APPLE GROVflMG IN CALIFORNIA FRANK W. ALLEN circular its CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE • UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEPTEMBER 1951 Section I. The apple industry in the state 1. The present situation California produces only about 8 per cent of the country's apples. While this may seem relatively unimportant when compared with Washington's 25 per cent, the fact remains that California's place among apple-producing states usually varies from third to fifth. In several years its production has been exceeded only by Washington and New York, and in most others has been exceeded by these two together with Virginia and Pennsylvania. During the years 1944-48, the total farm value of apples was scarcely 25 per cent that of peaches and less than 50 per cent that of pears. It was, however, approximately 40 per cent greater than either cherries or plums. California ap- ples meet more competition in marketing than many of the state's other fruit crops, and this, together with other factors con- tributing toward relatively low returns to apple growers, are discussed in detail in IN THIS SECTION Page 1 . The present situation 1 2. Requirements for apple growing ... 2 3. Popular districts 4 4. Market outlets* 7 5. Costs and income 8 * The co-author of this section, Burt B. Burlingame, is Associate Agriculturist (Farm Management) and Associate on the Giannini Foundation. The prospective grower is advised to familiarize himself with conditions as they exist in the state Exp. Sta. Cir. 395, California Apples: Situation and Outlook— 1949, by B. B. Burlingame. Crop failures in California are prac- tically unknown, and except for alternate bearing, annual yields during the past 20 years have been relatively constant. Crops decreased somewhat between 1930 and 1944, but in comparison with a con- tinuous decline of approximately 50 per cent in acreage of bearing trees since 1926, the drop in production has been relatively small (see graph) . The initial decline in acreage was due primarily to the removal of some 6,000 acres of trees in the Yucaipa district of San Bernardino County, and in the re- moval of similar acreage in the Pajaro Valley. Further reductions continued in San Bernardino, Inyo, Sonoma, Santa Clara and Tuolumne counties. Lack of sufficient cold during the win- ter; lack of or the high cost of irrigation water; the general unprofitableness of apples compared with some other crops; all have been contributing factors in the reduction of bearing acreage. New plantings in recent years have . been confined to small acreages, pri- marily in Santa Cruz, Monterey, Sonoma, Tulare, El Dorado, Mariposa, and other Sierra foothill counties. In the Pajaro Valley in Santa Cruz and Monterey coun- ties, new plantings have just about offset the older trees removed. Detailed fig- ures on the bearing and nonbearing acre- SECTION 1-Page 1 o o c i2 a 10 » 8 I 8 2 6 P 4g 1930 1940 1950 This graph illustrates both acreage and production figures for California apples. Note that while acreage has declined rather steadily, production of apples has remained relatively constant. ages of apples in each county may be obtained from the Agricultural Statisti- cian, State Department of Agriculture, Sacramento. 2. Requirements for apple growing A commercial apple orchard represents a long-time investment, so while apples may be grown under a rather wide range of conditions, it is well to consider the over-all factors of any given location that will contribute to the success of the ven- ture. Climatic requirements. Summer and winter temperatures, frost damage, winds, and fog are the elements of weather to be considered. Apple trees thrive and fruit best under a relatively long, cool, slow, growing season. Except for early summer varieties in favorable locations, apples are not be- ing produced successfully under interior- valley conditions. Suitable size and good SECTION 1-Page 2 texture are difficult to secure where high temperatures are combined with low humidity. Furthermore, sunburn damage is often serious on the fruit. In California, therefore, the best apple districts are those where summer temperatures are considered too low for the optimum de- velopment of other tree fruits, except per- haps pears. For this reason commercial production is limited to rather definite sections in coast or bay counties with coastal influences or to those in counties of the interior at an altitude of 2,000 to 4,000 feet. At elevations of 3,500 feet or higher, summer temperatures are moderate and there is usually enough winter chilling to permit satisfactory opening of the buds of most varieties in spring. This is true also for the varieties grown in coastal regions in the northern part of the state. In some southern districts there is very harmful delay in opening of leaf buds and flower buds in springs following the warmest winters. Temperatures in any part of the state are rarely severe enough to cause winter injury to apple trees; but at altitudes above 3.500 feet the crop is frequently endangered or even lost by reason of late spring frosts. Coastal sec- tions are particularly free from frost damage. Any location subject to strong winds during the growing period should be avoided. Beside the possibility of blowing the fruit from the trees at harvest time, much damage may occur through limb rubbing. Fogs may help in coastal sections to break the rest period of trees in the spring. In the growing season, however, 11,690 acres NAPA ) VacrA 1 /"sOLANO ft CONTRA ~K COSTA Jwbnt — _ ^ALP,Ne* | JOAQUIN K / r TUOLUMNE ^L\alameoa • sTANISLAUsX 1 J MERCED . MARIPOSA A -^V- MADERA /*" r^ L BENITO\ FRESNO \MONTeRev\ Ikinos J ^AN LUH OBISPO! Map of Apple Acreage in California Each dot represents approxi- mately 250 acres. Figures are from California Crop Reporting Service, and show acreage as of the year 1949. »ANTA BARBARA SAN BERNARDINO LOS ANOELES • • SECTION 1 -Page 3 excessive fog prevents full color develop- ment of red or striped varieties and may also cause russeting, which renders the fruit less attractive. For these reasons fruit of highest color and finish is usually produced in fog-free areas at higher alti- tudes. Soil. Apple orchards have been planted both on stiff, heavy clay and on sandy soils; but an intermediate type ranging from clay loam to silt or sandy loam is preferable. Such soils are easier to work than those which are heavier; are likely to be more fertile and have a higher mois- ture-holding capacity than the sandy soils. Good drainage is essential; the tree roots should strike to a considerable depth without reaching the water table. Shallow soils or soils underlaid with hard- pan or gravel should preferably be avoided. Different varieties of apples may show special suitability to certain types of soil. In the Watsonville section the Yellow Newtown does better on heavier soils than the Yellow Bellflower. The Gravenstein, likewise, is apparently well adapted to the fine, sandy loam of the Sebastopol sec- tion. With only a few varieties, however, have such soil adaptations been deter- mined with any degree of certainty. Water supply. Most apple orchards of California depend entirely upon natu- ral rainfall for their water supply. Others receive one or two irrigations. Usually, where the average annual precipitation amounts to as much as 20 inches, that amount has been thought sufficient for satisfactory tree growth. Though it may, under favorable soil and climatic condi- tions, produce sufficient growth the first few years, it may prove inadequate after the trees reach bearing age. Even where the rainfall is as much as 40 inches, irri- gation is sometimes beneficial, either be- cause of an or»en, porous soil of low water-holding capacity or because all the rain comes at one season and some is lost through surface runoff and by deep per- colation. Bearing trees need an adequate water supply to produce a large crop and bring it to proper size. In most sections, rains are not expected during the latter part of the growing season; hence irrigation facilities will enable the grower to apply water if needed. 3. Popular districts From the standpoint of apple-produc- ing acreage, two-thirds of the state's total is to be found in Sonoma, together with a small section in Mendocino and Napa counties and in the Pajaro Valley in Santa Cruz and Monterey counties. Some 80 per cent of the state's total com- mercial production is to be found in the Sonoma County and Watsonville dis- tricts. The remaining acreage is in certain smaller districts in a dozen or more coastal and foothill areas from Humboldt and Shasta on the north to San Diego in the south. Although many of these plant- ings are small and scattered, they produce apples of excellent color and quality. The Pajaro Valley or Watsonville area is both the oldest and heaviest pro- ducing section of the state; the annual production averaging around 4 million 36-pound boxes. At present from 55 to 60 per cent of the apple acreage is of the Yellow Newtown variety; 20 per cent of Delicious; 10 per cent of Yellow Bell- flower; and the remaining acreage of mixed varieties, including White Pear- main and Winter Banana. Newer plant- ings have been largely of the red strains of Delicious, with some 800 acres of non- bearing age. Because of the climatic conditions, standard red varieties may lack high color. The soils vary from porous sandy loams to clay loams and clays on the ter- races and slopes, and from sandy loams to clays and clay-adobes on the valley floors. With an average annual winter rainfall of 20 inches or more, compara- tively cool temperatures, and high humid- ity, most orchards are nonirrigated. Some, however (perhaps 20 to 25 per SECTION 1-Page 4 cent) receive one 6- to 8-inch irrigation in July or August, the water being ob- tained from wells. Although there is some alternate bearing, average total yields are high, ranging from 3 to 5 million boxes or 54,000 to 90,000 tons. Approximately one-half the total crop is used as fresh fruit. Cash buyers pur- chase much of the crop. Some of the larger growers, having their own packing and storage houses are also packer- shippers who either purchase outright or handle, pack, and market the crop of smaller growers. The district now has storage facilities for over 2 million boxes of fruit and is well provided with evapor- ators, processing, and by-products plants. Although fogs are frequent, fungous diseases are relatively few. Powdery mil- dew does considerable new shoot damage and apple scab is occasionally severe. Codling moth, aphids, and mites are the most important insect pests, but with the orange tortrix or skinworm becoming a problem in recent years. Fruit of the Yel- low Newtown variety from this section is subject to internal browning of the flesh. Sonoma County. The total acreage in Sonoma County is similar to that in the Pajaro Valley but the tonnage pro- duced is not so great. Total shipments of packed apples vary from 700 cars or less in occasional years of short crops, to 2,000 cars in other years. Over a pe- riod of years shipments approximate 1,500 cars, or about 35 to 40 per cent of the state's total production. Processing plants and driers each now utilize some 18,000-20,000 tons of fruit. Approximately three-fourths of the ap- ple crop of the county originates in the Sebastopol area, extending about five miles south of Sebastopol, west to Occi- dental, and north to Forestville and Tren- ton. The topography there is naturally rolling, the soil being usually a fine sandy loam with a permeable clay subsoil. From the standpoint of climate this region, though coastal, partakes somewhat of in- land valley conditions. Day temperatures are considerably higher than in the Pajaro Valley, while the winter rainfall is about one-third greater— perhaps 37 inches. Irrigation, though not generally practiced, would doubtless be beneficial in orchards on the more shallow soils. Water, however, is scarce and difficult to obtain. Two-thirds of the acreage is de- voted to Gravensteins, a portion of which supply the eastern markets in July and August with the first boxed apples of the season. The district is well provided with selling organizations, storage facilities, canneries, evaporators, processing, and vinegar plants. Other areas of the county include those adjacent to Geyserville and Healdsburg farther north, and the Vineburg and So- noma districts in the southeastern part. The general climatic and growing condi- tions in these districts resemble those of Sebastopol. In the Geyserville and Healdsburg areas, somewhat heavier and also more gravelly soils prevail, and the topography is flatter. Irrigation is avail- able in a few orchards. As in the Sebas- topol area proper, the Gravenstein is the principal variety. Mendocino Count/. Orchards of Mendocino County are somewhat scat- tered with the main center of production in the Anderson Valley about midway be- tween Ukiah and the coast. From 4,000 to 5,000 tons are produced annually. The orchards are located on cutover red- wood lands, and the trees are grown with- out irrigation. Jonathan, Baldwin, Rome Beauty, Rhode Island Greening, Gano, King, Ben Davis, Delicious, Winter Ba- nana, and Wagener, as well as many less popular varieties, are grown successfully. Much of the crop is dried by individual growers in their own dehydrating plants. In the last few years, however, approxi- mately 500 tons have been sold direct to fresh-fruit markets, San Francisco and local dealers purchasing the fruit at the orchards and doing their own hauling. Although with proper attention to spray- SECTION 1-Page 5 ing and other orchard operations, excel- lent apples can be produced, the total tonnage has apparently not warranted a definite general market for packed fruit. San Bernardino County, Apple acreage in San Bernardino County, which in 1925 was 6,000 acres, is now only a little over 750 acres. Winter temperatures in the Yucaipa district on the mesa lands east of Redlands at elevations of 2,000 to 3,000 feet proved to be too mild for an adequate dormant period of the trees. Largely because of this, apple growing in the county is now confined almost entirely to areas at an elevation of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. Plantings center about Oak Glen, Wrightwood and in the Crestline- Arrowhead area. Except for the possi- bility of late spring frosts these areas are well adapted for the apple. The main va- rieties grown are Rome Beauty, Winesap, Delicious, Jonathan, White Pearmain, and King David. Napa County, adjoining Sonoma on the east, contains some 600 acres of apple orchards nearly half of which are of the Gravenstein variety produced in the Car- neros district southeast of Napa. Butte County, With the exception of a few acres near Gridley the apple acre- age of Butte County is located adjacent to Paradise at elevations of 1,000 to 2,000 feet. The principal varieties in order of importance are Red Delicious, Delicious, Golden Delicious and Stayman Winesap. Some Gravenstein, King David, and York Imperial are also produced. Increased attention is being given to grading and packing and several packing houses are in operation during the harvest season. San Francisco and Los Angeles are the principal markets. During the two sea- sons of 1948 and 1949 some 100 acres of new orchards have been planted. Tuolumne County, Plantings in Tu- olumne County, totaling approximately 500 acres are in the Yankee Hill, Soulsby- ville, Ralph Station, and Tuolumne dis- tricts in the southwestern part of the county at altitudes of 2,300 to 3,500 feet. The general topography is typical of the Sierra Nevada foothills, rolling to hilly, with many of the orchards on rather steep slopes and surrounded by timber. The nature and depth of the soil varies with the type of rocks from which it has been derived. Soils obtained from grano- diorite are light red in color, sandy loam to loam in nature, well drained, and from shallow to 6 feet in depth. Those from the slates and diabase are somewhat heav- ier and of a deeper red. All are rather easily cultivated, but such work is often difficult or inadvisable because of the steepness of the slope. Irrigation water is obtained from the south fork of the Stanislaus River and nearly all orchards receive 2 or 3 irriga- tions annually. Tulare County, Apple production in Tulare County is divided between that of early summer apples (mostly White Astrachan, between Visalia and Exeter and in the Cutler district) and that of the fall and winter varieties produced in the foothill areas around Kaweah and Three Rivers. The summer apples, har- vested early for cooking purposes, are for the most part trucked to the Los Angeles and San Francisco markets while some of the fall varieties, good for eating out of hand, are often sold in small lots to individual consumers who come to the orchards for them. San Diego County, Except for a few small scattered orchards in other locali- ties, production in San Diego County is confined to the district around Julian at an altitude of 4,000 to 4,500 feet. Most standard fall and winter varieties are grown, Delicious being perhaps of most importance. With good production meth- ods fruit of high color and fine quality is produced. Most of the crop is marketed locally in San Diego with some truck shipments to Los Angeles. Late spring frosts are sometimes a hazard in this producing area. Other counties. In addition to the above counties, small scattered plantings, SECTION 1-Page 6 totaling between 200 and 300 acres, are to be found in Humboldt and Shasta counties in the north and in the foothill sections of El Dorado and Mariposa counties. Climatically these sections are well adapted to apple growing and where the trees receive good care some very ex- cellent fruit is produced. Santa Clara County, better adapted to pears than to apples, nevertheless still produces some miscellaneous varieties in the bay and mountain sections. In the south, San Luis Obispo County contains some 250 acres of apples in the area west of Templeton and south to Arroyo Grande. In Los An- geles County there are approximately 200 acres in the Antelope Valley. 4. Market outlets Utilization of apples. California apples are marketed as fresh fruit, or are processed in a number of ways.* The relative amount utilized in each form varies somewhat from year to year de- pending upon market demand and the general level of prices. In recent years the quantity of apples used as fresh fruit has averaged somewhat less than half of the total marketable crop. With limited ex- port demand for dried apples, less fruit is now dried than formerly, about 25 per cent. On the other hand there has been considerable increase in the quantity used for bakery trade, canning, sauce and baby foods, together with that crushed for juice, cider, and vinegar. Fresh fruit. Limited amounts of early summer and other apple varieties, exempt from the maturity provisions of the Agri- cultural Codef are on the market in June to supply the demand for cooking apples. Mature Gravensteins follow in July and * For statistical data on utilization see Calif. Agr. Expt. Cir. 395 — California Apples: Situa- tion and Outlook 1949, B. B. Burlingame. t Alexander, Red Astrachan, White Astra- chan, Beitigheimer, Greening, Fall Pippin and White Pearmain in the Fancy and C grades and Gravenstein and Yellow Bellflower in the C grade (but not in combination) when larger than 2% inches in diameter and when place packed or loose. August, Yellow Bellflower in September, and Delicious, Yellow Newtown and other varieties in September or October. As fresh fruit, both for eating and culinary purposes, Gravensteins are shipped to eastern markets supplying them with the first boxed apples of the season. The balance of the crop sold fresh and most of that of other varieties used fresh, is distributed by trucks to various local markets loose or place packed in open containers. These apples are on California markets in quantity from No- vember to April. Considerable quantities of both Gravensteins and of Yellow New- towns were formerly exported— primarily to England, but at present exports are very limited. A small amount of large- sized, well-colored fruit, particularly De- licious, goes into special gift packages which are widely distributed. Methods of sale vary considerably in different districts. In the smaller districts with limited production, sales may be made at the orchard either directly to con- sumers or to cash buyers from local mar- kets. Otherwise the grower delivers the apples to some local store or dealer. In either case sales are strictly local, and the apples are sold as bulk fruit with little or no sizing or grading. Where fruit is produced in large quan- tities for the general markets, the average grower either sells his crop to some buyer (often a large grower in the district), who handles and ships considerable quan- tities of fruit or else he markets it through some sales agency, either private or co- operative. Private sales agencies may purchase the fruit outright or sell on commission. In a cooperative, the indi- vidual growers composing it receive what the fruit brings less the necessary charges for operation. As mentioned above, an occasional grower develops a special mar- ket for extra fancy fruit put up in gift packages. The volume of fruit thus sold is necessarily small, but the returns are large. The baking trade now takes large quantities of apples which are peeled, SECTION 1-Page 7 cored, and sliced, all ready for immediate use. The fruit is treated to prevent dark- ening and is packed and delivered in its fresh state in 50-pound boxes— deliveries being made by truck to the adjoining states of Nevada and Arizona. In some instances the fruit is frozen either with or without the addition of sugar. The Yellow Newtown is the principal variety used for this method of processing. Another outlet for apples which has expanded rapidly in recent years is the apple sauce and baby food industry. The Gravenstein is particularly desirable for these purposes, but by blending, most varieties may be used. The processing period is now extended over a longer season than formerly through the medium of cold storage. Fresh apple juice (one of the newer apple products), together with cider and vinegar, utilizes considerable fruit not processed otherwise. Yields and returns. Differences in soil, climatic conditions, varieties, age of trees, and general care given the orchards cause wide variation in apple yields. The largest and most uniform yields are doubtless secured in the Pajaro Val- ley, where the majority of orchards, un- der good care produce average yields of 400 to 450 (7 to 8 tons) boxes per acre. From the better orchards 600 to 1,200 (11 to 22 tons) boxes may be produced. In the Gravenstein section of Sonoma County the general average yields of full- bearing orchards vary from 250 to 450 (6 to 10 tons) boxes per acre, the size of the yield depending largely upon the season. The more successful growers may secure 500 to 700 boxes ( 12 to 17 tons) to the acre. In both these sections, individual orchards in certain seasons may give much higher yields, but these are excep- tional. In other sections, individual orchards will doubtless compare favorably with these figures, although because of the lack of proper care the general average of an entire district will probably be lower. During past years, prices received by California apple growers have varied widely. They have dropped violently since the war years of 1941 to 1945. In general, apples have returned less to the growers in California than those in other states. Most of the California crop consists of green or yellow varieties which, as a rule, bring lower prices than those of a solid red color. Moreover, in most years one-half or more of the Cali- fornia crop is used for processing, dry- ing, or for juice, and the prices paid for such fruit are considerably less than those paid for graded fruit sold for fresh use. Table 1 (after Burlingame) shows a com- parison of prices paid for fruit utilized in different markets. Average returns in the period 1940- 1949, for Pajaro Valley apples (primar- ily Yellow Newtowns with some Yellow Bellflowers and Delicious) at the ranch, packing house or processing plant have been $1.77 per box or $93.92 per ton for fresh fruit; $43.72 per ton for processing fruit, according to annual reports fur- nished by the Santa Cruz County Agri- cultural Commissioner. During the same period, approximate average returns to growers in the Sebas- topol Apple Growers Union were: Grav- ensteins $1.78 a box; Delicious $1.86; Jonathans $1.99. Averages for the decade are somewhat higher than in previous years because of the relatively high prices during and subsequent to the war years. 5. Costs and income By Burt B. Burlingame Production costs vary greatly be- tween individual growers, due mainly to management practices. The apple enter- prise management studies conducted in Sonoma and Santa Cruz counties by the Agricultural Extension Service showed that some growers have production costs double those of others. Yield per acre was found to be the most imporant factor affecting costs per box or per ton. SECTION 1-Page 8 Tables 2 and 3 on pages 10 and 11 were prepared from data obtained in the above studies and a supplemental survey con- ducted in 1948. These tables are intended to show approximate costs of production for some of the more efficient growers of Gravensteins in Sonoma County, and Yellow Newtowns in Santa Cruz County, under 1947-48 conditions. They are pre- sented here for use by individual growers as a basis of comparison in analyzing their own costs, and to help those not familiar with the costs involved on good apple orchards. These tables should not be construed as representing industry average costs of production in the two counties. Labor requirements will usually vary from year to year, depending on such factors as weather conditions and size of the crop. The hours of labor for cultural practices shown in the tables should therefore be considered an average over a period of years. Footnotes indicate the hourly rates used in computing costs— these can be adjusted to fit individual circumstances and changing conditions. General expense, under cash over- head costs, covers miscellaneous expenses not listed elsewhere in the tables, but does not include interest on operating capital, use of the family car in connection with the enterprise, telephone, or other office expenses. Interest on investment is based on one-half of the original cost of the trees and facilities— this is assumed to be the average value of such items over the entire length of their lives. Both tree and land value figures used are considerably below replacement costs today, and are there- fore not intended to represent the amount of capital required to go into the apple- growing business under current condi- tions. It should be noted that the total cost per ton figures in the tables are averages for the combined yield of fruit picked off the trees and "windfall" fruit— that which falls from the trees and is salvaged, and which does not bring top prices. Graven- steins have a much larger percentage of windfalls which are harvested at less cost than the tree-picked. After adjusting for this difference, the cost of producing the tree-picked apples would figure approxi- mately the same for both varieties. The net cost of producing apples sold for fresh use may be calculated by deducting from the total cost per acre the income from culls and windfalls and dividing this figure by the tonnage sold fresh. In the 1947 crop year, windfalls and culls brought little more than enough to pay harvesting costs. On this basis, the net cost of producing Gravensteins for fresh sales (using the data in table 1) would figure approximately $60 per ton, or $1.38 per 46-pound box. The net costs for Newtowns sold fresh (using figures in table 2) would figure approximately $42 per ton, or 76^ per 36-pound box. (The weights of boxes used in the above calcu- lations are sizes common to fresh sales of the varieties mentioned.) No allowance for orchard management cost has been made in the tables. Market- ing costs, such as grading, packing, box, storage, transportation, and brokerage are excluded from this analysis. TABLE 1 Prices Paid for Apples Utilized in Different Markets Years Sold for fresh use For drying For juice Average all fruit 1936-1941 1942-1947 (Dollars $21.98 $83.05 per ton) $ 8.40 $42.04 $ 6.35 $19.31 $15.88 $62.00 SECTION 1-Page 9 TABLE 2 A Standard of Costs for Production of Nonirrigated Yellow Newtown Apples in a Mature Orchard in Santa Cruz County, California, with an Average Yield of 15.3 Tons per Acre* Operations Labor costs Man labor per acre Tractor work per acre Truck work per acre Cost per acre Cost per ton Pruning and brush disposal . Fertilizing and covercropping . Dormant spray Other sprays Cultivation Thinning Propping and bracing Miscellaneous Subtotal for preharvest operations . . Picking 760 boxes from trees (at 12 cents) Picking 90 boxes windfalls (at 8 cents) Hauling Miscellaneous harvesting Subtotal for harvesting Total labor costs .... hours 74.0 2.0 9.0 36.0 3.0 75.0 6.0 6.0 211.0 xxxx xxxx 21.0 4.0 xxxx hours 2.0 1.0 3.0 12.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 24.0 1.0 1.0 25.0 hours 1.0 1.0 2.0 14.0 1.0 15.0 17.0 dollars 76.40 4.70 12.60 50.40 6.60 75.00 8.40 8.70 242.80 91.20 \ 7.20/ 42.00 6.70 147.10 389.90 dollars 15.87 6.43 2.75 .43 9.61 25.48 Material costs Fertilizer and covercrop Dormant spray-oil, dinitro, and fuel for rig Other sprays — for codling moth, aphis, spider, scab, and mildew Miscellaneous material Total material costs. dollars 12.00 10.00 34.00 4.00 60.00 dollars 3.92 Cash overhead costs General expense, 5 per cent of total labor and material costs County taxes Equipment repairs, excluding tractor and truck Insurance, compensation, and fire Other cash overhead Total cash overhead costs dollars 22.50 10.00 5.00 6.50 3.00 47.00 dollars 3.07 Depreciation costs Depreciation on trees Depreciation on buildings and improvements Depreciation on equipment — tillage, spray, props, harvest, misc. Total depreciation costs dollars 12.50 1.88 16.90 31.28 dollars 2.05 * These data are based upon a minimum family-sized orchard unit of 20 acres with an average yield of 850 36-pound field boxes or 15.3 tons per acre. Labor costs are computed with a wage rate of $1.00 per hour, and a total operating cost per hour of $1.20 for tractor, and $1.50 for truck. SECTION 1-Page 10 TABLE 2 (continued) Interest costs at 5 per cent Cost per acre Cost per ton Interest on average value of trees : ^ of $500 = $250 dollars 12.50 1.88 dollars Interest on average value of buildings and improvements : Yz of $75 = $37.50 Interest on average value of equipment : Yi of $194 = $97 Interest on normal land value : $500 4.85 25.00 Total interest costs 44.23 2.89 Total all costs 572.41 37.41 TABLE 3 A Standard of Costs for Production of Gravenstein Apples County, California, with an Average Yield of in a Mature Orchard 1 1 Tons per Acre* in Sonoma Operations Labor costs Man labor per acre Tractor work per acre Truck work per acre Cost per acre Cost per ton Pruning and brush disposal hours 47.0 3.0 4.5 15.0 3.0 40.0 5.0 4.0 hours 1.5 1.0 1.5 6.0 3.0 1.0 hours 2.6 2.0 1.0 dollars 48.80 7.20 6.30 22.20 6.60 40.00 8.00 6.70 dollars Fertilizing and covercropping Dormant spray Other sprays and dusts Cultivation Thinning Propping and bracing Miscellaneous Subtotal for preharvest operations . . Picking 290 field boxes from trees (at 18 cents) 121.5 xxxx xxxx 18.0 4.0 14.0 6.6 6.0 20.0 5.0 6.0 1.0 145.80 52.20 \ 20.00/ 34.20 5.50 13.26 6.56 3.11 .50 Picking 5 tons windfalls at $4.00 Hauling Miscellaneous harvesting Subtotal for harvesting xxxx 7.0 111.90 10.17 Total labor costs xxxx 12.0 257.70 23.43 * These data are based upon a minimum 11 tons, or approximately 530 field lug boxes pe hour for man labor, and a total operating cost family-sized orchard ui r acre. Labor costs are per hour of $1.20 for tn lit of 25 acres with an ave computed with a wage rat< ictor, and $1.50 for truck. rage yield of i of $1.00 per SECTION 1-Page 11 TABLE 3 (continued) Material costs Fertilizer and covercrop Dormant spray-oil, dinitro, and fuel for rig Other sprays and dusts — lime-sulfur, DDT, sulfur, etc Miscellaneous material Total material costs Cash overhead costs General expense, 5 per cent of total labor and material costs . . County taxes Equipment repairs, excluding tractor and truck Insurance, compensation, and fire Other cash overhead, bees, etc Total cash overhead costs Depreciation costs Depreciation on trees Depreciation on buildings and improvements Depreciation on equipment— tillage, spray, props, harvest, misc Total depreciation costs dollars 16.00 7.00 14.50 4.00 41.50 dollars 3.77 dollars 14.96 10.00 5.00 3.50 3.00 36.46 dollars 3.31 dollars 12.50 150 12.70 26.70 dollars 2.43 Interest costs at 5 per cent Cost per acre Cost per ton Interest on average value of trees : Yi of $500 = $250 dollars 12.50 1.50 3.40 12.50 dollars Interest on average value of buildings and improvements : Vy of $60 = $30 Interest on average value of equipment : Yz of $136 = $68 Interest on normal land value : $250 Total interest costs 29.90 2.72 Total all costs 392.26 35.66 Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. 12Jm-9,'51(3336)W.P. SECTION 1-Page 12 APPLE GROWHG IN CALIFORNIA FRANK W. ALLEN circular 178 September 1951 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Section II. Apple varieties In a commercial orchard, choice of the variety or varieties grown may contribute in large measure to the financial success or failure of the enterprise. Thus the fol- lowing are: 1 . Factors to be considered Adaptability to the section in which it is to be grown, is a prime requisite in the choice of any given variety. In most districts of commercial importance, there are usually a number of varieties that have been proved by trial to be adapted to the conditions found there. However, since there may be an oversup- ply of these varieties already growing in such sections, it does not necessarily fol- low that additional plantings would be profitable. Other conditions might also make the planting of different varieties more desirable. The Sebastopol district, for example, already produces too many Gravensteins ; acreage is decreasing and new plantings are primarily of Delicious, Rome Beauty, and Jonathan. In the Pajaro Valley, the Yellow Bell- flower continues to be in disfavor because of its low market returns. Acreage is de- creasing and new plantings are largely IN THIS SECTION Page 1 . Factors to be considered 1 2. Description of varieties 3 The choice of varieties suitable for the location, and those having good market demand, is important of Red Delicious. In the Watsonville area, the Yellow Newtown remains a good va- riety although the fruit usually lacks the finish of that grown in other districts, and much of it is susceptible to a browning of the flesh when put in storage. As a rule, at low altitudes in the val- leys, where high summer temperatures prevail, only fast growing, early matur- ing apples are suggested. Late varieties grown in such sections are subject to hav- ing their growth checked during the middle of the summer, so that early drop- ping, small size, and poor texture gen- erally result. Where strong winds during the late summer often blow a considerable part of the crop from the trees, an effort should be made to secure early maturing varieties, and to avoid those that have a natural tendency to drop. See part 2 of this section for descriptions of varieties. Growth characteristics. Apple trees do best where winter temperatures are sufficiently low, or of enough duration, to break the winter rest period. In sec- tions of warm winters, varieties having relatively low chilling requirements are likely to do better. Among such varieties are White Pearmain, Winter Banana, and Beverly Hills. Regularity of crop should also be con- sidered. Weaker growing varieties such as Grimes Golden, or Wagener; those particularly susceptible to prevalent dis- eases; and those of irregular bearing SECTION 11-Page 1 habits such as Spitzenberg and Northern Spy should probably be avoided. While quantity may sometimes be sacrificed for quality, this policy is seldom practical in a commercial orchard. Good storage qualities are desired in late varieties. With summer varieties, the time of ripening is important. Pollination experiments have shown that most varieties of apples grown under California conditions are either unfruit- ful or unable to set satisfactory crops when self-pollinated. Provisions for cross- pollination are usually needed. While it has been shown that solid plantings of Early Harvest, Yellow Transparent, Grimes Golden, Oldenberg, Wagener, Wealthy, and Yellow Newtown will usu- ally set commercial crops, cross-pollina- tion has generally resulted in larger yields from these varieties. Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, Spitzen- berg, Rome Beauty, Tompkins King, and York Imperial may be self-fruitful in some years. Golden Delicious is reported to be largely self-fruitful in the Sebasto- pol and Watsonville areas. Gravenstein, Yellow Bellflower, Deli- cious, Red Delicious, Mcintosh, Winesap, Stayman Winesap, White Pearmain, and Winter Banana are usually self -unfruitful and should be interplanted with some other variety. Choice of poffinizers. Except for several cases of unfruitfulness between varieties that are seldom grown in Cali- fornia, the grower need consider only the season of blossoming and the relative amount of pollen produced, in order to choose varieties that will cross-pollinate. Early summer varieties usually bloom somewhat earlier than fall or winter va- rieties, and Rome Beauty blooms later than most sorts. With these possible ex- ceptions then, the blooming periods of most varieties are in midseason, and overlap sufficiently for cross-pollination purposes. Abundant pollen is usually produced by Delicious. This variety, Yellow New- SECTION Il-Page2 town, Golden Delicious, and Jonathan are used for pollinating Gravenstein. In the Pajaro Valley, Yellow Newtown is probably the chief source of pollen for Delicious. Golden Delicious and Jona- than are also suitable pollenizers for Delicious. Winesap, Stayman Winesap, and Grav- enstein produce sterile pollen and there- fore are of no value as pollinizers for other varieties. Market demand is, of course, a pri- mary factor to be considered in the choice of a variety for commercial plantings. Commercial plantings should be con- fined to varieties of recognized impor- tance for which there is a good demand. Under certain circumstances a limited quantity of some variety ready for mar- keting at just the right time— or which may fill some special local demand— may prove more profitable than even some better variety which may already be in overproduction. Limited plantings of such a variety as White Astrachan, for instance (a variety of very mediocre quality), may fill a special early demand on a local market and prove more profit- able than either the Gravenstein, so largely grown in the Sebastopol area, or the Yellow Bellflower, grown in the Pa- jaro Valley. In the latter district even the Yellow Newtown, long popular as the leading fall and winter apple of California, is rarely being replanted. With all of its market possibilities for use as fresh fruit, processing, or drying, the supply seems adequate. Because of its attractiveness, its char- acteristically tender flesh, and mild, pleasing flavor, the Delicious quickly gained popularity for eating out of hand. At present a large proportion of any new plantings are of the red strains of Deli- cious, such as Richared and Starking. Already, however, some buyers have turned away from the Delicious either because they have found the flesh tough and insipid (because of premature pick- ing), or else mealy, dry and tasteless as a result of being overripe. Both of these undesirable characteristics may be avoided by allowing the fruit to attain good maturity on the tree before harvest- ing, and by storing immediately at 30-31° F. Although well-colored red apples are usually more attractive on the market than yellow ones, Golden Delicious is another high quality dessert apple which is gaining popularity. Like Delicious it should be well-matured, of yellow color, and of good flavor before being har- vested. Numerous varieties are acceptable for general culinary use but for baking as whole fruit the large size, smooth shape, and good cooking quality of the Rome Beauty make it the leading variety. Since drying and processing have been considered as secondary market outlets, little if any attention has been given toward the production of apples exclu- sively for these purposes. Yellow New- towns and Gravensteins, however, are desired for both purposes. 2. Description of varieties The following descriptions include the most important commercial varieties of the state and several considered valuable for home use. They are listed in their ap- proximate order of ripening, although there will be considerable variation in this respect, according to the section. The season given after each variety represents the period of greatest use. Yellow Transparent. An important early variety in the eastern states; little grown in California. Fruit of good size, roundish conic, attractive greenish to whitish yellow; skin thin; flesh white, moderately fine-grained, tender, sprightly subacid; excellent for cooking purposes. Defects: fruit easily bruised; tree sub- ject to blight, though moderately vigor- ous. Suggested for trial as an early yellow apple under valley conditions. Season, June 15 to July 15. (Photo page 5.) Red Astrachan. The variety is widely known and is recommended for early home use and for local markets. Fruit is of medium size, rather irregularly shaped, usually roundish to slightly flattened; skin thin and tender, greenish yellow to striped or deep red, covered with a pale, bluish bloom. Flesh white, juicy, crisp, of good quality for both dessert and cook- ing. Tree hardy, vigorous, an early and regular bearer. Principal defects: fruit not uniform in size, often small, inclined to drop, not a good shipper. Season, July. (Photo page 6.) White Astrachan. Well adapted to most parts of the state and grown to some extent commercially as a summer variety in the Sacramento and San Joaquin val- leys. Fruit large to very large, almost round, flattened at each end; skin green- ish white, with faint streaks of red, and covered with white bloom. Flesh white, juicy, crisp, somewhat coarse and acid; primarily a cooking variety. Tree large, vigorous, productive. One of the best early varieties for local market. Fruit too easily bruised to be shipped long dis- tances. Season, July and August. (Photo page 5.) Gravenstein. The most popular and most extensively grown summer apple in California. About 1,500 carloads annu- ally (the best of the crop) are packed and shipped to eastern fruit markets as early boxed eating apples. Fruit medium to large, slightly flattened, broad at the stem end, a little one-sided or angular. Stem short, deeply set in the cavity. Skin greenish yellow to orange-yellow over- laid with broken stripes of light and dark red. Flesh tender, crisp, highly aromatic. Of very good to best quality both as a summer dessert and as a cooking apple. This is a good variety for both com- mercial and home use. Trees usually large and vigorous, coming into bearing rather early and producing good crops. Chief defects: tendency to drop badly; high percentage of windfalls; susceptibility to bitter pit; necessity of several pickings because of irregular size and coloring; SECTION Il-Page3 difficulty of removing one specimen from a cluster without the others dropping. (Photo page 8.) Season in Sonoma County, July and August. Some interest is now being mani- fested in the red bud sports of this va- riety, which are of practically solid red color. One of these has been named Banks. Mcintosh. Very popular in New York state. Excellent for home use and well adapted to local markets. Not recom- mended for commercial planting be- cause of tender flesh, susceptibility to apple scab, tendency to drop prematurely. Fruit medium and uniform in size, round- ish to roundish oblate ; regular or faintly ribbed. Skin thin, smooth, tender, readily separated from the flesh. Color bright red, striped with carmine to dark pur- plish red with stripes obscure, overspread with thin lilac bloom. Flesh very tender, usually snow white, fine-grained, crisp, tender, very aromatic. Flavor mild sub- acid to sweet. Quality very good to best. Season, September and October. (Photo page 7.) Yellow Bellflower. One of the oldest and best-known early fall market varie- ties grown in the state. Because of con- tinued low prices, however, it is no longer commercially popular and acreage in the Pajaro Valley is declining. Fruit large, oblong, ribbed, and tapering toward the blossom end. Skin lemon-colored to yel- low, marked with prominent dots and with a pink blush on the exposed cheek. Flesh nearly white, tender, juicy, and crisp, with subacid flavor. Quality not high, but a good fall variety for general use. Tree a strong grower and good pro- ducer. Fruit variable in size and quality, requiring careful handling. Prices usually lower than for later varieties. Season, September to November. (Photo page 7.) Wagener. Relatively unimportant in the state, but often found in Mendocino, Humboldt, Napa, and Sonoma counties. Under favorable conditions, an excellent fall and early winter variety, but not one of good keeping or shipping quality. Trees small, upright in habit of growth, coming into bearing early. Only moder- ately vigorous, but usually productive of good crops. Fruit of medium size, charac- terized primarily by its flat or oblate shape and by broad ribbing from stem to blossom end. Skin bright pinkish red, striped with darker red and often streaked with a thin, whitish covering. Flesh whitish, moderately firm, fine- grained, tender, crisp, and juicy. Flavor sprightly subacid. Quality very good to excellent. Season, October to December. Jonathan. A seedling of the Spitzen- berg and in numerous respects not dis- similar. It is usually successful where fall and winter apples are grown. Similar to Spitzenberg in shape and color but with- out the conspicuous dots on the skin. Flesh light yellow, tender, juicy, sprightly subacid, of excellent quality for all pur- poses. A good storage variety for a fall apple. Tree vigorous under good condi- tions, early-bearing, a good producer. Season, September to January. (Photo page 6). Where Jonathan fails to attain a solid red color, planting of the red strains is suggested. One of these listed by nursery- men is given the trade name of Blackjon. Tompkins King. Grown to some ex- tent in mountain sections, popular in Humboldt and Mendocino counties. Fruit large, round or globular, angular or ribbed, yellowish, shaded with red and striped and splashed with bright car- mine; dots numerous and conspicuous. Flesh yellowish, moderately coarse, rich, juicy, tender. Mild subacid flavor; very ON THE NEXT FOUR PAGES will be found natural color photos of many of the important apple varieties grown commercially in California. Descriptions of all varieties shown, plus a few that are not shown begin on page 3 of this section. * SECTION Il-Page4 Winter Banana White Astrachan Delicious Yellow Transparent (Left to Right) White Pearmain Yellow Newtown Mcintosh Red Astrachan Stayman Winesap Rhode Island Greening Winesap (stem end) Winesap (blossom end) Spitzenberg Jonathan (blossom end) Jonathan (stem end) Bellflower Gravenstein Rome Beauty Tompkins King Golden Delicious good quality. Season, September to Oc- tober. Grimes. Better known as Grimes Golden. Highly esteemed as both a dessert and a culinary apple but grown to only a limited extent. Defects: necessity for careful handling; tendency of trees to make a weak growth and produce light crops. Excellent for home use wherever produced successfully. Fruit clear, rich yellow; medium to large; roundish ob- long; often flattened or truncated at the ends. Basin or depression at blossom end abrupt, deep, moderately wide. Skin tough, covered with light russet dots. Flesh yellow, firm, tender, crisp. Flavor mildly subacid, rich, aromatic. Quality excellent. Season, fall and early winter. Winter Banana. If well grown, one of the most beautiful varieties. Fruit large, shapely, pale waxed yellow, with a decided pink or sometimes red cheek. Usually characterized by a distinct suture line on one side extending from the basin to the cavity. Flesh pale yellow, crisp, tender, mildly subacid, of a distinct musky fragrance. Quality very good. Very easily bruised; not well suited for commercial handling. Grown in both foothill and coastal sections. Season, October to November. (Photo page 5.) Delicious. As a dessert apple, widely and favorably known. Found in most apple sections ; planting of Delicious and its red sports gradually being extended. Fruit very characteristic in shape, usually decidedly tapering, somewhat irregular, with five very prominent knoblike pro- trusions at the blossom end. Dull, dark red color, if well grown. Flesh white, fine grained, very mildly acid, aromatic, of delightful flavor and excellent dessert quality. A general favorite on the fruit stands; always sold at a premium. Tree one of the strongest and most vigorous growers, aphid-resistant, blooms late, and is a good pollinizer. Defects: poor flavor unless well colored; does not cook well; tendency to drop and under ordinary temperatures to become mealy. Season, October to January. Because of the lack of color, wide in- terest is now being shown in the red bud sports of this variety. These may be of- fered by nurserymen simply as Red De- licious or under such trade names as Richard Delicious or Starking Delicious. The only essential difference between these sports and the original Delicious is in color. (Photo page 5.) Golden Delicious. Discovered as a chance seedling about 1890 and intro- duced by Stark Bros, of Louisiana, Mis- souri, in 1916. An important yellow apple of high dessert quality. Of separate origin and unrelated to the original Delicious. Fruit clear yellow, with small conspicuous russet dots about the stem end. Medium to large, oblong conic, smooth to some- what ribbed, with a deep acuminate cavity and a rather long slender stem. More uni- form and regular in shape than Yellow Bellflower; longer and more conic than Grimes Golden. Flesh is greenish cream in color, firm, crisp, fine-grained, tender, juicy, aromatic, mildly subacid. Good for culinary purposes as well as eating fresh. Keeps well in storage but will quickly show shriveling of skin and flesh unless held in an atmosphere of high humidity. Season, October to February (Page 8) . Esopus Spitzenberg. Usually known simply as Spitzenberg. An almost unex- celled market variety, of high quality for dessert and cooking. Fruit of good size, uniformly shaped, varying from oblong to conic. Skin smooth, covered with rich red and marked with numerous conspicu- ous yellowish dots. Flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, tender, juicy, sprightly subacid. One of the most attractive varieties grown. Costly to produce, planting there- fore generally on the decline. Defects: tendency toward shy and irregular bearing; susceptibility (despite general healthiness) to apple scab, aphids, and (in some sections) blight; long, polelike branches, somewhat difficult to control in pruning; planting in California there- fore limited. Season, November to Feb- ruary. (Photo page 7.) SECTION Il-Page9 Rhode Island Greening. Often found among the older orchards in the coast counties. Popular for drying be- cause of heavy yields of dried fruit, but never grown extensively in California. Fruit medium to large, roundish oblate, dark green to greenish yellow. Flesh yel- low, fine grained, tender, juicy, sprightly subacid. Quality very good. Season, fall and early winter. (Photo page 7.) Stay man Winesap. Successful in the foothills, mountain valleys, and at points of higher altitudes in the interior valleys. In many respects similar to its parent, the Winesap; unlike it in possessing less color but growing to larger size. Flesh more tender than Winesap, requiring careful handling, keeping quality poorer. Characterized as medium to large, round conic, with smooth, thick skin covered with dull red and marked with light gray and russet dots. Flesh yellow, fine- grained, very tender, crisp, juicy, pleas- antly subacid. Dessert quality very good. Defects: failure to color properly in cer- tain sections; tendency to drop when ma- ture; necessity of careful handling; susceptibility to scald in cold storage. Season, Nov. to Dec. (Photo page 6) . Blaxtayman and Staymared, two bud sports of Stayman Winesap, have some- what more red color. Rome Beauty. One of the leading commercial apples of the country, with an established reputation in all markets. Not of high dessert quality, but especially attractive for baking. Good for handling and shipping. Because of its late bloom- ing habit, recommended for higher alti- tudes, especially where late spring frosts make growing of other varieties pre- carious. Trees of only medium size but, under good conditions, vigorous and early bearing, and producing uniform crops. Defects: fruit borne especially on the ends of branches, which may whip badly in high winds; variety rather sub- ject to attacks of aphids. Fruit uniformly large, smooth round to round conic; skin thick, smooth, yellow, shaded and striped with bright red to solid red on the ex- posed cheek, sprinkled with conspicuous yellow dots. Stem set in a very broad, shallow, usually green cavity. Flesh yel- low, firm, crisp, mildly subacid, quality fair. Season, October to February. Rome Beauty is another variety having one or more red bud sports, essentially the same apple as the parent except that the fruit is mostly of solid red color. (Photo page 8.) White Pearmain. An old favorite va- riety of high quality, adapted primarily for home use and local trade. Rather widely adapted, but grown in California primarily in sections having coastal in- fluences where red sorts do not color well. Trees vigorous; regular bearers. Fruit medium to large, oblong conic, pale greenish, often with a decided blush on the exposed cheek. Surface of the skin covered with numerous small brown dots. Flesh yellowish, tender, crisp, juicy, very mildly subacid, of excellent flavor, some- what resembling Delicious. Season, Oc- tober to January. (Photo page 6) . Winesap. One of the oldest and most cosmopolitan sorts, a general market fa- vorite as a late winter variety. Grown in almost every apple section of the country. In California, adapted to most sections other than those exposed to coastal condi- tions and those of the hot interior valleys. Excellent in foothills and mountain sec- tions. Trees vigorous, productive. Ten- dency for old trees to overbear and produce small fruit, necessitating thin- ning of the crop. Fruit of medium size, roundish to conical; skin tough, smooth, bright to dark red, with small scattering dots. Flesh yellow, firm, crisp, sprightly subacid. Good to very good quality for both dessert and cooking. Season, No- vember to April. (Photo page 6.) Gano. Probably Missouri or Tennes- see. Often called Black Ben Davis; similar if not identical to Ben Davis except in color. Not largely grown in California because it is low in dessert quality. It is, however, excellent for shipping and one SECTION 11-Page 10 of the best-keeping sorts. Trees similar to Ben Davis, growing rapidly, bearing early, regularly, and abundantly. Fruit medium to large; roundish conic; regu- lar, symmetrical, and uniform in size and shape. Skin smooth, waxy, light yellow, but mostly overlaid with pinkish to dark- purplish red, more or less obscurely striped; prevailing color red. Dots nu- merous, small, inconspicuous. Flesh white to slightly yellow, firm, rather coarse, mildly subacid. Season, November to February or later. Yellow Newtown. Origin, New York. Easily the first commercial winter variety grown in the state, over 1% million boxes being shipped annually from the Pajaro Valley. Commercial production confined almost entirely to that section. Defects: a russeting of the skin under Pajaro Val- ley climatic conditions, detracting some- what from the general appearance; sus- ceptibility to browning around the core in storage. Trees rather slow-growing but productive and reasonably early-bearing. Excellent for late winter use and probably the most desirable California variety for drying. Fruit large, roundish to slightly flat. Skin green to yellow, often with brownish red cheeks. Flesh cream, firm, crisp, juicy, very good in quality. Sea- son, December to May. (Photo page 6.) Crab apples.* Of comparatively small commercial importance, but highly regarded for jelly making and preserv- ing. Grown for home use and for a limited demand on local markets. Most important varieties: Whitney, Transcendent, Hys- lop, Montreal Beauty, Large Red Sibe- rian. Of these the first three are perhaps in greatest demand commercially. Red Siberian is reported as being successfully grown in most parts of the state. * For detailed descriptions of crab-apple varieties see : Beach, S. A. Apples of New York, Vol. 1, p. 251-69. Illustrated. New York State Dept. Agr., Albany, N.Y. 1905. Wickson, E. J. California Fruits. 10th ed. p. 215. Pacific Rural Press, San Francisco, Calif. 1926. Hedrick, U. P. Cyclopedia of Hardy Fruits, p. 72-76. The Macmillan Co., New York, N.Y. 1922. Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. 15m-9.'51(3336) W.P. SECTION 11-Page 11 APPLE GROWWG IN CALIFORNIA FRANK W. ALLEN circular 178 September mi CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE • UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Section III. Establishing the young orchard A proper beginning plus early care and training of young trees forms the foundation of a good orchard 1. Preparing the land If the orchard is to be grown under irrigation the most important factor to be considered in preparing the land is to do what grading or leveling is neces- sary to make it conform to the irrigation system selected. Leveling for orchards consists mostly of cutting off the high points and deposit- ing the soil in the low spots. Care should be taken to avoid cutting too deeply and exposing infertile subsoil. Grading for a contour check system of irrigation should be done by an engineering organization, of which there are many in the various orchard sections throughout the state. (See Ext. Cir. 73, The Contour Check Method of Orchard Irrigation, by J. B. Brown and J. C. Marr.) Where the land has been devoted to crops previously, little or no preparation may be required before planting trees. But when weather and other conditions permit, it is usually more convenient to put the soil in good condition prior to IN THIS SECTION Page 1. Preparing the land 1 2. Laying out the orchard 1 3. Selecting nursery trees 2 4. Planting 2 5. Intercrops 3 6. Pruning and training 4 planting than afterward. In some in- stances the land may be disked in the fall and left rough to absorb the maximum amount of moisture during the winter. In the smaller apple sections at high altitudes, much of the land is heavily timbered. Some growers have simply cut and removed the timber, dug holes and planted apple trees in among the stumps. Due to the high fertility of the soil, the trees have made good growth, but this procedure is not recommended because of the difficulty to be encountered in sub- sequent cultivation practices. Unless the stumps are of a wood that decays rapidly and will be out of the way in a few sea- sons, the most economical plan is to re- move the stumps by digging or blasting and then dispose of them. Oak and red- wood stumps decay very slowly. 2. Laying out the orchard To properly lay out an orchard re- quires considerable care. Mistakes diffi- cult or impossible to correct can often be prevented by first carefully mapping the proposed orchard on paper, spacing the trees according to scale at the distances decided upon, locating roadways and possible irrigation ditches. Such a map enables one to see how many trees of a given variety are needed and how they may be spaced to the best advantage. If properly labeled and preserved, it is also a ready reference as to the location of any given tree. SECTION Ill-Page 1 Of the different systems of planting, the square is the most popular and con- venient, except on very rolling land, where contour planting is recommended. The quincunx system— in reality the square method with a tree in the center of each square— is adopted where the or- chard is interplanted with temporary or filler trees. Planting the trees too close together has been a general mistake in most of the early orchards, many trees having been set 20 to 24 feet apart. These crowd badly and need severe pruning, and the fruit is difficult to harvest. The distance of planting apple trees varies somewhat with the variety and soil conditions. The larger and more spread- ing varieties such as Gravenstein, Jona- than, and Winesap should be planted at somewhat greater distances than the up- right-growing sorts such as the Red June and Rome Beauty. Deep loam or clay loam soils will produce larger trees than the lighter soils. The planting distance may also vary somewhat with the severity of pruning. Usual planting distances rec- ommended for the apple on good fertile soils are 30 to 35 feet. In laying out an orchard, thought should be given to providing cross- pollination for the trees. The varieties that will provide adequate cross-pollina- tion are discussed in Section II. 3. Selecting nursery trees Age and grade of nursery trees. Good commercially propagated trees may be purchased from any reliable nursery- man. The trees in greatest demand for planting are those with one-year-old tops. Because the two-year-old tree receives greater injury to its roots when being transplanted, perhaps it does not come into bearing earlier than the one-year-old. The latter also usually possesses enough good buds on the stem to form scaffold branches where desired (see page 5) . Apple trees are graded according to the diameter of their trunk measured at a point 2 inches above the bud union. The approximate height of the trees may also be given. The grades are as follows: Diameter Height in inches in feet 11/16 and up 6 to 8 1/2 to 11/16 4 to 6 3/8 to 1/2 3 to 4 1/4 to 3/8 2 to 3 The price naturally varies with the size and grade. It is doubtful whether the smallest sizes should be purchased if one can secure those that have made a better growth. Regardless of age or size, the main stem of the tree should be reason- ably stocky, the bark clean and smooth, and the top well supplied with good buds or well-spaced branches. It should also possess a good union where the bud or the scion was inserted into the stock. If this union has not grown together properly, various fungus troubles are likely to enter at this point and shorten the life of the tree, or it may break off several years after being planted in the orchard. Trees from a nursery should be ordered well in advance so that the desired vari- eties may be secured. When received the trees should be removed from the original package and, unless planted immediately, should be heeled-in in moist soil at some convenient place, preferably one not exposed to the afternoon sun. Where trees ordered from a distance arrive in a dry condition, the roots may be soaked in water for several hours before heeling-in. If the branches also appear dry, the entire tree may be put in the soil and covered for several days. 4. Planting Where the soil has previously been well prepared the holes for the tree need not be larger or deeper than is necessary to accommodate the roots in their natural position. Setting the tree at the proper depth and compacting the soil well around the roots are important considerations. Nursery trees usually form their roots at a depth most congenial for their development and SECTION Ill-Page 2 when set in the orchard should stand at approximately the same depth as in the nursery. This depth can generally be de- termined from the soil line on the trunk. To avoid air pockets, well-pulverized soil should be placed next to the tree roots and tramped thoroughly as it is thrown in. All injured roots had best be removed before setting. To facilitate planting, the remainder may be shortened back to 6 or 8 inches. Cutting back is considered pref- erable to bending out of their natural position. Small, fibrous roots, usually dead before the tree is set, may likewise be removed, for they make it difficult to place the soil in firm contact with the larger roots. As the newly transplanted tree requires some time to become established and as new root growth should precede that of the branches, trees may profitably be planted as early in the season as mature nursery stock can be secured. Where con- ditions are favorable in December and January, trees set at this time should have considerable advantage over those not planted until March or April. At some of the higher altitudes, however, planting must often be delayed until relatively late. Under such circumstances the trees should be held as nearly dormant as pos- sible so that the buds may not push and utilize all the stored food before the growth of the roots. As many of the feeding roots are cut in digging from the nursery, the top of the tree should be correspondingly reduced. At the time of planting, therefore, the main stem is usually cut back to a height desired for the scaffold branches. Im- mediately after planting, the entire stem should be protected from sunburn and borers with a coat of whitewash. A good whitewash may be made as follows: quicklime, 5 pounds; salt, % pound; sul- fur, % pound. Add the salt and sulfur while the lime is slaking. Allow the white- wash to age several days before use, and dilute to a buttermilk consistency. A whitewash that sticks somewhat better but is more expensive is made from whiting, 6 pounds; casein spreader, 1 pound; and raw linseed oil, % pint. Subsequent care. Young trees should get a good start and be kept growing vigorously during the first season. Weeds around the trunk should not compete with the young tree for soil moisture unless there is frequent irrigation. Where the trees are planted on suitable soil, and where soil moisture is not the limiting factor, the addition of a fertilizer that is high in nitrogen content may be advisable. Usually % to % pound of actual nitrogen per tree per year may be applied. If tree protectors are used instead of whitewash against sunburn, the young trees should be inspected several times to see that these do not interfere with the formation of the scaffold branches at the desired locations. After the new growth starts, better spacing and growth of the main shoots may be obtained by selecting these in the most desirable locations and removing or pinching back the others (see page 6) . In addition, the tree should be kept free from all diseases and insect pests that may interfere with its normal growth. If tree diseases or insect pests appear, consult Sections V and VI of this circular, or see the local Farm Advisor for infor- mation on the latest pest or disease con- trol methods to be employed. 5. Intercrops Intercropping is a possible source of income to the orchardist during the first few years. This practice, however, after the first two or three seasons really be- comes double cropping, in that soil fer- tility and moisture removed by the inter- crop are, in some instances, needed for the best growth of the trees. As a rule, intercrops are most successful on fertile soils and on land under irrigation. Cultivated crops are recommended for young orchards, and annual crops are considered somewhat more desirable than SECTION Ill-Page 3 A young apple tree after the first dor- mant pruning. Note good spacing of scaffold branches, except that lowest branch is some- what close to the ground. perennial. Among the most desirable, where a market is established, are beans, squash, melons, cabbage, turnips, man- gels, potatoes, spinach, beets, peas, toma- toes, and rhubarb. Lettuce is a leading intercrop for young plantings in the Pajaro Valley. Strawberries are also grown. Bush fruits were previously very popular in the Sebastopol area. Since nursery stock, corn, and other grains compete with the trees more than do other crops, their growth is to be discouraged. It should always be remembered that the apple orchard is the main crop, and when the trees need the space and/or moisture used by the intercrop, the latter should be sacrificed. 6. Pruning and training During the first few years of a tree's life (or until it starts to bear), most ef- forts are devoted to giving it a good start in the orchard so that it will develop into a healthy, vigorous plant with strong crotches and an over-all shape that will aid in cultural and harvesting operations. Thus pruning during the first 2 years is aimed at selecting and encouraging cer- tain well-placed branches for a scaffold One-year-old apple tree before and after pruning; primary branches are well spaced and spreaders have been put in place to widen the angle that will be made by the primary branches as they grow. on which the fruit-bearing branches will grow. Young trees are usually trained to one of two systems: the open-center or vase- shaped tree ; or the modified leader, some- times called delayed open-center type. With the open-center system of training, three branches are preferably chosen to form the framework or scaffold. These are all pruned to maintain an equal size as nearly as possible. Any tendency of a branch to outgrow the others and assume the lead is suppressed. The advantages at- tributed to this system of training are that it forms an open, spreading, low-headed tree, producing highly colored fruits. The principal objection or disadvantage is that the scaffold branches tend to issue from one point, and thus produce a tree structurally weak. The modified leader or delayed open- center tree results, as the name would in- dicate, from a system of training inter- mediate between the open-center and the central-leader type of tree grown in the eastern states. It is started by letting the topmost branch assume the lead for two to five years. Thus one obtains greater spac- ing of the scaffolds on the trunk, secures strong crotches, and at the same time keeps the tree relatively close to the ground. Starting the main branches. The height of the trunk is determined when the tree is first headed at planting time. The main stem should be left high enough so that approximately 6 inches will inter- vene between the main scaffolds and yet the lowest branch will not be too near the ground. A height of 24 to 30 inches is recommended. As a rule, only three main branches well distributed around the trunk as well as up and down are desired. Observations show that at 5 feet from the ground five to seven secondary stems are usually all that the bearing tree can carry without crowding (see photo). If young trees are already branched when planted, the side branches suitably located may be only shortened, rather than cut off. All superfluous branches, however, should be removed. The same tree shown on page 4, at the end of the second growing season, before and after prun- ing. Secondary branches on two of the primaries have been selected, and again headed back. First summer's pinching. Where young trees grow vigorously the first season after planting, summer pinching of the surplus shoots when 3 or 4 inches long is sometimes practiced. Such pinch- ing, done at this time, results in more vigorous growth of the branches selected to form the main framework, in better- shaped trees, and in less cutting at the first winter pruning. Sometimes the trees should be gone over again in about six weeks to suppress any new undesirable growth that may have started after the first pinching. First dormant pruning. At the first dormant pruning, which in California may be given any time after leaf fall and the beginning of activity in the spring, the scaffold branches should be headed back 15 to 30 inches or more from the juncture with the tree trunk. As the pri- mary reason for this heading is to induce more branching, the limbs should be cut at the approximate height where the sec- ond branches are desired. Where necessary, spreaders may be placed between the main branches to ob- tain a wider angle between the scaffolds (see photos on page 4) . To have started a modified-leader type of tree, the central and uppermost branches selected would have been headed A three-year-old Golden Delicious tree be- fore and after pruning, with branches thinned slightly. This close view of a bearing tree shows crowding of the main branches due to poor pruning. SECTION Ill-Page 6 Before- and after-pruning photos of the same Golden Delicious tree shown on the opposite page, but taken the following year when the tree was a four-year-old. One-year-old tree before and after pruning. To avoid having a narrow, weak crotch, the third branch was removed and the other two were headed at different heights, forming a modified leader type of tree. SECTION Ill-Page 7 back less severely, cutting to an inside bud (see photo on page 7). As a rule, if the growth is upright and a greater spread is desired, cut to an out- side bud; if the variety naturally makes a spreading growth, head the branches back severely, cutting to an inside bud. Where 3 primary branches originate from approximately the same height on the trunk a bad crotch can be avoided by removing one of the branches, and by unequal heading. One of the remaining branches should be cut back more se- verely than the other and the longer branch will then assume leadership dur- ing the next growing season. This first dormant pruning is of great importance because it is at this time that the tree is shaped as it should grow. The severity of pruning will also have a marked effect on the age at which the tree will come into bearing. Second summer's pruning. From the main scaffold branches chosen and headed back at the first dormant pruning, numerous shoots are likely to start. Some of these, if not suppressed, may outgrow those desired for secondary branches. The tree may also become so filled with new wood that severe thinning will be needed the following winter. It may be advantageous, therefore, to go over the trees early in the second summer when the new shoots have attained a length of 6 to 10 inches and pinch back all undesir- able growth. If the desired number of well-spaced scaffold branches were se- cured at the last pruning, two shoots from each of these will be sufficient to leave. If even distribution was not obtained, one or more additional shoots well placed may fill a vacancy and produce a better- balanced tree. Second dormant pruning. At the dormant season following the second full season of growth in the orchard, the sec- ondary scaffold branches are chosen. These will consist of one or two— usually two— main branches growing out from each primary. The secondary scaffold branches are selected, then headed back to the height at which additional branches are desired for the formation of the tree head. Other superfluous, misplaced, and interfering branches are removed. Any small branches, however, that may have de- veloped from the primary scaffold may be left to become early fruiting wood. Subsequent dormant prunings. After the second dormant pruning, the framework of the tree should be estab- lished and thereafter, until the tree starts to bear, pruning during the dormant seasons is largely a continuation of thin- ning out unnecessary branches and per- haps some small branches near the ground that hinder cultivation. Whether or not additional heading back of framework branches is necessary will depend on the growing habits of the variety and of the individual tree. When vigorous, straight growth is made and more branching is desired; or if more branches are wanted where the limbs be- come too long and rangy (as in the Spitz - enberg) additional heading may be needed. The illustrations on pages 6 and 7 are examples of good pruning of trees 3 and 4 years old. -o -o o Pruning of bearing trees is aimed at developing high yields— the tree shape having presumably been determined by this time. This subject is therefore taken up in detail in Section IV. Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. 12|m-9,'51(3336)W.P. SECTION Ill-Page 8 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA FRANK W. ALLEN CIRCULAR 178 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE • UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEPTEMBER 1951 Section IV. Management of the bearing orchard 1. Cultivation As recent experiments have shown, the frequent and deep tillage of most western apple orchards is not justifiable; and the earlier idea that intensive cultivation conserves soil moisture, aids soil aeration in the root zone, and increases yields is erroneous. Cultivation has therefore be- come less frequent and shallower. Some cultivation, however, does serve "to remove noxious weeds and weed com- petition; to facilitate subsequent opera- tions such as irrigation, harvesting, and spraying; to incorporate covercrops and manures; to prepare the soil as a seed- bed for covercrops ; to facilitate the con- trol of certain pests; and to aid in the absorption of water where tillage or other orchard operations have produced an air- impervious condition of the soil." This quotation is taken from Ext. Cir. 50, Es- sentials of Irrigation and Cultivation of IN THIS SECTION Page 1. Cultivation 1 2. Irrigation 2 3. Covercropping 3 4. Fertilization 3 5. Thinning, bracing, and propping. 4 6. Pruning 5 7. Topworking 10 8. Other factors to consider 10 Satisfactory yields and quality production depend on good cultural practices, such as: Orchards, by F. J. Veihmeyer and A. H. Hendrickson, which covers these subjects more thoroughly than does this circular. Except on steep slopes in the foothill and mountain sections where danger of soil erosion demands that the orchards remain in sod, most apple orchards of California are maintained under a system of clean cultivation or of cultivation and covercrops. The exact time of the first spring cul- tivation, depends upon the condition of the soil, the amount and season of rain- fall or irrigation, and the amount of covercrop and weed growth present. Til- lage of wet soil is never desirable. The surface should be relatively dry. Many of the heavier apple soils must be worked at just the right time; tilling either too wet or too dry results in a hard, lumpy soil, often for the remainder of the season. In nonirrigated orchards grown under limited rainfall, weed and covercrop growth should be disked down early be- fore it competes seriously with the trees for soil moisture. With late spring rains or in irrigated orchards this operation may be delayed somewhat longer, and a heavier covercrop growth secured. Disking in both directions of the tree rows in the spring should be sufficient to kill the covercrop or weed growth. Shal- low disking is not only less expensive than deeper plowing, but is preferable SECTION IV-Page 1 Close view of a section of an orchard disk that has been equipped with depth regulators. When the equipment is used in this way, the soil is cultivated to a depth of only 4 inches when the disks are set to cut at full depth. (see photo). Since cultivation in the ab- sence of weeds has no influence in con- serving soil moisture, the frequency of subsequent tillage during the summer will depend largely upon the amount of weed growth and the frequency of irriga- tions or of late spring rains. If rains oc- cur and the soil has become too compact to permit the construction of irrigation furrows or levees (in orchards which are irrigated) or if there is a resumption of heavy weed growth, a second cultivation may be necessary before irrigating. But as a rule this is unnecessary. Hence the second cultivation follows any irrigation given, or it may even be withheld until the irrigation levees must be broken down to facilitate harvesting, spraying, prun- ing, and brush removal or until time to prepare a seedbed for the covercrop. 2. Irrigation Where bearing trees will produce 8 to 10 inches of new wood each year and a satisfactory annual crop of good-sized SECTION IV-Page 2 fruit, irrigation would seem unnecessary. If, however, wood growth is scanty and the fruit, even when properly thinned, fails to size properly and is of poor qual- ity, lacking in crispness and flavor, irri- gation should be considered. The success of many orchards will largely depend upon whether the owner can supply water during the growing season. In other in- stances the water is probably being ap- plied uselessly. A supply of available moisture throughout the growing season is the condition desired, and frequent exami- nation with a soil auger is the most satisfactory method of determining the necessity for and the frequency of irri- gation. Sufficient water should be applied to secure thrifty but not excessive or rank wood growth. Light, sandy soils or soils underlaid with a substratum of gravel may require frequent applications, while the heavier clay loams may need only one or two. The latter is the usual prac- tice in the irrigated orchards of the more important districts. Type of soil, topog- raphy, the amount of water available, and the cost will determine the most sat- isfactory way of applying water. The chief essentials, however, are even dis- tribution and good penetration. The most common methods are the contour-check system of flooding and the furrow sys- tem, in which six to eight large furrows 6 inches or more in depth are made be- tween each two rows of trees. (See Ext. Cir. 73, The Contour Check Method of Orchard Irrigation, by J. B. Brown and J. C. Marr.) Contour furrows are best adapted to foothill and mountain sections. 3. Covercropping Covercrops, either planted or natural, are grown in most cultivated apple or- chards in California. The amount of covercrop growth that can be obtained depends on the soil, water supply, and temperature during the growing season. In Sonoma County satisfactory nat- ural growth of covercrop plants is ob- tained from a fall application of manures and few seeded covercrops are grown. In the Pajaro Valley, some natural cover- crops are grown, but many are seeded. Seeded covercrops may be sown in irrigated sections in August. This will give good growth before the end of the growing season. In nonirrigated sections, particularly the Watsonville area, the practice is to sow the covercrop just before the fall rains (usually September or October) and harrow it in at harvest time. Plants used. Either leguminous or nonleguminous crops may be planted, but where the former make satisfactory growth they may add nitrogen to the soil. Among the leading legumes are: common vetch, Vicia sativa; purple vetch, V. atropurpurea; bitter clover, Melilotus indica; Canada field peas, Pisum arvense; bur clover, Medicago hispida; and horse bean, Vicia faba. As covercrops in apple orchards, the vetches and clovers are usually the most widely grown; vetch is recommended in the coast counties and south of the Te- hachapi. Bur clover does well in most parts of the state, usually reseeding it- self year after year if soil fertility is maintained. As a rule, however, it fails to produce such heavy growth as the vetches or bitter clover. The grains, barley, rye, and oats, and the mustards are the most widely used nonleguminous covercrops. The cereal crops, often used with vetch, are most effective for controlling erosion. Rafe of seeding. Although they may vary slightly in different sections, the following rates per acre of seeding are recommended : field peas, 60-80 pounds ; vetch and horse beans, 40-50 pounds; melilotus, 25 pounds, or if scarified, 15 pounds; bur clover and cereals (where planted with legumes) 20 pounds; cereals planted alone, 50-60 pounds. Working the covercrop. Unless the covercrop is becoming excessively heavy, it should be allowed to grow as late in the spring as is consistent with main- taining good soil moisture and a sufficient nitrogen supply. With a good supply of irrigation water, the crop can both be started earlier in the fall and allowed to grow later in the spring. In any event, when the covercrop threatens to use soil moisture needed by the trees, it should be disked in. 4. Fertilization The addition of nitrogen to the soil has, in some instances, improved the growth of apple trees, and of the fruit; it definitely improves the growth of cov- ercrops. Animal manures not only add ni- trogen but improve the physical condi- tion of the soil, and have long been recommended. Their scarcity, however, limits their use. Poultry manure, used largely in the Sebastopol area, is usually applied at the rate of 2 to 3 tons per acre, during the dormant season. SECTION IV-Page 3 In using any manure, the material should be spread well between the rows and kept away from the areas immedi- ately adjacent to the trees. Commercial fertilizers containing nitrogen, such as ammonium sulfate, am- monium phosphate, calcium and sodium nitrate, also give good results. They are usually applied at the rate of % to % pound of actual nitrogen per tree, for young trees; from % to 1% pounds per tree for mature trees. If only one application is used, it is best scattered over the surface of the soil, in late winter but before the last spring rains. If it is to be used to im- prove the covercrop too, the application may be divided, half being applied in the early fall and the remainder in late winter. 5. Thinning, bracing, and propping Thinning. The value of fruit thinning is now well recognized and in years of heavy crop yields is one of the most im- portant orchard operations. Removing the surplus specimens aids in increasing the size, color, quality, and uniformity of the fruit, prevents breaking of limbs, assists in maintaining the general vigor of the trees, makes spraying more effec- tive, and decreases the labor of handling the crop at harvest time. In general, thinning should be prac- ticed sufficiently to produce at least moderate-sized fruit and relieve the over- burdened trees. Since the food supply of the fruit is elaborated in the leaves, the size of the fruit is materially in- fluenced by the ratio between the num- ber of leaves (or total leaf surface) on the tree and the number of fruits. For certain important varieties, 40 to 50 leaves per fruit seems most desirable according to Magness et al. (1931). To determine the exact number of fruits and leaves on a full-bearing tree (60,000- 100,000 leaves on a tree) is, however, obviously impracticable; hence actual thinning recommendations are still based SECTION IV-Page 4 on spacing the fruits at certain distances. A distance of 6-8 inches apart is gen- erally satisfactory. Another method is to remove enough specimens so that when the fruits attain their full size they will be 4 to 6 inches apart on the branch. Unless the set of fruit is very uneven, clusters should be thinned to one apple each. No definite dates can be given for thinning, because they vary with the va- riety, the season, and general climatic conditions. In most instances, however, a natural drop of young fruits occurs several weeks after the blossoming pe- riod. Immediately thereafter, while the apples are still small and before the seeds develop to any extent, the surplus fruits had best be removed. Blossom thinning by the use of chemical sprays has been tried in the east and northwest. While some promis- ing results have been obtained, and some sprays are being used in commercial orchards, it is felt that at this writing, the materials and methods used are still in the experimental stage. Any grower wishing to try the materials should con- sult his local Farm Advisor for the latest available information on the subject. Bracing and propping. Well-pruned and well-thinned trees should need rela- tively little bracing or propping. In many instances, however, because of weak crotches, extra long horizontal limbs, and light or no thinning, consid- erable damage may occur. For open- centered trees or others whose main branches are structurally weak, the cen- tral wire-bracing system, with wires run- ning from screw eyes or staples in the branches to a ring in the center of the tree, may be used to good advantage. This type of bracing is permanent except for repairing broken or tightening loose wires. In most apple orchards, however, where smaller outside limbs are most in need of support, wooden props are used. Naturally these must be placed each sea- son and taken down again at harvest time. A typical Yellow Bellflower orchard in the Pajaro Valley. These trees show the results of heavy crop production. Props from the previous year still remain in place in the orchard. 6. Pruning Trees properly cared for during their formative period should be well shaped and mechanically able to support heavy loads. Although some varieties, such as Rome Beauty, Jonathan, and Wagener, produce much of their fruit on the tips of last year's branches and although on the Pa- cific Coast a number of varieties may produce fruit laterally on one-year twigs, most of the crop is produced terminally on short branches or on spurs originating from wood 2 years old or older. These spurs normally begin to form after 3 to 5 years, or when the young tree naturally tends to slacken its vegetative growth. The primary consideration, therefore, in pruning bearing trees is to maintain a proper balance between vegetative growth and fruit production. Excessive growth by the young tree is usually pro- duced at the expense of fruit production, while overbearing is accompanied by less growth and if continued may destroy vigor. The ideal condition during the years of maturity is for the trees to make 6 to 10 inches of new growth each year, and thus increase and maintain the fruit- ing area while producing large but not excessive annual crops. With most trees that have received reg- ular pruning previously, there is little necessity for more than a light annual thinning and cutting back of the upper- most branches to laterals. This will pre- vent the tree from getting too high for economical spraying and picking opera- tions. The center of the tree should be kept fairly open. Where this has been neg- lected in past years, it is better to thin out surplus branches over a period of two seasons rather than upset the balance of the tree by removing too much wood in any one year. Light crops and a large amount of vegetative growth would indicate that previous pruning had been too severe. SECTION IV-Page 5 **sfl ff* Such trees should receive very little dor- mant pruning. In districts where mildew is prevalent, it is common practice to remove the tips of infected branches. A more complete discussion of prun- ing is given in Ext. Cir. 112, Pruning A three-year-old Golden Delicious tree • before pruning. The same tree after pruning is shown in the photo below. t\ Tree shown in photo No. 1, after prun- ing. Summer pinching for the previous two years would have made such heavy heading unnecessary. Secondary branch- ing of this tree is a little low, and the origin of the primary branches from a single point is undesirable. *% A four-year-old Golden Delicious tree **• before pruning. The same tree after pruning is shown in photo No. 4 on page opposite. Deciduous Fruit Trees, by Warren P. Tufts. Pruning old trees. Old bearing trees, producing heavy crops of small- sized fruit, or those not making 6 to 8 inches of new wood growth annually, require somewhat heavier pruning than A Tree shown in photo No. 3 (opposite • page) after pruning. In this case, only a very light thinning was needed. A five-year-old Golden Delicious tree be- fore pruning. Here again, only light | thinning is needed. £ The same tree shown in photo No. 5, 1 "• after pruning. Note that light thinning |3| has been done, and some of the branches '£ have been tipped back to their laterals. j£ Examples of good pruning on bearing trees A five-year-old Golden Delicious tree be- fore pruning. The same tree after prun- ing is shown in photo No. 2 on this page. 2. Same tree shown in photo No. 1, after pruning. Light thinning only was re- quired. Note the good development of fruit spurs. A six-year-old Golden Delicious tree be- fore pruning. This tree has been allowed to become too thick during previous years. 4. The same tree shown in photo No. 3, after pruning. Note that only part of the thinning is accomplished. Trees this thick should have their thinning spread over several years. One large center branch and some small ones should be removed at this time. The same tree shown in photos 3 and 4, the following year. Thinning has been completed. £L This shows typical pruning of a full-bear- ing Gravenstein tree in the Sebastopol \ vivi nil •WV \ 1 1 '