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DATE DUE

UNIVERSITY UBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS

AT

AMHERST

SB
363

M378

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Bulletin No. 2. December, 1913.

FOURTH EDITION, REVISED.

Apple Growing

Issued by the

State Board of Agriculture, State House, Boston, Mass.

Wilfrid Wheeler, Secretary.

BOSTON:

WEIGHT & POTTEE PETNTING CO., STATE PEINTEES,

32 DEENE STEEET.

1913.

4,3^. Z / /

LIST OF BULLETINS OF MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURE.

No. 1. Poultry Culture (Third Edition, October, 1912).
No. 2.— Apple Growing (Fourth Edition, January, 1914).
No. 3. Grasses and Forage Crops (Second Edition, in press).
No. 4. Small Fruits and Berries (Second Edition, December, 1912)
No. 5. - Vegetable Growing (First Edition, November, 1911).
No. 6. Dairying (First Edition, in press).

Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

The Advantages of New England as a Fruit-growing Center. By

G. A. Drew, 5

Western Methods in New England Orcharding. By Prof. F. C.

Sears, 25

The Influence of Soil Variation on Crop Production. By H. J.

Wilder, 36

Varieties of Apples for Massachusetts Orchards. By Prof. F. C.

Sears, 56

The Planting of a Commercial Orchard in Massachusetts. By

Prof. F. C. Sears, 74

Pruning the Apple Tree. By Dr. C. D. Jarvis, .... 89

Renovating Old Orchards. By Prof. F. C. Sears, .... 93

Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers. By Albert R. Jenks, 105

Root and Cleft Grafting. By H. D. Hemenway, .... 122
Massachusetts Fruit Trees and their Insect Foes. By Dr. H. T.

Fernald, 129

The Storage of Apples. By Prof. F. C. Sears, . . . .158
Three Common Scale Insects. By Dr. H. T. Fernald, . . .174
Plant Lice or Aphids. By Dr. H. T. Fernald, . . . .181

Apple Diseases. By Dr. Geo. E. Stone, 184

Bordeaux Mixture. By Dr. Geo. E. Stone, 201

Spray Calendar for Apples. By Erwin H. Forbush, . . . 205

BibUography, 209

Index, 223

INTRODUCTION.

Apple growing in Massachusetts has received a great stimulus
within the past five years, largely due to a sudden realization that
good apples could be groAvn here as well as in other parts of the
country, and also to the relatively high prices of western apples.

Early in the history of Massachusetts, and up to the time of the
civil war, apple growing was considered very profitable, but soon
after that period insect and fungous pests made their appearance
in such numbers that many orchards were either destroyed or allowed
to run out. Apple growing thus became an adjunct to general farm-
ing, and has so remained until the stimulus of western competition
began to make itself felt.

Apples should be grown in our State in sufficient quantities to at
least supply our own demand, for certainly no spot on this earth
was ever more favored for growing this fruit. Soils and climatic
conditions are of the best; markets are near and good; and success
is assured, provided the grower will exert a reasonable effort.

There have been many new orchards planted in the last few years,
and many old trees have been renovated and are now bearing good
fruit. The young orchards are now suj^plying some of the very
highest quality apples in our markets.

Many of. our growers are realizing more and more the necessity
of pruning, spraying and fertilizing, and also the need of carefully
grading their product, that a high, even standard may be main-
tained. These find no trouble in marketing their products. Massa-
chusetts people are using many apples and would use more could
they be sure of getting a uniform grade in every package.

While apples will grow in almost every part of our State, sections
which seem to have particular adaptation for this fruit are Essex,
Middlesex, northern Worcester, Hampshire and Franklin counties.
Land in large tracts is fairly abundant in the counties named.

We can grow better flavored apples here than in the west, par-
ticularly if we grow those varieties which are more or less native to
our soils, like the Baldwin, Northern Spy, Mcintosh, Palmer Green-
ing, Wealthy and Rhode Island Greening. This should encourage
our people to grow more apples.

As our apple crop increases in size it must be handled through
co-operative associations, which will guarantee the grade of the pack-
age. We look forward to the day when this business will be on a
secure footing, and apples may be bought with the same surety of
getting an honest package as are manufactured articles at the pres-
ent time.

THE ADYANTAGES OF NEW ENGLAND AS A FRUIT-
GROWING CENTER/

G, A. DREW, GREENWICH, CONN.

]S^ot SO very many years ago it was the general opinion that
agriculture held out little inducernent as a profession any-
where in New England. If a young man signified his inten-
tion of going farming, he was looked on as an object of pity
or held up to derision. Even in our own agricultural col-
leges, where agriculture should have had its stoutest cham-
pions, the impression sometimes prevailed that those in
authority often felt obliged to apologize or explain their
connection with it.

Now all this is changed or fast changing. Farming is no
longer looked on as a discredited occupation ; the young man
sees a future where his father saw only a meager existence
of drudgery, and our agricultural colleges are no longer
ashamed of having agriculture spelled with a capital A.
Many causes have combined to bring about this result, such as
the congestion in our cities, the high price of foodstuffs, im-
proved conditions of country life; but more than all else
people have come to a realization that after all there is no
place like New England to live in, no place that combines so
many advantages and where agricultural opportunities have
so long lain dormant.

The cheap land of the west is a thing of the past ; the free
homesteads there are all taken up; crops can no longer be
profitably grown without certain expenditure and intelligent
care; in fact, the western country has approached or is rap-
idly approaching the same agricultural conditions that con-
fronted New England years ago.

N'ew England is the home of conservatism. It is just be-
ginning to dawn upon her that she is still an agricutural
factor to be reckoned with; that her soils are not worn out.

'Agriculture of Massachusetts, 1911.

but only need intelligent care; that she possesses strategic
advantages that are of wonderful value. With this awaken-
ing she needs more the spirit of the west to see her strong
points and let others see them also. With the conditions she
must change as well. The day of the general farmer has gone
by. Raising an acre of corn, some potatoes, a few tons of
hay, dabbling in poultry, making milk to fatten the con-
tractors, besides harvesting what apples grew in spite of
neglect, have in my opinion been the curse of New England
agriculture. To be a poultryman, dairyman and fruit
grower combined has as much of logic in it as for a profes-
sional man to try to be a preacher, doctor and lawyer, all in
one. All lines of agriculture have their rewards for those
who master their subject. Specialization, in my opinion, is
the keynote of the hour. Success depends on the man and his
location. Fruit growing has been my specialty ; it is on this
subject and the advantages 'New England offers along these
lines that I wish to speak.

A few years ago I gave a talk on the growing of fruit in a
certain Massachusetts town within thirty miles of Boston,
trying to point out what a wonderful opportunity was at its
very door ;^how the to-\vn itself was in one of the best natural
fruit sections of the State; how this market called for first-
class apples, but went to the Pacific coast to get them ; how it
hungered for small fruits, but had to go beyond the Hudson
before this demand could be satisfied. /Here was the land
naturally adapted to these crops within teaming distance of
Boston, in case the freight rates were excessive fliere was the
market trying to get the best fruit that could be produced,
and able to pay for it ; yet when I told them that they ,could
produce apples which would sell for as much as or more than
the highest market quotations, and small fruits also, they
thought I had indulged in some flight of fancy, or was carried
away by my enthusiasm. " What," they said, " sell apples
in boxes for $2 and $3 ? Why, that is all that we can expect
for barrels ; and, besides, the commission men want them that
way." " Set out currants where apples in Belmont and vicin-
ity control the market ! How can we expect to compete ? "

The trouble, my friends, it seems to me, is that we in ISIew
England have looked at this fruit business from a too narrow
point of view. We have allowed our markets to slip away
from us, and given the public the impression that the " big
red apple " of the west is the only apple for it to buy. We
have got into the habit ourselves of thinking that New Eng-
land used to raise good fruit, before so many insect enemies
and fungous diseases came, but that now the struggle is too
unequal. If it had not been for these pests and diseases I
shudder to think of the condition fruit growing would be in
now. It has been a blessing in disguise. We have to fight
for what we get, and nothing is worth having that does not
represent effort and skill.

Let us briefly consider some of the specific advantages New
England offers. Think what our near-by markets mean to
us. 'Within several hundred miles of Boston are twenty or
more millions of people, the great majority of whom are con-
sumers, not producers. / Wealth to a great extent is concen-
trated here. People of means generally buy the best the mar-
ket affords. It is to these same people that the Pacific coast
fruit growers, three thousand miles or so away, are catering;
but think what a handicap they are under. It costs them
about 50 cents freight to place a box of apples on the market,
while with us it is only a fraction of this. We should be able
to take advantage of local conditions, but they are often unable
to ship their fruit in time for a rapid rise in price.

When I was in Hood River, Ore., last November, the
Union was shipping only a few cars of apples daily, when
they should have been shipping fifteen or twenty, but they
could not get the refrigerator cars, they did not have adequate
facilities for storing, and much of the fruit went down. On
account of the danger of freezing in crossing the Rockies, it
is almost essential that fruit be shipped from there before
December 1.

This shows how absolutely dependent they are on the rail-
roads, their only means of reaching the eastern market, while
we may be far more independent of them./ It is seldom neces-
sary to ship in refrigerator cars, and, moreover, manv mar-

8

kets are within teaming distance, while the automobile truck
will soon be an important factor.

This nearness to the best markets of the country, then, is
one of the greatest advantages New England has to offer the
fruit grower; but almost of equal importance is the average
price of fruit land. A few years ago we heard much about
the abandoned N^ew England farms; to-day this is seldom
mentioned. Desirable land here is not cheap to-day by the
earlier standards, but compared with the market price of
fruit land in the west it would seem ridiculously low. There
orchard land without improvement sells as high as $1,000,
while bearing orchards sell for several thousand dollars per
acre.

Although our farm values have gone up considerably in
the last few years there is still much land in ]^ew England
which can be bought at reasonable prices, varying, of course,
as to accessibility, location and freedom from stumps or
boulders. I think that we will all admit that, other condi-
tions being favorable, good cleared land is worth from $75 to
$100 an acre for fruit-growing purposes. A few years ago
farms could be bought for much less per acre than these
figures, with the buildings thrown in.

/ Another great point in favor of New England is that many
of these farms contain old orchards which have managed to
exist in spite of neglect. Unless the tree trunks are in too
advanced a stage of decay these orchards may be reclaimed
and made to pay a revenue almost from the start. Try the
modern way of handling these orchards. Cut off the extreme
high tops, so that the tree can be more easily and cheaply
sprayed, the fruit more economically harvested and the dan-
ger from high winds greatly lessened. Clean out the scale,
presence the trunks from decay, get new bearing wood, culti-
vate and spray thoroughly, and even on these old trees you
will get fruit that will surprise you.

We will have to admit that the Pacific coast fruit which is
placed on our eastern markets has a wonderful finish which
we find hard to equal. The bright sunshine and cool nights
there seem to be particularly favorable to the development of
these qualities, which have given them their slogan of " the

land of the big red apple," which has attracted the eye of the
public and been a great advertisement for their products.
Granting them their due, it is time we met them with one of
our own, for ours is truly " the land of the good red apple,"
though it is not necessary for an apple to be red to be good.
Educate the public to please their appetites rather than their
eyes, all the while striving for color and finish. Compare
our JSTew-England grown Gravensteins, Mcintosh, Palmer
Greening, Wagner, ISTorthern Spy, yes, even our Baldwin and
Greening, with their Ben Davis, Jonathan, Spitzenburg,
Winesap and Newton. The flavor of the home-grown product
is without question superior, and this the consuming public
should know. It may take time and money, but a campaign
of education on this point is worth a great many dollars to
Xew England.

J^The eastern markets offer a good chance for disposing of
the poor grades of fruit which in the west are practically
waste. Perhaps I should not emphasize this too strongly, as
our aim should be to grow as few culls as possible ; however,
there is a legitimate use to which our poorer grades of apples
may be put in supplying the mill townis and poorer classes of
people, who otherwise would never have any fruit at all.

From a fruit-growing point of view, then, we have the most
important factors for success in our favor. We can buy our
land at a reasonable figure ; we are so near the best markets
that we can ship our fruit at low expense and sell it at maxi-
mum prices; the apples grown here are of a better quality
than those of the west. It only remains for us to take advan-
tage of our strategic location to command not only our own
but reach out for the world's markets. At present the west
holds the commanding position, the choicest grades of fruit.
Why ? Simply because it is in it on a business basis, is better
organized and realizes the necessity of attending to ever}^
detail in the most exacting manner.

The iSTew England fruit shows have done much to
stimulate interest and point the way we must follow. The
high standard set by the last exposition, in particular, must
be the basis, not only for show purposes but for the strictly
commercial method of grading and packing.

10

There are a few growers who already have seen the oppor-
tunity and have established their business on a solid founda-
tion, yet how few are these in number; possibly not more
than a dozen in all New England.

My aim has been to point out the advantages 'New England
offers as a fruit-growing center, but I dislike to leave it with-
out a word on a few of the essential matters of practical
detail.

We are still woefully weak on the thoroughness with which
we attend to the various operations, as spraying, pruning,
cultivation and fertilization, besides picking, packing and
marketing our product.

It is not enough that we prune ; we must prune regularly,
prune for a purpose, and see that the cut surfaces are pro-
tected so that decay may not set in. It is not enough that
we spray ; we must spray at the proper time, with the proper
materials and with sufficient force. This latter point cannot
be emphasized too strongly in regard to the first spraying
with poison, just after the blossoms have fallen. Cultivate
thoroughly the first part of the season ; it is the cheapest way
to get a sufficient amount of growth. In July or August,
when cultivation stops, sow cover crops to save the volatile
elements of plant food, and add humus to the soil. Study
the plant-food problem, but study it as to your individual
requirements.

No two orchards should be fertilized exactly alike. It is a
matter you can determine only by experiments. The rigor of
the times and results of the harvests are the best criterion to
go by. Whatever may be said in favor of mixed fertilizers
for general farm crops does not, in my opinion, hold true in
orchard work. It costs only a little more to spread the differ-
ent chemicals separately ; they can be put on at a time more
suited to crop requirements, and, most important of all, you
will save money by so doing. Of all three elements of plant
food, the nitrogen should be used with the greatest caution,
particularly in a fruiting orchard. Do not overdo it ; depend
as much as possible for nitrogen upon turning imder legumi-
nous crops, and then add basic slag or lime to keep your soil
from becoming; sour.

11

Tliin your bearing trees. It is not until lately that we
have come to realize how essential this is as an orchard prac-
tice. Begin the latter part of June, when the fruits are about
the size of walnuts ; pick off all wormy or inferior fruits ; see
to it that the trees can carry their load. If one thinning is
not sufficient, keep at it. This is the way that the westerner
grows 85 to 90 per cent of extra fancy box fruit. It is the
best paying proposition in fruit growing that I know of, and
yet one of the least practiced. !N"ew England fruit should be
picked with care, and always placed in boxes, not barrels.
The westerner considers twenty-five boxes a good day's work ;
we generally require considerably more. There is no ques-
tion in my mind, commission men to the contrary, but that
we should try to establish a box trade for our best grades of
fruit, pack it with extreme care, wrap the fruit, and label it
as to grade, number of apples, variety and name of grower.
The west.erners use the grades, extra fanc}^ fancy and
choice ; with us only the first two should be placed in boxes,
the poorer grades in barrels.

Of course, this change cannot all be made at once ; certain
trade will still require first-class fruit in barrels,, and must be
catered to. In time, however, I look to see all our fancy
higher quality fruit in boxes, for the simple reason that the
consumer demands it. There is less chance for deceit, and
it is a much more convenient size to handle.

I have spoken principally of the apple, because it is the
king of fruits, all points considered. There are just as good
chances in Xew England cultivating the peach, pear, quince,
sour cherries, grape and many small fruits if attention is
given to location. What has been said about the apple in
many respects applies to these others as well. This is one of
the strong points about Xew England fruit-growing possi-
bilities, — that its opportunities are not confined to the culti-
vation of one fruit alone, — for within its boundaries one
may find suitable places to grow almost any fruit that will
grow in the temperate zone, according to one's preferences
and capabilities. There are some who fear the small grower
cannot hold his o^^m with some of the larger developments
contemplated. I do not share this view. The one who comes

12

into intimate contact with the work, handles the spray rods
and picks the fruit can do it better himself than can another
delegated by him.

Possibly a word of caution may not be amiss to those who,
without any experience, would plunge headlong into fruit
growing as a vocation. It is not a get-rich-quick proposition ;
time and patience are required; methods which the more'
experienced consider a life study cannot be learned in a day.
Again, there are many who fear overproduction when the
orchards now being planted come into bearing. They do not
take into account the fact that only a small proportion of
trees planted ever come into profitable bearing; that insect
enemies and fungous diseases may raise havoc heretofore
unheard of; that our population is rapidly increasing, and
that there are many people on the face of the globe who do
not now have a chance to purchase an apple for a reasonable
price. Undoubtedly there will come a period of lower prices,
and this will render co-operation a necessity; co-operation
will bring better distribution of the product, all of which is as
it should be.

I am not one of those who greatly fear this overproduction
of fruit. I have heard the same fear expressed ever since I
can remember, and it has not come yet. Granting this possi-
bility exists, what about the orchards three thousand miles
away, on the Pacific coast ? Are not they the ones to suffer,
not JSTew England ?

Mr. H. J. Wilder. What cover crops would you recom-
mend for northern Massachusetts, at an altitude of from
1,000 to 1,500 feet?

Mr. Drew. Personally I prefer rye and hairy vetch. Eye
will grow almost anywhere except where the soil is too wet,
and with a leguminous crop forms an ideal combination. I
would sow it generally in August, though there might be
some seasons when it could be sown earlier or later, owing to
drought or unusual rainfall. In the spring I should plow
only one way, and let some of the vetch mature. On a soil
where it was necessary to save all the moisture I should plow
earlier than on a soil where this was not so necessarv. Where

13

a great deal of humus is being plowed in a sufficient amount
of lime should be applied to keep the soil wet.

Mr. Geer. How often do you cultivate your land ?

Mr. Drew. An orchard should be cultivated very thor-
oughly the first part of the year, as it tends to preserve the
moisture in the soil. Under ordinary conditions cultivate
about once in ten days, sometimes oftener, and keep it up
until the latter part of June. Some seasons it would be advis-
able to run over into July. It depends entirely on whether
the orchard is a young or a bearing orchard, and the variety
of fruit you are growing. With the ISTorthern Spy I should
stop cultivation sooner than with other varieties, because the
tendency of that tree is to make too much growth.

Question. In renovating an old orchard would you in-
variably tear up the sod ?

Mr. Drew. In almost every case. Sometimes it is not
advisable to plow, as the roots are too near the surface, in
which case the use of the cutaway harrow early in the spring,
going first one way and then the other, will, if persisted in,
accomplish all that is aimed for in plowing.

Mr. W. C. Jewett. Have you had any experience using
mulch ?

Mr. Drew. 'Not with the strictly mulch method. I have
sometimes, when I was not getting the color I wanted, seeded
down and cut the hay several times during the season, letting
it lie where it fell. In this way I have grown some nice fruit,
and developed better color than I could by cultivation alone.

Mr. Jewett. Mr. Drake, who follows the strictly mulch
method, gathering up the grass and placing it around the
trunks of the trees, out as far as the branches extend, stows
better and higher-colored apples than most growers, and
takes the greater part of the premiums at shows around
Worcester. In addition, he loses very few apples, as they
are not injured when they fall from the trees. He admits
that the system is more expensive, in time and fertilizer
both, than the cultivation, with a cover crop, but he thinks
it the best and cheapest for him.

14

Mr. J. J. Erwin. Do joii advise planting vegetables in a
young orchard ?

Mr. Dkeav. I should certainly do something of that sort to
pay the first expenses, but I should do it with caution, taking-
care that whatever is grown does not prevent the tree from
spreading out and making a good shaped tree, or cause
growth too late in the fall. Too many people get carried
away with the immediate results in growing such catch crops,
and lose sight of the ultimate results.

Mr. Erwin. Would you grow currants with your trees, or
independently ?

Mr. Dkew. If I grew currants in the apple orchard I
should take the greatest pains to see that they were free from
the San Jose scale, as they are very prone to be subject to
this insect. I should spray against the scale every year.
They do that on the Pacific coast, counting it good insurance,
and I think we must come to that in 'New England.

Mr. S. H. Reed. Which is the better for the scale, lime
and sulfur, or soluble oil ?

Mr. Deew. One is about as good as the other. In bad
cases I prefer the oils, as they spread, while the lime and sul-
fur stays where it is applied. In severe cases I use 1 gallon
of oil to 12 of water, although 1 to 15 is the proportion usu-
ally recommended. Spraying with oil when the bark is dry
doesn't do as much harm and is more effective than when the
bark is wet. In the spring, just as the buds unfold, spray
thoroughly with lime and sulfur. There is nothing better
to clear off fungous diseases and kill the eggs of plant lice.

Mr. Reed. If you have no San Jose scale, and spray only
as a preventive, you would use the lime and sulfur in the
spring only ?

Mr. Dkew. I should ; and I should always advise the use
of home-mixed solutions, unless a person had only a few trees.

Mr. Reed. Do you put any lime and sulfur solution in
with arsenate of lead in the spring ?

Mr. Drew. That brings up to the subject of summer
spraying. A few years ago everybody was telling us to use
the Bordeaux mixture, and we all admit that it has been one
of the best fungicides we have ever used; but for several

15 •

years it bas rusted the fruit so as to hurt its appearance
very much. Then came in the commercial lime and sulfur
sprays, which, if not used with caution, are liable to injure
the foliage, and sometimes do not control fungus as well as
the Bordeaux. I have used the self-boiled lime and sulfur
solution ( Scott's formula ; Scott of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture) on apples and peaches. On apples I
have used it at a rate of 10 pounds of lime and 10 pounds of
sulfur to 50 gallons of water, and then added 2 to 3 pounds
of arsenate of lead, spraying just as soon as the blossoms drop.
In Massachusetts, where the gypsy and brown-tail moths are
prevalent, I would use at least 5 and even 10 pounds of arse-
nate of lead in cases where the moths were numerous.

The self-boiled solution is one of the cheapest and one of
the most effectual solutions for spraying. You take, say, 10
pounds of good rock lime and heat it, or apply enough water
so that it will begin to slake, and then sift in the powdered
sulfur. Cook the sulfur by the heat of the lime. Let that
slake until the lime is all disintegrated, and keep adding
water. When a slight orange precipitate is being formed,
stop the action by drenching with cold water ; otherwise sul-
fides, injurious to foliage, will develop. Possibly this is a
little more complicated than using the commercial solution,
but in spite of that I prefer it for apple spraying, and for
peaches would not use anything else, only I woidd use Mr.
Scott's formula, — 8-8-50 instead of 10-10-50.

Mr. Reed. How many times do you spray in the summer
time ?

Mr. Drew. Some seasons vary and some apples vary.
The first spraying is the all-important one. It .should
be applied with force, thoroughly and just as the blossoms
fall. It should be repeated about two or three weeks after-
wards. That generally will be sufficient for such varieties
as the Baldwin, and those not subject to fungus. For the
Fall Pippin or Spy or Greening, or some of those more sub-
ject to a fungus, three or four sprayings are not any too
many.

Mr. H. A. Parsons. Is it too late now [December 5] to
spray, if you did it on a warm day ?

16

Mr. Drew. 'Ro. I would not spray in freezing weather,
but it is an excellent time now to spraj to kill scale, provided
you can have at least six or eight hours without freezing.

Mr. H. A. Turner. If you had part of an orchard bearing
the Ben Davis apple would you advise keeping the trees
along, or grafting them ?

Mr. Drew. That is a matter for an individual to decide
for himself. The Ben Davis, from the practical point of
view, possibly has a certain function. It will keep better
than any other apple, and may be taken out of storage as
late as July for culinary use, when you can't get any other
apples. I wouldn't recommend an3'^body's planting the Ben
Davis in New England, as they grow apples enough of poor
quality in the western States without our doing it here.

Question. Do you spray a limb without any blossoms
just as thoroughly as those with blossoms ?

Mr. Drew. I would take the precaution of treating it just
the same, even if the tree did not show any indication of
bearing fruit, just as I would thoroughly fertilize the tree,
or a whole orchard, that wasn't going to bear that year, I
would not fertilize it just the same, but I would fertilize it.

Mr. Reed. How do you fertilize apples, peaches and pears
in both young and bearing orchards ?

Mr. Drew. I would fertilize in connection with cultiva-
tion, so that trees would make, say from eight to ten inches'
growth a year, and produce good colored, sound fruit that
would stand up. There is nothing better than hard wood
ashes to give these results. Manure is all right in giving
growth, but in a bearing orchard it should be used with cau-
tion. Among chemical elements I would depend on nitrate
of soda, but would use it only in small amounts, because it
will produce great foliage, but fruit that will not stand up in
transportation. For potash, I would use high-grade sulfate
of potash as an annual dressing, at the rate of 100 to 250
pounds to an acre. For phosphoric acid, I generally plan on
giving my orchards an annual dressing of somewhere from
400 to 600 pounds per acre, and a lot of our best growers of
peaches and apples in Connecticut are using it as heavy as
1,000 pounds per acre.

17

I believe in setting out orchard trees with the expectation
of getting the best results, and so growing them as to get the
best results, in six to eight years. With the Spy you could
get a result in eight years. You would get a certain amount
of fruit from Baldwins in eight years, and some people will
get results; but with such varieties as the Mcintosh, the
Wealthy, the Duchess and the Hubbardston, and quite a num-
ber of others, you can get profitable results in from five to
seven years. To do that, in the first four years I should
grow those trees fast, but not so fast as to make sappy growth.
I should use a lot of nitrogen if the soil wasn't such as to con-
tain it ; but in the fourth or fifth year I should substitute for
the nitrogen heavy basic slag or potash, or some such element.
With Mcintosh, Wealthy, Duchess and Hubbardston, I
should plan to get profitable crops within five years. I am
making those varieties do that.

Mr. J. A. Williams. Would you recommend setting out
peach trees in between apple trees in a young orchard, thus
getting a growth of peaches before the apples come into bear-
ing ?

Mr. Dkew. a great many successful orchard men are do-
ing that, and still there is an element of danger in it. As a
general rule, you can get results from peaches in three or
four years, and a peach tree spreads out, and generally when
anybody sees the money coming in from peaches — and cer-
tainly it is good money when it comes in — he thinks he can
keep the trees two or three years longer, and be so much
richer, and that is a detriment to the apple trees. As a rule,
if I were planting by the filler system I should use a variety
of apples like the Baldwin or Greening, and then plant in the
filler of Mcintosh, Wealthy, Duchess or Yellow Transparent,
or something of that class. The Duchess makes a good filler.

Mr. Williams. What do you advise for a distance in set-
ting out an orchard of that kind ?

Mr. Drew. I should set my Baldwins 50 feet apart in
some soils, — in most soils from 40 to 45 feet apart — and
interplant half that space each way with fillers. In the
northern sections of New Hampshire and Maine, where the

18

trees tend to dwarf growth, you might set them closer ; but
in Massachusetts and Connecticut, where the soil is heavier,
and trees make a good, vigorous growth, the ultimate distance
of 40 by 40 feet is not too much. The object of the system
is to get the fillers to bearing to help out the expense in the
meantime. You must cut out the fillers.

Mr. J. L. Smith. You recommend dwarf trees ?

Mr. Drew. The dwarf orchard is a good thing for school
gardens, a city back lot or a test orchard, but not for a com-
mercial proposition.

Mr. Smith. Would you put each variety by itself or in-
tersperse them for better pollination?

Mr. Drew. I should not think it advisable to set out a
great block of Baldwins without having some other varieties
in a block close by to poUenize. I think bees are of great
importance in proper pollenization.

Mr. Erwin. Some fifteen or twenty years ago there was
an apple season and then a season when there weren't any.
Was it from the fertilizer used or was it the season ?

Mr. Drew. I don't know as I could explain why such a
season existed. The seasons of plenty and scarcity are com-
paratively evenly balanced now, probably because the apple
is more generally cultivated all over the United States. One
section oifsets another. Again, a person with several or-
chards will have some fruit himself every year.

Mr. Erwin. Don't you think it depends a great deal on
the man ? If a man takes care of his orchard, and uses the
right kind of fertilizer every year, don't you think it has a
tendency to give him apples every year ?

Mr. Drew. Yes ; that is, in connection with thinning the
fruit all summer. There is hardly an up-to-date fruit grower
in the west who does not thin his fruit very, very thoroughly
several times during the bearing season. I don't suppose
there are twenty-five people in New England who make this
a regular practice. Thinning balances the trees, so that, with
the exception of the Baldwin, you can get the trees to bear
comparatively evenly every year, all other conditions being
favorable.

19

QuESTiox. At what age do you set out your trees?

Mr. Drew. For an apple orchard my preference would be
very strong one-year-old trees, except in sections infested with
the gypsy and brown-tail moths and many fimgous diseases,
where I would set strong two-year-old trees. For a peach
orchard I would set one-year-old trees without question.

QuestiojN". Do you put any fertilizer around the bottom
of the trees ?

Mr. Drew. ISTo; I would not. I would prefer to get the
soil into fine condition by planting a cultivated crop, like corn
or potatoes, the year before.

Mr. Turner. For a general orchard of an acre or two
what varieties would you set out ?

Mr. Drew. In certain sections of eastern Massachusetts,
with certain kinds of soil, I would set out certain varieties.
The Gravenstein, Hubbardston, Williams and Red Astrachan
do very well. But for the general grower there is no safer
apple to plant than the Baldwin. For the special grower,
who would give particular attention to growing and packing
in boxes, there is more money in other varieties.

Mr. John Bursley. If you were going to purchase a piece
of land for the purpose of going into the fruit business, would
you rather pay $200 an acre for land within a city of 200,000
inhabitants, or go into the country and buy it at $20 or $30
an acre ?

Mr. Drew. As a general rule I should rather buy the
more expensive land. If I were going away back into the
country I should want a pretty big proposition, where I could
afford to employ quite a quantity of labor. For the distant
land I would select winter varieties.
• Mr. Reed. How do you eradicate the railroad worm ?

]\Ir. Drew. I have never been bothered with it, but know
people who have. The only way to control it is to pick up
the apples as they fall ^nd feed them to hogs, or dispose of
them otherwise.

QuESTioK". What preventive is there for borers ?

Mr. Drew. IsTone that I know of. You should go over
your apple trees at least once a year — peach trees twice a

20

year — and pick them out with a knife or wire. I prefer the
fall for this work.

Mr. Turner. Fifty years ago we used to have magnificent
Russets clear into the spring ; what has become of them ?

Mr. Drew. The general market does not call for many
Eussets. If you have a retail trade and ship them yourself,
and people know enough to appreciate them, there is no better
apple grown than the Roxbury Russet.

Mr. Asa Dodge. Why have the sweet apples gone from
the market?

Mr. Drew. Because there isn't any great demand for
them. There is no reason why a discriminating public
should not call for some sweet apples, but I should be cau-
tious myself about planting them too extensively.

Mr. Reed. Is it better policy to market your fruit as soon
as possible or to store it ?

Mr. Drew. That depends on the class of fruit. The
poorer grades must be put on the market up to Christmas
time, because people have not adequate storage facilities.
The first-class apples, as a rule, bring a higher price after the
inferior grades are out of the way, and therefore should be
held.

Mr. Reed. Do you consider the Wealthy and Mcintosh
short-lived trees, and use them sometimes as fillers ?

Mr. Drew. I don't think we know how long lived these
trees are, because where would we find a Wealthy or Mcin-
tosh tree forty years old in New England ? So far as the
choice of a filler goes, the Wealthy will last as long as is
required under that system. The Mcintosh is a compara-
tively long-lived tree, and has a tendency to bear heavily
every year.

Question. I have about ten trees of Mcintosh in an or-
chard where there are forty Baldwins, all eighteen to twenty
years old. The Mcintosh bore the most the first four or five
years, — more the first year than ever since. The Baldwin
trees haven't borne heavily, but I think they have borne more
than the Mcintosh. The latter have had the same treatment
as the Baldwins, but are not more than two-thirds as large.
The soil is a clay loam ; I have raised good potatoes on it. I

21

have used no fertilizer save stable manure. The orchard has
not been cultivated for the last four or five years.

]\Ir. Dkew. Well, I would make them bear some way. I
should try putting on some slag and potash, and should with-
draw any source of nitrogen. If that didn't make them bear
I should root prune them. If one method doesn't work, use
another. I would broadcast the fertilizer over the whole sur-
face, not up against the trunk, because the feeding roots are
on the extremities every time.

Question. Is it inexpedient or a bad plan to set out an
orchard if care is taken to fertilize and to keep the earth
within three or four feet of the tree dug up for a few years
before ready to plow ?

]\Ir. Drew. That method is practically used by one of the
best, if not the best, fruit growers in ISTew England, A. A.
Marshall of Fitchburg ; but in spite of that fact I do not
think ordinary people would succeed with it.

QuESTiOiSr. Would you set ISTorthern Spies and then graft
over to Mcintosh or Baldwins ?

Mr. Deew. Under ideal conditions that is all right ; but
you are taking a great many chances, — a dry season when
the buds will not take, insects that eat the buds, canker from
an imperfect union. There is no question but what the
jSTorthern Spy stock and the Tolman Sweet are the strongest,

Mr. BuESLEY. How would you proceed to set trees on
rough ground that could not be plowed ?

Mr. Deew. I should set out the trees and then spade
around them by hand. Hand labor is more costly than team
labor, as a rule, but there are thousands of acres in Kew Eng-
land where fine fruit could be, grown in that way.

QUESTION. What do you think of putting pigs into a piece
of land that is rough and stony ?

Mr. Deew. I would put the pigs in before I set out the
orchard ; I would not have them in afterward.

]\[r. TuRNEE. "What is the difference between the Snow
and the Mcintosh ?

]\[r. Drew. The Snow apple belongs to the same group of
apples as the Mcintosh. It is smaller, not as delicate in
flavor and does not adapt itself to so wide a country. It will

22

keep possibly a little longer, but won't sell with the Mcintosh
and is too small to box. The Mcintosh has all the good qual-
ities of the Snow apple without the imperfections.

Mr. Erwin. What is your cold-storage system for apples ?

Mr. Dkew. Our system is to build a cold-storage plant
and hold our apples in cold storage, and that is the ideal way ;
but the ordinary grower, as a rule, cannot afford to build a
complete cold-storage plant as it is certainly expensive. I
should either have a well-ventilated, natural cellar in which
to hold my fruit, or pack my very choicest fruit in the fall
and put it in cold storage wherever I was going to dispose of
it, taking it out as the market warranted. If you can't aiford
cold storage on your own place you must depend on the cold-
storage places in the larger cities.

Mr. Erwin. We have just built a cold-storage plant under
the ice and brine system, similar to the one designed by Mad-
ison Cooper for the Massachusetts Agricultural College at
Amherst. Where a lot of ice is available it seems to be the
most economical system from a farm storage standpoint.

Mr. Eeed. Can you prevent the fruit from sweating ?

Mr. Drew. We prevent its sweating to a certain extent by
the use of calcium of chloride. If apples are not put directly
from sunshine into cold storage, but their temperature is
lowered gradually, they will not sweat.

Mr. Truli,. Woitld you advise any one to set out a peach
orchard on newly plowed sod ground ?

Mr. Drew. I would not hesitate at all, but I would not
let the peaches set in the sod. I see no great objection, other
than it is harder than planting them in soil that has been
cultivated for a year.

Question. What do you call a good, thrifty Baldwin tree,
five years old, worth ?

Mr. Drew. I don't know. A bulletin from the State
college gave the estimates by certain correspondents in all the
'New England States of an apple tree, forty years old, at from
$25 to $250, A good, thrifty Baldwin apple tree, five years
old, is worth $5 anywaj.

Mr. J. L. Ellsworth. This financial question has
brought to my mind the fact that Mr. Russell had a very,

23

very productive tree last year, a very profitable tree. lie won
the prize that was offered by the Board of Agriculture last
year for the most productive tree. There is no reason why
you all should not have just such trees, — 30 to the acre.

Mr. F. A. Russell. This tree was a natural fruit tree.
About twelve years ago we grafted it to the Gravenstein.
The tree bore only a few bushels each year until last year,
when we picked 60 bushels of fruit and sold the crop for $56
out of the field. I did not thin the apples and this year got
about 3 bushels, but there is another year coming^ when I
hope to get 60. The tree must be thirty-five or forty years
old.

Prof. W. P. Brooks. There are one or two facts concern-
ing the questions that have been asked about which I have
made a discovery or two. The experimental orchard at Am-
herst has been managed in a sort of modified grass mulch
method ; that is, the growth of mixed grass and clover has
been cut twice each year and allowed to lie where it has
fallen. Until the last year or two the results have been very
satisfactory; but last year, in particular, three-quarters of
the fruit at least was almost worthless, because it was stung
by the curculio. When the fruit is stung it stops growth at
that point, a dark-colored or greenish spot is formed, and
when ripe the surface is uneven and the interior gnarly. If
the grass mulch creates conditions favorable to the hiberna-
tion of this insect, as it is believed, it is going to condemn
this method absolutely.

My own orchard of forty old apple trees, located not far
from the experimental orchard, has, under tillage, fertiliza-
tion and spraying, increased its product from 10 barrels of
miserable fruit in 1908, when I bought it, to 90 barrels of
fine fruit this fall.

The question as to bearing every year has been brought in.
I presume that many of you personally have Baldwin trees in
your orchards which bear a quarter or a third of the tree one
year, and the balance the next year. I am satisfied that the
character of the season has nothing to do with it. My own
explanation is that some time back in the past a certain sec-
tion of the tree was defoliated, and the part that was not de-

24

foliated matured its fruit. And then later, the defoliation
having occurred early, that part of the tree had a chance to
recover and make growth, which would enable it to bear a
crop the following year. The reason why a Baldwin apple
tree does not bear every year is that the energies of the tree
are so largely consumed in maturing the crop of fruit that
there is not enough energy left to make growth and perfect
buds for the following year.

It is all a question of creating conditions such that the tree
can make sufficient growth and mature buds the following
year ; and if you thin enough and till the soil thoroughly, to
create good moisture conditions and good soil conditions, and
fertilize, it can be done.

A gentleman wanted to know whether nitrate of potash was
not just as good as sulfate. I am pretty sure it is not. We
are comparing the two, and find that the sulfate trees are
much larger and have given much more fruit.

Putting manure in a cone around the trees is a j^ractice
which I should oppose. If there is any part of an orchard
that does not need manure or fertilizer, that is the part, for
there are few or no feeding roots there.

be 5

oi bo

H to

X C5

25

WESTERN METHODS IN NEW ENGLAND ORCHARDING.'

F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE,

Even the most casual observer, if he gives the subject any
consideration whatever, must be impressed with the fact that
eastern fruit has been almost entirely crowded out of the
better class of our eastern markets. It still commands a part
of the second and third and fourth class markets, where
worm-holes and bruises and apple scab are not considered
insurmountable objections to an apple ; but who ever sees
a sign displayed these days in any high-class fruit store,
" Choice Massachusetts Apples " (or Connecticut or Ver-
mont or Tvlaine apples) ? There are honorable exceptions, of
course, to this exclusion of our eastern fruit, men who care
for their orchards and who pack their fruit carefully and
skilfully, and whose fruit commands the highest market
price. But these men have personally overcome the preju-
dice which exists in the minds of most consumers against
our eastern apples. The vast majority of New England
orchardists. however, send their fruit to the general market
and take what is left after the several " middlemen " have
received their share, and little enough it is, as a rule.

All this is discouraging to any one who is interested in
eastern orcharding, and who would like. to see the industry
take its place where it belongs, as one of the leading branches
of farming in N"ew England, and as the equal, if not the
superior, of orcharding anywhere in the country.

The situation would be far more discouraging were it not
for the few cases alluded to above, where men are already
making the orchard business a splendid success here in ISTew
England ; and were there not certain factors which warrant

1 Agriculture of Massachusetts, 1909.

26

one in believing tliat we liave only to take hold of the in-
dustry in a business-like way to make it the equal of orchard-
ing in any other section.

Let us briefly review the situation with the western apple
growers and see what factors have contributed to their suc-
cess. To begin with, their orchards are most of them young,
many of them right in their prime and others just coming
into bearing, so that the fruit which they are producing there
at present is the very best that many of these orchards will
ever produce. I do not believe that the importance of this
factor is half appreciated by our ISTew England orchardists,
who are trying to compete against this class of fruit with
fruit from orchards long past their prime. Until we get
orchards on a par with the west as tO' age, we shall not be
competing with them on anything like an equal footing.

In the second place, the orchard business is a great indus-
try with them. Whole districts do little else than grow ap-
ples, and with this immense capital at stake, and with every
man in the section talking and thinking and even dreaming
of nothing but apples, the industry is bound to forge ahead.
This is a well-recognized principle in any industry, yet one
which we have systematically neglected here in l^ew Eng-
land. If Denmark had had only a handful of men scattered
over the country who were engaged in dairying, it would
never have become the leading dairy country of the world.
And if we are to put the orchard industry of New England
on a satisfactory footing, one of the first steps that must be
taken is to get more people engaged in it. I have repeatedly
urged the importance of this, for I believe that too much
stress cannot be laid upon it.

The third factor which has certainly contributed to the
success of the western fruit is the fertility question. Their
lands are new, virgin soils, full of all the elements of plant
food, and the fruit grown on them has all the raw materials
at its disposal which it can possibly use at any stage of its
development. "We here in New England are growing the
fruit which we expect to compete with it on lands which are
many of them already worn out with constant cropping, and

27

which are in addition too often forced to grow two crops
every year, — a crop of fruit and a crop of hay.

The fourth factor in their success is spraying. It is a
business proposition with them, and they never neglect it.
One hears of orchards which are sprayed five, six, seven or
even more times in a season; and experimental spraying
at the Oregon Agricultural College has shown that 99 per
cent of their apples can be kept free from worms or fungous
diseases, and many of their orchardists are approaching very
close to this in actual practice by proper spraying. "With us
in 'New England the orchard which is sprayed at all is the
exception ; and usually one, or at most two, sprayings are
all that even these orchards receive.

A fifth element of their success is certainly cultivation.
It is thorough and continuous, so that all the power of the
soil goes to making fine foliage and fine fruit, instead of
being divided up among weeds, grass and fruit trees, as is
too often the case with us.

The sixth factor in the conquest of our markets by western
fruit, and the one which more than all others has given them
the inside track, is, in the writer's opinion, their method of
handling and grading and packing their fruit after it is
grown. Even with our faulty methods of growing fruit, we
produce a lot of fine apples but nine-tenths of them are not
marketed so as to command the highest price which their
quality would warrant ; while with the western grower the
grading and packing is such as to insure the apples reaching
the consumer in perfect condition. Not only is every apple
perfect or practically so, — the few blemished ones which
they produce being discarded, — but they are graded so that
all the apples in each box are exactly alike. Fig. 1 shows
two boxes of western apples. — a box of Spitzenbergs, from
A. I. Mason, Hood River, Ore. ; and a box of Grimes' Golden,
packed by Stirling & Pitcairn, Kelowna, B. C, which the
writer had shipped to Amherst for use in his classes in
pomolnoy. And though these boxes came clear across the
continent alone, by express, thus receiving much rougher
handling than they would if shipped in car lots, as is usual,

28

yet so perfect was the packing and so careful had been the
previous handling of the apples that they arrived with prac-
tically every apple in perfect condition; and the apples in
the middle of the boxes and in the bottom were just as good
as those on the top. This is certainly the key to western
success in getting gilt-edged prices for their fruit. " A
dozen Oregon Spitzenbergs," or " a box of Colorado Wine-
saps," has a definite meaning, just as much so as " a dozen
California navel oranges," and customers are willing to pay
for this certainty of getting something which is good.

The seventh and last factor in the success which I shall
mention - — though there are doubtless a few other minor ones
which might be included — is their climate. I believe that
the dry, sunny weather, which most of their famous apple
sections have, puts a color and a " finish " on their fruit
which it is difficult to get here in the east. Mind, I don't
say that it cant be done here, but certainly it isnt very often,
even in the few well-cared-for orchards of which we can boast.
That, it seems to me, is the only factor in the situation which
need disturb the man who wants to go into orcharding here
in 'New England ; and, as I shall try to show, this is more
than offset by advantages which we have.

Let us turn now to the situation here in ISTew England, and
see what factors there may be to encourage the prospective
orchardist to select New England as his field of operations.
In the first place, land values are very much in favor of jSTew
England. Men have been " going west to grow up with the
country " for so long that prices for land in any of the good
fruit sections are abnormally high, while they are correspond-
ingly low here in the east. One hears constantly of the won-
derful prices which are paid out there for raw lands, or for
land just set to orchard, while $1,000, $2,000 and even
$5,000 per acre have been refused for bearing orchards.
Here in !N"ew England, on the contrary, splendid orchard
land can be bought for $5, $10, and up to $50 per acre. No
country in the world abounds more in ideal orchard sites than
New England. Eig. 2 is typical of hundreds of sections here,
where high, rolling lands, with splendid orchard soils, can

29

be had at prices which will give the man starting an orchard
on them a tremendous advantage over the man who starts on
the high-priced lands of the west. If one can buy land
ready to set out to trees at $25 per acre, — and this can
be done in many parts of New England, — he has just one-
quarter of the capital to pay interest on which the man has
who uses $100 land, and his chances of paying dividends
are that much better. The skeptical may ask, " If this is so.
why have our New England lands so long gone begging ? "
and the writer frankly admits that he would like to ask that
question himself, though he certainly does not want to be
classed among the skeptical as to New England's possibilities
in orcharding. As nearly as it has been possible for the
writer to figure out a reply to this question, -^ which is cer-
tainly a legitimate one and an important one, if we are to
convince those intending to go into orcharding that New
England has distinct advantages to offer them, — the reasons
are about as follows : —

1. There is the almost universal feeling that an orchard is
a long-time investment ; that it is going to take years before
any returns will be received from it ; that, while it might be
all right as an investment for one's children, the one who
planted it could not expect to get much out of it; and this
feeling has been heightened and strengthened here in the east
by the records of small family orchards, set years before the
orchard was thought of as a serious business proposition, and
without any care whatever they have taken a long time to
come into bearing.

2. We are so largely a suburban community here in New
England that truck crops and dairying have been profitable ;
and once these branches were started, they naturally kept
in the lead, as farmers are proverbially conservative and
slow to change into new lines.

3. There has been too long a feeling here in the east that
we could not compete with the west in any line of agricul-
ture. When grain crops were the main feature of farm oper-
ations, and when the grain States of the middle west were
first opened up, it ivas a one-sided fight ; and our eastern

30

farmers came to feel that anything which the western farmer
could produce he was bound to win on, and they have there-
fore the more assiduously stuck to truck and dairying, where
they were safe from that competition. But just as at the
" ^Rational Corn Show " last year it was a young man from
Connecticut who took the prize for the highest yield of corn
per acre in the United States, and who is now giving pointers
and selling seed corn to his western competitors, so I believe
that if the eastern orchardists will only try it, they can as
fully and easily upset the notion that the west has an absolute
and iron-clad lead in the production of apples.

jSText to the question of land, and more important in some
ways, I should place the matter of the quality of IS'ew Eng-
land-grown fruit. I believe that there is no other section
where the flavor and aroma and juiciness and sweetness, and,
in fact, all those factors on which we base our estimate of
the quality of an apple, are more highly developed than right
here. This is not my own judgment alone, though I have
had many opportunities of comparing the fruit from this
region with that from other sections, and particularly with
the far western apples so generally found in full possession
of our best fruit stores. And almost without exception, when
our eastern apples were as well grown and had been as care-
fully handled, — which I am sorry to be obliged to admit
was not always the case, — almost without exception I have
had no hesitation in saying that the advantage in quality
lay strongly on the side of our home apples. Prof. John
Craig of Cornell, one of the highest authorities on such mat-
ters, one of the judges at Oregon's " ISTational Apple Show "
last year, and a man who has had frequent opportunities of
testing this matter, has repeatedly expressed the opinion,
both publicly and privately, that for quality eastern apples
were in the lead. The late Charles Downing held the same
view. He received apples from all over this continent where
they were grown in his day, and expressed the opinion that
the mountain regions of Virginia and North Carolina and
the orchard sections of higher latitude — ISTova Scotia, ISTew
England, etc. — produced apples of the highest excellence

31

of any that he received. And the same opinion has been
expressed to the writer on many occasions by those who have
taken the pains to test the comparative merits of onr jSTew
England apples and those of Oregon, Colorado and other
western sections. Now, if this is so, the importance of this
one fact more than outweighs all other possible advantages
that the west can have over us. " Quality " ought to be our
motto, to be kept constantly before the attention of our
growers, from the time they select their varieties till the
ripe fruit is put in the hands of the consumer in absolutely
perfect condition as to growing and handling. It ought to
be dinged into the ears of the consumer and in every way
possible brought to the attention of the other senses, — par-
ticularly his sense of taste, — until to call for Kew England
apples would be not the last but the first thing that he would
think of doing.

A third factor which certainly ought to stand in favor of
the New England orchardist is the matter of markets. If
he is competing on anything like equal terms with his west-
ern competitors in other respects, it would certainly seem
that the fact that he is right in the midst of the best markets
in the world, while his competitors are three thousand miles
crway from them, ought to give him the difference in the cost
of freight and express rates as a margin of profit, or a handi-
cap over his competitors. The thing to do then is to make
the terms equal, to so adopt up-to-date methods, — whether
they be western, northern, southern or eastern, — that this
market factor shall stand to our credit. Unfortunately, this
nearness to markets has in the past worked as much, if not
more, against as for New England fruit ; for, while the grower
of good fruit finds it easier to get his product into the hands
of the consumer, so does the man with wormy or windfall
apples for sale, and as at present the old, worn-out orchards
of New England are producing an unfortunately large
amount of this class of fruit, the customer is led to believe
that this is about all we grow here. While our western
friends are so far from market that no one is rash enough to
ship windfalls or other refuse on here, so they are spared the

32

reflected odium of this trash in the markets, and their fruit
ranks correspondingly high with consumers and with every-
body who loves a fine thing. Only a few days ago the writer
was provided by the secretary of the State Board of Agricul-
ture with a box of apples for demonstration purposes which
cost $5 in hard cash. That was the market rate for these
apj)les, held over in cold storage. They are less at the begin-
ning of the season, of course, but such is their reputation
that they are always high.

The foregoing discussion presents the main facts of the
orchard situation, both east and west, as the writer sees them.
It only remains to " sum up the case," and to make some
specific suggestions as to putting our orchard industry on its
feet in accordance with the general principles already given
— as to adopting some western methods. The writer sug-
gests, to those who may be thinking of planting an orchard,
the following points : —

First, if possible, put out as much as 10 acres of orchard.
The equipment for running the orchard costs as much for an
acre as for 10, and the cost of setting it is very little indeed,
comparatively. An orchard in which the writer is interested
cost less than 6 cents per tree to fit the land and set the trees.
The trees themselves for 10 acres ought not to cost over 15
cents each. Furthermore, with an orchard of this size one
can afford to do many things, and will be enthused to do
many more, in caring for it which one would not with a
smaller orchard. By all means make the orchard large
enough.

Second, use the greatest care in choosing varieties. Get
prolific ones, for there is no profit in growing an orchard
which doesn't bear. You must get the bushels if you are
going to get the dollars. If possible, get varieties which
have been grown in that particular locality. By all means
choose high-quality ones. In the writer's opinion, the Ben
Davis ought never to be planted, — in Massachusetts, at all
events. Possibly it may be allowable in parts of Maine,
where better sorts will not grow ; but an eastern Ben Davis
is such a poor thing, as compared with those of the middle

Fig. 5. — A well-packed l)arrel of apples. The " lace circle " adds to its attrac-
tiveness, and with good apples it is good business to use it.

33

west, and the variety is such a poor thing anyhow, that we
certainly cannot afford to grow it in the Bay State. Se-
lect popular varieties, if you can. People don't know the
Eome Beauty nor the Wismer's Dessert as they do the Bald-
win, the Ehode Island Greening and the Hubbardston.

Third, plan to practice clean cultivation in the orchard
from the beginning, if possible. It means better care in so
many other ways. It means better acquaintance with every
tree in the orchard, and consequently better attention to its
needs. In particular, it means less borers, and in localities
where they are troublesome this is a very important point.
If absolutely impossible to cultivate, on account of the steep-
ness of the land, — and there undoubtedly are thousands
of acres of splendid orchard land on the hillsides of
ITew England, — then practice the so-called " sod-culture "
method ; that is, mow the grass and weeds which grow on
the land, and leave them for a mulch about the trees.

Fourth, begin to fertilize the orchard as soon as it is set,
and keep it up every year. In the writer's orchard each tree
is given 1 ounce of nitrate of soda and 1 pound of a mix-
ture made at the rate of 5 pounds of basic slag or of acid
phosphate, to furnish the phosphoric acid, and 3 pounds of
high-grade sulfate of potash. This is scattered about the
tree — not close enough to injure the trunk — as early as
the land is in good condition in the spring. For bearing
orchards we use 500 pounds of slag or acid phosphate and
300 pounds of high-grade sulfate of potash per acre. Mr.
J. II. Hale uses 1,000 pounds of bone meal and 400 pounds
of muriate of potash. Either of these formulas is high feed-
ing, but high feeding pays with trees as truly as with steers ;
and particularly if one is starting an orchard on old pasture
land, or lands which have been otherwise depleted of their
plant food, — and these sorts of lands often offer ideal
orchard sites, — it is imperative to get the plant food back
into them, and in liberal quantities, too.

Fifth, spray the orchard. It is not always necessary to
spray it during the first few years, but, on the other hand,
it is sometimes absolutely necessary if the trees are to be

34

saved. Rose chafers will sometimes drop down on them,
or crawl up, in a night, and prompt measures and strong poi-
sons are necessary to prevent great damage. A good spray
pump ought to be bought when the orchard is set, and kept
in readiness. Keep an eye out for the San Jose scale, and
for anything else which may attack the trees, and keep ahead
of them. When the trees come into bearing, spraying be-
comes still more imperative. The codling moth is always
rampant in our orchards, and wormy apples are tolerated in
a way which is ruinous to our reputation. Fig. 4 shows
some Baldwins which were on sale at a fruit store in the
town of Amherst, and practically every one had a worm in it.
One of the most prominent orchardists of Massachusetts
stated to the writer last year that in his opinion the Canadian
law, which allows 10 per cent of wormy or otherwise defec-
tive specimens in ISTo. 1 apples, was far too strict, and that
his own No. I's that year would average nearly 50 per cent
wormy. Until we get a different view from this of what
is allowable in No. 1 fruit, the west will continue to take
charge of our best markets.

Sixth, practice thinning when trees set heavily. This
gets rid of the defective specimens of fruit before the tree
has had the drain of bringing them to full maturity, and
the result is better fruit for that year, and more likelihood
of a crop the following year. Some varieties need thinning
far more than others, but any variety of any fruit which
tends to overbear will be benefited by it; and it is by no
means as expensive an operation as many people think.

Seventh, and last, handle the fruit with the greatest care,
grade it with the greatest accuracy and pack it with the
greatest skill and honesty. In picking and sorting, the fruit
ought never to be tossed about or let fall. iSTo apple should
be let go of until it is in contact with those already in the bas-
ket. Pad baskets and tables, to avoid bruising. For pack-
ages use the regular bushel box for all the best grades of
apples; either 10 by 12 by 20 inches inside measure, or
lOi/o by IIV2 by 18 inches. The old, flat bushel box used for
vegetables ought to be abandoned. The box ends should be

35

of three-fonrtlis-ineh stock, the sides of three-eighths-incb, and
the top and bottom of one-fourth-inch. For the top, bottom
and sides good clean spruce, straight-grained and free from
knots is best. It must be good stock, to provide strength
and springiness with lightness. Where barrels are used, —
and they will midoubtedlj long continue to be our main
package, — get new ones, if possible ; second-hand ones are
never entirelv satisfactory. Grade and pack with the greatest
care. Carry out J. H. Hale's famous motto, found on his
labels, " IT C Top U C All." Use the lace circles showm
in Fig. 5, and do everything possible to make the package
and its contents attractive.

And, above and beyond all, have faith in the industry.
Talk Kew England fruit to your friends and neighbors and
customers. Tell them we can grow the finest apples in the
world and that we ought to take hold and recover our lost
markets. And then practice ivhat you preach.

3G

THE INFLUENCE OF SOIL YARIATION ON CEOP
PRODUCTION.'

H. J. WILDER, BUREAU OF SOILS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE.

The influence of soil variation on crop production is best
illustrated perhaps, by the development of special crops in
different sections of the country. In many cases the highest
development of such crops has taken place under a definite
and restricted range of soil conditions. We are inclined to
look at special crop districts already developed as examples
of agricultural adaptation that were bound to appear in the
natural course of events. We are also inclined to forget the
many individuals who have fallen by the wayside in helping
to develop such districts. Yet it is exceedingly doubtful if
any section or locality in this country has earned a reputa-
tion for producing some crop well without having its course
to that success marked by many failures of the individual
farmer. There was a first man, for instance, to make some
money in growing tobacco in the Connecticut valley. His
neighbors followed him. The kinds of soil upon which they
tried this crop were diverse, and the quality of the tobacco
equally so. Hence the prices received yielded a profit or
a loss, as the case might be. The use of commercial fer-
tilizers was begun, and in the keen struggle to successfully
produce this crop, which promised high profits when well
grown, every kind of fertilizer offered for sale was tried.
Perhaps it is not stating the case too strongly to say that for
a time it was felt that if just the right fertilizer could be
secured we should have the magical key to more universal
success and profit. Where the soil conditions and the care
given the crop were favorable the use of commercial fer-

^ Agricidture of Massachusetts, 1911.

37

tilizers generally paid well enough to warrant their purchase
and to establish a more or less rational system of selecting
and applying them. Thus has the most profitable field prac-
tice with tobacco in the Connecticut valley been developed.

But some fields would not produce a grade of leaf that
could be sold at a profit; and this occurred, too, where the
same seed was used, and where the same conditions of fertili-
zation and care were supplied. Such failures were unques-
tionably due to an unfavorable soil. I recall instances where
men failed to produce crops profitably notwithstanding the
fact that their endeavors were as vigorous and as intelligently
applied as those of more successful neighbors. These men
have been, in some cases at least, victims of the lack of soil
adaptation to the crop they were trying to grow, and I fear
that local judgment of their ability as farmers has not infre-
quently been uncharitable.

But a much more common loss has resulted from the try-
ing out of fields whose adaptability to tobacco was guessed at
by the individual farmer. One year's experience on a new
field has often been sufficient to show its lack of adaptability
to this crop, and the loss entailed not heavier than could be
borne, but such trials have in the aggregate been very ex-
pensive, both for the individual and for the public. They
have been of great advantage, however, to the individual
farmer of to-day in giving him opportunity to avoid similar
mistakes if he will avail himself of the experience of his
own community.

The correlation of all these results and best crop practices
found under a wide range of conditions can hardly be under-
taken by the individual, as it involves problems at least of
State and probably of JSTational scope. In many cases care-
ful experimentation is necessary before safe conclusions can
be drawn, and it is the endeavor of the National Department
of Agriculture, together with various State organizations, to
solve as many as possible of these diverse farm problems.
It is the province of the field work of the Bureau of Soils to
solve one of the several important factors of crop growing,
naiuely, how to select soils so that the different croy»s, and.

38

where possible, the different varieties of the same crop, may
be grown with most profit. It is for this economic reason
that the stndy of soil adaptation to crops is of so much im-
portance.

In the Connecticut valley of Massachusetts and Connecti-
cut the physical character of the soil not only determines
what specific crops shall be grown on the different types, but
the adaptability of those soil types to such special crops has
in turn been the principal basis of land valuation there for
the last half century. On my father's farm there were three
principal types of soil. On the western third a sandy loam
gave an excellent quality of wrapper leaf tobacco, and for this
reason was bought at a price of $200 an acre, without build-
ings. It was not nearly as good for corn or grass as the
medium brown loam on the eastern third of the farm, which
was then valued at approximately $100 an acre, nor as good
for grass as the heavy, dark, silt loam of the middle third,
at about $75 an acre. Because of the better yields of corn
obtained from the loam, my father, in his early experience
there, reasoned that it should produce a good crop of tobacco
also. Forced to sell the product for about one-half as much
per pound as that grown on the sandy loam, though all
methods of fertilization and care were the same, he was not
long in drawing the conclusion that he needed no further
experience in determining the adaptation to crops of that
particular soil.

When onions became an important money crop in the
Connecticut valley he learned that the best tobacco soil on
the farm produced the best quality of onions also, but that
the brown loam would give a larger yield through a succes-
sion of seasons, and that the quality was not enough poorer
to be of material consequence. The surrounding locality
soon reached the same conclusion, and then the price of that
soil type went up. But the price of the dark, silt loam in
the middle of the farm has remained nearly stationary, be-
cause it produced a thick, giimmy leaf of tobacco and a poor
grade of onion. For the latter crop this soil does not dry
out early enough in the spring. Then, too, its tendency to

39

form small clods which cause sore fingers during hand weed-
ing is objectionable, and any rain at harvest time causes this
somewhat sticky soil to adhere to the bulbs, and render them
less salable. The tops do not cure down as well in the fall
on this heavy, silt loam, and this causes some inferior onions,
esjiecially if the season be wet and late. 'No doubt many
of you have noted similar instances with this or other crops
in your own farm experience without realizing that it might
be a case of soil adaptation.

In the rapid development of tobacco growing in Florida
and near-by States during recent years soil selection has
been one of the most important factors ; indeed, within that
very considerable district possessing a suitable climate, soil
selection has been of chiefest importance, and this phase of
adaptation has been carried even to the point of breeding to-
bacco to suit local soil conditions. Deep sandy soils and light
sandy loams yield the thin elastic leaf desired for cigar
wrappers, while a similar surface soil, underlain by a dark
red clay loam subsoil — the Orangeburg sandy loam — yields
a thicker leaf of much heavier body, that is worthless for
cigar wrappers but very desirable for cigar fillers. These two
types of soil occur side by side, often on the same farm, at
the same elevation, and so of course under the same climatic
conditions.

Sugar cane in the Gulf States grown on the soil type with
the red clay loam subsoil mentioned above yields a syrup
that brings a lower price than that from another type asso-
ciated with it, — the Norfolk sandy loam, — which has a
more plastic subsoil of yellow color. With other conditions
equal, the latter soil also yields more gallons of syrup per
acre than the t^'pe with the red subsoil. This is undoubtedly
due to the greater freedom with which the cane-root system
can penetrate the subsoil, as the red subsoil is stiff enough in
some cases to hinder root expansion, — a condition to which
the sugar cane plant is sejisitive.

Sea-island cotton took its name from being grown on
islands along the coast of South Carolina. Its long, beauti-
ful staple is now secured in northern Florida and other Gulf

40

States when grown on deep, fine-textnred, loamy sands simi-
lar to those of the sea islands which it made famous. But
on the heavy soils, or even shallow, sandy loam surface soils
underlain by heavy clay loam, a common soil occurrence in
that region, it does not succeed, and is replaced by the short-
staple varieties.

In southwest Minnesota a shallow glacial valley some three
miles wide divides the upland prairie, which extends for
many miles in transverse direction. The irregular valley
walls range in height from 15 to 30 feet, or in some cases a
little more. The valley soil is a clay loam, richly charged
with humus. It is suited to grass and other forage crops, but
wheat runs heavily to straw, none of the grain grading above
Xo. 2, while much of it is Xo. o. Wheat from the gray
clay loam to the west of the valley, where the growth of straw
and the filling of the heads is well balanced, gives a higher
percentage of Xo. 1 grain. Grown on the brown loam east
of the valley, the grade is about half Xo. 1 and half Xo. 2.
These lands have been farmed only thirty to forty years,
hence they have never been dressed to any appreciable extent
with yard manure or commercial fertilizers. The superin-
tendent of the elevator at the county seat where most of the
grain is sold told me that he could tell on which of these three
soil types a farmer unknown to him lived by the way his
wheat graded. However this may be, the influence of the
soil on the quality of the same varieties of grain is effec-
tively shown by the money returns at the elevator.

The dark-colored valley soil referred to is of the same
character as the famous corn soils of Iowa, and were the
climatic conditions in Minnesota as suitable for the growth
of corn, this type of soil would undoubtedly equal its pro-
totype in Iowa for the production of that crop.

In southeast Michigan the profit from sugar beets grown
for the factory follows closely the character of the soil upon
which the beets are grown. Beets from light sandy soils have
a high sugar content, with a high coefiicient of purity, but the
tonnage is relatively small. Moist, rich, clay loams yield a
heavy tonnage, but the sugar content is low, and the coefficient
of purity very unsatisfactory. The farmers' goal is to secure

41

the highest possible tonnage consistent with a high sugar con-
tent of satisfactory purity. This combination is best found
there in a good, strong, sandy loam, underlain by a plastic
light clay loam subsoil at a depth of 12 to 20 inches. Nearly
as good is a deep, fine, sandy loam extending to a depth of 3
feet or more.

Without taking time for further illustration, the specific
cases of soil adaptation to crops already described will be
sufficient to show, perhaps, that many of our leading crops
have reached their highest development on special types or
conditions of soil.

It may be worth while to note here that our natural forest
growth also indicates clearly that many varieties of trees suc-
ceed best on certain kinds of soil. The local name " black
walnut land " is still used where that hardy tree grows to
indicate a heavy type of soil. In southeast Michigan this is
the " Miami clay loam." The hickory thrives in the north-
eastern States on the heavier soils. Black walnut and hick-
ory are both deep-rooted trees. In the same region " hemlock
land " always indicates a sandy soil, and the hemlock is
not a deep-rooted tree. In the orchard districts of West Vir-
ginia the leading peach growers will not tolerate " white
oak " land, but a mixed growth of " rock oak and chestnut,"
about one-third of the former and two-thirds of the latter,
indicates a soil which has been instrumental in making one
of the most famous fruit districts in the world. The rock
oak and chestnut growth indicates a soil somewhat stronger
than that of chestnut alone, as a better supply of moisture
is maintained ; when newly cleared it is more productive,
and even on old ground better results are secured from fer-
tilization. The subsoil is finer textured, that is, more clayey,
than the chestnut subsoil, but still is not so heavy as the
white oak soil. Yet on the latter some varieties of apples
thrive. Carrying a step further the matter of soil adaptation
to the different varieties of oak, it is a matter of common
observation that poor and thin soils often support only the
dwarfish black jack oak and the post oak.

Shreve has found in his forestry studies in Maryland that
" the general distribution of the loblolly pine is determined

42

by historical and climatic factors, yet its relative abundance
at different localities within its area is determined by the
character of the soil."

Having dwelt at some length upon the importance of soil
selection for the several different crops, I want to call your
attention at this point to the fact that the character of the
soil upon which a crop is grown is only one of several factors
necessary for successful crop production. Climatic condi-
tions, embracing not only absolute temperatures but also
the rainfall, air drainage, soil drainage as effected by topog-
raphy, — the only kind considered until recently, — eleva-
tion above sea level and with reference to local topography,
fertilization and care, are all important, l^o one of these
factors may be studied effectually unless the other factors
influencing production can be balanced. So soil compari-
sons can be of value only when the other conditions are
equalized, and to do this a large number of field comparisons
is essential.

Let us now go a step further, and consider not the adapta-
tion of soils to a given crop, but rather the adaptation of soils
to different varieties of the same crop. For some time I have
been especially interested in working out the conditions of
soil on which each variety of apple does best, and to some of
these soil adaptations I now ask your attention. Later any
discussion pertaining to them will be welcomed.

Baldwix.

If soils are thought of as grading from heavy to light, cor-
responding to the range from clay to sand, then soils grad-
ing from medium to semi-light fulfill best the requirements
of the Baldwin. Following definitely the classification
standards of the Bureau of Soils (see table below) with ref-
erence to the proportions of clay, silt and sands, this group-
ing would include the medium to light loams, the heavy
sandy loams, and also the medium sandy loams, provided
they were underlain by soil material not lighter than a me-
dium loam nor heavier than a light or medium clay loam
of friable structure.

43

Scheme of Soil Classification, based upon the

of Soils.

[Millimeters.]

Mechanical Composition

Class.

1.

Fine

Gravel.

2-1

2.

Coarse

Sand.

1-.5

3.

Medium
Sand.
.5-.25

4.

Fine
Sand.
.25-. 1

5.

Very
Fine
Sand.
.1-.05

6.

Silt.
.05-.005

7.

Clay.
.005-0

Coarse sand, . 1

More than 25 per
cent of 1, 2.

-

-

-

0-15

0-10

More than 50 per cent of
1, 2, 3.

-

-

Less than 20 per
cent of 6, 7.

Medium sand, . 1

I^ess than 25 per
cent of 1, 2.

-

-

-

0-15

0-10

More than 20 per cent of
1, 2, 3.

-

-

Less than 20 per
cent of 6, 7.

Less than 20 per cent of
1, 2, 3.

- ■

0-15

0-10

Fine sand, .

Less than 20 per
cent of 6, 7.

More than 20 per cent of
1, 2, 3.

_ (

10-35

5-15

Sandy loam,

More than 20 per
cent and less than
50 per cent of 6, 7.

Less than 20 per cent of
1, 2, 3.

-

_ (

I

10-35

5-15

Fine sandy loam.

More than 20 per
cent and le.s.s than
50 per cent of 6, 7.

-

-

-

-

- ■

-

15-25

Loam, .

Less
than 55
per cent

of 6.

-

More than 50 per
cent of G, 7.

Silt loam,

-

-

-

-

-

More
than 55
per cent

of 6.

Loss
than 25
per cent

of 7.

-

-

- ■

25-55

25-35

Clay loam, .

More than 60 per
cent of 6, 7.

44

Scheme of Soil Classification, etc. —

[Millimeters.]

Concluded.

Class.

1.

Fine

Gravel.

2-1

2.

Coar.se

Sand.

1-.5

3.

Medium
Sand.
.5-.25

4.

Fine
Sand.
.25-.1

5.

Very
Fine
Sand.
.l-.Oo

6.

Silt.
.05-.005

7.

Clay.
.005-0

Sandy clay,

-

-

-

- ,

Less
than 25
per cent

of 6.

More
than 20
per cent

of 7.

Less than 60 per
cent of 6, 7.

Silt clay,

-

-

-

-

-

More
than 55
per cent

of 6.

25-35
per cent

of 7.

Clay, .

-

-

-

-

- ,

-

More
than 35
per cent

of 7.

More than 60 per
cent of 6, 7.

From this broad generalization it will be seen that the
surface soil should contain an appreciable amount of sand.
The sands, moreover, should not be all of one grade ; that
is, a high percentage of coarse sand would give a poor soil,
whereas a moderate admixture of it with the finer grades of
sand, together with sufficient clay and silt, would work no
harm. In general, the sand content should be of the finer
grades, but soils also occur, though comparatively rare, which
would be too heavy for this variety were it not for a marked
content of the coarse sands, the effect of which is to make the
soil mass much more friable and open than would be expected
with the presence of so much clay. Such soil dries quickly
after a rain, and is not to be classed as a moist soil. It will
never clod if worked under conditions at all reasonable. The
subsoil, on the other hand, must never be heavy enough to
impede ready drainage of excess moisture, yet sufficiently
clayey to retain a good moisture supply ; that is. plastic, not
stiff. If the subsoil be so clayey or heavy that moisture does

45

not percolate down through it readily, a Baldwin of poor
color with a skin more or less greasy is the usual result.

Referring to the effect of a heavy, clayey soil on the growth
and quality of apples, Hedrick of the Geneva Experiment
Station, in Bulletin 339, published last summer, states that
'" The station soil is not an ideal one for apples. Though
well drained, the land is yet hard and heavy, and much of
the time unworkable, coming from the plow in great lumps
hardly to be crushed. In such a soil the root run is limited.
— a fact we have had forced upon our attention in early
spring, when the soil is wet, by the blowing over of several
trees. Manifestly, food would be better utilized by trees in a
soil where the roots could develop better. Despite the physi-
cal condition of the soil, apple trees make a very fair growth
and the fruit sets in abundance, but with most varieties —
and the Rome used in this experiment is not a marked excep-
tion — the apples run small, fail to color well and do not
always mature properly."

The ideal to be sought is a heavy, fine, sandy loam, or a
light, mellow loam underlain by plastic, light clay loam or
heavy silt loam. It is fully realized that many will not pos-
sess this ideal, but the soil that most closely resembles it
should be chosen. If com be grown on such soil the lower
leaves will cure down before cutting time, giving evidence of
moderately early maturity. This is one of the safe criteria by
which to be guided in choosing soil for this variety.

Mention was not made in the above description of the color
of the soil. The desirability of a surface soil of dark brown,
the color being due to the presence of decaying organic mat-
ter, is unquestionable and generally recognized ; and if the
soil be not that color the successful orchardist will make it so
by the incorporation of organic matter through the growth of
leguminous crops, or otherwise. It is often cheaper to buy
soil with a good organic content, or humus supply, than it is
to be compelled to put it there after purchase before good
crops can be secured. Hence this is purely an economic
feature. The warning should be stated, however, that a soil
should not be purchased or planted to apples of any variety

46

because it is dark colored and rich in humus. The soil should
be selected because of its textural and structural adaptation,
regardless of the organic content; then if such soils happen
to be well supplied with vegetable matter, so much the better ;
if not, it may be supplied.

To modify, however, by the addition of humus, the physi-
cal condition of a sand until it resembles a sandy loam, or so
to change a clay until it resembles a clay loam as far down
as tree roots ordinarily extend, is unquestionably an expen-
sive process, and as orchards are grown for profit, the soils on
which they are to be planted should be so selected for the
different varieties as to furnish the most favorable conditions
possible, before going to the additional expense of trying to
change their character artificially.

While soils so deficient in humus as to be leachy in the
case of sands, but stiff, intractable and cloddy in the case of
clays, clay loams, and loams, should have their humus content
increased until these unfavorable conditions for crop growth
of any kind be overcome so far as possible, it is utterly futile
to maintain that by the addition of plenty of humus the physi-
cal characteristic of any given soil may be so changed that
its inherent physical character is negligible so far as its adap-
tation to crops or to different varieties of the same crop is
concerned. The agricultural practice of the eastern United
States is replete with instances of special soil-crop-variety
adaptation.

While the hills of Massachusetts include a great deal of
ideal Baldwin soil or soil that resembles the ideal closely
enough for practical purposes, they also include a great deal
of soil that is not well adapted to the Baldwin. The greatly
superior color of the fruit from some orchards when compared
with that from others on a different kind of soil — elevation,
slope, methods of culture and fertilization being virtually the
same — gives striking evidence of the importance of the soil
factor. On just this basis the fruit from some orchards sells
for a higher price than that from others. This illustrates
the economic advisability of selecting the orchard site with
soils adapted to the variety to be planted.

47

Rhode Island Greening.

As the best prices for the Rhode Island greening are
usually obtained in iSTew York City, the general aim of the
commercial grower will be to meet the preferences of that
market. The demand there for a " green " Greening has
usually been stronger than for one carrying a high blush.
Bearing this ideal in mind the soils adapted to this variety
are distinct from the Baldwin standard. In fact, these two
varieties, considered as standards, differ so markedly in soil
requirements that the soil adaptations of other varieties may
well be compared with either the Baldwin or the Rhode
Island Greening soil standard. A surface soil of heavy, silty
loam or light, silty, clay loam underlain by silty clay loam
excels for the " green " Rhode Island Greening. Such soil
will retain sufficient moisture to be classed as a moist soil, yet
it is not so heavy as ever to be ill-drained if surface drainage
is adequate. The soil should be moderately rich in organic
matter, decidedly more so than for the Baldwin. In con-
trast to the Baldwin soil in the growth of corn, it should keep
the lower leaves of the plant green until harvesting time, or
at least until late in the season. Such soil conditions main-
tain a long seasonal growth under uniform conditions of
moisture, and thus produce the firm yet crisp texture, the
remarkable juiciness and the high flavor for which this va-
riety is noted when at its best. If grown on a soil too sandy,
the Rhode Island Greening lacks fineness of grain, flavor
and the juicy quality in greater or lesser degree, depending
on the extent of the departure from those soil characteristics
which contribute to its production. If a high blush is de-
sired, however, to supply other market conditions, a soil
somewhat warmer than that described should be selected, —
a deep, light, mellow loam or productive, fine, sandy loam
being favorable. To secure a " finish " of this character
soils approaching more nearly to the Baldwin standard are
best adapted.

The Rhode Island Greening is more restricted in area than
the Baldwin, not adapting itself to the climatic conditions

48

as far south as the Baldwin, even though suitable soils occur
there. In fact, its southern boundary may be roughly esti-
mated as 1/4° north of the forty-first parallel. South of that
it becomes a fall apple, and keeps very poorly.

HUBBAEDSTON.

Compared with the Baldwin soil requirements, the heaviest
soils desirable for the Hubbardston lap over for a little upon
the lightest soils desirable for the Baldwin, while at the other
extreme the Hubbardston will utilize to advantage a more
sandy soil than most other varieties. This does, not mean
that it will succeed on poor, light sands, for on such soils the
apple will not attain suiScient size to be of value, nor is the
tree vigorous enough, but the soil should always be very
mellow. A rich, fine, sandy loam to a depth of at least a
foot is preferable, and the subsoil may well be of the same
texture. A subsoil containing enough clay to make the fine
sandy material somewhat coherent, or sticky, is not objec-
tionable, but there should never be enough clay present to
render the subsoil heavy. If the soil is too heavy or too
clayey the fruit is liable to have greasy skins and a defi-
cient color, while the flavor is insufficiently developed.

ISToRTHERN Spy.
This variety is one of the most exacting in soil require-
ments. To obtain good quality of fruit, i.e., fine texture,
juiciness and high flavor, the soil must be moderately heavy,
and for the first two qualities alone the Rhode Island Green-
ing soil would be admirable. The fact that the T^orthern Spy
is a red apple, however, makes it imperative that the color
be well developed and the skin free from the greasy tendency.
This necessitates a fine adjustment of soil conditions, for the
heaviest of the soils adapted to the Rhode Island Greening
produces Northern Spies with greasy skins and usually of
inferior color. The habit of tree growth of this variety,
moreover, is such as to require careful attention. Its ten-
dency to grow upright seems to be accentuated by too clayey
soils, if well enriched, and such soils tend to promote growth

49

faster than the tree is able to mature well. On the other
hand, sandy soils, while producing good color and clear skins,
fail to bring fruit satisfactory in quality with respect to tex-
ture and flavor. The keeping quality, too, is inferior to that
of the Spy gro\vn on heavier soils in the same district.
Hence the soil requirements of this variety are decidedly ex-
acting, and are best supplied apparently by a medium loam
underlain by a heavy loam or light clay loam. It should not
be planted on a soil lighter than a very heavy, fine, sandy
loam, underlain by a light clay loam, or possibly a heavy
loam. On light soils the Northern Spy very often yields less
per acre than the Baldwin. Good air drainage is also very
essential with this variety.

Wagenee.
In northeast Pennsylvania, where the climatic conditions
are not greatly dissimilar to those of this State, Wagener
is one of the most profitable sorts for filler purposes. It gave
remarkable results, too, in Massachusetts this past year in the
eastern part of the State at a very low altitude, and in the
western part of the State, at an altitude of nearly 1,200
feet, it is doing very well indeed. The tree is normally some-
what weak in growth ; hence a soil that is deep, strong, mel-
low and loamy should be selected. Stiff subsoils are espe-
cially objectionable with this variety; and thin soils, also
light sandy soils, should be avoided. The Wagener thus fits
in nicely with ISTorthern Spy in soil requirements, and its
habit of early bearing makes an effective offset to the tardi-
ness of the Northern Spy in this respect.

McIntosh.
This is an apple of high quality that is now very popular.
As Mcintosh trees of sufficient age for safe comparisons are
rarely available in this State over any considerable range of
soil conditions, no positive statement is made concerning the
soil preferences of this variety. The indications are, how-
ever, that the heavier of the Baldwin soils as described are
desirable for the Mcintosh.

50

Tompkins King.
The Tompkins King is fully as exacting as Northern Spy
in soil adaptation. The tree, with its straggling tendency of
growth, does not develop satisfactorily on sandy soils, but
succeeds best on a moist yet well-drained soil, i.e., the light
Rhode Island Greening soils, — a soil capable of maintain-
ing such supply of moisture that the tree receives no check at
the approach of drought. But the fruit grown on soils so
heavy lacks clearness of skin, and the appearance of the apple
is marred by the greenish look extending far up the sides
from the blossom end, and the lack of well-developed color,
which makes this fruit at its best very attractive. Hence the
problem is to balance these two opposite tendencies as well as
possible, and the soil of the following description seems best
to do this : light, mellow loam, the sand content thereof being
medium rather than fine, thus constituting an open-textured
loam rather than a fine loam. The subsoil should be either
of the same texture or only slightly heavier, in no case being
heavier than a very light, plastic, clay loam. The soil must
be brought to a productive condition. Subsoils inclining
toward stiffness in structure should be carefully avoided.

Fall Pippin.
Soils adapted to the Fall Pippin are somewhat wider in
range than those described for ISTorthern Spy and Tompkins
King. In fact, this variety may be very successfully grown
on the soils described for both the Tompkins King and the
IsTorthern Spy. It is preferable, however, that the surface
soil be a fine loam rather than the open-texture loam de-
scribed for the Tompkins King.

Gkimes Golden.
The Grimes is so similar to the Rhode Island Greening in
soil adaptation that a separate description of the soils best
for this variety will not be given. The Grimes has been so
profitable in some districts under certain conditions of soil
and climate, however, that its desirability for general plant-

51

ing has been widely heralded ; and as a result this variety is
now being planted in some sections with too little discrimina-
tion with reference to both soil and climate.

The best general guide is to plant Grimes where the Rhode
Island Greening tends to become a fall apple^ This would
eliminate it as a Massachusetts sort. That is, the Rhode
Island Greening soil, located far enough south for that va-
riety to be undesirable for extensive planting, is well adapted
to and may well be utilized for the Grimes. It is recognized
that some growers as far north as New York may dissent
from this view, but I have yet to see the Grimes grown at its
best in the Rhode Island Greening region. The tendency for
a considerable percentage of the fruit to be undersized when
grown there is one of the prime reasons why it cannot com-
pete commercially with that grown under more favorable con-
ditions. Besides, it is often not up to the standard in color.

The tendency of the tree to make unsatisfactory growth
may be overcome in some measure if planted in soil to which
it is adapted. It should never be planted on a light or thin
soil, neither on a stiff soil. The tree maintains its best
growth on a well-drained, fertile, moist soil, and under such
conditions is a very desirable variety in its region. Good air
drainage is essential ; lack of it makes necessary the elimina-
tion of many soil areas that would otherwise be desirable.
Its excellent dessert quality makes Grimes a favorite sort
both for family and for commercial use. For a sj^ecial box
trade it is particularly valuable.

Even as far south as Pennsylvania the Grimes is less hardy
than some other sorts. It is very susceptible to collar rot,
and the feeling prevails that a block of Grimes will show
many " skips " as early as fifteen to twenty years from
planting.

Rome Beauty.
Rome Beauty bears the same relation to the Grimes in soil
requirements as Baldwin does to the Rhode Island Greening
in their respective regions. There is however something of
an overlapping of regions; that is, the Baldwin extends
farther south in adaptation than the Rhode Island Greening;

52

and the Eome Beauty extends as far north as the Grimes.
But this intraregional overlapping of Rome Beauty and
Baldwin is largely a matter of dovetailing due to variations
in elevation. .Thus in southern Pennsylvania, as the Bald-
win in its southerly extension seeks its soil at higher eleva-
tions to offset the climatic changes, so does Rome Beauty in
its northern extension seek the same soil at a lower elevation
for the same reason.

The Baldwin tends to become a fall variety with increasing
distance south, and where this tendency is sufficiently pro-
nounced to materially lessen its desirability, it may well be
replaced by the Rome Beauty, which is adapted to the same
kind of soil.

Rome Beauty is grown with fairly good success in the
lower Hudson valley and at low elevations in western Xew
York, but there is some question whether it will become a
leading commercial sort in either region.

Ben Davis and Gang.

These varieties are mentioned, not to encourage their plant-
ing in Massachusetts, for it is believed that they should not be
planted here, but rather to show their relation to other va-
rieties better adapted to conditions in this State.

Both Ben Davis and Gano show less effect from variation
in the soils upon which they are grown than any others ob-
served. Their well-known quality is probably somewhat in-
dicative of why this is so, yet there are differences to be noted
in the character of the fruit as affected by soil and climate.
The latter feature is believed to be of great importance, for
while there is no gainsaying the fact that the Ben Davis v/ill
grow anj^'here and produce fruit of some description, it re-
quires a good deal of warm weather for its best development.

The mere fact that the Ben Davis may well be called the
" apple of neglect," because it will probably stand more
neglect than any other commercial variety and still bear
fruit, accounts for the commercial growers' dictum that it is
" a good barrel filler and a good shipper ; " while they may
follow this saying with the words, " and that is all." Xo

53

other varieties are so cosmopolitan with regard to climate,
aud from New York to Alabama these apples have numerous
advocates.

Soils as heavy and moist as described for the Rhode Island
Greening are not desirable for either the Ben Davis or Gano.
The tree is naturally of strong growth, hence this character-
istic should not be intensified by planting on an excessively
rich soil, both on account of the growth of the tree and the
poor quality and color of the fruit. At the same time, the
opposite extreme is not desirable, for if the soil be too sandy
the tree grows straggling.

Both of these varieties as planted in ISTew York, Peim-
sylvania and States farther south in the Appalachian region
are bound to prove profitable, but they are not altogether
satisfactory. Soils adapted to the Baldwin, York Imperial
or Winesap will grow good trees and fruit of both Ben Davis
and Gano. Hence there are extensive soil areas, particularly
in Pennsylvania, Maryland, the mountainous areas of Vir-
ginia and West Virginia that are well adapted to these varie-
ties, and they are also profitable sorts in western jSTew York
and in the Hudson valley. But many orchards have been
planted, especially in West Virginia, on thin shale hills,
where the soils are so poorly adapted to apple growing that
not even the cosmopolite, Ben Da\ns, can bring satisfactory
results. This is not the fault of the variety, and in fact the
Ben Davis will probably bring better returns from such soils
than any other variety. In the southern Piedmont region the
Ben Davis drops so early in the season that it is not of com-
mercial importance. In the southernmost Appalachian dis-
tricts it may be grown, but only for the late fall trade in the
extreme southern markets, as there is no call for it farther
north.

From careful obsen^ation it is believed that the Ozark Ben
Da\ds is a little larger than the Appalachian-grown fruit,
and that under the same conditions the Ozark fruit is suffi-
ciently superior to the latter to bring a slightly higher price
in market. As a commercial proposition, however, the greater
number of crops secured in the Appalachian region in any
considerable period, such as a decade, enables that section to

54

compete successfully in the production of these varieties. A
potent point to be considered, nevertheless, bv the eastern
growers is the outlook for future markets.

While the Appalachian region is admirably adapted to the
production of varieties which yield well and are far superior
to the Ben Davis and Gano in quality, the Ozarks have yet to
find an apple of high quality which approaches the Ben Davis
in prolificacy. And although varieties may, and probably
will, be developed which will replace the Ben Davis even
there to some extent, except possibly for exacting shipment,
it is certain to be gro^vn there in enormous qiTantities for a
long time. Hence there is and will be, so far as competition
with that region is concerned, excellent opportunity for the
Appalachian districts to grow varieties that do not have to
compete with the Ben Davis, provided such varieties are
grown, packed and marketed in accord with the most ad-
vanced methods. But this extra profit which may be obtained
from such fruit will never be realized by the slack or average
grower. For these two reasons, then, the Ben Davis and
Gano are bound to remain as they are now, strong commer-
cial varieties over a large area, but Xew England can just
as well grow varieties of much better quality that will also
bring good yields. Hence it would seem ill-advised to make
further plantings of these sorts within her boundaries.

We have seen how several of our important crops have
reached their highest development on certain kinds of soil,
and in the light of this experience it seems inevitable to con-
clude that soils may be selected for different crops in accord-
ance with their relative adaptations to the growth of such
crops. In fact, there is nothing new or startling in this state-
ment. It is simply summing up a long line of experience
in the best farm practice in the country. Only the best farm
practice, the most perfect soil adaptation and the most effec-
tive soil-crop management can long survive, because no other
kinds pay as well. We have been forced by competition to
recognize soil adaptation to different crops. It is a matter of
economic efiiciencv.

55

Attention has been called to the further fact that the best
results from certain varieties of some crops have been ob-
tained under definite soil conditions, and this is especially
well illustrated bj different varieties of apples. Other fruits,
such as the peach and the pear, show a similar range of soil
adaptability as to the individual variety, but these will not
be considered at this time.

Excellent opportunities for fruit culture in Massachusetts
are abundant. jSTo other State can grow a greater number of
really good varieties of apples, and very few States can equal
her in this respect. Yet choice fruit is constantly being
brought into the State to supply her wants, while cheaper
fruit is as constantly being exported because it is not grown
as well as it should be. In common with other northeastern
States Massachusetts possesses a climate in which a large
number of varieties of aj)j)les thrive. Her soils vary greatly,
but include large areas in the aggregate which are well
adajDted to produce all the choice apples the State can con-
sume. This land may be bought, furthermore, at a low price,
— in fact, at a lower price than in many States that now
ship large quantities of apples a long distance to her markets.
Massachusetts markets are unexcelled, and there are plenty of
favorable soil areas within the State on sites suitable for
orcharding that are adapted to productive varieties of high
quality. It seems strange that such opportunities have not
been taken advantage of more fully, yet I would not advocate
that those without experience, or at least careful study, plant
orchards extensively, even under the favorable conditions
that Massachusetts affords. Orcharding is a business requir-
ing a high degree of skill and much patience, and there is
danger lest some be led by the present popular wave of enthu-
siasm for the business to engage in it without due considera-
tion of these matters. Yet there is always a good opportunity
for any one who will so study the business as to master it,
and for such, conditions are highly favorable in Massachu-
setts.

56

VARIETIES OF APPLES FOE MASSACHUSETTS
ORCHARDS.'

F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE.

I wish to disclaim at the outset any notion that the follow-
ing list comprises all the varieties of apples which ought to
be grown in Massachusetts. There are doubtless many others
M'hich might be added and no doubt some people will think
that some which have been included might be omitted in
favor of some which are left out. But, in general, I believe
the list includes most of those varieties which are most suit-
able either for commercial plantations or for private or-
chards within the State. Arranged in approximately the
order of their ripening, the list which I propose to discuss is
as follows: Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Williams
Early, Oldenburg, Gravenstein, Wealthy, Fall Pippin, Mc-
intosh, Hubbardston, Westfield, Blue Pearmain, Palmer
Greening, Sutton, Wagener, Rhode Island Greening, Bald-
win, Spy, Roxbury. Arranged as nearly as may be in the
order of their commercial value in the State, they would
stand as follows: Baldwin, Mcintosh, Rhode Island Green-
ing, Wealthy, Hubbardston, Williams, Oldenburg, Roxbury,
Wagener, Red Astrachan, Sutton, Gravenstein, Fall Pippin,
Westfield, Spy, Yellow Transparent, Blue Pearmain.

Before taking up this discussion of special varieties, I
should like to call attention to some general points or princi-
ples on the subject which I think ought to be carefully con-
sidered by the intending planter before he makes his selec-
tions. If the orchards are to be grown for commercial
purposes, the precise type of market to which it is the inten-
tion to cater ought to be considered and its demands studied,

' Agriculture of Massachusetts, 1909.

57

in order to meet the requirements. As a general principle,
we may say that markets are of two types, and that a very
different list of varieties would be selected for these two
types.

There is first the general or wholesale market, where the
apples are handled in large quantities, and where the pro-
ducer never comes in touch with the consumer. The orchard-
ist growing for this market perhaps sells his fruit to a buyer
in the orchard, or loaded on the car, or he may ship it to a
commission man. In any case, it is very much to his advan-
tage to have a large quantity of fruit of each variety. If he
has five hundred barrels of Baldwins, buyers are going to
hunt him up and bid for his fruit; whereas, if his five hun-
dred barrels are distributed among the seventeen sorts men-
tioned above, there would not be enough of any one kind to
interest the buyer ; and this same general consideration would
hold in any type of general market. If he is shipping to a
commission man, one hundred barrels each of five sorts will
sell for more than five barrels each of one hundred sorts.
As a rule, a man chooses this t;>'pe of market if he is some
distance from his market. If he is going to plant an orchard
to cater to such a trade, he ought, in my opinion, to select
not over five, and preferably about three, varieties. A less
number than this does not provide for cross-pollination, and
does not allow for the years when certain of his varieties will
not bear. I believe that for a steady income from such an
orchard a man is better off to have at least three varieties.

The second type of market is the special or personal market.
•Here the producer comes in direct or nearly direct communi-
cation with the consumer, — that is, he either peddles his
fruit, or at most sells it to the man who sells it direct to the
consumer. The grower perhaps runs a wagon of his own, or,
if he does not do this, he sells to a grocery or fruit store which
sells to the consumer. In either ca^e he is so near the con-
sumer that he gets the benefit of the good quality of his fruit,
or the blame for its bad quality. He gets personal customers,
who may say, " Yes, Mr. Jones, those apples we got last week
were fine ; I want some more like them." Or, to the grocer,
" When are vou soing to have some more of Mr. Jones's

58

apples ? " In either case Jones wants to be in a position to
supply the demand; in other words, he does not want to
work up a market for his Yellow Transparents, and then
drop it when Williams Early are in season, and allow his
customers to forget all about Jones before his Mclntoshes
come on. I have known a man, and a good business man, too,
who refused 50 cents a barrel more for his Spies than he
could sell them for to his regular customers, merely because
he did not want to break the connection. For such a grower
as we are now considering, I do not believe that ten or a
dozen varieties are too many. This may sound like rank
heresy, but if the varieties are selected with the proper care
and consideration, I am sure that it is right.

But, whichever market one is working for, there are cer-
tain characteristics in fruit and tree which ought to be consid-
ered, though their relative importance will vary somewhat.
I have a great weakness for score cards, because it seems to
me that they will help us to reduce our judgments to a more
definite basis, and help one who lacks experience to give
more nearly proper weight to each point. I have therefore
worked out the following score card, which I have used in
my classes with good results, and which I believe will help
the intending planter to give the proper rating to each va-
riety : —

Score Card for a Commercial Variety of Apples.

Tree

1. Heavy bearer,

2. Early bearer,

3. Healthy and vigorous,

Fruit

4. Fair size,

5. Good color,

6. Good quality,

7. Keeps well,

8. Ships well, .

This is by no means an ideal score card, but it represents
fairly accurately my notions as to the comparative value

59

of the different points. To discuss each of these points
briefly : —

Tree. (1) Heavy Bearer. — I have rated this higher for
the general market than for the special, because we do grow
varieties for the latter which are not especially heavy bearers,
because their quality is such that it pays to grow them. In
any case it is important that we get the fruit ; nothing is more
discouraging than an unproductive orchard.

Tree. (2) Early Bearer. — This needs little discussion.
One of the great difiiculties in getting men to set apple or-
chards is the length of time it requires to bring them into
bearing. If they came in in two to four years, as peaches do,
we should see far more apple trees planted. Those varieties
which do come in relatively early are correspondingly wel-
come. I have rated this the same for both markets, because it
seems to me that it is almost equally important. Possibly we
could afford to plant for the special market varieties which
are a little slower in coming into bearing, if their quality
warranted it.

Tree. (3) Healthy and Vigorous. — This is certainly
equally important for both markets and needs no discussion
here. The common ailments which would lower the standing
of a variety here would be susceptibility to canker, to apple
scab on the twigs, a tendency to winter-kill, etc.

Fruit. (Jf) Fair Size. — I have given this double im-
portance for the general market, as we frequently grow spe-
cial varieties, as the Lady, Fameuse and Pomme Grise, for
the special market, if their quality warrants it, when their
size would condemn them for the general market; but it is
certainly a fact that a fair-sized apple has the advantage,
other things being equal.

Fruit. (5) Good Color. — I suppose this is practically
equivalent to saying " red color," but not quite, as some yel-
low apples are more attractive than others. It seems to me
that the craze for red apples is just as insane a notion as that
for red Short-Horn cattle, or for Jerseys with a black tongue.
But the craze is here, and the red apple sells better, particu-
larly in the general market, than any other color.

60

Fruit. (6) Good Quality. — This is a crucial point witli
the special market, and I believe that it ought to be given
more weight than is usual with the general market, particu-
larly here in Massachusetts. We can grow apples of the
highest quality ; some other sections cannot. If we must com-
pete with those sections (and we certainly must), why should
we throw away this advantage by trying to grow Ben Davis ?
Even in the general market quality is appreciated, as any one
will see by watching the market prices and observing the rela-
tive difference in price of Mcintosh and even as good a va-
riety as the Baldwin.

Fruit. (7) Keeps well. — There is undoubtedly a mar-
ket for early apples, and yet, as a rule, the price rises as the
season advances. In years when the crop is large and the
price is low it is frequently the late winter sorts which bring
the balance out on the right side. This is less important now
that cold storage has become more perfect, but certainly it is
still worth considering.

Fruit. (S) Ships well. — This is also less important
than in former years, for methods of packing and shipping
have improved greatly; still, it is even yet important, for if
a variety ships well it requires less time and expense in hand-
ling, and it is more likely to come on; the market in a uni-
formly good condition.

Let us now turn to a consideration of the individual varie-
ties listed, considering them on the basis of the above score
card.

(1) Baldwin. — The Baldwin is a chance seedling which
was found at Wilmington, near Lowell, Mass., and there are
few things which Massachusetts has more cause to be proud
of than having originated the Baldwin. The tree is a strong
grower, long-lived and vigorous, making a round-headed top
of excellent shape, and is in most respects an ideal tree. It
is hardy except in very severe climates. It does not come
into bearing early, ranking about with the Gravenstein in this
respect. As a rule, seven or eight years are required, under
even good conditions, to bring it into profitable bearing. The
tree is somewhat subject to canker, though not very seriously

61

so. It bears very abundantly in alternate years, and little or
nothing in the odd years. Whether this tendency can be over-
come by thinning, or by some other treatment, remains to be
settled. The fruit is finely colored when well grown, of good
size, regular in form, and runs as a rule very uniform, with
comparatively few culls. It keeps well, the season being
from jSTovember to March in ordinary storage, and it stands
handling very well indeed. The quality is usually ranked
from good to above, when well grown, but a poorly grown
Baldwin is a poor thing. This point I think needs decided
emphasis, as some of our well-grown Baldwins are the equal
in color and attractiveness of anything grown in the famous
northwest. On the other hand, some of oiTr poorly grown
Baldwins are the equal of almost anything disreputable in
the apple line. The Baldwin is undoubtedly the most pop-
ular and profitable apple in ISTew England and TSTew York. A
point worth considering is that it is one of the best export
apples, particularly to England, where American-grown
Baldwins stand very high. This means that in years when
there is a large crop here we would have an outlet to foreign
markets. To sum up its good and bad points : —

Baldwin.

Good pomts : —

Bad points : —

1. "Well known.

1. Rather slow in coming into

2. Long-lived tree.

bearing.

3. Good bearer.

2. Overbears in alternate years.

4. Uniform grade of fruit.

3. Not high quality.

5. Good color.

4, Cankers.

(2) Mcintosh. — Perhaps no other apple is more popular
at the present time or more largely planted, than the Mcin-
tosh, and in my opinion it deserves all its popularity. It be-
longs to the Eameuse group, having originated in Ontario,
Canada. The tree is a strong grower, hardy and healthy, one
of the finest that I know. The side branches come out at al-
most right angles, so that the tree will bear an immense load
of fruit without breaking down; the branches are well distri-
uted; altogether, it forms a beautiful tree. It comes into

62

bearing relatively early, and bears well, though not over-
abunclantly. It has a strong inclination to be an annual
bearer when well eared for, which I consider a decidedly im-
portant point. The fruit itself is very attractive in appear-
ance, being a bright, handsome red, with a waxy texture to
the flesh, which is white, tender and very highly perfumed.
The aroma of a good Mcintosh is something to be remem-
bered. Its season is from the first of September to perhaps
the middle of jSTovember in ordinary storage, but it will keep
in fairly good condition much longer than this. It is particu-
larly good for holding its color and attractive appearance,
which is a very desirable quality. It is not an uncom-
mon thing to find good specimens of Mcintosh as late as
January or February, which, though they have lost some-
thing of their quality, are still very good eating. The fruit
ripens unevenly, and has a considerable tendency to drop, so
that picking should be done twice and perhaps three times.
It is a very desirable variety for local or special trade, but
will not stand rough handling. I believe that this last point
is being overlooked, and that a good many men are j^lanting
the Mcintosh who will not give it the type of handling which
it demands. At present it is probably the most popular va-
riety in Massachusetts.

McJnto

sh Red.

Good points : —

Bad points : —

1. Hardy tree, good

shape.

1, Tender, requires careful hand

2. Highest quality.

ling.

3. Finest color.

2. Scabs.

4. Uniform grade.

3. Ripens unevenly.

5. Annual bearer.

4. Drops.

(-3) Rhode Island Greening. — The Rhode Island Green-
ing is thought to have originated in the State whose name it
bears, and probably near Newport, although the records are
not very definite. It would certainly stand next to the Bald-
win as a commercial apple in New England, though the Mc-
intosh is undoubtedly far ahead of it in the number of trees
being planted at the present time. I believe, however, that
the Rhode Island Greening deserves more attention than it is

63

receiving at present from those who are planting commercial
orchards. The tree is reasonably hardy, winter-killing only
in rather severe climates; it is long-lived and generally
healthy, though it does not come into bearing early. Prob-
ably eight or nine years would be the usual time required to
bring it into bearing. It makes a characteristic tree, being
strong and vigorous, and, as already noted, healthy, although
the fruit and foliage are both liable to scab, and in some sec-
tions the apple canker attacks it. The fonn of the tree is
decidedly drooping, and for this reason it might be headed
somewhat higher than the varieties of more upright growth.
Its season is a little earlier than that of the Baldwin, and it
is a good companion A-ariety to plant with the Baldwin in com-
mercial orchards. The fruit is a bright, handsome green in
color in the autumn and early winter, but changes to a yellow
color later in the season. It is undoubtedly one of the best
cooking apples grown, and a Rhode Island Greening pie is
fit for a king. It is by no means to be despised as a dessert
apple. It is more nearly an annual bearer than the Baldwin,
though not strictly annual, and the fruit hangs very well on
the tree. The season is from late October until March,
though varying somewhat with the culture and storage condi-
tions ; but it ripens very rapidly when subjected to heat, and
is very liable to scald in storage, particularly with large, over-
grown specimens.

Ehode Island Greening.

Bad points : — •

Good points : -

1. Well known.

2. Productive.

3. Good quality

4. Fine cooker.

1. Sometimes scalds in storage.

2. Color.

3. Scabs.

4. Not as hardy as Baldwin.

(i) Wealthy. — This variety was originated by Peter
Gideon of Minnesota, from seed of the Cherry Crab. The
tree is very hardy indeed, and a good, thrifty grower while
young; but as the trees get older the rate of growth becomes
more moderate, until when they reach middle age the growth
is very slow, and careful cultural treatment is often required
to keep up its rate of growth. The tree never reaches large

64

size, and, for that reason and others, is very useful as a filler.
It comes into bearing very early; frequently fruit will be
found on the trees in two or three years, though of course
only scattering specimens. The fruit is of good quality and
finely colored, being a light straw-yellow, splashed and
striped and sometimes almost covered with a handsome crim-
son. It attains good size on younger trees, but on older trees,
where, as noted above, growth has become slow, the fruit is
apt to run small. This has to be overcome by severe pruning
and high fertilization and culture. The fruit also needs to
be thinned to get the best results. In any case the fruit runs
very uniform both in size and shape, and for that reason it
makes an excellent variety for boxing. The ilesh is tender
and juicy, and requires careful handling in order not to
injure it. The season is September and October, slightly
before the Mcintosh; but it can be kept until December in
good storage. The fruit drops badly from the tree, and the
trees should be picked over two or three times. It is at
present being quite largely planted, more so than many other
varieties; but, as already noted, its special field is as a filler.

Good points : —

1. Bears very early.

2. Hardy tree.

3. Good quality.

4. Uniform gi-ade.

5. Good color.

Wealthy.

Bad points : — •

1, Drops badly.

2. Ripens unevenly.

(o) Hvhbardston. — This is another variety which orig-
inated in Massachusetts, having been found at Hubbardston,
Mass., very early in the history of the State. The tree is
vigorous, particularly when young, and comes into bearing-
early, frequently, giving a fair scattering of fruit from the
orchard at four years. The tree is only moderate in size, but
bears heavily, at least biennially and sometimes annually ;
it is therefore a good variety to be used as a filler. It is apt
to overbear in a productive year, and for this reason should
receive careful attention, to keep the soil in a good state of
fertility and the foliage free from fungous diseases or in-

65

sects. It will often be necessary, also, to thin the fruit, in
order to keep it np to the proper size. The tree is consider-
ably subject to canker where that disease is prevalent, and the
fruit to the railroad worm. The fruit is of excellent quality,
being firm, fine-grained and rich, and when well grown it is
finely colored, with handsome appearance and attractive tex-
ture, which make it sell well. As a cooking apple it does
not rank so high, and ought to be used fairly early, as after
it has become more mild it is not nearly as good for this pur-
pose as when it has more acidity. The fruit is uniform and
of fair to good size, except when it overbears. Its commer-
cial limit in ordinary storage w^ould be December, and, as
with many other varieties, the large-sized, poorly colored
specimens do not keep as well as smaller, firmer and better-
colored ones. When this variety is well grown it has proved
a profitable market sort, standing at present close behind the
Greening; and I should have no hesitation in setting it as a
market variety, particularly on light soil, where it does espe-
cially well.

Htibbardston.
Good points : —

1. Quality excellent.

2. Early bearer.

3. Handsome -when well grown.

4. Good bearer.

Bad points : — •

1. Overbears and runs small.

2. Raih'oad worm.

3. Loses quality as cooker.

(6) Williams Early. — This is another of our Massachu-
setts apples, and, like a great many things which Massachu-
setts has done, this is a good job. It originated in Roxbury,
Mass., more than one hundred and fifty years ago, and in my
opinion is one of the best and most profitable of the early
varieties. The tree is rather a poor grower and is therefore
often best top-worked on some better growing variety, as
Pewaukee or Spy. It is a fairly good cropper, and has a
decided tendency to be an annual bearer when it receives the
right treatment. The fruit is only medium in size, but a
beautiful bright red, with a very fine though mild flavor. Its
strong point is for dessert, but, contrary to the opinion of
some others, I consider it a very fine cooking apple. The

66

fruit ripens unevenly, so that it needs more than one picking ;
and, as it is tender both in skin and flesh, it ought to be han-
dled with care and packed in boxes. It is a prime favorite in
the Boston market, and I should not hesitate to plant it as a
commercial variety.

Williains Early.

Good points : —

1. Fine color.

2. Fine quality.

3. Annual bearer.

4. Favorite in Boston markets.

Bad points : —

1. Ripens unevenly.

2. Tender flesh.

3. Poor grower.

(7) Oldenburg. — This is one of the Russian varieties
which has " made good " in America. It is especially val-
uable where extreme hardiness is required, but I believe it is
worthy of a place in our list of commercial varieties for
Massachusetts. As suggested, the tree is very hardy, but is
of only moderate size. It grows vigorously while young. Its
most valuable character, however, is its early bearing. Fruit
is frequently borne on trees at three and four years, and
fairly good crops are often borne at four and five years. It is
also a reliable cropper, often yielding annual crops ; and the
fruit hangs well to the tree. The foliage is fine and healthy,
and altogether it is a fine tree for a filler, where this system
of planting is used. The fruit is of good size and very at-
tractive, being a fine light yellow, with stripes and splashes of
handsome red. It runs very uniform on the tree, with few
culls, and is -altogether a very good commercial sort. The
flesh is flrm but juicy, with a sprightly, sub-acid flavor, and,
though not high in quality, is still passable.

Good points : —

1. Hardy tree.

2. Very early bearer.

3. Reliable crojij^er.

4. Fruit hangs well to tree.

5. Handsome color of fruit.

Oldenburg.

Bad points : —

1. Fruit perishable.

2. Ripens unevenly.

3. Only moderate quality.

(S) Roxhury Russet. — This is still another of the fine
old varieties which have originated in Massachusetts.- and

67

goes back to the seventeenth, century. From a commercial
standpoint it is undoubtedly the best of the russets, and is
especially valuable as an export variety, the English market
being particularly strong on russets, and especially the Eox-
bury, since it is marketed late in the year. It is being
planted less since cold-storage facilities have improved, but
I believe it is still worthy of a place among our list of market
varieties. As a cropper it is somewhat variable, but has a
strong tendency to annual bearing when well cared for, as it
does not tend to overbear. The tree is medium to large in
size, and rather a vigorous grower, making usually a flat
top. Its principal weakness, so far as the writer knows it, is
a tendency to European canker where that disease is common.
It makes a characteristic twiggy growth, being full of short
fruit spurs, and easily recognized by one familiar with the
variety. The fruit is medium to large, being rather variable
in both size and shape. It is sometimes oblate, sometimes
somewhat conic, and almost always irregular in cross-section.
For this reason it is not a good variety for boxing, though
these objections apply less to the fruit on well-cared-for trees
than on those which receive less care. The flesh is yellowish
in color, very firm, but reasonably tender and juicy, with a
sprightly sub-acid flavor. In quality it would rank, in the
writer's opinion, as good to best. There seems to be consider-
able objection to it as a commercial variety for our American
markets, but I believe that this olDJection is going to dis-
appear as people become accustomed to attaching less impor-
tance to the red skin of an apple.

Good points: —

1. Reliable bearer.

2. Keeps late.

3. Good quality.

4. Well known.

5. Handsome.

Boxhury Russet.

Bad points : —

1. Canker.

2. Eussets not wanted.

(9) Palmer Greening (or Washington Royal.) — This is
still another Massachusetts apple, having originated at Ster-
ling, Mass. The tree is only moderately vigorous, even when

68

young, and attains at full age only moderate size, not nearly
as large as the Rhode Island Greening. It comes into bear-
ing reasonably early, from six to seven years, bears good
crops biennially, but has very little fruit in the off year. The
fruit is greenish in color, or yellowish when fully ripe, and
usually has a distinct blush on the sunny side, making it a
decidedly attractive apple to any one who is not wedded to a
red variety. There is an indication of quality to a good
Palmer Greening that is very attractive, particularly to one
who has ever eaten it. It is especially valuable as a dessert
apple, as its quality ranks from good to best. Professor
Dickens of Kansas wrote recently of some Palmer Greenings
which had been sent him for his class in pomology : " Two out
of eight in my senior class pronounced it the best apple they
had ever eaten, and they know Grimes Golden and Jonathan
pretty well." It will keep till December, or even till March,
in good storage, and its medium size and very uniform shape
and size make it an ideal box apple. In my opinion, it ought
to be grown more extensively in Massachusetts.

Palmer Greening.

Good points : —

1. Extra quality.

2. Attractive appearance.

3. Size and shape.

4. Fairly early bearer.

Bad points : —

1. Not well known.

2. Biennial bearer.

3. Rather a poor tree.

{10) Sutton {Beauty). — The Sutton is supposed to be a
seedling of the Hubbardston, and originated in Sutton, Mass.
The tree is vigorous and healthy, but very upright in growth,
making, in the writer's opinion, a very poor tree. One who
had become familiar with the Sutton tree would always be
able to pick it out. It has a marked tendency to bear bien-
nially, which is an objection. While as yet not at all well
kno^vn as a market variety, I believe it is worthy of trial.
Beach says of it : " In color, texture, quality and season the
Sutton is intermediate between the Baldwin and the Hub-
bardston." It is very uniform in both size and shape, being

69

rather above medium in size, and of a fine conic shape. It is
excellent in quality, and of fine red color. It seems specially
suited to the fancy box trade, but its flesh is a little too tender
for the general market, though it is all right in barrels if
handled carefully.

Sutton.

Bad points: —

Good points : —

1. High quality.

2. Good color.

3. Hangs on well.

4. Productive.

5. Even in size and shape.

1. Scabs some.

2. Not so well known.

3. Poor tree.

(11) Gravenstein. — This is a German variety, intro-
duced into the United States about 1826. Its very attractive
appearance and excellent quality make it popular, even in
spite of the fact that as a rule it is not very productive. For
cooking it is not excelled by any variety of its season, and
when fully ripe and not overripe it is an excellent dessert
variety. The tree is a very vigorous grower, in fact, too vig-
orous unless handled carefully, having a tendency to grow
too late in the faU and to be damaged by the severe weather
which follows. It is also liable to sun-scald and to canker.
It comes into bearing fairly early, usually from seven to eight
years, and is a reliable cropper, though not a heavy one, with
a considerable tendency to bear biennially. The fruit ripens
quite unevenly, and ought to be picked twice or even three
times to secure the best results. The season is from the mid-
dle of September until November. It may be kept later than
this in good storage, but the color fades badly if it is kept
much beyond its season, far more than the Mcintosh does.
It is apt to grow a good many culls, particularly in the off
year, running very variable in both shape and size. Where it
succeeds, no other apple of its season can compete with it in
the market. In quality it ranks from good to best.

70

Gravenstein.

Good points : —

1. Fine qualitj^, cooking

eating.

2. Handsome appearance.

3. Tree needs little pruning.

4. AVell known.

and

Bad points : —

1. Shy or biennial bearer,

2. Winter-kills.

3. Collar rot, rank grower.

4. Fades in storage,

5. Sun-scald and canker.

(13) Red Astrachan. — This is another of the Russian
apples which has achieved success in the United States, and
which I would include as a commercial apple for Massachu-
setts. It is very earlj in season, following the Yellow Trans-
parent, and being fit for cooking in July. It is consequently
a profitable variety for local markets and for home use, while
its attractive color combined with its earliness makes it popu-
lar. It is, however, very tender in flesh, and will not stand
shipping well. It is principally valuable as a cooking apple,
though well-grown, fully developed specimens are very good
eating. The tree is medium in size, coming into bearing
early, and is reasonably productive, though inclined to bear
biennially. Its tendency to be irregular in both size and
shape is rather a serious drawback to a commercial variety,
making quite a loss from unmarketable fruit. The fruit
drops considerably, unless several pickings are made.

Good points :

1. Fine color,

2. Very early.

3. Productive.

4. Hardy tree.

Red Astrachan.

Bad points : —

1. IrregTilar in size and shape.

2, Very tender in fruit.

{13) Fall Pippin. — The origin of this variety is some-
what in doubt, but it is good enough so that its origin does not
much matter. It ought to have originated in Massachusetts.
The tree is large and rather vigorous, making a roundish,
rather dense top. Both leaves and fruit are seriously subject
to the apple scab fungus, which is a decided drawback where
this disease is troublesome. The fruit ripens very unevenly,

71

which is another objection, as it means repeated pickings,
which add somewhat to the expense. The fruit is large, of a
fine, clear yellow, and decidedly handsome, having a clean,
attractive appearance which makes it sell well. The flesh is
fine-grained, tender and juicy, rather aromatic, and ranks as
good to best in quality. It is a fine dessert apple, but is
especially strong as a culinary variety. In storage it is a
variable keeper, but in any case has a long season, owing to
its imeven ripening, beginning in September and lasting well
on towards Christmas. I should consider it among the best
of the faU varieties for home use, and a good commercial sort.

Fall Pippin.

Good points : —

1. High quality.

2. Popular in the market.

3. Attractive yellow color.

Bad points : —

1. Subject to scab.

2. Ripens unevenly.

(U) Westfield (Seek-no-further). — The Westfield, or
Westfield Seek-no-further, is still another of the Massachu-
setts contributions to the list of fine varieties of apples. It
originated at or near Westfield, in the neighborhood of
Springfield, ]Mass. The tree is very hardy, healthy and long-
lived, though inclined to be a biennial bearer. It is never-
theless a very reliable cropper. The fruit is of highest qual-
ity, with a nutty, aromatic flavor which one who has once
knoMTi it cannot forget. It is not particularly attractive in
appearance, being a rather dull, bro^vnish-red, but when well
grown, and especially when grown on sandy or gravelly soil,
where it succeeds best, it often attains a fine, handsome red,
which makes it really attractive. It runs very uniform in
both size and shape, making it a good box apple, and as it is
principally used as a dessert apple (not being a very good
cooker), this is the way it ought to be marketed. Its season
is from about October to February, but it will often keep in
good storage much later than this. It stands handling and
shipping well, and in a limited way I believe it would be
profitable as a commercial variety. Certainly it ought to be
in every family orchard.

72

Westfield.

Good points : -

1. Fine quality.

2. Hardy.

3. Productive.

Bad points : —

1. Poor color.

2. Not good as a cooker.

(15) Northern Spy. — The Spj is one of the few im-
portant commercial apples which Massachusetts cannot claim,
as it originated in I^ew York. It is one of mj sincere regrets
that the Spy does not succeed better in Massachusetts. There
are certain sections where it does admirably, particularly in
Franklin County, but as a rule it has the reputation of not
being a success with us. Whether it altogether deserves this
reputation is a question, but certainly we do not grow good
Spies in many sections. The tree is all that could be desired
in health and vigor, making a fine-shaped, large tree, and
living to a good old age, but it is very slow indeed in coming
into bearing, in this respect standing at the foot of the list of
reputable varieties. The fruit when well grown is about all
that could be desired, being a fine, bright, pinkish-red in
color, with a smooth, waxy skin, making an extremely attrac-
tive apple. The flesh is firm and crisp, but tender and juicy,
and has a flavor that no one will forget, once he has eaten a
well-grown, well-colored Spy. Both fruit and foliage are
decidedly subject to the attacks of the scab fungus where this
disease is prevalent, and its tender skin and flesh make care-
ful handling necessary. But, with all its faults, I should say
that in sections where it is known that the Spy succeeds it
ought to be put down as one of our leading varieties. In
other sections it had probably better be tried only on a small
scale ; but even here, unless it has been tried under favorable
conditions, with modem treatment as to spraying, etc., I be-
lieve it is worth experimenting with.

Good points : —

1. High quality.

2. Fine appearance. \

3. Healthy, hardy tree.

Northern Spy.

Bad points : —
1.' Slow in coming into bearing.
2. Often does not succeed well.

73

(16) Yellow Transparent. — This is the third Russian in
the list, and is included principally because of its very early
season, ripening in July, when every one is apple-hungry.
The tree is very hardy and healthy, and comes into bearing
very young indeed. Grafts often bear the second year, and
sometimes even the year they are set, the trees usually bear-
ing a reasonable crop the third and fourth years. It is a
good, reliable cropper, but ripens so unevenly that it requires
two or three pickings to secure the fruit in the best condition.
The fruit is a very handsome, clear yellow, but both the flesh
and skin are tender, and it therefore bruises easily and shows
the marks of careless handling. It is a fine cooking apple,
and good specimens are not by any means bad eating. Where
early fruit commands a good price, and for near-by markets,
it will prove a profitable variety. It is an excellent filler.

Yellow Transparent.

Good points : —

1. Very hardy tree.

2. Handsomely colored fruit.

3. Early bearer.

Bad points : —

1. Easily bruised.

2. Does not stand up well in

transit.

{17) Blue Pearmain. — This is a fine old variety, but is
not very generally grown, and it is not recommended here
except for the family orchard, or in a limited way in commer-
cial plantings. To one who knows and likes the good old-
fashioned sorts the Blue Pearmain is always very acceptable.
The tree is a good, strong grower, and long-lived. The fruit
is mild in flavor, but aromatic and fine, with a rich appear-
ance in well-grown specimens which is attractive. The skin
is a little rough and rather thick. The color is deep orange-
yellow, splashed and striped and shaded with very dark red,
and the heavy white bloom over this gives a bluish appear-
ance. The flesh is firm, yellowish, moderately juicy and
aromatic.

Blue Pearmain.

Good points : —

1. Healthy, vigorous tree.

2. Handsome fruit.

3. Good quality.

Bad points : —
1. Not generallv known.

74

THE PLANTING OF A COMMERCIAL ORCHARD IN
MASSACHUSETTS.'

F. C. SEABS, PROFESSOR OP POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE.

I presume it will come as a surprise to most of you when
I say that I propose to make my own experience the basis
of my remarks to you this afternoon, because a " professor "
is not supposed to have experiences, but is expected to speak
from a purely theoretical standpoint. However, perhaps
some of those present are aware that the past spring Profes-
sor Waugh and I started a commercial orchard in South Am-
herst, a few miles from the Agricultural College, and it is
about our work in this orchard and the problems which we
have encountered and solved that I want to tell you. I trust
you will pardon the personal pronouns that I shall be obliged
to use, for, when all is said and done, it is what we have our-
selves actually done, not what we have seen others do, or
think ought to be done, which gives our opinion weight.

Stated briefly, our undertaking is as follows : we have pur-
chased 150 acres of land, upon which we set the past spring
some 5,500 trees, — apple, peach and plum, and we have
ordered for setting the coming spring about 8,000 trees.
'Now, 1 mention this not to boast of the size of our project,
but that you may have an idea at the start of what we have
done and are planning to do; for while you may question
our judgment, you will at least see that we are willing to
take our own prescriptions, which is not always the case
when doctors prescribe.

To begin with, may I suggest one or two considerations
which led us to go into commercial orcharding, and to under-
take it on the lines we have adopted. Of course we have
both of us always had a strong belief in the business of grow-

' Agricultxire of Massachusetts, 1908.

75

ing fruit, else we should not have adopted horticulture as a
profession; and personally I believe that there is no better
country in the world than right here in Massachusetts in
which to engage in the business.

In the first place, Massachusetts can grow fruit of the
very highest quality. We can't grow as good Ben Davis as
they can in Colorado and Missouri (and personally I wish
that we would stop trying to), but no country in the world
can beat us on Baldwins and Greenings and Hubbardslons
and a dozen other similar varieties, if we will only take care
of our orchards. And while in the past anything has sold
that was red and had the shape of an apple, yet as competi-
tion increases, and as people become educated up to an appre-
ciation of what an apple ought to be, quality is going to count
more and more, and Massachusetts will have more and more
advantage, if she will only take it.

In the second place, we are right in the midst of the best
markets in the world. There are 23,000,000 people within a
radius of 300 miles from the spot where we now stand, and
no equal number of people anywhere on the globe has a
larger proportion who spend money freely for just such nec-
essary luxuries as fruit.

But this nearness to markets is both an advantage and a
disadvantage. It is an advantage, because we can get our
fruit to market cheaply and quickly, and when we come to
compete with Oregon, we ought to have the difference in
freight and express as a lever on our side. But it is also
a disadvantage, because we are so close to those markets
that every man in Massachusetts who has a barrel of windfall
apples sends them to market, in the hope of getting something
for them; and though he usually realizes on this hope, yet
sometimes he doesn't. And in any case, whether he gets any-
thing out of it or not, he gives a " black eye " to Massachu-
setts fruit in general which it is often difficult to overcome.
One of our greatest needs at the present time is to devise
some scheme to keep poor fruit out of the market. Of course
the ideal remedy for this is not to grow poor fruit, but until
we arrive there, what are we to do ?

76

In the third place, we took up orcharding on the scale on
which we did, because we believed that that was the way to
make it paj. I have repeatedly said, and I want to take
this occasion to say again, that I do not believe fruit grow-
ing in Massachusetts could be given a greater impetus than
by inducing 50 or 100 men throughout the State to plant
from 10 to 100 acres of orchard. The trouble with our
orcharding is, that it is usually a mere side issue to the gen-
eral farm work. As Professor Bailey has said, " Men do not
grow their crops of apples, they discover them." But when
men go into the business of orcharding more largely, making
it their principal line of work, then the orchard becomes an
object of pride and care ; it is no longer compelled to compete
with the cows and the bugs and the hay crop, but is sprayed
and cultivated and pruned and fertilized for its own sake.
But in urging this desirability of large-sized plantations I
wish it distinctly understood that I am well aware that it is
sometimes overdone, — that men plant out acres of orchard
where they should plant square rods. But for every orchard
in Massachusetts that is neglected because it is too large,
there are hundreds which are neglected because they are too
small. It is very difficult for any man to become enthusiastic
over a dozen Baldwin trees up in the back pasture, which
every alternate year give a few barrels of wormy apples ; it is
impossible not to become enthusiastic over a 10-acre orchard
which is every year the best paying part of the farm op-
erations.

I might go on to cite cases where men have made com-
fortable livings out of small orchards and have become well-
to-do with larger ones ; for it has certainly been my observa-
tion that in those sections where orcharding flourished as a
business, — where, as some one has said, it is an industry
and not merely an incident, — there you will find the most
prosperous farms and the best farm homes. I say I might
go on to discuss this phase of the question, but I shall pass
that over and proceed with the real subject which I want to
discuss with you, — the planting of a commercial orchard ;
or shall I make it personal, and say the planting of our com-
mercial orchard ?

77

And first, just a word in regard to the soil conditions
which confronted us; for in any orchard proposition this is
one of the big questions, much more so, I thinlc, than in
general farming.

The land which we were setting was all of it badly run
down. A large part of it was old sheep and cow pasture,
which had been pastured for years without any return of fer-
tilizers. One section of it had been cropped alternately with
potatoes and rye until the rye had failed to reach knee-high,
when it was planted out to " orchard." The trees of this sec-
tion of " orchard " are now on the brush heap, and this land
will be given a year or two to recuperate, and will then be
replanted to real orchard. In one part of the old pasture,
which was ploughed up and planted with squash the past
spring, only two patches made a satisfactory growth and
gave a good crop of squashes. One of these patches was in
a corner of the field, and the other was an irregular section
near the center. Inquiry elicited the information that the
corner patch was where the bars to the pasture were located,
and where the cows gathered at night before being driven
home. The irregular patch in the center was where several
trees had stood, under which the cows gathered for shade.
These illustrations will serve to show the condition of the
land, so far as past management, or rather mismanagement,
was concerned. But naturally the land was an ideal orchard
soil, a gravelly loam with rather a porous subsoil ; just the
type of soil to give a reasonably good growth to the trees, and
high color and quality to the fruit. Furthermore, a number
of old apple trees on various parts of the farms were making
a sturdy, healthy growth in spite of all the different kinds of
neglect which the owners could heap upon them. It was
for these reasons that the location was selected, coupled with
a firm belief that the fact of a soil being run down is of com-
paratively little moment, provided it is naturally a good
orchard soil, and provided also that the owner purposes to see
that plenty of plant food is supplied to the trees from the
start, — two extremely important provisos.

The land for setting this first season was plowed as early

78

in the spring as the soil was fit for working, and was then
thoroughly fitted, using a disc harrow, a spring-tooth and a
smoothing harrow, and finishing with a planker. This left
the surface smooth for laying off the orchard and setting the
trees, by no means an unimportant item. After the trees
were set, which 1 shall speak of more in detail in a moment,
the land was kept thoroughly cultivated until time for sow-
ing the cover crop, about July 10. There was always a team
at work in the orchard, and sometimes two of them. And,
notwithstanding the fact that we had one of the driest seasons
within the memory of the proverbial oldest inhabitant, and
the further fact that our soil was shy of humus (an extremely
important factor in holding moisture in the soil), there was
never a time throughout the season when the soil was not as
moist as could be wished just under the dust mulch. It was
certainly a striking indication of the value of cultivation. As
soon as the trees had been set, an ounce of nitrate of soda was
scattered about each tree, and a little later a pound per tree
of a mixture made up of three parts high-grade sulphate of
potash and five parts acid phosphate. The result was that
nearly all of our trees gave us an entirely satisfactory growth
this season, in spite of the past neglect of the soil. The ap-
ples grew from 11^ to ^V2 feet, and many of the peaches as
much, though, being on a drier soil, they did not average as
much as the apples.

■^ This matter of fertilizing is one which we intend to fol-
low up, for I am firmly convinced that it is a very important
factor in success with orchards. I believe there is as much
difference in quality between a well-fed apple and one which
is grown on poor, run-out soil, as there is between a beef-
steak from a well-fed animal and one from a half-starved
beast. I am convinced that this is one of the important
reasons why the western apples, grown on virgin soils, as
most of them are, have so much more attractive an appear-
ance than much of our eastern-grown fruit. An instance
bearing out this idea came to my notice on our farm this
season. One of the farms bought had a small Baldwin
orchard of 1 acre (adjoining the patch where the rye and

potatoes were grown), and also some scattering Baldwin
trees about the buildings, one of which stood just by the
hen yard, and where the ashes from the kitchen stove were
dumped. The fruit from this one tree was as different from
the rest as a Texas steer is from a Shorthorn. It had qual-
ity to it, — looked like the Oregon Spitzenburgs, — while
that across the road was the usual uninviting type of Bald-
win too often seen.

Another point which we intend to insist on is giving the
young trees a balanced ration of fertilizer from the start.
I believe that a very common mistake is made by assuming
that the young tree needs only nitrogen for its growth, and
that not until a tree comes into bearing is there any necessity
of applying either potash or phosphoric acid. So long as
our young trees are as big as Smith's of the same age, we
are content, — mere bigness apparently being the only thing
desired; whereas, if our trees got more potash and phos-
phoric acid from the start, they would far sooner turn from
wood growth to fruiting. This I am obliged to admit, is
largely theory, but it is a theory in which I firmly believe
and on which I intend to act.

One other point before we leave this matter of fertilizers ;
and that is, the question of lime. I am satisfied that this
is another line of orchard fertilization which is altogether
too thoroughly neglected. It has been my observation that
the very best fruit lands are those which have in them a
large percentage of lime. It gives a sturdy, stocky growth
to the trees, and a high color and fine quality to the fruit.
We are therefore planning to give it a prominent place in
our list of fertilizers, and have already taken up the question
of where we can get it and in what form we shall apply it.
There are four different forms in which it can be had: first,
air-slaked lime; second, fresh-burned lime; third, hydrated
lime; and fourth, ground limestone. Of these, we have de-
cided on the last as the best for our purposes. It will cost
us less than any of the others ($1 per ton at the kiln, or $4
per ton laid down in Amherst), and I believe for our pur-
pose is better than any of the others. It comes finely ground,

80

and can be spread with a fertilizer sower. We shall use a
carload of this the coming season, applying at the rate of
1,000 pounds per acre, and I shall be greatly disappointed
if it does not prove a paying investment.

A great deal of care was exercised, in laying off the or-
chard, to have the rows straight in all directions, and I should
like to emphasize the desirability of this point, in my opin-

I

V

ion. It is often, in fact usually, neglected. Men will lay
out a hen house, which is to stand for perhaps half a dozen
years, and every corner must be perfectly square and every
post perpendicular; but an orchard, which is to stand for
two or three generations, is laid off with a plow, or the trees
are stuck into holes dug at random. To me, the satisfaction
of having good straight rows is worth ten times over the
added cost of making them so, which, after all, is not great. /

81

We laid off our first row with a transit, because one happened
to be available, but a man with a good " straight eye " could
have done nearly as well. This first row was run along one
side of the field to be planted, and a stake was set every 16^
feet, the distance apart for the trees ; as we are using fillers
a cross row was then laid off at right angles to this, near one
end of the field. This was all the sighting that was done.
The rest of the stakes were set with two measuring boards
16^ feet long, with a small notch at either end. (The ac-
companying diagram will serve to illustrate the method.)

It was surprising to see how accurately and expeditiously
the stakes were set, and it did not require high-priced labor
to do it, either. Two Polanders, at $1.50 a day, one of
whom could speak scarcely a word of English, did the whole
thing; and we should be glad to compare results with any-
body who has used a different method, for we feel decidedly
j)roud of the way our trees " row " in all directions.

For locating the trees we used a planting board, a device
by no means new, but which deserves a wider use than it gets.
There are several types of them, but the one we used was
about 4 feet long by 8 inches wide, with a notch at each end
and one in the middle (see diagram). The middle notch

was placed against the stake set for the tree, a short piece
of lath was then driven down in each of the end notches,
the planting board was taken away, and the hole dug for
the tree where the center stake stood. Then, when it came
time to set the tree, whether it was that afternoon or the
next day or the next week, the planting board was put in
place on the two small stakes, the tree was slipped into the
middle notch and was planted, and of course stood exactly
where the original stake stood. Both of these methods —
^he setting of a stake for each tree and the use of the plant-
''Aig board — have been objected to by those who profess to
know about such things, on the ground that they take too

82

much time; that thej are slow and expensive methods. But
when I say that it cost us just 6 cents per tree to set our
standard apples, which we planted first; and 5 cents for
the peaches, which followed ; and that we got the price down
to 4 cents per tree on the dwarf apple trees, which were the
last set, — I think you will agree that it was not an exorbi-
tant price. This included plowing and fitting the land, stak-
ing it off, digging the holes, trimming the tree and setting it
out; and the difference in cost was largely due to the fact
that the gang of men setting the trees became more familiar,
each with his particular part of the programme, and conse-
quently could do it more expeditiously.

->• The field operations in setting were carried on as follows :
a gang of eight men and a foreman were used; the foreman
and one man went to the place where the trees were heeled
in for a supply of trees, which were prepared for setting by
pruning back the main roots considerably and packing them
into two oil barrels, partly full of water, which were fastened
on a stone boat drawn by one horse ; while this was going
on, the rest of the gang were setting stakes and digging holes.
When the trees arrived on the scene the whole gang went to
setting, the foreman distributing the trees and the eight men
dividing into pairs, one of whom set the tree while the other
shovelled in the earth. About 150 trees were carried at a
load, and when these had been set out the gang divided as
before. In this way the operations went like clockwork, and
the trees arrived at the holes with their roots thoroughly
soaked and in the best possible condition to take hold and
grow. And that the method was satisfactory from the stand-
point of the trees is pretty conclusively shown from the
records of the number that grew: out of 530 dwarf apples set,
we lost 14; of 250 Hubbardstons, 6 failed to grow; of 500
Wealthy, 3 died; and of 650 Mcintosh, only 3 died. This
is a remarkably good record in percentage of living trees,
even for a good season, but in a season like that of 1908,
when crops of all kinds suffered severely, I think it demor
strates conclusively that our methods of planting were soun

not only theoretically but practically.

ax.

83

xYfter the trees were set, the next matter was the question
of height of heading; and on this, as on several other mat-
ters, I presume it will be generally considered that we have
pronounced ideas. Xearlj all of our trees were headed at
IS inches from the ground, — all of them, in fact, except
the dwarf apples, which were headed at 12 inches, and a
small section of peaches, which we headed at 6 inches; and
we have been so much pleased with the growth of this
6-inch block, that, unless we get some new light on the sub-
ject, a large part of those to be set in 1909 will be headed
at this height. They have certainly made a beautiful growth,
and are shaping up into fine trees. To head in this way it
is imperative that one-year trees be set. We used one-year
trees the past season, whenever we could get them; but as
the enterprise was started late, we had to take two-year trees
of some varieties, and invariably the one-year tree out-grew
the two-year. This is very natural, since the " shock " from
transplanting (if we may call it that) would be greater with
an older tree ; and in our scheme of low heads, when the one-
year tree is cut back to IS inches we still have strong, vig-
orous buds for growth ; while in the two-year trees the buds
are all two years old on the trunk which is left, and do not
push nearly so vigorously nor so evenly as on the one-year
trees. It seems to me that practically all the arguments are
in favor of the younger trees, and I should use them even
if I were heading higher.

So far as the question of the low head is concerned, it
seems to me that practically every argument is in its favor
except the one of convenience in cultivation; and this can
be gotten around by having orchard tools which can be
spread out, so as to work some distance on either side of
the team. A disc harrow, or any other, which is in two
sections, can be separated so as to work well under the trees
while allowing the team to pass by without injuring them;
'and, though some hand labor will be needed, the cost of this
will not be one-tenth what will be saved on the other opera-
tions of the orchard. In pruning, spraying and especially
in harvesting the crop, the argument is all on the side of

84

the low trees; and in these days, when we either have, or
must soon expect to have, the San Jose scale in our orchard,
we cannot afford to neglect any measure which will help us
in the fight.

I am aware that in discussing the question of varieties I
am taking up a very personal matter, — one on which men
differ as radically as they do in politics; but it is also one
in which everybody is deeply interested, and on the proper
decision of which depends, to a great extent, the success of
the plantation. In what I shall say I am not pretending to
dictate or even advise any one else, but am merely giving my
personal views and experiences, as I have in the other mat-
ters discussed.

I believe, first and foremost, as I have already suggested,
that varieties for setting here in ISTew England ought to be
of high quality. I do not believe that we should set any-
thing poorer in quality than a Baldwin or a Greening, and
I wish that a great many trees of varieties better in quality
might be set. But in saying this I am quite well aware that
under present conditions, and with present methods of grow-
ing and handling apples, the Baldwin, and even the Ben
Davis, may be the most profitable varieties to grow; for a
Mcintosh or a Spy will not stand the treatment that the great
bulk of the apples grown here receive. This is an unfortu-
nate condition of affairs, and ought to be remedied, but at
present I believe the statement accurately depicts the sit-
uation.

As to the number of varieties which a man should set, that
depende very largely on the type of market for which he is
working. If for the general market, then the fewer varieties
he has, the better. Two or three, say Baldwin, Greening
and Hubbardston, would be the limit ; and many men think
that they make more money out of a single variety, especially
if that variety is Baldwin. I am inclined to believe, how-
ever, that for the sake of cross-pollination there should be at
least a few rows in the orchard of some other varieties, even
in orchards which are catering to the general market; by
which is meant, of course, where the owner sells his crop
at the orchard to a buyer, or ships it to a commission man.

85

On the other hand, if a man is working for a special or
personal market, — that is, if he is supplying regular cus-
tomers, either directly or through some retail fruit dealer, —
then it is perfectly legitimate for him to grow a much longer
list of varieties ; in fact, it is necessary for him to do so, for
he does not want to drum up trade for his Wealthies and
lose it when Hubbardstons are in season, only to work it up
again for his fancy Baldwins or his Spies. He wants a suc-
cession of varieties, from the eairliest to the latest, and for
this purpose he wants from six to a dozen varieties. This
is the type of trade which we hope to capture, and we are
therefore setting a fairly long list of varieties.

Another question, to which we have devoted a good deal
of thought and some experimenting, is the matter of cover
crops. It is, of course, out of the question for us to use
barn manure for our trees, and we do not wish to continue
buying nitrate of soda any longer than is necessary, so it
is imperative that we get a rank-growing, nitrogen-gathering
crop, to supply us with humus and nitrogen. We used this
year cow peas, soy beans, summer vetch and buckwheat. Of
course, this last does not add nitrogen, but otherwise is an
excellent cover crop, and one of the best for raw lands such
as ours. J^one of these did very well for us this season ex-
cept the buckwheat, but from experience in the college or-
chard we expect the soy beans to be one of our " stand-bys "
when we get our land in better shape, and we shall give the
others further trial. We shall try next year, also, the com-
mon " pea bean " as a cover crop. We used it the past
season to grow as a crop between the rows, and it made a
splendid growth, and would have supplied a large amount
of humus and nitrogen had we plowed the crop under. Of
course, it was sown early, in drills, and cultivated for some
time before the orchard was " laid by," and I believe that
many cover crops should be handled in this way to get the
best results.

Still another vexed question which we had to decide, and
which we perhaps decided differently from what many of
my hearers would, was the question of the distance apart for

86

the trees. We set them, as I suggested in speaking of our
measuring boards, at 16^4 feet apart each way. This is
close planting, but that is what we wanted. It is not what
we should advise for a great many men, perhaps for only a
very few, because with most men the trees will not be cut out
when they begin to crowd each other, nor will they be pruned
in such a way as to prevent crowding as long as possible.
Both of these points we intend to look out for. We have used
w^hat is called the " filler system ; " that is, our permanent
trees are set 33 feet apart, but are interplanted both ways so
as to bring the trees down to I6I/2 ^^et apart. For these
fillers we are using such early bearing varieties as Wealthy,
Mcintosh and Duchess of Oldenburg^ and for our perma-
nent trees such sorts as Baldwin, Hubbardston, Greening
and Gravenstein. We intend to practice repressive pruning,
to head the trees in every year, so that they shall not begin
to crowd for as long a period as possible. It ought to be pos-
sible to delay this crowding until they are fifteen years old,
at the very least. But when they do begin to crowd, we are
going to cut out the fillers and leave the entire land for the
permanent trees. And right here is where the difficulty
usually comes in, — most men will not cut out their fillers
in time; I hope and believe that we will. It ought not to
be any more difficult than pruning. When we prune, we
cut away part of the tree for the good of the rest of the tree,
and when we remove fillers we cut out some of the trees en-
tirely for the good of those that remain. We may have to
tell the foreman to cut out the fillers, and then go away our-
selves and stay away till the job is done ; but one way or
another I expect to see those fillers come out before they have
damaged the permanent trees.

The whole question of fillers narrows down to this : if a
man can use fillers and bring them into bearing early enough
so that they will be more profitable than growing an annual
crop between the trees, and if he will then cut out the fillers,
as suggested, it is a profitable scheme ; but if he fails in
either of these particulars, then the plan is a failure. Some
people object to the filler scheme because, they say, the tree

87

has to be cut out just in its prime. But this has absolutely
nothing to do with the question further than being responsi-
ble for most of the failures of the scheme. If the trees have
been the most profitable thing you could have on the land
while there, they have done their whole duty, and have vindi-
cated your judgment in setting them out; and the fact that
if they were somewhere else they might continue to be profit-
able, while an interesting fact, has nothing more to do with
the question at issue than the price of gas.

The last point which I wish to discuss, and one which
is also largely a personal question, though there are some
general principles involved, is the matter of what crops to
grow in the orchard for the profit to be gotten out of the
crop, and not, as with cover crops, solely to benefit the or-
chard ; for, while the bearing orchard, of course, uses all the
land and pays a profit on it, or ought to, the young or-
chard is for several years a source of out-go, and the land
ought to be planted to some crop which will yield a profit,
and at the same time either directly benefit the orchard, or
at least not injure it.

A crop to be satisfactory in an orchard must first of all
be a cultivated crop. I do not believe in either a hay crop
or a grain crop for an orchard, whether young or old. And
if the crop is to be cultivated, the more thorough cultivation
it requires and the more nearly its season for cultivating
corresponds to that of the orchard, the better. I am sure that
a cultivated crop is usually far better for the orchard than
if no crop is grown, for unfortunately the average man will
cultivate his annual crops when he might neglect his orchard.

Secondly, a crop to be entirely satisfactory ought not to
disturb the soil late in the growing season, as, for example,
in digging a crop of early potatoes. If the crop grows late
in the season, which is in itself no objection, but rather the
reverse, it ought to be something like cabbage or squash,
which does not disturb the soil when gathered; or else late
potatoes, which are dug so late that the trees will not have
their growth prolonged. Of course this objection can be over-
come by planting the crop far enough from the trees, but

88

this solution has its own weak points, as we lose the use of a
lot of land which might just as well be giving us a profit.

Furthermore, the crop must be either something which the
owner of the orchard can use on the farm (as a crop of tur-
nips or mangels for stock feed), or else a profitable crop to
sell.

The crops which we selected, having regard as far as pos-
sible to the above general principles, were beans, cabbage,
squash and parsnips. Thej are all of them good crops, I
think, and have in general proved satisfactory, and we shall
use all of them another season.

In closing, I wish simply to say that, while I do not be-
lieve there are fortunes to be made in fruit growing, I do
believe that there is money in it ; for if a man will grow good
fruit (and experience has abundantly demonstrated that we
can do that here in Massachusetts), and if he will pack it
honestly (and almost any man can pack good fruit that way),
there is no more doubt in my mind about its being a profitable
business than there is that John D. Rockefeller has found the
oil business remunerative. And at the same time that a man
is making money, he is also living one of the pleasantest,
most wholesome lives to be found among farmers, and that
is equivalent to saying, among men.

Fig. 1. — An apple tree in which the central leader has been
allowed to develop. Such trees are inclined to grow too high.
Compare with Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. — The open-center habit of growth. A well-balanced tree
with plenty of room for the admission of light and air. Most
orchardists favor this type of tree in preference to the type
shown in Fig. 1.

89

PRUNING THE APPLE TREE.'

C. D, JARVIS, PH.D., CON>rECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

The Ideal in Peuning.

The architect or builder, before building a house, selects
a certain style of structure and this style is followed to the
end. The man who would be successful in building up a
fruit-bearing structure must also select a style or ideal, and
this ideal should be kept constantly in mind throughout the
various stages of development. The apple tree is a wonder-
fully tractable object and may be made to assume almost any
shape. Any one who has tried to develop a spreading habit
in a Sutton apple tree may disagree with me on this point,
for this and some other varieties are sometimes difficult to
train, but even the most obstinate cases may be brought under
control if proper methods are followed. The methods that
have proven successful with some sorts, however, may not be
suited to others. For example, a young Greening tree will
assiune a spreading habit without any special effort on the
part of the grower, while a young Sutton will require a severe
check in its growth to encourage the production of fruit, the
weight of which tends to bring the branches down to a hori-
zontal position.

In the pruning of apple trees there are two distinct styles
or ideals, the central-leader type and the open-center type,
each with its corps of adherents. Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate
these two types of structures. The supporters of the central-
leader type claim that it is a stronger structure and not so
likely to be broken down by wind and heavy crops of fruit.
This is a strong argument, but it is offset by many disad-
vantages. With certain naturally spreading varieties, like
Greening, Tolman Sweet, or Fall Pippin, it works very well,

» Crop Report, Vol. 25, No. 5, September, 1912.

90

but with the upright growers there is a tendency to grow too
tall and to get out of reach of the spraying apparatus. In the
west it is a common practice to grow trees with central lead-
ers, and the result is very satisfactory. In the east, however,
the climatic conditions are much different, and we require
all the sunlight available to give the necessary color to the
fruit. The open-center tree admits the maximum amount of
sunlight, and with such a tree the work of spraying and har-
vesting is minimized.

To develop the ideal fruit-bearing structure we must com-
mence when the tree is in the nursery row. Here the central
leader is cut back and the growth of the side branches en-
couraged. It is well to have the main branches or scaffold
limbs well distributed along the stem or trunk, and never
should two opposite branches be allowed to develop at the
same point, for a crotch formed in this way is likely to split.
With most varieties the lowest branch of the tree should
be started at a distance of about 20 inches from the ground
and the uppermost branch about 30 inches. Three or four
main branches are sufficient to form the head.

The main branches are headed in to about 8 or 10 inches
when the tree is set. The following season the secondary
branches in turn will need to be headed in. The growth may
be directed to some extent by cutting back to a bud pointing
in the desired direction. In this way a spreading habit may
be induced by cutting back to a bud that points outward.
Despite such precautions some varieties, especially when
making a strong gro"ui;h, are bound to grow upright. Trees
of such varieties should be headed as near the ground as pos-
sible, and even then it will be necessary to check their growth
in some way.

By regularly cutting back the upright branches and by
eliminating the cross branches in the center of the tree an
open-center habit may be developed and maintained. Short
fruiting spurs should be allowed to develop along the main
branches. Watersprouts or " suckers " if headed in will soon
develop fruit spurs, and when the center of the tree is kept
open the fruit borne here will have an opportunity to develop
normally.

91

Orchard Renovation.

In the mature orchards of the east there appears to have
been no effort to follow any particular style. Most of the
orchards show signs of having received a few feeble and spas-
modic applications of the pruning saw, or, to be more accu-
rate, I should say a few slashes with the axe, and judging
from the appearance of the wounds the axe was not always a
sharp one. Many of these old orchards, although unprofit-
able, are in a good sound condition, and with a little judi-
cious pruning, spraying, cultivating and feeding may be put
on a profitable basis.

The pruning of these old existing trees, therefore, is the
first problem that confronts the apple grower in the east.
The work in most cases consists mainly in cutting out the
central leader. Of course the remainder of the tree will re-
quire some thinning. All upright growing branches should
be removed and the long slender branches headed in. All
dead branches and stubs should also be cut off closely. Some-
times it will be necessary to clean out and seal up cavities,
but if a large proportion of the trees require such surgical
treatment it is doubtful whether the orchard will bear the
expense. Knot-hole cavities, after being cleaned out, steril-
ized and having the surrounding wood sawn off smoothly,
may be sealed up by tacking a piece of zinc over the freshly
painted surface. The zinc plate should be slightly smaller
than the wound, so that the bark will heal over the edge.
Coal tar is the substance commonly used for sterilizing and
painting the wounds.

This abnormal treatment, however, is " butchery " rather
than pruning. When trees have been properly taken care of
from the start there is no need for such treatment. Pruning
should be regarded as a work of training rather than of cor-
rection.

Time to prune.
Regular annual pruning or training will give best results.
A severe pruning once in three or four years upsets the equi-
librium of the tree, and in the long run is not economical. As

92

a rule, priming should be done while the tree is dormant.
Some prefer to prune in the early spring for the reason that
wounds made at this time usually heal over more readily. If
the work is started in the fall it is more likely to get the
attention that it deserves, and when the first suitable days
for spraying arrive the trees will be ready. An additional
advantage of fall pruning is found in that wounds made in
the fall have a chance to dry out over winter and may be
more effectively sealed up with paint in the spring than
freshly made wounds.

Summer Prune to check Growth.
The practice of summer pruning as applied to apple trees
is almost unknown in ISTew England. Undoubtedly there are
occasions when judicious summer pruning is justifiable, and
in the hands of the skillful orchardist it is often a very profit-
able procedure. It should be remembered that during the
growing season it is a devitalizing process and has the oppo-
site effect to winter pruning. It is well known that when trees
are making very rapid growth they are not likely to set fruit,
and when a tree becomes weakened from any cause it imme-
diately assumes the fruit-bearing habit. Knowing these ten-
dencies, there seems to be no better way of regulating the
amount of growth than by seasonal pruning. The rule is to
prune in winter for vegetative growth and in summer for
fruit. Wlien trees are making a strong growth, then sum-
mer pruning is recommended. As a rule, the last part of
June is the best time for summer pruning. It is seldom
advisable to do a complete job at this season of the year, but
just enough of the branches should be removed to check the
growth. With young trees it is often advisable to summer
prune to start them into bearing, but with mature trees he
practice is seldom necessary, for sufficient check usually may
be afforded by withholding nitrogenous fertilizers and by
allowing weeds or some other crop to grow in the orchard.

EENOYATING OLD ORCHAEDS.'

F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE.

There are undoubtedly thousands of old apple trees in
Massachusetts, some in orchards and others scattered about
fields, which would pay good returns if they could be thor-
oughly " renovated " and thereafter be given proper treat-
ment. On the other hand, there are just as many, and prob-
ably far more, which would be more profitable on the
woodpile than an\^where else. The first question, then, for one
to decide, if he owns such trees or orchards, is " Will it pay
to make the attempt to get them into a thrifty condition
again ? " In the writer's opinion this depends on four ques-
tions: 1st, the age and vigor of the trees; 2d, the stand of
trees in the orchard ; 3d, the varieties ; and 4th, whether the
San Jose scale is in the orchard or the immediate vicinity
of it. To discuss each of these briefly : —

1. The Age and Vigor of the Trees. — If the trees are
vigorous, with good trunks and main branches, unaffected
with canker or other injuries to the bark, it has been my ex-
perience that they can be brought into a profitable condition
even though the tops are full of dead branches and they have
been systematically neglected for years. This, of course, is
supposing that the other factors mentioned above are favor-
able. It is truly surprising what can be done with an old
orchard when it is taken in hand and given modern, up-to-
date treatment. On the other hand, if the trunks or main
branches are damaged with canker, or have been injured
with cold so that the bark has fallen away in patches of any
size, as very often happens, or if the trunk and main
branches are badly rotted out in the center, then it is very

' Agriculture of Massachusetts, 1908.

94

doubtful if the orchard would pay for renovating. It must
be remembered that the trunk is the highway by which the
results of our imj)roved care are transported back and forth
from the roots to the top, and if this highway is in a demor-
alized condition we are not going to get the best results.

2. The Stand of Trees. — This, of course, is supposing
that the trees to be treated are in an orchard, and it will
be easily seen that if half of the trees are out it is not going
to pay to cultivate and fertilize the whole of the land for
trees which could be put on half of it. And it is seldom satis-
factory to attempt to grow anything else in such vacant
spaces in an old orchard, nor to plant young trees in the
vacancies. If the '^trees are along fences or odd corners, so
that cultivation of the soil will not be atfempted, then the
question oi stand is less important, and P-^J, perhaps, be
ignored altogether^ But in an orchard there- ought to be a
three-quarters stand at least to make it worth while to take
the matter up, except under the most favorable circumstances.

3. The Varieties in the Orchard. — This is of less im-
portance than the two points alreadj'' mentioned, yet it is a
factor that is decidedly worth considering and that has an
important bearing on the cost of the renovating process. It
is, of course, possible to graft over the trees, but this is both
an expensive and a lengthy operation, and I should condemn
an orchard to the brush heap which needed to be grafted far
more cfuickly than one which already had the right varieties
in it. Of course the question of varieties is very largely a
personal one, and need not be discussed here, but I should
mean by " right " such varieties as suited the grower and the
markets for which he was producing, preferably standard
sorts, like Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and Roxbury
Busset.

4. The San Jose Scale. — I should certainly feel much
less like attempting to recover an old orchard which was in-
fested with the scale, or even which was near an infested
orchard, than one which was free from it and in a locality
where it did not exist. I do not mean by this that I should
despair of recovering an orchard where the scale was fairly

95

plentiful, for I have known of a number of cases where such
orchards have been made thrifty and profitable. But it cer-
tainly does add a very serious element to the situation, and
it is going to require both time and money to eradicate it.

The above, as I have said, are the main factors in deciding
for or against the renovation of an old orchard, yet perhaps
I have omitted the chief factor after all, and that is the man
himself. If he has just come into possession of the orchard,
and is making an attempt to clean up all along the line, I
should have far more faith in the ultimate good results of
the matter than if he were author and finisher of the neglect
from which the orchard has suffered, even though he might
have firmly determined to " do the right thing by the or-
chard " henceforth.

Having finally decided that the orchard is worth while,
the work of renovating will fall naturally under the follow-
ing heads: first, cultivation; second, pruning; third, spray-
ing ; fourth, fertilizing ; fifth, cover-crops ; sixth, grafting, •^-
arranged somewhat in the order of their importance, though,
of course, this will vary greatly with different orchards, and
though all will be needed to secure the best results.

1 have placed cultivation first because, though trees will
often do well in sod, if otherwise well cared for, and though
it may sometimes be necessary, even in attempting to revive
an old orchard, to let the trees stand in sod. Yet, as a rule,
to get them into satisfactory condition cultivation is the
prime requisite, and will do more than any other one thing
to start the orchard on the right road. It is usually difficult
in an old orchard, such as we are considering, to do anything
like a thorough job of plowing. If one can secure an ox team
they will do the work better than a team of horses, as they
will be able to get under the trees better, and the slow, steady
gait of the oxen is better than that of most horses. Do not
be alarmed over cutting some tree roots with the plow, even
some large roots. A little root pruning will not hurt the
trees, and the fresh, new feeding-roots, sent out from the
broken and cut ends of the old roots, will very soon equal in
absorbing ability the parts of the old roots which are cut

96

awaj. Another point in plowing is the question of throw-
ing the furrow towards or away from the trees. One fre-
quently finds an old orchard in which the) plowing has been
for years always in the direction of the trees, until each row
stands along a ridge, with deep hollows between. Such an
orchard should be plowed away from the trees, until the land
gets back reasonably level again. After that it is well to
plow the orchard alternately towards and away from the
trees, — one year north and south and the next east and
west. In this way the land can be kept in the best condition
for the trees.

Occasionally it is impossible to do even a makeshift job
of plowing, and then one can sometimes begin operations
by running a heavy disc harrow through the orchard, to cut
up the sod and start things in the right direction, and per-
haps plow it the following year.

After the ]3lowing has been done it is always advisable
to use the disc harrow and follow it with the spring tooth
harrow, going both ways with each one of them, and going
over the land several times, so as to get the land in good tilth.
After this, through the balance of the season, it is best to
cultivate the land once every week or ten days, up to perhaps
the middle of July. And let this weekly cultivation be
thorough ! If the two harrows suggested, disc and spring
tooth, are available, it is well to run the disc over first, the
long way of the orchard, and then finish with the spring
tooth, the opposite way. This insures all the land being
worked over, and leaves it more level than if one finishes
with the disc, which of course is desirable on account of re-
ducing evaporation. It is difficult to overdo cultivation at
this season of the year, and with an old, neglected orchard
I should feel inclined to let this be the principal feature of
the programme, so far as the soil is concerned.

jSJ'ow for our second point in the programme, pruning.
This is apt to vary more in the extent to which it is needed
and in the character of it which is best to apply than any
one of the other factors. If the trees are very high, with
little or no bearing wood near the center, as is very apt to

A poor type of tree lor }■( ii<>\;iiiii-. Trunk is too long and main branches
have no bearinj; wood except at tops. If renovation is attempted tliis tree
should be severely cut bacli to renew the top.

97

be the case, then thej should be given ven* drastic pruning,
so as to grow an entirely new top, a good many feet nearer
the ground than the old one. It will practically amount to
the removal of all the top in perhaps two years, and the
branches should be cut down at least six or eight feet, and
sometimes much more. This seems like heroic treatment,
and it is, but in the great majority of cases, if the trees are
otherAvise healthy, they will send out a bushy top which, with
judicious thinning, will make practically a new tree out of
the old one. And one great reason why such old trees as we
are now considering (tall, overgrown ones) are not profitable
is that they are so tall that every operation — pruning, spray-
ing, picking, etc., — is four or five times as costly as with
lower trees. So it is absolutely essential to get them down
nearer the ground if they are ever to be made profitable. On
the other hand, if the trees are reasonably low the pruning
may consist largely in thinning the top throughout, begin-
ning, of course, with the dead branches, and then taking
enough live ones to leave the head fairly open to light and
air, and to the sprayer when that comes on the scene. Even
in this class of trees (those which are not unreasonably tall),
it is often possible to reduce their height to advantage, with-
out materially altering their form, by simply cutting back
each of the main, upright branches to one of its strong, main
offshoots. The effect may not be just what we would like at
the start, and th^ top may be somewhat thrown out of bal-
ance, but with a year's growth it will largely recover its
symmetry, and even if it should not altogether the advantages
of the lower top will offset any disadvantages.

Another point in this pruning, and one often neglected, is
not to remove too large branches in the thinning. Of course,
it is much easier to remove what one considers the required
amount of wood by taking out a few large branches, but the
results are much better if one will take comparatively small
branches (not above an inch, and preferably much smaller,
in diameter) and take more of them. This thins the top uni-
formly, letting in light, air and spraying materials to all
parts equally; while the removal of a few large branches

98

leaves the top too open in some places and as thick as ever
in others. Still another point which one should bear in mind
in his pruning is to keep a sharp watch for diseased branches,
and take these out in preference to healthy ones. The Euro-
pean and some other cankers are, in particular, liable to
be found in such an .orchard, and may be largely held in
check by such pruning. And lastly, after the pruning has
been done, and the wounds made have had time to dry up and
" check " somewhat, all wounds of an inch and a half or over
should be thoroughly painted with thick lead paint, to keep
out moisture and prevent decay. White lead and boiled lin-
seed oil make the best kind of covering for such wounds, but
it is well to add a little brown color, merely to take off the
glaring whiteness of the painted wounds. One frequently
sees the advice to take the paint pot into the tree when prun-
ing, and attend to the painting at once, when the limb is
removed, but in the writer's experience the pruning tools are
all that one wants to be bothered with at one time, and the
paint will certainly adhere better to the cut surface when this
has dried somewhat.

Our thirdly is the spraying problem. This is going to
vary somewhat, according to the insect and fungous diseases
which may be present in the orchard or locality. If the San
Jose scale is there a thorough spraying with oil in the au-
tumn, after the leaves have fallen, and with lime-sulfur just
before the budS swell in the spring, will be found to be the
most efficacious treatment. Where one does not have too bad
an infestation of scale, in the writer's observation the best
thing to use is the lime-sulfur, and one has the satisfaction of
knowing that while he is driving this pest out of his planta-
tion he is also most effectively reducing the vigor of a num-
ber of fungous diseases, which might have caused trouble
later in the season. In this connection (fighting insects and
fungi) one is frequently asked as to the desirability of scrap-
ing the trees to remove the rough, scaly bark. While this
ought not to be necessary as a regular practice in orchards
which are cared for, and especially in those which are
sprayed, yet in the beginning I believe it is an excellent treat-

Trunk injured by cold. Such trees are not worth renovating

99

ment for such orchards as we are considering. Certainly it
will add materially to the effectiveness of any washes which
may be applied to the trunks of the trees.

For summer spraying, we usually use some form of lime
and sulfur (either commercial or self-boiled) and arsenate
of lead. We make one application just after the blossoms
fall and another three or four weeks later. Spray so as to
wet the trees thoroughly, with as little drip as possible.

Of course, one may be confronted by special problems, like
an acute attack of canker worms or a scourge of apple aphis,
in which case a specialist should be consulted. But for all
ordinary cases the foregoing programme ought to be entirely
adequate, and it would certainly surprise most old orchards
to receive half of this attention.

The fourth factor in our operations is the fertilizer ques-
tion, which is naturally very closely related to our cultivation
problems and sometimes has to be varied to suit the cultural
methods adopted. At the beginning I do not believe it is
desirable to apply any nitrogenous fertilizers, or if they are
applied it should be in very limited quantities, and early in
the season. A moment's reflection will show the philosophy
of this. Trees which have been allowed to grow in sod, as
the old orchards which we are considering will undoubtedly
have been, and in soil which has been impoverished by con-
stant removal of the grass as hay, and of the fruit, without
any return of fertilizer, will have long, straggling roots sent
out to forage at a distance for all the plant food possible.
And these long roots will have comparatively few branches
or small feeding roots, as it is a well-known fact that roots
branch freely in a fertile soil and sparsely in a poor soil.
Kow when the land in the orchard is plowed and cultivated,
and fertilizers are applied, the conditions become very much
more favorable in the soil, and the roots begin to branch
freely in response to these improved conditions. If the fer-
tilizer has been applied in the form of barn manure, as is
often the case, this requires some time to decay and get into
soluble condition so that the roots can take it up, but when
this has taken place it furnishes a large amount of highly

100

nitrogenous food which tends to stimulate a very strong wood
growth hate in the season. The trees having the root systems
such as we have described, long and spreading, and having
sent out an abundance of feeding roots all along these origi-
nal main roots in response to improved conditions, are sure
to take up an unusual amount of this plant food, much more
than trees which have had regular care from the beginning,
and which therefore have more compact root systems. The
result is that the growth is continued very late in the season,
that the new laj^er of tissue between the old bark and wood
does not ripen up in the autumn as it should, and that when
cold weather comes on it is no better fitted to withstand freez-
ing than a potato or a cabbage, and is destroyed during the
winter. Soon after this the bark separates from the wood,
and the tree dies if the bark has been killed all round, or is
seriously weakened if only part way. For these reasons, as
I said in the beginning, I should advise withholding nitrog-
enous fertilizers almost entirely the first season. If the soil
has any fertility to it at all the cultivation and consequent
improved physical condition will liberate all the nitrogen
that the trees need to make an entirely satisfactory growth.
But of course these arguments do not apply to other fer-
tilizers, and I should use them freely. I should begin with
one or two tons of lime per acre. It has been my observation
that very few old orchards indeed will not respond wonder-
fully to such an application. We need not discuss the usual
methods of determining whether lime is needed, but I am
satisfied that even when such tests as litmus paper, for exam-
ple, fail to indicate a sourness in the soil, an application of a
half ton of lime per acre will still be very beneficial to the
trees. With apples particularly, but with all fruits more or
less, an abundance of lime gives a shorter, stockier growth of
wood, and fruit which, though perhaps a little smaller, is
more firm, better keeping and more highly colored. This
lime application need not be made every year, of course, but
I should begin with it and should repeat it once every four
or five years.

In addition to this I should give a yearly application of

101

potash and phosphoric acid. For potash we usually use 300
pounds per acre of high grade sulfate, and it is better applied
as early in the season as possible and plowed under. I
should favor plowing under all fertilizers, as it gets them
down where the feeding roots are, and where they will be
under such conditions as to make them most quickly avail-
able. Of course this is less important with the readily solu-
ble fertilizers, but even with these I should favor turning
them under.

In phosphoric acid one has the choice of several different
forms, but probably the best two for the orchardist are basic
slag and one of the superphosphates or acid phosphates.
Where one is plowing the land I should favor the use of the
basic slag, as, in addition to the phosphoric acid, it contains
a large percentage of lime, which will assist in putting the
soil in good shape. It will run usually about 15 per cent to
17 per cent of phosphoric acid, and from experience in many
orchards it seems to be an admirable form. On the other
hand, where one is not able to plow the land, or for any rea-
son has decided not to, the superphosphate is the best form
of phosphoric acid, as it is readily soluble, and will therefore
get dowTi to the roots of the trees more quickly and more cer-
tainly than the basic slag. As to quantities per acre or per
tree, a good yearly application of the slag would be from
300 to 500 pounds per acre, or on scattering trees from 8 to
10 pounds per tree. Where the superphosphates are used the
quantity applied should vary with the source of the material
from which they were manufactured, but probably should
be from one-third to one-half less than of the basic slag.
These quantities are merely suggested as the usual ones ap-
plied, and it should be borne in mind that there is little dan-
ger in applying an over-dose of either potash or phosphoric
acid, as neither one leaches out of the soil to any extent, nor
does either one, when present in moderate excess in the soil,
produce the injurious effect on the orchard that an over-
supply of nitrogen does. They should be applied as early in
the spring as possible, and worked into the soil as much as is
possible with the method of culture adopted.

102

We come now to the question of cover-crops for the or-
chard, by which is meant some crop grown in the orchard,
usually late in the season, and exclusively, or at least mainly,
with the object of improving the soil of the orchard. That
it can be made to play a very important part in the upbuild-
ing of an old orchard has been shown time and again. Some
of the best ones for Massachusetts orchards are buckwheat,
rye, soy beans, turnips, dwarf Essex rape and the vetches.
The chief advantages derived from their use would be that
they take plant food away from the trees in the autmnn and
thus help to ripen them up ; and they catch and hold nitrates
in the soil after the growth of the trees has stopped, and
when these substances would otherwise be washed out of the
soil ; that they help to pulverize and rot down the sod, which
is especially important at the beginning ; that when they are
plowed under they furnish humus, which in turn furnishes
plant food to the trees ; and that in the case of soy beans and
the vetches they help to keep up the store of nitrogen in the
soil by what they take up from the air and store in their
roots. This is by no means all that these cover-crops do, but
it covers the main points, and serves to show how important
they are. The general plan of their use would be this : that
the orchard would be plowed as early in the spring as the
soil would permit and thoroughly fitted as outlined earlier.
Then thorough cultivation would continue up to the middle
of July, when the cover-crop would be sown. The only im-
portant deviation from this course would be in the case of
some of the leguminous cover-crops mentioned, particularly
soy beans and cow peas, which often give better results if
sown in drills earlier in the season, the middle of June or
the first of July, and cultivate several times before the or-
chard is laid by. Of course, the objection to this is that the
cultivation by this method is much more costly, since it must
be done with a one-horse cultivator, a row at a time, instead
of with a disc or spring-tooth harrow, covering three or four
times the space. But even this objection is often, if not
usually, overbalanced by the much better growth of the cover-
crop.

1

IS

*»

-< .

fc^^*'

'^•Ji

'^

%

55.

r

Tj-pe of tree wliicli slioiild l)c" cut li.K k -r\rvr\\ m renovatin.ir; 1<> or \i feet
at least could be removed to advaut;i«e. Except for poor trunk (see Fig.
2), this tree could be very successfully remodeled.

103

After cultivation ceases and the cover-crop is sown nothing
further is done to the soil until the following spring, when
the cover-crop is plowed under, and the programme begins
again. Where a good growth of one of the nitrogenous cover-
crops can be secured it is often possible to obtain all the ni-
trogen needed for the orchard in this way.

I should feel inclined to begin with buckwheat as a cover-
crop in starting an old orchard because it is peculiarly effect-
ive in rotting down sod and putting the soil in fine physical
condition. This might be followed in a year or two mth
either soy beans or summer vetch.

As to amounts of seed per acre of the different crops sug-
gested the following will be found right for ordinary con-
ditions : —

Buckwheat, .
Rye, .
Soy beans, .
Summer vetch,
Winter vetch,

1 bushel.

V/o bushels.

IY2 bushels broadcast; Yo bushel in drills.
iy2 bushels broadcast ; 1 bushel in drills.
1 bushel broadcast; {A bushel in drills.

x\nd lastly there is the question of top-grafting the trees.
I have already said that I should consider the necessity of
this a strong factor against the orchard, for it requires con-
siderable time, two to four years, and not a little expense,
to work over the trees into other varieties. But it frequently
happens that odd trees in an orchard are of unsatisfactory
varieties, and it is sometimes worth while to graft over an
entire orchard where the trees are relatively young and other-
wise in good condition. "\^Tiere this is to be done I believe
it is generally advisable to employ an expert grafter or
srrafter guarantee the scions to live.- Of course in such a case
will undertake the operation, or, if the orchard is of sufficient
size to warrant it, a professional grafter can be secured from
a distance. In either case it is better business, and more
satisfactory^ generally, to pay by the stub, and to have the
grafter guarantee the scions to live. Of course in such a case
one must have confidence enough in the man to insure that

104

he will not put in grafts needlessly, but after all it is better
to have too many grafts than not enough, and with a little
knowledge and supervision on the part of the owner there is
usually little difficulty on this score. If the owner is situated
so that he can do so I should strongly advise his furnishing
the scions himself, and too great care cannot be exercised in
selecting them. They ought to be taken from bearing trees,
and if possible from those of known productiveness, and they
should be thoroughly well matured and not too long- jointed.
Let them be selected while the trees are still dormant, and
stored in moist soil or sawdust in the coolest possible place ;
if an ice house is available so much the better.

A great many problems will undoubtedly come up in reno-
vating an old orchard besides those which have been dis-
cussed, and modifications will have to be made to suit special
fruits, such as peaches and plums, but if a campaign along
the general lines indicated could be made among the old, and
at present profitless, orchards of the State, either cleaning
them up or cutting them down, it would certainly do a great
deal toward putting Massachusetts fruit on a better footing
with both dealers and consumers, and it would make an addi-
tion to the income of the farmers of the State by no means to
be despised.

105

APPLE PACKING FOR MASSACHUSETTS GROWERS.

ALBERT R. JENKS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS., HORTICULTURAL ADVISOR,
HAMPDEN COUNTY IMPROVEMENT LEAGUE.

The fast-growing commercial importance of the apple crop
in Massachusetts demands that the packing phase of the in-
dustry l)e given intelligent study, and that all discoveries of
proven worth be put into practical application. As the apple
crop increases in size the cheaper grades will be pushed from
the market. The selling price of the better grades will be
lowered, thus making it possible for more people to use a
large quantity of apples each succeeding year. Along with
a lower selling price, the cost of production must be reduced
and better methods of packing adopted.

Wonderful strides have recently been made in the methods
used by fruit growers in the management of their orchards.
Only very recently have growers begun to give more time
and attention to the packing and marketing of their fruit.
At present this is fully one-half of the problem. It is true
that we have improved upon our forefather's method of
harvesting his fruit, — that of shaking the apples to the
ground and picking them up in sacks, or allowing them to
fall off and then picking them up. It has remained for our
western pioneer apple growers to teach us really up-to-date
methods. Improved methods of picking must precede any
advance in the packing of apples. Too little thought often-
times is given to this phase. Apples may be excellently
grown and finely packed, but unless they are carefully
picked they will not bring the highest market price. It is
very hard to know just when an apple has reached the stage
when, if picked, it will keep the longest and still retain the

106

highest quality for culinary and dessert purposes. The time
will vary according to the soil, its moisture content, the va-
riety of apple, the stock, the exposure and the purpose for
which the fruit is sold. Experience is necessary to deter-
mine this point, but there is less danger of picking too early
than too late. A fair test of ripeness is to lift the apple gen-
tly and twist it slightl3^ If it parts readily from the spur,
the apple is ripe enough to pick. If the apples are to be
placed in ordinary storage they should be picked earlier
than if they are to be put into cold storage.

Harvesting.

In picking apples handle them as carefully as eggs. Em-
ploy men who can pick with two hands. Great care should
be exercised not to detach the stems, because when a stem is
pulled out it breaks the skin; this allows the bacteria to
enter the apple, resulting in rot and disease in an otherwise
sound apple. Many markets refuse apples with 25 per cent,
of the stems missing. Equal care should be exercised in
picking apples to leave all fruit spurs unbroken upon the
limbs. Each broken spur means that several apples are
deducted from the next three or four years' crops. This is
an absolutely unnecessary loss, if due care is exercised.
Men should never be allowed to climb into the trees while
picking, especially young trees, because broken branches and
bruised limbs are bound to result from such a procedure.
Wounds and bruises upon the limbs constitute ideal condi-
tions under which canker diseases start and flourish. Light,
strong stepladders should be used for low trees; for taller
trees, light pointed ladders, which will fit into crotches in
the limbs, are better than straight or round ladders. Exten-
sion ladders are necessary for very tall trees.

There are many kinds of picking bags, buckets and baskets
upon the market. Most growers prefer the oak, splint, half-
bushel basket which has a swinging bale, allowing the basket
to be lowered into the barrel or other receptacle and the con-
tents poured out without any danger of bruising the fruit.
The baskets should first be oiled, thus making them more

107

durable; they should then be padded with canvas or burlap.
Picking receptacles that open from the bottom are not en-
tirely satisfactory at present, and picking bags tend to bruise
the apples more or less. Heavy wire bent in the form of the
letter S, with the upper part large enough to put over limbs
and the lower part to fit the handle of the basket, are very
useful. This will enable the pickers to use both hands. It
is quite essential that practically all the picking be done by
hand as, up to the present time, the patent pickers have not
been so perfected as not to bruise the fruit, or else they are
deficient in other ways. Patent pickers may be used for
stray scattered apples.

The question of field receptacles for the apples now arises.
This all depends upon the future use of the fruit. One
must have previously decided whether or not any of the
apples are of high enough quality to box. Many Massachu-
setts growers are adopting some of the good western methods.
Box packing, the packing of apples in packages smaller than
the apple barrel, generally the bushel box, is one of these
good methods. Some Massachusetts growers, however, are
adopting box packing long before the quality of their apples
justifies this method. This is a serious mistake. The apple
box should be used only for apples of extra good quality.
The grower can realize the most money from his apples when
packed in this way. For instance, it would be difiicult to
obtain $7.50 to $9 per barrel for good Mcintosh apples, but
there is an excellent market for A-1 Mcintosh apples packed
in boxes at from $2.50 to $3 a box. The fruitstand man
likes the box package because he knows how many apples
he is buying for a certain sum, and therefore knows how
many he can sell for 10 cents and still make a good profit.
The apples packed in this way must be sound and of a uni-
form size, color and shape. The consumer likes the box
package because it is more attractive, and because he can
use them all before they decay; satisfaction being given,
additional sales are guaranteed. Quality being secured, it
is still hard to say just what varieties should be put into
boxes in preference to barrels. We are now testing out mar-

108

kets with box apples, and a few more years' experience will
show which varieties may be marketed in this way. At
present it looks as if the following varieties, if of high
enough quality, should be boxed in order to secure the larg-
est returns : —

Yellow TransiDarent.

Red Astrachan.

Duchess.

Gravenstein.

Wealthy.

Fameuse.

Winter Banana.

Wagener.

Mcintosh Red.

Baldwin.

Sutton Beauty.

Alexander.

Rome Beauty.

Northern Spy.

King.

York Imperial.

Many of these varieties will yield even greater profits if
put into smaller packages than the bushel box.

Above all things, do not box apples if they are not of the
very best quality. The fact that many growers in Massachu-
setts have been boxing apples suitable only for sale in bar-
rels has put eastern box apples into disfavor among the com-
mission men. As a rule, it is well to box only a small
fraction of a crop from old renovated trees, and grade the
remainder for barrels and culls. Hampers, baskets, corru-
gated packages and other small receptacles have not yet be-
come practical enough to demand the consideration of the
average grower. They are suitable for special markets, and
each individual must determine their suitability in his own
case.

Apples which are to be boxed should be handled with even
greater care than fancy barrel apples. The field receptacle
should be of small dimensions, preferably something in the
nature of a common bushel box. The apples should be laid
into the box, not poured in. It is advisable to place a sheet
of cheap paper between each tier of apples in the box, thus
eliminating all danger of puncture from the stems of other
apples. Do not fill the box entirely full, or, if this is done,
risers should be used upon the ends of the boxes in order
to be able to stack them without danger of bruising the

Fig. 2. — Enddeliverv sortiug table.

109

apples. The ideal receptacle will probably be something in
the nature of a box 36 by 18 by 11 inches. It is not prac-
ticable to box-pack apples in the field. They should be hauled
to the packing shed, and immediately graded, packed and
marketed, or put into cold storage.

If one plans to pack his apples in barrels it is always a
debatable question whether or not the packing should be done
in the field or in the packing shed. Local conditions often-
times decide this question. It is generally better, however,
to haul the apples to a central packing place, as the facili-
ties for better and more rapid work can there be provided.
Barreled apples thus packed generally bring 10 or 15 cents
more a barrel, because, as a rule, the work is done better.
Then, too, if the apples are brought immediately to a cen-
tral packing house, they generally have an opportunity' to
become cool before they are placed in the barrels. This adds
to their keeping qualities very materially. If the varieties
are in large, compact blocks in the orchard, and the packing
shed is quite a long distance away, it undoubtedly is cheaper
to pack the apples in the field. In this case one needs no>
field receptacles, as the pickers can empty their baskets
directly upon the sorting table. When the packing-shed
plan is followed, cheap but firm barrels are probably the
best field receptacles. These should be filled not more than
four-fifths full. A low-down spring wagon, with a broad
platform and broad wheels which will turn in under the plat-
form, should be used. Such a wagon is shown in Fig. 1,
opposite page lOG. Recently, bolster springs have been placed
upon the market. By using these springs almost any wagon
may be made suitable for orchard use. Fruit hauled on
such a wagon will be bruised but very little.

Barrel Packing — Standard Barrel.
Many different types of tables are in use for sorting apples
for barrel use. The most common table is shown in Fig. 2.
This represents what is called the end-delivery table, and is
a very good table for use when one is careful not to handle
the apples roughly. The dimensions are as follows: length,

110

7 feet; width at back, 31/^ feet; height at front, 32 inches;
height at back, 36 inches ; height of side boards, 6 inches.

Spaces are left between the boards in the bottom of the
table for the dirt and leaves to sift through. The boards
must be of a soft wood and smoothed off, in order not to in-
jure the fruit. The back of the table is purposely made five
or six inches higher in order that the apples may roll down
towards the front.

It is necessary to have three men working at such a table
to get the best results. An upturned barrel is placed at
the end of the table. On this is placed a basket for a
certain gi-ade, — the gTade which is running the smallest.
A man stands at the side of the table and sorts. He has one
or two upturned barrels beside him which hold the baskets
for other grades. The third man in the crew knocks the
tail end out of the barrels, picks out the facer apples, puts
them into the barrels and empties the baskets of the two
sorters into their proper barrels. Three men working in a
crew in such a manner will average about 40 to 45 barrels
per day. One extra man can head up and stencil all the
barrels put up by three such crews.

A heavier table is often used in packing-house work. It
is 9 feet long, 6 feet wide and 33 inches high in front, with
the table running lengthwise. The back of the table is 38
inches high and the side 8 inches high. The bottom is
slatted, as in the end-delivery table. Three men are needed
in the sorting crew, as at the other table. The only advan-
tage of this table is the fact that more field barrels can be
emptied upon it at one time.

The Sulzer bill, which was signed by the President Aug.
3, 1912, and which became operative July 1, 1913, stand-
ardizes the apple barrel and takes care of the grades of the
apples. The bill follows : —

The Sulzer Bill.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, that the standard
barrel for apples shall be of the following dimensions when measured

Ill

without distention of its parts : Length of stave, twenty-eight and one-
half inches; diameter of head, seventeen and one-eighth inches; dis-
tance between heads, twenty-six inches ; circumference of bulge, sixty-
four inches outside measurement, representing as nearly as possible
seven thousand and fifty-six cubic inches, provided that steel barrels
containing the interior dimensions provided for in this Section shall
be construed as a compliance therewith.

Sec. 2. That the standard grades for apples when packed in bar-
rels which shall be shipped or delivered for shipment in interstate
or foreign commerce, or which shall be sold or offered for sale within
the District of Columbia or the Territories of the United States shall
be as follows: Apples of one variety, which are well-grown speci-
mens, hand picked, of good color for the variety, normal shape, prac-
tically free from insect and fungous injury, bruises and other
defects, except such as are necessarily caused in the operation of pack-
ing, or apples of one variety ivhich are not more than ten percentum
below the foregoing specifications, shall be " Standard Grade mini-
mum size two and one-half inches," if the minimum size of the apples
is two and one-half inches, in transverse diameter; " Standard Grade
minimum size two and one-fourth inches," if the minimum size of
the apples is two and one-fourth inches in transverse diameter; or
" Standard Grade minimum size two inches," if the minimum size of
the apples is two inches in transverse diameter.

Sec. 3. That the barrels in which apples are packed in accordance
with the provisions of this Act may be branded in accordance with
Section two of this Act.

Sec. 4. That all barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be
below standard if the barrel bears any statement, design or device
indicating that the barrel is a standard barrel of apples, as herein
defined, and the capacity of the barrel is less than the capacity pre-
scribed by Section one of this Act, unless the barrel shall be plainly
marked on end and side with words or figures showing the fractional
relation which the actual capacity of the baiTel bears to the capacity
prescribed by Section one of this Act. The marldng required by this
paragraph shall be in block letters of size not less than seventy-two
point one inch gothic.

Sec. 5. That barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be
misbranded within the meaning of this Act :

First. — If the barrel bears any statement, design or derice indi-
cating that the apples contained therein are " Standard Grade " and
the apples when packed do not conform to the requirements pre-
scribed by Section two of this Act.

Second. — If the barrel bears any statement, design or device indi-
cating that the apples contained therein are " Standard Grade " and
the barrel fails to bear also a statement of the name of the variety.

112

the name of the locality where gi'own and the name of the packer or
the person by whose authority the apples were packed and the barrel
marked.

Sec. 6. That any jDerson, tiiTQ or corpoi'ation, or association who
shall knowingly pack or cause to be jjacked apples in barrels, or who
shall knowingly sell or offer for sale such barrels in violation of the
provisions of this Act, shall be liable to a penalty of One Dollar and
costs for each such barrel so sold or offered for sale, to be recovered
at the suit of the United States in any court of the United States
having jurisdiction.

Sec. 7. That this Act shall be in force and effect from and after
the first day of July, nineteen hundred and thirteen.

It is seen that there is but one grade and but three sizes,
which are governed by the minimnm size of the apples in
each grade.

Any one desiring a copy of this law, with explanations
and advice, may obtain it by writing to the International
Apple Shippers' Association, 613 Mercantile Building, Eoch-
ester, ]^. Y, Any one desiring further information should
write to the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture,
Room 136, State House, Boston, Mass.

Owang to the frequent difficulty of obtaining apple barrels,
one should order them in advance of the time they are
needed. Use only new barrels for the best size and perhaps
for the second best size. If second-hand barrels are used at
all they should be carefully cleaned. Hard-wood barrels
with elm hoops are the best.

The actual packing of the barrel consists in placing a
corrugated head on the bottom of the barrel. The final top
of the barrel is the bottom as it is being packed. If the
quality of the apples warrants it, a fancy lace paper circle
is next put into the barrel. An oiled or paraffined paper
circle is put in next, which prevents any dirt which may pos-
sibly sift into the barrel through the cover from coming in
contact with the fruit, and also prevents excessive moisture
transpiration from the apples. The head of the barrel is now
faced with uniform sized apples of a grade which is typical
of the contents of the barrel. These apples should be of
good color, or at least show good color around the stem ends.

113

Stemmers or small shears should be used to cut the ends
from the long stems, so that they will not puncture the oiled
paper circle and will rest more evenly upon the face end.
This is sometimes omitted in strictly commercial work. The
face layer is put in stem end down, in concentric circles.
The outside or larger circle is placed first, of a uniform
sized apple which will just fill the circle snugly. Each con-
centric circle is placed in the same way. The center will
require one, two, three, four or six apples, varying in accord-
ance with the sizes of apples used. The next layer is placed
the same way by some growers, especially for their extra
fancy and exhibition barrels. Most commercial growers now
make the second layer by placing the heavy colored cheek
of the apples in the cavities formed between the apples of the
face layer. This method makes the barrel look much better
when opened. About a bushel of apples is next carefully
emptied upon these two face layers, before the barrel is
shaken at all. The barrel should be carefully shaken then,
and after each succeeding basket is put in, until it is full.
The shaking, or " racking " as it is called, tends to work the
apples down into all of the cavities. In this way a compact
package is secured and possibility of bruising is eliminated.
The height to which the barrel should be filled varies ac-
cording to varieties, and opinion on this point differs in
different localities. It should be just high enough so that
when the head is pressed in all apples will be held firm, and
yet not so tight as to bruise them. The last layer should be
placed with stem ends uppermost. This makes it easier to
put the head in, and if by mistake the bottom should be
opened, it will present a much better appearance. A corru-
gated head is also used at the tail end as it helps to prevent
bruising when the tail is pressed in. It should be nailed in
place with six three-and-a-half-penny nails. It is advisable
also to nail liners to the tail end of the barrel. The barrel
is reversed, and if it is to be shipped a long distance the head
should also be nailed in a like manner as an added precau-
tion. The head of the barrel should be stenciled in accord-
ance with Section 5 of the Sulzer bill.

114

Barreled apples if held for any length of time should be
placed on their sides. They should be packed in a car in
this way. This method of storing prevents the fruit in a
barrel from bearing the weight of other barrels, because the
package itself bears it.

The following score card, or some slight modification of
it, is generally used for judging the barreled apples : —

Points.

Uniformity of size of a])ples, ....... 20

Uniformity of color of apples, 20

Uniformity of shape of apples, 10

Condition and freedom from blemishes, 20

Attractiveness, including facing and tailing, . . . .15

The barrel and trimmings, ........ 5

Firmness of apples in the barrel, . . . . . . .10

100
Box Packing.
The western growers have succeeded wonderfully with the
apple box. This is due entirely to the fact that they were
compelled to pack quality apples. Furthermore, they can-
not afford to ship the cheaper grades of apples the long dis-
tance to the markets.

The Box.

The first consideration in box packing is the box itself.
Many shapes and sizes have been used. At present, however,
there are only two in general use. The dimensions are:
Special, 10 by 11 by 20 inches, inside measurement; Stand-
ard, 10^ by IIV2 by 18 inches, inside measurement.

The boxes contain a trifle less than a standard bushel, but
when they have the necessary bulge they accommodate more
than a bushel. The two boxes are designed for different sized
apples, but the Standard is being used more and more, prob-
ably about 70 per cent at the present time. Apples are sold
by the number in the box and not by weight or measure.

> The ends of the box should be of one piece, % inch thick,
with the grain running crosswise ; the sides should be ^4 to
% inch thick and of one piece ; the tops and bottoms should

115

be of two pieces each, a little less than Vi inch thick, the two
pieces making them more elastic. There should be two
cleats for the top of the box and two for the bottom on each
end. These hold the top and bottom securely, as the bulge
has a tendency to push the thin boards over the nail-heads.
The boxes generally come knocked down, and can be put to-
gether during rainy weather, before the season opens. Four
nails should be used for the sides, at each end. Four or five
penny cement-coated nails are the best ; they hold better.

Fig. 3. — A convenient type of packing table.

The P aching Table.
The packing table, such as is shown in Fig. 3, is about
3 by 4 feet, made of 6 by 1 inch boards with 2 by 4 inch
joists as posts. A stout canvas is stretched across the top of
the boards. An old piece of rubber hose may be nailed along
the top of the boards over the canvas to protect the apples
from bruising. Shelves for holding the apple box are made at
a slant on opposite corners of the table. Extra shelves may

116

also be made under the table for holding wrapping paper
and other packing accessories, thus saving a lot of the
packer's time by having everything convenient.

Grading.
As the apples are placed upon the table they are generally
graded for size and color. It requires as much skill to grade
apples well as it does to pack them well. Grading is some-
times done by machine, but machine grading is not entirely
satisfactory at present. An amateur starting to grade for
size should have a thin board convenient, with holes of the
different diameters cut in^it. Occasionally, when in doubt,
he can try the apples in the different sized holes. It takes
a great deal of practice for one to become an efficient grader,
although some people learn very rapidly. Two men can
pack to good advantage at one table. One may pack a cer-
tain size while the other is packing some other size, thus
keeping the table fairly well cleaned off".

Lining the Box.
The box is lined on the bottom, sides and top with pieces
of paper each 17% by 26 inches for the Standard box and
19% by 26 inches for the Special box. These are placed
so that they overlap about 2 inches in the bottom of the box.
They are long enough to cover the sides and the top, lapping
over about 2 inches when the box is packed. The ends are
rarely lined. Many growers crease these papers where the
sides meet the bottom, which is really the top of the box,
so that when the bulge is pushed down the paper will not
be torn. The paper costs about 7 cents per pound.

Wrapping.
All apples should be wrapped in tissue paper. This helps
to retain the moisture content of the apples and also makes a
cushion between them. In case an apple should decay the
paper also prevents the rot from spreading. Apples also
pack more firmly when wrapped. Wrapping paper cai? be

Fig. 4. — Box pjirtially packed, showing coustructiou and position ol hod.

FIG. 5. —The bulge. The box at the left shows too little bulge, the one in the center the
proper bulge, and the one at the right too much.

117

obtained either plain or printed. Oftentimes the large or-
chardists have their brand or trade name printed upon the
wrapper. This makes it cost a little more, but it is a good
form of advertising. The white tissue is the best, although
different colors are used. It comes in different sizes, which
are used according to the size of the apples. The common
sizes are 9 by 9 inches, 10 by 10 inches and 11 by 11 inches.
Supplies of the three sizes should be kept on hand; the 10
by 10 inch size, however, is most largely used.

Many beginners at apple packing have difficulty with the
wrapping of the apple. Wrapping methods vary among dif-
ferent packers. The points sought for are speed and an at-
tractive appearance when wrapped. The paper is taken with
the left hand towards one corner. The apple is placed in the
paper, blossom end down ; the four loose corners are folded in ;
the left hand places the apple in the box. By placing the
blossom end downward in the hand, the surplus loose corners
are wrapped around the stem end, thus protecting the apples
with which it may come in contact.

Layer papers are used in the top and bottom of the box
inside of the lining paper ; they are also used between the
layers of apples, in order to raise the height of the pack
when necessary. It comes in different colors and weights,
but a medium weight, white, rough cardboard, 171/4 by 11
inches for the Standard box and 191/^ by 10 inches for the
Special box, is the best.

A shelf should be made to put on the apple box to hold the
wrapping paper, such as is seen in Fig. 4. Thumb-cuts
should also be provided to put upon the thumb of the left
hand for grasping the single sheet of wrapping paper.

Paclcing.
The packer is now ready for work. He stands in front
of the box, with wrapping paper on the shelf and apples at
his right upon the table. With his left hand he grasps
a sheet of wrapping paper at the corner, while with his right
he grasps a certain sized apple which he is about to pack.
The experienced packer knows at a glance what pack he must

118

use to have every apple tight in the box, and also how many
apples he will need to pack the box.

There are three systems of packing in use, the straight,
die diagonal and the offset. The diagonal, however, is used
almost entirely. It is the hardest to pack, but it is by far
the most attractive and the most efficient. Apples in a square
pack generally become bruised in shipment, because each
apple is placed directly over the other. Apples may vary
more in size in diagonal packing than in square packing;
they also tend to bruise much less in this pack, because each
apple rests in the space between two or four others. The
offset pack presents more empty space to the critical pur-
chaser when he takes off the side of the box to look at the
apples; therefore it should be used only when necessary.

The size of an apple is always considered as the greatest
distance from cheek to cheek, and not the distance from stem
end to blossom end. A well-packed box of apples should
always have a bulge of %. inch upon both top and bottom.
The top and bottom bulged in this way act as springs to hold
all the apples tightly. This bulge is most easily attained by
selecting apples with a little greater diameter for use in the
middle of each layer. As the box is packed this bulge will be
about 1^2 inches in the middle, but when the bottom is nailed
on, the top of the box will spring out, thus making both top
and bottom equal. (See Fig. 5 for illustration of bulge.)
Tlie pack should be but little in excess of the height of the box
at the ends. This generally comes all right because of the
size of the box and the kind of pack selected for the several
sizes of apples. Apples which have a diameter of 2% inches
make a five tier pack of either 188, 198, 200 or 225 ; 2%
inches in diameter make a four and a half tier pack of either
138, 150, 163 or 175; ^Vs inches in diameter make a four
tier pack of either 113 or 125; 3/i inches in diameter make
a three or two and a half tier pack of either 36, 48, 56, 64,
72 or 80. The number varies with the variety, caused by
their different shapes and thicknesses. The regular Standard
box is 10^/2 by ll^/o by 18 inches, and can be used for nearly
all of these packs.

119

It is sometimes a hard question for beginners to decide
when to use the different packs, such as the 4-4, 4-3, 3-3,
3-2 or the 2-2. This varies with the size of the apple being
packed, the size of the box and the variety of apple. The
2-2 and 3-2 are the packs "most in favor among fruit growers.
It is advisable to pack the apples upon their cheeks (Fig. 6)
whenever possible, as they present a much better appearance.
A few of the varieties and sizes require stem-end pack-
ing (Fig. Y). Experience and long-continued practice will
overcome most of the difficulties experienced by beginners in
box packing.

In the 2-2 pack (Fig' 6), start by placing one apple
in the lower left comer and another apple half way between
the cheek of the first apple and the opposite side of the box.
The next two apples are placed into the equal spaces formed
by the first two apples. In Fig. 6 the first apple in
the fourth row has slipped down. It should show a space
between the apple and the end of the box. The operation of
placing two apples in the cavities left by the last two apples
should be continued until the top of the box is reached. The
layer of apples should be pulled down towards the paper
Avhich will then leave sufficient space to insert two more
apples. These last two apples will cause all the others to
become firm in the box. If the apples are of such a size that
layer papers are necessary to raise the height of the apples,
a paper is inserted after the first layer is complete. The
second layer in the box is packed in the same way, except
that the first apple is placed in the lower right corner. This
means that all the apples in this layer are placed in the
pockets formed by the apples in the first layers, and that
when the box is nailed no apple will be bearing the entire
weight of any other apple. Each succeeding layer is packed
in the same way, being careful that each layer is started so
that the apples will l^e in the pockets formed by the apples
of the preceding layer.

The 3-2 pack is very similar to the preceding 2-2 pack,
except that three apples are used in alternate rows instead
of two. This means that the 3-2 pack requires a much

120

smaller apple. Fig. 7 shows this method packed stem-end
instead of cheek. This pack is started by placing one apple
in each lower corner and one in the center of the space be-
tween these two apples. Two apples are next placed, partly
filling the cavities formed by the three apples. These two
apples leave three cavities which are filled by three apples,
etc., until the first layer is completed. In starting the second
layer, two apples are used, then three, etc., thus filling the
small pockets formed by the apples in the lower layer.

The 4-4 pack is the square pack (see Fig. 8). The apples
must be of such a size that four of them just fit into the box
across the end. These are placed, and then four more, etc.,
until the layer is completed. The next three or four layers
are packed in the same way, which means that every apple
except those in the upper layer of the box must bear the entire
weight of one or more apples above it upon its cheek. This
invariably means a blemish upon the cheek, which immedi-
ately lowers the price.

The ofi'set pack (see Fig. 8), generally a 3-3 pack, is
started by placing three apples with their cheeks firmly to-
gether, with these firmly against the left side of the box.
This will leave a space between the last apple and the right
side of the box; start the next three apples in this cavity.
Place two more against this first one in the same way, which
will leave the cavity upon the left side. Continue this pro-
cedure until the layer is completed. The second layer is
started from the right side, and the remaining layers alter-
nate until the box is completed. In packing apples upon
their cheeks always pack them with their stem ends pointing
toward one of the ends of the box.

After the box is packed a layer paper is placed upon it,
the ends of the lining paper which have been hanging loose
on the side are folded over the apples, the box taken to the
box press and the bottom nailed on. Box presses are upon
the market and can be purchased very cheaply. Oftentimes
thev are made at home.

Fici. >s. — The differeut kiuds of packs. Befiiniiiiig

(3 and 4) dia^oDal.

at the left, (1) offset; ('2) stiuare;

121

Labeling.

Every grower who puts up fruit fit for box packing should
have a label to paste upon the end of his apple boxes. The
label should be stenciled Math the class of fruit, such as
" Fancy " or " Extra Fancy," in the upper left corner. The
number of apples in the box should be placed in the upper
right corner. The variety of apples can appropriately be
placed between the two upper corners. Boxes when piled
upon each other should always be placed upon their sides.
They pile better and the fruit is not damaged by this method.

Other difficulties experienced by beginners at apple pack-
ing will be overcome by intelligent study and continued prac-
tice. A grower who uses the box package for marketing his
strictly high-quality fruit ought to net a larger profit than
if he marketed it in the large, bulky barrel. The box pack-
age has succeeded wonderfully with the progressive western
fruit grower, and is also finding favor with the up-to-date
eastern grower who does not make the mistake of using in-
ferior grades.

122

EOOT AND CLEFT GKAFTING.'

H. D. HEMENWAY, NORTHAMPTON, MASS.

Grafting is the art of placing a portion of one plant upon
another related plant in such a manner that the growing tis-
sues of each coincide and union takes place. The plant
grafted is the stock. The part grafted into the stock is called
the scion. Grafting is practiced on many trees that do not
come true from seed, such as apples, pears, etc. The fruit
borne on grafted trees is the same variety as that from
which the scion was taken.

Cleft grafting is practiced to obtain results from seedlings
in the shortest possible time. It is also used to change the
fruit upon any tree to a more desirable variety.

It is not as difficult to graft as many believe. A careful
boy often obtains as good results as an experienced gardener.

Root Grafting.
Root grafting, as the name implies, is the placing of a
scion of the desired variety upon the roots of some other.
Apple or pear seedlings one or two years old furnish good
stocks. They can be purchased for about 1 cent each. The
scions can often be gathered. They should be the short
sprouts of the previous year's growth. They are best selected
from thrifty trees on or near the ends of fully exposed
branches. Avoid long sap sprouts with long spaces between
the buds or nodes. Scions may be gathered at any time after
the leaves drop, when not frozen, until the buds swell in the
spring. If not used immediately, they should be kept cov-
ered with damp moss in a cool, moist place, to keep them
fresh and plump. Varieties should always be marked with
their names. The stocks, or roots, may be stored in the same

1 Nature Leaflet No. 44, April 10, 1910.

123

manner and used at any time in winter. A common shoe
knife, which may be purchased for 10 or 15 cents, makes an
excellent knife for root grafting, when kept sharp. The
stock and scion must be kept in place until they unite. For
this purpose grafting cloth is perhaps the best means ; it is
easily made, as follows: —

For grafting cloth, melt together over a slow fire 4 parts
of unbleached resin and 1 part of beef tallow or raw linseed

gnsyfjng (Oax

I? (ijf differ end becuO

PLAIN WHIP-GRAFTING

oil. Spread this evenly over cotton cloth with a brush or
stick. Tack the cloth over a board or box. Keep it warm,
so that the mixture may be spread evenly. When cool, roll
and tie up. Keep in a cool, moist place until needed. When
used, it should be cut in strips about Vl inch wide. There
are four simple methods of root grafting, viz., whip graft-
ing, tongue grafting, saddle grafting and veneer grafting.
In each case it is necessary to get the growing tissues, the
cambium layers, to coincide ; if they do not, they will fail to

124

unite. This growing tissue, or cambium layer, is just inside
the inner bark. Before grafting, the tops of the seedlings
should be removed, as the roots only are to be used. Thor-
oughly wash the roots, — this is very essential, in order to
keep the knife sharp, — cut them into pieces 5 or 6 inches
long; each piece more than Yg inch thick will make a root
graft.

-disfcil eid

-.Scion

f ,broximai.
)/' end
•'looque

slocK ^\

(if dislal end be cu/")

TONGUE-GRAFTING

Whip Grafting.
For plain whip grafting make long slanting cuts on the
upper end of the root and the lower end of the scion, so that
they just match each other. Place them so that the cambium
layer of the stock and scion coincide, and bind firmly with
grafting cloth cut in strips about Yk inch wide. Begin wind-
ing well below the union, and continue spirally up over the
union. The scions should not be over 4 inches long. This
method is used on brittle woods, as raspberries and black-
berries, as well as on apple and pear seedlings.

125

Tongue Grafting.
Make a clean, long slanting cut on the upper end of the
stock. Select a scion about the same size, and make a similar
cut on the lower end of it. Both cuts should be clean and
smooth, and should match each other. Make a little tongue
in each by cutting out a small wedge-shaped chip, as shown
in the cut. Press stock and scion firmly together, so that the

2

..dI"s^al(e^^d)

-scion

'■--Saddle grajf Vm*

^-•arojfioq ;^A>*

cloib

-srocK

SADDLE GRAFTING

tongues dovetail. Be sure the inner bark of stock and scion
coincide; if they do not fit exactly, take them apart and try
until they do. If scion is smaller than the stock, it must be
carried to one side. Bind firmly with warm grafting cloth
14 inch wide, beginning well below the union, winding
spirally until above the cut. This method is used with
tough-wooded plants, as the apple. As the tongues hold stock
and scion together firmly, it is a better method than plain
Avhip grafting.

126

Saddle Grafting.
Make a clean slanting cut on each side of the upper end of
the root, and a corresponding V-shaped cut on the scion.
When these fit exactly, bind them together with grafting
cloth.

Yeneer Grafting.
Cut a shaving of bark from both the stock and scion, about
1 inch long. Make a short right-angular cut at the base of

1 . ,. .2

-scion

\% ,\!enecr ,

(ifdisrarend

becuty

.--gfajftnaWaX

f'-SfbcK

N

VENEER GRAFTING

each. Bind firmly with grafting cloth, so that the cambium
layers will coincide.

Approach grafting is similar to veneer grafting. The stock
and scion are united, while both remain on their own roots.
Usually one or both are potted plants. This is practiced on
citrus fruits, Japanese maples, and plants that are more diffi-
cult to successfully graft.

127

All root grafts should be carefully marked aud stored in
damp moss, in a cool, moist cellar, until the ground is ready-
to plant them in spring. The distal end of the scion when
cut should be covered with wax. The secret of success is to
make clean cuts with a sharp knife, and be sure that the cam-
bium layers coincide.

To plant Boot Grafts.
Prepare the soil as for any crop, by spading or plowing and
harrowing thoroughly. Stretch a line where the first row is
desired. Put the spade down the full length of the blade
under the line ; move it back and forth, to increase the open-
ing. Remove the spade, and press the root graft into the
ground until the top is only one inch above the surface.
Press the soil firmly about it with the heel. Continue to
place root grafts under the line every 6 inches. The graft
should be inserted into the soil well below the union, to en-
courage roots in the scion and to prevent the stock from
sending up " suckers." In a small garden, root grafts may
be planted in rows 2 feet apart ; but if there is space enough
to cultivate with a horse, the rows should be 3 to 4 feet apart.

Cleft Grafting.

Cleft grafting is practiced on the tops of trees which are
more or less matured. Wild apple trees of good size are often
grafted, so that they will produce desirable fruit. It should
be practiced on branches not over 2 inches in diameter. It
is best to graft only one-third or one-half of a tree in a single
season, so as to have enough top to leaf out well. A saw,
a pruning hook, a knife and a hammer are necessary, as well
as scions and grafting wax.

With a clean, sharp saw remove the end of the branch to be
grafted at a point where the stub will not be over 2 inches in
diameter. Much care should be taken to prevent the bark
from splitting down on one side when the branch is cut off.

Place the grafting hook so that the chisel part is over the
center of the cut, and drive it down with the hammer, split-
ting the stub into two parts through the center. Remove the
tool, and drive the wedge part into the end of the split stub.

128

so as to hold the edges open. Select a scion and make a
double wedge-shaped cut on the lower end of it. Make it
wedge-shaped lengthwise, so as to fit into the cleft; and
wedge-shaped horizontally, so that the inside of the scion
inserted in the cleft is almost cut away, while the outside
which comes in contact with the cambium layer of the stub
forms an arc of the original circle of the twig.

When the stub is 1 inch or less across, but one scion should
be inserted. When the stub is two inches in diameter, place
a scion in each edge of the cleft, so that the inner bark of
the scion and of the stock will coincide. Remove the graft-
ing hook. When the stub springs back, it will hold the scions
firmly in place. All exposed surfaces should be well covered
with grafting wax, to prevent evaporation. Let the wax
cover the ruptured bark below where the scion is inserted, as
well as the top of the cut. In the second season one of the
branches should be removed, if both scions grow. If both
were allowed to grow, a fork would be formed, which would
weaken the tree. The scions should be wrapped in moist
cloths, to prevent them from dying out. Cleft grafting is
successfully done in 'New England only in the spring, when
the buds are swelling. It is most successful on bright, warm
days, free from cold or drying winds.

129

MASSACHUSETTS FRUIT TREES AND THEIR INSECT

FOES.'

H. T. FERNALD, PH.D., AJIHERST, MASS., STATE NURSERY INSPECTOR.

Massachusetts is a natural fruit-raising State. On her
rugged hillsides flourish magnificent trees never set by man^
while thrifty pear and plum orchards here and there attest
the value of her climate and soil for fruit growing. The
qualities of the Baldwin, Hubbardston, Sutton Beauty and
Koxbury Russet apples, of the Clapp's Favorite pear, of the
Crosby peach and of the Concord and Rogers' Hybrids
among grapes, ^re known the world over, and all of these
and many others originated in Massachusetts.

Civilization and fruit raising at first went almost hand in
hand in this country. After making a clearing in the forest,
building his log cabin and breaking ground for his crops, the
settler rarely neglected to plant a few fruit trees near his
home ; and in time the better fruits occasionally appeared on
his table, while the poorer sorts supplied cider and vinegar
for his use.

But fruit raising was always a side issue. His markets
were always for his hay, corn, potatoes and the products of
his cattle, and with little time at his disposal it was these
which received his attention and the fruit trees were neg-
lected, as the only market for fruit was in his family and
perhaps with a few of his neighbors ; and it is probable that
the one who most appreciated the fruit was the " Barefoot
boy, witli cheek of tan," who munched his apple as he drove
the cows to pasture at early morn.

In time the farms began to run down, and the struggle to
raise sufficient crops became more severe, thus concentrating
all the farmers energies in his special lines, and the fruit

• Agriculture of Massachusetts, 1907.

130

trees suffered still more from neglect. By this time it had
become almost traditional that in order to obtain fruit all
that is was necessary to do was to set out the trees and then
let them alone. In consequence, when fruit came into de-
mand for table use it found almost all the farmers of Massa-
chusetts with nearly worthless trees, fruit averaging poor in
quality, and with insects and fungi rampant. In addition,
it found the farmer without a knowledge of proper methods
of fruit culture, and devoting his energies to other crops.
As a natural consequence, fruit raising in other parts of the
country, where more up-to-date methods were promptly
adopted when the demand came, has increased rapidly ; while
the people of Massachusetts with a few individual excep-
tions, have allowed their opportunity to pass rather than
master modern methods of fruit growing and obtain their
share of this rapidly increasing and profitable occupation.

The demand for first-class fruit is now greater than the
supply, and the export trade is calling for larger shipments.
Much of this fruit now comes from west of the Mississippi
River, has been grown in climates less perfectly adapted to
produce fine quality and keeping properties than is that of
this State, and has been shipped long distances at freight
rates much higher than would be the case here. Over half
of the first-grade fruit. in Boston markets to-day has come
from the west, while Massachusetts supplies the lower grades
at correspondingly lower prices.

Failure to raise the best fruit here has given the west its
chance ; and this has been taken advantage of, the finest
grades attractively packed now selling in Boston markets
for more than twice as much as home fruit. Only last year
Hood River apples were selling at from $2.50 to $4 per box,
the boxes holding about a bushel, and retailing at some places
in this city at $1 a dozen ; while the best home apples avail-
able were selling at $2.50 per barrel !

There is no reason why this condition should continue.
Massachusetts can raise just as good fruit as Oregon, and at
less cost. With much lower freights to pay, less risk of
injury during transportation, excellent soil and climate, it
is only necessary that fruit raising should be undertaken as

131

a business, on business principles, and with the determina-
tion to produce the very best fruit in existence, in order to
establish a satisfactory market.

The difference in freight rates from points in this State to
Boston, as compared with those from the west, is worthy of
a moment's consideration. If a Kansas fruit raiser, for ex-
ample, ships apples in carload lots to Boston for export, he
pays from 25 to 35 cents per hundred pounds to the Missis-
sippi River or to Chicago, and 30 or 35 cents more from
there to Boston, his total freight being 60 or 70 cents per
hundred pounds. The Massachusetts grower shipping in the
same way would pfly on the average S cents per hundred
pounds, — a saving of nearly seven-eighths of the total ship-
ping charges, as compared with the Kansas shipper.

It is high time for the farmers of Massachusetts to throw
off the lethargy in which they have so long remained, and
prepare themselves to occupy markets properly theirs, and
which they can supply easier and better than can the resi-
dents of any other section of this country.

A recent editorial writer in the " Youth's Companion "
has expressed his views upon this subject as follows : —

The rapid development of the fruit-oT-owing industry in this re-
gion is due to the great fertility of the soil, the intelligence and
energy of the Avestern farmers, and the co-operative organizations of
growers. Poor fruit has been discouraged and almost eliminated.
Packing is in boxes, with every apple wrapped separately, and
warranted to be perfect. The number of apples which a box con-
tains is printed plainly on the outside, and there is absolutely no
" deaconing."

These methods have enabled the western growers to realize a
profit on apples and pears of $100 to $1,000 an acre. . . . There is
no mystery about this remarkable development. It is due solely to
intelligence, enterprise and hard work, and is just as much within
reach of eastern gi'owers as it was in the grasp of their western
rivals. The lesson ought not to be lost upon eastern farmers who
wish to retain such of their fruit market as still remains to them.

Even under present conditions, there are many persons
in the State ivho derive three-quarters of their entire income
from sales of their fruit. One such man, whose name would

132

be familiar to any of those present, recently admitted that
his trees are growing in sod land, without fertilizing, prun-
ing excej)t at long intervals, spraying or care of any kind;
that the fruit is shaken from the trees, roughly assorted,
packed in the cheapest barrels obtainable, and marketed
whenever it is most convenient. Yet he acknowledged that
nearly all of his fair income came from this fruit. The
San Jose scale had recently appeared in his orchard, and he
had about decided to cut down his trees and go into some
other occupation, rather than make the source from which
he received most of his income his real business. If this
be a fair sample of the way in which fruit growing is con-
ducted in Massachusetts, it is no wonder that the larger part
of the best export and New England trade is supplied from
the west.

At the present time fruit growing has unusually attractive,
prospects in Massachusetts. The general distribution of the
San Jose scale over the State absolutely requires regular and
persistent treatment. N"ow, fruit trees are grown by three
classes of people: those who make it their business; those
who, though in other lines of agriculture, raise a little fruit ;
and those in commercial or professional occupations, who
have fruit trees in their yards to supply their own needs.
The first class will fight this insect foe, and get their
fruit; but the farmer on other lines, after spraying once or
twice, will usually give up treating his trees, as requiring
too much time and trouble ; while most of the third class,
having no spraying apparatus to use and no knowledge how
to use it, will probably try to hire the spraying done, and
will generally find no one available to do it. In consequence,
the trees thus left unprotected from this pest will die after
a time, and the fruit raising in the State will be concen-
trated in the hands of the professional growers, and theirs
will be the task of supplying the fruit now raised by the
other two classes.

As the number of fruit trees around the houses of workers
and grown by farmers as a side line only is now more than
five times that of all those in the orchards of regular fruit
growers, it is evident that the time is coming when fruit in

133

large quantities will be in demand to replace that which will
be lost, and the man who prepares now to meet this demand
will reap the benefit.

From what has been stated, however, it does not follow that
fruit growing is a simple occupation. The successful grower
must thoroughly understand what conditions of soil and ele-
vation are best adapted to the varieties he attempts to raise ;
which varieties bring the best prices in the markets he
proposes to use; what kinds of plant food and the proper
amounts of these his trees need in order to enable them to
do their best work; how to prune, fight his insect enemies
and fungous foes ; and, last but not least, how to gather,
assort, pack and ship the fruit in such ways as will help
it to look best, keep best and sell best. Such a man can make
a success of fruit growing in Massachusetts ; and a man who
fails to measure up to an equivalent standard, in whatever
occupation he may be, is a failure to just that degree. If
it be in business, he is likely to assign ; if in a profession, he
soon drops out of sight ; but if a poor farmer in any line he
generally earns a living, scanty though it may be, for nature
will sustain inefficient workmen where in any other occupa-
tion this would be impossible.

Let us now consider some of the foes the fruit grower will
meet in Massachusetts, and how he must combat them if he
is to produce crops which will bring the highest prices.

Codling Moth.
One of the most important pests of the apple in Massachu-
setts is the codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella L.), a native
of Europe, but which has taken kindly to new world condi-
tions. The caterpillar, when through feeding in the apple in
the fall, leaves the fruit and crawls down the tree till it finds
some piece of loose bark beneath which it can make its way.
Here it gnaws an oval cavity, which it lines with silk, and
in this space it coils up to spend the winter. During this
time woodpeckers are of great value to man by seeking for
these caterpillars as they lie under the loose bark and feeding
upon them. When spring comes, the caterpillar changes to a

134

pupa, and by the time the apple blossoms are falling the
moth escapes from the pupa and begins to fly among the trees.
About a week after the petals fall, egg laying begins. The
eggs are tiny white specks, placed singly, either on the fruit,
its stem, or even on some leaf near by, and each moth may
lay from 50 to 75 eggs. About a week later the eggs begin
to hatch, and the little caterpillars crawl to the apples, if
not already on them, and about three-quarters of them pass
to the blossom end. Here they gnaw their way into the
space between the sepals, and begin to feed. After a day or
two each starts in toward the core, around and in which it
feeds till nearly full grown. It now makes a tunnel toward
the surface. Arriving there, it forms an exit hole which it
keeps closed with silken threads mingled with excrement till
it has finished feeding, when it leaves the apple and crawls
down the trunk till it finds a suitable loose piece of bark
beneath which to pupate.

Some of the caterpillars, — perhaps 25 per cent, — how-
ever, do not enter the apple at the blossom end, but at some

scar on the surface, where
a leaf rubs against the
fruit, or elsewhere. For
these after they have once
entered the apple the his-
tory is the same, but the
difference in the place
where they enter makes a
great difference in treat-
ment necessary. In either
case nearly a month is
spent in the fruit, and the
first caterpillars appear to
finish feeding about the
first of July. After
these have gone to the
trunk and pupated, two or three weeks are spent in this con-
dition before the moth appears. Later caterpillars, however,

Codling moth: a, work of caterpillar; h, point of
entrance; d, pupa; e, full-grown caterpillar; /,
g, moth; h, head of caterpillar; i, cocoon.

135 ,

which are not ready to leave the fruit before August, usually
remain in the caterpillar stage under the bark till the follow-
ing spring ; while the moths from the early caterpillars go to
the trees and lay their eggs for a second brood, which works
in the fruit during the fall months. The caterpillars of this
brood pay little attention to the blossom end of the apple, but
enter anywhere, and often do not finish feeding until after
the fruit has been gathered, and are accordingly carried into
the bins or barrels where it is kept, and on leaving the apples
form cocoons in any convenient crevice in which to spend the
winter. How important this second brood is in Massachu-
setts is not known, and the subject is now being investigated.

The entire amount of loss caused by this pest is seldom
appreciated, as many of the apples attacked by the first brood
fall off early, not remaining long enough on the tree to show
what the crop would be. But even of those which remain to
be gathered nearly 40 per cent on an average are wormy,
reducing their value at least one-third. Pears, too, are at-
tacked by this pest, so that in the aggregate the loss is very
great.

To prevent much of this loss, spraying may be made use
of, and at the same time secure protection from various fun-
gous diseases, such as scab and fruit spot. But, in order
to be a success, the proper time must be chosen for the treat-
ment. It has already been stated that a large majority of
the caterpillars of the first brood enter the fruit at the blos-
som end, where nature has provided a little cup in and
around which to place a supply of poison. For about a week
after the petals have fallen the sepals which form the walls
of this cup remain open, but after that time they draw to-
gether, thus closing the opening. Before this happens, the
tree should be thoroughly sprayed in such a manner that
as much of the spray as possible shall fall into and around
this place, so that when the caterpillar comes, its first meal
may be a poisoned one. The best spray to use for this pur-
pose is Bordeaux mixture, to every barrel of which three
pounds of commercial arsenate of lead have been added.

136

thus treating both insects and fungi at the same time. Re-
peating this treatment about the twentieth to the twenty-
fifth of June is also of much assistance, and should not be
omitted.

In this way most of the caterpillars entering the fruit
through the blossom end can be destroyed. But about 25
j)er cent ejiter elsewhere, and for these other methods must
be employed.

As a large number of the small apples which fall are in-
fested, and once on the ground will soon be left by the cater-
pillars, it is important that these apples be picked up and
destroyed, either by hand or by letting fowls or hogs run
freely under the trees. For those caterpillars which leave
the fruit before it falls it is well to scrape the trunks and
large limbs of the trees about the middle of June, to remove
all loose bark beneath which they might pupate, and tie a
strip of burlap around the trunk. Beneath this strip the
caterpillars will gather, and a weekly visit and the destruc-
tion of the caterpillars there, while not saving the fruit they
fed on, will at least reduce the number of these insects, and
be of .value as a protection against later broods.

Spraying twice, burlapping and destroying early falling
fruit are the protective measures to be adopted for this pest.
Kecent experiments in New Hampshire show an average
profit per tree sprayed, over one not sprayed, of $1.25, while
it cost less than 25 cents to spray a tree four times ; and after
deducting one tree's share of one-fifth of the cost of the ap-
paratus used on a hundred trees, the net profit of a sprayed
tree over one not sprayed was about 80 per cent.

These results have been tested in all parts of the country,
and are but little better than the average ; and if this be so,
the question is no longer, " Can I afford to spray ? " but
" Can I afford not to spray ? "

137

Sax Jose Scale.

Another and even more destructive enemy of the fruit
grower is the San Jose scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.)-
Its extremely small size, its marvelously rapid increase in
numbers, its covering of armor which makes destruction so
difficult, and its variety of food plants, combine to render this
a most dangerous foe. It lives not only on the bark, which it
finally covers completely, but it spreads to the fruit, where it
produces unsightly red spots, so injuring its appearance as to
greatly reduce its value for sale.

This scale is now generally present in Massachusetts, and
is rapidly becoming more abundant.

It is one of the most prolific insects known, the descendants
of a single individual under favorable conditions having been
calculated as numbering more than three billions in a single
season ; and as all of these obtain their food from the sap of
the tree, it is not uncommon to see good-sized trees completely
dried up as the result of their presence. They can be de-
stroyed only by sprays which come in actual contact with
their bodies, and strong enough to penetrate the armor which
covers them ; and sprays which can do this are not safe to
use on the trees except during the winter months, while the
trees are not growing. Yet a fruit raiser who understands
the proper method of treatment has no fear of this pest;
and to him, as Mr. J. H. Hale says, it is on the whole a
blessing in disguise, for it means that this pest will destroy
so many of the fruit trees which are not given proper care as
to greatly increase his markets and improve his prices.

Oyster Shell and Scurfy Scales.
Two other scales are also frequently present in the orchard,
and at times may cause trouble. The oyster-shell scale
(Lepidosaphes ulmi L.), being larger than the San Jose
scale, is more frequently noticed and feared by those not
familiar with the subject. But this fear is unnecessary, for
the oyster-shell increases slowly in numbers as compared with
the other, and mild soap washes applied in June are sufficient

138

to hold it in check. The same is true of the scurfy scale
{Chionaspis furfura Fitch), the dirty white color of which
makes it very noticeable. Trees attacked by these scales must
be treated, it is true, but two applications in June should be
amply sufficient to prevent any loss from their ravages.

Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm.
The apple maggot or railroad worm (Rhagoletis pomoiiella
Walsh) is another pest which causes much trouble in Massa-
chusetts. The adult is a fly, smaller than a house fly, with
black bands on its wings, which lays its eggs just under the

Apple maggot: a, adult male fly; 6, adult female fly; c, maggot;
all much enlarged.

skin of the apple. This begins early in July and continues
till late in September, different individuals appearing at dif-
ferent times during this period. The young maggots from
these eggs tunnel in all directions through the fruit, the
earlier tunnels healing and closing up, but later ones re-
maining open and turning brown, while the fruit becomes
soft and worthless. When full grown these maggots leave
the apple and enter the ground, where they pupate an inch
or more below the surface. Sometimes they leave the apples
after these have been gathered, and in such cases pupate on
the bottom of the bin or barrel in which the fruit is stored.

139

The protected life of this pest makes it difficult to combat,
the most exposed period being while it is in the pupal stage.
The plan suggested
for the codling moth,
of gathering and de-
stroying fallen fruit
promptly, and of let-
ting fowls or hogs
run in the orchard,
is also of value for
the railroad worm,
as many of the mag-
gots in the fallen
apples — those leav-
ing it for the ground
and those pupating
in the ground — are
quite certain to be found and eaten by these animals.

Apple, showing work of the maggot.

Apple-tree Boeek.
All parts of trees are attacked by insects, and the apple
tree is no exception to the rule. With the codling moth and
railroad worm injuring the fruit, the scale insects sucking the
sap from the branches and twigs and various other pests con-
suming the leaves, it would seem as though the truuk and
roots at least should in fairness be exempt from injury; but
this is not the case. The apple-tree borer (Saperda Candida
Fabr.) dcA^otes its attention to the trunk near its base, and
is an important foe, particularly in young trees. This beetle,
which is strikingly marked and very noticeable, is rarely
seen, being retiring in its habits. The eggs are laid here
and there on the lower part of the trunk during the summer ;
the borers which hatch bore into the wood, where they make
flat cavities just beneath the bark, which often cracks at such
places, letting the " sawdust " out, and thus showing where
the borers are. The following year the borer makes a regu^
lar tunnel into the wood of the tree, and finally gnaws out to
the bark, only a thin layer of which it leaves in place.

140

Having thus prepared a means of escape for itself, it goes
back in its tunnel a short distance, turns so as to face out-
ward, and changes to a pupa, from which the following June
or July the beetle escapes, follows the tunnel to its end, and,
gnawing aAvay the thin layer of bark, begins its life outside
the tree.

That this insect is capable of causing great damage is
shown by the fact that neglected trees are often completely
girdled by the tunnels of the borers, and are killed ; and even
those not so seriously affected have their bearing power
and general vitality greatly reduced. Yet treatment for
these insects is simple, and takes but little time. In order
to carry out this treatment, it is first necessary to remove
any borers already in the tree; and this should be done in
October, by searching for " sawdusi," and then locating and
killing the borers either with a knife or a pointed wire.
Each tree should then be protected by wire mosquito netting,
placed around the trunk so that it w^ill not touch the trunk
except at the top, about two feet from the ground, where it
should fit tightly enough to prevent the beetle from crawling
down inside. The wire should form the surface of a cone,
the trunk coming up through its center, while the lower edge
of the wire should enter the ground. With wire so placed,
and with no holes in it, the beetles are unable to reach the
lower part of the trunks on which to lay their eggs; and
rather than lay them higher up they will in most cases leave
such trees, and, crossing the line fence, attack the unpro-
tected trees of neighbors. Such a protection will not only
keep out borers for several years before it gives out, but will
protect the trees in winter from the attacks of mice and rab-
bits, while also permitting light and air to reach this portion
of the trunk.

Plant Lice.

During the fall months the fruit grower frequently finds
certain parts of the limbs of his fruit trees more or less cov-
ered with a white wool, beneath which investigation shows
the presence of large numbers of small plant lice (Schizo-
neura lanigera Haus.). These lice suck the sap from the

141

tree, and locate, if possible, where the bark has been broken
or rubbed, it being easier at such places to reach the sap than
elsewhere. This insect is not usually a serious pest in Massa-
chusetts; but as it also works on the roots and may do con-
siderable injury there, its presence on the branches is an
indication that the roots may also be suffering, and should
be examined. To do this, the soil should be carefully re-
moved till enough of the roots is exposed to determine their
condition. If the lice are present, the earth should be re-
moved do^vn to the upper roots for a distance of two feet
from the trunk in all directions, and this area well saturated

Yellow-necked apple-tree caterpillar: a, caterpillar, showing char-
acteristic position when disturbed; h, adult moth; c, cluster
of eggs, natural size; d, side view of one egg much enlarged.

with 15 per cent kerosene emulsion. The earth should then
be put back, and the emulsion left to work through the ground
to the lice.

Yellow-necked Apple-tree Catekpillae.
In August and September caterpillars of various kinds
feed on the apple leaves, often in clusters, and are quite con-
spicuous because of their bright colors. One of these is the
yellow-necked apple-tree caterpillar (Datana minstra Dru).
^Yhen disturbed this caterpillar lifts both ends of its body
at right angles to its middle, assuming a very characteristic
attitude. After feeding till full grown, the caterpillars enter
the ground and pupate, the moths appearing the following
summer.

142

Moth of red-humped apple-
tree caterpillar.

IIed-hu:n[ped Apple-tree Caterpillar.
lu, some eases another kind of caterpillar having similar
habits, and known as the red-humped apple-tree caterpillar

(Schizura roncinna S. &
A.), is met with, also feed-
ing in clusters. Of this,
too, there is but one brood
a year, the moths flying in

Red-humped apple-tree caterpillar. midsUmmer

Such caterpillars as these cause much more apprehension
than is necessary. Their habit of feeding in clusters makes
it easy to remove them by hand ; or
if for any reason this is impossible,
spraying the portion of the tree they
are on with arsenate of lead will
quickly destroy them. But the size
of the clusters and the rapidity wdth
which they will strip a limb are
often the cause of much anxiety to fruit growers who are not
familiar with them.

Bud Moth.

One of our abundant apple pests is the bud moth {Spilo-
nota ocellana Schiff.). Though its work is generally little
noticed, it blighted about 10 per cent of the fruit buds at Am-
herst last spring, besides many of the leaf buds, thus caus-
ing a large reduction of the crop, which was almost entirely
unappreciated, the blossoms failing to develop.

The tiny moths of this insect measure less than an inch
across the expanded wings. They appear in June and July,
and lay their eggs on the leaves, generally singly. About a
week later the eggs hatch, and the little caterpillars attack
ihe leaves they are on, feeding on the epidermis of one side
and the inside cells only, leaving the veins and other surface
entire. Each caterpillar also forms for itself a little tulie
of silk, usually along the midrib of the leaf, and uses this
as its home, leaving it to feed, but returning to it when dis-
turbed. As the caterpillar grows, this tube is enlarged till
it niav become nearlv an inch Ions;.

143

Feeding thus, the caterpillar lives and grows till late in
AugTist or into September, the parts of the leaves which have
been more or less skeletonized in this way turning brown and
becoming noticeable. Late in September or in October, how-
ever, the caterpillar seems to realize that the leaf is no place
on which to remain longer. It accordingly travels to a twig,
where it seeks for some angle or corner, and here it encloses
itself in a little web of silk in which to spend the winter.

When the buds begin to open in the spring, the caterpillars,
now about half grown, leave their winter nests, being about
a quarter of an inch long and dark brown in color. They
pass to the leaf and flower buds, in which they feed, con-
suming the tender leaves or flower buds, and fastening them
together with threads of silk. A caterpillar rarely eats an
entire leaf or flower, but feeds for a time on one, then on
another, thus blighting much more than it actually consumes.
Sometimes it develops a burrowing habit, starting near the
base of the bud and working down in the pith of the twig,
causing the death of the entire tip of the shoot.

Those caterpillars which do not appear in spring till a little
later select well-advanced leaves, the stems of which they
partially cut off so that they wilt. Such leaves are then rolled
up on one side and held by silk threads. In these the cater-
pillars live, and in feeding draw neighboring leaves close and
fasten them together, thus constructing small nests.

The caterpillars feed for nearly tw.o months in the spring
before becoming full grown. When this condition has been
attained, pupation takes place, either in a partially rolled up
leaf, between two or three partially eaten leaves bound to-
gether with silk, or even on a leaf or twig, the cocoon in such
cases being covered with the woolly growth natural to the
smaller twigs or leaf stems. About ten days are spent in the
pupal stage, and then the moth appears, and eggs are laid for
another generation.

The importance of the bud moth as a pest has not been gen-
erally realized by most apple growers, as the estimates of the
crop made are usually either from the abundance of the blos-
soms or from the newlv set fruit, and both of these come after

144

the attacks of the bud moth have caused the blighting of the
blossoms.

To destroy the codling moth, we should spray at such a
time that the first meal of the tiny caterpillar shall be a poi-
soned one. Similarly, to destroy the bud moth the spray
should be applied to the leaf and flower buds shortly before
they open ; and as this is also a proper time to spray for
certain of the fungous diseases, besides aiding somewhat in
the control of the jDlum curculio, which is now paying alto-
gether too much attention to the apples, a spray of Bordeaux
mixture and arsenate of lead, applied to the trees as soon as
the buds are beginning to open well, is necessary. Later in
the season the habits of the bud moth caterpillar are such
as to make it almost impossible to reach them, and this early
spraying is our only method of control which is of much
value.

Canker Worm.
Whether the Prophet Joel, when he wrote, " That which
the palmer-worm hath left, hath the locust eaten; and that
which the locust hath left, hath the canker worm eaten ; and
that which the canker worm hath left, hath the caterpillar
eaten," referred to the canker worm of modern times, is un-
known ; but there are many who can testify that at times the
canker worm has left nothing for the caterpillar to take. For-
tunately, the canker worms are rarely of much importance in

orchards which are care-
fully watched, and even
when abundant they can
easily be held in check, be-
cause of certain peculiari-
ties of their life and
habits.

Both the fall and the
spring canker worm are
found in Massachusetts,
the former being probably the more common, at least in the
eastern part of the State. The caterpillar in both species is

Fall canker worm: a, side view of single egg;
6, top view of same; e, egg mass, natural
size; /, full-grown caterpillar; c, d, g, h,
structural detaUs.

145

what is commonly called an " incliworm ; " in both it leaves
the tree when through feeding, and changes to the adult moth
in the ground ; in both the female moth is without wings ; in
both the eggs are laid on the twigs of the trees ; and finally,
both the caterpillars feed at the same time of year. Here,
however, the resemblance ends.

#?5^

S«5--.

Fall Canker Worm.
The fall canker worm (Alsophila 'pometaria Harr.) ap-
pears late in the fall, coming out of the ground; and the
wingless females crawl up the trees to the smaller limbs,
where the eggs are laid in clusters. In the spring these eggs
hatch, producing tiny
" inchworms," which
feed on the leaves till
full grown, this condi-
tion being reached in
June. They then crawl
down the tree or spin
down a thread to the ground, where a few inches below the
surface they pupate. Here they remain till the approach of
cold weather, when the insects, now in the moth stage, leave
the ground and pass to the trees to lay the eggs for the gen-
eration of the following year.

:rM.

^3.

Fall canker worm: a, male moth; h, female
moth; c,d, structural details.

Spring Canher Worm.
In the case of the spring canker worm (Paleacrita vernata
Peck.) the moths do not appear in
the fall, but during the first warm
days in March and April ; and, like
the others, the females crawl up the
trees to lay their eggs on the twigs,
and it is possible that a cluster of
freshly laid eggs of the spring
canker worm may be placed close
beside a cluster of eggs of the fall

Spring canker worm: a, fuU-
grown caterpillar; b, en-
larged egg, and part of a
mass, natural size; c, d,
structural details.

canker worm which have been there all winter.

The eggs

146

of both kinds will hatch at about the same time, however,
and their feeding will also be completed at about the same

period; but, while the
spring canker worm will
then remain in the
ground till the following
spring, the fall canker

Springcanker worm: a, male moth; 6, female WOmi will Spend but a
moth: c.rf.e. structural details. f^^ mOUths there, tllC

winter being passed in the egg on the twigs.

From the above it is evident that any treatment which will
prevent the wingless female from ascending the tree to lay
her eggs will be successful, and for this purpose sticky bands
and metal deflectors are much used. It is essential that no
space should be left through which the insect may crawl
above the protector, and the bands must not be allowed to
dry. For this last reason tar and printer's ink, which were
formerly much used, are now being abandoned in favor of
tree tanglefoot, while the metal deflectors, which are hard to
fit closely to irregular trunks and frequently get out of order,
besides being quite expensive, are also disappearing.

The time at which the band should be applied depends
upon the species of canker worm for which it is used. As
the fall canker worm moth crawls up the trees in October
and lv[ovember, the bands should be put on about the first of
October and be kept sticky till about Thanksgiving time.
For the spring canker worm they should be applied about
the first of March and 1)0 kept in eft'ective condition till the
end of April.

In case the fruit grower is unaware of the presence of
these insects until they have begun their feeding on the
leaves, spraying with arsenate of lead will quickly check
their ravages ; and, as the spraying for the codling moth will
have been recently made, both insects will be reached by the
snme application.

147

HlCKOKY TiGEK MoTH.

During the present year the caterpillars of the hiekorv
tiger moth {Halisldota caryoe Harr.) have been unusually
abundant. Their contrasting colors attract attention against
a background of green leaves, and their size when full grown
is such that they can consume
a considerable amount of
food. They feed ordinarily
on the hickory, walnut, elm
and other shade and forest
trees, but at times are quite Hickory uger moth,

abundant in orchards, particularly on the plum trees. The
moths appear in June, but, as they fly only at night, are not
often seen. The eggs are laid in clusters on the under side
of the leaves, and the caterpillars at first feed together, but
as they grow older scatter in different directions and often
to other trees. They become full grown in September, and
then seek for sheltered places, where they sj)in their cocoons
in which to spend the winter and following spring till it is
time for the moths to appear.

The presence of the caterpillars of this insect is not often
of any great importance ; but when they become so abundant
as to defoliate a tree to any great extent, it is well to check
their ravages either by a little hand picking or by spraying
with arsenate of lead, which will quickly destroy them.

Pear Psylla.
The San Jose scale, codling moth, canker worms, bud moth
and several others of the insects already considered are as
likely to be found on the pear as on the apple, but the pear
psylla (Psylla pijricola Forst.) appears to depend almost ex-
clusively upon the pear for its food. This tiny insect, less
than a sixteenth of an inch long, and without colors to make
it conspicuous, may be abundant in a pear orchard long
enough to make its presence seriously felt, and even to cause
the death of the trees, without its presence being suspected

148

unless the owner is on the watch for it. It was probably
brought to Connecticut from Europe on an importation of
young pear trees in 1832, since which time it has spread
everywhere through ISTew England and as far west as Mich-
igan and Illinois.

The insect passes the winter in the winged adult condition,
hiding under loose pieces of bark, in crevices, or anywhere it
can find protection. After a few warm days in spring the
eggs are laid, chiefly near where the leaves of the previous
year had been attached to the twigs, and in creases on the
bark. The eggs, which are orange yellow at first, are at-
tached to the tree by a short stalk, and are so small that
eighty would need to be placed end to end to measure an inch.

The length of time spent in the egg is dependent upon the
Aveather. If this be warm, the eggs may hatch in two weeks ;
but if it be cold, the young may not appear for over a month.
When they do appear, however, they crawl to some suitable
place and begin to suck the sap from the tree, seeming to
prefer the angles between the leaf and fruit stems and the
twigs to which these are attached ; and as larger numbers ap-
pear later in the season they " overflow " from these places
to the under side of the leaves and on the leaf stalks. While
feeding, the young produce quantities of a sweetish, sticky
fluid called " honey dew," which drops onto stems, leaves or
the ground beneath the tree, and gradually dries. Ants,
wasps and bees find this material much to their taste, and
gather in large numbers to feed upon it. In some cases
when the psylla is particularly abundant such quantities of
honey dew are produced that it falls like a fine rain, and in
any case when it dries it forms an ideal place in which a
black, sooty fungus may grow, and this gradually turns such
places black, and gives the leaves and twigs the appearance
of having been covered with soot. This fungus does not
itself attack the tree, but where it is present it and the honey
dew close up many of the openings through which the tree
obtains its air, and thus indirectly affect its health.

The young psyllas suck the juices from the tree, and molt
several times during their growth as their skins become too

149

small, and after about a month at one of these molts the
adult insect is produced. Egg laying for another brood now
follows, and the eggs hatch in eight or ten days, because of
the warmer weather which has now arrived. About a month
later the adults of this brood appear, and we may have as
many as four broods in Massachusetts before winter puts
a stop to this process.

The effect of the feeding of these little pests upon the
trees is to a large degree dependent upon their abundance.
In general, trees attacked fail to make much new growth,
but remain at a standstill. The quantity of fruit produced
and its size are also determined to some extent in this way,
while in severe cases the leaves turn yellow, the fruit drops
from the trees when partly grown, and many of the buds
die. In one case, where a pear orchard in the spring prom-
ised a yield of about twelve hundred barrels, the actual yield
was less than a hundred.

[Numerous methods for the control of this insect have been
tested, but only one has given satisfaction, and this is kero-
sene emulsion. About the 15th or 20th of May, or as soon as
the leaves are well expanded and the young have begun their
work, one part of kerosene emulsion diluted with twenty-five
parts of water, applied with a nozzle which will give a fine
mist, has proved very effective against all the young psyllas
it reaches ; and when a thorough application has been made
at this time, the later broods are so small that they may
safely be neglected. Where this treatment can be given soon
after a heavy rain, the results are better than is otherwise
the case, the rain washing off much of the honey dew, which,
when it is abundant, somewhat interferes with the best re-
sults of spraying in this way.

Peach Bokek.
Every one who has attempted to raise peaches has had an
unpleasant experience with the peach borer (Sanninoidea
exitiosa Say) ; but few are aware that the adult of this borer
is a pretty moth so closely resembling a wasp that De Geer
wrote of it nearlv a centurv and a half aijo: "When I saw

150

the moth for the first time, I dared not take it with the naked
hand, so sure was I that it was a wasp."

These moths begin to appear about the tenth of July in
Massachusetts, but specimens are often observed as late as
September, indicating that different individuals appear dur-
ing quite a long period. They fly freely during the daytime,
in this regard departing from the habits of most moths, and
adopting those of the wasps they so closely resemble.

The eggs of the peach borer are laid during July, August,
and perhaps in the early part of September, on the trunks of
the trees. As a rule, they are laid singly and on the lower
two feet, though in some cases they may be placed higher,
and no particular place is selected for their deposition.
They hatch in a week or ten days, and the borer at once works
its way into the bark, but seems to try to reach the base of
the tree for this purpose. During the fall it feeds on the
inner bark till cold weather approaches, when it becomes
quiet either where it fed or beneath a thin covering it pre-
pares on the outside of the bark near the ground. In the
spring feeding is resumed, and most of the borers become
full grown in June. They then leave the tree, and at its
base spin brown cocoons within which the borer changes to
the moth, this change requiring about three weeks. At the
end of this period the end of the cocoon is broken open and
the moth escapes, leaving its empty case behind.

The work of the borer in the tree is very noticeable after
a little time, quantities of gum being poured out from the
wounds ; and the presence of this gum at the base of the
trunk or elsewhere is of itself sufficient to lead to the sus-
picion that borers are at work there. In such cases the gum
should be scraped away, all splits or openings in the bark
investigated with a knife, and any borers found in this way
should of course be destroyed.

Various methods for protecting the trees from this pest
have been tested with varying but usually unsatisfactory'
results, and the best treatments now known are cutting out
the borers about the first of May, then mounding up the earth

151

around the trunk to the height of about eighteen inches early
in June, and leaving this mound till the end of September.

In just what way this mounding prevents the attacks of
the borer is unknown, but in such trees their numbers are
greatly reduced, and when combined with cutting out in the
spring excellent results are obtained.

But peach trees should not be the only ones watched for
this insect, as it also attacks plums and cherries; and these
also should therefore be examined every spring, and any
borers found in them be destroyed, to prevent the peach
orchard being annually restocked with this pest.

Plum Cukculio.

Every plant has its insect enemies, but, though the number
of these differs with different plants, in each case one or two
are of prime importance. It is probable that nine out of
every ten fruit growers, if asked to name the most serious
foes of the apple, pear, peach and plmn respectively, would
agree upon the San Jose scale; and after this would select
the codling moth for the apple, the pear psylla for the pear,
the borer for the peach and the curculio for the plum. Yet
it is doubtful if more than two or three of the nine persons
making this selection would know the adult plum curculio
if they saw it. Its small size, its inconspicuous colors and its
habits combine to aid it in escaping notice, but the work
it does makes this pest an important one.

The plum curculio {Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.) is
a small snout beetle, one of a group containing many im-
portant pests, among them being the cotton boll weevil of the
south. It appears in early spring soon after the buds open,
coming from the protected hiding places in which it has
spent the winter months, and, flying to the plum trees, feeds
to some extent upon the tender leaves while waiting for the
fruit to grow. When this has taken place the beetles pass
to the little plums, and here and there deposit their eggs.
This process is at least suggestive of the exercise of some in-

152

telligence. The beetle, having selected the spot where an egg

is to be placed, attacks the plum at that spot with its snout,

working this in until a hole has been made, and at the bottom

of the hole deposits an egg. This egg is

very small and also very delicate, while

the flesh of the plum at this time is very

firm, and as the fruit grows rapidly the

hole would soon close up and the egg

would be crushed if the process ended

Plum ourcuiio. ^^ ^j^-^ ^^-^^^^ rj.^^ curcullo Rppcars to

appreciate this, and to prevent such a result at once proceeds
to cut a slit like a crescent in the plum close by the egg.
The flesh of the fruit between the hole and the slit is in this
way so far cut off from the remainder of the plum that in-
stead of remaining hard it wilts and becomes soft, and in
this way all pressure and consequent crushing of the egg
is prevented. After an egg has thus been deposited and pro-
tected from destruction the beetle moves off to repeat the
process elsewhere, each female laying from 50 to 100 eggs.

The eggs hatch in a week or so, and each little grub thus
produced works into the plum till it reaches the stone,
around which it feeds until it has reached its full size, which
usually requires about three weeks. During this period the
puncture and slit on the surface have nearly always become
at least partly covered by gum which has escaped from these
places, the gum accordingly marking where the curculio has
been at work ; while the feeding of the grvib around the stone
very often injures the plum so that it falls off at about this
time.

This dropping of infested plums is very convenient for the
grubs in them, for when these are full grown they generally
find themselves on the ground with the fruit, which they now
leave, working their way into the soil a short distance, where
they pupate and after about a month reappear, now as the
adult beetle. If the plum has not fallen the same thing hap-
pens, except that the grub falls alone instead of inside the
fruit. How the adult beetles pass the fall is not known, but,
as they are not noticed on the trees at this time except per-

153

haps for a few belated individuals of the first brood, it is not
probable that they are doing much injury except where they
puncture apples for food. When cold weather comes it seems
certain that they find hiding places to spend the winter.

During years when these insects are abundant, 70, 80 or
even 90 per cent of the plums may be destroyed or injured
by their attacks. I^ot satisfied with this, they puncture cher-
ries and apples also; and recently their work on the latter
fruit has become so marked that the plum curculio is now
considered quite an important apple pest. It lays its eggs
in the fruit, causing many apples to fall off early, and the
beetles which are produced in the summer also feed upon
them, producing unsightly blemishes which seriously reduce
their value.

"No one method of treatment will suffice for this pest.
Spraying with the arsenate of lead just before the blossoms
open gives good results, as the leaves, upon which the beetles
feed more or less while waiting for the fruit to form, will
thus be covered with poison. In the case of the apple this
treatment combined with Bordeaux mixture has already been
advised for the bud moth, so it is not in reality an addition
to the treatments. A second spraying after the blossoms fall
should also be given, and has already been advised for the
control of the codling moth ; and the second spraying for this
pest will also help control the curculio.

It is very possible, however, that these treatments may be
only partially successful because of rainy weather, and it is
often desirable to resort to the " curculio catcher." This is
practically a large frame covered with white cloth, placed
beneath the tree, which is then suddenly jarred. During the
greater part of the day and even during the warm nights the
curculios fly quite freely, but for some reason they are very
sluggish early in the morning and about sunset. At such
times they will fall from a jarred tree without taking flight,
and may easily be gathered from the cloth beneath and
crushed.

As many of the grubs fall to the ground in the fruit, and
all of them enter the ground to pupate, fowls and hogs per-

154

mitted to run through the orchard, as was suggested for the
apple maggot, will destroy large numbers of these insects ;
and spraying, jarring and the utilization of these animals
will, taken together, be an effective check ujion the ravages
of the plum curculio.

iimmKmi^

White-marked tussock moth: a, caterpillar; b, female pupa; c, male pupa; d, male
moth; e, same, wings spread; /, female moth; g, female moth on cocoon; h, egg
mass with froth over it; i, cocoons on tree trunk; k, same, showing females and
egg masses also; all slightly enlarged.

Tussock Moth.
The fruit grower who examines his trees during the win-
ter months will frequently notice a dead leaf still adhering
to some twig, and this should at once arouse his suspicions
that insects are present. Sometimes the leaf is one which
has for some reason retained its normal attachment to the

155

tree; but an examination will usually show that it has been
fastened in its position by silk threads, and that a cluster of
eggs is also present. If the eggs are in plain sight, they are
probably those of the old tussock moth (Notolophus anti-
quus L.). If only a hard white crust shows, however, in
which the eggs are concealed, this is an egg cluster of the
white-marked tussock moth (Hemerocampa leucostigma
S. & A.). Both of these insects are quite general feeders,
but are often found on fruit trees ; and their egg clusters are
frequently mistaken for those of the gypsy moth.

White-marked Tussock Moth.

The eggs of the white-marked tussock moth are laid in the
fall, often on twigs, but perhaps more frequently on the
trunk or limbs of the tree on the old cocoons from which
the female moths have escaped. The eggs are covered with
a white froth which rapidly hardens, forming a crust which
entirely conceals the eggs, but which is itself very conspicu-
ous. The winter is passed in this condition, the eggs hatch
in the spring, and the caterpillars feed upon the leaves until
they are full grown, this condition being reached sometime
about the middle or end of June. They now spin their co-
coons on the trunk, limbs or twigs, and in this stage remain
for two or three weeks, at the end of which time the moths
escape.

The male moth is winged, and flies freely ; but the female,
being wingless, remains on the cocoon from which she es-
caped, and on this cocoon lays her eggs for a second brood,
covering them with white froth, and dies upon the completion
of this process.

The eggs thus laid soon hatch, and the caterpillars feed
till the middle of August, when they also form cocoons, from
which the second brood of moths escapes about the end of
the month. Egg laying then follows as before, but these eggs
do not hatch till the following spring. Frequently in Massa-
chusetts these times of change come a little later, and the
eggs laid in summer do not hatch until the following spring,
giving us one brood a year instead of two.

156

Old Tussock Moth.

The life of the old tussock moth is so similar to this that
it need not be outlined; but the caterpillar, though bearing
the tufts or tussocks which have given these insects their
name, is quite different, its color being more quiet and ren-
dering the insect less noticeable.

Destruction of the egg masses by hand is generally easy
as a method for the control of the tussock moths, and, as they
remain on the trees from September until the following
spring, there is plenty of time available for their removal.
If the insects are first noticed while feeding, however, the
sprays of the codling moth should prove entirely efficient to
hold them in check, and it is only where neglect prevails that
the tussock moths are of much importance for any length of
time.

Summary-.
Though eighteen insect enemies of our fruit trees have
just been considered more or less in detail, these form but
a small part of the total number of the foes the fruit grower
has to meet. Nearly four hundred different kinds of pests
may feed upon the apple, while the pear, plum, peach and
the other fruit trees all have their share. That this alone
should discourage the fruit grower is but natural, but a little
consideration will show that each treatment is effective for
several different insects. Bringing these together it becomes
evident that for the apple spraying with arsenate of lead
and Bordeaux mixture just before the blossoms open, again
a little less than a week after they have fallen and again
about two weeks later, should give a large measure of relief
from most of the important pests except scale insects ; while
for these one winter wash of the lime and sulphur mixture
thoroughly applied will be sufficient to check the San Jose
scale, and a mild soap wash in June should accomplish the
same result for the others. And if it still seems as though
the odds are against the fruit grower in Massachusetts, we
must remember that equally serious foes, most of them the

157

same, occur in the west, but do not prevent the man who
means business from raising his fruit, shipping it to the east
at high cost and selling it at high prices. The Kansas, Iowa
and Oregon fruit growers have few advantages over those of
Massachusetts; while the latter have home markets, cheap
freights and a climate and soil not excelled anywhere in the
world for this purpose. The real difference to-day is that
the western fruit sold here and exported is produced by
business men who are in this business for every cent it is
worth, who apply business methods to every part of their
work, and who propose to furnish the finest fruit for the
highest prices. How long this shall continue depends en-
tirely upon the ability, energy and enterprise of the Massa-
chusetts farmer.

158

THE STOKAGE OF APPLES.

F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF P03I0L0GY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS.

To anj one wJio will study the orchard industry of New
England to-day, it is very evident that few branches of the
business stand in greater need of improvement than our
storage facilities. We have made and are making great
advances in the growing of apples ; there has been a marked
improvement in the packing of our apples (largely through
the influence of the New England fruit shows) ; and our
marketing methods are developing every year ; but in storage
facilities and methods there has been little advance and less
study. The writer is glad to see that the State Board of
Agriculture is disposed to begin a campaign for better stor-
age. We surely need it.

The chief advantages of good storage facilities, looking at
the problem from the standpoint of the growers, are : —

First, that it makes the orchardist relatively independent
when it comes to selling his crop. If the buyer knows that
the grower has no satisfactory place to store his apples, he
will naturally hold back in the hope that the need of a prompt
sale will lower the owner's notion of what his apples are
worth. On the other hand, if both buyer and seller realize
that the apples are safe, that there is no need of haste in
disposing of them, the price is far more likely to be a reason-
ably profitable one to the man who grew the fruit. In fact,
good storage facilities put the transaction on the ideal plane,
— perfect equality of buyer and seller. If they can agree
on a price, well and good ; if not, the apples can stay where
they are. This comfortable feeling of independence is worth
to the orchardist all that the storage will cost, and he gets
his additional price as a clear profit.

159

Second, better storage will, of course, keep the fruit in
better condition, and it will therefore sell for more when it
is disposed of.

Third, the consumer will be better pleased with what he
gets and will be more likely to want another barrel. Every
business man realizes that there is no advertisement like a
pleased customer, and the difference between a crisp, juicy,
well-kept apple and one which is simply sound must be ap-
preciated. In the one case you want to eat another apple
at once ; in the other, you don't care how long you go without
another !

And fourth, good storage delays the marketing of the
apples and so improves the price. Baldwins, for example,
are almost certain to be higher in December than they are
in October, and higher in February than they are in Decem-
ber. I^othing is more demoralizing to prices than to have
good stock forced into competition with the windfalls and
other poor stuff which is pushed onto the market in the
autumn.

In considering this question of the proper storage for
apples we ought to keep in mind the fact that the ordinary
function of a storage plant is to hold in check the ordinary
life processes in the apple. These processes are always ac-
celerated when the fruit is picked from the tree, and they
end (so far as we are interested in them) when the apple
becomes unpalatable. The very low temperature of the re-
frigerated room allows these life processes to proceed, but
at the very lowest rate, and as the temperature rises the
rate increases.

The ideal storage ought to have the following points em-
phasized : —

First, a relatively low temperature. So far as I am aware
the exact temperature at which apples will freeze has not
been determined, but it is probably somewhere below 28
degrees Fahrenheit. The ideal temperature for the storage
of apples is probably from 30 to 32 degrees, but with good
fruit very satisfactory results can be secured at 3.5 or 36
degrees.

Second, a constant temperature. Where the insulation of

160

the storage room is poor, the temperature, of course, rises
and falls with the temperature of the outside air, and this
is one of the chief objections to storing apples in ordinary
cellars and rooms which are poorly insulated. The speaker
once had experience with a storage room in which it was
necessary to use an oil stove to keep the fruit from freezing
during severe weather. As it was unsafe to keep this stove
lighted at night, the temperature of the room would fall to
nearly freezing by morning ; then the stove would be started
and the temperature would rise to nearly 60 degrees by
night. The result was that the apples kept very poorly. The
next year we put in furring strips along the walls and lined
the room throughout with building paper, and the result was
that with this improved insulation we could hold the tem-
perature almost constant, even in severe weather, and our
apples kept splendidly.

Third, the apple storage ought to have a relatively high
degree of moisture. Just what this per cent is the speaker
is not prepared to say. Mr. Madison Cooper, a recognized
expert on such matters, gives 80 per cent as about right.
What the speaker does know is, that in the Annapolis Valley,
ITova Scotia, two growers who were especially successful in
keeping their apples employed the following methods: one
had a stream of water running through the storage room,
and the other was in the habit of wetting down the storage-
house floor (and even barrels in which Russets were stored)
with the hose.

Fourth, the storage must be convenient for getting the
fruit in and out. Few growers realize bow much time is
consumed in getting the apples into the storage, where they
must be carried, one barrel at a time, down the cellar stairs.
An elevator is usually the best method to use, though some-
times the barrels or boxes may be slid down an outside
hatchway.

Fifth, the building must be reasonable in price. Just
what constitutes a reasonable price of course varies. The
cost will also vary with different localities, and the price
that a grower can afford to pay and still make a profit will
vary. But if an orchardist expects to store his apples in a

161

refrigerated building he can probably put up his own, if he
is a large grower, cheaper than he can rent space in a com-
mercial house. The usual price for the storage of a barrel
of apples during the season is 40 to 50 cents. Assuming
that a man is growing 1,000 barrels of apples he would pay
$500 for storage, which is 5 per cent on $10,000. Now it is
■usually considered that a refrigerated plant can be put up
for from $2.50 to $.3,50 per barrel capacity, so that the
man who is raising 1,000 barrels and putting them in cold
storage is paying the interest on a plant that would store
from 2,000 to 4,000 barrels.

Sixth and lastly, the plant must be operated cheaply. I
propose to tell you wliat our college plant has cost. Others
will vary of course, but to be profitable the plant mtist be
reasonable in running expenses.

For our purpose this morning we may classify apple stor-
age under three heads : —

1. What is ordinarily known as " frost-proof storage,"
where the temperature of the outside air is depended upon
to bring the temperature of the room down to the desired
point.

2. Eefrigerated storage, in which the " cold " is produced
by means of ammonia or some other gas.

3. Refrigerated storage, in which the " cold " is produced
by ice.

The writer believes that all three of these systems are
adapted to the fruit business, but especially the first and
last ; and as the college has recently installed a plant in which
there is a combination of these two methods, it is proposed
to spend a little time in discussing them.

The " frost-proof " section of our building includes three
large rooms, with a combined capacity of some 2,000 barrels.
The windows are equipped with heavy insulated shutters
which may be easily closed when desired, and our method
of handling the rooms is to start in the autumn and keep
the windows open whenever the outside air is colder than
that in the room. As soon as the outside temperature goes
up the windows are promptly closed, and by careful attention
to this plan the temperature may be forced down to a reason-

162

ably low point surprisingly early in the season. At the pres-
ent time the temperature stands at 36 degi'ees in our large
room, which is a good storage temperature, though of course
not as good as 32 degrees; and it must be remembered that
we have had relatively little cold weather this season during
which the temperature in the room could be lowered. Last
winter the temperature in this room on the 10th of January
was 32 degrees, and it had risen only to 38 degrees on April
1. This is an extremely good record, and while it is not
equal to a refrigerated room in which the temperature can
be kept at 32 degrees without any variation at all, it cer-
tainly does keep apples well. For good, sound fruit of the
late-keeping varieties, like the Baldwin and Spy, I believe
that it has a distinct place of its own and a very useful place,
and I believe, further, that any farm storage ought to include
some rooms which are handled in this way, for it is, of
course, much cheaper than refrigerated storage.

The balance of our rooms are refrigerated with what is
known as the " gravity brine system," a patented method of
refrigeration. For each room to be refrigerated there is
located in the attic, or penthouse, a small vat or bunker lined
with galvanized iron, in which is located a coil of pipes
filled with a brine made by dissolving calcium chloride in
water. This brine is made to test about 25 degrees on the
Beaume scale, or about 4 pounds of the calcium chloride to
1 gallon of water. This makes a brine which will withstand
a temperature of 10 degrees below zero without freezing.
This coil of pipes in the vat (knovsru technically as the
" primary coil ") is connected by two pipes (a " flow " and a
" return ") with a similar coil (known technically as the
" secondary coil ") in the room below, which is to be cooled.
This secondary coil is hung from the ceiling of the room,
either in a single section against one wall, in small rooms,
or in several sections distributed through the room, in larger
rooms. The flow of the brine in the pipes is controlled
by suitable valves in the rooms to be refrigerated. When it
is desired to cool one of the rooms, the connected bunker in
the attic is filled with a mixture of broken ice and salt, using
a coarse salt with particles the size of the end of one's little

163

finger. The ice is broken up in the ice room and hoisted to
the attic in a large bucket holding some 400 or 500 pounds.
This bucket, filled with ice, is then run along on a track
(which extends the whole length of the penthouse) until it
stands directly over the bunker to be filled, when it is tipped
and the ice dumped into the bunker. Salt is then thrown in
on top of this ice, another bucket of ice is put in, followed by
more salt, and so on till the bunker is full. The amount of
salt used varies with the temperature desired and with the
outside temperature. It will ordinarily run about 5 to 8
quarts to each bucket of 400 pounds of ice. If at one icing
6 quarts of salt have been used and the temperature has not
run quite low enough, more salt is used at the next icing.
The temperature is also regulated by the valves located in
the storage rooms which control the flow. If more " cold "
is desired these valves are opened; if less, they are closed.
With a little experience the system can be run very easily
and very accurately. In our college plant the work is prac-
tically all done by the ordinary day laborer of the depart-
ment. The foreman merely keeps track of the temperature
from day to day, and gives directions as to the quantity of
salt.

As to the working of the system, it is exactly the reverse
of the ordinary hot-water heating system used in dwelling
houses. In the latter the furnace is located in the cellar
and heats the water, thereby rendering it lighter. This light-
weight hot water then flows out through certain pipes and is
replaced by the heavier cold water which comes down through
other pipes from the rooms above, where it has been cooled
off, or, in other words, where it has heated the air of the
rooms. IJ^ow in this gravity-brine system the brine is cooled
by the ice and salt in the bunkers and is thereby rendered
heavier. It therefore flows down, and by its greater weight
forces out the warmer brine in the secondary coils of the
storage room, and is itself warmed up by absorbing the heat
of the room and its contents. The frequency with which
icing is required depends on the outside temperature, on the
temperature desired in the rooms, and also on the frequency

164

with which new, and therefore warm, fruit is brought into
the room. When the same fruit stands in the rooms for a
long time it may not be necessary to ice more than once a
week even in fairly warm weather. Where fruit is con-
stantly being brought in and taken out again for shipment,
it will usually be necessary to ice daily. On the other hand,
it ought to be iced every day in warm weather (possibly
twice a day in very warm weather) and every other day
during autumn weather.

The great advantages of this system as thus far developed
here at the college are the cheapness with which it can be
run, requiring no high-priced engineers; the fact that any
one of the rooms may be run without the others, thereby
reducing the cost proportionately; the fact that there is no
costly machinery to get out of order and cause large repair
bills, and, most of all, the fact that it works satisfactorily, —
that it " delivers the goods." Of course, it is especially
adapted to those sections where natural ice may be secured.

The cost of ice will vary greatly according to the dis-
tance it has to be hauled, what the cost of labor is, and what,
if anything, has to be paid for the ice. In filling our ice
room at the college this year we put in approximately 250
tons, and the cost was as follows : —

Two men Avith double teams, eleven days, at $4.50 per day

per team, $99 00

Two men stowing ice, twelve days, at $1.75, . . . 42 00

lee, 28 00

Total $169 GO

We have two refrigerated rooms of a capacity of 80 and
275 barrels, respectively, which we usually operate together.
It takes two men from an hour and a half to two hours to ice
these two tanks.

I want to close this paper with a short discussion of some
of the factors which' influence the keeping of apples in stor-
age, for while a good storage house is very important, it
must not be expected that it will take the place of care and
proper methods in the growing and handling of the fruit.

165

1. I believe that bv all means the most important single
factor is the careful handling of the apples from the time
they leave the tree until they are sent to the consumer. This
would include, especially, care in picking, in packing and
in handling the packages. In picking, the apples ought never
to be tossed into the basket, and if they are poured into the
box or barrel (which I believe ought not to be done with
really choice fruit) the greatest care should be exercised to
prevent bruising. In Hood River, Ore., I was told that they
use galvanized pails for picking because the smooth, rigid
surface does not bruise the apples, and because the picker
who tosses the fruit into the pail can be located easily by the
noise he makes. I believe that we might adopt the pail here
to advantage. We certainly ought to banish the bag as a
picking receptacle. In packing, the apples ought never to
be handled roughly. The speaker recently saw one of our
good orchardists packing apples in barrels. He had a pack-
ing table with a small opening at one end. A barrel was
placed under this opening and the apples were allowed to
drop from the table into the barrel. How many of them
do you suppose escaped serious bruising? In one of our
best orchard sections this autumn a large part of the fruit
was bought by a dealer who used large slatted crates which
held a barrel. The apples were hauled to the car in open
barrels, the crates placed in position, and the apples poured
into them like so many potatoes and the slatted cover nailed
on. The speaker took the pains to examine one of these crates.
On pressing one of the slats away from the fruit every apple
which touched the comer of the slat was found to have a
long bruise with the skin broken. These apples were going
into storage and were eventually destined for the I^ew York
market. How well do you imagine they kept? And how
much did they increase the demand for apples ?

These are merely some isolated cases that have recently
come to the speaker's notice. Hundreds more might be easily
cited. This matter of careful handling has been dwelt upon
because it is the all-important factor.

Some recent investigations by the United States Depart-

166

ment of Agriculture on oranges have shown that while fruit
carefully picked and packed gave only 2 per cent of decay
at the end of three weeks after arrival, that taken from the
ordinary commercial picking and packing showed • 16 per
cent.

2. The second important factor is delay in getting the'
fruit into storage. This factor applies especially to fruit
which is to go into refrigerated storage. As before suggested,
the life processes are accelerated as soon as the fruit is
picked if it remains at an ordinary temperature. It ought,
therefore, to be hustled into the coldest storage available.
If " frost-proof " storage is used the temperature ought to
be brought down as rapidly as possible in the autumn, so as
to be ready for the apples as they are picked. Of course
this damage from delay is more serious when the autumn
is warm. Powell states that Rhode Island Greenings, Kings
and Suttons, picked September 15 and stored within three
days, kept in good condition till March, while the same vari-
eties handled in the same way, but not put in storage for two
weeks, were badly decayed by January 1. Their commercial
value was injured from 40 to 70 per cent by the delay.

3. Fungous diseases stand third among the factors in-
fluencing the keeping of apples. The most serious of these
are the molds and apple scab which develop very rapidly
under favorable temperature conditions. Molds cannot gain
entrance to sound fruit and scab can, of course, be controlled
by spraying. But we all know that it frequently isnt^ so that
these fungous troubles become a serious menace when either
the conditions of the fruit or the storage are not good.

4. Maturity of the fruit when picked. There is no ques-
tion but that this exercises a very decided influence on the
keeping of apples but just what degree of maturity is best
has not yet been determined. There is a very general im-
pression that the longer apples are to be kept the greener
they ought to be when picked, but this is certainly a mis-
take. As nearly as one can give a general rule, it is probably
safe to say that apples will keep longest if picked when they
are fully matured and well colored, but while they are still

167

firm in flcsli. It would seem that it ougiit to be possible to
tell beforehand the approximate date at which the different
varieties of apples should be picked by knowing the mean
temperature of the growing season, and our department is
working on this problem at the present time.

5. There is no question that soil and cultural conditions
exert a very profound influence on the keeping of apples. A
light soil will give fruit of poorer keeping qualities than a
heavier soil, and apples from a cultivated orchard are liable
not to keep so well as the smaller and firmer fleghed apples
from sod orchards.

6. The type of package used will certainly exercise a
decided influence on the keeping of the apples. The writer
believes that the ideal storage package is a tight bushel box
with a tight cover, or so arranged that one box covers the
one below it. When barrels are used in comparison with
boxes it will almost always be found that the greater mass
of fruit in the barrel, generating, as it does, more heat and
having greater iveight, will not keep as well as the same fruit
in a box, and for apples the ventilated package is certainly
not as good as the closed one.

7. Lastly, a wraj) will certainly help to prolong the life
of the apple. The speaker has frequently kept Baldwins in
ordinary storage in prime condition up to May by wrapping
each apple in paper.

There are still many storage problems left to solve, —
what type of storage shall it be; shall it be located in the
orchard section or in the city ; shall it be a large central plant
or smaller ones on the farm ? But this much is settled defi-
nitely in the speaker's mind, that some type of modern stor-
age, at least part of it refrigerated, is a prime necessity if our
orchard men are to get the most out of their crops.

Mr. Trult.. I know we have all enjoyed the paper from
the attention I have seen you give it. Professor Sears will
be glad to answer any questions.

Mr. Abner Towne. Would it be practicable for a neigh-
borhood or a community to unite and have a common storage
plant ?

168

Professor Sears. That is a point which, I neglected to
touch upon. It is the practicable solution of this question,
where you have a neighborhood with a common interest.
When in any section there are a number of men interested,
we ought to get some type of storage plant started. It is
only the large gi'owers who can afford to establish such a
plant individually.

Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler. I would like to inquire about
a style of storage which I think is of importance. This is
what you might call ordinary ice-house storage. There
are several modifications of this, and the most common one
that I have in mind is where the ice chamber is high up in
the air and a good-sized room is located directly under it;
there is another type where the storage room is built inside
the ice house and ice packed all around it. I have several
of these types in mind, and I think they make a fairly good
sort of storage. I would like to ask Professor Sears what
he thinks of that type of house.

Professor Sears. Mr. Chairman, I am glad that Mr.
Wheeler raised that question. I had a little personal ex-
perience with one, the type where you have ice storage over-
head. I think it is all right and will give pretty good storage
facilities; but from my experience, which is rather limited,
it is rather hard on the ice supply. We had one at the college
and the ice usually gave out about the time we needed it the
most. If a man had a better type of building and more ice
he would get around that difiiculty. I think it is a little
wasteful of ice, but there is no question about its being effi-
cient if you have a good building, and I presume that if one
had his own ice pond, and the ice wasn't costing much, it
would be very satisfactory.

Mr. Wheeler. Would you break up the ice in the tank
of your storage house or just put in the whole cake ?

Professor Sears. Break it up ; this has to be done in order
to get the salt in through the ice and produce the proper
amount of cold.

Mr. Wheeler. Is the temperature lower when the apples
are in barrels than when they are loose ? Will they freeze
quicker loose than in barrels ?

169

Second F'Ioot-

Professor Seaks. They would freeze more quickly loose
simply because the cold air can get at them more quickly. I
suppose that if you put in too much salt and get the room
too cold the loose apples would freeze much more quickly
than those in the barrels, simply owing to this fact, — the
barrel is quite a protection because it doesn't allow the air
to circulate quite so freely. I think in that connection all
fruits, certainly all apples, should be stored in tight pack-
ages. I don't believe in the ventilated packages.

Mr. MuNROE MoKSE. Do you have separate bunkers for
each room, or are all the rooms supplied from one bunker ?

Professor Seaes. We have six of these bunkers and each
has its coil of pipe, and that coil is connected with a separate
room, one bunker and one pipe for each of the six rooms.

Mr. H. L. Feost.
Should the storage room
be below the gi'ound ?

Professor Seaes. If
you can get it below the
ground the temperature
will fluctuate much more
slowly, and it is very
desirable so far as in-
sulation is concerned.
The 10th of January last
year broke all records
outside, and the tem-
perature in the under-
ground room I refer to
then stood at just 32 ;
we kept it closed, and it
rose gradually to 38 on
the 1st of April. It
took it all that time to
rise from 32 to 38. If
it had been above ground
DE.TAI1- or iN5Ui_A.TiON it would have risen much

The above diagram shows the type of construction of more rapidly, CVCU with
the walls of the refrigerated rooms. The walls of other .-i i , 4; • -i ,•

part3 of the building are much less complicated, tne Dest oi insulation.

fro st 'F'riDof
Room

170

Dr. H. J. Wheelek. I would like to ask the speaker
whether the use of a wrapping paper which was impervious
might not be better than a wrapper which is very porous
as it would prevent the evaporation of moisture ?

Professor Seaes. We have not taken up that matter. The
wrapper is largely for holding moisture in the apple, and I
should suppose that if something impervious, like an oiled
wrapper, were used, it would be better than ordinary paper,
as it would hold the moisture better.

Dr. H. J. Wheeler. I wish you could get your chemist
to study the skins of apples exposed to the sun and those not
exposed, in order to ascertain what the difference is. It is
a most remarkable difference.

Mr. Frost. Doesn't the question of moisture have some-
thing to do with it ?

Professor Sears. If you have plenty of moisture the open
package would be all right if you kept the room moist enough.
The conditions are controlled with the closed package, how-
ever, a good deal better than they can be controlled over the
entire room.

Mr. C. P. Greenwood. Will a perfectly sound apple be
injured by contact with rotten apples ?

Professor Sears. I think it would depend on what was
causing the rot. If it were merely a breaking down, a physi-
cal change, going on in the rotten apple, I shouldn't think it
would hurt. It would hurt the taste, of course. But if it
were being destroyed by mold then the germs of that mold
would be very likely to get on the other.

Mr. Greenwood. I heard a fruit grower say some time
ago that he didn't believe a perfectly sound apple was in-
jured by a rotten one touching it.

Professor Sears. Perhaps not if you have a perfectly
sound apple without a break or weak place on the surface,
as mold or disease probably wouldn't get in. The flavor
would probably be tainted, as it is in the case of a partly
decayed apple.

Mr. F. A. Ettsset.l. I woidd like to ask if in the construc-
tion of a cold-storage plant it would be economical or advisa-

171

ble to construct a building' large enough to hold other things,
vegetables, say, in conjunction with the fruit, so that you
could store everything that you raised, beets and onions and
parsnips and cabbages, in the same building?

Professor Sears. That would depend altogether on the
circumstances. If a neighborhood were growing all these dif-
ferent things and were keeping them there I think it would
be very desirable to have them provided for in the building.
We have both in our storage building, but there is only one
door between the two compartments and that is kept locked.
Care must be taken that the odors don't get from the vege-
tables into the fruit compartment. This is a danger which
can be easily avoided, and I think it is a very satisfactory
arrangement, because you can put up your vegetable storage
a good deal cheaper if you combine the two than by making-
it a separate storage.

Mr. John P. Bowditcji. How much would the invest-
ment be to build such a cold-storage plant as the one you
have described?

Professor Seaks. The figures I mentioned run all the way
from $1.50 to $5 per barrel capacity of the storage; and the
general opinion seems to be that about $2.50 is the average
cost per barrel. Perhaps if you strike an average of about
$3 per barrel you will have it, so that if you want to put up
a 1,000-baiTel plant it will cost you, complete, about $3,000.

Mr. Tx. H. Race. 1 had an old ice chute on my farm. It
was IG feet long and 20 inches wide inside, of 1%-inch
oak slats, 3 inches wide, bolted to cross slats, the bolts being-
set in so that they wouldn't interfere with the ice. The idea
came to me that this could be used in putting barrels of
apples into the cellar. I cut a square piece out of an old
bran sack, slipped it over the barrel and drew it up with an
old strap below the two top hoops, so they wouldn't break
open when they were sliding down. I then got two pairs of
ice tongs and gave one to each man, and they carried the
apples in there just as fast as they could slide them down.
It was a very simple arrangement, and I put in 200 barrels
of apples in short order. There was no inconvenience, dis-

172

comfort or damage to either the apples or to the men, and
when we took the apples out I used the same device; I took
a pair of ice tongs, put a rope through one handle and
attached it to the other. I slipped the tongs over the head
of the barrel and hitched a horse on with just the right length
rope ; out came the barrel without bruising anybody's fingers.
This is a very simple device which I just stumbled onto and
thought I would give it to you.

Mr. G. D. FoERESTALL. Apples will stand a much lower
temperature if wrapped in paper than they will without it,
and will keep better. I speak of this for home use, as we
cannot all have cold storage.

Mr. Wheelek. I think the question in regard to com-
bining storage that will take in fruits and vegetables is
worthy of further discussion. I have often seen the time
when asparagus, held back for three or four days, would
bring double what it does when there is a glut in the market,
and I believe we should have a central storage plant wher-
ever there is a large enough crop in any section to warrant
it. I think these central storage plants should be constructed
and perhaps run by the farmers themselves. I believe it
is perfectly feasible to use the same one for both fruits and
vegetables, and I think that farmers should co-operatively
build just such storage plants.

Mr. J. J. Erwin. Would such a cold-storage plant be
suitable for keeping milk ?

Professor Sears. We haven't used it for milk. I don't
see any reason why it shouldn't, though. It is all right for
anything that wants cold. I don't see why there should be
the slightest objection to storing asparagus in the small room,
as there is no oifensive odor.

Secretary Ellsworth. I think that the farm which is
doing a considerable business in a variety of crops can well
afford to have a cold-storage plant. There are times in the
summer when there seems to be a glut of certain varieties of
vegetables, like tomatoes, cucumbers or asparagus, when if
they could be held for a few days the farmer could get a
great increase in the price. And as for apples, Gravensteins

173

that were selling perhaps this year for Y5 cents and $1 a
bushel, a little later were selling for one-third more, and
I don't know but for double that amount. I know that the
added profit would easily pay the interest on the investment.
Mr. G. F. Morse. Would it not be valuable for Bartlett
pears ? They are a quick-ripening, quick-softening pear, and
I should think it would be just as valuable for them as it
would for apples. I believe that it could be profitably used
for both pears and peaches. In the early part of September,
when the Elbertas come along, if a man could hold back a
week he would undoubtedly double the price ; this could also
be done with pears, and especially with Bartletts. It doesn't
make any difference what a man is selling, if he can hold
back for a few days, say a week to two weeks, he will often
double the price received and sometimes even more. Cold
storage helps out the other fellow who has not such facilities,
also, in preventing a glut on the market. If every grower
were equipped with a plant, prices would be better and the
fruit season would last longer for the consumer.

174

THREE COMMON SCALE INSECTS/

H, T. FERNALD^ PH.D._, STATE NURSERY INSPECTOR, AMHERST, MASS.

Fruit growers often find scale insects (formerly called
bark lice) on their trees, and of these there are three kinds

which are abundant
in Massachusetts.
These are known as
the San Jose scale,
the oyster-shell scale
and the scurfy
scale.

The San. Jose
Scale.

This pest, which
is the most destruc-
tive scale we have,
is now generally dis-
tributed in the
State.

The scale is
round (circular) in
outline, or nearly
so, and when full
grown is about as

Different stages of the San Jos6 scale, enlarged five times.
(From Virginia State Crop Pe.st Commission Bulletin,
1904.)

large as a small pin head, highest in the middle and grayish-
brown in color. The young are born alive, beginning about
the middle of June, and are produced at intervals of two or
three days for about a month before the parent dies. The
young are very small, yellow, and crawl about for a time
till they find a satisfactory place on which to settle. During
this time they may crawl on to the feet of some larger insect

« Nature Leaflet No. 33, March 31, 1911.

175

or bird, and thus be carried to some other tree, where they
may crawl off and infest that tree, or they may be blown by
gusts of wind on to trees near by. When ready to settle
down, they work their beaks into the bark till they reach
the sap upon which they feed, then begin to produce waxy,
white threads on their backs. These threads soon mat to-
gether, forming a circular white scale, and to this are added
molted skins as the insect grows. These skins and the action
of the weather turn the scale gray or blackish, so that young
scales may often show black, white and gray, arranged more
or less in concentric rings, though they are so small that this
can be seen only under a magnifying glass. In a month or
less from the time they were born these young have become
mature and in their turn are producing young, and there is
accordingly an almost continuous production of young from
the middle of June till cold weather begins, the process in
Massachusetts usually ending before the first of December.
At this time there will be scale insects of all ages on the
trees, but all the adults and yoimg scales die during the win-
ter, leaving only those which are half or two-thirds grown.
The early spring months are used by these in completing
their growth, the adult condition being reached and repro-
duction beginning, as already stated, about the middle of
June.

Treatment.

This pest can be successfully treated only during the
winter months. Many different methods have been used,
but most of these are either worthless or too expensive to be
available.

Trees nearly dead can probably be saved by treatment;
but this does not usually pay, it takes the trees so long to
recover. In most cases it is better to destroy such trees.

Where treatment is advisable miscible oils and the lime-
sulphur wash are now much in favor for this purpose.

Lime-sulphur Wash. — This may be made where it is to be
applied, or can be purchased ready made. Apparently the
home-made material is slightly the better, but this is often
offset by the inconvenience or impossibility of preparing it
where it is to be used.

176

Several formulas have been given for making the wash but
there seems to be little difference in the results. One good
formula is : —

Lime, 20 pounds.

Sulphur, 18 pounds.

Water, 48 gallons.

As spraying is usually done with barrel pumps holding
about 50 gallons, this formula is prepared to fill such a
barrel.

The lime used should be the best stone lime, freshly
burned, and as little slaked by standing as possible. Fin-
ishing lime gives excellent results.

The sulphur should be either flowers of sulphur or sulphur
flour; stick sulphur will not do. These materials should be
prepared in an iron kettle holding at least 30 or 40 gallons,
as follows : Place 6 or 8 gallons of water in the kettle, start
a fire under it, and slake the lime, getting this as fine as
possible in the slaking. When this is well under way grad-
ually add the sulphur, stirring it in well, and keep the fire
going to continue the heat begun by the slaking lime. Boil
the mixture, adding water as may be needed from time to
time, till the color of the liquid becomes dark orange-red.
This should take from forty minutes to an hour, the longer
boiling seeming to bring more of the sulphur into solution
and leaving less sediment at the bottom of the kettle. When
the boiling is completed strain the liquid into the spray
pump barrel, using a strainer of copper wire of at least 20
threads to the inch, and add any water necessary to make
the 48 gallons, and spray. The cooking is sometimes done
in barrels by the use of steam led into them, but for some
reason this often fails to give as good results as the use of a
fire.

If for any reason this home-made wash cannot be made
use of, numerous ready-made lime-sulphur washes are on the
market, and can be used with quite satisfactory results.

A concentrated home-made lime-sulphur wash is now being
used to quite an extent. The method of making, keeping
and diluting this for application can hardly be given within
the limits of this paper.

177

Miscible Oils. — Many orchardists are now using mis-
cible oils — often wrongly called soluble oils — instead of
the lime-sulphur wash. A satisfactory miscible oil can be
made by the person desiring to use it, but the trouble and
time necessary are so great that this is not often done, and
the oil is generally purchased, ready for use on dilution with
water.

A number of different miscible oils are now on the mar-
ket, and most of them can be expected to give very good
results when not too much diluted and when thoroughly
applied. Where the scale is abundant the dilution should
not be more than one part of oil to fourteen parts of water,
though in order to reduce the cost, directions accompanying
these materials often direct that one part of oil be mixed
with twenty of water. This generally makes the spray too
weak to be sufficiently effective.

General Spraying Directions.

In spraying for scale insects thorough work is necessary if
satisfactory results are expected. Only those scales actually
reached by the spray will be killed, and a very few left on a
tree will be sufficient to heavily restock it by the following
fall. Formerly a very fine misty spray was considered the
best for the work, less of the material being wasted. At the
present time the tendency is to use a coarser nozzle, thus
making it possible to drive the spray with more force, and
also to cover the trees more rapidly with the same thorough-
ness as that given by the other nozzle. By spraying in this
way the loss of material is more than made up by the saving
of time and of wages to the men doing the work.

Spraying for the San Jose scale should be done during the
winter months, while the trees are leafless and dormant. It
should not be done after the buds have opened in the spring
sufficiently to show a green color (or white, in the case of
the blossom buds), as the spray is so strong that injury may
then result.

Many orchardists are now spraying one winter with the
lime-sulphur wash and the following winter with one of the

178

miscible oils, believing that bj an alternation of the two ma-
terials better results are obtained. Whatever the material
used may be, the spraying should be thorough, and every
part of the tree covered with the spray. If windy weather
prevents good work, it is often possible to spray one side of
the trees and complete the treatment at some later time.

Sometimes summer treatment seems advisable on trees
badly affected. In such cases either of the above materials
can be made use of, though they should be diluted much more
than for winter use.

Many other trees besides fruit trees and many shrubs are
attacked by the San Jose scale, but the treatment for these is
the same as that given above.

The Oystee-shell Scale.

This common pest on apple, pear, ash, poplar and willow
trees and lilac bushes is much larger than the San Jose scale,
and is of different form, being long, rather pointed at one
end and broader and rounded at the other, and may be curved
along its length, the form as a whole suggesting that of an
oyster shell, which has given it its name. It is brown or
dull gray in color, this last shade being the most common on
the ash, willow and lilac.

The life history of this scale is so different from that of
the San Jose scale that the treatment for it is also very dif-
ferent.

The winter is passed by this insect in the egg. At this
time the parent insect which produced the scale lies dead
under the pointed end of the scale, and the rest of the space
is occupied by from twenty to a hundred tiny whitish eggs.
These hatch about the first of June, and the young, which are
whitish-yellow, and closely resemble the young of the San
Jose scale, push out from beneath the parent scale and crawl
about, seeking for a place to settle and feed. When this has
been found a scale begins to form over the back of the insect,
and by October it has become fully grown, has laid its eg^s
behind it under its scale and has died. These eggs pass the
winter and hatch the following June.

The Scurfy Scale.

The Sau Jose Scale.

The Oyster-shell Scale.
Three Common Ouchakd Scales (Twice Natural Size).

179

From this it is evident that there is but one brood of these
insects each year. Farther south there are two broods a
year, and it is possible that there may be two in Massachu-
setts, in some cases, but, if so, it is unusual.

e

Oyster-shell scale: a, under side of female scale, showing eggs; 6, upper
side of same, both much enlarged; c, female scales on a branch,
natural size; d, male scale much enlarged; e, male scales on branch,
natural size. The fine lines to the right of o, 6 and d show the real
length of the scales. (Howard, United States, Department Agri-
culture, Yearbook, 1894.)

Treatment.

As the eggs of these scales all hatch about the first of
June, this fact may be taken advantage of in the treatment.
The crawling young are entirely unprotected by any scale,
are soft-bodied, and can be killed by spraying with kerosene
emulsion or with whale-oil soap, if taken at the right time.
The only difficulty is that in order to be destroyed each
one must be touched by the spray, and they are very small.
This means that the spraying must be thorough.

Whale-oil Soap. — Whale-oil soap, 1 pound ; water, 4 or 5

180

gallons. Spray thoroughly about the first of June, accord-
ing to whether the season is early or late, and repeat in from
ten days to two weeks. This second application will be
likely to reach some which were missed the first time, and
also any which had not hatched when the first treatment
was given.

Kerosene Emulsion. — Hard soap shaved fine, l/^ pound ;
water, 1 gallon ; kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in
boiling water, then remove from the fire and pour it into
the kerosene and churn with a spray pump, turning the
nozzle back into the mixture; continue this till the mixture
changes first to a creamy, then to a soft, butter-like mass.
This will keep for some time. Use 1 part of this mixed with
9 parts of water to spray. If the water used is hard, the

emulsion may not
form unless borax or
soda be added to make
/ "^^^1 \ t^ri! /^ the water soft.

The Scurfy Scale.
This scale, which is
also very common on
apple and pear trees,
is about as long as the
oyster-shell scale, but
is broader, rather
pear-shaped, and white
or grayish-white in
color. Its life history
is about the same as
that of the oyster-shell scale, but the eggs are purple, as are
also the crawling young. The treatment is the same as for
the oyster-shell scale, and should be applied at the same
time.

Scurfy scale: a, female, 5, male scales, natural size,
on twigs; c, female scale, much enlarged; d,
male scale, much enlarged. (Howard, United
States Department Agriculture, Yearbook,
1894.)

181

PLANT LICE OR APHIDS.'

H. T. FERNALD, PH.D., STATE KURSERT IKSPECTOR, AMHERST, MASS.

There are more thaii three hundred kinds of plant lice
known in this country, feeding on nearly all our common
plants, ishrubs and trees,
and the injury they
cause is often serious.
They begin their work
early in spring, often
before the plants they
are upon have gotten
well started, and, in-
creasing in numbers
with great rapidity, do
a great deal of damage
almost before it is real-
ized that they are pres-
ent.

Among the more im-
portant plant lice which
concern the fruit grower
and farmer are the
woolly apple louse, so
noticeable along scars of
the limbs of apple trees in the fall, because of the white
woolly threads it forms ; the green apple louse ; the black
louse on plum and cherry ; the cabbage louse ; the currant
louse; the rose louse; the pea-vine louse; and during the
spring of 1903 the elm louse and maple louse.

The life history of some species of these insects is quite

Twig of apple, showing plant
natural size.)

(Ab.iVit

I Nature Leaflet No. 18, Nov. 1, 190G.

182

different from that of others, so that only general statements
for the group as a whole can be made.

As a rule, plant lice pass the winter in the egg stage, the
eggs being attached to the stem or twigs of the food plant.
In the spring the eggs hatch, and the tiny aphids, which are
green, brown or black, soft-bodied, wingless forms, with six
legs, begin to feed, sucking the juices from the twigs or
leaves. This is done by means of a pointed beak, the tip of
which is pushed through the bark or epidermis till it reaches
the sap. In the course of a few days each little aphid be-
comes adult, and begins to produce living young at the rate
of three or four nearly every day. These in their turn feed,
grow and reproduce, and in this way many generations ap-
pear during the summer. One or more of these generations
may develop wings and pass to other plants, in this way
spreading over the entire region. In the fall the last genera-
tion does not produce living young, but lays eggs instead,
and these winter over, hatching the following spring.

The rapidity with which plant lice increase is of impor-
tance, as but a short time is required after the first individ-
uals appear for a plant to swarm with them ; and when this
occurs, treatment becomes more difficult. This is because in
many cases the effect of their feeding is to cause the leaves
on which they are to curl, thus protecting the lice so that they
cannot be reached by a spray.

Plant lice produce a sweet, sticky fluid, known as honey-
dew, from two small tubes on the upper side of the body, and
ants are very fond of this, visiting the lice and gathering it
from them. If the honey-dew falls on the leaves and twigs,
it makes them sticky, and it is sometimes produced so abun-
dantly as to fall to the ground with a pattering sound like
rain. This substance forms an excellent place for the growth
of fungus, which turns the honey-dew black, and accounts
for leaves and twigs having a smutty appearance, particu-
larly in the late fall and early spring.

183

Treatment.

As plant lice suck plant juices, no poison like Paris green
or arsenate of lead is of the slightest value, and something
that will destroy these insects by touching them is necessary.
Such a substance is kerosene emulsion, which kills by cov-
ering the body of the insect with a thin film of oil, and suffo-
cating it. In order to obtain good results with this material,
however, it is necessary to touch every individual, which it
is exceedingly difficult to do, even when the insects are not
protected by the curling of the leaves, because of their small
size. To treat for plant lice successfully, therefore, spraying
should be begun as soon as the lice appear; and, as most of
them are on the underside of the leaves, the spray should be
directed upward, to reach as many as possible.

Of the many ways of making kerosene emulsion, the fol-
lowing is probably the best : —

% pound of hard soap, shaved fine.

1 gallon soft water.

2 gallons kerosene.

Dissolve the soap in the water, which should be boiling; remove
from the fire and pour it into the kerosene while hot. Churn this
with a spray pump till it changes to a creamy, then to a soft, butter-
like mass. Keep this as a stock, using one part in nine of water.
If the water is hard, add a little soda or borax before churning.

In some cases a strong stream of cold water thrown from
a hose upon an infested plant is quite effective, knocking off
and killing the lice ; and sometimes spraying with very strong
soap suds is also successful.

In the case of the pea-vine louse it is difficult to reach
the insects by spraying, and here the best practice is to fol-
low along the rows on a hot day with a branch from an
evergreen tree, and switch the lice off the vines onto the
ground, which can be easily and rapidly done. A cultivator
should then follow along the rows, and, by loosening the
hot dry soil in this way the lice will be dried up and die
before they can return to the plants from which they were
switched off.

184

APPLE DISEASES.

GEO. E. STONE^ PH.D., BOTANIST, MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOARD OF
AGRICULTURE, AMHERST, MASS.

The unusual interest now being shown in the renovating
and planting of orchards has stimulated a desire on the part
of the orchardist to know something of the different diseases
affecting trees. For a long time before this the apple in-
dustry had been on the decline, and thousands of neglected
apple trees could be found in the State bearing inferior fruit
and affected with innumerable troubles foreign to well-cared-
for orchards.

For years we have been observing different orchards, with
particular reference to diseases and the results obtained from
the systematic use of lime and sulphur and arsenate of lead.
With the advent of the new interest in orcharding, and the
consequent renovation of old trees and extensive pruning,
spraying, cultivating and fertilizing, diseases have become
much less prevalent.

A few years ago it was the practice to spray apple trees six
or seven times a season, without much regard to whether it
was necessary or not; but pruning and cultivation, etc., are
fully as important as spraying, which should be done only
with some definite object in mind. It is true that progress
in the successful management of orchards has often been
hindered by a too liberal practice of spraying at the sacrifice
of other methods, and to-day many growers are obtaining
good results with only two or three sprayings.

The experience and skill of intensive farmers have been of
great aid in determining the cause of and methods for con-
trolling certain diseases, and it has been demonstrated that
many factors other than spraying help to produce healthy

BITTER
ROT

FIG. 1. — Bitter rot of iipple.

185

crops. There are a number of fungous diseases occurring on
the apple, some of which are parasitic ; others follow mechani-
cal injuries, and still others come about from various causes.
The number of diseases affecting our cultivated crops is con-
stantly increasing, most of them being introduced from other
regions through commercial activities. Some apple diseases
have been with us for many years, but just how long it is
hard to learn in many cases, although some of the early works
on fungi do not refer to them. The early agricultural aud
horticultural references are also very meager, and the identity
of the disease is often left in doubt.

Some of the diseases affecting the apple in Massachusetts
are given below.

Rots.

There are a number of fungi causing apple rots, and those
found on the apple in this State are given below. In some
sections of the country these rots cause an enormous amount
of damage during the summer months, especially in warm,
sultry, rainy weather. They are not serious here, usually
being found on apples lying on the ground which have been
bruised or are in an over-ripe condition, and also on those
under poor storage conditions.

Bitter Rot (Glomorella- rufomaculans (Berl\) Spandl.
and von ScJi.).

This rot (Fig. 1) has been known in this region for many
years, and almost invariably attacks the apple on the ground
or in storage, although some early varieties are occasionally
affected to a slight extent on the tree, especially during warm,
muggy weather. It is more serious in the west and south,
where it causes an enormous amount of injury to apples.

The disease is characterized by dark-colored areas on the
surface of the apple, which later contain minute, dark-col-
ored pustules. These pustules contain smaller and more
slender and light-colored spores than those of the Sphcpropsis
rot, described below. This as a rule constitutes only about 5
or 10 per cent of the apple rots in this section, although in

186

1912 it was the most common of all. As already stated, it is
much more serious in warm sections, and its unusual preva-
lence on fruit lying on the ground or in storage the past sea-
son was apparently due to the fact that the season was so
warm.

According to our experience this rot hardly deserves treat-
ment by spraying, since it makes its appearance so late and is
confined to fruit that has been picked. Care should be taken
to avoid all bruising in picking, and to secure the best pos-
sible storage conditions.

Blacli. Rot (Sphfvropsis Malorum Ph.).

This is usually the most common rot of apples in storage
and on the ground, and we have never seen it attacking fruit
on the tree in this State. It is quite similar to the preceding
in appearance. The principal naked-eye characteristic dis-
tinguishing it from other rots is the absence of concentric
growth of the fruiting bodies. The spores are borne in little
pustules, resembling those of the bitter rot, but are larger and
darker colored.

Sphceropsis is associated with one of our common cankers,
and in all probability is responsible for most of our apple
leaf spots. As an economic factor this rot is of little impor-
tance in this State and does not warrant spraying treatment.

Fruit Mold or Brown Rot (Sclerotinia fructigena (Pers.)

Schroet.).

This fungus is responsible for the brovTU rot of the peach
and plum, and also occurs on apples, especially on those
which are over-ripe, affected by frost, etc. The light-colored
fruiting bodies of the fungus may be seen on the surface, and
resemble a mold. This rot is of no economic importance in
this State.

Frmit Mold (Penicillinm sp.).

Some apple rots are associated with our common green
mold, Penicillium, and other organisms, such as yeast, are
sometimes present, which give a characteristic ferment odor.

188

European Apple Canher (Nedria ditissima Tul.).
This canker (Fig. 4) is usually characterized by ugly
scars, due to the distortion of the tissue by the fungus named
above. It is less common than the preceding canker, except
on neglected trees, where it sometimes does much injury.
Our earliest New England literature refers to canker on
apple trees, and it is not unlikely that this is the one meant.
In most cases it seems to follow injuries from various causes.
Where the disease is severe it should be pruned out.

Nedria CanJcer (Nedria cinnabarina (Tode) Fr.).
This fungus (Fig. 5) is responsible for a canker which
is characterized by the production of numerous cinnamon-
colored pustules on the bark of dead wood. It is occasion-
ally seen on apple trees, but more commonly on winterkilled
branches of maples, horse chestnuts, etc. So far as our
observations go, this is invariably a dead wood fungus fol-
lowing injuries of different types. The fungus penetrates
the bark and wood and gives rise to discolored areas of the
woody tissue.

Blight Canker.
A canker of rare occurrence with us has been described by
Dr. H. H. Whetzel (Fig. 6). It is caused by the apple and
pear blight organism, and occurs most frequently on young,
smooth bark trees and on water sprouts. The diseased areas
are smooth, sunken and brown in color, and there is no
formation of pustules. The freshly affected tissues are
usually watery, and in older cases cracking of the bark
occurs. More often infection is confined to the bark, causing
no injury to the wood. It is believed that only a small per-
centage of this canker lives through the winter to sei've as a
source of infection the following year, and that insects play
some part in the work of infection. Another source of in-
fection is the pruning knife.

•./

PEAR BLIGHT
CANKER

Fiu. ().— Pear bliuht canker.

189

Blister Canker (Nummularia discreta Tul.)
A form of canker caused by the above-named fungus has
been observed in apple-growing regions of the Mississippi
valley, but never in our section. This canker is characterized
by a black, rough, more or less charred appearance of the
bark on the older parts of the tree. On the surface of the
diseased areas may be seen circular dots or fruiting bodies
which are regarded as the most characteristic feature of the
disease. We have recently seen a few apple trees in this
section which seem to show the symptoms of this canker, but
the specific fungus was not observed. It is believed to be a
wound fungus.

Apple Rust (Gymnosporangium mackoptjs Lk.).

This species of fungus is believed to be the principal cause
of the apple rust in our section, one of the stages being found
on the pear and quince. It is also believed to produce the
so-called cedar apple on our common pasture juniper (Juni-
perus virginiana). Its appearance during the past few years
has seemed to coincide with a general epidemic of rust
throughout the country, and although it had been unusually
rare on apples for many years in Massachusetts up to the
past three or four years, since then it has often been found
on foliage, and sometimes on the fruit. It is more common
on neglected trees than in a scientifically managed orchard.

All rusts are difficult to control by spraying, but besides
the general treatment which apple trees should receive each
year, sanitary methods of culture should be practiced.

Apple Scab (Ventukta Pomi (Ft?.) Wint.).
A disease known as apple scab has been present in Mas-
sachusetts for many years, affecting both the leaves and fruit
and occasionally the twigs of several varieties of apple trees,
— in this State, more particularly the light-colored varieties.
Fortunately, the disease seldom assumes a severe form here.
It is more commonly found on the foliage than on the fruit,
especially in unsprayed, neglected orchards. It is character-

190

izcd oil both the leaves and fruit by dark-colored or olivaceous
spots, giving, as the name indicates, a scabby appearance to
the fruit and leaves.

Treatment with lime and sulphur in the spring, in the dor-
mant period, according to our observations, holds the fungus
in check. Other fungicides also control it.

Pink Mold oe Pink Rot (Cephat.othecium roseum Cda.).

Since 1902 a pink mold has been known to be associated
with apple scab, although it has caused little or no trouble in
this region. As the name implies, it is of a pinkish color
and is confined to the scabby spots on the fruit, developing
over the surface of the scab. Although the fungus has been
present for some time in this region on dead wood, etc., it
was supposed to be jDcrfectly harmless until 1902, when it
was discovered as an accompaniment of the scab. It causes
much more injury elsewhere than here, and is more severe in
moist seasons.

Any treatment which will control the scab is applicable
to this mold.

Leaf Bijght (SpHiEROPSis Malorum Pk.).
It is generally believed at the present time, from the re-
sults of experiments, that the above-named fungus is the
cause of the so-called leaf spots of the apple, although they
were formerly attributed to other fungi, known as Phyllos-
ticta Pyrina Sacc. and P. limitata Pk. These two species
of Phyllosticta are now considered merely accompaniments
of the leaf spot, occurring only in the later stages of the
disease. The foliage of most neglected apple trees develops
these spots, and the disease is sometimes severe enough to
affect the growth of the tree. The fungi associated with
the leaf spots, however, are easily controlled by spraying
with lime and sulphur in the spring before the buds open,
and therefore are of minor importance in well-cared-for
orchards. Many orchards go through the season without
a spot as a result of spraying with lime and sulphur in the
dormant period of the tree.

191

Sooty Blotch or Fly Speck (Phyllachora pomigena
(Scnw.) Sagc).

A fungous growth known as sooty blotch or fly speck has
been common for many years, occurring on the surface of
apples. With us it aifects Greenings more commonly, some-
times discoloring the fruit to quite an extent. It was for-
merly believed that there were two species of fungi, — one
causing the blotch, the other fly speck, — but it is now gen-
erally recognized that one species of fungus causes both.
Both of these forms occur on the surface of the fruit and
do not penetrate the cuticle, and they can easily be removed
by washing.

Sooty blotch forms large, irregular, olive-brown areas on
the fruit, while fly speck occurs as minute dark-colored dots
scattered over the surface. The trouble appears to be more
abundant in the shade and where there is considerable mois-
ture. The fungus does not injure the fruit other than to
affect its market value, and it can usually be controlled by
spraying late in the season with Bordeaux mixture.

Apple Blight^ Fire Blight^ Twig Bligilt^ etc. (Bacil-
lus amylovorijs (Burr.) DeToni.).
This blight has been common for many years on apples,
pears and quinces, and is often severe in some parts of the
United States. It is caused by a minute organism (bacil-
lus), and it is generally recognized that infection takes place
at the period of pollination. The blight is characterized by a
blackening and shriveling of parts of the twigs or branches,
and the leaves droop and turn bro^vn, but do not fall. The
organisms under certain conditions multiply very rapidly in
the nectaries of the flower, and are readily transferred to
other flowers by bees. From the nectaries the bacteria gain
entrance to the tissues of the small branches, causing them
to collapse. In most cases direct infection probably occurs
by means of insects, abrasions, etc. The blight organism
also occasionally causes what is termed blight canker. The

192

blight is not so serious in our section on the apple as on the
pear and quince.

The principal methods of control consist in pruning out
the infected limbs, at least a few inches below the affected
region. Fall and winter pruning is considered better than
summer pruning, since the affected parts may be more readily
foundj whereas in summer the disease may be spreading
rapidly and all of it may not be eradicated. In all cases of
pruning, antiseptic methods should be employed, such as
sterilizing with formalin or some other substance the tools
used in pruning, or treating the cut surfaces with creosote, etc.

POWDEKY MlLT>EW (ErYSIPKE PoLYGONI DC).

This mildew is seldom found on apples in this section. It
occurs on nursery stock in some regions, where it causes more
or less injury in the form of a mildew effect on the upper
surface of the leaf.

Ceown Gall.

Crown gall (Fig. T) has caused vexation and worry to
many fruit growers for the past few years, although the
amount of actual injury done is somewhat problematical.
For a few years considerable infected apple stock came into
our State from outside, but for the past four or five years
orchardists have been more particular about their material,
and cleaner stock has been obtainable. There are only a
few instances where trees have been so severely affected as to
die, but one never knows when complications may set in and
result in loss.

There are many forms of galls affecting plants, but prac-
tically all have a similar distorting effect on the tissue, which
may seriously interfere with the vital processes of the plant.
Eel worm galls, which are similar in appearance to those
found on the aj^ple tree roots, cause little injury to tomatoes
and cucumbers, but are very injurious to roses, violets and
melons, and in the south, various other crops, including some
trees, are affected.

There is much difference of opinion as to the effect of crown

193

gall on apple trees, which appears to be more injurious in the
warmer parts of the country. ^Nevertheless, no orchardist
should accept material affected by this diseasa

While the specific bacterial organism has been isolated,
and many cross inoculations made, there is yet much to be
learned concerning the relation of a particular type of gall
to another. Extensive investigations made by Smith and
Townsend seem to indicate that the organisms causing crovra
gall on the raspberry and apple are similar, yet our raspberry
has had galls for years, while apple trees have been free from
them until comparatively recently. Crown gall was not
observed here until certain infected stock was obtained from
outside the State. Where infected stock has been planted
and cultivated, the disease spreads from one field to another,
and seedlings raised on soil which was formerly free from
the organism become infected. It is possible that much of
our infected stock already planted will pull through and
develop into bearing trees ; but it is a wise precaution to se-
cure clean trees when planting.

Crown gall, as its name implies, is characterized by a gall
formation near the crown, which causes a distortion of the
tissue, and in very severe cases it interferes with the function
of the plant to such an extent that death results.

Hairy root (Fig. 8), which is characterized by the ab-
normal production of roots, giving a hairy effect, appears to
be a similar trouble, although it is much less common with us.

Baldwin Spot ob Fruit Pit.
This spot, which has been known by several names, has
been present in Massachusetts since 1898 at least, and has
been confined, to our knowledge, to the Baldwin in this sec-
tion. It is characterized by small spots or indentations on
the surface of the fruit, ranging from 2 to 4 millimeters or
more in diameter, which are scarcely perceptible to one not
acquainted with the disease. The spots are usually so in-
significant that expert judges of fruit have been known to
place premiums at fruit shows on apples badly affected with
this trouble. In cutting open an affected fruit, numerous

194

brown areas may be seen extending quite deeply into the tis-
sue, which give it a bitter taste.

The cause of this spot is not known. Some years ago w^e
tried to associate it with meteorological conditions, and in-
terviewed many fruit growers in regard to its appearance in
different seasons, but we were unable to establish any definite
relationship, although the spot seemed to be more common
after extremely dry periods. The disease is apparently of
a functional nature, since spraying has no effect on it.

Baldwin Fkuit Spot (Cylindrosporium Pomi Brooks).

This disease (Fig. 9) is characterized by spots very similar
in many ways to those caused by the Baldwin spot or fruit
pit, and has only been obsei*ved on apples in this State for
three or four years. Only recently an experienced fruit
grower, in describing this spot before a number of orchard
specialists, found none of his audience familiar with it.

The spots are larger and more distinct, and the indentation
is usually lacking, so that as a rule there is little excuse for
confusing it with the old Baldwin spot. It attacks several
varieties of apples, differing in this respect from the Baldwin
spot previously noted. This disease is caused by a fungus
{Cylindrosporium Pomi Brooks) and is much more severe
here than the Baldwin spot, but like this it extends below the
surface and turns the tissue a reddish brown. According to
Dr. Brooks of the ITew Hampshire station, who has given it
much attention, it first appears about the middle of August.
The spots develop about two weeks before harvesting, during
periods of dampness. The fungus gains entrance to the fruit
in July or early August, and is said to be controlled by
spraying with Bordeaux mixture, applications being made in
June or early in July. From the general appearance of this
spot one might surmise that it was the old Baldwin spot at-
tacked by a fungus which has modified its appearance some-
what, although it occurs, as has been said, on a much larger
number of varieties.

An inspection for the last three years of some of the best
orchards in the State has revealed only a few affected apples

Fig. 9. — Showing Baldwin fruit spot {Cijlindro.
sporium) oil ai)i)lo.

195

on each tree, althoiigli on individual trees in some orchards
we have seen 50 per cent, of the apples diseased, and in many
cases no spotting at all was seen. The trees which were so
badly affected were old ones which had recently been culti-
vated and fertilized, and the manager attributed the out-
break to the application of nitrogenous fertilizers and the
recent renovation of the orchard. Another successful orchard
manager gave damp periods following drought as the cause.
For five years we have been having severe droughts in the
summer, followed by rains in the fall, and this spot has made
its appearance during this period.

Winterkilling.

Winterkilling often occurs below the surface of the ground
as well as above. During the cold winter of 1903-04 manj
apple trees were seriously injured, both above and below, in
some States whole orchards being wiped out. Such injury is
not always associated with cold weather, much depending on
the condition of the tissue before the tree enters the winter.

The causes underlying winter injury are severe cold, when
the frost penetrates to great depths; sudden and severe cold
following prolonged warm periods in the fall ; general low
vitality, caused by lack of food; insect or fungous attacks;
lack of moisture and organic matter in the soil ; lack of snow
covering; location in exposed situations, etc. Any condition
which favors a soft growth and immaturity of the wood,
whether from too much moisture or too heavy manuring and
fertilizing, tends to produce winterkilling, as does also
absence of sufficient sunlight. Trees growing where they re-
ceive the overflow from cesspools, etc., have been known to
winterkill when others near by would not. Piling dirt three
or four inches high around the base of young trees in winter
often causes injury similar to winterkilling in nature, and
tarred paper has the same effect.

Barnyard manure used as a mulching helps to prevent
injury from winterkilling, and even sod is a great pro-
tection.

196

Fkost Cracks.

Frost cracks are sometimes found disfiguring and injuring
fruit trees by splitting the bark and wood of the limbs. In
some cases they open only one-half inch or so, while in
severe cases they may be three or four inches wide. They
occur usually during sudden reductions in winter tempera-
ture. Extreme cold has a similar effect on the tissue to dry-
ing or shrinking, by causing a withdrawal of water from the
cell walls, thus rupturing the tissue, and while the cracks
sometimes heal over, they more often do not. They open
wide in winter, and their opening and closing are aifected by
various meteorological conditions.

Frost cracks are very difiicult to treat, but we have found
that the best way to handle them is to paint the inner surfaces
of the cracks with coal tar or paint in winter when they
open up. Then in spring or summer, when the cracks close,
staples of one-half or five-eighth inch iron, with prongs three
or four inches long and pointed ends, may be driven into the
trees after boring a hole with an auger. The staples should
be painted and the bark cut away underneath, so that they
may be driven in flush with the wood, when they will heal
over and disappear.

Fkost Blisters.

Occasionally during the past ten years we have observed a
spotting on apple leaves caused by injury from spring frosts,
and during the summer of 1902 considerable defoliation re-
sulted, as much as 30 per cent, of the leaves falling from
certain trees in July and August. The trouble was in gen-
eral confined to the sections where the spring frost was most
severe.

This frost injury occurs just as the leaves are unfolding,
the frost rupturing the tender epidermal cells on the under
side of the leaves. As the leaves develop, conspicuous, ir-
regular spots may be found on the upper surface, corre-
sponding in a general way to the ruptured areas on the under

197

side of tlie leaves. The heavy loss of water from the leaves
following this injury causes them to deteriorate and fall off
in large quantities.

Treating Cavities.

jSTo tree is so often found with cavities as the apple, and
perhaps none will thrive with so much decay of the heart-
wood, etc., as this species. The principal cause of the decay
is poor pruning and lack of antiseptic treatment of wounds.
When long stubs are left after pruning, the decay works into
the heartwood and a cavity results. These long stubs never
heal over, since the healing surface is not in direct communi-
cation with the How of plastic substances. Large wounds, if
not painted, will decay even if the branches are cut close.

Apple trees will live and thrive for many years, even when
the heartwood of the trunk is completely destroyed, since the
sapwood appears to be immune to most of the organisms
causing decay. Modern tree surgery methods, however, can
be used to good advantage on apple trees. A cavity should
first have a thorough cleaning, followed by treatment with
creosote, and should then either be filled with cement, or the
orifice of the cavity tinned over or covered with some other
suitable material.

Effects of Drought.
It often happens that in a wet spring trees will produce
more foliage than they can support throughout the summer,
especially if a severe drought occurs, resulting in a prema-
ture loss of foliage. The ideal moisture conditions for fruit
trees consist in having a plentiful supply of moisture during
the growth and early ripening of the fruit, with a bright and
relatively dry period, characteristic of Indian summer, for
the maturity. If there is too little moisture in summer the
fruit is likely to be small ; on the other hand, a dry summer
followed by heavy fall rains affects the quality of the fruit
and the ripening of the tissue, and is conducive to winterkill-
ing. As already noted, it may also have some effect on the
occurrence of the Baldwin spot.

198

Sun Scald.

This is a common type of injury, especially to the apple,
pear, peach and plum, and is more likely to affect nonripened
wood. It is much more common on neglected apple trees, and
a few years ago was quite prevalent in the State, particu-
larly on the lower branches, which were secluded from the
light. Sun scald is characterized by a sunken, blackened
appearance of the bark. Anything which prevents the wood
from ripening makes the tree more susceptible to this trouble,
and canker often follows it.

A similar trouble is known as collar rot, to which certain
varieties of apples are particularly susceptible. This at-
tacks the base of the tree, and is characterized by the death
and abnormal appearance of the outer bark.

Storage Burns.

A storage burn of the apple which causes discolored spots,
and which is undoubtedly a climatic trouble, occurs oc-
casionally. This was unusually common during the fall of
19.12, and one large shipment of Massachusetts apples to
Europe was ruined in transit by the burn.

There are undoubtedly a number of causes responsible for.
storage burns, such as lack of light, too much soil moisture,
etc., when the fruit is ripening, also warm periods such as
were common during the past fall and winter (1912-13).

Spraying Injury.
Most of the spray injuries in our region result from
unfavorable climatic conditions preceding or during the
time of spraying, although some are due to the unusual sus-
ceptibility of certain varieties, and others to improperly
prepared spray material. Peach and plum trees, for ex-
ample, are injured by customary strengths of the Bordeaux
mixture, and we have seen plum trees defoliated by spraying
with arsenate of lead. It is possible to cause injury with
almost any insecticide or fungicide under certain conditions,

--^^^

.*

BORDEAUX INJURY ON APPLE

Fig. 10. — Bordeaux injury on apple.

199

and this is also true of fumigation. Many of our oil sprays
have been known to injure apple and even shade trees when
in the dormant condition, and judgment must be used in
applying them. Even kerosene can sometimes be sprayed on
certain plants without injury, although at other times it may
kill the plant. Kerosene used directly or diluted with water
is dangerous to many trees, as are various other oils.

Bordeaux mixture, even when properly prepared, causes
burning to fruit trees under certain conditions (Fig. 10).
In the south such injuries are more common than with us, but
even here russeting of. the fruit sometimes occurs from Bor-
deaux, as well as burning of the foliage. Meteorological con-
ditions are responsible for some of the injury from spraying;
for instance, spraying during cloudy periods, when the
foliage and wood are not properly matured; and spraying-
mixtures left on the foliage in solution for a long or short
period cause injury. Therefore, trees sprayed in the sun-
shine, when the solution quickly dries on the foliage, are less
likely to burn. There are also many other factors which
enter into burning of the foliage and russeting of the fruit,
such as soil moisture.

Sunlight as a Fagtok in Apple Okchaeds.

jSTo factor has a more important bearing on vegetation than
sunlight. Through its action on foliage, plants obtain most
of their food from the air, and tissue is rendered less sus-
ceptible to disease, since the physiological effect is to inhibit
growth and render tissue more resistant. Aside from the
necessity of pruning apple trees to make them low headed
to facilitate picking the fruit, pruning is very important
from the disease standpoint. Proper pruning and thinning
give light a chance to reach all the branches, fruit and
foliage, and thus modify the tissue and make it more resist-
ant. Light is also important in preventing sun scald, winter-
killing and other troubles.

A few years ago sun scald was quite common on neglected
apple trees in our State. The most notable feature connected
with the injury was the fact that it was confined to the shaded

200

limbs and branches where the light was more or less excluded,
and was very rare on thinned trees. On the other hand, too
intense light may cause injury to tender growths when
shaded, as when young trees are suddenly stripped of their
foliage by insects, or where too rajjid growth results from
severe pruning, followed by cultivation and fertilization.
Sun scald is occasionally found on the larger limbs of trees
which have been more or less shaded, and therefore receive
too much light from severe pruning. , A well-thinned tree
is likely to be less affected by different diseases, and the
danger from burning of various kinds is lessened.

Undoubtedly much of the spraying injury to fruit and
foliage is associated with lack of light and other climatic fac-
tors, and the injury from fumigation has a relation to light
intensity and moisture. There is much evidence to show that
the practice of pruning apple trees is of much importance in
controlling certain troubles.

201

BORDEAUX MIXTURE.

GEORGE E. STONE, PPI.D., AMHERST, BOTANIST, MASSACHUSETTS STATE
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,

The object of spraying is to protect plants from the
ravages of fungous and insect pests. Spraying constitutes
a preventive rather than a cure for diseases, which implies
that it should he done before injurious pests make their
appearance, or in the case of certain insects, before they do
any damage. Spraying is a form of insurance, there always
being a possibility that more or less disaster will result from
pests; hence, a return fi-om this kind of protection generally
follows.

Some crops are especially susceptible to damage from in-
sects and fungi, and need protection every year ; while others
suffer only now and then, and are frequently productive
without spraying. Even where severe loss is occasionally
experienced from pests, it pays to practice systematically
methods of prevention.

As an all-round fungicide for foliage the Bordeaux mix-
ture still stands first, and in certain cases it is unsurpassed.
There is, however, considerable difference in the quality of
Bordeaux mixture, due to variations in methods of prepar-
ing it. To obtain the best results with this mixture, it is
essential to have it properly prepared.

Preparing Bordkatjx Mixture.
In preparing Bordeaux mixture, nothing but the freshest
quick-lime should be u;^ed. Air-slaked lime is unsatisfac-
tory, and should be avoided. Better results can be obtained
from the lump than from the fine, broken-up material which

1 Natura Leaflet No. 17. Aug. 7, 1907.

202

is likely to be more or less affected by the air, and does not
slake as well.

Masons who are familiar with the use of lime utilize the
whole contents of a barrel for ordinary purposes. When,
however, it is necessary to prepare whitewash or finishing
material for plastering, they select nothing but the freshest
and finest lumps to slake. By this practice they obtain a
pure white, thoroughly slaked, pasty substance, fairly free
from grit.

Particular attention should also be paid to the matter of
slaking the lime, inasmuch as a novice cannot do this prop-
erly. When the requisite amount of lime has been weighed
out, place it in a tub and add water cautiously, and only in
sufficient amounts to insure thorough slaking. It should
not be allowed to become too dry, neither should it be del-
uged with water. Lime slakes best when just enough water
is added to develop intense heat, which renders the process
active. When very small quantities of lime are to be slaked,
better results can be obtained by using hot water as a starter.
It is not desirable to stir the lime more than necessary when
slaking. If large quantities of Bordeaux are used, a stock
of slaked lime of the consistency of paste can be made, which
always should be covered with water, to prevent becoming
gritty.

The copper sulphate or blue vitriol is dissolved in hot or
cold water, using either a wooden or earthen vessel. The
proper mixing of the two solutions is important. In mix-
ing, it is best to dilute both the copper and lime with water,
so when combined they will make the required amount.
Strain the lime, and mix the two solutions quickly and thor-
oughly together in a separate barrel.

If the amount of lime is insufficient, there is danger of
burning tender foliage. In order to obviate this, the mix-
ture can be tested with a knife blade or with ferro-cyanide
of potassium (1 ounce to 5 or 6 ounces of water). If the
amount of lime is insufficient, copper will be deposited on
the knife blade, while a deep brownish-red color will be im-
parted to the mixture when ferro-cyanide of potassium is

Illustration showing- the rtegree of settlini; in i)roperl.T and im-
properly made Bordeaux mixture- 1. Bordeaux mixture
properly made by mixing diluted lime and copper sulfate
together in a separate vessel twenty -four hours after the cop-
per and lime have been prepared. 2. Mixture made by com-
bining freshly made copper sulfate and lime solutions.
3. Dissolved copi)er solution poured into lime water while
warm. 4. Freshly prepared lime water poured into the cop-
per solution while warm. Nos. 1 and 2 photographed three-
and one-half hours after mixture was i)laced in cylinders
and shaken ; Nos. 3 and 4 photographed lifteen minutes after
being placed in cylinders and shaken.

203

added. -^ Lime should be added until iieitber reaction occurs.
A slight excess of lime, however, is desirable.

The following precautious should be obsen^ed: never mix
the concentrated solutions together and then dilute, or never
mix the two together while warm. The properly prepared
mixture should be fine in texture, and very slow to settle.
(See illustration.) The Bordeaux mixture is the best when
first prepared, and it is hardly advisable to use it when more
than a few months old.

One of the standard mixtures is as follows : —

4 pounds copper sulphate (blue vitriol),
4 pounds of lime (unslaked).
25 gallons of water.

This is known as the 4-4—25 formula, the half-strength
mixture being 4—4-50 ; other formulas frequently used are
6-4-25 or 50, 2-2-50, 3-6-50, 3-9-50, etc., the weaker
mixtures being useful for tender foliage, such as the peach.

Speaying Methods.

One of the frequent drawbacks in not obtaining the "best
results from spraying is due to the methods employed in
applying the spray. Quite often sufficient attention is not
given to spraying those parts of the plants which become
afi^ected. Then, again, the time to apply the spray is not
always well chosen, and considerable depends upon the man-
ner in which the spray is applied to the plant. The essential
feature in a spray is fineness, which is determined by the
type of nozzle employed and the pressure behind it. A pump
capable of maintaining 100 pounds pressure is better than
one with a limited capacity of 40 or 50 pounds ; and a spray
from a nozzle with 100 pounds pressure back of it is quite
difl:'crent from one obtained by 25 pounds pressure.

Fig. 2 shows some typical results obtained by different
nozzles with a pump maintaining an approximate pressure

> A simple test for excess of lime can be made as follows: put a little of the mixture in a
flat dish and blow into it for half a minute. If an excess of lime is present, a thin coating
of carbonate of lime will be formed upon the surface, caused by the chemical action of the
carbonic acid in the breath upon the lime.

204

of 120 pounds, or 8 atmospheres. The finest spray is that
given by the atomizer, a simple tin hand appliance limited
in its use to small plants at close range. iS^ext to the ato-
mizer comes the spray produced by the Ware nozzle, followed
by the Vermorel, Bordeaux and one-fourth-inch nozzle. The
latter nozzle deposits the spray in large spots, and the Bor-
deaux nozzle with a three-thirty-second-inch aperture does. the
same to a less extent. ISTeither of these nozzles as used in this
experiment is applicable to good work under low pressure.
The Bordeaux nozzle, however, can be modified so as to
produce a finer spray than that shown in the figure.

At the present day the Ware and Vermorel types of nozzle
are not so generally used as the Mystry, Friend and Tiger
types. The Ware, which was devised for spraying the
foliage of large trees at close range, is now supplanted by
coarse nozzles with apertures varying from one-eighth to
five-sixteenths inches, to be used with high pressure. These
will throw the spray considerable distances, and break up
into a fine mist.

The Bordeaux nozzle is still much used for the spraying
of fruit trees, especially for lime and sulphur spraying. The
remarkable results obtained by coarse-nozzle, high-pressure
spraying for gypsy and brown-tail moths and elm-leaf beetle
open up the question whether this kind of spraying cannot
be more extensively used for other kinds of work.

205

SPRAY CALENDAR FOR APPLES.

Compiled in Office of State Board of Agriculture by Eravin H.
FoRBusH, Second Clerk,

[General importance of sprayings is indicated by size of type.]

What to spray for.

When to spray (in Proper
Succession).

What to use.

1. San Jose and other
scale pests, and as a
general sanitary meas-
ure.'

2. Scab, cpRcrno,

MOTH, ETC.

3. Codling moth, canker
worm, and other leaf
feeding insects. ^

4. Curculio,
rust, etc.

scab, blotch,

. Codling moth, scab, brown
rot, etc.

6. Bitter rot, apple blotch,
black rot, brown rot.'

While trees are dormant
(from November to
March).

Just after leaf buds

BURST and before BLOS-
SOM BUDS OPEX.

As soon after the petals
fall as possible, surely
within ten days, so that
the calyx can be filled
with the poison before
it closes up.

From two to three weeks
after the blossoms fall.

June 25 to July 5,

July 25 to August 1,

Concentrated lime-sulphur
(home boiled preparation
for ertensive operations,
but commercial mixture
for medium and small
orchards), or miscible oils.

Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50),
to which has been added
3 pounds of arsenate of
lead to 50 gallons, or
dilute lime-sulphur and
arsenate of lead applied
separately.

Bordeaux mixture (1-2-50),
to which should be added
from 3 to 4 pounds of ar-
senate of lead to each 50
gallons.

Same as No. 3.

Same as No. 3. (Where fun-
gous diseases are very prev-
alent the Bordeaux will
prove more efBcacious than
the lime-sulphur.)

Bordeaux mixture (3-3-50), to
which 2 to 3 pounds of arse-
nate of lead have been
added.

' The two most important sprayings. In many cases these may be all that are necessary.

' This spraying needed only where fungous diseases or insect pests are extremely numer-
ous and troublesome. In this section of the country this is useful in the control of apple
blotch only. ^-«J

111 regard to the above table it may be well to discuss
briefly some of the direc^tions therein given, and to give some
further instructions for the benefit of those who may be
starting in the business of orcharding. It will be noted that
sprays Xos. 1 and 3 are designated as the most important.

206

In some cases, perhaps, these may be all that are actually
needed.

The first is for the San Jose scale, that insidious pest
whose presence is oftentimes unnoticed until the vitality of
the tree is much impaired. Other scales, such as the scurfy
and the oyster-shell, which are not as bad as the San Jose,
may possibly be partially controlled by this spraying. This
must be applied while the leaves are off the trees and before
the buds begin to swell in the spring. It should not be done
on a day which is cold enough to freeze the solution as it is
applied to the tree, however, and a quiet day should be se-
lected, so as to cover the tree thoroughly from all sides. The
covering of every part of the tree is very essential to good
results, as this insect does not move about, and the caustic
spray mvM touch each scale in order to properly accomplish
its object, and if only a very few of the scales are left they
will be sufficient to repopulate the tree by the following fall.
There are two kinds of insects, those which feed on the
foliage of a plant and those which suck the plant juices, A
poison spray applied to the foliage destroys the former, while
it requires either a caustic solution which will destroy the
insect or the scale which covers it, or a dust which will close
up the breathing pores of the sucking insect which has no
protective scale. The lime-sulphur is the most generally
used, and is probably the best caustic sjoray to use for this
pest, although some authorities are very emphatic in their
claims as to the superiority of the miscible oils, claiming that
they spread with greater facility and so are more likely to
cover every portion of the tree.

For all spraying operations the best nozzle is the disc
type, with a rather large chamber and a large hole which will
not clog, of which type the Friend nozzle is as good as any.
A factor which may save a lot of bother is a long-shanked
coupling with two raised rings for the hose. This vsdll ob-
viate any danger of the uncoupling of the hose while in use.

The most damaging insect to the fruit itself is the codling
moth, or " apple worm," as it is commonly called. The
spraying numbered 3 is the one which is of the greatest im-
portance in combating this pest. This must be done while

207

the caljx of the apple is turned upward, so as to fill it with
the poison, as this is the place at which the larvae enter the
fruit. This object may be attained by spraying at any time
within ten days after the blossoms fall. A fine, forcible
spray is required, and a spraying tower is desirable in order
to spray downward into the highest calyx cups on the tree.

These two sprayings are by far the most important. Next
to these comes JSTo. 5, for the caterpillars of the codling moth,
which feed on the leaves before attacking the fruit, and this
spraying will generally control it.

The other sprayings scheduled in the calendar are to be
used when especial care is desired for the production of extra
fancy fruit, and when insect pests or fungous diseases are
unusually prevalent.

In regard to the comparative value of lime-sulphur and
Bordeaux mixture as a fungicide, it may be said that the
Bordeaux is generally recognized as a more efficient fungi-
cide, but some are using a weak solution of lime-sulphur
on apple trees to eliminate any possible injury to the fruit,
such as is attributed to the Bordeaux when used at too great
strength when the apples are young and tender. A weak
lime-sulphur solution, say 1 gallon concentrated solution to
50 gallons of water, may be substituted for the Bordeaux,
but in this case the arsenate of lead should not be mixed
with the lime-sulphur, but should be applied as a separate
spray.

Pruning is quite an important factor in connection wnth
spraying operations. The present day demand calls for a
low-headed tree, some even going so far as to say that it does
not pay to harvest an apple over 15 feet from the ground.
The advantage of low-headed trees, however, will be very
apparent to all, not only in the harvesting of the crop but as
an aid to efficient spraying, as a low tree can be more eco-
nomically and completely covered with the spray material
than a tree which shoots way up in the air. Pruning should
be done before spraying, also, as the chance to do efficient
work with the spray pump is much greater.

A power spraying outfit can be economically used only in
extensive operations. For ordinary use in the small and

208

medium sized orchard the barrel pmnp, mounted on a wagon
or truck to which a tower may be attached, will be found as
good an outfit as any.

The main facts to be remembered in spraying operations
are : proper preparation of materials, adequate means of ap-
plication, proper time of application, thoroughness in apply-
ing. On proper spraying, to a large degree, depends the
health of the tree and the quality and appearance of the fruit.

209

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following list of publications dealing with the growing
of apples has been compiled from such sources as were at
hand and does not pretend to be complete,^ It is believed,
however, that it will prove helpful to those desiring more
specific information on certain points in apple production
other than those which the limits of this bulletin permit. New
works are constantly appearing and will be added to this
bibliography in future editions. The bulletins of the various
experiment stations and departments of agriculture are for
the most part distributed free to all applicants ; some may be
found to be out of print. By addressing the direptor at each
experiment station, or the secretary of the United States
Department of Agriculture, readers can procure their respec-
tive bulletins, if available.

For ready identification the titles of bound volumes are
quoted. Prices were obtained from the United States Cata-
logue and Cumulative Book Index published by the H. W.
Wilson Company, Minneapolis, Minn., and New York, N. Y.
Such publications are obtainable through almost any dealer
in books. Readers must not send money or orders for this
literature to this office, as we cannot supply them.

At the end of this bibliography is a list of the experiment
stations mentioned, with their location and directors, for the
benefit of those desiring to send for these bulletins. In the
following list, in referring to books, the title is first given,
then the author, followed by the date of publication and the
price ; in the case of bulletins, the title is first given, then the
source of the bulletin, followed by its number, the author and
the year in which it was issued.

1 Card catalogue of experiment station literature, United States Catalogue and Cumu-
lative Book Index.

210

General.
"Amateur Fruit Growing." Green. Price, 50 cents; pa., 25 cents.
"American Fruit Culturist, The." Thomas. 21st ed. Price, $2.50

net.
" American Horticultural Manual, The." Budd and Hansen. 2 pts.

Price, each, $1.50.
" American Apple Orchard." Waugh. (1908.) Price, $1.
American Pomological Society Catalogue of Fruits recommended for

Cultivation in the United States and Canada. U. S. Dept. of Agr.

Bui. (1909.)
Apple and How to Grow It, The. Farmers' Bulletin 113. (1900.)
Apples and Peaches in the Ozark Region. U. S. Dept. of Agr.

(1913.)
" Apple and Pear, A Treatise on the Culture of the." Knight.
" Apple, Book of the." Thomas. (1902.) Price, $1.
" Apple Culture, Field Notes on." Bailej^ Price, 75 cents.
Apple Culture, Maine Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 82. Munson.

(1902.) Bui. 89. Munson. (1903.) Bui. 122. Munson. (1905.)

Bui. 139. Munson. (1907.) Bui. 155. Munson. (1908.)
Apple Culture and Test of Varieties. Kansas AgT. Esp. Station.

Bui. 106. Dickens and Greene. (1902.)
Apple Culture and Test of Varieties. Montana Agr. Exp. Station.

Report for 1903. Fisher.
Apple Culture and Varieties in Wisconsin. Wisconsin Agr. Exp.

Station. Report for 1903. Goff.
Apple Culture in Indiana. Indiana Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 102.

Troop. (1905.)
Apple Culture in Maryland. Maryland Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 92.

Austin. (1904.) Bui. 144. Close. (1910.)
Apple Culture in Minnesota. Minnesota AgT. Exp. Station. Bui.

83. Green. (1903.)
Ajiple Culture in Missouri. Missouri Agi\ Exp. Station. Bui. 61.

Whitten. (1903.)
Apple Culture in Montana. Montana Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 44.

(1903.) Bui. 66. (1907.)
Apple Culture in Nevada. Nevada AgT. Exp. Station. Bui. 72.

Kennedy. (1909.)
Apple Culture in Ohio. Ohio Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 137. Green.

(1903.) Bui. 217. Ballon. (1910.)
Apple Culture in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Agr. Exp. Station.

Bui. 106. Stewart. (1909.)
Apple Culture in South Dakota. South Dakota AgT. Exp. Station.

Bui. 81. Hansen. (1903.)
Apple Culture in Vermont. Vermont Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 141.

Stuart. (1909.)

211

Apple Culture in West Yirginia. West Virginia Agr, Exp. Station.

Bui. 75. Corbett. (1901.)
Apple Culture under Irrigation. New Mexico Agr. Exp. Station.

Bui. 75. Garcia. (1910.)
" Apple Culturist, The." Todd.

" Apple Growers, Some Suggestions for Rhode Island." Stene.
" Apple Growing." Burritt. Price, 70 cents.
" Apple Growing in the Pacific Northwest." Y. M. C. A., Portland,

Ore. (1911.) Price, $1.50.
Apple Industry. Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 61. Jar-
vis. (1910.)
Apple, Nomenclature of the. Bur. of Plant Industr3^ Bui. 56.
Apple Orchards; Causes of Failure. Arkansas Agr. Exp. Station.

Bui. 71. Walker. (1902.)
Apple Orchard Management. Missouri Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 49.

Whitten. (1900.)
Apple Orchard Management. North Carolina Agr. Exp. Station.

Bui. 182. Massey. (1903.)
Apple Orchard Management. Oregon Agr. Exp. Station. Buls. 81

and 82. Lake. (1904.)
Apple Orchard Management. Arkansas AgT. Exp. Station. Bui.

91. Walker. (1906.)
Apple Orchard Management. Idaho AgT. Exp. Station. Bui. 64.

Shinn. (1908.)
Apple Orchard Management. Michigan AgT. Exp. Station. Bui.

253. Hartman and Eustace. (1909.)
Apple Orchard Management. Conn. (Storrs) AgT. Exp. Station.

Bui. 66. Jarvis. (1911.)
Apple Orchard, Profitable Management of the Small, on the General

Farm. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Burritt. (1912.)
Apple Orchards, Renovation of. Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Exp. Station.

Bui. 61. (1910.)
" Apple Orchard, The American." Waugh. (1908.) Price, $1.
" Book of the Apple, The." Thomas. (1902.) Price. $1.
" Farm and Garden Rule Book." Bailey. (1911.) Price, $2 net.
Fruit and Orchard Investigations. Illinois Agr. Exp. Station.

Urbana, 111.
" Fruit Brevities." Bailey.

" Fruit Culture for Amateurs." Wright. Price, $1.40 net.
" Fruit Culture, The Business Side of." Hale.
" Fruit Culture, Practical." Cheal. Price, 75 cents net.
'-'Fruit Culture. Successful." Maynard. (1905.) Price, $1 net.
Fruit Garden, The Home. Farmers' Bulletin 154. Corbett. (1902.)
"Fruit Garden, How to make the." Fletcher. (1906.) Price, $2

net.
" Fruit Garden." Barsy. Price, $1.50.

212

" Fruit Gardening." Bridgeman. Price, 50 cents.

" Fruit Grower, Practical." Maynard. Price, 50 cents.

'' Fruit Growers' Guide." Hurst. (1905.) Price, 50 cents.

" Fruit Growers' Guide Book." Favor. Price, $1.

''Fruit Growers, Practical Suggestions for." Gould. (1902.)

" Fruit Growing, Beginners' Guide to." Waugh. Price, 75 cents net.

" Fruit, How to Grow and Market." Harrisons' Nurseries, Berlin,

Md. (1911.) Price, 50 cents.
" Fruit Growing, Popular." Green. 4th ed. (1912.) Price, $1.
"Fruit Growing, The Principles of." Bailey. 10th ed. (1908.)

Price, $1.50 net.
Fruits and Fruit Products, Chemical and Microscopical Examination.

U. S. Dept. of AgT. Munson and others. (1905.)
Fruit Industry and Substitution of Domestic for Foreign-grown

Fruits. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Taylor. (1898.)
Fruit Respiration, Studies on. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Gore.
Fruits, Seedless. Sturtevant. (1890.)
Fruit Recommended for Planting, Varieties of. U. S. DejDt. of Agr.

(1904.)
" How to raise Fruits." Gregg. Price, $1.
" Orchard and Fruit Garden, The." Powell. Price, $1.50 net.
" Orchard Book." Biggie. (1906.) Price, 50 cents.
Orchard Management. Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 66.

Jarvis. (1911.)
" Orchard Planting, Gilbert System of." Gilbert. (1913.) Price, $1.
" Orcharding." Paddock. (1910.) Price, $1.50.
" Systematic Pomology." Waugh. Price, $1.

Miscellaneous.

Apple: Analyses. Virginia Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 143. Alwood
and Davidson. (1902.)

Apple: Analyses. Virginia Agr. Exp. Station. Report for 1908.
Price and Ellett.

Apple : Ben Davis Group. Massachusetts Agr. Exp. Station. Re-
port for 1909. Shaw.

Apple: Blossoming Period. Delaware Agx. Exp. Station. Report
for 1901. Powell.

Apple : Chemical Composition of. Bur. of Chemistry. Bui. 88.

Apple : Climatic Adaptations. Massachusetts Agr. Exp. Station.
Report for 1910. Shaw.

Apple Culture under Irrigation. New Mexico Agi". Exp. Station.
Bui. 75. Garcia. (1910.)

" Apples, Dwarf." Lodeman.

Apples, Evaporation of the. Farmers' Bulletin 291. Gould.

Apples, Zinc in Evaporated. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Wiley. (1896.)

213

Apples, Experiment Station Work with. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Sniilli.

(1903.)
"Apples of New York." New York State Agr. Exp. Station. Re-
port for 1903. Pt. 2, vols. 1 and 2. Beach, Booth and Taylor.
Apple Orchard: Causes of Failure. Arkansas Agr. Exp. Station.

Bui. 71. Walker. (1902.)
Apple Orchard Survey. New York (Cornell) Agr. Exp. Station.

Buls. 226 and 229. Warren. (1905.) Bui. 262. Cummings,

(1909.)
Apple Orchard: Tillage v. Sod Mulch. New York State Agr. Exp.

Station. Bui. 314. Hedrick. (1909.)
Apples: Pollination. Delaware AgT. Exp. Station. Report for 1902.

Close.
Apples: Pollination. Oregon Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 104. Lewis

and Vincent. (1909.)
Apples: Pollination. Vermont Agr. Exp. Station. Report for 1900.

AVaugh.
Apples: Propagation. Massachusetts Agr. Exp. Station. Report

for 1907. Waugh.
Apple Seedling of Maine. Maine AgT. Exj:). Station. Bui. 143.

Munson. (1907.)
Apples, Studies on. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bigelow and otliers.

(1905.)
Apples. Summer, in the Middle Atlantic States. U. S. Dept. of Agr.

(1911.)
Apples : Test of Varieties. South Carolina Agr. Exp. Station. Bui.

109. Newman. (1905.)
Apples: Test of Varieties. Virginia Agr. Exj:). Station. Bui. 130.

Alwood. (1901.)
Apples: Test of Varieties. Virginia Agr. Exp. Station. Report for

1908. Price and EUett.

Apple Trees, Evaporation of Water from. Wisconsin Agi". Exp.
Station. Report for 1904. Sandsten.

Apple Trees, Method of planting. Nevada Agr. Exp. Station. Re-
port for 1903. Kennedy.

Apples, Unmarketable, Utilization of. North Carolina Agi-. Exp.
Station. Bui. 182. McCarthy. (1903.)

Apples, Variations. Massachusetts Agr. Exp. Station. Report for

1909. Shaw.

"Blossom and Fruit " (photographs). Behrens. (1902.) Price.
$12.

Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies. Farmers' Bulletin 203. ]\Iaria
Parloa. (1904.)

Clover, Red. Farmers' Bulletin 455. Westgate. Hillman and Web-
ster. (1911.)

214

Clover, Sweet. Farmers' Bulletin 486. Compilation. (1912.)
Cover-Crops. Wisconsin AgT. Exp. Station. Report for 1904.

Sandsten.
Cover-Crops for Young Orchards. Nebraska Agr. Exp. Station.

Bui. 92. Emerson. (1906.)
" Commercial Fruit Growing, Lessons in." Goff. (1902.) Price, $1.
Eradication of Quack Grass. Farmers' Bulletin 464. Cates. (1911.)
"Evolution of our Native Fruits, Sketch of the." Bailey. (1898.)

Price, $2.
"Forage Crops." (The clovers, eowpeas, soy beans, vetches, etc., as

cover-crops.) Voorhees. (1907.) Price, $1.50 net.
Fruit Growing; Inquiry into Conditions in the Dominion of Canada.

Canadian Dept. of Agr. Ottawa, Ontario, Can. Bunting. (1912.)
Fruit Lands for Sale, Bulletin of North Carolina. North Carolina

Dept. of AgT. (1910.)
" Fruit and Bread ; a Natural and Scientific Diet." Sehlickeysen.

Price, $1.
Fruit industry and substitution of domestic for foreign-grown fruits.

U. S. Dept. of Agr. Taylor. (1898.)
" Fruit Preserving." Lust.
Fruit Trees of New York. Arbor Day Annual. New York (State)

Educational Dept., Albany, N. Y. (1912.)
" Fruits, Nuts and Vegetables ; their Uses as Food and Medicine."

Broadbent.
" Fruit of the Tree." Wharton. Price, 75 cents.
" Fruit Trees, their Scientific and Profitable Culture." Du Breuil.

6th ed. Price, $1.40.
Handling of Fruit for Transportation, The. Yearbook Separate 387.
"Horticulture, New." Stringfellow. Price, $1.10.
How Birds affect the Orchard. Yearbook Separate 197.
"How to make Old Orchards Profitable." Bates. (1912.) Price,

75 cents.
" Irrigation and Drainage." King. (1907.) Price, $1.50 net.
Irrigation in Field and Garden. Farmers' Bulletin 138. Wickson.

(1901.)
Irrigation of Orchards. Farmers' Bulletin 404. Fortier. (1910.)
Irrigation, Practical Information for Beginners in. Farmers' Bulle-
tin 263. Fortier. (1906.)
" Irrigation Practice." Pacific Horticultural Correspondence School.

Portland, Ore. Powers. (1912.)
Legume Inoculation and the Litmus Reaction of Soils. Bui', of Plant

Industry. Cir. 71. (1910.)
" Manual of Horticulture for Grade and High Schools." Busch and

Gustin. (1913.) Price, $1.
New Fruit Productions of the Department of Agiiculture. IT. S.

Dept. of Agi\ Webber. (1905.)

215

" Orchard and Fruit Garden." Watts. Price, bds., 40 cents.
Orchard Cover-Crops. New York (Cornell) Agr. Exp. Station.

Bui. 198. Craig. (1902.)
Orchard Cover-Crops. Washington Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 8.

Thornber. (1908.)
Orchard Heating. Iowa State College of Agriculture and the Me-
chanic Arts. (1912.)
" Orcharding on Rough Lands, Practical." Moore. (1912.) Price,

$1.50 net.
Precooling of Fruit, The. Stubenraueh and Dennis. Separate 550

from 1910 Yearbook.
Small Fruit Culture for Market. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Taylor.

(1895.)
Studies on Fruit Respiration. Bur. of Chemistry. Bui. 142. Gore.

(1911.)
" Success with Small Fruits." Roe. 2d. ed. Price, $2.
" Systematic Pomology." Waugh. (1903.) Price, $1.
Use of Fruit as Food. Farmers' Bulletin 293. Langworthy. (1907.)

Thinning, Pruning and Grafting.
Apples: Bridge Grafting. Vermont Agr. Exp. Station. Report for

1904. Stuart.
Apples: Grafting. Oregon Agr. Exp. Station. Report for 1901.

Lake.
Apples: Grafting. Pennsylvania AgT. Exp. Station. Report for

1908. Stewart.
Apples: Grafting. West Virginia Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 75.

Corbett. (1901.)
Apples : Thinning. Colorado Agr. Exp. Station, Bui. 170. Herrick.

(1910.)
Apples: Thinning. Delaware Agr. Exp. Station. Report for 1902.

Close.
Apples: Thinning. Montana Agr. Exp. Station. Report for 1905.

Fisher. Report for 1906. Fisher.
Apples: Thinning. New York (State) Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 239.

Beach. (1903.)
" Grafting and Budding Fiiiit Trees, Science and Art of." Northup.

(1903.) Price, 50 cents.
Grafts, The Wrapping of. Bur. of Plant Industry. Bui. 100., pt. 2.

(1907.)
Grafts, Apple, Wrapping of, and its Relation to Crown Gall Disease.

U. S. Dept. of Agr. VonSchrenk and Hedgcock. (1906.)
Graft Union, The. Massachusetts Agr. Exp. Station. Tech. Bui. 2.

Waugh. (1904.)
Notes on Pruning. Nebraska Agr. Exp. Station. Bnl. 50. Cai-d.
(1897.)

216

Notes on Pruning. Rhode Island Agr. Exp. Station. Report for

1898.
" Nursery Book." (Grafting.) Bailey. (1896.)
Propagation of Plants. (Grafting.) Farmers' Bulletin 157. Cor-

bett. (1902.)
" Pruner, Tree." Wood. Price, 60 cents.
Pruning. Farmers' Bulletin 181. Corbett. (1903.)
" Pruning Book." Bailey. (1901.) 8th ed. (1907.)
Pruning of Young Fruit Trees. Delaware AgT. Exp. Station. Bui.

45. Powell. (1899.)
Stringfellow Pruning System. Georgia Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 40.

Stearns. (1898.)
Thinning Fruit. Connecticut (Storrs) Agr. Exp. Station. Report

for 1903. Bennett.
Thinning Fruit. Montana Agr. Exp. Station. Rej^orts for 1905 and

1906. Fisher.

Fertilization.
Apple Fertilizer Tests. Delaware Agr. Exja. Station. Report for

1903. Close.
Apple Fertilizer Tests. New York State Agr. Exp. Station. Bui.

289. Hedrick. (1907.) Bui. 339. Hedrick. (1911.)
Apple Fertilizer Tests. Pennsylvania Agr. Exp. Station. Report for

1908. Stewart. Bui. 91. Stewart. (1909.) Bui. 100. Stewart.

(1910.)
" Fertilization of Garden Crops, Rational." Goessmann.
" Fertilizers for Fruit Growers." Voorhees.
" Fertilizers." Gregory.
" Fertilizers." Johnson.

"Fertilizers." Voorhees. (1908.) Price, $1.25 net.
" First Principles of Soil Fertility." Vivian. Price, $1 net.
" Manures and Fertilizers." Hall. Price, $1.50.
" Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture." (Cover-crops.) Hop-
kins. (1910.) Price, $2.70 net.
Use of Fertilizers, The. New Jersey Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 172.

Voorhees. (1904.)

Insect Pests, Fungous Diseases, Weeds and Spraying.

Aphides affecting the Apple. Bur. of Entomology. Cir. 81.

Apple Fruit Rots. University of Illinois. Urbana, HI.

Apple, Some Insects of Connecticut. StoiTS (Conn.) Agr. Exp. Sta-
tion. Bui. 71. Samson. (March, 1912.)

Apple, Spraying Experiments. Nebraska Agi'. Exp. Station. Bui.
98. Emerson. (1907.) Bui. 106. Emerson and Denny. (1908.)

Apple, Spraying Experiments. Vii'ginia Agr. Exp. Station. Bui.
181. Buck. (1909.)

217

Apple, Water Core of the. Office of the Pathologist and local U. S.

Weather Bureau Station for Rogue River valley, Medford, Ore.

O'Gara. (1912.)
Apple Worm, Additional Observations on the Lesser. U. S. Dept.

of Agr. Foster and Jones. (1909.)
Bitter Rot of the Apple, The Control of. Bur. of Plant Industry.

Bui. 93.
Bitter Rot of the Apjile. Bur. of Plant Industry. Bui. 44.
Bitter Rot of Apples. Illinois Agr. Exp. Station. Blair.
Black-knot and its Control. Bur. of Plant Industry. Bui. 217.
Blotch, Apple. Bur. of Plant Industry. Bui. 144.
Borer, The Larger Apple Tree. Bur. of Entomology. Cir. 32. 2d

series.
Calendar for the Treatment of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests. Ohio

AgT. Exp. Station. Bui. 199. Green, Selby and Gossard. (1908.)
" Canker, Apple." Paddock.
Control of Bitter Rot of Apples. Illinois Agr. Exp. Station. Bui.

118. Burrill. (1907.)
Control of Insect Pests and Plant Diseases. New York (Cornell)

Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 283. (1910.)
Control of Insects and Diseases. Pennsylvania AgT. Exp. Station.

Bui. 110. Wright and Gregg. (1911.)
Control of Insects and Plant Diseases. Connecticut (Storrs) Agr.

Exp. Station. Bui. 56. Jarvis. (1909.)
Crown Gall and Hairy Root Disease of the Apple Tree. Bur. of

Plant Industry. Bui. 90 pt. 2. Bui. 186.
Curculio and the Apple. University of Illinois. Agr. Exp. Station.

Urbana, 111. Crandall.
" Economic Entomology." Smith. 2d. ed. (1906.) Price, $2.50 net.
Enemies of the Apple, The More Important Insect and Fungous.

Farmers' Bulletin 492.
Eradication of Farm Weeds. Pamphlets of the American Steel and

Wire Company, published at Chicago, 111.
Fire Blight of Pear, Apple, Quince, etc. New York (Cornell) Agr.

Exp. Station. Bui. 272. Whetzel and Stewart. (1909.)
Frost Injury in the Orchards of the Rogue River Valley, Pi-evention

of. O'Gara. Medford. Ore.
Fruit Barkbeetle. Illinois State Entomologist. Bui. 4.
Fruit-tree Barkbeetle, The. Bur. of Entomology. Cir. 29. 2d scries.

Chittenden. (1898.)
"Fruit Ranching in British Columbia." Bealby. (1909.) Price,

$1.50 net.
Fruit-tree Leaf-roller. U. S. Dept. of AgT. Gill. (1913.)
Fruit, Use of, as a Food. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Langworthy. (1907.)
" Fruit Trees, Insect and Other Pests Injurious to." Drury.

218

Fungicides and their Use in preventing Diseases of Fruits. Farmers'
Bulletin 243. Waite. (1906.)

How Birds affect the Orchard. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Beal. (1900.)

Insects and Plant Diseases. Connecticut (Storrs) Agr. Exp. Station.
Bui. 56. Jarvis. (1909.)

" Insects Injurious to Fruits." Saunders. (1909.) Price, $2.

"Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard." E. Dwight Sander-
son. (1912.) Price, $3.

Leaf-miner, The Trumpet of the Apple. Bur. of Entomology. Bui.
68, pt. 3. (1907.)

Leaf -spot, Apple. Bur. of Plant Industry. Bui. 121, pt. 5. (1908.)

Lesser Apple Worm. U. S. Dept. of Agr.

Lime-sulphur as a Summer Spray. New York (Cornell) Agr. Exp.
Station. Bui. 298. Wallace. (1911.)

Maggot, Apple or Railroad Worm. Bur. of Entomology. Cir. 101.

Mildew, Powdery, of the Apple. Div. Vegetable Pathology. Cir. 8.

Miseible Oils : How to make Them. Pennsylvania Agr. Exp. Station.
Bui. 86. (1908.) Delaware Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 79. Penny.
(1907.)

More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Fruit and Fo-
liage of the Apple. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Quaintance.

One-spray Method in Control of the Codling Moth and Plum Cur-
eulio. Bur. of Entomology. Bui. 115, pt. 2. Quaintance and
Scott.

Orchard and Garden Spraying. Minnesota Agr. Exp. Station. Bui.
121. Buggies and Stalonan. (1911.)

Orchard Fruits in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge Mountains of Vir-
ginia and the South Atlantic States. IT. S. Dept. of Agr. Gould.
(1908.)

Oyster-shell Scale, The. New Hampshire Agr. Exp. Station. Cir. 4.
"(1908.)

Papers on Deciduous Fruit Insects and Insecticides. Bur. of Ento-
mology. Bui. 80. (1912.)

Pests and their Treatment. Pennsylvania Dept. of Agr. Zoological
Bui., Vol. 1, No. 1. (1911.)

Plant Disease and Spray Calendar. Maryland Agr. Exp. Station.
Bui. 143. Norton and Normal. (1910.)

Preparation and LTse of Concentrated Lime-sulphur. Pennsylvania
AgT. Exp. Station. Bui. 99. Stewart. (1910.) Bui. 115. Stew-
art. (1912.)

Preparation and Use of Self-boiled Lime-sulphur. Farmers' Bulletin
440. Quaintance. (1911.)

Pi'oprietary and Homemade Miseible Oils. Connecticut (Storrs)
Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 54. Jarvis. (1908.)

Root-knot and its Control. Bur. of Plant Industry. Bui. 217,
Bessev.

219

Rough Bark Disease of the Yellow Newtown Apjile. U. S. Dept.

of Agr.
San Jos:3 Scale and its Control. Bur. of Entomology. Cir. 124.

Quaintance. (1910.)
San Jose Scale, Fumigation of Apples for. Bur. of Entomology.

Bui. 84. Quaintance. (1909.)
San Jose Scale and Methods of Treatment. Ehode Island State

Board of Agr. Stene. (1908.)
Scab, Control of Apple. Farmers' Bulletin 247. Marhitt andOrton.

(1906.)
" Spraying Crops : Why, When and How." Weed.
Spraying Devices, New. Div. of Vegetable Pathology. Cir. 17.
Spraying for Apple Diseases and the Codling Moth in the Ozarks.

Farmers' BuUetin 283. Quaintance. (1907.)
Spraying for Fruit Diseases. Farmers' Bulletin 38.
" Spraying for Profit." Weed.

" Spraying of Plants." Lodeman. (1896.) Price, $1.25.
Spraying for Weeds. Farmers' Bulletin 360. (1909.)
Sprajdng, Fumigating and Dij^ping for the Control of the San Jose

Scale. Maryland Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 148. Symons, Peairs

and Cory. (1910.)
Spraying to Control Weeds. Ohio Agr. Exjd. Station. Cir. 102.

Selby. (1910.)
Substitution of Lime-sulphur Preparations for Bordeaux Mixture in

the Treatment of Apple Diseases. U. S. Dept. of Agr. (1910.)
Tent Caterpillar, The Apple-Tree. Bur. of Entomology. Cir. 98.
Weeds, their Eradication and Control. Rhode Island AgT. Exp.

Station. Bui. 133. (1909.)
When and How to Spray. Ohio University. Columbus, 0. Davis.

(1910.)

Harvesting, Storing, Packing and Marketing.
Apple Grading and Branding. Maine AgT. Exp. Station. Official

Inspection Bui. 12. (1909.)
Apple Harvesting and Marketing. Oregon Agr. Exp. Station. Bui.

94. Lewis. (1907.)
Apple Marketing. Massachusetts Agi-. Exp. Station. Report for

1903. Waugh and Greene.
Apple Marketing. North Carolina Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 182.

Bruner. (1903.)
Apple Packing and Marketing. Idaho Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. .54.

Judson. (1906.)
Apple Packing in Boxes. New York (Cornell) Agr. Exp. Station.

Bui. 298. Wilson. (1911.)
Apples in Cold Storage. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Powell. (1903.)

220

" Canning, Complete Course In." Trade Company, 304 Maryland

Savings Bank Bldg., Baltimore, Md. (1911.) Price, $5.
Cold Storage of Apples. Iowa Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. 72. (1903.)

Bui. 108. Eustace and Beach. (1909.)
Cold Storage of Apples. New Hampshire Agr. Exp. Station. Bui.

93. Rane, Lamson and Morse. (1902.)
Cold Storage of Apples. New York (State) AgT. Exp. Station. Bui.

248. Beach and Clark. (1904.)
Cold Storage, Apples in. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bur. of Plant In-

dustiy. Bui. 48.
Cold Storage of Apples. West Virginia Agi-. Exp. Station. Bui. 74.

Corbett.^ (1901.)
Cold Storage of SmaU Fruits. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Fulton. (1907.)
" Fruits and how to Use Them." Poole. Price, $1.
" Fruit Receipts." Berry. Price, $1.50 net.
Handling of Fruit for Transportation. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Powell.

(1905.)
" How to Grow and Market Fruit." Harrison's Nurseries, Berlin,

Md. (1911.) Price, 50 cents.
" Two Hundred and Nine Ways of preparing the Apple." Mackay.

Price, 25 cents.

CiDBR AND Vinegar.
" Cider Makers' Handbook." Trowbridge.
Cider Making in France, Germany and England, Study of. U. S.

Dept. of Agi\ Alwood. (1903.)
Unfermented Apple Juice. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Gore. (1908.)
"Vinegar, Practical Treatise on Manufacture of." Brannt. (1900.)

Price, $6 net.

Experiment Stations, Locations and Directors.
Arkansas: Fayetteville, M. Nelson.
Colorado : Fort Collins, C. P. Gillette.
Connecticut: State Station, New Haven, Storrs Station, Storrs, E. H.

Jenkins.
Delaware: Newark, H. Hayward.
Georgia : Experiment, R. J. H. DeLoach.
Idaho : Moscow, W. L. Carlyle.
Illinois: Urbana, E. Davenport.
Indiana: La Fayette, A. Goss.
Iowa: Ames, C. F. Curtiss.
Kansas : Manhattan, W. M. Jardine.
Maine: Orono, C. D. Woods.
Maryland : College Park, H. J. Patterson.
Massachusetts: Amherst, W. P. Brooks.
Michigan: East Lansing, R. S. Shaw.

221

Minnesota: University Farm, St. Paul, A. F. Woods.

Missouri: College Station, Columbia, F. B. Mumford; Fruit Station,
Mountain Grove, Paul Evans.

Montana : Bozeman, F. B. Linfield.

Nebraska: Lincoln, E. A. Burnett.

Nevada: Reno, S. P. Doten.

New Hampshire : Durham, J. C. Kendall.

New Jersey: New Brunswick, J. G. Lipman.

New Mexico: State College, Fabian Garcia.

New York: State Station, Geneva, W. H. Jordan; Cornell Station.
Ithaca, W. A. Stocking, Jr.

North Carolina: College Station, West Raleigh, State Station, Ra-
leigh, B. W. Kilgore.

Ohio : Wooster, C. E. Thorue.

Oregon: Corvallis, J. Witlwcombe.

Pennsylvania : State College, R. L. Watts.

Rhode Island: Kingston, B. L. Hartwell.

South Carolina: Clemson College, J. N. Harper.

South Dakota : Brookings, J. W. Wilson.

Vermont: Burlington, J. L. Hills.

Virginia: Blaoksburg, S. W. Fletcher; Norfolk, Truck Station, T. C.
Johnson.

Washington : Pullman, I. D. Cardiff.

West Virginia: Morgantown, E. D. Sanderson.

Wisconsin : Madison, H. L. Russell.

INDEX.

INDE

AdaptabilitJ* of New England to peaches, pears, quiuces, sour cherries,

grapes, small fruits, ....
Advantages of New England as a fruit-growing center, essay on, by

G. A. Drew,

England,

Aphids or plant lice,

Apple diseases, essaj' on, by Dr. Geo. E. Stone

Apple growing, conditions favorable to, in New

in the west,

Apple maggot (railroad worm), life history, remedies,
Apple markets, types of , . . .

Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers, by
Apple worm (codling moth) , .
Apples, Ben Davis, growing, advisability of, in

commercial varieties, score card for,

eastern v. western,

handling, ....

peaches and pears, fertilization,

picking, ....

rust, ....

scab, ....

spray calendar for,

thinning, ....

varieties of, for New England,
Apple-tree borer, life history,

remedies.
Apple-tree caterpillar, red-humped,
yellow-necked.

Baldwin fruit spot,

spot,
Barrel, packing, standard,
Basic slag, its use in old orchards,
Bearing, consistent.
Beginners, caution to.
Blight, apple,

fire, .

leaf,

twig,
Bordeaux mixture, essay

Albert R. Jenks

New England,

Geo. E. Stone,

on, by Dr.
its preparation,
spraying with, in old orchard,
testing for proper proportion of lime.
Borers, preventives of.
Box, ideal, .
lining,
packing,
V. barrel,
Bud moth, life history,
remedies.

140, 181

201

11

5

1S2, 183

184

28

26

138

56,57

105, 117

134

16

58

9

34

16, 17

11

189

189

205

11, 34

84

139

140

142

141

194
193
109
101

IS

12
191
191
190
191
201
202, 203

98
203

19
109
116
114
107
142
143

226

Canker, blight, ....
blister, ....
European,

nectria, ....
worm, fall,
spring,
Care of orchards, essential details, .
Caution to beginners, ...
Cavities, treatment.
Chemicals, use in the orchard.
Codling moth (apple worm), life history,
remedies,
spraying.
Cold storage, ....

Cover crop, buckwheat,
cow peas, .
rye, ....
soy beans, .
vetch,
Cover crops for northern Massachusetts,
in orchard,
in the old orchard,
Crops, supplementary, .
Crown gall, .....
Cultivation of orchard, .

of old orchard,

Definitions of grafting terms.

Drew, G. A., essay by, on New England as a fruit-growing center

Drought, effects, ....

Dwarf trees.

Emulsion, kerosene, preparation,

Fernald, H. T., essay by, on Massachusetts fruit trees and their insect
foes, ....
on plant lice or aphids,
on three common scale insects,
Ferro-cyanide of potassium, testing Bordeaux mixture with.
Fertilization, of apples, peaches, pears,

of the orchard 10, 33, 78,

Fillers in the orchard,

peaches as, . .

Fly speck, ....
Forbush, Erwin H., spray calendar for apples,
Frost, blisters,
cracks,

proof storage.
Fruit mold, ....
pit, ....
trees and their insect foes,
Fungous diseases.

Grading,

Grafting cloth, preparation,
cleft,

129
181
174
202
■ 16
9^, 103

227

Grafting knife,

root, saddle,

tongue, .
veneer, .
whip,
terms, definition,
time to do.
Grafts, root, planting, .

Handling,

Harvesting, .

Hemenway, H. D., essay by, on root and cleft grafting.

Hickory tiger moth, the, .....

Influence of soil variation on crop production, essay on, by H. J

WUder

Insect enemies, summary,

Jenks, Albert R., essay by, on apple packing for Massachusetts
growers, ......

Kerosene emulsion, preparation.

Knife for grafting, ....

Labeling, ......

Land value for fruit growing.
Lime in orchard fertilization,

in old orchards, ....

Lime-sulfur, efficiency for scale as compared with soluble oil

home preparation,

self-boiled, directions for preparation

Markets, types of, for apples,
Massachusetts as a fruit-growing section,

fruit trees and their insect foes, essay on
Fernald,

opportunities in fruit growing.
Mildew, powdery, ....

Miscible oils for San Jose scale.
Mold, pink, .....

Mulch in orchard, ....

New England as a fruit-growing center, .
Nitrogen, use of, in old orchards,

Opportunities in fruit growing in Massachusetts
Orchard, currants in the,

fertilization,

fillers,

mulch, .

phosphoric acid in the,

potash in the,

renovation.
Oyster-shell scale, control,

life hi.story,
treatment.

, by

H. T

10

3.3,

132
14

9, 95, 103

86

13

101

100

91

137

\7s

179

228

Packing, concerning,

table.

Painting of wounds caused by pruning,
Peach borer, life history,
remedies, .
Peach trees as fillers.
Pear psylla, life history,

remedies,
Phosphoric acid in old orchards.
Picking, ....
Pigs in orchard land,
Planting of a commercial orchard

F. C. Sears,
Planting root grafts.
Plant lice, description, .

general life history,
kinds, .
treatment.
Plant lice or aphids, essay on, by H
Plum, curculio, life history,

remedies.
Potash, use in old orchards, .
Pruning the apple tree, essay on, by
Pruning, ideal in, .

of old orchard,

painting of wounds caused

summer,

time,

Massachusetts, essay

T. F

C. D

by,

ernald

. Jar\

Railroad worm (apple maggot), control,

life history,
remedies.

Renovating old orchards, essay on, by F. C. Sears, .

Renovation of old orchards, age and vigor of trees in,

cultivation, .

fertilizing,

pruning,

San Jos6 scale in,
spraying,
stand of trees,
varieties in orchard.
Root and cleft grafting, essay on, by H. D. flemcnway,

grafting.
Rot, bitter, .
black, .
brown,
core,
pink,
Rots,
Rye as orchard cover crop,

San Jos6 scale, life history,
treatment.
Scale insects, general spraying directions,
Scions, selection and care.
Score card for a commercial variety of apples,

)n, by

94, 137,

175,

PAGE

105, 117
115

98
149
150

17
147
148
101

11

21

74
127
140
181
182

141, 183
181

151, 152
153
100

96
98
92
91

19

138

139

93

91,93

95

103

96

94

98

94

94

122

122

185

186

186

187

190

185

12

174

177, 205

177

122

58

229

Scraping trees, advisability of practice.
Scurfy scale, ....

control.

Sears, F. C, essay by, ou the planting of a commercial orchard in

Massachusetts, .

on renovating old orchards,

on varieties of apples for Ma.-5sachusetts

orchards, .
on western methods in New England
charding.
Sod in old orchards, ....
Soil classification, table.
Soils, adapted to Baldwin,

Ben Davis and Gano, .
Fall Pippin,
Grimes Golden,
Hubbardston,
Mcintosh, .
Northern Spy,
Rhode Island Greening,
Rome Beauty,
Tompkins King, .
Wagener,
Sooty blotch, .....

Spray calendar for apples, compiled by Erwin Hill J'orbush,
Spraying, .....
for codling moth, .
for San Jose scale, ..... 98, 137, 175,

methods 203,

Stone, Geo. E., essay by, on apple diseases,
Storage of apples, advantages,
frost-proof,

"gravity brine system,"
ice in, cost,

lecture on, by F. C. Sears,
refrigeration by ammonia or other gi
refrigeration by ice,
for general crops,
ice house.
Storage plant, construction, cost of,
function,
ideal points,
neighborhood, .
Sulzer bill, the, ....
Summer spraying.
Sun scald, .....
Supplementary crops in young orchards,

Thinning apples, .
Three common scale insects, essay on, by H. T
Top-grafting in old orchards, its drawbacks.
Trees, age for setting, .

cost of setting,

distance apart to set, .

dwarf,

newly set, heading.

Fernald,

P.\GE

98
180
137

74
93

oG

13

43

42

52

50

50

48

49

48

47

51

50

49

191

168

33

135

177, 205

206. 207

184

158

161

162

164

158

161

161

172

168

171

159

159

168

110

92

198

14

11, 34

174

103

18

32

17, 86

18

83

230

PAGE

Trees, setting, in unplowed land, ....... 21

laying off ground, SO, 81, 82

young orchard, ....... 77, 78

Tussock moth, .......... 154

old 156

white-marked, ....... 155

Value of five-year old trees, ........ 22

Varieties of apples for Massachusetts orchards, essay on, by F. C.

Sears, ........... 56

Varieties, choosing, for Massachusetts orchards, . . . ' . 32

for general orchard, ....... 19

value, discussion of Baldwin, ...... 60

Blue Pearmain, ..... 73

Fall Pippin 70

Gravenstein, ..... 69

Hubbardston, ..... 64

Mcintosh, 61

Northern Spy 72

Oldenburg, ..... 66

Palmer Greening (Washington Royal) , . 67

Red Astrachan, ..... 70

Rhode Island Greening, ... 62

Roxbury Russet, .... 66

Sutton 68

Wealthy 63

Westfield, 71

Williams Early, ..... 65

Yellow Transparent, .... 73

Vetch as orchard cover crop, ........ 12

Western methods in New England orcharding, essay on, by F. C.

Sears, 25

Whale-oil soap, its use in treating oyster-shell scale, . . . 179
Wilder, H. J.,' essay by, on the influence of soil variation on crop

production, .......... 36

Wrapping, . . . . . . • - • • .116, 167

Young orchard, setting out, ........ 77, 78

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