides until it has formed a smooth and oval
cavity. Within this cavity, in the course of a few days, it
assumes the pupa form, as represented at &, Fig. 90, p. 238.
After remaining in the ground in this state for about three
weeks, it becomes a beetle, which, though soft and uniform-
ly reddish at first, soon assumes its natural colors ; and,
when its several parts are sufiiciently hardened, works
through the soil to the light of day.

"Playing Possum." — The curculio, when alarmed, like
many other insects, and especially such as belong to the
same great order of beetles {Coleoptera), folds up its legs
close to the body,, turns its snout under into a groove which
receives it, and drops to the ground. In doing this, it
feigns death, so as to escape from threatened danger, and
does in reality greatly resemble a dried fruit-bud. It at-
tacks, either for purposes of propagation or for food, the
nectarine, plum, apricot, peach, cherry, apple, pear, and
quince, preferring them in the order of their naming. It is
always most numerous, in the early part of the season, on
the outside of those orchards that are surrounded with tim-
ber. It is also more numerous in timbered regions than
on the prairie. We believe all entomologists agree, touch-
ing the foregoing habits and natural history of both the
Plum Curculio and the Apple Curculio. As already stated,
when this insect is alarmed, it gathers up its legs, drops

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 243

to the ground, and feigns death. This peculiarity gives us
the only effectual method of destroying it, which is to jar
the trees every morning, and catch the insects upon a sheet
and destroy them. All fallen fruit must be gathered and
destroyed ; or hogs should be turned into the orchard and
allowed to consume every fallen apple or other fruit, while
the larvae are still in the fruit. The warmth that brings
out blossoms brings the curculios to their natural food and
breeding-places. They hide anywhere in the orchard where
there is a cover. During the warm days and nights of
April and May they go up the tree — mostly crawling, it is
presumed — to feed and to pair.

How to Trap the Curculio. — Ko possible way has as yet
been discovered to prevent the ravages of the curculio, ex-
cept the summary way of dealing with most other insects,
worms, and caterpillars — " to catch 'em and kill 'em." Some
pomologists have reported excellent success in their efforts
to trap the Little Turk in the following manner. On the
contrary, others have attempted the same thing, and re-
ported no satisfactory results. Early in the spring, let the
surface of the ground round about every tree be rendered
as smooth as practicable by removing every sod and stone,
and crushing every clod. Make the ground very smooth
around the base of the tree. Do not leave a single hole
next the tree. Leave no place where the curculio can hide,
except under the shelter you provide. Now lay near to the
tree, and close to the ground, about four pieces to a tree,
either chip, or bark, board, lath, rag, corn-cob, old leather,
or any thing for a covert. The curculio will conceal itself
under this shelter, and may be destroyed by the thousand.
Go around every day and turn over each chip, killing every
curculio. They will generally adhere to the chip, but may
often be found on the ground under the chip. The first
warm day in spring that starts vegetable life calls the cur-

244 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

culio forth, when it proceeds to its feeding and breeding
ground. They walk fast, and they fly and feed generally at
night, eating the young and tender leaves. Except in cold
and stormy nights, the curculio, in most instances, remains
on the trees to feed, and some pomologists will insist that
they usually come down towards morning to hide. They
crawl, on cold days and nights, and hide under the shelter
of the trunk of the tree, waiting to feed when the nights
become sufficiently warm. The curculio uses the green
fruit only to hold its egg and young. When the weather
is warm and pleasant, almost every insect remains in 'the
tree-top. We have seen reports in which the writers stated
that they had trapped thousands of them every day beneath
their peach-trees, plum-trees, and other fruit-trees. The
curculio may often be found on the under side of the most
lateral branches, where there is knot, black moss, bud, twig,
rough bark, or any thing that will give a partial hiding-
place. It is important to be ready for them when they first
appear out of the ground in the spring, as they take refuge
under old matted leaves, sod, lumps of dirt, sticks, any thing
on and around the trees, especially old rough bark, wher-
ever there is a sufficient covert. They move but little at
first, unless it is warm. A Western pomologist, W. B. Ran-
som, wrote that he killed nearly eighteen thousand in a few
days ; and a neighbor destroyed twenty thousand in his or-
chards by simply smoothing the surface of the ground, and
placing a few chips on the ground near the bodies of the
trees. Old pieces of woollen cloth laid in the fork of the
limbs will furnish an excellent refuge for them during cold
and windy days and nights.

Jarring the Trees to catch the Curculio. — ^Up to this time
of writing, it is generally admitted that there is no mode
of destroying the Little Turk that can be relied on as thor-
oughly efficient, except the practice of jarring the trees

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 245

and catching the curculios as they fall on sheets spread be-
neath the trees. The trees are jarred by means of a sharp
blow or two in quick succession, which induces every in-
sect to relinquish his hold on the fruit or branch, when they
all fall to the ground. Shaking a tree has very little effica-
cy to make them quit their hold.

The most convenient apparatus, in the line of sheets, con-
sists of two pieces of strong factory, about seven feet wide
by fourteen feet long, each one having a half-circle cut out
of one side near the middle, to fit around the body of the
tree. The sheets may be made of good bed-ticking or of
old sail-cloth. As they are spread out beneath a tree, the
operator steps on the sheets close to the tree, and with a
hammer applies one or two sharp blows against a spike or
large nail driven into the body of the tree, up from the
ground as high as a man's head. Some have recommended
to saw off a limb and strike against the end of the stub ;
but a spur of iron is preferable. Bore a half-inch hole one
and a half inches into the side of the tree, and drive in an
iron pin, say three or four inches long. The iron will not
injure the tree, and the pin will last for many years — ^imtil
the projecting part is grown over. If the body of the tree
is struck with a beetle, axe-head, or a battering-ram, a seri-
ous bruise will be made ; and more than this, a dull blow
from a muffled mallet will not jar a tree sufficiently to
make the curculios relinquish their hold. A sharp, jarring
blow is essential. A blow or two with a hammer or an axe-
head on an iron pin will bring down every curculio that
may be on the tree, without injury to the bark of the tree.
If trees are only five or six years old, a large nail, driven
half way in, will subserve an excellent purpose. When two
blows are given, they should follow each other in quick suc-
cession, as one blow may not always induce every curculio
to quit his hold. But another blow, given as quickly as a

246 THE APPLE CVLTURIST.

person can strike with a hammer, would have the effect to
bring down many more insects than a single blow. When
fruit-trees are of numerous sizes — some small and others
large — much judgment must be exercised in gauging the
force of the blows. A light blow with a nail-hammer of
ordinary size will be sufficient for many trees six to eight
years old. A person of acute perception will soon be able
to learn whether the blows given are too heavy or too light.
In some instances, where trees are larger, it will be advisa-
ble to insert an iron pin, say three-fourths of an inch in di-
ameter, into each large limb. The end of all such iron pins
that enters the wood should be square, so that oft-repeated
blows may not drive them deeper.

When sheets are spread on the smooth ground, every
insect that drops can be seen readily; and if the number
were large, the ends of the sheets can be gathered up quick-
ly, and all the " Turks " be crushed in a moment. One per-
son can manage such an apparatus as this with facility;
and it will be found much more convenient, all things con-
sidered, than if the sheets were stretched across frames.

Catcher on Wheels. — Several Western pomologists have
recommended the use of a large umbrella-like sheet, sup-
ported by a frame-work similar to the frame of a parasol,
all of which is to be mounted on a kind of wheelbarrow
(Fig. 92, on the opposite page), with a battering-beam in
front. The vehicle is then run forcibly against the body
of a tree, while the sheet is extended to catch the depreda-
tors as they fall.

The objections to such an apparatus are its cost, incon-
venience in handling, and its inefficiency for giving a sharp,
jarring blow to the tree. Besides this, when the sheet is
spread, if supported two feet or more above the ground,
a person can not approach the tree to jar it with a ham-
mer. Every person will find that it will be most conven-

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 247

Fig. 92.

Curculio-catcher.

lent and economical, in every respect, to lay the sheets on
the smooth gro'und. There will be many places where the
spread wheelbarrow-curculio-catcher can not be used with-
out great inconvenience. More than this, bunting the bod-

248 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

ies of trees, even with a cushioned mallet, or rammer, will
injure the bark, unless the cushion is very thick, in which
case the jar will not be sufficient to bring down the insects.

When to catch Curculios. — These depredators are found
on fruit-trees all through the growing season. They seem
to be illustrious philosophers. They will seldom deposit an
Qgg in a cherry, plum, apple, or any other fruit, after the
specimens have grown to a certain size, or have attained a
certain age. If the q^^ is not deposited within a certain
period after the blossom has fallen, or after the young fruit
has formed, the growth will maintain the ascendency over
the slow progress of the little larva in the fruit. In other
words, the fruit will grow faster than the larva can eat.
Hence the curculio will seldom deposit its eggs in fruit that
is larger than the eggs of a quail. The young depredators
lay their course always directly for the delicate central or-
gans that run through the core of the apple or pear. Hence,
if the putamen or stone of the plum, cherry, or peach, has
begun to harden, the curculio seems to know it, and will
not deposit eggs in such fruit. The eggs must be depos-
ited before the putamen or shell of the pit has begun to
harden. These suggestions warrant the direction to jar the
trees daily for curculios before the young fruit is as large as
peas of good size, until the last depredator has been cap-
tured, or until the putamen of the grooving fruit is so hard
that the young larva will not attempt to eat his way to the
centre of the fruit. Let the spikes or stubs be inserted in the
trees during the winter, when other duties are not urgent,
and let the sheets be prepared long before they will be want-
ed. Then, by appropriating a little time daily to the work
of extermination, the fruit can be saved at a small expense.

United Efforts for Extermination. — As the curculio has
wings and can fly — no one knows how far or not how far —
near neighbors should make a united effort to capture every

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 249

invader, and to let not even one larva escape. In some sec-
tions of country this has been done, and the result has been
excellent crops of fine fruit. When sheep and swine are
not permitted to devour all the premature specimens that
fall from the trees, such fruit should be picked up every-
day and destroyed, so as to prevent the increase of the cur-
culio. By united efforts, this invader could be effectually
exterminated from the country in a few years. They who
would succeed in this work of extermination, must perse-
vere long, as new crops of the insects often continue to
come after the earlier ones are all destroyed. The best time
is early in the morning, when these insects are more torpid
than at midday. Once a day will commonly answer, except
in seasons of extraordinary abundance, when a second ex-
amination should be made at sundown. The work should
not be intermitted a single day. It is such intermissions
that often cause failure. Many have failed also by trying
to shake the pest off the trees. Nothing but a sharp jar
will bring them down.

The Tent-qaterpillar. — This pest of the apple-orchard is
often alluded to as the most formidable enemy that po-
mologists have to encounter. But this caterpillar may be
exterminated with less trouble and labor than almost any
other insect of the orchard. The only remedy is to " catch
'em and kill 'em." Unlike some other depredators, this one
can be combated by destroying the moths, the eggs, or the
larvae, or full-grown worms. When numerous, it has been
known to strip whole orchards of their leaves, thus destroy-
ing the fruit-crop for the season, and sometimes proving
fatal to the trees. In many sections of the country where
these caterpillars are not molested, we have often seen large
orchards in the summer which looked as if a fire had been
sweeping through the tree-tops.

The Tent-caterpillar is hatched from eggs deposited by a
11*

250

THE APPLE CULTUEIST.

Fig. 93. large miller, called the Amer-

ican Lackey-moth, of a yel-
lowish brown color, represent-
ed by Fig. 93, which is often
seen flying about among fruit-
trees during the latter part of
summer or in September, in
our latitude. The American
Lackey-moth, when fully de-
veloped, measures about one

Moth of the American Tent-caterpillar inch and a half from tip tO
—male and female. ^

tip of the expanded wings.
It is usually of a pale brick color; but individuals are oc-
casionally seen much darker, or of an ashy-brown color.
Across the fore wings are two straight, oblique whitish
lines. The antennaB are moderately pectinate, or feather-
like, in the male, and very slightly so in the female. The
hollow tongue, or sucker, through which insects of this or-
der imbibe their nutriment, is wholly wanting in this spe-
cies, as, indeed, it is generally in the particular group to
which it belongs. Their short lives have but one object —
the pairing of the sexes and the deposition of the eggs by
the female for a future generation. The following exper-
iment illustrates some of their habits : Three female moths
were inclosed in a glass vessel. They were quiet during
the day, but became very restless as night approached,
showing that, like the moths in general, they are nocturnal
in their habits. On the third day, a twig of an apple-tree
was introduced into the vessel. The moths immediately
ran up upon it, and put themselves in position for laying
their eggs. This was accomplished in the following man-
ner : Placing herself transversely upon the side of the twig,
she curved her abdomen under the twig, and extended it
up the opposite side as far as she could reach, and com-

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 251

menced depositing her eggs, one after another, gradually
withdrawing the abdomen till she had laid a row of eggs
across the under side of the twig. She then, in the same
manner, deposited another row, parallel to and in contact
with the first. Owing to their unnatural situation, or the
absence of the opposite sex, or to some unknown cause,
these moths in confinement succeeded in laying but two or
three rows of eggs ; while in a. state of nature they lay from
fifteen to twenty rows, containing in all an average of about
two hundred and fifty eggs. They subsequently cover the
eggs with a coating of brown varnish, which effectually pro-
tects them from the vicissitudes of the weather. Let every
one be caught and killed, and thus destroy a large number
of caterpillars. Let several bottles of sweetened water be
placed near every tree, as directed (Fig. 51, p. 11 7). By
this means a large number of caterpillars may be wiped out
before they have had an existence.

This yellowish-brown miller, as already stated, deposits
her eggs around small twigs, as shown at c. Fig. 95, p. 253,
or by Fig. 94, herewith giv- Pig. 94.

en, all placed on end, and cov-
ered over with a varnish, to
shield them from rain and
snow. Each bunch can read-
ily be seen ; and when taken
off and burned, a whole nest
will be destroyed at once,
without resorting to soap- Eggs of the Lackey-moth wo^Z^pirally

suds, coal-oil, or any other around a twig.

application. This can be done at any time during winter
or spring, before the tree leaves out. Should any be over-
looked, they are easily destroyed about the time the buds
commence to put forth, as the young caterpillars hatch
out the first warm spell in the spring, and can always be

252 THE APPLE CULTUEIST.

found at the first crotch, or fork, below the eggs. In no
case, however warm or protracted the autumn may be, do
these eggs ever hatch till the following spring; so that
the Tent-caterpillar, unlike many of our noxious insects,
never has more than one brood in the season. At this stage
of their existence they are confined to a very small com-
pass, and can easily be destroyed. The best time to do
this is early in the morniug, or towards evening, as at
these times they are all collected together, and quick
work can be made with them. When out of reach, some
use a pole, rough at the end. With this one can wind a
whole web, worms and all, and thus exterminate the cater-
pillar.

We have frequently placed a knot of such eggs in a warm
room during cold weather, where every egg has produced a
minute caterpillar not one-eighth of an inch long. As soon as
they are hatched, they begin to feed upon the tender leaves
of the apple and some other trees, and increase in size and
capacity for destruction with the growth of the foliage, de-
stroying it as fast as it grows. In the early morning, while
the dew is on the foliage, sprinkle fine air-slaked lime freely
over the tree. The caterpillar will drop almost as soon as
touched by the subtile dust, or perish while holding to the
leaf, provided each one gets thoroughly dusted with the
strong lime. But it is better to examine the outer twigs
of trees several times for the nests. Then, it is better still
to destroy the millers. In the spring, keep an eye on the
trees for these depredators; and as soon as a nest is dis-
covered, climb up and crush every one. Do not attempt
to burn these pests, or to blow the nests to fragments with
powder. Put on a leather mitten, and crush them long be
fore they are large enough to injure the leaves. Do not
permit a nest to be built in the orchard. Retire one hour
earlier than usual, so as to be able to rise with the lark, and

EXTEBMINATINQ NOXIOUS INSECTS.

253

spend an hour crushing caterpillars before the sleepers have
opened their eyes. This is the only remedy — " catch 'em and
kill 'em." Large caterpillars will often crawl half a mile on
a fence. Let such itinerant interlopers be crushed, as each
one will change to a brown miller, like Fig. 93, p. 250, which
will lay an untold number of eggs.

Most of our rural readers will recognize at a glance the
perfect representation, given in the accompanying diagram,
of a small nest of Fig. 95.

these • depredators
of the apple - or-
chard, two of which
are full-grown, as
shown at a and b.
The nest is built by
spinning numerous
webs at the fork of
two branches, from
one to the other,
leaving a hole for
the entrance of the
caterpillars on one
side, as represented
by the dark spot on
the nest, between
the caterpillars a
and h. Many nests,
when the. depreda-
tors are not molest-
ed, contain two to ^ a nest of Tent-caterpillars.
four quarts of these repulsive invaders of the apple-orchard.
If any of the larvae — a and h — escape being crushed or de-
stroyed in some manner, let them be bunted in the pupa
state — as at d — or let their eggs, c, be destroyed. It

254 THE APPLE CULTUEIST.

is a singular fact that, before these eggs will hatch, there
must have already been sufficient warm weather to expand
the buds and develop small leaves. The young caterpillars
are usually ready to devour the tender leaves as soon as the
latter are of sufficient size for the depredators to get a bite.
These larvae grow rapidly when they can reach a liberal
supply of young leaves. As soon as they fill themselves
they return to the nest, and rest until their food is digested
and a quantity of webbing material has been concocted^
when they spin and weave up all their warp and woof, and
then hasten away to feed again on the leaves. During cold
nights and stormy days they collect in the nest, or where
the nest is being built, and resist the storm as well as they
can. They should never be permitted to build such a nest
as is here represented, as their ravages are exceedingly in-
jurious to the growing tree, especially to its fruitfulness.
If unmolested, these caterpillars will soon become large and
fat, and most of them will leave the nest and enter the pupa
state, d, and some will crawl on fences a long distance.

As soon as their career in the larva state is run, each one
spins a covering around its body, in some secluded place
where storms can not beat upon it, as shown at d, which is
a cocoon containing the chrysalis, or parent insect, in the
pupa state. During the months of July and August, these
cocoons may be seen beneath pieces of bark, on fences, at-
tached to gate-posts or out-buildings. If all such cocoons
be destroyed, no larvae (caterpillars and moths) would be
seen the next season. If the cocoons — d, in the illustra-
tion— are not disturbed, the parent insect, in the form of a
large miller, as already stated, will soon emerge, and com-
mence the task of its little life — laying the eggs, c.

In some sections of country, during the middle and lat-
ter part of summer, some orchards and vineyards seem to
be alive with moths and millers of the kind alluded to, a

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 255

large proportion of which may be exterminated with little
effort and expense, by trapping the depredators in small
bottles partly filled with very sweet water, to which a little
vinegar has been added.

When the Tent -caterpillars leave their nests for the pur
pose of going to feed on the leaves, they travel upon the
upper side of the branches ; and each one leaves a thread of
silk behind it, which probably serves as a clue to direct it
back to the nest. The silken trails thus formed are at first
scarcely noticeable ; but they become very obvious after a
branch has been travelled upon for a considerable time.
Thus the caterpillar not only lives in a silken house, but
covers its roads with a silken carpet. Like other larvae,
they shed their skins four times before arriving at maturi-
ty. When fully grown, they are about two inches in length,
and frequently two inches and a half long, fat and round.
The "American Entomologist," for which Fig. 95, p. 253,
was originally engraved, states that the eyes of this cater-
pillar have the appearance of very minute black points,
being ten in number, five on each side of the head. Their
position is best seen by holding the cast-off skin of a cater-
pillar towards the light and examining it through a magni-
fying-glass. Without claiming mathematical exactness, it
may be stated that four of them are situated in a curved
line, forming half a circle, of which circle the fifth occupies
the centre. Owing to the extreme minuteness of the eyes
of caterpillars in general, they were formerly overlooked,
and these insects were supposed to be blind. That they
possess the sense of seeing, however, and -that, too, at a con-
siderable distance, seems to be proved by the following ex-
periments. If a nest of these caterpillars be taken from a
tree and placed upon the ground several feet from it, they
will return to the tree in a direct line. In another experi-
ment a handful of caterpillars was placed in some tall grass

256 THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

between two trees, but nearer to one than the other. They
first crept up the stems of the grass, as if for the purpose
of taking an observation, and then took up their march for
the nearest tree.

The leaves of the apple-tree constitute the food of by far
the greater number of this kind of caterpillar. Nests are,
however, occasionally seen on the other common fruit-trees
— the peach, pear, plum, and cherry, particularly the wild
cherry. When deprived of other food, they will also eat
the leaves of the rose-bush.

The active period of this caterpillar, that is, the time
from their hatching to their changing into chrysalids, is
from five to six weeks; and when we consider their vora
cious appetites, and that there are about two hundred and
fifty individuals in each nest, we can easily form an idea of
the extent of their ravages. Where there happen to be
several nests on one tree, or where the tree itself is small,
they often strip it of every vestige of foliage ; and in neg-
lected localities whole orchards are sometimes seen as bare
of foliage on the first of June as in mid-winter. When
about to construct its cocoon, the insect attaches itself
by its hindmost feet, so as to leave the anterior part of its
body free for motion ; then extending its body, it draws
some disconnected lines across from one side of the angle
to the other, to serve as outlines or stays. Then, working
down nearer home, it draws its lines more densely, so that
near its body they constitute a pretty close texture, like a
piece of loosely-woven cloth, through which, however, the
insect can be seen. When the web is finished, the insect
emits a yellow fluid, with which it besmears the inside of
the cocoon, and thus effectually conceals itself from view.

The Apple-tree Borer. — An untold number of choice ap-
ple-trees have been destroyed every year by Apple-tree
Borers, when the proprietors have wondered what could

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 257

have killed their trees? And hundreds of young apple-
trees all over the country may be found, at the present
day, that have been infested with borers for one or more
years, which have injured the growing trees so seriously
that they will never recover. In our visits through the
country, we frequently see orchards that are half ruined by
borers ; and the proprietors had not even thought that there
was a borer to be found. We have frequently been asked
if we could not suggest some good reason for the singular
appearance of certain trees; whereupon, to give ocular
demonstration that borers were at w^ork, we have applied the
point of a jack-knife, dislodging, in some instances, eight
or nine borers from one tree. Any intelligent observer
may, by close attention, soon learn how to discover, almost
at first glance, the place where a newly-hatched borer lies
concealed. Usually, the Apple-tree Borer is found at the
collar of the tree, close to the ground ; and they are some-
times detected on the body and large branches of a tree.
A small drop of brown fluid, resembling tobacco- juice in
color, usually reveals its presence ; for at that early stage
of its development the well-known sawdust -like excre-
tions characteristic of the full grown larv98 must not be
looked for.

The Apple-tree Borer is the larva or grub of a beautiful
bug or beetle, which deposits its eggs at or near the sur-
face of the ground, on the trunk of the tree, during the
months of May and June; and sometimes, entomologists
assure us, the eggs are oviposited in July and August by
the parent bugs (Fig. 100, p. 261), and in a week or two
little plump borers are hatched, which immediately begin
to bore through the tender bark.

The next spring, as soon as hard freezing is over, he goes
to work vigorously, still feeding on the liber, or inner bark.
By fall he will have attained a length of one-half to three-

258 THE APPLE CULTUMIIST.

fourths of an inch. Some entomologists have stated that
the borer does not emerge from the tree until the third
summer. But Professor Fitch, entomologist of the State
of New York, says that

*' The beetle comes abroad in June, and drops its eggs under the loose scales of
the bark, low down near the surface of the earth. The worm which hatches there-
from eats inward through the bark, till it comes to the wood. It there remains,
feeding upon the soft outer layers of the wood, and thus excavates a shallow
round cavity under the bark, the size of a half-dollar ; though where two, three,
or more worms are lodged in the same tree, as they always preserve a narrow
partition between their cells, one never gnawing into that of another, these cells,
by crowding upon one another, become of an irregular form, and almost girdle
the tree. The cell is always filled with worm-dust, crowded and compacted to-
gether, some of which becomes crowded out through a crack in the bark, or a
hole made by the worm. And it is by seeing this sawdust-like powder protrud-
ing out of the bark that we detect the presence of these borers in the tree. The
worm continues to feed and enlarge its cell under the bark for about twelve
mouths, until it has become half-grown, and is from a half to three-fourths of an
inch in length. Its jaws have now acquired sufllcient strength for it to attack the
solid heart-wood of the tree, and it accordingly bores a cylindrical hole from the
upper part of its cell, upward in the solid wood, to a length of three or four inches
or more, this hole inclining inward towards the centre of the tree, and then curv-
ing outward till its upper end comes again to the bark. It then stuffs the upper
end of this passage with fine chips or worm-dust, and its lower end with short
fibres of wood, arranged like curled locks of hair, thus forming an elastic bed on
which to repose during its pupa state. These operations being completed, it
throws off its larva skin and becomes a pupa, usually at the close of the second
summer, or about fifteen months after it is hatched from the egg. In this state it
lies through the winter, and changes to its perfect form in the following spring ;
but often continues to lie dormant several weeks after its final change, until the
season becomes sufliciently warm for it to come abroad. Awaking then into life
and activity, it crawls upward, loosening and pulling down the chips and dust
that close the upper end of its burrow, till it reaches the bark. Through this it
cuts with its jaws a remarkably smooth, round hole, of the exact size requisite to
enable it to crawl out of the tree. The sexes then pair, and the female deposits
another crop of eggs."

Operations of the Apple-tree Borer illustrated. — Fig. 96,
on the opposite page, represents a section of a young ap-
ple-tree which has been bored by several of these depre-
dators. The dark spots represent the holes which his sharp
teeth have gouged out in the solid wood. These little puny
worms destroy whole orchards. After Apple^ree Borers
once get beyond the reach of the knife, it is exceedingly
difficult to dislodge the depredators and save the trees.

Efficacious Remedies. — " Catch 'em and kill 'em " is the
only remedy that we have ever known to be really efficient.

EXTEEMINATINO NOXIOUS INSECTS.

259

A transverse section of the stem of an apple-tree
badly bored by the Apple-tree Borer.

The beetle that de- Fig. 96.

posits the eggs is a
wise philosopher, as
to selecting a con-
genial place for ovi-
positing the eggs
for the grubs. The
bark of a young ap-
ple-tree close to the
ground is exceed ■
ingly tender at the
collar ; consequent-
ly the young larva
can readily cut his
way through the
bark to the wood.
Every tree should be examined carefully at least every
month, during the growing season. As a "workman is
known by his chips," so is the borer traced by the dust or
cuttings which he throws out behind him. Clear away
the grass and weeds from the trunk and exposed roots of
the tree, but do it carefully, as the cuttings or chips eject-
ed by the young grub will often be found standing up
quite erect from his entrance, being glued together in some
manner by the industrious borer. By scraping off the bark
carefully, you will find the grub in a snug little bed upon,
or slightly sunk into, the bark. It will be only a small job
to destroy every invader the first season, as they are still in
the bark, where birds often take out every one. Wood-
peckers frequently peck holes through the bark and take
them out. One or two months after the larvae have com-
menced boring, a person can see exactly where every one is
located, and can kill them with the point of a penknife.
But, after they have been boring a year or more, the true

260

THE APPLE CVLTURIST,

way is to employ a small gouge and mallet, and cut grooves
up and down the tree, until every borer is removed. Then
fill every recess with grafting-wax, and bind it around with
cloth. We might record a dozen other remedies which will
not be effectual. But we know cold steel will never fail to
do the job effectually.

A Preventive of the Borer. — In case a person is certain
no eggs have been deposited in his young trees, it will not
be difficult to keep beetles from depositing their eggs in
the bark by scraping away the earth an inch below the col-
lar of the tree, then wrapping two or three thicknesses of
heavy brown paper around the body of the tree for two or
three feet high, tying it in three places with elastic wrap-
ping-thread, and smearing the paper with a heavy coat of
coal-tar. (See page 166.) No beetle or bug will deposit
eggs in a tree thus protected. It is said that the bugs are
very shy, and work only in the night. But we have often
met with them in the day-time, and have easily caught them.
Fig. 97 represents the parent bug, or beetle of the Flat-
headed Borer {Chrysohothris buprestis), and Fig. 98 is the

borer of life size. Although the
Flat-headed Borer evinces a man-

\\/^ /f ^^^^s, ^^^^* partiality for the various
™» fS^^vl sub-varieties of the Pyrus malus

trees and Pyrus haccata, as well
as for our own indigenous crabs,
it must not be imagined that it
I \aVW \ ^^S disdains other food. We have

' -^ ^ found these borers preyinff upon

Flat-headed , , , . ^ -.

Apple-tree the pear, though seldom ; and oc-
casionally upon the Mazzard and
other cherry-trees. The same means are used to combat
both ; although of course allowance must be made for the
peculiarities in the habits and modes of life of each.

Fig. 97.

Flo;. 98.

Parent bug of the
Flat-headed Ap-
ple-tree Borer.

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS.

261

Fig. 100.

Parent bug of tho
Round - headed
Borer.

The Round-headed Borer (Sa- Fig. 99.
per da bivittata), Fig. 99, is often
found in any part of the body
of an apple-tree, although the
parent-bug (Fig. 100) will seek
the tender bark at the collar of
the tree first, as a suitable place
for depositing its eggs. Some-
times both species dwell togeth-
er in the same orchard and on '^Appie^-^tvlt
the same tree; often, however, ^^rer.
the Round-headed Borer will be found mainly to infest a cer-
tain orchard, while another orchard, not a quarter of a mile
off, will be exclusively attacked by the Flat-headed Borer.

It is interesting to dwell on the habits of such depreda-
tors. But we must cut every thing short for the sake of
giving practical directions for preventing the ravages of
these pests. Red-headed Woodpeckers will destroy every
borer that can be found. Hence, let such birds
be encouraged to frequent apple-orchards. Then
let the bug-traps be kept in running order, to
destroy the beetles, the moth-millers, and the
flies, when they are about to deposit their
eggs or spin cocoons. After borers have really
bored deeply into a tree, there is no other prac-
ticable way to dispose of them than to cut
them out with a joiner's gouge and mallet, and
cover the wounds well with grafting-wax.

The Forest-tent Caterpillar {Glisiocampa syU
vatica). — This caterpillar (Fig. 101) is fi-equent-
ly confounded with the " American Tent-cater-
pillar" {Glisiocampa Americana), Fig. 95, p.
253. Although its ravages are usually confined
to the forest and groves, the depredators often

Fig. Ml.

262

THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

appear in large numbers in apple-orchards, where they do
great damage if permitted to flourish unmolested. Pro-
fessor Fitch says that

" This caterpillar, as seen after it has forsaken its nest and is wandering ahont,
is IJ inches long and 0.20 thick. It is cylindrical and of a pale bine color, tinged
low down on each side with greenish gray, and is everywhere sprinkled over
with black points and dots. Along its back is a row of ten or eleven oval or dia-
mond-shaped white spots, which are similarly sprinkled with black points and
dots, and are placed one on the fore part of each segment. Behind each of these
spots is a much smaller white spot, occupying the middle of each segment. The
intervening space is black, which color also forms a border surrounding each of
the spots, and on each side is an elevated black dot, from which arises usually
four long black hairs. The hind part of each segment is occupied by three crin-
kled, and more or less interrupted pale orange-yellow lines, which are edged with
black. And on each side is a continuous and somewhat broader stripe of the
same yellow color, similarly edged on each of its sides with black. Lower down
upon each side is a paler yellow or cream-colored stripe, the edges of which are
more jagged and irregular than those of the one above it, and this stripe also is
bordered with black, broadly and unevenly on its upper side, and very narrowly
on its lower side. The back is clothed with numerous fine fox-colored hairs, and
low down on each side are numerous coarser whitish ones. On the under side is
a large oval black spot on each segment, except the anterior ones. The legs and
prolegs are black, and clothed with short whitish hairs. The head is of a dark,
bluish color, freckled with numerous black dots, and clothed with short black-
ish and fox-colored hairs. The second segment or neck is edged anteriorly with
cream white, which color is more broad upon the sides. The third and fourth
segments have each a large black spot on each side. The instant it is immersed
in spirits the blue color of this caterpillar vanishes, and it becomes black."

The accompanying illustration (Fig. 102) will give the
reader a correct idea of some of the stages of existence
through which this insect passes. At a, the egg-mass is

Fig. 102.

represented as it is
found attached to
small twigs of ap-
ple - trees. These
eggs may be read-
ily distinguished
from the eggs of
the common Amer-
ican Tent -caterpil-
lar, by the unif orm-

(i, the eggs of the Forest Tent-caterpillar; 6, the parent ly Cylindrical diam-

miller that lays the eggs ; c, transverse section of one ^ j i. u •

oftheeggs; s,magniled. eter, and by bemg

CL

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 263

docked-off squarely at each end. In each of these masses
there are about four hundred eggs. Hence, as every e^g
will produce a caterpillar, as certainly as a kernel of Indian
corn will produce a stalk, by cutting off every cluster of
eggs at any time before they hatch, about four hundred
hungry caterpillars will be destroyed at one stroke.

The eggs are deposited, in some localities, during the lat-
ter part of June. The embryo develops during the hot
summer weather ; and the yet unborn larva is fully formed
by the time winter comes on. The caterpillars hatch with
the first warm weather in spring — generally from the mid-
dle to the last of March, and in April — and though the
buds of their food-plant may not have opened at the time,
and though it may freeze severely afterwards, yet these lit-
tle creatures are wonderfully hardy, and can fast for three
whole weeks, if need be, and withstand any amount of in-
clement weather. The very moment these little larvae are
born, they commence spinning a web wherever they go.
At this time they are black, with pale hairs, and are always
found either huddled together or travelling in file along
the silken paths which they form when in search of food.
In about two weeks from the time they commence feeding,
they go through their first moult, having first grown paler,
or of a light yellowish-brown, with the extremities rather
darker than the middle of the body, with the little warts
which give rise to the hairs quite distinct, and a conspicu-
ous dark interrupted line each side of the back. After the
first moult, they are characterized principally by two pale
yellowish subdorsal lines. After the second moult, which
takes place in about a week from the first, the characteris-
tic pale spots on the back appear, the upper pale line be-
comes yellow, the lower one white, and the space between
them bluish. Very soon they undergo a third moult, after
which the colors all become more distinct and fresh; the

264 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

head and anal plate have a soft, bluish, velvety appearance,
and the hairs seem more dense. After undergoing a fourth
moult without material change in appearance, they acquire
their full growth in about six weeks from the time of first
feeding. At this stage of development, the larva appears
fully grown, and may be seen wandering singly over differ-
ent trees, along roads, or on the tops of fences, in search of
a suitable place to form its cocoon. It usually contents it-
self with folding a leaf or drawing several together for this
purpose, though it frequently spins up under fence boards
and in other sheltered situations. The cocoon is very much
like that of the common American Tent-caterpillar, being
formed of a loose exterior covering of white silk, with the
hairs of the larva interwoven, and by a more compact oval
inner pod that is made stiff by the meshes being filled
with a thin yellowish paste from the mouth of the larva,
which pastC) when dried, gives the cocoon the appearance
of behig dusted with powdered sulphur. Three days after
the cocoon is completed, the caterpillar casts its skin for
the last time, and becomes a chrysalis of a reddish-brown
color, slightly dusted with a pale powder, and densely
clothed with short, pale-yellow hairs, which at the blunt
and rounded extremity are somewhat larger and darker.
In a couple of weeks more, or during the forepart of June,
the moths commence to issue, and fly about at night. This
moth bears a considerable resemblance to that of the Amer-
ican Tent-caterpillar (Fig. 93, p. 250).

From the very moment it is born till after the fourth or
last moult, this caterpillar spins a web, and lives more or
less in company ; but fi'om the fact that this web is always
attached close to the branches and trunks of the trees in-
fested, it is often overlooked ; and several writers have er-
roneously declared that it does not spin. At each success-
ive moult, all the individuals of a batch collect and huddle

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUIS INSECTS. 265

together upon a common web for two or three days, and
during these periods — though more active than most other
caterpillars in this so-called sickness — they are quite slug-
gish. During the last or fourth moult they frequently
come low down on the trunk of the tree, and, as in the case
of the gregarious larvae of the Hand-maid Moth {Datana
ministra), which often denude our black-walnut trees, they
unwittingly court destruction by collecting in such masses
within man's reach. From the time they are born till after
the third moult, these worms will drop and suspend them-
selves mid-air, if the branch upon which they are feeding
be suddenly jarred. Therefore, when they have been al-
lowed to multiply in an orchard, this habit will suggest va-
rious modes of destroying them. They can often be slaugh-
tered en masse when collected on the trunks during the last
moulting period. They will more generally be found on
the leeward side of the tree, if the wind has been blowing
in one direction for a few days. The cocoons may also be
searched for, and many of the moths caught by attracting
them towards the light. But pre-eminently the most effect-
ive artificial mode of preventing this insect's injuries is, to
search for and destroy the egg-masses in the winter-time,
when the trees are leafless. This course is the more effi-
cient because it is more easily pursued, and nips the evil in
the bud. Tarred bandages, or any of the many remedies
used to prevent the female Canker-worm (p. 233) from as-
cending trees, can only be useful with the Forest Tent-cat-
erpillar, when it is intended to temporarily protect an unin-
fested tree from the straggling worms which may travel
from surrounding trees.

The Codling-worm Moth. — Doubtless most persons who
are in the habit of eating crude apples have repeatedly no-
ticed the Httle whitish worm which is so often found bur-
rowing at the core of the fruit, and filling it with its dis-

12

266 THE APPLE GULTURIST.

gusting excrement. But probably not one fruit-grower out
of a hundred has ever seen the little moth which is pro-
duced from this worm, and which, in its turn, gives birth to
a fresh generation of such worms. This moth is variously
known as the Apple-worm Moth, or the Codling- worm Moth.
The Apple-worm Moth makes its first appearance about the
first of May to the forepart of June, and a little earlier or
later, according to the season or the latitude. Usually, at
the time it appears, the young apples are already set, and
are beginning to be about as large as a hazel-nut. After
coupling in the usual manner, the female moth then pro-
ceeds to deposit a single eg^ in the blossom end of the fruit,
flying from fruit to fruit, until her stock of eggs (amount-
ing to two or three hundred) is exhausted. Soon after ac-
complishing this process, she dies of old age and exhaus-
tion. In a very few cases, the egg is deposited in the cavi-
ty at the stem-end of the fruit, or simply glued on to the
smooth surface of the fruit. In a short time afterwards,
the egg, no matter where it is located, hatches out, and the
young larva forthwith proceeds to burrow into the flesh of
the apple, feeding as he goes, making his head-quarters in
the core. In three or four weeks' time, it is full-grown ;
and shortly before this, the infested apple generally falls to
the ground. The larva then crawls out of the fruit through
a large hole in the cheek, I, which it has bored several days
beforehand for that express purpose, and usually makes for
the trunk of the tree, up which it climbs, and spins around
itself a silken cocoon of a dirty white color, in any con-
venient crevice it can find, the crotch of a tree being a fa-
vorite spot. Here it transforms into the pupa state, and
towards the latter part of July or the forepart of August
it bursts forth in the moth state. It also appears in the
former part of the growing season, and it has been noticed
that a larva will occasionally spin its cocoon on the under-

EXTEBMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS.

267

surface of some board lying flat on the ground, instead of
climbing the tree in the usual manner.

Fig. 103, which was originally prepared for the "Culti-
vator," will furnish a large amount of information concern-
ing this depredator of our apple-orchards in various stages.

Fig. 103.

The Codling Moth, or Apple-worm.

At a, the larva of natural size is shown. The same is rep-
resented at h, highly magnified. At c a cocoon is shown,
and cl represents the pupa within the cocoon. At e a per-
fect insect is shown at rest. At f the same miller, or fly,
is represented with its wings spread. At ^ a small apple
is shown, with the young larva just entering the fruit. In
many instances, when apple-trees are growing where the
soil is rich in apple-producing material, the expansion of the
fruit will often exceed the ravages of the larva that is eat-
ing its passage to the core. If they can not reach the core,
the fruit, in most instances, continues to grow, and the lar-
va dies. "We frequently see apples that are imperfect and
much depressed on one side of the basin, the cause of which
is usually attributable to the working of a larva when the
fruit was very small. As the apple grew faster than the

268 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

larva could eat, the invader perished, and the apple was in-
jured but little.

Remedies for the Codling-worm Moth. — If the millers can
be caught, of course no eggs will be deposited from which
larvae can be hatched. Hence, let the bottles of sweetened
water and vinegar (Fig. 51, p. llV) be employed. A large
proportion of these flies may be trapped in bottles and by
fires, or by the lamp-trap (Fig. 104). After the larva, Jc,
Fig. 104. reaches the core of an apple,

^^•■^.v^^ ^ ^ the fruit will usually drop from

^ '^ -J* ,-^£S«^n ^' ^^^ ^^^® before it has ripened.

c^ ^ ^-^"^'*?^/M\t'-'^ '^ I^ ^ ^^^ <^^ys after this, the
^^■^^ %^Q^j «* larva bores out of the apple and
^ winds itself up in a cocoon, e,
^ beneath shreds of bark, as al-
ready stated.

In August or September, or

A nocturnal insect-catcher. ,i 4. • j.i, • x

the next sprmg, these msects
reappear, in time to deposit their eggs in the calyx of the
young fruit. If little birds are numerous among apple-
trees, they will devour almost every larva before they can
produce a cocoon or find a refuge where they will be safe
from birds. These larvae are fat and tender worms, and all
kinds of birds devour them with avidity. Hence the ad-
vantage of encouraging the propagation of these little song-
sters— like the yellow-bird, wren, robin, " little chippie," and
many others that choose the fruit-orchard for their abode.
Where little birds have been exterminated, apples are apt
to be wormy. Some pomologists twist a rope of hay or
straw, say half as large as a man's wrist, and wind it sev-
eral times around the body of an apple-tree, as shown by
Fig. 92, p. 247. Beneath this band the larvae will take ref-
uge and spin their cocoons, c. The band should be removed
soon after the cocoons are formed, and the cocoons destroy-

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS, 269

ed. In some instances, at the West, these depredators are
so numerous that old cloths are laid in the crotches of the
branches for a few weeks, then they are passed through
a clothes-wringer to crush the cocoons, after which the
cloths are returned to trap other insects. If swine and
sheep are permitted to range about the trees, they will
usually destroy the fallen fruit with the larvae. When
swine are not permitted to have access to the orchard, the
fallen fruit should all be picked up and crushed, to destroy
the larvae. Hence we see that an incessant warfare must
be maintained if the fruit is saved. These depredators
must be caught and killed, or they will destroy the fruit.
The habits of this insect are now so thoroughly understood,
that it can be combated successfully in every stage of its
existence. By keeping the bottles containing sweetened
water (Fig. 51, p. 117), and the pan half-filled with thin
molasses, with a lighted lamp near it (Fig. 104, p. 268), in
the orchard every night, in good order, almost every insect
will be trapped in a few days.

Apple-twig Borers. — In many sections of country, Ap-
ple-twig Borers injure valuable trees by boring small twigs,
which often are so nearly cut in two that the wind breaks
them off. The only remedy thus far discovered is to " catch
'em and kill 'em." A constant watch must be kept over
every fruit-tree for insect enemies. Then, if any thing is
discovered that resembles the work of the Apple-twig Borer,
let the branches be examined with care, and the depreda-
tors destroyed. Cold steel is a certain remedy for this pest
of the apple-orchard. As these borers originate from a
parent insect that can be trapped in a bottle, the bottle-
traps will be found the most satisfactory way of destroy-
ing this kind of depredators.

Bark Lice (Aphis mali). — In many orchards, bark lice
are scarcely known ; while in others, where trees are young

270 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

and thrifty, bark lice cover almost every twig. Dr. Fitch,
entomologist of the State of [N'ew York, writes of the Apple-
bark Louse {Aspidiotus conchiformis) that

" The Apple-bark Louse makes its appearance as a little brown scale, one-eighth
of an inch long, the shape of an oyster-shell, fixed to the smooth bark, resembling
a little blister. This scale is the dried remains of the body of the female, covering
and protecting her eggs, from a dozen to a hundred of which lie in the cavity un-
der each scale. These eggs hatch the latter part of May, and the young lice dif-
fuse themselves over the bark, appearing as minute white atoms, almost invisible
to the eye. They puncture the bark, and suck the sap from it. The females soon
fix themselves and become stationary. They die, and become overspread with a
substance resembling fine blue mould, which wearing off", the little oyster-shaped
scale again appears in July. They sometimes become so multiplied that the bark'
of the trunk and limbs is everywhere covered and crowded with them ; and if the
tree is weakened by borers, fire blight, or other disease, these bark lice, thus mul-
tiplying, kill it."

Numerous remedies have been suggested for the Bark
Louse, among which are the following : The bodies of the
trees and large branches are scraped, if covered with rough
bark, and afterwards smeared with thin soft-soap applied
with a swab. Some have used equal parts of pine-tar and
linseed-oil boiled together, and applied when warm and thin.
We have employed equal parts of pine-pitch and linseed-oil,
or tallow mingled together by heating, which was applied
with a swab. If there is much rough bark on the trees, it
must all be removed ; and if the surface is shaved smoothly
before the material is applied, all the better. We never
find bark lice attached to thick and tough bark. They
must have tender and thrifty bark, which they can punc-
ture, in order to extract the sap. If the young and tender
bark be thoroughly soaped, and a smooth surface formed,
without being protected by liquid pitch, all the soap will be
removed during a heavy rain, and the bark lice will be
provided with just such quarters as they desire; but the
covering of pitch and linseed-oil will form a varnish which
will thoroughly exclude every thing that is ever found ad-
hering to the bark of apple-trees. No borer will ever at-
tempt to deposit an Qgg in the bark that is varnished. As

EXTEBMINATINQ NOXIOUS INSECTS. 271

this varnish will crack when the growing trees expand, let
more varnish be applied early every spring, and bark lice
will not touch a tree. Tobacco-water, soda- wash, and quas-
sia only prepare the bark for the occupancy of these depre-
dators, rendering the surface soft and tender. Two dimes'
worth of pitch and tallow will be of more value in exclud-
ing lice than a dollar's worth of soap or potash-water.

Some pomologists have stated that they have employed
a decoction of tobacco, with excellent results, in the follow-
ing manner : Procure a few pounds of leaf-tobacco, and boil
it to an impalpable pulp, which is afterwards mingled with
cold soft-soap, and worked until the mass is of the consist-
ence of thick paint. The rough bark is then scraped off
the trees, after which a heavy coat of this daubing is ap-
plied both to bodies and large branches. This material is
excellent for the purpose intended, so long as only a thin
layer of it will remain on the tree ; yet two or three heavy
and protracted storms will wash nearly all of it

. . Fig. 105.

to the ground. But the liquid grafting-wax will
adhere for several years. The expense of prepar- K^'^S^j
ing and applying it will not exceed the expense
of the tobacco and soap.

The Oyster-shell Bark Louse. — Figure 105 rep-
resents a small part of a branch covered with the
eggs of the Oyster-shell Bark Louse. The only
true remedy — we repeat — is to scrape them off
and coat the smooth bark with liquid grafting-
wax. Lice are wonderfully destructive to both
the growth and health of trees ; and the rapidity
with which they increase when unmolested is as-
tonishing. They are the color of the bark itself,
and in shape and size like a flax-seed. In fre-
quent cases they actually kill the branch they
settle upon ; and in young trees often kill them Bark Lice.

272 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

altogether. The Oyster-shell Bark Lice are to be dreaded
more than any other, as they do greater injury to young
trees. This pest is said to be migratory in its habits, often
attacking the thriftiest as well as the weakest trees, and its
progress should be arrested before it ravages the whole
orchard. Bark lice are devoured by millions by wrens,
chickadees, and other similar birds ; and " lady-bugs " also
destroy large numbers of them.

The Scale Insect {JETomoptera) is one of the many ene-
mies of the apple, belonging to a family that contains more
anomalous forms than any other. All this family are sup-
plied with a suctorial mouth, arising so far back on the un-
der side of the head as apparently to come from the breast
in some species. The present insect is included in the ge-
nus Coccus, and has for its near relations some that have
been useful to man from the time of the ancients, produc-
ing valuable dyes, the cochineal being one of them ; and it
is calculated that in one pound of this dye there are 70,000
of these little insects. When first hatched from the egg, it
possesses considerable ambulatory powers, and can crawl
all over a tree and select a situation. It then inserts its
rostrum into the tender bark and draws the sap ; and such
a constant drain, by the countless numbers found upon a
tree, must be very injurious. The insect remains in this
position until death, in the female, undergoing its trans-
formations, which, instead of producing a higher state of
development, as in most other forms, has a contrary effect,
it becoming, in fact, a mere inert, fleshy mass, in some al-
lied species losing even the rudiments of limbs and all ap-
pearance of articulation. The male, on the contrary, which
is much smaller, in casting off his pupa skin, obtains pretty
large wings, and well-developed limbs, armed with a single
claw, and his mouth becomes obsolete ; he then sallies forth
in search of his partner, of which he sees nothing but the

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 273

pupa envelope. The female afterwards becomes distended
with eggs. She then gradually dries up, leaving the shell
of her body for a covering to the newly-hatched young, of
which there are two broods in a year.

Harris recommends a preventive : To two parts of soft-
soap add eight of water, and mix as much lime with it as
will make a stiff whitewash, and apply with a brush to the
trunk and branches of the infected trees, in the month of
June, when the young insects are newly hatched.

Root Lice, how to Exterminate. — In many sections of
country, roots of apple-trees, and some roots of other fruit-
trees, are infested with immense numbers of root lice.
The most effective remedy is to apply liberal quantities of
ashes, lime, or barn-yard manure, and dig them into the soil
round about the trees, as far as the branches extend. Dr.
Warden recommends boiling cheap tobacco, or the stems,
in water; after the strength has been extracted from the
tobacco, skim out the stems and leaves, and to each bucket-
ful of the water add, say, one quart of soap. When the
soap becomes mixed, and the decoction is sufficiently cool-
ed, it is fit for use. A good plan is to take a barrel to con-
tain the mixture to a central part of the ground, where the
trees are to be planted, and when one lot of trees is taken
out for planting, another lot may be put in. In this way,
with but little loss of time, the trees will be immersed long
enough to kill all the lice there may be on the roots. Tree-
roots once free from lice may be kept so by smearing
the trunks above ground, each year, with boiling-hot soap.
This should be done in the month of June, when it will
answer the double purpose of keeping away the lice, and
preventing the Apple-tree Borers from depositing their
eggs. The soap put upon the trunks of trees, while it is
hot, strikes into the bark, and is not soon washed out.
Make a liberal use of the soap at the base of the trunks,

12*

274 THE APPLE CULTUMIST.

as it is at these parts that the seperda prefers to lay its
eggs ; and just below the surface it is that root lice assem-
ble before going upon the roots for the winter. In some
instances, where the soil is unusually Ught and porous, two
or three wagon-loads of clay spread around a tree, and
worked into the soil, will operate as a satisfactory prevent-
ive of lice.

After root lice have deprived a root of its juices, they
shift to others which will afford the needed supply of food.
Thus one root after another yields up its nutriment to these
pests, until the tree is either killed, or so weakened that it
is attacked in all its parts by borers. In the summer num-
bers of them may always be found in the tops of the trees,
under the partial cover of new wood and bark growth,
where it is forming over fresh wounds made in pruning.
When considerable numbers of lice assemble at these
points, they cause numerous warty excrescences on the new-
made bark, similar to the parts punctured by them below
ground. On summer-grafted or newly-budded trees, they
are a great nuisance. They soon find the wounds made by
inserting the grafts or buds, which they enter, and, if not
prevented, they so deplete the parts that the stock will not
unite with the graft or bud. If a heavy mulch of straw or
hay is placed close around the trees early in the fall, vast
numbers of lice will come together on the tree at the sur-
face of the ground. On single trees so treated, we have, in
the month of October, seen as many as half a pint of these
insects. It has been suggested that advantage might be
taken of their coming together under the mulch by pour-
ing boiling water over them. But if they are allowed to
remain long at this point, they will kill the tree by severing
the connection between the sap-vessels in the top and roots.
On large roots the injuries done by root lice do not, at first,
become apparent; generally not until after the lice have

EXTEMMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 275

left, and then only by the dead roots which they leave be-
hind. Small roots, when punctured by them, become knot-
ty and greatly deformed ; but large roots, at the collar of
the tree, may be sucked dry by them without showing
knots. On this account, the real cause of the death of the
tree is often overlooked. Indeed we have known persons
possessing much entomological information inspect trees
killed or damaged without for once suspecting that root
lice had any agency in producing the results. Probably
there are but few persons who are aware to what extent the
Woolly Root Louse injures apple-trees, or how readily they
discriminate between roots of trees which are healthy and
those that are wounded.

The Woolly Aphis. — This scourge of young apple-orchards
(Fig. 106) is sometimes alluded to as the "American Blight."
But entomologists assure us that it is a species Fig.ioe.
of Aphis, or Plant Louse. We frequently see it (j
on the branches of young trees covered with tine m
white downy hairs. In some instances, they are ^o^Jiy ^p.
so numerous as to destroy a streak of the bark on p^® Lonse.
a limb the entire length. They are voracious feeders. They
suck out the juice of the tender branches with surprising ra-
pidity. We have seen branches of trees with a dark-colored
streak for several feet in length, where these depredators
had been destroyed, which appeared as if a red-hot iron
had been drawn along the bark.

The only true mode of extermination is to apply whale-
oil soap with a swab, or strong lime-wash, rubbing the af-
fected parts until every vestige of the depredators is wiped
out. Then let the streak of injured bark be covered with
liquid grafting-wax, or pitch and tallow.

Aphis, or Aphides. — We frequently see untold numbers
of the aphis (represented by Fig. 107, on the following
page), which is about the usual size of these depredators,

276

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

Fig. lOT.

The aphis magnified.

on the tender branches, twigs, and leaves of apple-trees in

the spring and summer. They puncture the surface and

suck out the sap, and almost stop the growth of

the entire tree. In Fig. 108, c and d represent

aphides magnified. ^ig los

The aphis, ^j^^g^ depredators

are astonishingly prolific. Pro-
fessor Reaumur showed, dur-
ing his investigations, accord-
ing to his computation, that
one single aphis may produce, in five generations, if none
were destroyed, more than six thousand millions of descend-
ants ! But, allowing that two-thirds of them are destroyed
before they have attained sufiicient age to propagate their
young, two thousand millions are left to prey on apple-trees,
leaves, and tender spray. They frequently cover the entire
surface of leaves and twigs, and they injure
the leaves to such an extent that they cease to
grow, and the remaining leaves roll up and die.
Other insects, and ants in particular, destroy
large numbers of the aphis. When they are
numerous, let the branches be sprinkled, b}^
means of a syringe (Fig. 109), with strong
soap-suds several times a day, in cloudy weath-
er. In some instances, let the branches be
washed and rubbed with a cloth. Leaves
should not be sprinkled when the sun shines,
in a hot day, as they are liable to be scalded
by the liquid and heat of the sun. Early in
the evening is the better time to apply the
suds. If trees are small, many of the branches
may be bent down and held for a moment in
a tub of strong suds, which will effectually de-
Ahandpyringe. strov the lice.

Fig. 109,

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUJS INSECTS.

277

Fig. 110.

Fig. 110 represents
an aquarius, or hand
water-engine, invent-
ed by W. B. Doug-
las, of Middletown,
Connecticut, which
we know, from ex-
perience, to be an
excellent device for
sprinkling trees with
soap-suds, or for wa-
tering flower -beds,
and even for wash-
ing the outside of
windows. A small
lad can sprinkle
soap-suds all over a
tree twenty feet high
with such an aqua-
rius. The illustra-
tion scarcely requires
an explanation. The
nose is provided with a rose-spout, full of numerous small
holes, for the purpose of scattering all the liquid into spray.
Such an aquarius may be obtained at most hardware stores.
Apple-tree Worms. — One of the most difficult apple-tree
worms to combat is the small green sixteen-legged larva,
nearly half an inch long, and with a broad, dark-brown
stripe on each side, extending the whole length of its
back. These depredators are found to do considerable
damage to the apple-tree. They are said to belong to a
new and hitherto undescribed species. The mode in which
this larva operates on the apple-tree is by tying together
the leaves with silken cords, forming a mass of considera-

Douglas's aquarius.

278 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

ble size, inside of which it lives gregariously, skeletonizing
the leaves that it -has thus appropriated, and filling them
with its gunpowder-like excrement. It was so abundant
in 1868, in some orchards, as nearly to strip many trees,
especially in young orchards that were in an unthrifty con-
dition. It is quite different from the Rascal Leaf-crum-
pler {Phycita nebulo), which lives all the time in a little
black horn-like case; whereas this larva carries no house
on its back. Moreover, the Leaf-crumpler is solitary in its
habits ; whereas this species live in communities of several
dozen during their entire larval life. As to the moths pro-
duced from these two larvae, they are as different from
each other as a goat is from a sheep.

The only reliable way to prevent the depredations of
such pests is to trap the moths in bottles, to catch the lar-
vae and kill them, and tear down their nests before they are
half built. Birds will destroy a great many when the worms
are very small.

The Army-worm {Noctua unipuncta). — This noxious in-
sect is hatched from an egg deposited by the parent moth
Fig. 111. (Fig. Ill) at the base of perennial

^^^^^^£>^^^^^ grass-stalks. The eggs hatch, in dif-
^^^/Utt^K^^m ^^^^^^ localities, from May until the
^^^^Hm^^ middle of July. Some entomologists
4!^^ nf^H^ affirm that these moths seek low
" meadows to deposit their eggs. The

Army-worm Moth. ^^^g ^^,^^ consequently deposited over
a greater area of territory; and if the succeeding year
prove wet, and favorable to the growth of the worms, we
shall have the abnormal condition of their appearing on
our higher and dryer lands, and of their marching from
one field to another. For just as soon as the green grass
is devoured in any particular field in which they may
have hatched, these worms are forced, both from hun-

EXTERMINATING NOXIOUS INSECTS. 2*79

ger and from their sensibility to the sun's rays, to leave
the denuded field. When they have become nearly full-
grown, and have stripped bare the fields in which they
were born, and commence to march, they necessarily at-
tract attention; for they are then exceedingly voracious,
devouring more during the last three or four days of their
worm-life than they had done during the whole of their
previous existence. As soon as they are full-grown, they
burrow into the earth, and, of course, are never seen again
as worms.

Their increase and decrease is dependent on even more
potent influences than those of a climatic nature. The
worms are attacked by at least eight different parasites;
and when we understand how persistent these last are, and
how thoroughly they accomplish their murderous work, we
cease to wonder at the almost total annihilation of the
Army -worm the year following its appearance in such
hosts. In the words of the late J. Kirkpatrick, "Their
undue increase but combines the assaults of their enemies,
and thus brings them within bounds again." We must
also bear in mind that, besides these parasitic insects, there
are some cannibal insects, such as the Fiery Ground-beetle,
which come in for their share of this dainty food ; while
the worms, when hard pushed, will even devour each other.
It is stated that Army-worm Moths do sometimes lay their
eggs before harvest upon growing grain, sufficiently high
from the ground for the egg to be carried off with the
straw, which accounts for several well - authenticated in-
stances of the Army-worm starting from stack-yards.

The Army-worm larva varies but little in appearance
from the time it hatches to the time when it is full-grown.
Some specimens are a shade darker than others, but the
markings are generally uniform, as shown by Fig. 112, on
the following page, which represents an Army-worm of full

280 THE APPLE CULTURI8T.

Fig, 112. ,,,,! size. The general color

is dingy black, and it is
striped longitudinally as
follows: On the back a
broad dusky stripe ; then
a narrow black line ; then
. . a narrow white line ; then

An Army-worm. ^ ^ '

a yellowish stripe ; then a
narrow sub-obsolete white line ; then a dusky stripe ; then
a narrow white line; then a yellowish stripe; then a sub-
obsolete white line ; belly obscure green.

rish-brine for Exterminating the Aphides. — Brine and
salt must be used around fruit-trees with extreme caution,
lest the trees be killed before the insects are dispatched.
We have frequently read of the successful use of weak fish-
brine, sprinkled among the leaves and tender branches ; but
we have never used brine in any form, as we dare not, even
when it is much diluted. Salt and brine will often kill
trees and plants in a few days, without affecting a single in-
sect in the least. It is a mistaken idea that salt spread
around fruit-trees will repel or exterminate insects or
worms of any kind, unless it is applied in sufficient quan-
tities to destroy the last vestige of vegetation. Brine will
doubtless destroy the aphides when sprinkled on the leaves
of trees. But it must be much diluted, or the saline mate
rial will kill every leaf. Whenever brine is employed, the
twigs and leaves should be sprinkled with water soon after
the brine is applied. Brine or soap will perform its work
on the tender lice in a few minutes, when fresh water should
wash the leaves clean.

The Sulphur Remedy. — Some pomologists, both in Amer-
ica and in the Old World, have written favorable accounts
of the use of sulphur on apple-trees for exterminating the
aphides and some other depredators. The sulphur can be

EXTEBMINATINO NOXIOUS INSECTS.

281

readily applied to small trees, by means of such a bellows
as is employed to spread sulphur on grape-vines (Fig. 113).
Such bellows may be obtained at most hardware stores.

A sulphur-bellows.

The Red-humped prominent Caterpillar. — This formida-
ble depredator — denominated scientifically Notodonta con-
cinna — is rarely met with in many States ; these caterpillars
seem to have a preference for rose-bushes and pear-trees
When full-grown, they are about one and a quarter to two
inches long, having no sting, no irritating hairs or prickles,
such as are found on a few of our rarer worms : and

Fig. 114.

they will not even bite,
however much we may
irritate and torment
them. Fig. 114 repre-
sents the full - grown
Red-humped larva feed-
ing on the edge of a The Eed-humped Caterpillar.

leaf. Fig. 115 represents the parent insect, or moth, with

wings. Wherever this in-
vader appears, the worms
are extensively found, be-
cause the mother-moth de-
posits a veiy large number
of eggs upon a single leaf.
As these larvae are grega-
rious throughout their en-

Pareut moth of Red-limnped Caterpillar, tire existence, and do not

Fig. 115.

282

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

scatter over the whole tree, as do many others that occur on
our fruit-trees — some of which wander off from the very ear-
liest stage in their larval life, and others, as for example the
common Tent-caterpillar, only towards the latter part of their
existence in the larval state — they can always be easily de-
stroyed. The larva of the Red-humped will be readily rec-
ognized by its great beauty. The true way to exterminate
these foes is to trap the moth in the bottles, as recommend-
ed (Fig. 51, p. IIV), crush the chrysalis whenever it may
be found, and catch the full-grown larvae and kill them.

TALMAN'8 SWEETING.

Synonyms. — Tallman's Sweeting, Tolman's Sweeting, and Brown's Golden Sweet.
When fully ripe, those specimens which grow in the sunlight have a soft blush on
one side ; aad, generally, a line runs from the stem to the calyx, which is set in a
small basin slightly depressed. The flesh is quite white, rather firm, fine-grained,
with a rich, sweet flavor. This is one of the very best winter sweet apples. The
tree is a hardy, upright, and spreading grower. The apples are seldom formed
like the engraving, with a swell on one side of the cavity. When the ground is
rich, the apples grow much larger than represented by the cut. The Talman's
Sweeting is a variety that may be added to eve;y list of choice apples in every
State of the Union, wherever apples can be raised with satisfactory success. This
variety is a universal favorite with all people, and ail kinds of domestic animals.

GATHERING AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 283

CHAPTER IX.

GATHERING AND MANAGEMENT OP APPLES-

With ladders, baskets, and the plucker's suit,
Pluck the fair King, fill baskets to the brim:

Relieve the bending boughs of luscious fruit :
Handle with care, and lay them in the bin.— Edwards.

Apples, as well as apple-trees, possess vitality. There
is life within the pulp, and life in the seeds. Let an ap-
ple be deprived of its vitality, and the once delicious pulp
will become tasteless and unfit for eating. After an ap-
ple has been frozen and thawed, its life is gone, and with
it every peculiarity of flavor and nutriment that made it
pleasant to the taste, and a valuable and important arti-
cle of food. It is the life of the apple, therefore, that we
aim to preserve and to prolong through the changes of
the weather that affect the fruit. Hence all the manage-
ment of apples should be predicated on the assumption
that careful handling and judicious management tend to
prolong the life of the fruit. As violent treatment tends
to destroy all animal Hfe, so bruising and rough handling
will hasten the decay of fruit. There is no life in a rot-
ten apple, except within the seed.

These suggestions will enable us to understand something
of the fundamental requirements for the successful preser-
vation of choice apples during the unfavorable periods of
alternate heat and cold. Hence, to maintain that condition
of soundness which is essential to the value and excellence
of apples, every specimen must be taken from the tree by
the hand, and laid carefully in a basket. Winter apples

284 THE APPLE CULTUPIIST.

and pears should be handled with as much care as one han-
dles eggs. Apples may — and frequently do — fall to the
ground without being injured. But a person has no as-
surance, if an apple falls to the ground, that it will not be
so badly bruised as to hasten its decay in a few weeks.
For this reason, hand-picking should be practised in pref-
erence to any other mode of gathering them, if to be kept
for spring and summer use. When picked, lay those de-
signed for long keeping carefully in the basket with the
hand, instead of throwing them in. Winter apples should
not be poured from one basket to another, any sooner than
one would handle eggs by the rough process of pouring.
Winter apples should never be handled in full bags, as any
kind of fruit will be bruised more in a full bag than in any
other receptacle. Transporting apples, even from the or-
chard to the fruit-room, in a common wagon, either before
or after barrelling, is injurious ; they should be moved on
springs or on sleds. The least abrasion of the skin, or
crushing of cells of the pulp containing the juice, induces
fermentation and decomposition, and the consequent decay
of the whole mass. Most orchardists who have many win-
ter apples usually sustain heavy losses by the premature
decay of the fruit, simplj^ because they do not manage right
with it. Fall apples may often be kept till winter, if plucked
by hand and afterwards managed with proper care. The
conditions for the largest and best preservation of apples
and potatoes differ in several respects, and in one particu-
lar those conditions are in direct contrast. Apples require
to be kept as dry as possible ; potatoes to be kept moist.

When to pluck Winter Apples. — There is a variety of
opinions as to the best period for gathering winter apples.
Still there are certain facts as to time in which all do agree,
one of which is, that all apples should be gathered before
the weather is cold enough to freeze the ground. Apples,

OATHEBING AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 285

while on the trees, will not be injured by a light white
frost. Winter apples will not freeze until the atmospheric
temperature is from five to ten degrees below the freezing-
point of water ; and it is beneficial to keep them as cool as
possible, even down to thirty degrees. Some persons have
affirmed that apples inclosed in a water-tight cask may be
left in a cold loft or garret all winter, without further care,
and they will be sound in the spring, and perfectly fresh.
But we have never dared to repose sufficient confidence in
the doubtful experiment to try it. No matter where apples
may be — if in a complete vacuum — if they freeze through,
the frost will injure them. Another consideration of im-
portance, touching the proper period for gathering winter
apples, is this : the fruit should be plucked before a large
proportion of it is blown off by the wind. If apples have
ceased to groAV, and are beginning to fall, the sooner they
are plucked, the longer they will keep good. Some varie-
ties should be gathered several weeks before the apples on
the adjoining trees have attained their growth. Hence no
person can indicate, on paper, the exact period when ap-
ples should be gathered. Winter apples can be gathered
too early ; and there is danger of allowing them to remain
on the trees too late in the growing season. When apples
are ripe and the trees have ceased to grow, the fruit should
be gathered at once, no matter what may be the day of
the month. Winter apples should never be plucked when
the fruit is wet, nor when it is chilled and almost frozen.
Should an unexpectedly cold time occur, it will be better to
let the fruit remain on the trees, than to shake it to the
ground, unless it can be shaken before the apples are chilled.
Every orchardist should make himself familiar with the
qualities and characteristics of different varieties of winter
apples, and pluck those first that ripen first. A little ob-
servation on this point will enable one to determine with

286 THE APPLE CULTUMIST.

satisfactory certainty when is the proper time to gather dif-
ferent varieties.

Assorting Apples. — It is a common practice with many
persons to mingle numerous varieties together. If such
apples are alike in their season, there may be no objection
to such management. But fall varieties and winter varie-
ties should always be kept separate, so that a hundred bush-
els may not have to be overhauled for the purpose of pick-
ing out a few bushels which will soon decay and be lost,
and hasten the decay of the sound apples, if they are not
separated. Fall Pippins, for example, should be gathered
before Spitzenbergs and the Baldwins, and should always
be stored by themselves. Talman's Sweetings and other
sweet apples should have each separate barrels or bins.
Windfall should all be gathered before the main crop is
plucked, and be stored in some convenient place for imme-
diate use. A vast amount of economy may be exei'cised in
the consumption of apples, by keeping .the varieties and
those of different qualities and conditions quite separate,
when the fruit is gathered. When perishable varieties and
windfall are mingled with fair winter fruit, servants, and
sometimes the mistress of the family, will always choose the
fairer fruit first ; whereas, if the windfall, the bruised, and
the perishable were selected, they would have better fruit
for pies, dumphngs, or for any other culinary purpose. In
case one has a larger quantity of windfall and early fruit
than can be readily disposed of before it decays, if it is
not mingled with the best varieties, it can be fed to do-
mestic animals, and thus be saved from immediate decay
and loss.

Injury to Trees when gathering the Fruit. — We have
alluded to this subject on a preceding page. The greatest
care should be taken not to damage the trees when harvest-
ing the fruit. The eye of the owner will be useful while

OATHEBINO AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 287

this operation is being performed. Beginners and heedless
helpers should be taught how to pluck an apple or pear
when the stem separates with difficulty, so as not to break
off the fruit-spurs or injure the buds, which are to produce
the next year's crop. (See Fruit-spurs, p. 330.) There
is a proper place for every stem to separate from the spur.
A straight pull will often remove a piece of the twig several
inches in length. When fruit is shaken off, the apples or
pears often take long pieces of wood with them. Of course
these have to be separated from the fruit ; and it is far bet-
ter to take a little pains and leave the wood on the tree.
As the apple is about to be plucked, apply the thumb-nail
to the stem at the proper place for separation, and break
the stem across the nail. A great deal of damage is done
to fruit-trees every year at the time of gathering the fruit.
Large branches are trodden on and barked, small ones are
broken, and, in the violent shaking of the trees, fruit-spurs
are broken off. Selling fruit on the trees generally results
in great injury to the orchard ; for the buyer, in most cases,
does not care how much damage is done to the trees, as his
object is to gather the fruit in the most expeditious way.
There is generally more damage done in gathering unripe
fruit than in taking off that which is fully matured ; for the
former adheres so firmly to the spurs that some force is re-
quired to remove it.

Convenient Fruit-pluckers. — The illustration on the fol-
lowing page (Fig. 116) represents a convenient fruit-pluck-
er, which is useful for plucking both pears and apples. For
plucking valuable pears, it is almost indispensable, as it en-
ables one to pluck all those good pears or apples on the
ends of long limbs which could not be gathered except by
shaking the trees. A plucker of this style may be made in
a few minutes at a trifling expense. Bend a piece of wire
in the form of the figure, as shown at a. No. 11 wire is

288 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

Fig. 116. about the right

size. A piece of
wire about thirty-
two inches long
will be required.
Acheapfruit-piucker. ^^^ert the ends

in one end of a
broom-handle, and then sew a little sack to the wire, large
enough to hold about eight apples. The wire should be
bent large enough to receive a man's hand into the sack.
A blacksmith will fit one to a handle in four or five minutes ;
and, if a man has a pair of pliers, he can bend the wire to
suit himself, after heating it in the stove. With one of this
kind of fruit-pluckers, having a light handle eight or ten
feet long, a man can pluck fruit rapidly while standing on
the ground. When a person is in the tree-top, he should
be provided with two or more pluckers, having handles of
different lengths. Such fruit-pluckers are designed only for
gathering such fruit as can not be reached with the hands.
It will be understood that the fruit is pulled off by the nar-
row loop-end of the plucker.

Drying and seasoning Winter Apples. — As soon as the
apples are plucked, they should be laid carefully in a cool,
airy, and dry place, until there is danger that they will be
injured by cold weather. A close apartment, which can not
be ventilated sufiiciently to carry away all moisture from
the fruit, is an improper place for keeping winter apples
during that period of autumn just before cold and freezing
weather. If an apartment is so close that moisture will
condense on the window-glass, it is a certain indication that
the ventilation is quite insufiicient for the requirements of
the fruit. The best place for seasoning winter apples be-
fore cold weather is on a floor a few feet above the ground,
and beneath a good roof,, to carry off the storms, and with

Fig. 117.

OATHEBING AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 289

openings at the sides sufficient to admit a cool current of
air both night and day. A building prepared like a tobac-
co-drying-house would be an excellent place for seasoning
wnnter apples. Most cellars are quite too close and damp
for winter apples until after the weather has become cold
and freezing.

Apple-shelves in Dry Cellars.— When apples are kept in
a cellar, one of the most satisfactory ways to keep apples is
to make rows of shelves, or open bins, similar to Fig. 117,
one above the
other, with al-
leys between the
rows, say three
feet apart. Studs
should be set up,
to which nar-
row strips, three
inches wide by

one inch thick. Convenient apple-shelves.

should be nailed. The lower shelf, or bin, should be at least
six inches above the bottom of the cellar. The next about
twenty inches above the first; and so on up to the joists.
A person can walk on every side of such fruit-shelves, and
can easily reach to the middle from either side. If rats and
mice should gain access to such an apartment, they would
find no refuge beneath bins beyond the reach of a cat. But
a fruit-apartment should be made so tight that rats and
mice can not enter, except through a door or windows. If
they can avail themselves of no refuge, they will make a
short stay in a cellar that is walled up so firmly that they
can not find a hiding-place. Apples may be placed on
each shelf, until the fruit is a foot or more deep. But
it should be avoided, if possible, as it is in most cases un-
safe ; and with some varieties having thin, delicate skins,

13

290 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

most certainly so, as the fruit heats and specks in a sliort
time. Give plenty of air, and all the circulation possible.
An apple may be bruised in several places, and if it be
kept in a close place it will begin to decay. On the con-
trary, if it is in an airy place, the bruises will soon begin
to dry, so that a few dry days will dry and harden the
bruises, and will keep the moisture from being absorbed
from the wound. Windows at opposite sides or ends of
such a fruit-cellar should be made, so that there may be no
lack of ventilation at any season. There will be many days
during the winter months when the windows should be
thrown wide open day and night.

Stove in a Fruit-cellar. — We have assumed that the fruit-
cellar, just alluded to, is beneath a dwelling-house, in which
case it will be easy to provide a small stoye for the fruit-
room, to keep out the cold during severe weather. This
practice will be found far more satisfactory than to attempt
to bank up the outside walls, and close every door and win-
dow. A little fire in a small stove, placed near the outside
door, will keep the temperature a few degrees above the freez-
ing point, when without fire it would be almost impossible
to prevent the fruit from freezing. The pijDC from a small
stove could pass up through the floor, and connect with the
pipe or chimney in the first story. A far better way would
be to let the chimney extend entirely to the bottom of the
cellar. In cold and dreary localities, no one should attempt
to keep fruit and vegetables in a cellar without a stove, to
temper the atmosphere in very cold weather. In order to
keep well, apples must not be exposed to severe cold, nor
be kept too warm, neither be confined in a close apartment.

After cold weather is passed, winter apples will keep
better in barrels, as many varieties, after warm weather has
come on in the spring, will wilt up, become corky, and lose
most of their flavor, making them comparatively worthless.

QATHERINO AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 291

In a dry and well-ventilated cellar the air is constantly re-
newed and kept dry^ thus carrying the damp vapor from the
fruit as regularly as it escapes, by sweating or otherwise.

Storing Winter Apples in Barrels. — When apples are to
be kept during the winter in barrels, after having been
carefully hand-picked in baskets, the fruit should be laid
on a floor, by hand, without pouring from the baskets, until
they are twelve or eighteen inches deep, where the fruit
should be left to dry and season three weeks, after which
the apples should be carefully packed in clean dry barrels.
The plan of drying and seasoning in the air before barrel-
ling, prevailed generally some years ago, although nowa-
days it is mostly discontinued, and thought useless, as the
process requires the exercise of too much care to comport
with the fast notions of V Young America."

The following is a practice a pomologist recommends:
Having picked your apples nicely, put them in the barrels
without a leaf or straw or a spire of grass — head them up,
and set them in a clean out-building where there is no of-
fensive odor, and let them stand till the ground begins to
freeze a little ; then, in a clean grassy place, dig a ditch,
square and straight, eighteen inches deep, and just wide
enough to receive the barrels. In the bottom lay two
fence rails close in the corners — pieces of rails will do.
Now roll your barrels in, and they will be about six to
eight inches above the surface lying end to end. Cover
them with the dirt ; but do not lay the sods on the barrels
with the grass next to them. The covering may be ten
inches thick or more ; but you need not fear freezing, it
won't hurt the apples. If it is a clay soil, you had better
make your ditch on a slope, so that the water will run out
at the lower end. When you want apples, dig out a barrel
and put it in the cellar ; and I warrant you will say the first
you eat is best, for in ten days' time the exquisite aroma

292 THE APPLE GULTUBIST.

and taste will have departed, and the apples will be " only
common apples." Many apple cultivators approve of the
foregoing practice; but we have heard of so many apples
failing to keep satisfactorily, that we do not indorse it as
worthy of adoption.

Many people lay their winter apples carefully in barrels,
keep them in a cool place until cold weather, then remove
the barrels of fruit to a good cellar. To secure the apples
against retaining moisture on the skin, let the opening of
the windows, in dry states of the atmosphere only, be par-
ticularly attended to, as the circulation of dry air will soon
absorb and carry off the natural moisture, while moist air
will only add to it.

Removing the Rubbish. — In many orchards, the ground
beneath most trees is strewn with pieces of brush, chunks
of wood, and numerous small stones. To prevent damage
to almost every apple that may fall to the ground, if it
happens to strike a stone or stick, let all sticks, stones, and
brush be removed from beneath every tree, so that the fruit
will not be bruised when it falls from the trees. Stones
and sticks should never be allowed to remain about fruit-
trees ; but the surface should be made smooth, and if it is
covered with a coat of short grass, many good winter ap-
ples that are blown off the trees will not be injured when
they fall. The fruit that falls first ought always to be
kept by itself, so that it may be used late in the fail, or
early in the winter, as such fruit will not usually keep so
well as that which is plucked by hand. In some instances,
straw is spread round about the tree for the fruit to fall
on as the tree is shaken. The only objection to this prac-
tice is that, when fruit is shaken off the trees, much of it
will be badly bruised by striking the branches of the tree-
top, and also by falling on other specimens that may be on
the gi*ound.

OATHERINQ AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES,

293

Fig. 118.

Carrying Winter Apples in Baskets.^ — When apples are
gathered within two or three minutes' walk of the fruit-
room, the most convenient manner of conveying the fruit
is to let two men carry two large basketfuls, as represent-
ed by the accompanying engraving (Fig. 118), as they will
be able to carry
two large bas-
kets of apples
in this manner
more easily than
to lift them to
their shoulders.
It will be under-
stood by the en-
graving .that a
spar of timber,
like a strong
pitchfork handle,
is put through
the handles of
each basket. If
the way is smooth, one person may take two large baskets
on a wheelbarrow. Still another good way to convey ap-
ples to the fruit-room is to set a dozen baskets on a large
stone-boat. Winter apples should not be poured from one
basket into another, nor be dumped into a wagon-box and
jolted over a rough way, as all such rough handling will
bruise them more or less, and thus hasten their decay.

Plucking from Tall Trees. — In many instances, apple-trees
grow so tall that the limbs are not sufficiently strong to
bear a small boy in the tree, nor on a ladder resting against
it, unless the top is supported with guy-ropes. An orchard-
ladder should have its lower ends shod with iron, in the
form of a sharp wedge, to enter the ground readily, and to

Carrying two large baskets of winter apples.

294

THE APPLE CULTURTST.

hold the lower end when
putting it up and down.
Set the ladder nearly per-
pendicularly by the side
of a tree, and stay it with
two guy-ropes from the
top of the ladder, fasten-
ed to trees, or stakes, or
fences, as shown by Fig.
119. The ropes need not
be larger than a common
clothes-line. A man can
ascend to the very top of
a long ladder secured in
this way, and pluck half
*^ a bushel or more of fruit
with entire safety. A

ZMA..,^ ^^^^ ^^^*^^ ^^^ suspended on
-. . 7"^: ,'^/, ^^ ^^ ^^ one shoulder, and under

Manner of securing a long fruit-ladder by the '

Bide of a tall tree, when it is desirable to the arm On the Opposite
pluck the fruit from the long and slender '^^

branches without injuring the buds and ^\^q ig much mOre COn-
twigs. L represents the top of the ladder, '

and PP stakes driven into the ground, to ycnient than a basket, as

which cords from the upper end of the lad- '

der are fastened. there is no danger of let-

ting the fruit drop, as with a basket ; and both hands are
always free, whether the picker be in the tree or on a ladder.
If fruit be borne upon long, slender branches, by drawing
the ends inward or downward with a small hook, all the fruit
may be reached for several feet on each side. The choicest
specimens of pears and apples often grow on the ends of
lon^, slender branches, which will not support a ladder, nor
a man while plucking the fruit. When long ladders are
leaned against the outside of trees, many of the small limbs
and fruit-buds are broken off. By securing a long ladder
as represented, fruit can be gathered by hand which could

GATHERING AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES.

295

Fig. 120.

Fiff. 121.

not be reached in any other
manner. Then, by providing
a common grain-bag hung over
one shoulder, as shown by Fig.
120, one can climb around in a
tree-top with half a bushel of
apples, pears, or other fruit,
much more conveniently than
if the fruit were in a basket.

Portable Staging. — The il-
lustration given below (Fig.

121) represents a style of port- Plucking apples and putting them in
. ^ ' I ^^^ 1 ^ graiu-bag hung over one shoul-

able staging, which will be der.

found exceedingly convenient when plucking any kind of

fruit. It consists of
two light ladders, about
eight feet in length, hav-
ing a strong board, say
four feet long and fifteen
inches wide, secured to
the top of each lad-
der with small carriage-
bolts. Nails would be
liable to break when the
staging is moved about.
The rounds should not
be more than a foot
apart. If preferable,
pieces of boards may be
employed as treads in-
stead of rounds. Let
pieces be bolted in the
form of the letter X,
from the top of one leg

Convenient portable fruit-ladder and staging.

296 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

to the bottom of another, to make it stand firm. Secure to
one side strips for a hand-rail. When making such a de-
vice, procure small carriage-bolts at some hardware store,
which will cost but little, and hold every part desirably-
firm. Every part should be made so light that one per-
son will be able to move it from tree to tree. In case the
ground is not level, let two extension legs be bolted to one
side for the purpose of holding it level.

How to barrel Apples for Market. — The first apples that
are put into a barrel should be laid in by hand, about as
carefully as eggs are handled. It injures fruit, far more
than most persons are wont to suppose, to pour it into a
barrel. Even when a barrel is half-filled, the fruit will be
injured by allowing one apple to drop on another. Fruit
must be handled with extreme care. As soon as a barrel is
full, let it be shaken thoroughly, press the head in with a
screw or well-adjusted lever, like Fig. 122, with force enough
Fig. 122 to prevent the apples from moving

when the barrel is transported, but
not with force sufficient to break
the skin or bruise the flesh of any
of the fruit. If it were not for
the necessity of packing the fruit

A convenient apple-packer. g^ ^jgi^^ as tO prevent its shaking

when the barrel is moved about, it would be much better
not to press the apples at all. The reckless manner in
which apples are now pressed into their packages is one
prolific cause of their premature decay. After the apples
have been shaken down, allowance should be made for
pressing the head down with the lever about half an inch.
When apples are not pressed into the barrel so tightly that
the fruit will not shake, almost every specimen will soon be
badly damaged when transported on a wagon.

When to gather Apples. — Summer apples, and such fruit

OATHERINQ AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES, 297

as ripens early in autumn, will keep mucli longer if plucked
before the specimens are dead ripe. The Sweet Bough and
Early Harvest apples, for example, if gathered as soon as
the fruit has really come to maturity, and laid carefully in a
cool place, will often keep a month ; whereas, if left on the
trees, they would become so dead ripe in a week that they
would be of little value. And yet apples may be gathered
too early. When fruit is gathered before it has come to
maturity, it will wilt and become insipid, like a large pro-
portion of the early apples that are sold in the New York
markets. By a little observation, it will be noticed that
well-matured apples, after being stored a while, look and
feel quite oily when handled. They should be handled with
considerable care after this process has taken place, so as to
disturb this oily coating as little as possible, for this is Na-
ture's covering to prevent decay ; and what better material
could she have supplied for such a purpose ? If apples are
plucked before they have ceased to grow, this oily bloom
will be wanting on the surface of the wilted fruit. Hence
beginners should study to determine the true period for
gathering every kind of fruit.

Fruit-preserving Houses. — In many large cities spacious
fruit-preserving houses have been erected for the preserva-
tion of crude fruit until the succeeding summer. When
one has but few apples, it would not pay to construct such
a building. A fruit-preserving house is built very much
like an ice-house. The side walls are made double, and the
space between them is filled with sawdust or dry tan-bark.
The doorway is double, having a door on each side of the
jamb casings. The floor over the fruit-room is made of
sheet metal, water-tight, and on it is placed ice two or
three feet in depth, over which a deep layer of straw is
spread. The ice maintains the temperature at such a uni-
form degree, that the more perishable sorts and varieties

13*

298 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

of fruit may be kept any desired length of time. The at-
mosphere in such a fruit-room is at about freezing-point,
although the apples and other fruit are not frozen. As
crude fruit is constantly emitting moisture, the fruit-room
would soon become quite too damp, were it not for the ab-
sorbent material which is kept spread out on the floor in
large quantities. Chloride of lime is employed for the ab-
sorbent, which has a great attraction for moisture, and a
capacity for retaining a large quantity. As soon as this
absorbent material is saturated with moisture, it is carried -
out into the air and dried thoroughly, and returned. By
this means the fruit-room is kept cold and very dry. But
when fruit is removed from such a preserving-house in the
summer, it will soon decay, if it is not consumed immedi-
ately. If the moisture in such a fruit-room were not ab-
sorbed at once, the atmosphere would soon become like a
dense aqueous and stagnant vapor, exceedingly unfavorable
for the preservation of fruit.

Fried Apples for Human Food. — ^In those regions where
potatoes are few and poor, on account of the rot, fried ap-
ples are an excellent substitute. They are quickly pre-
pared for the table, which is often a consideration of no
small importance. Wash them, cut them in two, take out
the stem, core, and calyx, and, unpealed, put them into a tin
pan with butter, or the gravy of baked pork, with some
water, in proportion to the quantity to be fried ; cover
them with a lid, set them on the stove, stir them occasion-
ally until they become soft, and be careful not to burn
them. Romanites, which are often almost worthless, baked
or raw, "disappear with good gusto when fried." We
may truthfully pronounce despisable Penics good, when
fried ; but the Porters, Bellflowers, Talman's Sweeting, and
a long list which we might name, when fried, are really a
luxury. Most persons like apples in a raw state, or when

QATHERINO AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLE^ 299

they are baked or stewed ; and it can not be denied that
thev furnish one of the most wholesome and agreeable
kinds of diet. Although raw, stewed, or baked apples may-
be pronounced excellent and delicious, still there are many-
kinds, when fried, which are super - excellent ; and they
who seldom meet with a dish of fried apples often wonder
why they are not always fried instead of baked. When
apples are baked, they often burst open, and much of the
best part flows out as juice, and is lost. But when they
are fried, the whole is saved. In our own family we con-
sume five or six barrels of apples before one barrel of Irish
potatoes is gone. Many persons who do not care to eat
more than one or two crude apples per day, will often eat
six or eight when they are fried. Dr. Hall has stated, in
his " Journal of Health," that, in order to derive a more
decided medicinal effect, fruits should be largely eaten soon
after rising in the morning, and about midway between
breakfast and dinner.

Good ripe apples constitute a cooling diet. The philo-
sophical reason for this is, the acid of the fruit stimulates
the liver to greater activity in separating the bile from the
blood, which is its proper work, the result of which is, the
bowels become free, and the pores of the skin are open.
Under such circumstances, fevers and want of appetite are
impossible. The appetite frequently yearns for a pickle,
when nothing else could be relished. This is often the
case in the experience of most of us. It is the instinct of
nature pointing to a cure. The want of a natural appetite
is the result of the bile not being separated from the
blood ; and if not remedied, fever is inevitable, from the
slightest grades to that of bilious, congestive, and yellow
fever. But those persons who eat large quantities of
crude or cooked apples are never troubled with constipa-
tion or biliousness. An incalculable amount of sickness

300 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

and suffering would be prevented every year, if apples
were employed to a greater extent on our tables, instead
of such immense quantities of heavy animal food. Good
beef, mutton, oysters, and roasted fowls make excellent liv-
ing ; yet, in many instances, a dish of fried apple will oper-
ate like magic in giving a healthful tone to the whole sys-
tem of a high-living dyspeptic. By an arrangement of
Providence as beautiful as it is benign, the fruits of the
earth are ripening during the whole summer. From the
delightful strawberry, on the opening of spring, to the lus-
cious peach of the fall, there is a constant succession of su-
perb aliments ; made luxurious by that Power whose lov-
ing kindness is in all his works, in order to stimulate us to
their highest cultivation, connecting with their use also the
most health-giving influences. Liebig says, they prevent
debility, strengthen digestion, correct the putrefactive ten-
dencies of nitrogenous food, avert scurvy, and strengthen
the power of productive labor. If eaten frequently at
breakfast, with coarse bread and butter, without meat or
flesh, apples have an admirable effect on the system, often
removing constipation, correcting acidities, and cooling off
febrile conditions more effectually than the most approved
medicines.

Apples for Domestic Animals. — It will be perceived by
the analysis on page 304 that sweet apples are of great value
in feeding almost any kind of stock. Swine will fatten rap-
idly on them. Cows, if not over-fed with them at the start,
and care is taken to cut or mash the apples, so that the ani-
mals can not get choked, will increase in milk and improve
in condition. Apples are an excellent succulent food for
horses in winter. Any varieties of sweet apples that bear
abundantly will answer the purpose. Unfortunately, but
little attention has been given to varieties for feeding do-
mestic animals exclusively. Hardiness, thriftiness, and

^

OATHERINQ ANU MANAGEMENT OF AFFLEH. 301

great bearing qualities are the main requisites. For early-
feeding, probably the High-top, or Summer Sweet of the
"West, may prove one of the best. There are several au-
tumn sorts at least worthy of trial, among which are the
following : the Coolies' Sweet is a fine grower, and a very-
productive 'New Jersey variety ; the Jersey Sweet is also
very productive, but the tree is less vigorous ; the Munson
Sweeting and Haskell Sweet are both productive, and of
excellent quality, but not yet much tried west of New
York. The Pumpkin Sweet may prove a good autumn
sort for this purpose. The Sweet Pearmain is said to suc-
ceed well at the West, and may be valuable for late fall
and winter feeding. The same remark will apply to the
Sweet Romanite, a Western variety. The Wing Sweeting,
although not large, is very productive at the East, and
keeps well — if as much so at the West, it would be valua-
ble. The Green Sweet is hardy and productive, and keeps
into spring. The most profitable sweet apple that we have
ever met w^ith — both for market, for feeding stock, and for
culinary purposes — is the Talman's Sweeting. (See Illus-
tration, p. 282.) From a long experience in feeding sweet
apples to milch-cows, horses, sheep, swine, and other stock,
I know it will pay to cultivate the Talman's Sweeting to
feed stock during the foddering season. If apples are fed
in connection with meal, and only once per day, a bushel of
apples will be of as much value as a bushel of oats. Yet
apples can not be relied on as the proper feed for giving
teams strength. When teams are standing idle for several
days in succession, sweet apples, fed in connection with
meal or grain, will keep animals in a better condition than
nothing but grain and hay at every feeding. Most farmers
have heretofore made an egregious mistake in judgment
touching the value of sweet apples for feeding sheep during
the foddering season, and for feeding store swine. A sue-

302 TEE APPLE CULTUMIST.

cessful and intelligent farmer of Central New York recent-
ly wrote us as follows :

*' I have been amused to hear farmers who have devoted years to their calling
say that apples dry up their cows, and that they are not worth gathering for milch-
cows. This year apples were too scarce to feed : hut I think, fi'om some experi-
ments that I have made, that they are at least equal to carrots in weight for feed-
ing stock, and especially milch-cows, as they always gain both in milk and flesh
when fed on them. Apples and pumpkins should not be suflTered to freeze, as that
injures their feeding properties very much. I never saw lambs do better every
way than when their feed was good hay and one bushel of apples per hundred
sheep per day. Several who have fed apples to their sheep have refused to sell
them for cider-making, and even fed out those of the best quality to dry, in pref-
erence to drying them for sale at the prices paid for dried fruit."

Chemical Analysis of Apples.— According to the analyses made by Professor Salis-
bury, "The apple is usually rich in phosphoric and sulphuric acids, and potash
and soda. Hence we may infer that bone-dust, ashes, salt, and plaster would be
likely to prove useful as portions of the manure applied to bearing trees, in addi-
tion to what is already contained in yard-manure. One striking difference in the
composition of the apple and potato is the entire absence of starch in the apple,
while in the potato starch constitutes nearly one-third of the solid part. The ap-
ple, according to this analysis, is rather superior to the potato in fat-producing
qualities, which accords with the experience of some accurate farmers. The ap-
ple contains about twice as much of the compounds of nitrogen as the potato.
The English Russet contains less water and more dry matter than most other
sorts. This is doubtless the reason why this variety is so hard to freeze. The
Talraan's Sweeting contains more, the Greening still more, and the Kilham Hill
most water of all, ranging in all these varieties from 79 to 86 per cent. A fresh
potato contains aljout as much water as the Russet. The apple contains a small
quantity of tannic and gallic acids, the proportion being greater in the Russets
than in most other varieties. The astringency so striking in some kinds of apples,
which is easily detected by the black color given to a knife or any iron substance
when thrust into them, is owing to the presence of these acids. The ripe apple is
rich in sugar and a body analogous to gum, called dextrine, which has the same
composition as starch, although it differs from starch in being soluble in cold wa-
ter, and not colored blue with iodine.

" Dextrine and sugar in the apple take the place of starch, dextrine, and sugar
in the potato. Of the former, 100 lbs. of good fruit contain of dextrine, sugar,
and extract 11.4 lbs. ; the latter has, in the same amount of fresh tubers, 13,61 lbs.
starch ; dextrine, sugar, and extract, 68.5 lbs. ; in the same quantity of dry potato
there is of starch, dextrine, sugar, and extract, 68.02 lbs. The above proximate
principles are the main bodies in the apple and potato which go to form fat. In
the aggregate amount, then, of fat-producing products it will be seen that the apple
and potato do not materially differ. It would be natural, however, to infer that
50 lbs. of dextrine and sugar would, if taken into the system, be more likely to
make a greater quantity of fat in a given time, or at least to make the same
amount in a shorter period, than an equal weight of starch, for this reason, that
the two former bodies, although nearly the same in composition with the latter,
are yet physically farther advanced in organization, and hence probably approxi-
mate nearer the constitution of fat. If this view be taken, then the apple, if of
good quality, may be regarded equally, if not more rich in fat-producing products
than the potato. One hundred lbs. of fresh apple contain of albumen 1.38 lbs. ;
the same amount of fresh potato has i- of a lb. ; 100 lbs. of dry apple contain 8.37
11)8. of albumen, and an equal weight of dry tubers has IJ lbs. ; 100 lbs. of fresh
fruit contain of casein 0.16 of a lb., and an equal weight of fresh tubers 0.46 of a
lb. ; 100 lbs. of dry apples have 1 lb. of casein, and the same amount of dry potato

GATHERING AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLEIS. 303

contains 2^ lbs. Hence it will be observed that 100 lbs. of fresh apple contain of
albumen and casein 1.54 lbs., and the same quantity of fresh potato 0.7 of a lb. ;
100 lbs. of dry fruit have of albumen and casein 9.3T lbs., and an equal amount of
dry tubers contains 3.50 lbs.

" From the above it vpill readily be seen that in albumen the apple is richer
than the potato, while in casein the reverse is the case ; that the aggregate
amount of albumen, casein, and gluten in good varieties of the apple is more than
double that of the same bodies in the potato ; hence the former may be regarded
richer than the latter in those bodies which strictly go to nourish the system, or
in other words, to form muscle, brain, nerve, and in short assist in building up
and sustaining the organic part of all the tissues of the animal body.

" Dextrine and gum should not be confounded with each other. They differ
very materially in many respects. The former possesses the property of being
converted into grape-sugar by sulphuric acid and by diastase, while the latter
does not. Dextrine belongs to the class of ])odies which are susceptible of nour-
ishing the animal body. All the starch taken as food is converted into dextrine
before it is assimilated by the system. The acids of the stomach possess the
property of converting starch into this body.

" In the fresh apple, 100 lbs. contain about 3.2 lbs. of fibre ; 0.2 of a lb. of gluten,
fat, and wax ; 3.1 lbs. of dextrine ; 8.3 lbs. of sugar and extract ; 0.3 of a lb. of
malic acid ; 1.4 lbs. of albumen ; 0.16 of a lb. of casein ; and 82.06 lbs. of water.
In the dry apple, 100 lbs. contain about 19 lbs. of fibre ; 1.1 lbs. of gluten, fat, and
wax ; 18.7 lbs. of dextrine ; 49.8 lbs. of sugar and extract ; 2 lbs. of malic acid ;
8.4 lbs. of albumen ; and 1 lb. of casein. In the fresh potato, 100 lbs. contain about
9.7 lbs. of starch ; 5.8 lbs. of fibre ; 0.2 of a lb. of gluten ; 0.08 of a lb. of fatty mat-
ter ; } of a lb. of albumen ; 0.45 of a lb. of casein ; 1.27 lbs. of dextrine ; 2.64 lbs.
of sugar and extract; and 79.7 lbs. of water. In the dry potato, 100 lbs. contain
about 48.5 lbs. of starch ; 29 lbs. of fibre. 1 lb. of gluten ; 0.4, of a pound of fatty
matter ; 1.25 lbs. of albumen ; 2.25 lbs. of casein ; 6.32 lbs. of dextrine ; and 13.2
lbs. of sugar and extract."

According to the analyses of Professor Salisbury, the ap-
ple has the advantage of containing a greater proportion
of nitrogenous matter. Hence the value of apples, both as
an article of human food and as food for all kinds of do-
mestic animals. Professor Salisbury gives the inorganic
and organic analyses of six different varieties of apples,
viz.: Talman's Sweeting, Swaar, Roxbury Russet, Rhode
Island Greening, and Kilham Hill. He also observes, that
the analyses were calculated both with and without the
carbonic acid. It was necessary that they should be calcu-
lated without it, in order to show the real composition of
the organic matter of the fruit. The carbonic acid is form-
ed during the combustion of the organic matter, and hence
can not be regarded as a constituent part of the apple, ex-
cept in very minute quantity. We extract the table show-
ing the mean of those analyses, as follows :

304

THE APPLE CULTVRIHT.

INORGANIC OR ASH ANALYSIS.

With Carbonic
Acid.

Without Car-
bonic Acid.

Carbonic acid

15.210
1.362
1.336

11.252
8.442
1.400

31.810

20.810
1.822
6.062
4.890

' V.63T
1.593

13.267
4.199
1.669

37.610

24.799
2.169
7.229
5.828

Silica

Ptiosphate of iron

Phosphoric acid ....

Lime

Potasr.^f .' .' '.'.'.'. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. .* * ." .' .' .' ." ." .' * ." .' .' .' .' .' '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.

Soda

Chlorine

Sulphuric acid

Organic matter thrown down by nitrate of siiver. .

99.396

100.000

PROXIMATE, OR ORGANIC ANALYSIS OF THE SAME VARIETIES.

1000 Parts of
fresh Apple.

1000 Parts of
dried Apjile.

32.03
1.94

31.44

83.25
3.17'

13.79
1.64

190.879

11.463

186.805

497.627

19.585

83.720

9.921

Glutinous matter, with a little fat and wax

Dextrine

Sugar and extract

Malic acid

Casein

167.26

826.64

6.10

1000.000

Water

Loss

1000.000

Drying Apples.

How often, to dry, on foul cords are they strung,

In murky, low kitchens and out-houses hung ;

As roosts for vile hornets, bugs, millers, and flies ;

Then served at a banquet in dried-apple pies.— Edwards.

The practice adopted by a large proportion of those per-
sons who prepare dried apples for market deserves the se-
verest reprobation. The fruit is half-peeled, half-cored,
and often not cored at all, cut in quarters or slices, and
spread on the filthy roof of a building, or on dirty boards,
where it is exposed to alternate sunshine and rain, until the
repulsive-looking pieces, thickly dotted with fly-specks, are
sufficiently dry to be stored in bins or barrels as an article
of human food. The people who practise this odious sys-

OATHERINO AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 305

tern of drying fruit receive their merited reward in a price
so low per pound that they have no encouragement to dry
any more fruit. On the contrary, if they would peel their
apples neatly, and dry them properly, so that the dry fruit
would appear attractive as a desirable article of human
food, instead of presenting a disgusting and repulsive ap-
pearance, they would receive an encouraging compensation
for their labor. In one sense, the process of drying apples
is like making butter. Let the labor be performed in a
neat manner, and there will be no difficulty in obtaining a
generous and a remunerative price. On the contrary, if
neatness in milking, churning, and working the butter is
neglected, the reward is a low price for the products of one's
industry. The same is true in regard to drying apples.

The philosophy of drying apples, or any other fruit, con-
sists in simply evaporating the water from the juice of the
fruit, and curing the soluble portions of the fruit, so that
they will not mould or decay. Hence, when fruit is dried
by solar heat on scaffolds, the fundamental requirements
are a rapid current of air, and the greatest amount of sun-
light upon a limited extent of surface. To secure the first,
the table or scaffold upon which the apple is to be spread
should not be level, but inclined toward the south at an an-
gle of ten or fifteen degrees, so as to present the surface
more fully to the sun. The second point is gained by re-
moving the skin and cutting the fruit into slices, the thin-
ner, the more expeditious the result. The drying is facili-
tated by moving the pieces about several times during the
day, so as to expose them more freely to the air and sun.
They should be protected from the dew by a water-tight
covering, as fruit willnot dry during damp days and nights
when exposed to the ordinary influences of the atmosphere.
The process of drying must then be so rapid that no decay,
nor even discoloration, shall take place until the operation

306

THE APPLE CULTURIIST.

is completed. Our climate is too precarious to think of
drying fruit properly in the open air, even for the earliest
varieties. Some artificial arrangement for the purpose
must therefore be devised.

As soon as an apple is peeled, the sooner the water can be
removed from the juice, the more delicious the dried fruit
will appear. Ripe fruit must be dried rapidly, or it will
begin to decay before the pieces are sufficiently dry to con-
tinue sweet during the entire year. Apples are frequently
spread out on boards, and placed in an oven to hasten the
drying process. The only objection to heating the fruit in
an oven is a want of circulation. Heated damp air tends
to cook the fruit rather than to dry ito If there could be a
rapid current of warm dry air passing through the oven, so
as to carry away the dampness from the fruit, a large oven
would be an excellent place for drying fruit. When fruit
is heated in a close oven, it is quite liable to be exposed to
a degree of heat that will be injurious to it, so much so
that it is often half-baked and afterwards dried. Hence
such fruit is dark-colored, aiid deficient in that excellent
aroma which dried fruit will possess when it has been dried
in a current of rarefied or warm air. Rarefied air in mo-
tion possesses a wonderful capacity to absorb and convey
away the moisture of fruit. When fruit is surrounded by
Fi?. 123. warm air that is not in motion,

decay will soon commence.

A Cheap Fruit-drying Ap-
paratus.— Figure 123 repre-
sents a cheap and convenient
f device for drying any kind of
fruit, which may be employed
in small families with the
most satisfactory results. It

A couvenieut fruit-dryer. COnsistS of a Strong box, tWO

GATHERING AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 307

by three feet square, or it may be only two feet square,
made of inch boards, without top or bottom. One side is
left open, as represented, to be closed by one or two doors
in front. The height may be two, four, or six feet. Cleats
are then screwed to two sides about two inches apart, to
support the drying-screens, which are made similar to the
sieves of a fanning - mill. Wire - cloth for making the
screens can be obtained in rolls of any desired length and
width at extensive hardware stores in large cities. If the
cupboard is made two by three feet square, wire-cloth two
feet wide can be procured and cut to fit the lengtl^ of
the frames, and a piece nailed to each frame, as represented
Fig 124. ^y -^^S" ^^'^' '^^® frame-work of the screens
i^^.,i^u,^^ may be made of almost any kind -of wood
'■"'■' "■■"" y-', dressed out smoothly, say one inch by one inch
and a quarter square, and the corners mitred,
glued, and nailed together, before the wire-cloth
is fastened to the frames. Coarse canvas may be
employed in lieu of wire-cloth. Yet wire will be found far
superior, as the circulation of warm air upward through the
wire meshes will be much more rapid than through canvas.
The screens should be about two inches apart. Then, in a
cupboard four feet high, there would be about twenty-four
screens, furnishing, in the aggregate, an area of scaffolding
equal to 144 square feet. When the dryer is to be used
for drying fruit of any sort, place it over any kind of stove,
a little above it, so that the heated air will rise directly up-
ward through the meshes of the screens, and thus convey
rapidly away the moisture from the fruit. In the course
of a few hours, with a few dimes' worth of fuel, all the
fruit that could be spread on the screens would be dried in
the neatest manner. If the fruit at the bottom were to dry
more rapidly than that on the upper screens, they can be
changed in a moment. All steaming, stewing, and baking

A wire bcieeu.

308

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

Fig. 125.

is thus completely avoided. A current of dry, fresh, and
warm air is constantly circulating through the box -cup-
board ; and so long as a particle of moisture remains, the
dry air will absorb it.

An Apple-parer and Slicer. — Fig. 125 represents the
latest and most approved apple-parer and slicer now in
use. As fast as the
apple is peeled, a pe-
culiar - shaped knife
cuts the entire pulp,
exoept the core, in one
long, spiral slice, some-
what like a very thick
peeling placed on the
edge. After an apple
is peeled and sliced,
with two cuts of a
hand -knife every one
is laid on the drying-
screen, in twenty to forty neat and thin slices of a uniform
size, for drying evenly. With such a machine one person
can prepare several bushels per day for drying. They are
very durable, and are not liable to get out of order. A small
lad, with a little instruction, will soon learn to peel and slice
apples quite as rapidly as an adult. One of the most impor-
tant considerations is to keep the knives very sharp, so that
they will cut easily through all bruised places. This style
of parer was invented by D. H. Whittemore, of Worcester,
Massachusetts ; but the machines may be obtained of most
dealers in hardware in large cities at about one dollar each.

The "Lightning Peeler." — Fig. 126, on the following
page, is a fair representation of an improved " Lightning
Peeler." The tines of the fork are secured to the journal
in such a manner that they will clasp either a large or a

Paring, coring, and slicing machine.

GATHERING AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 309

small peach -pit. _ Fig. 126.

The knife moves
automatically
around the apple
or peach, as rep-
resented by the
dotted line. The
main considera-
tion in using a
peeling - machine
is to put each ap-
ple on the fork so

^, ^ ^, ^ . T Combined peach and apple parer. .

that the outside

will revolve true, and to keep the knife as sharp as a razor,

by whetting the edge on a fine-gritted whetstone.

Sweet-apple Molasses. — A great many well-to-do persons,
who have large quantities of choice apples, have never
tasted of apple molasses. If properly made, it is a superb
luxury. To make a choice article, procure ripe, sound,
sweet apples, reject all poor and half -rotten specimens —
grind them, express the juice as directed for making su-
perior cider, and boil the cider down to the desired con-
sistency in a clean brass kettle, or in an iron kettle lined
with mastic. Iron kettles will color the liquid. Maintain
a steady fire, to prevent scorching it. The unfermented
juice of any variety of sweet apples may be employed.
While the sirup is being boiled, let all the scum be re-
moved. As soon as it is of the desired consistency, put it
in large bottles or kegs, and cork tight.

Sweet-apple Jelly. — One of the greatest luxuries of the
apple-orchard consists of apple- jelly made of the juice of
ripe, sweet apples, boiled down carefully as one boils maple-
sap when making sugar, until it is sufficiently thick to form
a jelly when it has cooled. If ripe, clean, and sound sweet

310 THE APPLE CULTURIST.

apples be used, the jelly will have no taste of boiled cider,
and will be of a beautiful amber color, and of a delicious
taste. Some persons prefer the juice of tart apples to the
juice of sweet fruit. They who have never tasted of such
jelly will be surprised to see what a superb and delicate
luxury can be made from the juice of apples. Such apple-
jelly is not affected by exposure to the air, whether dry or
moist, and it will neither sour, nor mould, nor dry up, nor
absorb water. Such an article of course will bear trans-
portation in barrels or other vessels to any part of the
world.

When a person is going on a long journey, a few tin
cans of such jelly can be carried conveniently; and the lus-
cious food will always supply a great want. During hot
weather, a spoonful mingled with water will make a bever-
age that kings and queens might covet. Some farmers
prepare a number of gallons of such jelly expressly to min-
gle with drinking-water in hot weather. A few cents'
worth of such jelly, mingled with water in a hot day, will
enable a laborer to endure oppressive heat and fatiguing
labor with very little inconvenience and suffering.

Sweet-apple Pies. — Pies made of sweet apples used in
precisely the same way as pumpkins, omitting the ginger
and adding a little lemon if liked, for seasoning, are better,
to the writer's taste, than pumpkin-pie itself. Pare, cut,
and stew the apples. If cooked in a covered deep earthen
or other dish in the oven, they are better. Strain through
a colander, adding a little milk, or cream, which is better.
If there be no eggs to spare, stir in a handful of flour, or
about a spoonful to a pie. Sweeten to taste with sugar ; a
mere trifle will be found sufficient. Bake thoroughly in a
moderate oven.

How to make superior Cider. — In order to be able to ex-
press all the juice, every atom of an apple must be crushed.

GATHEBING AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 311

FALL PIPPIN.

Sijnomjma.— York Pippin, Pound Pippin, Episcopal, Golden Pippin, Cat Head,
Philadelphia Pippin, and Pound Royal, This is a superb variety. The trees,
when growing on good land, yield bountiful crops. This is really an autumn va-
riety, while there are apples called Fall Pippins which are winter sorts. The fruit
is usually large, roundish-oftJongr, somewhat angular, with broad ribs on its sides,
terminating in an uneven crown, where it is nearly as broad as at the base. Calyx
large, open, deeply sunk in a broad-angled, oblique, irregular basin. Stalk half
an inch long, set in a rather small, even cavity. Skin smooth, yellowish-green on
the shaded side, orange, tinged with brownish-red next the sun, and sprinkled
with blackish dots ; it is often covered with a bloom like that on a plum. Flesh
yellowish-white, crisp, tender, with a sugary juice.

If sliced fine, the juice can not be forced out except by-
means of a powerful hydraulic press. When the apples are
squeezed^ as it is termed, without first being ground in a
power-press, the cider is thin and light-colored, and of a
very inferior quality ; fit for nothing except for making al-
coholic beverages. In order to make pleasant and aromatic

312 THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

cider, the apples must be reduced to a fine pulp destitute
of lumps. After grinding or crushing, the pomace should
be allowed to stand a few hours, according to the tempera-
ture of the weather, for the purpose of developing a rich
color and a fine aromatic taste. In warm weather, ten
hours is a sufficient length of time for the pomace to stand.
As soon as little bubbles begin to appear on the surface,
which indicate the first stages of fermentation, the juice
should be expressed. When treated in this manner, the ci-
der will possess a flavor which it never has when expressed
as soon as the fruit is ground. Apple-seeds should never
be crushed, as they will render the cider bitter. The ap-
ples should be well-ripened, but not in the least decayed.
Every apple with the least speck of rot in it should be re-
moved, if you wish a first-rate beverage. The decayed and
inferior apples may be reserved for making vinegar. Per-
fect cleanliness should be observed in the grinding proc-
ess* Clean dry straw should be used in forming the cheese.
If the straw be musty, the flavor will be communicated to
the juice. If water be added, it will make it hard and un-
pleasant to the taste. The casks, also, in which it is put
for fermentation should be thoroughly cleansed, and finish-
ed off with a fumigation of brimstone. This is done by
burning inside the barrel a few strips of canvas dipped in
melted brimstone. The fumes will penetrate all the pores,
and destroy the must and correct the sourness. After the
fermentation is over, draw ofE into clean barrels, and clarify
it. This can be done by mixing a quart of clean white sand
with the whites of half a dozen eggs and a pint of mustard-
seed, and pouring it into the barrel. It may stand in the
barrel, or, if a nice article is wanted, it should be put into
quart bottles and corked. When superb cider is made in
the foregoing manner and secured in bottles, it is as palata-
ble, and much more wholesome, than most of the wines of

OATHERINQ AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 313

Fig. 12T.

commerce. "In affections of the kidneys, it is an excellent
remedy, and should have a place in every well-appointed
cellar. It is a matter of some importance that what cider
is made should be made in the best manner.

Cider and Wine Mills. — Fig. 12 V represents a cheap ci-
der-mill, designed particu-
larly for those persons who
desire to make only a few
gallons of cider, or a few
gallons of wine. The ap-
ples are ground by hand,
and the pomace falls di-
rectly into the curb where
the juice is to be ex-
pressed. The grinding ap-
paratus is all made of cast-
iron, and every part is very
durable. Such a mill will
be found convenient when
one desires to make only
part of a barrel of cider in
the latter part of summer,
or in autumn, when it would
not pay to make the same
quantity with a large mill.

_, , Hutchinson's liand cider and wine mill.

The same press may be em-
ployed for many other purposes. Grapes can be run through
the grinder, or the juice expressed without grinding.

Making Cider-vinegar. — This liquid is a modification of
acetic acid. There are many kinds of acetic acid sold as
vinegar, which are so unlike cider-vinegar, that the vile stuff
is no more fit to mingle with human food and drink than
muriatic acid. Good cider-vinegar is a very useful condi-
ment, and often an important luxury on the table. Let it

14

314

THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

Fig. 128.

be understood, however, that we discard the hurtful acid
that is made of numerous other substances besides the juice
of apples, and sold as good vinegar. Cider-vinegar is made
by exciting a second, or acetous, fermentation in cider.
During this process, oxygen is absorbed from the atmos-
phere, carbonic acid is evolved, and the alcohol of the cider
passes into acetic acid. In order to have cider-vinegar of
the first quality, one must have good cider. The better the
cider is, the better the vinegar will be. If vinegar be made
of watered cider, it will be thin and weak, resembling wa-
tered cider. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 128) will

give the reader
an excellent idea
of the process
of making good
vinegar. A kind
of cupboard is
made of inch
boards, about
three and a half
feet high by sev-
en feet long. In-
side of this box
fit shelves about
three and a half
inches apart. On the upper side of these shelves gouge out
channels running nearly from one end to the other, until the
upper side is covered with zigzag grooves running from end
to end. There should be cleats fastened to the under side of
each shelf, to prevent it from warping ; and the cleats should
be put on with screws. The channel must be made slightly
slanting, as in the illustration. The top shelf must slant so
as to be about two inches lower than the other side, and the
next shelf below it should slant about two inches in the

Apparatus for making cider-viuegar.

GATHERING AND MANAGEMENT OF APPLES. 315

opposite direction. By this arrangement, a long zigzag
channel is made for the liquid to flow in. At its end, in
the upper shelf, bore a hole through, so that the vinegar
can drop to the next shelf, and traverse the channel. Thus
it continues to flow from end to end, until it has reached
the end of the channel in the lower shelf, when it fall^ into
a receptacle. When commencing to make vinegar in this
manner, place the maker in some small room, where you can
have a fire and keep the temperature about ninety or nine-
ty-five degrees Fahrenheit. Have a barrel, or tub, or hogs-
head, placed a little higher than the box, and near the end
where the first channel commences, in the top shelf. In this
barrel have a faucet, so that you can regulate the amount of
cider which it is designed to have flow in the channel. The
aim should be to keep a very small stream moving gently
through the maker, affording every d^^ ample opportunity
to absorb the desired amount of oxygen before the liquid
reaches the end of the channel in the last shelf. A few gal-
lons, or a half-barrel of good strong vinegar, should be run
through first, so that the shelves will be well soured before
letting other mixtures run through. It is a good idea to
add one-third or one-fourth of good vinegar to any mixture
of cider before allowing it to run through the maker. Open
the faucet, so that a stream not larger than a straw shall
fall into the channel of the top shelf. As it falls through
the last hole into the barrel below the maker, the cider will
have changed to strong and pure vinegar. When once
started, the process must continue night and day, until the
supply fails. In warm weather no fire will be required in
the vinegar apartment, which should be well supplied with
fresh air to facilitate oxidation. If the liquid is allowed to
flow too rapidly, it will not have time to oxidize.

Buffalo Vinegar. — This kind of vinegar is made by min-
gling ten gallons of water with one gallon of molasses, and

16

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

allowing it to ferment, after which one gallon of cheap
whisky or two quarts of alcohol are added to every ten
gallons. This liquid is then allowed to flow gently through
the maker. This is the "Buffalo pure cider-vinegar," of
which such large quantities have been sold. People buy-
ing it believe it to be made of pure cider; yet those in
the trade know it does not contain one drop of cider. If
a little more whisky be added, the vinegar will be strong-
er. By the addition of carbon in the form of molasses and
sugar, the acid becomes more like cider-vinegar. Watered
cider may be greatly improved for making vinegar by add-
ing two gallons of molasses to a barrel of cider.

NEX^TOWN SPITZEN^ER4.

Sy7ionym«.— Spitzenburgh, Burlington, Kountz, Barrett's Spitzenburgh, Wine,
Vandevere of New York, Ox-eye, Spiced Ox-eye, Joe Berry, and Matchless. The
fruit of this old and valuable variety is usually of medium size, oblate, slightly
conical, and, when not covered with stripes, splashes, and dots, the surface is of a
fine yellow color, and is usually washed with red, is striped and splashed with
deeper red, and richly shaded with carmine on the sunny side, covered with a
light bloom, and sprinkled with grayish specks. The flesh is very rich and juicy,
with a fine grain ; crisp, tender, vinous flavor, scarcely subacid. Season, Novem-
ber to May.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF POMOLOGY. 317

CHAPTER X.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF POMOLOGY.

Tall branches stand waving their plumes to the sky,
To kiss the fleet summer clouds as they pass by ;
And frequent they shower a roseate wreath
On innocent children while playing beneath.— Edwards.

An abbreviated Pomological Glossary is here present-
ed, embracing such words and phrases as are employed in
describing the apple, and in the propagation and manage-
ment of apple-trees :

Acuminate, ending in a produced tapering point, having it curved towards one
edge of the leaf. (See Leaf.)

Albumen, nutritive organic matter, of great value as an article of food, and also
a valuable ingredient in manures. The white of eggs is almost pure albumen.
It constitutes the chief bulk of wheat, rye, and other monocotyledonous seeds.

Alburnum, the sap-wood of any tree, or the white portion between the inner bark
and the duramen, or heart-wood. Also the soft, semi-fluid substance— the cambi-
um—between the liber, or inner bark, and the concentric circle of wood that was
formed the preceding year, after it has solidified.

Analogue, an organ or body resembling another organ of body, substituted for
or equivalent to it.

Analysis, comparing the various parts of a plant, tree, etc., with written de-
scriptions of a given specimen.

Annual, living or enduring but one year.

Annular, in the form of a ring.

Anther, that part of the stamen of a flower or apple-blossom which contains the
pollen. (See Stamen.)

Apetalous, destitute of petals ; not having a corolla.

Apex, the crown, summit, or upper end, as the flower-end of an apple.

Apple. The scientific name of the common apple, including all known varieties,
is Prjrus malus. The pear belongs to the same genus as the apple, but is of a diff'er-
ent species. Hence the pear is denominated Pyrus communis. Mrs. Lincoln, in her
"Botany," says the name of the apple is Malus communis, which is only one of
the mistakes of a great woman. The following is a brief botanical description of
the apple-tree: Stem, in open ground, ten to thirty feet high ; in thickets, forty
to sixty feet high ; branches rigid, crooked, and spreading ; bark blackish and
rough ; leaves two to four inches long, and two-thirds as wide as the length ;
ovate, or oblong-ovate, serrate, acute, or short-acuminate, pubescent above,
tomentose beneath, petiolate ; corymbs sub-umbellate ; pedicels and calyx villose-
tomentose ; pome (fruit) globose ; petioles one-half or one inch long ; flowers ex-
panding with the leaves, large, fragrant, and, when in full bloom, often clothing
the tree in a light, roseate hue. The blossoms of some trees, however, are nearly

318

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

Fig. 129.
Apex, crown, or blossom end.

Base or stem end of an apple

Fig. 130.

white. (See Blossoms.) There are at the present day over three thousand vari-
eties of apples, and new varieties are being added to the list every year. The
timber of the apple-tree is very firm and heavy, and excellent for making planes
and handles for tools ; but it is not durable when exposed to the influences of

wet and dry weather. Botanically speaking,
the fruit of the apple-tree is the seeds of the
apple. The names by which the principal
parts of an apple are designated may be
readily understood by the annexed diagram
of a part of an apple, in which A represents
the axis of an apple by a dotted line extend-
ing from the calyx, K, to the stem, O. B rep-
resents the basin of the apple. (See Basin.)
C shows the cavity of the fruit. (See Cavity.)
K designates the calyx ; F represents the ed-
ible portion of the apple, the flesh or pulp,
and sometimes improperly called the sarco-
carp, which.is only applicable to stone fruit.
(See Sarcocarp.) H shows the location of the
core, which embraces the seeds, S, and the
hulls, E, which separate the carpels, or cav-
ities, in which the apple-seeds are formed—
the hulls, or membranaceous valves, which are tough, elastic shells, forming the
inside walls of the carpels. The number of seeds varies from one— or none at all—
to every intermediate number between one and twenty.
Some apples may have produced even a larger num-
ber than twenty seeds. A great many good apples
have only a small core, and not a single perfect seed.
The number of carpels, E, in an apple is five, which are
all arranged around the axis of the apple. All apple-
seeds are tunicatcd, or covered with an endocarp—a. num-
ber of concentric coats, which are sometimes so imper-
vious to water that seeds will lie in the damp ground a
year or more before a suificient amount of moisture can
find its way to the germ to promote germination. The
diagram herewith given represents a transverse section
of an apple, showing the number of carpels, the seeds,

and the core. It may be perceived, by a glance at this section, that when an ap-
ple is cut in transverse slices there will appear a perfect representation of the
five petals of the apple-blossom. The five dark-colored spots represent the car-
pels. The black dot is the axis. The illustrations herewith given will enable
any intelligent person to describe any apple in an intelligible manner, by simply
comparing a specimen with the diagrams. When the
length and breadth of an apple are about equal, we
say it is round, or roundish, like Fig. 131. If the
width is greater than the length from stem to calyx,
the apple is of an oblate form, like Fig. 132, on the op-
posite page. Conical is employed to describe an ap-
ple that is tapering from the base towards the apex,
but which is not longer than the width, like Fig. 133.
When the width is less than the length, like Fig. 134,
the fruit is said to be oblong. Kaighn's Spitzenberg
is a variety of this form. The Rhode Island Green-
ing (p. 164) is described as oblate-conical, like Fig. 135.
Ribbed apples are represented by Fig. 136. Fruit of
Roundish. an ovate form is shown by Fig. 137. The terms red,

A section of an a

Fig. 131.

Fig. 132.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF POMOL 00 Y. 319

Fig. 134,

Fig. 133.

Oblate-conical. Ribbed. Ovate.

ruHset, striped, streaked, and several other adjectives, are employed when describing
apples.

Arbor, a tree, a perennial plant, the top, stem, and branches of which do not
die annually, like the stem of an herK
Arborescent, approaching the size and height of a tree.
Arboriculture, the art of propagating and cultivating trees and shrubs.
Arnied, having thorns, spikes, or prickles.

Aromatic, having a spicy flavor or fragrance.
Ascending, rising from the ground in an oblique direction. When
branches cui-ve upward, like Fig. 138, they are said to be ascending.
Aspect, in the sense in which it is employed in pomology, signi-
fies the slope of <:he land where an orchard is growing. When an
orchard is planted on the north side of a hill, where the surface
slopes to the north, we say the orchard has a northern aspect.
If the surface slopes to the south or to the east, a southern or
eastern aspect. Of course, when the land is level, the orchard will
have no aspect.

Assimilate. The leaves of a tree change the crude sap into prop-
er material for developing and building up every part, which is
called assimilating, or digesting and concocting the plant-food.
Assurgent, rising in a curve from a declined base.
Axil, the angle between a leaf and a stem, or branch, on the up-
per side.

Axis, the central stem, or peduncle ; a central line extending from
the base of an apple to the calyx. It sometimes signifies the
elongated part of a petiole, upon which flowers appear.
Bark, the rind or covering of the woody parts of a tree. The bark of trees is
composed of three distinct layers, of which the outermost is called the epidermis,

Ascending
of branches.

320

THE APPLE CULTUMIST.

the next, ihe parenchyma, and the innermost, or that in contact with the wood, the
cortical layer. The epidermis is a thin, transparent, tough membrane; when
rubbed off it is gradually reproduced, and in some trees it cracks and decays, and
a fresh epidermis is formed, pushing outward the old ; hence the reason why so
many aged trees have a rough surface. The parenchyma is tender, succulent,
and of a dark green. The cortical layer, or liher, consists of thin membranes en-
circling each other, and these seem to increase with the age of the plant. The
liber, or inner bark, is known by its whiteness, great flexibility, toughness, and
durability ; the fibres in its structure are ligneous tubes. It is the part of the stem
through which the juices descend, and the organ in which the generative sap, from
whence all the other parts originate, is received from the leaves. The bark, in its
interstices, is formed of cells, which are filled with juices of varying qualities;
some, like that of the oak, remarkable for their astringency ; others, like the cin-
namon, abounding with an essential oil ; others, as the Jesuits' bark, containing an
alkali ; some contain mucilaginous, and many resinous substances.

Base, the stem-end of an apple. (See Apple.)

Basin, the concavity, or depression of the end opposite the stem. The basin
may be deep or shallow, broad or narrow. (See Fig. 129.)

Biennial, existing two years, or requiring two seasons to mature ; or producing
fruit once in two seasons.

Fig. 139.

Bivalved, containmg two
valves.

Blotched, covered with
different shades, which
commence and disappear
abruptly, without any reg-
ularity or order, over the
surface.

Bloom, a delicate, pow-
dery coating on the surface
of fruit. It is of various
colors, as per the fruit.

Blossom. An apple-blos-
som having only white pet-
als is no more beautiful
than a white rose ; but an
apple-blossom of many col-
ors is a flower of exquisite
beauty. By the aid of tho

accompanying diagrams, any person of only common-school education may soon

gain a thorough botanical knowledge of the

apple. The chief parts of an apple-blossom

consist of the calyx, corolla, pistils, stamens,

and peduncle. All these, taken collectively,

constitute the flower, or blossom. Five of

the central organs are pistils. (See Pistils.)

The fine, thread-like organs are stamens. The

five sections, or separate leaves of the corolla,

are the petals. The green segments of leaves

beneath the petals are denominated sepals.

By cutting an apple-blossom in two equal

jmrts, one can see, with the naked eye, at the

bottom of the corolla, the miniature apple.

By examining a perfect apple, we can see the

five divisions of the dried-vip calyx at the

apex, or crown of the fruit. Every apple-blos-

Two apple-blossoms.

A single apple-blossom.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF POMOLOGY.

321

som is a self-fertilizer. When the anthers on the ends of the stamens burst, some
of the pollen from them will be scattered on the stigmas of the pistils, the surfaces
of which are covered with a delicate adhesive liquid, which absorbs the pollen.
Were it not for this process, no fruit would be perfected. Were the stamens de-
stroyed before the anthers burst and scatter the pollen, every apple-tree and pear-
tree would be destitute of fruit The anthers do not burst until after the flowers
are in full bloom.

Buds. There are five or more distinct names given to different kinds of buds ;
namely, ./fotoer-buds, ^ea/-buds, and //-m'^buds, which contain both the flower and
the fruit, the axillary buds, and terminal buds. Sometimes the flower-bud and the
fruit-bud are identical, as in the apple and some other kinds of fruit. Every person
who is permitted to have any thing to do with any kind of fruit-trees should be
taught the difl'erence between leaf-buds and fruit-buds ; "and such persons should
have a lively understanding of the eminent practical importance of protecting
the fruit-buds when the fruit is being gathered. The buds that are formed this
year on apple-trees must produce the crop the next season. Adventitious Buda
are frequently spoken of. These are new buds put forth by the tree near the
stub-end of a branch that has been cut off". Such buds appear at the ends of roots
that have been mutilated and cut off smoothly. All the buds of a branch do not
expand every year, especially if the growing tree does not stand in rich soil. A
portion of the buds often remain nearly dormant, so that if those on each side of
them should be destroyed, those comparatively dormant will expand. When it
is desirable to have buds developed early in the summer for the purpose of inoc-
ulation, let the

terminal bud be ^'^•^''^•

pinched back
as often as it
starts. By this
means the side
buds will be
fully developed
in the former
part of the
growing sea-
son ; where-
as, were the
branches per-
mitted to in-
crease in length, ^
the side buds
would scarcely
be developed at
the end of the
year. Branch-
es of some kinds of apple-trees are often inclined to grow long and slender, hav-
ing very few small fruit-buds. By tying small ones in a large kn^t, like Fig. 141,
fruit-buds will develop where the branch is bent. Other branches may be doubled
backward towards the middle of the tree-top, and tied in any desirable position
for the purpose of promoting fruitfulness.

Calyx, the most exterior integument in the very bottom of the basin of an ap-
ple. Some apples have a large, and others a small calyx. (See Apple.)

Cambium, or Cambium-layer, is the name that has hitherto been given to the
descending sap which forms the mucilaginous annual deposit between the inner
bark of the apple-tree and the outer ring of wood. So long as this material is
liquid, semi-liquid, or plastic, it is called cambium. After it has solidified, even
while it remains soft, it is spoken of as the cambixim-layer. The cambium not

14*

Promoting fructification by bending the branches.

325

THE APPLE CULTUMIST.

Fig. 142.

A chrysalis.

A small clon.

only forms a new layer or ring of wood beneath the bark annually, but it renews
the inner surface of the bark also. The words cambium and alburnum are fre-
quently employed as if they were of the same signification. The two substances
are about as nearly alike as ice and water.

Capsule, a dry, hollow seed-vessel, usually opening by regular valves and defi-
nite seams. It answers to the carpels of an apple.
Carnose, fleshy, more firm than pulpy.

Carpels. The carpels of the apple and pear consist of the seed-receptacles at the
core, of which there are usually five, although botanists fix the number at two to
five. They also assert that the pear {Pgrus communis) has two to five carpels.
When thinning the fruit of some of our own trees, we cut a few green
pears into thin, transverse sections through the core, and found one
pear having six perfect carpels, each containing two seeds.

Cavity, the depression of the centre of the stem-end of an apple,
opposite the basin. The epithets broad, narroiv, deep, shallow, acute,
and acuminate are frequently employed in connection with the word
cavity when describing apples.

Chrysalis, one of the forms of insects, like Fig. 142, from which
they emerge with wings. It is more proper to speak of an insect
in the pupa state, than to call it a chrysalis.
dons, twigs, or shoots, signify portions of branches after one end has been fitted
for the cleft in the stock. Then it

also denotes the entire portion of ^'^' ^'^^^

a branch of the preceding sea-
son's growth. Cions are also called
grafts, which can not properly be
called cions. Fig. 143 represents a
cion with one end sloped off, so that the name of the variety may be written on
pj^ j^ . it with a lead - pencil. Fig. 144

shows a bundle, as cions appear
very soon after they have been
cut from a tree. Such bundles
should be buried in moist sand
in a cellar, or in a sandy knoll,
during cold weather. Fig. 145
represents the manner of wrapping up a few cions with damp moss, in oiled pa-
per, when they are to be sent by mail. Fig 145,

Cleft, a division between parts less than
half-way to the base ; also the crack that
is formed in the end of a limb, or stock,
for receiving a cion.

Collar, that part of the body or stem
of an apple-tree near the surface of the ground. Some trees produce a broad and
thick ridge at the surface of the ground, called the collar of the tree.

Concentric. Concentric circles, or layers, are the rings of wood, one of which is
formed annually, around the body of every growing tree beneath the bark.

Conical, those apples that are more or less tapering, somewhat like a cone, from
the base to the apex. (See Fig. 133.)
Cordate, heart-shaped, with the side-lobes rounded.

Corolla, the delicate inner covering of a flower between the calyx and stamens,
usually colored, surrounding the parts of fructification, and composed of one or
more flower-leaves, denominated petals.
Cortical, belonging to the bark of a tree.

Corymb, a mode of flowering ; a sort of flat or convex flower-cluster.
Cotyledons, the seed-lobes, or fleshy portion of a kernel. A cotyledon involves
and nourishes the embryo plant, and then perishes. Some seeds, like beans,

A bundle of cions labelled.

A bundle of cions to be sent by mail.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF POMOLOGY.

323

Fig. 146.

Diverging braiielies.

pumpkin-seeds, apple-seeds, and many others, have two lobes, and are denomi-
nated dicotyledotioiis, because the two lobes of the seeds split apart during the
process of germination ; and each lobe appears on the end of the stem as a leaf.
The lobes of the dicotyledonous seeds are flat on the inside, and convex on the
outside. (See Fig. 1, p. 21.)

Crab-apple {Pyrus coronaria), is a wild apple-tree that produces small apples,
very hard and exceedingly sour. The color of the fruit is usually a yellowish-
white. The Crab-apple of Siberia, or the Siberian Crab-apple, is a hardy variety
that may be cultivated in almost any locality, fior the great beauty of the fruit, if
for no other purpose. In some instances we have known this
variety cultivated for market.

Crenate. This term is applied to leaves the edges of which are
scalloped into rounded teeth.
Crown, the apex of an apple opposite the stem. (See Apple.)
Curculio, a general term for coleopterous insects, the larvae of
which destroy fruit. (See illustration, p. 238.)

Deciduous, falling at certain periods, like the leaves of apple-
trees, which fall every autumn.

Disk, the face, or surface, of a leaf; also, the face, or central
part of a head of compound flowers.

Diverging, applies to such branches of a tree as grow at about
an angle of forty-five degrees from the stem. The Ribston Pip-
pin-tree furnishes an example of diverging branches. Fig. 146
shows diverging branches.

Dotted, covered with dots that are distinct and separate from
each other.
Doucin (erroneously Doucain), signifies a variety of the dwarf-
apple. The Doucin stock forms an apple-tree larger than the Paradise stock,
but not so large as the common standard apple-trees. Dwarf apple-trees are pro-
duced by grafting the common apple into Doucin stocks, or into Paradise stocks.
Drooping, when the limbs of a tree fall below a horizontal line.
Drupe, stone fruit, a fieehy, spongy pericarp, like a plum, inclosing a hard pit.
Emdryo. The embryo of an apple-seed consists of the rudimentary plantiet,
caulicle, radicle, or plumule. The plumule shoots upward, and the radicle down-
ward. Fig. 147 is a
section of a seed of
a peony, in which is
shown a small em-
bryo. Fig. 148
the same embryo de-
tached and magni-
fied. Fig. 149 is a
section of a seed of
barberry, showing
the embryo in the
middle of the albu-
men. Fig. 150 is the
embryo separated
from the albumen.
Fig. 151 is a section
of potato-seed show-
ing the embryo coil-
ed in the albumen. Fig. 152 represents the embryo separated from the albumen.
Fig. 153 shows a section of the Four-o'clock with the embryo coiled around the
outside of the albumen. Fig. 154 is the embryo detached. The foregoing illus-
trations are copied, by permission, from "Gray's Botany."

Fig. 147.

Fie. 149.

Fig. 151.

Fig. 153.

324 THE APPLE CULTURIHT.

Endocarp, the inner coating of the brown integument of an apple-seed. It also
signifies the entire brown shell of an apple-seed. If we speak with scientific ac-
curacy, the outer coat of the brown shell of an apple-seed signifies the exocarp,
and the inner lining the endocarp. Endocarp signifies, also, the putamen, or the
brown shell of a chestnut, and the stony shell of a peach, plum, and cherry.
Epicarp, the skin or peeling of an apple, which is a kind of epidermis.
Epidermis. The epidermis of a person's skin is the thin, insensible portion of
the cuticle— the scarf-skin ; also the dry, shaggy part of the bark of an apple-tree.
The epidermis covers every part ©f the tree that is exposed to the air, except the
stigma of the blossom and the spongioles of the roots. The epidermis of the ap-
ple-leaf consists of the transparent skin, which seems like an elastic film of glass
>'pread evenly over the surface. The very thin external covering of apples is the
epidermis of the fruit.

Fig. 155. Epiphyte, or Epiphytes, plants which grow on other plants, but which
I I do not penetrate the living substance of the plant that supports them, to
. I absorb any of the juices. Lichens or moss on the bark of an old apple-

\ I I tree may properly be called Epiphytes, as the growing parts are supported
Ml t by the dead bark of the tree.

Erect, when applied to shoots or branches of apple-trees, has refer-
ence to all those limbs shooting upward, between an angle of forty-five
degrees and a perpendicular at the central stem of the tree. The branch-
es of many varieties of pears, and some apples, grow erect. Fig. 166
shows erect branches.

Exogenous, growing on the outside, like an apple-tree, by adding an-
nually one concentric layer of new wood beneath the bark.

Fecundation, impregnation ; the fertilization of a blossom by the union
of the pollen with the stigma.
Filament, that part of the stamen of a flower which supports the anther.
^»4i»a. Fissure, a slit, crack, or narrow opening,

Kreot Foliage, the leaves of a tree, or the leaves and blossoms. Many reputed-
branches. jy intelligent poraologists say/oilage for foliage.

Free, not adhering firmly to another part, as a peach is called a '-free-stone"
when it is not a " cling-stone," adhering firmly to the pit.

Free-stocks. Apple-seedlings are denominated free, or free-stocks, to distinguish
them from the dwarf, or Doucin, and Paradise stocks, and from trees that have
been produced by root-grafting. In other words, an apple-tree that sprang from
a seed is a free-stock. If produced in any other way, it in not a free-stock.

Fructification, the flower and fruit, with their parts, consisting of the calyx or
empalement, the corolla or petals, the stamens and the pistil, which belong to the
flower, the pericarp and seeds, which pertain to the fruit, and the receptacle, or
base, on which other parts are seated : the act of fructifying, or maturing fruit.

Fruit. In the common acceptation of the term, the word fruit means the edible
portion of apples, pears — the fleshy part, or the pericarp. But, botanically speak-
ing, fruit signifies the seeds of a turnip, the seeds of an apple, and the kernels con-
taining the germ within the hard shell or pit of a peach or plum. The fruit of
the potato consists of the small seeds in the balls which grow on the extremities
of the vines. The fruit of the chestnut-tree is the chestnuts.

Genus, a group of species which agree with each other in the structure of essen-
tial characters of the fiower and the fruit. Trees that agree in their flower and
fruit, like the apple and the pear, are of the same genus, but of different species.
The apple-tree, for example, and pear-tree both belong to the genus Pyrus; but
the apple belongs to the species Malus, and the pear to the species Communis.

Germ, the growing part of the bud : a point ; the miniature apple at the base of
a blossom ; sometimes called an embryo ; the rudiment of an apple-tree in the
seed of an apple, m an embryotic state. (See Embryo.)
Germination, the sprouting and flrst growth of a seed before the stem has reach-

QE^EliAL FMINCIPLEIS OF POMOLOGY.

325

ed the surface of the ground and formed leaves. After leaves have been formed,
we say the plant vegetates, or grows.

Graft, or Grafts. A graft is often called a don, and a cion a graft. But strictly
speaking, a graft is the cion after it is iuserted in the stock— the living, growing,
partially, or fully-developed cion. (See Cion.)

Habitat, the natural abode of any animal, or that peculiar locality of plants or
trees where they grow spontaneously.

Heeling-in, or Laying-in-by-the-heels, placing the roots of trees in a trench or
hole, and covering them temporarily, while the stems of the trees are erect or in-
clined.

Hilum, the eye of a potato or point of an apple-seed. (See Embryo.)

Humus, vegetable mould formed by the thorough decomposition of vegetable
matter in the soil. It is usually of a black color, and very fine, like dark-colored
ashes.

Hybrid, when applied to animals, signifies a mule. Among plants and vegeta-
bles, a hybrid is the product of the union of two varieties of different species of
trees, vines, or vegetables. A hybrid, also, is the product of the union of two in-
dividuals of different species ; while a cross is the mixture of two varieties. Many
intelligent persons employ the terms hybridize or hybridizing in the sense of cross-
ing, and vice versa, which is incor-

rect. The product of the union of
two varieties of strawberries is a
cross— not a hybrid. The product of
an apple and a pear-blossom would
be a hybrid.

Insertion, the apex of the stalk or
stem of an apple or of any other fruit.

Larva, an insect in the caterpillar
state ; the first stage after the egg in
the metamorphoses of insects, pre-
ceding the pupa, or chrysalis, and
perfect insect. The word larva is
singular, and larvce is plural. (See
p. 238, a.)

Leaf , or Leaves. Leaves are usually
the foliage of a tree. Sometimes the
foliage embraces both leaves and
blossoms. The accompanying illus-
tration of an apple-leaf (Pig. 156) will
furnish something of an idea of the
wonderful wisdom there is in a leaf.
We look at a leaf smilingly, and ex-
claim: "Well, there it is! It's no-
thing but a leaf I What can be said
about a leaf?" Let us examine the
various parts closely, and we shnll
doubtless meet with some practical
suggestions which will enable tillers
of the soil to produce better apples
and more bountiful crops. The blade
or lamina of a leaf embraces the en-
tire leaf, except the stem. The upper
end is the apex of the leaf; and B
is the base. An apple-leaf is denomi-
nated a simple leaf, as there is but one
on the petiole. The petioles of some

Fig. 156.

M

4W

[

The principal pans of an apple-tree leaf.

326

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

trees, like the yellow locust, have many leaves on each petiole, and are hen^ce called
compound leaves. M represents the mid-vein, which is the principal prolongation of
the petiole, P. The old name of the mid-vein is mid-rib. The primary branches,
V, V, sent oflf from the mid-vein, are denominated veinlets ; and the secondary
branches, issuing from them are called veinulets. The leaves of the apple-tree are
serrate, which see. In many apple-leaves the veinlets are opposite ; and in others
on the same tree, the veinlets will be alternate. The usual form of apple-leaves is
elliptical, ovate, and frequently oblong-ovate. They are often obieular. The apex
of an apple-leaf is often acute, or short acuminate. The upper side of apple-leaves
is smooth, or glabrous. The under side is pubescent, or tomentose. The leaves
of an apple-tree are both the lungs and the organs of digestion. No tree can exist
any considerable length of time, during the growing season, without leaves. The
mid-vein, veinlets, and veinulets, constitute the frame-work of the leaf, which is
covered by the parenchyma, or cellular tissue. They are all conveyers of the vital
fluid of a tree, just as the veins of the body of an animal convey the blood away

Fig. 157.

A highly-magnified section of a leaf.

from and back to the heart. The parenchyma of the leaves of an apple-tree is
covered with a delicate varnish, which is impervious to water, as we may readily
perceive by sprinkling water on the surface. When a tree is growing where there
is a large amount of potash and silica in the soil, the leaves will be covered with
a much thicker coat of this vegetable varnish than if potash and silica were scarce.
Where these ingredients have nearly all been exhausted from the soil, the leaves
of a tree will often be sickly, thin, and liable to be attacked by disease, simply be-
cause the roots can not find a supply of silica and potash to produce a heavy coat
of varnish over the surface of both the leaves and fruit. Hence, when the spores
of fungi come floating along in the air, the minute particles readily adhere to the
leaves, and soon destroy them. Glass-makers employ silica, sand, and potash
to manufacture glass. Apple-trees and other trees need a liberal supply of these
materials to form a liquid similar to glass, to spread over the surface of leaves and
fruit, to fortify every organ and tissue against the attacks of fungi. Let wood-
ashes and sand be scattered round about apple-trees in great abundance, and the
leaves will be of a dark-green color, tough like india-rubber, and the fruit will be

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF POMOLOGY. 327

free from rust and scabs. Fig. 157, given on the preceding page, is a fair repre-
sentation of a section of a leaf magnified to show the air-chambers and the
breathing-pores. Professor Gray states, in his "Botany," in connection with a
similar figure, that in one square inch of the under side of an apple-leaf there are
24,000 breathing-pores.

Lobe, the division or segment of a petal or leaf; the free portion of a gamopetal-
ous corolla ; the cotyledons of a seed.

Lmigitudinal, or Longitudinally, from pole to pole, or from stem to calyx.

Malus, the scientific name of the species of trees to which the apple belongs.

Marbled, covered with wide, faint, waving, or irregular stripes.

Melting, becoming nearly a liquid and delicate pulp under a slight pressure, or
when taken in the mouth, Hke a soft peach.

Mid-rib, the main, central nerve of a leaf, apparently the continuation of the
petiole to the apex of the leaf. (See Leaf.)

Mottled. When an apple is covered with dots that appear to flow together.

Nerves, in leaves, rib-like fibres extending from the base towards the apex.

Oblate. An apple is of an oblate foi-m when it is flattened, like Fig. 132, p. 319.

Oblate-conical. The Hawthornden, Rhode Island Greening, and some other ap-
ples, are said to be of an oblate-conical form (Fig. 135, p. 319).

Oblong, applying to such apples as Kaighn's Spitzenberg, having nearly parallel
sides, and longer from stem to calyx than from side to side (Fig. 134, p. 319).

Oblong-conical, applying to an apple that is much longer from stem to calyx
than from side to side, having the sides somewhat conical, like the Yellow Bell-
flower apple, p. 8.

Oblong-ovate, an apple more of the form of an egg than a cone ; similar to the
Black Gilliflower.

Obovate, inversely ovate, having the larger end at the apex of the fruit.

Obtuse, having rather blunt ends, or rounded off" rather abruptly ; not sharp.

Obtusely, in a rounded and blunt manner. The apple-leaf is obtusely toothed
on the edge.

Ovary, the hollow portion at the base of the pistil, containing the ovulee, or
bodies^destined to become seeds.

Ovate, somewhat like an egg. An apple of an ovate form is diffterent from a
conical form, in this respect, that the ovate is not tapered so much as an apple of a
conical form. The Esopus Spitzenberg, Gilliflower, Porter, and some other varie-
ties of apples, are ovate.

Ovules, the rudiments of future seeds contained in the ovary, or young fruit.

Paradise Apple, a small dwarf tree, scarcely larger than the currant-bush. When
any of the varieties of the common apple are worked on the Paradise stock, a
dwarf apple-tree is produced.

Parenchyma, the soft cellular tissue of leaves which covers the frame-work— the
mid-vein, veinlets, and veinulets. (See Leaf.)

Pedicel, a partial peduncle ; the ultimate branch, as in a compound inflorescence.

Peduncle, the stem of the apple- blossom, and also the stem of the apple itself.
The peduncle, in some kinds of fruit, supports several pedicels, each of which
bears a specimen of fruit. The stem of an apple has a base, and may be long or
short, curved or straight, slender or thick, and it is sometimes knobby and fleshy.
The stem characters are not very reliable.

Pentapetalous, having five petals, like the apple-blossom.

Perennial, living for a longer period than two or three years— like trees, grass,
grape-vines, and shrubs.

Pericarp. The pericarp of an apple consists of all the parts outside of the seeds.
That of a berry embraces the pulpy portion. In some fruits, the pericarp consists
of the epicarp, endocarp, and the sarcocarp. The word pericarp is derived from
two Greek words^peri, around, and karpos, the seed or fruit.

Petals, the delicate leaves of a flower or blossom. (See Blossom.)

328

THE APPLE CULTUBIST.

Fij?. 158.

»-■«*'

Petiole, a foot-stalk or leaf-stem ; not a pendnncle, which is a frnit-stem.
Pistil, the central organ of a fertile flower, consisting usually of an

ovary, o ; the style, a; and the stigma, a. Some plants have only one
pistil. The rose has numerous pistils. The embryo apple may be seen
at 0, in a perfect apple-blossom.
Pistillate, those flowers that have pistils, but no stamens.
Plumule, the young and tender stem of the future tree, when bear-
ing two or more leaves. (See Fig. 3, p. 22.)

Pollen, the fine fertilizing powder contained in the anthers of a flow-
er, without which a tree would produce no fruit, and plants no crops.
We once cut off all the tassels of a hill of Indian coru, which grew alone
In the yard of our city residence, before the tassel had grown above the
leaves of the com, and no corn grew on the cobs. If the stamens of
apple-blossoms could be removed before the anthers burst, to allow the
pollen to fall on the stigmas of the pistils, there would be no apples.
The figures herewith given represent magnified views of pollen-grains,
copied, by permission, from "Gray's Botany." Fig. 159 is a
grain of the curious compound pollen of the pine. Fig. 160
(see below) is a pollen-grain from the flower of an Evening
Primrose. Fig. 161 is a grain from the Enchanter's Night-
shade. Fig. 162, a pollen-grain of the Kalmai flower. Fig.
^"^S 163, a pollen-grain of the Succory. Fig. 164 represents the
pollen of Wild Balsam Apple, which nearly resembles the pol-
len of the common apple when magnified. The pollen of certain plants,
when magnified, possesses a more curious form than any of the accompanying fig-

Fig. 1.^9.

Fig. 160.

Fip. 163.

Fig. 161.

f" v\ ures. Professional botanists can often determine, by an examina-
tion of the form of the pollen grains, to what family the plant be-
longed, without seeing even the blossom that produced the pollen.

Pome, a fleshy, pulpy pericarp, containing one or more capsules, or carpels ; as an
apple or pear. The word pome is a term applied to apples and many other fruits.

Pomology, the science and art of propagating fruit-trees and cultivating fruit.

Primary, first in order of time or importance, as the primary roots of a plant,
which are produced when the kernel first vegetates ; ojjposed to the system of
secondary roots of a plant or tree, which appear near the surface of the ground.

Pubescent, covered with very fine, soft hairs. The apple-leaf is pubescent above.
(See Tomentose.)

Pulp, a soft, fleshy, juicy mass. It is often applied to the flesh of ripe fruit.
Then it signifies crushed fruit or vegetables.

Pungent, sharp-pointed, or prickly at the apex ; also acrid.

Pupa, an insect in the third, or next to the last state of existence, during which
period it has not the power of locomotion ; and when it takes no food. An in-
sect in the chrysalis state. {See Chrysalis.)

Putamen, the hard shell of a walnut, or butternut, the brown shell of a chestnut,
the brovra shell of an apple-seed or pear-seed, the stone of a peach, plum, or cherry.

Pyramidal, tapering upward from the base, or bilge, to the top. When a hedge
is sheared, or pruned of a pyramidal form, the sides taper upward from the base,
or widest part, to a narrower top. But when a tree of any kind is pruned or sheared,
the top above the bilge is more of a conical than of a pyramidal form.

Pyriform, largest at the apex, or crown of a fruit ; shaped like a pear.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF POMOLOGY. 329

Pyrus, the scientific name of the gemis of trees to which the apple and pear be-
long, while 7nalits is the species. Hence the name of the apple-tree— i^rt*« malus.
These are simply Latin names.

Quincunx. (See this explained on p. 74.)
Radicle, the slender, fibrous branches of roots.

Ramification, the profuse branching and subdivision of branches of roots or
boughs.

Rhizovia, subterranean stems, or creeping roots.

Ribbed, having more or less ribs, or longitudinal ridges, running in parallel lines
around fruit. (See Fig. 136, p. 319.)

Rigid, stiff, not pliable, inflexible.

Root, or Roots. A root is an underground stem of a plant, shrub, or tree, which
fixes itself in the ground, and serves to support the plant in an erect position.
The roots which first appear from an apple-seed are denominated seminal or pri-
mary roots. Those that are sent out from an apple-stem near the surface of the
ground, in a horizontal position, are the coronal, or secondary roots. A radicle is
the first root of a kernel. Then the radicles of an apple-tree are those fine hair-
like roots which are sent out every growing season from the main roots to per-
form the oflace oi feeders of the tree. The radicles of an apple-tree are produced
every year, and decay every autumn, like the leaves. This fact, however, is con-
troverted by most pomologists of the present age.

Sarcocarp, the fleshy, spongy, corky, or coriaceous part of the fruit, which is
covered by the epicarp (from sarx, flesh, and karpos, fruit) ; the edible portion of
the apple.

Seedling, the name given to an apple-tree that sprang from the seed, and which
has never been grafted or inoculated ; an apple produced by a tree that has never
been grafted.

Segments, the divisions, or separate portions of a circle, of a leaf, or cleft of the
calyx of an apple.

Seminal, pertaining to seed ; rudimental ; issuing from the seed, as the seminal
roots that start from a kernel of grain, or from an apple-seed.

Sepals, the leaflets beneath the petals of a flower. They usually inclose the bud,
and are of a green color.

Septum, or Septa, partitions that divide the interior of fruit.

Serratures, having the edge or margin notched somewhat like the teeth of a
saw ; the sharp edges of the segments of leaves. (See Leaf.)

Sheath, a tubular, membranaceous expansion of a plant that incloses a stem.

Shoots, the extremities of growing limbs or branches ; particularly the part that
grew the preceding year.

Shrtib, a low dwarf tree or bush. Correctly speaking, gooseberry-bushes and
currant-bushes are shrubs, and not bushes. Botanists have failed to designate
the line of deraarkation between trees and shrubs, so that a beginner can not al-
ways determine which is a tree and which a shrub.

Sinms, a bay ; a rounded cavity in the edge of a petal or leaf.

Spermoderm, the coarse shell, or skin, of an apple-seed, surrounding the ker-
nel. The three parts of the spermoderm consist of the external covering, called
the testa, or cuticle, corresponding to the epicarp ; the cellular tissue, called the
mesosperm, which corresponds to the sarcocarp of the apple ; and the thin inner
skin, or endosperm, which is the same as the endocarp, or inside skin of the peri-
carp.

Splashed, having the stripes of all conceivable sizes, and much broken.

Spongioles, the delicate, soft, and sponge-like extremities of roots and radi-
cles.

Spores, or Sporules, the analogues, or seminal equivalents of seeds in cryptoga-
mons plants, which perform the functions of seeds.

Spray, the numerous small, fine twigs on the ends of branches.

330

THE APPLE CULTURIST.

Spreading branches.

Fruit-spurs.

Fig. 165. Spreading, applied to the Fig.iee.

growth of branches of such
trees as approach a horizontal
direction, as shown by Fig. 165.
The Rhode Island Greening ap-
-..^^^ '^ y/ pie-tree and many other varie-
^^\N "yK^ ties have spreading branches.
^ ^^Jf ' Sprouts are small, tall, and

thrifty branches growing on
the upper side of limbs, and
sometimes from the body of
an apple-tree.

Spurs (Fruit - spurs), short,
stubbed branches, one to three
inches long on the sides of the
main branches, having one or
more fruit-buds at the end.
Fig. 166, at S S, represents fruit-spurs. At B is a
fruit-bud.

Stained, an appearance of somewhat lighter
shade than an apple that is colored or blotched.

Stamen, or Stamens, are the organs of a flower
that prepare the pollen. They consist of the anther, a, and the filament, b (Fig.
Fig. 167. ^*^'^^' situated between the petals and the pistils. The anther is a lit-
tle case filled with dust, called pollen.

Stem, or Peduncle, in pomology, the cylindrical branch that sup-
ports the fruit. The stem sometimes signifies
the body of a bush or tree.

Stigma, the summit of the style, or the por-
tion of the pistil through which the pollen acts.
Stock, the stem or branch of either a young or
old tree into which a cion or bud is inserted.

Straggling, applied to the growth of branches,
like Fig. 168, which shoot out in almost every
conceivable direction, like the branches of the
Winter-nelis pear-tree. The forms of growth il-
lustrated in this work have been made in accord-
ance with those in Downing's "Fruit-trees of
America," and J. J. Thomas's "Fruit Culturist."
Striped, when the stripes appear on an apple
in alternate broad lines, like the Northern Spy,
which is striped beautifully with red.

Sucker, or Suckers, oflf-sets, or shoots, either
from the roots, stems, or branches of a tree.
Synonym, another name for the same thing. An apple, for example, often has
several synonyms, or diff"erent names.

Tap-root, the large and strong root that extends directly downward into the
earth, for the two-fold purpose of strengthening, the position of the growing tree,
and keeping it erect during storms and furious winds, and also to supply the
leaves with moisture in hot and dry weather. It also exerts an important in-
fluence on the life and productiveness of apple-trees. (See Fig. 3, p. 22.)

Tenacious, adhesive, tough, sticky, or holding fast, or inclined to hold fast or
retain a thing.
Terminal, situated at the very extremity or end.

Texture, referring to fruit as fine or coarse, tender, granular, or gritty, fibrous,
tough, or hard.

StrafrKli"K fonn of
growth.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OP POMOLOGY. .331

Tisstie, web or fabric, or the organic structure or composition of bodies.

Tomentose, covered with matted, woolly hairs ; more matted than is expressed
by the word Pubescent.

Transverse S.ection of an apple is made by cutting the specimen into two parts
at nearly a right angle to the axis.

Truncate, or Truncated, having the extremity cut oflF or lopped, or one corner
bevelled off.

Tunicated, covered with more or less membranes or coats, like the concentric
coats of an onion.

Variety, or Varieties, properly signifies the difference between two individuals of
the same species. In a loose way of talking, people speak of "different kinds"
of apples, as the Fameuse, Jonathan, Talman's Sweeting, etc., which are varieties
—not kinds. Kind signifies genus — not variety. Hence, in order to speak or write
with scientific correctness, we should allude to apples and pears bearing different
names as varieties.

Vertically, perpendicularly, or nearly so.

Villose, with soft, long, shaggy hairs.

Villose-tomentose is a compound terra employed to describe the calyx and pedicel
of the apple, signifying that such parts are covered with long, shaggy, soft, wool-
ly, and matted hairs.

Worked on. When a cion or bnd is inserted and continues to grow on a stock,
the former is said to be " worked on the stock."

INDEX.

Aphis, or Aphides Page 275

Apple, description of 317

Apple-pacljer (illustrated) 296

Apple-parer and slicer 308

Apple-trees, what they need 65

Bones for 156

Transplanting of 84

Apples : Autumn Strawberry 154

Baldwin T5

Bellflower, the Yellow 6

Canada Reiuette 139

Duchess of Oldenburg 186

Fall Pippin 311

Fameuse 25

Fenouillet, Jaune 226

Grimes's Golden Pippin 131

Hubbardston's Nonsuch 143

King of Tompkins County 86

Myers's Nonpareil 176

Newtown Spitzenberg 316

Peck's Pleasant 96

Pound Royal 107

Red Astrakhan 210

Red Canada 18

Rhode Island Greening 164

Seek-no-further, Westfield 27

Swaar 63

Talman's Sweeting 282

Tetofsky 120

Transcendent Crab-apple 83

Apples, gathering and management

of 283

Analysis of 302

Assorting 286

Carrying by hand 293

For domestic animals 300

Fried, for food . . . .• 298

How to dry 304

How to pluck 293-295

When to pluck 284

Aquarius (illustrated) 277

Army-worm (illustrated) 278

Ashes, wood, for orchards 165

Bandages for budding 53

Bark, description of 319

Basin of apple (illustrated) — Page 320

Blight in apple-trees 175

Blossom (illustrated) 320

Borers, apple-tree 256

Twig 269

Budding, modes of 43

V ersus grafting 46

Buds (illustrated) 321

Cambium 321

Canker-worm 232

Caterpillar, American Tent 249

Forest-tent 261

Red-humped 2S1

Cider, how made 310

Cider-mill 313

Codling-moth 267

Collar of apple-tree 322

Crab-apple 223

Cultivator, Alden's Thill 147

Curculio, with illustrations 238

Doucin stocks 223

Embryo 223

Fruit, definition of 324

Fruit-dryer (illustrated) 306

Fruit- preserving house 29

Garbage for trees 168

Gauge for pruning trees 172

Gauge-board (illustrated) 83

Grafting, different modes of 23

Grafting-wax, pot for 65

Grafts, with illustrations 322

Hybrid, definition of. 225

Inoculation, or budding 38

Insects, noxious, in orchards 227

How to exterminate 228

Jelly made of apples 309

Knife, for budding 42

For pruning 123

Leaf, with illustration 225

Lice, bark 269

Oyster-shell 271

Root f 273

Machine, tree, on wheels r. 109

Mice (illustrations) 217-220

Molasses made of apples 309

334

INDEX.

Moths, millers, and flies Page 230

Muzzle for horses (illustrated) 149

Orchards, management of 144

Cause of barrenness in 224

Culture of, on prairies 221

Double planting 98

How to lay out the ground for... . 70

Management of old ITO

On rough land 68

Orioles in 201

Protecting of, from mice 166

Under-draining of 61

Paradise stock 320

Pies, apple, how made 317

Pincers, or Crushers 237

Pistils, with illustration 328

Plough, subsoil 58

Plumule (illustrated) 22, 328

Staging, portable 295

Stamens (illustrated) 330

Stem, or peduncle 330

Stove in fruit-cellar 290

Sulphur-bellows 281

Sulphur remedy 280

Sweep for laying out ground 77

Swine near trees 175

Syringe (illustrated) 276

Tap-root, cutting oflf. 100

Transplanting in autumn 97

Tree-lifters and movers 106

Trees, true way to produce Page 48

How to stake 91

Setting on surface 93

Variety (see Glossary) 331

Vinegar, how to make 313

Vinegar-maker (illustrated) 314

Wax for grafting 54

Woodpeckers in orchards 199

Woolly aphis (illustrated) 275

Pollen, with illustrations 328

Pruner, Doty's 133

Pruning, philosophy of Ill

Pupa,- or chrysalis (illustrated) 328

Quincunx style 74

Root, or Roots 392

Root-pruning 141

Roots, extension of 90, 101

Rule for laying out ground 82

Saws, pruning 121

For grafting 38

Scale-insect 272

Scarifier, Nishwitz's 150

Scraper, cast-iron 92

Apple-tree 169

Seeds, how they vegetate 21

Shears, pruning 121

Shrub 329

Sluice in orchard (illustrated) 192

Spray, definition of 329

Spurs (illustrated) 330

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or. Across the Continent of South America. By James Oeton, M.A.,
Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., and
Corresponding Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
With a New Map of Equatorial America !»nd numerous Illustrations.
Crown Svo, Cloth, $2 00.

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LOSSING'S FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION. Pictorial Field-Book
of the Revolution ; or, Illustrations, by Pen and Pencil, of the History,
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LOSSING'S FIELD-BOOK OF THE WAR OP 1812. Pictorial Field-Book
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Independence. By Benson J. Lossing. With several hundred Engrav-
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WINCHELL'S SKETCHES OF CREATION. Sketches of Creation: a Pop.
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to the History of Matter and of Life. Together with a Statement of the
Intimations of Science respecting the Primordial Condition and the
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WHITE'S MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. The Massacre of St.
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of Charles IX. By Heney White, M.A. With Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth,
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ALFORD'S GREEK TESTAMENT. The Greek Testament : with a critical-
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Verbal and Idiomatic Usage ; Prolegomena ; and a Critical and Exegeti-
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ABBOTT'S NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA ; or, Interesting Anecdotes and
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ALCOCK'S JAPAN, The Capital of the Tycoon : a Narrative of a Three
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Majesty's Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in Japan.
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ALISON'S HISTORY OF EUROPE. First Series : From the Commence-
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