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Marine Biological Laboratory iG brary
Woods Hole, Massachusetts

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Philadelphea architect nephew of
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MBL investigator, and Priscilla Brassiin
Montgomery (1874-1956), MBL lbrarvn.

Gift of ther sons Hugh Montgomery, MD.
and Raymond B. Montgomery — 1987.

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SEARCHING EXPEDITION:

A
JOURNAL OF A BOAT-VOYAGKH

THROUGH RUPERT'S LAND AND THE ARCTIC SEA,

IN SEARCH OF

THE DISCOVERY SHIPS UNDER COMMAND OF

SIR JOHN FRANKLIN.

WITH AN APPENDIX ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
OF NORTH AMERICA.

BY SIR JOHN RICHARDSON, C.B., F.RS.

INSPECTOR OF NAVAL HOSPITALS AND FLEETS,
ETC- ETC. ETC.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOL. II.

PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY.

LONDON:
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS.
1851.

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CON TA NES:

CEA TRER) Soni:
OF THE ’TINNE OR CHEPEWYANS.

Geographical Position. National Name. Tribes. Hare
Indians and Dog-Ribs. Personal Appearance. Women.
Dress. Dispositions. Wars. Socialism. Improvi-
dence. Suffering. Affection for their Children. Hos-
pitality feeble. Falsehood. Honesty. Religious Belief.
Volatility. Marriages. Wrestling for a Wife. Dogs.
Moose hunting. Public Opinion the only Rule of Con-
duct. Chiefs. Introduction of Christianity. Horses.
Houses. Dawnings of Civilization. Members of the
*Tinne People west of the Rocky Mountains. Southern
Athabascans - - - - - :

CHAP. chy:
EYTHINYUWUK, OR CREES AND CHIPPEWAYS.

National Names. Division. Tribes. Territory. Wars
with the Mengwe. Conventional Character not true.
Persons. Gait. Crimes. Wabunsi. Wigwams. Reli-
gious Belief. Vapour Baths. Everlasting Fire. Its
rites. Used in Sickness. Its Priests. Its Origin.
Chief Sun. Policy. Calumet. Maize. Food. Rein-
deer. Bison. White-fish. Earth-works. Pottery.
Language. Half-breeds. Colony of Red River or
Osnaboya. Spirituous Liquors - - .

Page

lV CONTENTS.

CHAP. XV.

OCCURRENCES IN WINTER.
Page

Fort Confidence. Situation. Silurian Limestone. Lake
basin. Trees. Dwelling-house. Occupations. Letters.
Galena Newspaper. Oregon “Spectator.” Extent of
the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Territory. Fisheries.
Venison. Wolverines. Native Socialism. Provisions
collected at Fort Confidence. Fetes. Winter Fishery.
Eskimo Sleds. Reindeer. Wolverine. | Wolves.
Honesty of the Dog-Ribs. Their Indolence. Pro-
visions not individual Property. Indians move off.
An Accouchement. Ccelebs in search of aWife. Might
makes Right. None but the brave deserve the fair.
Progress of the Seasons. Temperature. Arrival of
Summer Birds. At Fort Confidence. At Fort Franklin.
On the Yukon - - . - - - 61

CHAP. XV E

Mr. Rae’s Expedition in the Summer of 1849. Instruc-
tions. He crosses to the Coppermine. Descends that
River. Sea covered with Ice. Surveys Rae River.
Eskimos. Cape Kendal. Cape Hearne. Basil Hall
Bay. Cape Krusenstern. Douglas Island. Detention.
Dangerous Situation. August 23., return. Author
and Mr. Bell Jeave Fort Confidence. Cross Great
Bear Lake. Descend Bear Lake River. David Brodie
lost in the Woods. His Adventures. Fort Simpson.
Methy Portage. Receive English Letters. Norway
House. Part from the Seamen and Sappers and Miners.
Continue the Voyage to Canada. Boston. Land at
Liverpool. Summary of the present State of the Search
for Sir John Franklin - - - . - 1138

CONTENTS.

APPENDIX.

No. I.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

GrneERAL View. Rocky Mountains. Their Length. Their
Height. Glaciers. Parallelism to the Pacific Coast.
Continental Slopes. Russian America. Eastern Slope.
Prairies. Mississippi Valley. Its Slope. Fundamental
Rocks of the Basin. Silurian Strata. Carboniferous
Series. Tertiary Beds. Lignite Formations. Series
of Lake Basins. Transverse Valleys. Intermediate Belt
of primitive, hypogenous, or metamorphic Rocks. Its
Rivers mere Chains of Lakes. Its Breadth. Altitude.
Sources of three great River Systems. Great Fish River.
The Yukon or Kwichpack. Basins of Excavation.
Glacial Action. Active Volcanoes - - -

VALLEY OF THE St. Lawrence. Altitudes of the Lakes
above the Sea. Lake Superior. Lake Michigan. Lake
Huron. Lake Erie. Lake Ontario. Lake Chaplain.
Northern Brim of the St. Lawrence Basin. Its geological
Structure. North Shore of Lake Superior. Structure
of the Country at the Sources of the Mississippi -

WINIPEG OR SASKATCHEWAN VALLEY. Height of Lake
Winipeg. Sea River. Katchewan River. Thousand
Lakes. Portages. River Winipeg. Red River. Sas-
katchewan River - - - - -

Missinip1 VALLEY. Its Lakes. Frog Portage - -

MACKENZIE River VALLEY. Methy Portage. Athabasca,
Elk, or Red-deer River. Lesser Slave Lake. Peace

Page

161

177

193
198

vi CONTENTS.

Page
River. Slave River. River of the Mountains. Noh’-
hanne Bute. Great Bear Lake - - - 199
Yukon Vattey. Yukon or Kwichpack. Volcanic Chain
of Alaska. Coal. Fossil Bones - - ~- 205
No. II,
CLIMATOLOGY.

Snow Line. Ground Ice. Thermometrical Observations
in the Valley of the St. Lawrence. Comparative Tem-
perature of the Two Sides of the Continent. Pheno-
mena of the Seasons at Penetanguishene: At Fort
William: At Fort Vancouver. Thermometrical Obser-
vations in the Valley of the Saskatchewan. On the East
and West Sides of the Continent in that Parallel. Phe-
nomena of the Seasons at Cumberland House: At Carl-
ton House: At Marten’s Fallson Albany River. Ther-
mometrical Observations on the Missinipi and in the
same Parallels on the East and West Sides of the Con-
tinent. Thermometrical Observations in the Valleys .
of the Mackenzie, Yukon, and Pelly. Progress of the
Seasons at Fort Franklin. Thermometrical Observations
on the Arctic Seas. General Remarks. Nocturnal
Radiation - - - - - - 212

No. III.

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS NORTH
OF THE 49TH PARALLEL OF LATITUDE.

Generic and Specific Forms of Plants decrease in Number
as the Latitude increases. Analogy between Altitude
and Increase of Latitude. Culture of the Vine. Of the
Cerealia. Maize. Wheat. Oats. Barley. Potatoes.
Botanical Districts. Their Physiognomy. Woodland
District. Barren Grounds. Prairies. Rocky Mountains.

CONTENTS. Vil

Page
Sitka. Polar Plants. Arctic Zone. Trees and Shrubs.
Table of Distribution of Species in three several
Zones. Carices - - - - - 264

No. LV.
LIST OF INSECTS.

Note on Hymenoptera in Arctic North America. List of
Coleoptera. Orthoptera. Neuroptera. Hymenoptera.
Hemiptera. Homoptera. Lepidoptera. Diptera - 354

No. V.
VOCABULARIES.

Eskimo Vocabulary. Comparative Table of the Dialects
spoken by the Beering’s Sea and Labrador Eskimos.
Vocabulary of the Kutchin of the Yukon or Kutchi-
Kutchi, with Chipewyan Synonyms. Chipewyan Vo-
cabulary. Dog-Rib Vocabulary. Fort Simpson Dog-
Rib. “ Mauvais Monde” Vocabulary. Chipewyan and

Dog-Rib Words - - - - - 363
EXPLANATION OF Puates I. Anp II. - - - 403
PLATE.

Cree Wigwams. (Vide p. 43.) - - . - Frontispiece

ARCTIC

PEARCHING: EXPEDITION,

CHAPTER XIII.

OF THE ’TINNE OR CHEPEWYANS.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. —NATIONAL NAME. — TRIBES. — HARE
INDIANS AND DOG-RIBS.—PERSONAL APPEARANCE. — WOMEN.
— DRESS. — DISPOSITIONS. — WARS. — SOCIALISM. — IMPROVI-
DENCE.—SUFFERING.—AFFECTION FOR THEIR CHILDREN. —
HOSPITALITY FEEBLE.— FALSEHOOD. — HONESTY.— RELIGIOUS
BELIEF. — VOLATILITY. — MARRIAGES. — WRESTLING FOR A
WIFE.— DOGS.— MOOSE-HUNTING.— PUBLIC OPINION THE ONLY
RULE OF CONDUCT.—CHIEFS.—INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTI-
ANITY.—— HORSES. —- HOUSES. —DAWNINGS OF CIVILISATION. —
MEMBERS OF THE *TINNE PEOPLE WEST OF THE ROCKY
MOUNTAINS.—SOUTHERN ATHABASCANS.

’Trnné or ’Dtinné, Athabascans, or Chepewyans.

Under these national appellations I have to speak

of a people whose southern border is the Churchill

River, or the Missinipz, as it is termed by the

Eythinyuwuk, to whom it is also a boundary line.

Every where, in the country lying east of the
VOL. II. B

2 CHEPEWYANS.

Mackenzie, the ’7inné lands are conterminous with
the Eskimo coast, and, to the westward of the Rocky
Mountains, with the Kutchin grounds, though the
precise geographical limits of the two nations in
that direction have not yet been correctly ascer-
tained. The ’Z%nne, however, extend across the
continent, since the 7@-kuli and almost the entire
population of New Caledonia have been referred
by ethnologists to their nation.

The name by which the ’Tinné designate them-
selves has, as is usual with the native Americans,
the signification of ‘ people,” or ‘ the people,” and
its proper application, when ascertained with care,
would seem, at first sight, to be a good test for
fixing the nationality of some tribes whose position
in the ethnological scale is still uncertain. But as
our acquaintance with the various American lan-
euages extends, and the way in which the pronun-
ciation of the same word in the mouths of different
tribes is gradually modified becomes known, doubts
arise as to the value of such a test, or, rather, the
opinion of the intimate connection between the
various tongues is strengthened, though it may be
difficult to trace their links in vocabularies com-
piled by Europeans. Thus, though no two lan-
guages can be apparently more dissimilar than the
harsh, guttural, unpronounceable, and unwritable
’Tinne speech, and the flowing, harmonious, and

a

TRIBES. 33

easily acquired tongue of the Eythinyuwuk, yet the
’Thinyu (man) of the latter may be resolved into
the ’Tinne, ’Tinye, or Dunne, of the former, and the
Ting-t of the Kutchin, without much philological
artifice.*

Various tribes have been distinguished by pe-
culiar names, but there is little variety in their
general appearance, and few discrepancies in their
dress, customs, or moral character. The Hare
Indians (Ka-cho-dtinne) inhabit the banks of the
Mackenzie, from Slave Lake downwards, and the
Dog-ribs (Thling-e-ha-dtinnée) the inland country
on the east, from Martin Lake to the Coppermine.
There is no perceptible difference in the aspect of
these two tribes. They meet in the same hunting-
grounds at the north end of Great Bear Lake,
intermarry, and their speech scarcely differs even
in accent. The Hare Indians, frequenting a thickly
wooded district in which the American hare abounds,
feed much on that animal, and clothe themselves
with its skins, while the Dog-ribs depend more
upon the rein-deer for a supply of winter dresses,
but in all essential respects they are the same

* Mr. Isbister says the Chepewyan tongue is “ harsh and
guttural, difficult of enunciation, and unpleasant to the ear.”
“ As a language it is exceedingly meagre and imperfect.”—Rep.
Brit. Ass. for 1847. Mr. M‘Pherson pointed out to me, as a
curious coincidence, the similarity in sound of the Gaelic word
for people, with the "Dunne of the Dog-rib Indians.

B 2

4 CHEPEWYANS.

people. To the eastward of the Dog-ribs are the
Red-knives, named by their southern neighbours
the Tantsa-ut-'dtinne (Birch-rind people). They
inhabit a stripe of country running northwards
from Great Slave Lake, and in breadth from the
Great Fish River to the Coppermine. They were
also formerly in the habit of resorting to the north
end of Great Bear Lake, to kill musk-oxen and
rein-deer; but many of their influential men being
cut off by treachery in a feud with the Dog-ribs, they
have lately kept more towards the east end of Great
Slave Lake. These three tribes roam northwards
to the Eskimo boundary line, but mutual fears
cause the two people to leave an ample neutral
ground, on which neither party are willing to
venture.

Other members of the ’Tinné nation inhabit
the country at the mouth of the Missinipi, and
carry their furs to Fort Churchill, where they
meet the Eskimos that come from the northward,
and, through the influence of the traders, carry on
an amicable intercourse with them, so that ’Tinneé
families occasionally accompany the Eskimos to
their hunting-grounds. A wide tract of barren
lands intervenes between the Churchill ’Tinné and
the Red-knives, and the tribes on the Slave and
Elk Rivers which resort to Fort Chepewyan.
These “barren grounds” are very thinly peopled,

* ‘TRIBES. 5

and rather by isolated families who resort thither
for a year or two to hunt the rein-deer than by
parties associated in such numbers as to deserve
the name of a tribe. Part of these wandering,
solitary people resort at intervals of. two or three
years to Churchill for supplies, and part to Fort
Chepewyan, where, from the direction in which
they came, they are named Sa-i-sa-dtinné (Eastern
or Rising Sun folks). The Athabasca ’Tinne, named
also Chepewyans, frequent the Elk and Slave
Rivers, and the country westward to Hay River,
which falls into Great Slave Lake. There is some
difference between their dialect and that of the
tribes on the Mackenzie, but not so much as to
occasion any difficulty to an interpreter, versed in
either tongue. The name Chipewyan has no re-
lation to the word Ojibbeway or Chippeway, which
designates an Eythinyuwuk people frequenting the
coasts of Lake Superior, but has rather, I believe,
its origin in the contempt felt’ by the warlike
Crees for the less manly ’Tinné, whom they op-
pressed by their inroads, before commerce intro-
duced peace between them. Chi-pai-uk-tim (you
dead dog) is a most opprobrious epithet. The
appellation of “slave,” given to the Dog-ribs by
the same people, whose war-parties penetrated even
to the banks of the Mackenzie, has a similar origin ;

and it has been stated in a preceding page, that
B 3

6 CHEPEWYANS.

the Kolushes also called the Eskimo Kadyakers
with whom they warred “slaves.” To the south of
the Athabascans, a number of ’Tinné frequent the
upper part of the Missinipi, where they mingle
with the Crees, and in common with them trade
with the posts on Lac la Ronge and Isle a la
Crosse. (See Vol. I. p. 91.) The Sarsis or Circees,
who live near the Rocky Mountains, between the
sources of the Athabasca and Saskatchewan Rivers,
are said to be likewise of the ’"Timne stock.
Between the Peace River and the west branch
of the Mackenzie are the Beaver Indians, who take
their name from an affluent of the latter. Their
dialect is reported to be softer than that of the other
’"Tinne, having probably been modified by their
intercourse with the Crees of the prairies. Other
tribes on the mountain branch of the Mackenzie
differ somewhat either in language or manners
from the eastern part of the nation, and have
peculiar designations. The Nol’hanné inhabit the
angle between that branch and the great bend of
the trunk of the river, and are neighbours of the
Beaver Indians. Higher up are the ’ Dicha-ta-ut-
‘tinné, “* Mountain Indians” or “‘ Strong-bows,” who
keep to the ranges of the Rocky Mountains, and the
Tsilla-ta-ut-tinneé, or “ Brushwood-people.”
Between the trunk of the Mackenzie, on the
65th parallel, and the Rocky Mountain ranges,

TRIBES, rg

dwell a tribe named Dahd-’dtinnée by the Dog-rib
Indians, and Nod’hai-e by the Kutchin. They
descend the Gravel River to come to Fort Norman,
and are ill understood by the Dog-rib interpreters
there. In the first volume (p. 180.) I have men-
tioned, on the authority of Mr. M‘Kenzie, that the
Daha-dtinnes name themselves in their own tongue
Cheta-ut-tdinnée, which indicates their identity with
the Strong-bows, both being mountaineers. Fur-
ther down the Mackenzie, near the 65th parallel,
another small tribe also descends from the moun-
tains to visit Fort Good Hope, and is named
Amba-ta-ut-tinné, or “ Sheep-people,” because they
hunt the Ovis montana on the mountain-tops.
These people speak a dialect of the ’Tinné, which
is well understood by the Hare Indians.

This enumeration of the various ’Tinné tribes
dwelling on the east side of the Rocky Mountains,
all of whom believe that they are sprung from a
dog, will give some idea of the geographical extent
of the nation. It is not my intention to speak of
them severally, as my personal acquaintance is too
partial to enable me to state correctly in what
respects they differ from each other. The Atha-
bascans or Chepewyans proper have been so long
known, and so often mentioned by writers on the
fur countries, and Hearne has given so many

details of the habits of the’Tinné of Churchill, and
B 4

8 CHEPEWYANS.

of the tribes he encountered in his journey over
the barren grounds, that I could add little of
importance ; I shall, therefore, restrict my remarks
to the Dog-ribs and Hare Indians, who resorted to
Fort Franklin and Fort Confidence during my
residences on Great Bear Lake.

These people possess more regular features than
the Eskimos, with, at the same time, a greater
variety among individuals, many of whom have
good profiles. Taken as a whole, they exhibit
all the characteristics which we observe in the
red races dwelling further south; but their in-
attention to personal appearance, want of cleanli-
ness, and their abject behaviour, give them a very
inferior aspect, particularly when in the company
of white people. or they possess the whine and
air of accomplished beggars, and their solicitations
are constant as long as they have any hope of gain.
The women are inferior to the men in height, fea-
tures, and care of their dress; for, dirty as the
men generally are, they do paint their faces and
wear ornaments on festive occasions, while few of
the women take so much trouble. Most of the
latter, however, are tatooed on the chin, or at the
angles of the mouth.

The clothing of the men in summer is rein-deer
leather, dressed like shammy, and is beautifully
white‘and soft when newly made. A shirt of this

DRESS. 9

material, cut evenly below, reaches to the middle ;
the ends of a piece of cloth secured to a waistband,
hang down before and behind; hose or Indian
stockings descend from the top of the thigh to the
ankle; and a pair of mokassins or shoes of the
same soft leather, with tops which fold round the
ankle, complete the costume. When the hunter is
equipped for the chase, he wears, in addition, a
stripe of white hare-skin, or of the belly part of a
deer-skin, in a bandeau round the head, with his
lank, black elf-locks streaming from beneath ; a shot
pouch, suspended by an embroidered belt, which
crosses the shoulder ; a fire-bag or tobacco-pouch
tucked into the girdle; a pair of mittens; and a
long fowling-piece in its coat thrown carelessly
across the arm or balanced on the back of the neck.
The several articles here enumerated are orna-
mented at the seams and hems with leathern thongs
wound round with porcupine quills, or are more or
less embroidered with bead-work, according to the
industry of the wife or wives. One of the young
men even of the slovenly Dog-rib tribe, when newly
equipped from top to toe, and tripping jauntily over
the mossy ground with an elastic step, displays his
slim and not ungraceful figure to advantage. But
this fine dress, once donned, is neither laid aside nor
cleaned while it lasts, and soon acquires a dingy
look, and an odour which can be perceived’ from

10 CHEPEWYANS.

some distance. In the camp a smoky, greasy
blanket of English manufacture is worn over the
shoulders by day, and forms, with the clothes, the
bedding by night.

In winter the skins of fawn rein-deer, retaining
the hair, are substituted for the shammy leather,
and a large robe of the same material is thrown
over the shoulders, and hangs down to the feet, in
place of the blanket. As the preparation of so
much leather and dressed fur keeps the women
busy, they are glad to use English cloth, of blue,
red, or green colours, or Canadian capots of white
or blue cloth, which they acquire at the trading
posts in exchange for venison or furs. But with
regard to the winter dress especially, the substi-
tution of the produce of the English loom for
their native leather is a loss both of comfort and
of appearance.

The women’s dress resembles the men’s, except
that the shirt is somewhat longer, and, for the
most part, is accompanied by a petticoat which
reaches nearly to the knee.

The form of the dress here described is common
to the whole ’Tinné nation, and also to the Crees
and Dakotas, though the material varies with the
district; moose deer, red deer, or bison leather,
being used in the south and west, where those
animals abound; and the Hare Indians make their

WOMEN. 11

shirts of the skin of the hare. This, being too
tender to be used in the ordinary way, is torn into
narrow strips, which are then twisted slightly, and
plaited or worked into the required shape. I have
noticed no process among the northern Indians
that approaches so nearly to weaving as the manu-
facture of these white hare-skin shirts.* Such is
the closeness and fineness of the fur, that they are
exceedingly warm, notwithstanding the looseness
of their texture. Though the dress of the southern
Indians is after the same pattern with that of the
’Tinne, the Kutchin, both in the interior and on
the coast, form, as has been already mentioned, the
hose and shoes of the same piece ; thus imitating
the Eskimo boot, though with a different material.

The Dog-rib men and women leave their hair
without other dressing than simply wiping their
greasy hands on the matted locks, when they have
been rubbing their bodies with marrow, which
they occasionally do.

The Hare Indian and Dog-rib women are cer-
tainly at the bottom of the scale of humanity in
North America. Not that they are treated with
cruelty, for the ’Tinné are not a cruel people, but
that they are looked upon as inferior beings, and
in this belief they themselves acquiesce. In early

* The Kenaiyer of Cook’s Inlet are said to weave the wool

of the mountain goat (Capra americana) into a stuff used for
clothing.

re CHEPEWYANS.

infancy the boy discovers that he may show any
amount of arrogance towards his sisters, who, as
soon as they can walk, are harnessed to a sledge,
and inured betimes to the labours which are their
inevitable lot through life; while the future hunter
struts in his tiny snow shoes after the men, and
apes their contempt of the women. The women
drag the sledges alone or aided by dogs, clear the
ground for the tent, cut poles to extend the lodge
or tent-skins upon, collect fire-wood, bring water,
make all the dresses and shoes, clean the fish, and
smoke or jerk the venison for its preservation.
They also cook both for themselves and their hus-
bands, the ’Tinne not holding the opinion of the
Kutchin that a man ought not to eat meat pre-
pared by a woman. Neither are the ’Tinne women
altogether precluded from eating with the men;
though in times of scarcity the man would expect
to be first fed, as it is a maxim with them that the
woman who cooks can be well sustained by licking
her fingers. The women are not, however, gene-
rally discontented with their lot, and better days
are certainly dawning upon them, as the opinions
of the traders are beginning to tell visibly on the
whole nation. Notwithstanding their servile con-
dition they are not without influence over the
stronger sex; and they seldom permit provisions
or other articles to be disposed of without ex-

DISPOSITIONS. 13

pressing their thoughts on the matter with much
earnestness and volubility.

Few traces of the stoicism popularly attributed
to the red races exist among the Dog-ribs: they

shrink from pain, show little daring

o, express their

fears without disguise on all occasions, imaginary
or real, shed tears readily, and live in constant
dread of enemies, bodied and disembodied. Yet
all, young and old, enjoy a joke heartily. They
are not a morose people, but, on the contrary,
when young and in a situation of security, they
are remarkably lively and cheerful. The infirmities
of age, which press heavily on the savage, render
them querulous. They are fond of dancing, but
their dance, which is performed in a circle, is with-
out the least pretensions to grace, and is carried
on laboriously with the knees and body half bent
and a heavy stamping, having the effect of causing
the dancers to appear as if they were desirous of
sinking into the ground. It is accompanied by a
sone resembling a chorus of groans, or pretty
nearly the deep sigh of a pavier as he brings his
rammer down upon the pavement. They are
great mimics, and readily ape the peculiarities of
any white man; and many of the young men
have caught the tunes of the Canadian voyagers,
and hum them correctly.

They are an unwarlike people, and averse to

14 CHEPEWYANS.

shedding blood; yet, as they do not meet their
foes in open warfare or man to man, their very
timidity impels them to treachery or a violation
of the laws of hospitality, when, by long-con-
tinued oppression and the loss of relatives, they
have been driven to retaliate upon the few indi-
viduals or families of the domineering tribe who
were living in confidence among them. ‘This
remark applies directly to their feud with the Red-
knives, who for many years resorted to the hunting-
grounds of the Dog-ribs, tyrannised over them,
and carried away their women. This was long
borne, but at length, some lives having been lost
in the contests which occasionally ensued, the
Dog-ribs, watching their opportunity, cut off seve-
ral leading Red-knives and their families, who,
not dreading any thing at the time, were scattered
among the Dog-rib encampments. The details of
these reprisals give a curious insight into the cha-
racter of the people. Some of the victims, deprived
of the means of resistance, and aware of their
intended fate, travelled for a whole day with the
hostile party; but the latter required to have their
passions roused by altercation before they acquired
sufficient boldness to perpetrate the deed, and
were finally incited to its commission by the suf-
ferers demanding to be killed at once if their death
was intended, for they would go no further. When

SOCIALISM. 15

the husbands and grown men were killed, the Dog-
ribs argued that pity impelled them to slaughter
also the wives and children, who would be unhappy
and perish for want, having lost their means of
support. To a people who could no longer sup-
port the tyranny of their bolder neighbours, nor
combine so as to repel aggression by force, treachery
seemed to be the only mode of obtaining redress ;
and in fact the extent to which they carried their
reprisals effectually broke the spirit of the Red-
knives, and drove them ‘to a distance.

The Dog-ribs are practical socialists; and, as
much of the misery they occasionally experience
may be traced to this cause, the study of the
working of such a system may be instructive in a
community like this, whose members owe their
condition in the social scale solely to their personal
qualities, and not to inheritance, favour, or the
other accidents which complicate the results in
civilised life. Custom has established among them
a practice universally acted upon,—that all may
avail themselves of the produce of a hunter’s energy
and skill; and they do not even leave to him the
distribution of his own game. When it is known
in the camp that deer have been killed, the old
men and women of each family sally forth with
their sledges, and, tracing up the hunter’s foot-
steps to the carcases of the animals he has slain,

16 CHEPEWYANS.

proceed to divide them among themselves, leaving
to the proper owner the ribs, which is all that
he can claim to himself of right. He has also
the tongue, which he takes care to cut out on
killing the deer. It is not in the power of these
people to restrain their appetites when they have
abundance; and the consequence is, that when the ~
chase is successful, all the community feast and
grow fat, however little many of the men—and
there are not a few idle ones—may have contributed
to the common good. The hunter’s wife dries the
rib-pieces, after cutting out the bone, in the smoke,
or over a fire, to carry to a fort for the purposes of
trade; but, unless there is a superabundance, little
provision is made by the party for a time of scarcity,
which is sure to arrive before long; since the deer,
when much hunted, move to some other district.
Taught by their frequent sufferings on such occa-
sions, the more active hunters frequently withdraw
themselves and their families from the knowledge of
the drones of the community, leaving them at some
fishing station, where, with proper industry, they
may subsist comfortably. A fish diet is not, how-
ever, agreeable to the palates of these people for any
length of time ; and, as soon as rumours of a hunter's
success reach them,—which they do generally much
exaggerated by the way, —a longing for the flesh-

pots is instantly excited, especially among the old,
&

AFFECTION FOR PARENTS. 1%

and a general movement to the hunting-ground
ensues. If, on their march, the craving multitude
discover a hoard of meat stored up by any of the
hunting parties, it is devoured on the spot; but
they are not always so fortunate. Before they
reach the scene of anticipated abundance, the deer
may have gone off, followed by the hunters, with
uncertain hopes of overtaking them, and nothing re-
mains for the hungry throng, including the old and
the lame, but to retrace their steps, with the pro-
spect of many of them perishing by the way, should
their stock of food have been quite exhausted.
Such occurrences are by no means rare; they
came several times under our immediate notice
during our winter residence at Fort Confidence,
and similar facts are recorded by Mr. Simpson of
the same tribe. This gentleman expresses his
opinion that the charge made against this nation,
of abandoning their infirm aged people and chil-
dren, had its origin in the sawve qui peut cry raised
during a forced retreat from some one of these
most injudicious excursions; and I am inclined
fully to agree with him; for I witnessed several
unquestionable instances of tenderness and affection
shown by children to their parents, and of com-
pliance with their whims, much to their own per-
sonal inconvenience. The grief they show on the
loss of a parent is often great and of long conti-
VOL. II. C

18 CHEPEWYANS.

nuance, and it is the custom both for men and
women to lament the death of relations for years,
by nightly wailings.

Hospitality is not a virtue which is conspicuous
among the Dog-ribs, who differ in this respect
from the Eythinyuwuk, in whose encampments a
stranger meets a welcome and a proffer of food.
It is not customary, however, for the Dog-rib
to receive the traveller who enters his tent with
the same show of kindness. If he is hungry, and
meat hangs up, he may help himself without elicit-
ing a remark, for the ’Tinneé hold it to be mean to
say much about a piece of meat; or he may exert
his patience until some cookery goes on, and then
join in the meal; and should there be venison at
hand, he will not have long to wait, for every now
and then some one is prompted to hang a kettle
on the fire, or to place a joint or steak to roast
before it.

Another habit which darkens the shade in the

character of these Indians is that of lying, which

oO?

they carry to such an extent, even among them-
selves, that they can scarcely be said to esteem
truth a virtue. If a young man has been suc-
cessful in his mornineg’s hunt in a time of famine,
he does not rush into his family circle with joy
beaming on his countenance, to tell that there is

food, but, assuming an aspect of sadness, squats

HONESTY. 19

himself in silence beside the fire. The women
with doubt and anxiety examine his shoes and
dress for spots of blood, that may betoken the
death of an animal, but discovering none, put the
question, ‘‘ Did you see no deer ?” ‘“ Not one, the
deer are all gone, not a single footstep was to be
seen.” When the colloquy has continued for a
time, and hope seems to be extinct, he then draws
out from beneath his shirt two or three tongues,
as the case may be, and says with an air of the
utmost indifference, “ You may go for the meat.”
It is not, however, merely at such times, and to
enhance the pleasure by previous disappointment,
that truth is violated, but on almost every occa-
sion; and the skill of an Old Bailey practitioner
would find exercise in eliciting facts from the mass
of contradictions with which they overload them.
A story which was at first a pure invention, or
perhaps, a perversion of some simple occurrence,
becomes so changed by the additions it receives in
its transmission from individual to individual, that
it deceives the originators, and if it bears on the
safety of the community, may spread consternation
among them, and occasion a hasty flight.

It is pleasant, instead of dwelling longer on this
defect, to turn to another feature—their strict
honesty ; the practice of the ’Tinné with regard to

the property of white people differing remarkably
c 2

20 CHEPEWYANS.

from their northern neighbours, the Eskimos, and
their southern ones, the Crees, though the temp-
tations to which they are exposed are equally
great. No precautions for the safety of our pro-
perty at Fort Confidence were required. The na-
tives carefully avoided touching the magnetic in-
struments, thermometers, and other things placed
outside the house, and could be trusted in any of
the rooms without our finding a single article dis-
placed. Our dining-hall was open to all comers;
-and though the smallness of our separate apart-
ments caused us to exclude hangers on, new comers
were permitted to satisfy their curiosity respecting
our occupations, and they always squatted them-
selves down at the door, and looked on in silence,
wondering, as we were told, at our constant
writing. From M. La Fleche, the intelligent mis-
sionary at Isle a la Crosse, I received a similar
character of the southern part of the nation, who,
if they find any article left by the voyagers on
the portages, are sure to bring it in to be claimed
at the forts.

Of the peculiarities of their religious belief I
could gain no certain information. The inter-
preters to whom I applied for assistance disliked
the task, and invariably replied, “As for these
savages, they know nothing; they are ignorant
people.” The majority of the nation recognise a

RELIGIOUS BELIEF. Fi;

“Great Spirit,” at least by name, but some doubt
his existence, assigning, as a reason for their
atheism, their miserable condition; or they say,
“Tf there be such a being, he dwells on the lands
of the white people, where so many useful and
valuable articles are produced.” With respect to
evil spirits, their name in the Dog-rib country is
legion. The ’Tinné recognise them in the Bear,
Wolf, and Wolverene, in the woods, waters, and
desert places ; often hear them howling in the winds,
or moaning by the graves of the dead. Their dread
of these disembodied beings, of whom they spoke
to us under the general name of “ enemies” is such,
that few of the hunters will sleep out alone. They
never make any offerings to the Great Spirit, or
pay him an act of adoration; but they deprecate
the wrath of an evil being by prayer, and the
sacrifice of some article, generally of little value,
perhaps simply by scattering a handful of deer-hair
or a few feathers.

The dead are not burnt, after the manner of
the Kolushes, but are buried. In lamenting for de-
ceased relatives the mourners sometimes gash their
bodies or limbs with knives, but more rarely now
than in old times. It was formerly the custom, on
a death occurring, for the family to abandon every
article they possessed, and betake themselves in a

perfectly destitute condition to the nearest body
c 3

22 CHEPEWYANS.

of their own people, or to the trading post. The
advice of the traders is gradually breaking down
this practice.

Shamanism does not seem to exert the important
influence upon the ’Tinne that it does among the
Asiatic Tchukche, the Kutchin, or the Eskimos.
There are men in the nation, with the reputation
of sorcerers, who profess to have power over spirits ;
but they have but little personal influence, and are
generally of small repute, to which, perhaps, the
contempt of the white people for their arts con-
tributes. A belief, however, in the power of the
Eskimos and of strange Indians to hurt them by
incantations, or ‘bad medicine,” prevails. White
people are said to be exempt from such dangers,
their “ medicine” being the most powerful. The
‘“‘conjurers” are occasionally employed to cure the
sick, and I suppose on such occasions receive some
reward ; but I heard of no instance of their being
beat and coerced to influence the spirits favourably
in the manner that the Asiatic Tchukche are re-
ported in Baron Wrangell’s work to deal with
their shamans.

Among the Crees the conjurers perform a much
more prominent part than with the ’Tinné, and
their practices come frequently under the observa-
tion of residents on the lands of that people; but
I never saw one exhibit among the Hare Indians,

MARRIAGES. 23

Dog-ribs, or Red-knives, in the course of four or
five years passed among them, though I have many
times seen some of the old men throw trifling arti-
cles into the water, to procure a fair wind, or se-
cure a safe passage across a lake or down a rapid.

From a people so liable to be actuated by fears
of imaginary evils no steady line of action can be
expected, and the Dog-ribs are in reality as volatile
as children. When accompanied by a white man,
they will perform a long journey carefully to a
distant post; but we found, by experience, that
however high the reward they expected to receive
on reaching their destination, they could not be
depended upon to carry letters. A slight ditticulty,
the prospect of a banquet on venison, or a sudden
impulse to visit some friend, were sufficient to turn
them aside for an indefinite length of time.

In general, the ’Tinne have only one wife, the
numbers of the sexes being equal, or the males
rather predominating. The women are married
very young, but the man must have shown some
skill in hunting before he obtains a helpmate
readily. The consent of the parents is usually
gained by the suitor, and is seldom withheld
from a man whose activity promises the old folks
some addition to their comforts or consequence.
The woman’s wishes have, perhaps, some weight

with her parents, but I could not ascertain that
c 4

24. CHEPEWYANS.

any show of courtship* was made, or that her
disinclination was allowed to interfere with the
man’s determination to take her, if the parents
did not oppose. No ceremony attends the union.
Hearne says, that it is the established etiquette
among the Eastern ’Tinné for the woman to affect
unwillingness to change her condition, and for the
man to rush into her father’s tent, and drag her off
by the hair of the head. We witnessed no scene of
this kind among the Dog-ribs, but more than once
saw a stronger man assert his right to take the wife
of a weaker countryman. Any one may challenge
another to wrestle, and, if he overcomes, may carry
off his wife as the prize. The younger children
generally follow the fortunes of the mother, but
the father may retain them if he chooses. In such
contests, it is suspected that the wife sometimes
prompts the aggressor ; but I have been told —for
I never actually witnessed one of these wrestling
matches— that she looks on with composure and
impartiality, and does not insult her late master
with a display of pride on being the object of such
a struggle, the causa teterrima belli. The bereaved

* The term “dear,” or “beloved,” is said to be unknown
in the language ; and Captain Lefroy, who tried to ascertain
if it was so, says, “I endeavoured to put this intelligibly to
Nannette, by supposing such an expression as ma chére femme ;
ma chere fille. When at length she understood it, her reply
was (with great emphasis), “ J’ disent jamais ca; 7 disent ma
femme; ma fille.”

MOOSE-HUNTING. 25

husband meets his loss with the resignation which
custom prescribes in such a case, and seeks his
revenge by taking the wife of another man weaker
than himself. From a passage in one of Mr. Mur-
ray’s letters, I infer that this practice extends to
the Kutchin, but it is unknown among the Cree
tribes, and does not exist among the Eskimos.
The ’Tinne are said to be jealous of their wives ;
but rather, I believe, lest they should be enticed
away, than from any nice sense of honour. ‘The
laxity of morals, however, with respect to female
chastity, which prevails in the Eskimo tribes is not
conspicuous in the’Tinne, and is, perhaps, contrary
to the national character, though some corruption
may have crept in through their acquaintance with
white people.

Before the introduction of articles of European
manufacture, the ’Tinne caught fish with hooks of
bone, or speared them with weapons pointed with
bone or copper. Some of their fish harpoons were
constructed very artistically. They also used, and
still continue to use, nets made of lines of twisted
willow bark, or thin stripes of deer-hide cut very
evenly. Nets are unknown among the northern
tribes west of the Mackenzie, and some of the
parties of the Eskimos that we saw declared their
ignorance of their use. On the banks of the Mac-
kenzie and other rivers frequented by moose-deer,

these animals are hunted in spring by a small

26 CHEPEWYANS.

breed of dogs, which run lightly over the crusted
snow, and hold the animal at bay until the Indian
comes up in his snow shoes. At other times of
the year, the success of the Hare Indians and Dog-
ribs in killing the moose is small, as they have not
the skill of approaching so wary an animal which
the Athabascans and Crees possess. Rein-deer are
captured in pounds and by nooses, but are in the
present day more generally killed with the fowling-
piece, which is also the weapon used against the
musk-ox. The pounds are formed on the verge of
the woods, and are made with much less labour
than those of the Kutchin; yet, as they need the ex-
ertions of all the community for their construction,
the indolence of the major part causes them to
be rarely made. ‘The black bear is snared or shot,
but few of the Dog-ribs will venture to attack the
“brown barren-ground bear,” whose fierceness, or,
as they say, “‘ potent medicine,” appals them. It
is killed by them, however, without risk when it is
detected hybernating under the snow in spring.
Order is maintained in the tribe solely by public
opinion. It is no one’s duty to repress immorality
or a breach of the laws of society which custom
has established among them, but each opposes
violence as he best may by his own arm or the
assistance of his relations. A man’s conduct must
be bad indeed, and threaten the general peace,

CHIEFS. QF

before he would be expelled from the society ; no
amount of idleness, nor selfishness, entails such
a punishment. Superior powers of mind, combined
with skill in hunting, raise a few into chiefs, under
whose guidance a greater or smaller number of
families place themselves ; and a chief is great or
little, according to the length of his tail. His
clients and he are bound together only by mutual
advantage, and may and do separate as inclination
prompts. The chief does not assume the power of
punishing crimes, but regulates the movements of
his band, chooses the hunting-ground, collects pro-
visions for the purchase of ammunition, becomes
the medium of communication with the traders,
and extends his sway by a liberal distribution
of tobacco and ammunition among his dependents.
At present, the rank of a chief is not fully esta-
blished among his own people until it is recognised
at the fort to which he resorts. The Company send
in annually a number of red coats, ornamented with
lace, for presents to the chiefs, which are worn as
badges of office on great occasions. The power of
a chief varies with his personal character. Some
have acquired an almost absolute rule, by attaching
to themselves in the first instance an active band
of robust young men, and using them to keep in
order any refractory person by claiming his wife
after the custom of the tribe. It is in vain in

28 CHEPEWYANS.

such cases that the poor husband, dreading to be
deprived of his most valuable property, retires
to a remote hunting-ground; for he is sure to
receive a message, from some passing Indian, ex-
pressive of the chief’s intentions ; and he generally
comes to the conclusion that submission is the best
policy. He is certain to fall in with the chief and
his band sooner or later, either as he goes to the
fort for supplies of ammunition or elsewhere. <A
free expenditure by the chief of the presents he
receives from the traders, and even of the produce
of his furs, is a main bulwark of his authority, in
addition to the skill which he must possess in the
management of the various tempers with which he
has to do.

The sounds of the ’Tinné language can scarcely
be expressed by the English alphabet, and several of
them are absolutely unpronounceable by an English-
man. In my attempts to form a vocabulary I had
great difficulty in distinguishing several words from
one another which had dissimilar sounds to the
native ear, and were widely different in their signifi-
cation. A Dog-rib or Athabascan appears, to one
unaccustomed to hear the language, to be stut-
tering. Some of the sounds must have a strong
resemblance to the Hottentot cluck, and palatal
and guttural syllables abound in the language.
Vocabularies of this tongue cannot be greatly de-

INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY. 29

pended upon, as no two people will agree on the
orthography.

With respect to the future prospects of the
’Tinné, the nation in general may be said to be
more docile and confiding, and more directly under
the influence of the traders, or of missionary ex-
ertions, than their southern neighbours, the Crees.
As yet, Roman Catholic missionaries alone have
entered the ’Tinne country, and they have already
a large number of nominal converts. For some
years Canadian priests from the Red River colony
went annually to Methy Portage, where many of
the Athabascans and Churchill River ’Tinne con-
gregate at the usual season of transporting the
outgoing furs and incoming supplies. On these
occasions, numbers of the Indians were baptized, a
considerable inducement to submit to the rite
being the present of a piece of tobacco, or perhaps
some vague notion of the protection thereby af-
forded against evil influences. There was no time
to instruct them in the truths of the Christian
religion, and this could be but very imperfectly
done through the medium of interpreters. In
1846, however, the Roman Catholic mission under
Monsieur La Fleche was established, as has been
mentioned in a preceding chapter. This gentleman
and his associate, Monsieur Tasche, members, I
believe, of the Society of Jesus, applied themselves

30 CHEPEWYANS.

to the study of the ’Tinné language, and were soon
enabled to teach many of their converts to read
and write.

By sympathising with their people in all their
distresses, taking a strong interest in every thing
that concerns them, by acting as their physicians
when sick, and advisers on all occasions, the priests
of the mission have gained their entire confidence.
It is not likely that Protestant missionaries, coming
later into the field, will succeed in introducing
their more spiritual but less imposing form of
worship among a people whose first teachers have
been so successful.

When the fur traders. first penetrated to the Elk
River, the Athabascans had only a small breed of
dogs useful for the chase, but unfitted for draught ;
and the women did the laborious work of dragging
the sledges. Now the cultivation of a stouter race
of dogs has in some respects ameliorated the lot of
the females, and within a few years the acquisition
of horses by many of the natives on that river has
introduced a still greater improvement. Houses are
beginning to be built, and the more provident and
staid of the people have fixed homes to retire to.
With the means of securing their property and
provisions, new ideas respecting them spring up,
and a revolution in the opinions of the nation is
evidently in progress. Recently, also, it has been

WESTERN TRIBES. Si

the policy of the Hudson’s Bay Company to employ
many of the young natives, during the summer, in
navigating their boats to the depéts, and back again
to the outposts. By these trips prejudices are
broken down; the youth acquire information and
habits of labour and steady industry, and, being
well paid, the clothing they purchase gives them
respectability in the eyes of their countrymen.
A generation has passed away since the whole
Indian country was demoralised by the opposition
of trading companies, and the present race of Chepe-
wyans are ignorant of the use of spirituous liquors.

Of the nations belonging to the “Tinne stock who
inhabit the country west of the Rocky Mountains,
the Ta-kuli or Carriers oceupy the greater part of
New Caledonia. They subsist chiefly on fish, and
their name denotes people employed on the waters.
They burn their dead; the widow becomes the
servant of the relations, is harshly treated, and is
compelled to carry about with her for several years
the ashes of the deceased. When the time of her
trial ends, a feast is made by the kindred, and she
is at liberty to marry again. A custom somewhat
similar prevails among the Chippeways. The
Tsitka-ni, who dwell between the Stikeen and
Simpson’s Rivers to the north of the Carriers, are
said also to be of the same stock. They bury
their dead, and are hunters.

oe CHEPEWYANS.

In addition to these tribes, a detached portion
of the ’Tinné people is mentioned by Dr. Latham,
under the name of Sonthern Athabascans. They
occupy the sea-coast from the north bank of the
Oregon southwards, to the River Umqua, in 433°
of lat. For an account of these, I must refer the
reader to the works of the author just named, and
to the Transactions of the American Ethnological
Society from which he quotes.

Dr. Latham may, also, be consulted for an ac-
count of four or five isolated languages, spoken
by tribes that interpose between the North and
South Athabascans to the west of the Rocky Moun-
tains, and for notices of the inhabitants of the
Archipelago skirting that coast. The Kolush
language ends, he thinks, at the north end of King
George’s Archipelago.

The Chenooks, one of these isolated people, are
noted for their habit of flattening the foreheads of
their infants artificially, a custom which crosses
the continent southwards to the coast of Florida,
and was practised, though not exactly in the same
way, by the extinct Peruvian races of Lake Titi-

caca.™

* Among some good examples of flattened skulls from the
west coast of America, in the Museum at Haslar, there is the
remarkable one of Comcomly, the hero of Washington Irving’s
Astoria.

CREES. 33

CHAP. XIV.

EYTHINYUWUK, OR CREES AND CHIPPEWAYS.

NATIONAL NAMES. — DIVISION. — TRIBES. — TERRITORY. — WARS
WITH THE MENGWE.— CONVENTIONAL CHARACTER NOT TRUE.
— PERSONS.-— GAIT.—CRIMES.—WABUNSI.—WIGWAMS.— RELI-
GIOUS BELIEF.—VAPOUR BATHS.— EVERLASTING FIRE.—ITS
RITES.— USED IN SICKNESS.—ITS PRIESTS.—ITS ORIGIN. —
CHIEF SUN.— POLICY. — CALUMET. — MAIZE. — FOOD. — REIN~
DEER.— BISON.—WHITE-FISH. — EARTH-WORKS. — POTTERY. —
LANGUAGE. — HALF-BREEDS. — COLONY OF RED RIVER OR
OSNABOYA. — SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS.

THE people who designate themselves Hythinywwuk
or Ininyu-wé-u, occupy the country lying between
the Rocky Mountains and Hudson’s Bay, and reach-
ing from the ’Tinne boundary down to the plains
of the Saskatchewan and valley of the St. Lawrence;
their hunting-grounds on the plains interlocking
with those of the Dakotas or Sioux. They are
identified as a nation with the Algonkins and Lenni-
lenape or Delawares, who once owned the whole
country east of the Mississippi as far south as Caro-
lina, but who, blighted by the precocious expansion
of the Anglo-Saxon colonists, have dwindled down
to a few remnants of mixed blood. The generic
term Algic, taken from the root of the word Al-
gonkin, has been employed by the philologists of
the United States to comprehend all the tribes who
VOL. II. D

4 CREES.

SX)

speak dialects of the Algonkin tongue, and whose
southern limits are stated by Schoolcraft to be
conterminous with the Catawbas, Creeks, Cherokees,
Chactas, and Chickasas. The tract which they
occupied in the year 1600 includes the whole area
of the United States east of the Mississippi, north
of these nations, excepting the grounds of several
tribes of the Iroquois race, north and south.* In
1603, when the French settled in Canada, the
Algonkins, according to Colden, were “the most
warlike and polite nation in all North America.”
The national name of this people is derived,
according to the custom of the Americans, from
the word “man,” which is in different dialects
Lthinyu, Ethin-u, Inin-yu, or Inine.¢ According to
Schoolcraft, they do not call themselves Unis-
chauba{, or “aborigines,” but, on the contrary,
have a tradition current among the southern

* The Abenakis, Etchemins, and some kindred tribes located
to the south of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the Hochungarras,
or Winnebagoes, and Wyandots, to the north-west, belonged to
the Iroquois stock.

{ Dr. Latham traces affinities between the terms for “ people,”
in several languages. The similarity of the terms Jnwhk or
Inuit, and’ Tinne, or ’ Tinyé, to some of the above is obvious.
Mr. Howes makes Ethin’u = <0y-oc. From Ethinu comes ethini-
seu, “manly ;” “wise,” indicating the opinion the Crees have
of their own nation.

t{ From unisha, “common” or “general,” ininé, “a man,”
and aub, a generic particle denoting “light,” “virility,” or
“life.” Schoolcraft.

NATIONAL NAME. By)

members of the nation, that the country they now
hold was previously possessed by the Alligdwi,
of whom the name only remains in the appellation
of the Alleghany Mountains.

Before the European invasion, the Dakota,
Huron, Oneida, Mohawk, and Iroquois association,
or Mengwe*, generally known as the “Five
nations,” had penetrated into the Lythinyuwuk ter-
ritory by way of the Missouri and St. Lawrence.
The contests by which the Mengwé established
themselves in a district, surrounded on all sides by
their enemies, must have been severe; and they are
not even now ended, but are carried on in the
country between the Saskatchewan and Missouri,
notwithstanding the persevering efforts of the
Hudson’s Bay Company and the officers of the
American outposts to suppress them. Deadly
feuds exist between the Blackfeet Eythinyuwuk,
and the Mandans, Minetaresf, and other Dakota
tribes which frequent the bison plains; and on the
Red River of Lake Winipeg, fatal conflicts took

* This confederacy assumed the appellation of Mengwé from
the ancient Iroquois title, Ongweé-honwe, which signifies, ac-
cording to Colden, “‘ men surpassing all others.”

} Called also Absoroka. 'These and the Mandans are the
so-called Welch Indians, said to be descended from Madoc and
his followers. The same origin has been attributed to the
southern Tuscarora, of the Iroquois stock.

D2

36 CREES.

place in the last year, between the Chippeways
and the Sioux, who are Dakotas.

Dr. Latham states that the Shyennes, who dwell
on the head waters of the Yellow Stone and Platte
Rivers, are of the Algonkin race, though insulated
by other people from the rest of their nation; and
that there is in like manner a southern detach-
ment of Iroquois (Tuscaroras, &c.), between whom
and their countrymen the Delawares interpose ;
but as I mean to restrict myself to the St. Law-
rence Valley, and the country lying north of it, I
must refer the reader who wishes for a general
classification of the native American races, to the
“Natural History of the Varieties of Man,” by the
learned author just named.

The various tribes of Eythinyuwuk assume
local designations from the rivers or other remark-
able features of the districts they inhabit, and they
have also names of more general import. Thus
the northern ones, who border on the ’Tinne, call
themselves Nathéwy-withinyu, Nehethe-wuk, or N-
the-wuk*, “ Exact or complete men.” ‘These are
the Crees of the fur traders; and Mr. Howse,
though he does not publish the grounds of his
opinion, considers them to be the stem of the Al-
gonkin race. On the south of these, in the coun-
try extending from Lake Winipeg to the south side

* From Mi, “exactly.”

Lar

DIVISIONS, of

of the basin of Lake Superior, dwell the Odchipewa
(Chippeways or Ojibbeways, called also Sauteurs *
or Sotoos). <A third great division of the nation
name themselves Lenni-lenape (Delawares), which
denotes ‘* Uncommon men.” f

* Spelt by some Canadian writers Saulteaux. A populous
Chippeway tribe frequent the Saut Ste. Marie to feed on the
Adihumayg or Attikamaig (White-fish, Coregonus sapidissimus,
Agassiz), whence the name of “ Cascade people” (sauteurs).

+ The following list, drawn up in 1770 by Mr. Hutchins of
the Hudson’s Bay Service, gives the names of the Eythinyuwuk
tribes then trading with the Hudson’s Bay Company :—

KKEISCATCHEWAN NATION.

Names of Tribes or Places, Districts they inhabit,
Muska-siskow - - - Saskatchewan prairies.
Athapeskow - - -

Omiska-sipi - - - Beaver River and Lake.
Pegogé-meé-u nipr - - Muddy Lake, Moose Lake.
Misi-nipi - - - - Churchill or English River.
Wuskesew-sipt - - - Red-deer River.
Po-i-thinne-kaw-sipi - - Nelson or North River.
Pemmichi-ke-mé-u - - Cross Lake (Nelson River).
Maskégowuk - - - Swampy or low grounds near
Hudson’s Bay.
Ne mé-u sipt = - - Sturgeon River.
Chuki-tanu sipi - - - Hill River.
Penesay-wichewan sipt - Hay’s River.
Washe-u-sipi—- - - Severn River.

Wewanito-wuk - - -

Ka-stitchewanuk - - Albany River. Here Hudson
had his first interview with the natives, among whom
traditions of the circumstances attending it were current

in 1770.
D3

3 CREES.

The Iroquois name the Algonkin race Adirondak,
and Mr. Schoolcraft thinks that this appellation,

NAKA-WE-wuk, OR NorTHERN UTAWAWA.

This people inhabit the country lying between Christianux
Lake (Lake Winipeg) and James’s Bay, approaching within one
hundred miles of the latter. They speak the Odchipewa tongue.

Names of Tribes or Places. Districts they inhabit.
Namehusi-sipt = - - Trout River.
Wa-pusi-sipi = - - Hare River.

Christianux - + - Lake Winipeg.
Wenisha-sipt = - - Badger River.

Odchipewe-sipi - - - River Winipeg.
Mistéhé-saka-hegen Great Lake Winipeg.
Mith-kwa-ga mé-u-sipi - Red or Bloody River.
Shama-tawa - - Henly House River.

UPE-SHI-POW.

This people resort to the eastern coast of Hudson’s Bay,
between Rupert’s and Whale Rivers. Their language differs
in some words both from the Keiskatchewan and Nakawawa.
(They border on the Eskimos of the Labrador peninsula. )
Muswa-sipi - ~ - Moose River.

Winne-peskowuk - - East Main.

La Hontan enumerates the tribes speaking the Algonkin
language in 1700 as follows : —
In Acadia (Nova Scotia): —Abenakis* ; Michemac; Canibas ;

* This tribe are of the Iroquois stock, according to Schooleraft, who says
that Adbenaki is a derivative from Wabanung, “the east,” and ahke, “ earth,”
and signifies “eastlanders.” The Abenakis were called Tarrenteens by the
early English colonists, and formerly inhabited part of the present states of
Maine and New Hampshire. They were divided into several sub-tribes, of
whom the best known are the Penobscots, Norridgewocks, and Ameriscoggins.
About the year 1754, all but the Penobscots withdrew into Canada. The
fullest vocabulary of the Abenaki language is furnished by the manuscripts
of Father Rale, and has been published by the American Academy of Arts

TRIBES. 39

being still retained for the highlands at the source
of the Hudson, countenances the traditions current

Mahingaus ; Openangos; Soccokis (Sokokies, living eastward
of Boston, New England—Colden); Etechemins.* These
seven tribes are brave warriors, more expert and less cruel than
the Iroquois. Their language differs little from the Algonkin.

On the St. Lawrence, from the Sea up to Montreal :—Pa-
pinachois ; Montagnois ; Gaspesiens ; Abenakis of Sciller ; -Al-
gonkins.

On Lake Huron :— Outaouas ; Nockes; Missisagues ; Atte-
kamek; Outchipoues (Odchipewa), called Sauteurs, brave
warriors.

On the borders of Lake Ilinois (Lake Michigan):— Some
Ilinois of Chegakou; Oumamis, brave warriors; Maskoutens ;
Ktikapous, brave warriors ; Outagamis, brave warriors; Malo-
mimis ; Pouteouatamis ; Ojatinons, brave warriors ; Sakis.

On the borders of Lake Frontenac (Lake Ontario) : — Tsonon-
touans ; Goyoguans ; Onontagues; all of whom speak a lan-
guage differing from the Algonkin; Onnoyoutes and Agnies.

On the Outaouas (Uttawa):— Zabitibi; Monzoni; Macha-
handibi; Nopemin of Achirini ; Nepisirini; Temiskamnik (Lake
Temiscamaing). These six tribes speak Algonkin, and are all
cowards.

On the north of the Mississippi, and in the country bordering
on Lake Superior and Hudson’s Bay : — Sonkaskitons ; Ouad-
batons ; Atintons; Clistinos, brave and skilful warriors.

The Assimpouals (Assinipoytuk, or Stone Indians) and
Eskimaux are struck out from La Hontan’s list, as they belong
to other nations. The chart appended to his book gives the
positions he assigns to these several tribes; but Schoolcraft
whose authority is of the greatest weight, says that the list

and Sciences, The language is peculiar, from the frequent use of the rolling
sound of 7, or a burr,

* The Etchemins are of the Iroquois race, according to Schooleraft.
D4

AQ GREES.

among the western Algonkins, that their ancestors
came from the eastern coast. It is probable that
the Mengwe, on the contrary, advanced from the
west, if we may judge by the way in which their
tribes are distributed. The aggressive movements,
however, of the two nations, would throw little
light on the primary peopling of the continent,
even were they ascertained, since there are traces
of their respective districts having been previously
occupied by a people of small stature but superior
in the arts, who have left memorials of their exist-
ence, in numerous and extensive earth-works, and
mounds of ancient date, wherein copper bosses
overlaid with silver have been found. The shafts
or galleries lately discovered at the copper mines
on the south side of Lake Superior, containing
immense quantities of stone chisels, betoken a
people more advanced than the Canadians were on
the first arrival of the French; and are said to be
now followed by the American miners, as guides
to the most valuable deposits of native copper.

The wars of the Lythinyuwuk and the Mengwe
with each other, or with Europeans, have been
recorded by many pens, and have supplied incidents

contains many errors. The chart, of course, has all the imper-
fections which attached to the geography of the great lakes and
more northern country then, and for more than a century after-
wards.

WARS WITIL THE MENGWE. Al

for numerous works of fiction, in which the writers
have ascribed a loftiness of soul and other noble
qualities to these people, of which it would be in
vain to seek traces in the present day; and we may
without much scepticism assert, that they never
really possessed them. Actions prompted only
by the caprice of a barbarous people, have been
considered as the results of refined sentiment ; and
savage cunning, seen through a false medium, has
been elevated to the promptings of far-seeing policy.
The revolting cruelty with which they tortured
prisoners of war, and the stoicism with which, when
vanquished, they endured such treatment in their
turn, are more certain traits of character. <A few
men, remarkable for their powers of mind, have cer-
tainly appeared among the Eythinyuwuk nations,
and from them the abstract idea of a North Ame-
rican Indian has been formed by Europeans.
Among this people there are to be found finer
examples of the human figure, handsomer coun-
tenances, and a more manly and independent car-
riage, than among the Eskimos and ’Tinne; and
West’s exclamation on seeing the Apollo Belvi-
dere, that he was a young Mohawk warrior, may
be adduced as evidence of the natural grace which
a ranger of the woods, unfettered by artificial
restraints, may possess. In fact, the attitudes of
the Eythinyuwuk are occasionally, and especially

42 ‘CREES.

when actuated by strong passion, striking, and
sometimes elegant ; yet the habitual gait of the Red
man is not a graceful one. The toes are turned
in; the step, though elastic, has an appearance of
insecurity, and is by no means majestic, nor even
pleasing, to one unaccustomed to see the centre of
gravity thrown so much forwards. Even though
the palm of personal appearance be given to the
Eythinyuwuk, in moral conduct I hold them to
be decidedly inferior to the Eskimos and ’Tinne.
They are less honest, and though perhaps not so
much given to falsehood as the ’Tinne, are more
turbulent and more prompt to invade the rights of
their countrymen, as well as of neighbouring na-
tions. Their wars are carried on by ambuscade
and treachery, seldom in open field: they spare
neither infants nor women in their forays; and
instances of personal bravery, such as the Eskimos
often exhibit, are rare indeed among them. The
worst of the vices of which St. Paul accuses the
heathen world are said to exist among the Crees
of the plains, and gambling is practised to excess
by the whole nation.* One game in which the

* A society named Wabuno is said to have been formed
among the Chippeways, for the practice of certain nocturnal
orgies called Wabunsi,—an appellation signifying ‘not yet
light,” from wauben, “daylight,” and the negative suffix.—See
Schoolcraft. The appellation of Wahunsenacawh, by which

WIGWAMS. 45

odd or even number of pebbles, and the hand in
which they are held, are to be guessed, is con-
stantly resorted to whenever two or three meet
together, and it is accompanied by singing and
gestures, indicating some kind of divination.
They will pass a whole day so occupied, and will
stake all that they hold most valuable on the
result.

As the Narrative of Sir John Franklin’s First
overland Expedition in 1819-21 contains all the
particulars of the manners and religious belief of
the Crees, or Nethewuk, that I had then collected,
I shall not here repeat them; but shall merely
allude in a brief way to such of their habits and
usages as have not been noticed among the ’Tinne.

The ordinary wigwams*, skin tents, or ‘‘lodges”
as they are called, of the two people are exactly
alike as to form, being extended on poles set up in
a conical manner; but, as a general rule, the tents of
the Crees are more commodious, and more carefully

Powhattan’s subjects were accustomed to address him, had pro-
bably reference to his being chief of a society of thiskind. (See
Virginia by Strachey.)

* Wiggé or Wigwap signifies a dwelling. Most of the Indian
words and names of places adopted into the languages of the
United States and Canada are of Algic origin. ‘The Mandans
and other Dakotas of the Missouri build more substantial huts,
with dome-shaped roofs, covered with earth, to which, as to
look-out places, the men resort.

44 CREES.

and frequently supplied with a fresh lining of the
spray of the balsam fir. This people also occasion-
ally erect a larger dwelling of lattice work, covered
with birch bark, in which forty men or more can
assemble for feasting, debating, or performing some
of their religious ceremonies. These erections are
chiefly made on the skirts of the bison plains, or in
localities where a large number of the nation are
accustomed to assemble together. The entire na-
tion of the Eythinyuwuk cultivate oratory more
than their northern neighbours, who express
themselves much more simply and at the same
time with much less readiness.

Neither among the Eskimos nor ’Tinne did I ob-
serve any image or visible object of worship; but
most of the Crees carry with them one or more
small wooden figures rudely carved, some of which
they state to be representatives of a malicious or at
least capricious being named Kepuchikan™, to whom
they make offerings. They acknowledge other
spirits or J/anito-wuk, and demons or vampires
called Witako; but I could not ascertain that prayer
was ever made to the Avtche-manito, the ‘* Great
Spirit” or “Master of Life.” The vapour-bath,

* Or Gepuchikan. The propensities as well as designation
of this being resemble those of “Puck.” Dr. Johnson derives
the latter word and Pug, from the Icelandic and Gothic word
Puke, signifying “a hobgoblin.”

EVERLASTING FIRE. 45

which is comparatively seldom used by the ’Tinné,
is in frequent request with the Crees, and is more
or less connected with religious observances. It is
the great medium by which the shamans or con-
jurors cure the sick. The operator in this case
shuts himself up with his patient in the sweating-
house, where he shampoes him, singing all the time
a kind of hymn. As long as the shaman can hold
out, so long must the sick man endure the intensely
hot atmosphere, and then, if the invalid be able to
move, they both plunge into the river.

One custom of the Chippeways which fell into
desuetude after the arrival of the French on the
Great Lakes, is still preserved by tradition in the
tribe. It was an institution for preserving an
eternal fire named Kagagisi’koda.* Mr. School-
craft gives the following account of the rites and
duties connected with it, which I make no apology
for quoting, as so singular a custom, related on
such good authority, deserves to be mentioned,
when the peculiar habits of the race are spoken
of.

‘The Chippewa tribe had its council-house, and
the seat of eternal fire, on the south side of Lake
Superior, west of Keeweenau Point. Here lived
the principal chief, called the Mutchekewis, who ex-

* From Ka-gi-gi, “everlasting,” and iskoda, “fire.” The
corresponding words in Cree are ka-hi-ki and iscu-teyu.

46 CREES.

ercised more authority, and assumed more state,
than would be compatible with the present feelings
of the Indians. ‘The designation was official, and
not personal, and the office was hereditary in the
direct male line. He was supported by voluntary
contributions, his mushinawa, or provider, making
known from time to time his necessities by public
proclamation. Whatever was required on these
occasions, whether food or clothmg, was imme-
diately furnished. He appears to have been the
chief priest, and could neither engage in war nor
hunting.”

“In the village where he resided, and near
his cabin, the eternal fire was kept burning. The
altar was a rude kind of oven, over which no
building was erected. Four guardians were
selected by the Mutchekewis, to take care of the
fire. Two of these were men, and two women.
They were all married; but the wives of the men
employed on this service, were required to cook and
do the necessary domestic work, while the husbands
of the women destined to the sacred duty were
always engaged in hunting, and in providing what-
ever else was wanted. The four persons devoted to
the altar were thus left without any secular cares
to divert their attention from the holy trust com-
mitted to them. <A perpetual succession was kept
up in the priesthood, by a prerogative of the

FIRE USED IN SICKNESS. 47

-Mutchékewis, and the principal head woman ; the
former selecting a husband, and the latter a wife
for the survivor, whenever one of these eight per-
sons died. The chain was thus always unbroken,
and the traditionary rites transmitted unimpaired.
Death was the penalty for any neglect of duty, and
it was inflicted without delay and without mercy.”
“The council fires were lighted at the great fire,
and carried wherever the council was held. After
the transaction of the business, a portion of it was
carefully returned and the remainder extinguished.
Whenever a person became dangerously ill, if near
enough, he was taken to the house of the Mutche-
kewis, where his fire was extinguished, and a brand
was brought from the altar and a fire kindled, at
which a feast was prepared. A great dance was
then held, and the viands consumed. And it is
added that the patient seldom failed to recover.
“Once in eight years, the whole Chippewa tribe
assembled at their principal village, about the
season of the swelling of the buds. Early in the
morning the great pipe was lighted at the sacred
fire, and delivered to the Mutchekewis. He took
one smoke, and then handed it to the women, and
these to the men, by all of whom it was in like
manner smoked. It was then passed to the children.
This ceremony consumed the day, and early next
morning a feast was held, at which the men and

48 CREES.

women and children sat in separate groups. This
feast was partaken silently, and without singing or
dancing. In the evening they departed. to their
different villages.”

“The principal male attendant on the Kaugagis-
koda was the Kauga-gizhek, or “ Everlasting Sun ;”
and his assistant was named Kanawaudenk-shkuda,
or the “Fire Keeper.” The principal female was
called Gaubewekwa, or the “ Everlasting standing
woman ;” and her assistant Kabagaubewekwa, “* The
woman who stands all the time.”

“The Chippeways assert that they received this
custom from the Shawnees, who are the most
southern of the western Algonkins, their country
being in the present state of Kentucky. Traces of
its prevalence at a former period among other
North American nations exist. The Natchez and
most of the Louisiana tribes are represented by
Charlevoix as having had a perpetual fire in, their
temples. Both he and Du Pratz were eye-witnesses
of the rite. The hereditary ruler, or “ Chief Sun,”
whose title was equivalent to that of Inca or Em-
peror, exercised a more despotic power than ap-
pears to have been permitted in any other nation
north of Mexico. This power and this worship were
kept up with an oriental display of honor and cere-
mony long after the French had settled in the valley
of the Mississippi, and indeed up to the destruction

THE CALUMET. 49

of the nation by them in 1729. ‘The Sun has
eaten,’ proclaimed an official functionary daily,
before the Ruling Sun, after his morning’s repast ;
‘the rest of the princes of the earth may now eat.’”

From this interesting extract we may gather,
that the Algic race were much more advanced in
the forms of government and association of tribes
than the more northern nations, and especially
than the ’Tinné, who had no villages when first
known to Europeans. Cultivation of the earth
was not carried on to the north of the Chippeway
country, since maize does not prosper in America
beyond the 52nd parallel.

M‘Kenney relates that a Chippeway widow must
carry a bundle of rags, or a doll, which is called
her husband, constantly in her arms, until the re-
lations of the deceased think that she has mourned
long enough, when one of them releases her from
it. This occurs generally at the expiration of a
year, and the widow is then allowed to marry
again; but the probation may be extended much
longer, if her husband’s relations choose.

The use of the Uspogan, or Calumet, which forms
so important a part of every ceremony among the
Rythinyuwuk, was not an original practice of the
’Tinné, but was introduced to that people by Eu-
ropeans along with tobacco, whereas this weed must
have been grown from the most ancient times by

VOL. II. E

50 CREES.

the Chippeways, if the traditions which Mr. School-
craft collected during his long residence with that
people are to be trusted. Maize is more used on
the Missouri than in the proper Chippeway country,
its cultivation forming a part of the regular
economy of the Dakota tribes; the Chippeways,
however, do not admit that they received it from
that quarter; but, in a legend related by Mr. School-
craft, ascribe its origin to one of their own chiefs,
who received it as the prize of a victory he ob-
tained over a spirit. Hence its name of Mon-
damin, or the Spirit’s Grain. The Delawares had
extensive fields of maize at the time of the disco-
very of America, and to them the early Virginian
colonists were indebted on their first landing for
food, which being afterwards withheld, produced
extreme misery and famine.

From some of the details of Mr. Schoolcraft’s
account of the rites of Kagagishkoda, we may infer
that the national polity and social condition of the
Chippeways have greatly deteriorated since their
acquaintance with Europeans. ‘The contact with
civilised man has induced among them an incon-
trollable desire for mtoxication, unaccompanied by
any real benefit. For though missionaries have
made a number of nominal converts, the blessings
of vital Christianity are confined, as far as I could
ascertain, to only a few Chippeway communities

REINDEER. sii

on Lake Huron, and to some of the Crees in the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s territory. The well-fed
Sauteurs of the river Winipeg, who are inde-
pendent of the traders, repel the missionaries ;
and the same is the case with the bison-hunters
on the prairies.

Throughout the whole eastern wooded and barren
country, down to the 42nd parallel of latitude, the
reindeer was, three centuries ago, the most abun-
dant of the deer kind, and, being the most easily
approached, furnished the staple provision for the
Eskimo, ’Tinné, and Eythinyuwuk. On the wide
prairies of the Missouri and Saskatchewan, the
populous Sioux, Stone-Indians, or Assini-poytuk,
and other Dakota tribes, fed on the countless herds
of bison which pasture there. Next to the rein-
deer in importance in the eastern districts, is the
species of Coregonus, named “ white-fish,” to which
the Chippeways and Nithe-wuk have given the
figurative appellation of “ reindeer of the waters,”
Adikumaig or Atih-hamég.* On referring to Stra-
chey’s account of Virginia, I do not find this word,
nor the name of the reindeer, in his vocabulary of
of the Delaware tongue; the white-fish indeed not
being an inhabitant of the southern waters. The

> and guma, a gene-

* Adikumaig, from adik, a “ reindeer,’
ric word for “water” in composition, and the animate plural 7g.
(Schooleraft.) Athzk or atik, “a reindeer,” in Cree,

E 2

52 CREES.

Chippeways have a legend, which relates that the
white-fish sprung first into existence at the outlet of
Lake Superior, being produced from the scattered
brains of a woman, whose head, for some very
guilty conduct, was doomed to wander through the
country, but, coming in its travels to the falls of
St. Mary, was there dashed in pieces. A crane, by
virtue of that inherent power so frequently attri-
buted to birds and beasts by the aborigines of
America, instantly transformed the particles of
brain into the roe of a white-fish, to the wide-
spread benefit of the Indian nations.*

Though the earth-works already alluded to are
supposed to have been raised by a people more
ancient than the Eythinyuwuk, yet the fact of
their northern limits being within the Chippeway
lands is worthy of note; and vestiges of pottery
works, apparently of a rude kind, have been found
on the south branch of the Saskatchewan within
the Nithe-wuk bounds, but not further north f,
the substitute for earthenware among the Eskimos
being vessels of potstone, and among the ’Tinne
water-tight baskets, in which the fluid was warmed
by hot stones dropped into it.

* Schoolcraft.

j On the east side of the Rocky Mountains. The Eskimos
on the western coast of Russian America manufactured a very
rude pottery when first visited by the Russians.

LANGUAGE. 53

I have already alluded to the softness and har-
mony of the Cree language. It differs in construc-
tion from the Eskimo tongue, in the personal
pronouns being prefixes, not suffixes, and in other
particulars; but both have the polysynthetic cha-
racter of the other American idioms. ‘The sounds
of the English f and v do not occur in the Cree;
{and r are also wanting in the pure Cree of the
plains. Other Algic tribes substitute y, 1, or / for
the Cree th, and instead of #, the inhabitants of
East Maine use the sound of tch. The Chippeway
is distinguished from the Cree by the frequent
. omission of s before & and ¢, and the insertion of im
before 6, and of m before d and g. The permu-
tations of the Cree and its cognate dialects chiefly
affect the linguals; but the Mohawk and Huron
languages have none of the labials, neither 0, p, /,
v, nor m. When conversing, the teeth of these
people are always visible; the auxiliary office
usually performed by the lips being by them trans-
ferred, or superadded, to that of the tongue and
throat.* Of the grammar of the ’Tinne I know
little, but the nouns seem to be much more fre-
quently monosyllabic than in the Algonkin dialects.
The Appendix contains some portions of a Cree
vocabulary, which I formed in 1819-20.

* Mr. Howse, from whose grammar much of this paragraph
has been borrowed.
E 3

54 CREES.

It is from among the Eythinyuwuk that most
of the servants of the Fur Companies, who have
married native women, have selected their wives;
few of them having chosen Chepewyan females, and
no one, I believe, an Eskimo maiden. From these
marriages a large half-breed population has arisen,
which will ere long work a change in the fur trade,
and in the condition of the whole native popula-
tion. In character, the half-breeds vary according
to their paternity; the descendants of the Orkney
labourers, in the employ of the Hudson’s Bay
Company, being generally steady, provident agri-
culturists of the Protestant faith; while the children
of the Roman Catholic Canadian voyagers have
much of the levity and thoughtlessness of their
fathers, combined with that inability to resist
temptation, which is common to the two races from
whence they are sprung. Most of the half-breeds
have been settled by the Hudson’s Bay Company
in the colony of Osnaboya, which extends for fifty
miles along the banks of the Red River of Lake
Winipeg. Of the six thousand souls, to which the
mixed population of this settlement is said to
amount, three fifths are stated by Mr. Simpson to
be Roman Catholics; while the valuable property
is mostly in the hands of the remaining two fifths,
who own sixteen out of eighteen wind and water
mills, erected within the precincts of the colony.

EDUCATION. ao

The settlement is under the government (it can
scarcely be said the control) of a governor, council,
and recorder, all nominated by the Hudson’s Bay
Company. The recorder is the civil and criminal
judge, presides at jury trials, and is aided by
justices of the peace, and a constabulary in the
Company’s pay.

In 1849 a bishop was sent from England to
oversee the Episcopal church. There are also
some ministers of the Wesleyan persuasion; and
the Roman Catholic worship is maintained by two
bishops, a staff of priests, and a nunnery. The
Hudson’s Bay Company aid the clergymen of all
the persuasions by free passages, rations, and other
advantages, besides granting salaries to those em-
ployed at their fur posts, whether Protestants or
Roman Catholics. There are also various educa-
tional establishments in the colony for the settlers
and native population; and most of the children,
both male and female, of the Company’s officers
are now instructed in a boarding-school in the
colony of a high character, a few of them only
being sent to Great Britain or Canada. Many of
the young men so educated have entered the Hud-
son’s Bay Company’s service as clerks, and some
have attained the rank of chief traders and chief
factors ; while the young women, in their vocations

as wives of the officers and clerks, diffuse a know-
E 4

56 CREES.

ledge of Christianity and a taste for domestic com-
fort and decorum to the remotest posts. The
present state of society in the fur countries con-
trasts most favourably with the almost general
heathenism which prevailed during the murderous
contests between the trading companies by which
the country was demoralised when I first traversed
it thirty years ago.

The half-breeds, as a class, show great quickness
in acquiring a knowledge of letters, as well as skill
in the mechanicalarts. As joiners, workers in iron,
and boat-builders, many of them would rank high
among European craftsmen; and, taught by neces-
sity, they have generally the advantage of being
able to work at all the several branches of the
carpenter’s and blacksmith’s arts, even to the
forging of their tools.

At the Wesleyan Missionary establishment of
Rossville, near Norway House, and round the Epis-
copal church at the Pas on the Saskatchewan, native
villages have sprung up, and agriculture to a small
extent is practised. Though the cerealia and
leguminous vegetables thrive well at Red River,
and horses, cattle, hogs, poultry, and sheep flourish,
agriculture is eschewed by the large section of the
population, who are descendants of the Canadian
voyagers. The pleasures of the precarious chase are
preferred by this part of the community to steady

SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS. 5

_ industry, and every summer there is accordingly an
extensive movement to the plains to dry bison meat
for winter use.

As to the effect of the colony on the neighbour-
ing natives, Mr. Simpson, who from his residence in
the settlement had an opportunity of becoming ac-
quainted with the facts, speaks as follows. ‘‘ Nothing
can overcome the insatiable desire of the Indian
tribes for intoxicating liquors; and though they are
interdicted from the use of spirits, and the settlers
are fined when detected in supplying them with ale,
yet, from the great extent of the colony, they too
often contrive to gratify that debasing inclination,
to which they are ready to sacrifice everything they
possess. ‘They feel no gratitude to their benefac-
tors or spiritual teachers; and while they lose the
haughty independence of savage life, they acquire
at once all the bad qualities of the white man, but
are slow indeed in imitating his industry and
virtues.” It appears from this testimony that the
Chippeways have not the friendly feelings towards
their instructors which the “Tinne, according to
Monsieur La Fléche, manifest; but Mr. Simpson
speaks more favourably of the Crees, who are in
general better disposed than the Chippeways.

Goods for the use of the colonists are imported
both by the Company and by individual store-
keepers in the ships that come annually to York

58 CREES.

Factory; but the distance is too great, and the
inland navigation too difficult, to admit of agricul-
tural produce being carried down profitably in
return. Hence most of the half-breed settlers, en-
couraged by some of the colonial merchants and
Roman Catholic priests, have made strenuous at-
tempts to share the fur trade with the Hudson’s
Bay Company, who at present have the monopoly
of that traffic; and the Company do not seem to
possess a force adequate to prevent their even-
tually succeeding in their object.

Of late years, a communication has been formed
between the colony and the United States by way
of the plains and St. Peter’s River. This furnishes
a channel for the disposal of peltry without detec-
tion; and through the relationship existing between
the half-breeds of the colony and the various tribes
of Indians as far north as Methy Portage, no great
difficulty is experienced by them in withdrawing a
considerable quantity of the most valuable furs
from the Company’s trade.

In the winter of 1848 a half-breed was summoned
before the Recorder of Osnaboya for a breach of
the Company’s regulations in this respect, and on
the day of trial, five hundred of his class, armed to
the teeth, surrounded the court-house. The Re-
corder was obliged to secrete himself, and the
matter was finally compromised by the Company’s

HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY. 59

agent purchasing the furs from the delinquent.
Secretly or openly, this contravention of the right of
exclusive trade in fur claimed by the Company is
sure to proceed, and, emboldened by success, the
young half-breeds are not likely to acknowledge any
law that is contrary to their own will. They hold
that the territorial right derived from their Indian
ancestry is theirs, and not the Company’s; and
their claims have been supported by a philan-
thropic body in England, and advocated in parlia-
ment. Without entering into the question of the
chartered rights of the Hudson’s Bay Company, or
the propriety of maintaining a monopoly of the fur
trade, it is my firm conviction, founded on the
wide-spread disorder I witnessed in times of com-
petition, that the admission of rival companies or
independent traders into these northern districts
would accelerate the downfall of the native races.
This has been rapid on the confines of the settled
parts of the United States and of Canada, and has
been stayed only by the extinction of the fur-bear-
ing animals, by which the power of the Indians
to purchase spirits has been cramped. Even the
benevolence of the English government in making
annual presents of clothing and blankets to the
Indians of Canada is converted into an injury by a
set of unscrupulous petty dealers, who hang about
the encampments to purchase these articles as soon

60 CREES.

as they come into the possession of the Indians, by
supplying them with the baneful liquid they so
ardently covet. This is punishable by the colonial
laws ; but when crimes are committed beyond the
pale of civilisation, conviction is difficult. By the
laws of the United States, also, it is penal to supply
Indians with spirits; but according to general
report this benevolent enactment is extensively
violated by their fur traders; and it is greatly to
be regretted that competition for the Indian trade
in that quarter should induce the Hudson’s Bay
Company to follow so bad an example, after having
abolished the use of spirits with so much advantage
in the north, where they have no rivals.

I was informed that in 1848 the natives at the
Red River colony of Osnaboya were paid a high
money price for their furs by the Company’s agent,
and that they immediately crossed the boundary-
line to purchase rum at the American post with
their money; but it would be better to seek for the
redress of such an abuse by a representation to the
United States’ government, than resort to reta-
liatory measures of the same nature.

FISHERY ISLAND. 61

CHAP. XV.

OCCURRENCES IN WINTER.

FORT CONFIDENCE. — SITUATION. —SILURIAN LIMESTONE. —LAKE
BASIN. — TREES. — DWELLING-HOUSE. — OCCUPATIONS. — LET-
TERS. — GALENA NEWSPAPER. —OREGON “ SPECTATOR.” — EX-
TENT OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY'S TERRITORY. —
FISHERIES. —VENISON. — WOLVERINES. —NATIVE SOCIALISM, —
PROVISIONS COLLECTED AT FORT CONFIDENCE. — FETES. —
WINTER FISHERY.—ESKIMO SLEDS.—REINDEER.— WOLVERINE.
— WOLVES. — HONESTY OF THE DOG-RIBS.— THEIR INDO-
LENCE.— PROVISIONS NOT INDIVIDUAL PROPERTY.—INDIANS
MOVE OFF.—AN ACCOUCHEMENT.—CCLEBS IN SEARCH OF
A WIFE.— MIGHT MAKES RIGHT.—NONE BUT THE BRAVE
DESERVE THE FAIR. — PROGRESS OF THE SEASONS. —TEMPE-
RATURE.—ARRIVAL OF SUMMER BIRDS.—AT FORT CONFI-
DENCE.—AT FORT FRANKLIN. —ON THE YUKON.

THE site selected for our winter residence was
about three miles from the mouth of Dease River,
on a peninsula having an undulating surface,
which, at the distance of three or four miles from
the lake, attained a height of about three hundred
feet. In front, or to the south, and separated
from the main by a strait five or six hundred
yards in width, lies Fishery Island, elevated
towards its centre two hundred and forty-five feet
above the water.*

* This altitude was ascertained by Mr. Rae in the spring of
1848 by the aneroid barometer.

Sy SILURIAN LIMESTONE.

The peninsula is composed of limestone, which
forms low precipices at the edge of the water, as
well as in various places of the interior; and the
same rock appears in higher cliffs on the borders
of the lake, about eight miles to the westward, at
Limestone Point. Six or seven miles back, on the
banks of Dease River, red sandstone is the pre-
vailing rock. The soil generally is a mixture of
gravel and loam; and boulders of granite and trap
rocks are scattered over the surface of both hill
and valley.

Ten miles to the eastward, a range of primitive
rocks rises gradually from the borders of the lake,
to the height of, perhaps, six hundred or seven
hundred feet, and separates Dease’s Bay from the
northern arm of M‘Tavish’s Bay. This rising
ground is a continuation of the ‘“ intermediate
primitive belt” mentioned in p. 316, and many
other parts of the preceding journal, and which
will be described more fully in the Appendix.
The nearest pyrogenous or metamorphic rocks to
Fort Confidence that we observed are about four
miles off, in a bay on the south-east side of Fishery
Island.

The limestone is probably the remains of the
silurian strata, which were removed when the
basin of the lake was excavated. On the south
side of the lake, about ninety miles distant in a

FORT CONFIDENCE. 63

direct line from Fort Confidence, stands the Scented
Grass Hill, between Smith’s and Keith’s Bays. It
consists of bituminous shale, and is one of the
extreme points of that shaly formation, which
constitutes so large a part of the banks of the
Athabasca and Mackenzie Rivers, and which has
been thought to be equivalent to the Marcellus
shale of the New York system of rocks.

The summits of the higher eminences are mostly
naked, but on the edges of streams and small lakes
a thin forest of spruce fir covers the ground. In
wet places there is a tolerable growth of willows.
Little underwood of any other kind exists. Birch
is very scarce ; neither the balsam spruce nor bank-
sian pine were observed on the lake, and only a
few young aspens. [Except where the forest has
been destroyed by fire, the spruce firs are from
three to four hundred years old, as ascertained
from their annual rings. One of the best-grown
trees that I saw, measured fifty-seven inches in
circumference, at the height of four feet from the
ground. The tallest of them are between forty
and fifty feet high.

The observations of Mr. Simpson in 1837-8
place Fort Confidence in 66° 54’ of north latitude,
and 118° 49’ of west longitude, which corresponds
pretty closely with the position I assigned to the
mouth of Dease River on the chart constructed in

64 DWELLING-HOUSE.

1825. The mean of Mr. Rae’s observations for
latitude gave about a quarter of a mile more north-
ing than Mr. Simpson’s.

Our winter dwelling, though dignified, according
to custom, by the title of “the fort,” had no de-
fensive works whatever, not even the stockade
which usually surrounds a trading post. It was
a simple log-house, built of trunks of trees laid
over one another, and morticed into the upright
posts of the corners, doorways, and windows. The
roof had considerable slope: it was formed of
slender trees laid closely side by side, resting at
the top on a ridge pole, and covered with loam
to the depth of six or eight inches. A man,
standing on the outside, could touch the eaves
with his hand. Well-tempered loam or clay was
beat into the spaces left in the walls by the
roundness of the logs, both on the outside and
inside, and as this cracked in drying, it was re-
peatedly coated over, for the space of two months,
with a thin mixture of clay and water, until the
walls became nearly impervious to the air. The
rooms were floored and ceiled with deal. Massive
structures of boulder stones and loam formed the
chimney-stacks, and the capacious fire-places re-
quired three or four armfuls of fire-wood, cut into
billets three feet long, to fill them.

The building was forty feet long by fourteen

DWELLING-HOUSE. 65

wide, having a dining-hall in the centre, measuring
sixteen by fourteen, and the remaining space di-
vided into a store-room and three sleeping apart-
ments. A kitchen was added to the back of the
house, and a small porch to the front. Mr. Rae’s
room and mine had glazed windows, glass for the
purpose having been brought up from York Fac-
tory. The other windows were closed with deer-
skin parchment, which admitted a subdued light.
Two houses for the men stood on the east, and a
storehouse on the west, the whole forming three
sides of a square, which opened to the south. The
tallest and straightest tree that could be discovered
within a circuit of three miles was brought in, and,
being properly dressed, was planted in the square
for a flag-post; and near it a small observatory
was built, for holding magnetic instruments.

Of the buildings which Dease and Simpson
erected, Mr. Bell, on his arrival in the middle of
August, found only part of the men’s house and a
stack of chimneys standing; the others having,
through the carelessness of the Indians, been de-
stroyed by fire. Our predecessors had cut down
most of the timber within a mile of the house, and
what we needed had consequently to be brought
in from a wider circle. A part of Mr. Bell’s people
were constantly engaged with the fisheries, but the
others had worked so diligently, that the buildings

VOL. II. E

66 FORT CONFIDENCE.

were all covered in on our arrival, and the flooring,
ceiling, and partitions were shortly afterwards com-
pleted. Two of the sappers and miners, Mackay and
Brodie, carpenters by trade, were employed to make
tables and chairs; and Bruce, the guide, acted as
general architect, and was able and willing to exe-
cute any kind of joiner’s work that was needed. Two
men were constantly employed as sawyers; four
as cutters of fire-wood, each of them having an
allotted task of providing a cord of wood daily;
others were occupied in drawing it home on
sledges ; and four men were continually engaged in
fishing. On the Sunday no labour was performed,
the fishing party came in, and all were dressed in
their best clothes. Prayers were said in the hall,
and a sermon read to all that understood English ;
and some of the Canadians, though they were
Roman Catholics, usually attended. James and
Thomas Hope, who were Cree Indians, having been
educated at Norway House as Protestants, and
taught to read and write, were regular attendants ;
and James Hope’s eldest son, a boy about seven
years of age, who had already begun to read the
Scriptures, frequently recognised passages in the
lessons that he had previously read.

During the winter Mr. Rae and I recorded the
temperatures hourly, sixteen or seventeen times a
day ; also the height of the mercury in Delcro’s ba-

OCCUPATIONS. 67

rometer ; the degrees of the aneroid barometer, the
declinometer, and dipping-needle. Once in the
month a term day, extending to thirty-six hours,
was kept, in which the fluctuations of the magnets
were noted every two and a half minutes, and
various series of observations were made for as-
certaining the magnetic intensity with the mag-
netometer, the vibration apparatus, and Lloyd’s
dipping-needle. Mr. Rae ascertained frequently
the time and rates of the chronometers by ob-
servations of the fixed stars ; and a register of the
winds and weather and appearances of the aurora
was constantly kept.*

From this sketch of our occupations, it will be
seen that our time was filled up, and that we had
no leisure for ennui in the long winter. In fact,
we enjoyed as much comfort as we could reason-
ably expect, and had our postal arrangements suc-
ceeded as well as the others, we should have had
little more to desire. Our schemes for sending
and receiving letters were, however, failures, and
productive of much subsequent disappointment.

The packet of Admiralty despatches and private
letters sent off on the 18th of September, 1848, on

* The magnetic observations are now in process of reduction
at Woolwich, and will soon be published under the super-
intendance of Lieutenant Colonel Sabine, along with an abstract
of the meteorological observations.

9)

68 FORT CONFIDENCE.

the third morning after our arrival from the coast,
was placed in charge of Frangois Chartier and
Louis la Ronde, with directions for them to pro-
ceed with all speed to Isle & la Crosse, at which
place Chartier’s wife was residing. I wrote to
Mr. M‘Pherson, requesting him to forward the
party without delay; and Mr. Rae, who put up
the packet, enclosed, I believe, a circular, soliciting
the gentlemen at the several posts to send the
packet on as quickly as possible. Mr. Rae himself
was of opinion that he enclosed such a document,
though he does not perfectly recollect that he did
so. But whether the circular was enclosed or not
in the first instance, or afterwards left out, the
circumstance of a packet being sent express for
fifteen hundred miles ought to have ensured its
being forwarded from the further posts. No delay
occurred at Fort Simpson, Mr. M‘Pherson sending
the party on as soon as their provisions could be
prepared. Chartier and his companion reached
Fort Chepewyan by open water, and were de-
spatched to Isle a la Crosse as soon as the ice was
strong enough for travelling over. At Isle a la
Crosse the letters were put en route again after a
fortnight’s detention, and at Carlton House they
were kept two months. This last delay was un-
accountable. When they did reach Red River
they were sent on; but instead of reaching England

LETTERS. 69

in April or May, as we had a right to expect, and
when a knowledge of our proceedings was much
desired by the Admiralty previous to the sailing of
the “ North Star,” they did not arrive till the middle
of July, and our families were nearly twelve months
without intelligence from us. We were also unfor-
tunate with our subsequent letters, which were not,
however, sent by special express, but were left to the
chance of the ordinary conveyance through Rupert’s
Land.

On the 31st of October, two men and an Indian
guide were sent with a second packet of letters to
Fort Simpson, hoping that they would be in time
for an express which leaves that post annually for
the south on the Ist of December. The Indian
lost himself, or rather, I believe, went wilfully
astray, for the purpose of falling in with some
hunters that he expected to find. In this he
failed ; and the party, after suffering some priva-
tions, were saved from starvation by killing a deer.
They did not reach Fort Simpson till some time
after the winter express had left ; and as the letters
were not of public importance they remained there
until the spring, when they were forwarded along
with some others that we subsequently sent to
Fort Chepewyan, that they might go down with
the first boats. On my way out in the summer,
finding part of these letters at one of the posts,

EF 3

70 FORT CONFIDENCE.

I took them on with me; the others reached
England by the same mail packet that I crossed
the Atlantic in, and were delivered on the day
after my arrival at home.

The only letter-bag from England that we re-
eeived during our stay at Fort Confidence came in
on the 12th of April, 1849, and brought us home
news up to the 22nd of June, 1848, ten months
old. This came by the usual canoe route, and was
brought up from Canada with the Red River mail ;
but at the same time we received a single news-
paper, which gave us some English intelligence
as late as the 15th of September. The history
of this newspaper is that of the triumph of the
electric telegraph. While the English mail packet
was steaming up the sound of New York, on the
30th of September, a summary of European news
having been carried on shore by an express steamn-
vessel, was in the act of being transmitted by tele-
graph to the banks of the Mississippi. Within a
few hours, it was published there in the “ Galena
Advertiser,” of which it filled one entire folio. This
paper, being carried over the plains to Red River, by
a party which set out on the day following its pub-
lication, was sent to Great Bear Lake, and gave us
the first intimation of a rebellion in Ireland. The
other newspapers that we received at the same
time were of very old date, but every paragraph
of them, as well as of our letters, was read again

OREGON ‘ SPECTATOR.” rat

and again with a keenness that can be understood
only by those who have undergone similar priva-
tions of intelligence. We heard of an old resident
in Rupert’s Land, who was philosophic enough to
extend this pleasure over the whole year, by laying
up his annual file of newspapers, and taking one
down daily for perusal according to its date, so
that he had just mastered the news of the pre-
ceding year when a new file arrived. Our im-
patience was too great to permit us to follow an
example so systematic.

By the return of our packet men from Fort
Simpson in January, we received the Oregon
Spectator,” dated Oregon city, February 10th,
1848, with the motto “ Westward the star of Empire
takes its way.” It was a creditable production
for so young a state, remarkable for the extreme

” but a strenuous advocate of

dearth of “news,
temperance and morality, and curious for the
insight which it gave of the first movements of
a community destined at no distant period to
play a conspicuous part among the nations of the
world. The state is already involved in an Indian
war, which will not cease until the Red Men are
hunted from their native soil. The cause of hos-
tility was one of those unavoidable accidents which
the vicinity of white people entails on the Indian

race. <A large body of emigrants brought small-
¥ 4

a2 FORT CONFIDENCE.

pox and measles with them, which, spreading among
the populous and warlike Kaiyuses or Black-feet,
cut off many of the tribe. By the Indian moral
code, the death of their brethren was to be revenged
by the slaughter of people from whom the injury
came, and as it was sufficient if the victims were
of the same nation with the offenders, the Kaiyuses
fell upon the nearest and most defenceless. <A
missionary and his family, to the number of twelve
persons, were cut off, and their property and some
women and children seized. Through the inter-
ference of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Governor
at Fort Vancouver, the captives were redeemed,
but five hundred of the inhabitants of Oregon
marched to chastise the Indians. ‘The paper says,
“the thunders of war have commenced; let them
be continued until American property and American
life shall be secure upon American soil.” We after-
wards learnt that the demonstration had little effect
upon the Indians, who, being well provided with
horses, shunned the encounter, or returned to harass
the Oregon army at their pleasure. Sooner or
later, however, the Kaiyuses will feel the strong
arm of the white man, and be compelled to cede
their native lands to the emigrant hordes that are
pressing westward.

As the crow flies the distance between Fort
Vancouver on the Oregon and Fort Confidence

VENISON. Le

exceeds 1350 geographical miles, and the space
between the Company’s posts on the Labrador
coast, or on Lake Huron, and their advanced station
on the Porcupine, measures about 2500 miles.
Throughout this vast extent of territory, a regular
communication is kept up between the Governor
and the numerous scattered posts, and supplies are
forwarded to all the districts annually with a
regularity which cannot be interrupted without
hazarding the lives of both traders and natives.
Besides the establishment of fisheries for our winter
support, Mr. Bell employed several of the most
active Dog-ribs in the capacity of fort hunters,
furnishing them with clothing, guns, and ammu-
nition, to be repaid in venison. He also gave large
credits of ammunition and other articles of trade
to several leaders of small bands for the same
object. In the end of September and in October,
which is the best hunting season, we heard of great
success. Two hundred carcases of rein-deer were
reported as having been put en cache for us, which
we were to send for as soon as the snow was
sufficiently deep to permit the dog-sledges to run.
A few animals killed near the fort were brought in,
and our prospects looked flourishing. In the mean
time the Indians sent a sick man and a very aged
woman to be nourished by us through the winter,
and a large body of old men, elderly widows, and

74 FORT CONFIDENCE.

children settled down near us at a fishing station
behind Fishery Island. From this body visitors
came to us almost daily, begging for a meal or two
of dried meat to vary their diet, or bringing in a
trout or two for sale. The fish were always pur-
chased, and then the seller invariably asked for a
bit of meat, as he could not walk back without
eating. The simple cunning by which these poor
folks endeavoured to accomplish their ends, and to
move Mr. Bell to be liberal, was amusing, and
generally in the end successful, for his habitual
good-nature was not long proof against their varied
entreaties.

In the first two weeks of October, the ice driving
about compelled the fishermen to take the nets out
of the water, and during that time the Indian party
subsisted mostly on rations from us, being supplied
with both meat and fish. As soon as the straits
separating Fishery Island from the main froze com-
pletely over, which occurred on the 16th of the same
month, the old men were well supplied with trout-
hooks to set under the ice, and they caught, I believe,
fish enough for their wants, but they concealed
their success that they might continue to draw aid
from our store. By dint of much talking, occa-
sionally withholding supplies, and threatening to
do so entirely, Mr. Bell at length persuaded most
of the party to move towards Cape M’Donald, where
fish were reported to be more plentiful. Our own

NATIVE SOCIALISM. vg}

fisheries, however, as well as the Indian ones, de-
clined as the winter wore on, and in February
scarcely sufficed to furnish a meal daily to the
fishermen themselves.

The snow having by the middle of October
smoothed the inequalities of the surface, and
covered the stones and stumps, Mr. Bell sent
out parties to bring in the venison that had
been stored up for us; but instead thereof we
received a very beggarly account of empty caches.
The wolverenes had destroyed some; our Indian
friends at the fishery had eaten up a greater
quantity, having, unknown to us, made several ex-
cursions for the purpose; and we did not take into
the storehouse a tithe of what had been reported
tous. The hunters by whom the caches had been
made came in for fresh supplies of ammunition, and,
on being remonstrated with, merely said, what
could they do if hungry Indians came their way ?
they must eat. This socialist practice presses
heavily on the industrious hunter, and encourages
the lazy individuals in their idleness; but its con-
tinuance in force after so long an intercourse with
white men is a proof of a fund of good-nature at
the bottom of the national character. It is of itself
sufficient evidence against the imputation that the
Chepewyan tribes habitually desert the old and in-
firm. We saw on several occasions children at-
tending their sick or aged parents with tenderness

76 FORT CONFIDENCE.

and solicitude. Instances of desertion, which have
undoubtedly occurred, are to be ascribed to the
pressure of famine, which has urged the able-
bodied to hurry on in quest of relief, disregarding
those who were unable to keep up with the line
of march.

Our intercourse with the Indians continued
throughout the winter in the way that has been
stated. The more industrious among them resorted
to good hunting stations, generally in parties of
two or three families together, and also in two
more numerous bands, under the direction of two
chiefs. Most of them resorted to the confines of
M‘Tavish’s Bay, where the animals are plentiful in
winter. From them we received occasional sup-
plies of venison, and two or four of our men were
employed for a considerable part of the winter in
bringing it in with the dog-sledges. From two
steady old men, who had been furnished with nets,
we purchased some hundreds of fine trout, together
with a quantity of white-fish and freshwater
herrings. Some of the Martin Lake Dog-ribs also,
though not fitted out by us with ammunition,
found it convenient to bring their meat to Fort
Confidence, instead of going to Fort Simpson.
In this way we obtained more than we required
for our present and future wants, including the
eleemosynary demands of the Indians, which were,

PROVISIONS. it

however, kept within bounds by Mr. Bell’s careful
management.

The following table, extracted from Mr. Bell’s
journal, gives a summary of all the provisions
received into our storehouse up to the middle of
April, 1849: —

Months No. of Fresh Half dry! Pound-| Rein- | Reindeer

i Fish. Venison. Venison. ed Meat.'deer Fat. | Tongues.

lbs. lbs. lbs. plbs. | No. |
1848 September | 420 500 | 1500 | 200 150 120
October 2370 1380 | 2100 170 105
November | 1163 | 4330 | 570 18 65
December | 560 | 1830; 140 10

1849 January 279 | 2005

February 223 | 1850 | 560 40
March 176 | 3165 | 1680 | 105 10 125
April 2670) y 5o 5 160
Totals 5191 |13,810| 9,220} 360 359d 625

In addition to the above, Mr. Bell brought up,
in autumn, 1200 lbs. of dried meat from Fort
Simpson, 6 cwt. of barley-meal, and three kegs
of rough barley, several 90 Ib. bags of flour, some
bags of potatoes, with tea and sugar, together with
a full supply of pemican for Mr. Rae’s summer
expedition, and for the provisioning of the men
returning to England.

So well provided, we had no dread of want at
any time, and passed the winter in abundance.
Our men had each a daily ration of 8 lbs. of
venison on five days in the week, and on the other
two from 10 lbs. to 15 lbs. of fish. The women also

78 FORT CONFIDENCE.

received rations, and the children smaller allow-
ances. Barley and potatoes were issued in addition
as long as they lasted, and flour occasionally. All
the men preferred barley-meal to wheaten flour, as
it answered better for thickening the soup, and
they thought that it was a more substantial article
of diet. The rough barley was beaten in a wooden
trough until the husks separated, and then boiled
whole along with venison, in which way it made a
nourishing soup, that was much relished by all the
party. Few of the Europeans consumed the whole
of their provisions, and the Indians were generally
in attendance at their meals to receive the surplus.
Several feasts varied the monotony of our winter
life: one was given as a house-warming when the
buildings were finished; another, as is customary
at all the posts, on the first day of the new year ;
and two others when the winter was further ad-
vanced. On these occasions, the fishermen and
wood-cutters were called in, and the whole esta-
blishment, man, woman, and child, supped at long
tables placed temporarily in the hall. Preparations
for the feasts were made by a great baking of
bread, pies, and tarts* for two days previously ;
and tea was served liberally as long as any of the

* We had large supplies of cranberries, bleaberries, and the
fruit of the amelanchier, the produce of the country ; which, with

a few pounds of Zante currants, served for tarts and pies all the
winter.

WINTER FISHERY. 79

party felt an inclination to drink. The tables
were then cleared away, and the dance was kept
up with vigour to a late hour, or rather to an
early one, for the party did not separate till the
morning was advanced. Mr. Bell and Bruce were
the musicians. The latter, with that aptness which
the half-breeds show to learn any thing that comes
under their observation, had made his own fiddle,
and taught himself to play upon it.

A short description of the modes of fishery by
which most of the fur posts in Rupert’s Land are
supported may not be inappropriate in this place.
The nets, formed like those used in the herring
fishery, measure, before mounting, one hundred
and twenty yards in length, but are gathered in to
eighty yards by the introduction of the backing-
line along the upper edge. The depth of the net
varies with that of the waters in which it is to be
employed, from two to four yards. For the cap-
ture of white-fish, of the ordinary size of three or
four pounds, the mesh is five and a half inches long,
and where these fish are very large it is increased
to six. For taking the Bear Lake herring, and
the small coregon: of other localities, the meshes
vary from two inches to two and three quarters.
In open waters the nets are shot, as in the herring
fishery ; the upper margin being buoyed with cedar
or fir floats, and the lower one depressed by stones.

80 FORT CONFIDENCE.

The fish hang themselves in the meshes, being
unable, from the form of the gill-plates, to with-
draw their heads after having once passed them
through. Trout of 15 lbs. weight may be taken
in the white-fish nets, and also inconnu (Salmo
mackenzu) weighing 25 lbs.; but the meshes will
not admit the heads of the larger trouts (namay-
cush), which weigh from 30 lbs. to 50 lbs. These
are caught with cod-hooks.

In winter the nets are set under the ice. The
first step is to make a series of holes, about fifteen
feet apart. A pole is then introduced, and con-
ducted along the surface of the water from hole to
hole, carrying with it a line, which serves to haul
in a string of nets, properly buoyed and loaded,
but seldom exceeding five in number. The rope
is then detached, and each end of the net is fastened
to a piece of wood, laid across its respective hole,
or to a stake driven into the ice. On visiting the
nets next day only the extreme holes are opened,
the rope is attached anew at one end, and is
veered away as the nets are withdrawn by the
opposite hole. The fish that have been caught
being removed, the nets are drawn back to their
places by the line... A line of nets reaches about
400 yards, and the fisherman generally endeavours
to carry it entirely across a strait or pass in the
lake which fish are known to frequent.

WINTER FISHERY. 81

Every second or third day, fishermen who are
careful take their nets out of the water to dry
and repair them. If this be not attended to,
the threads swell and rot and few fish enter the
meshes; the floats also become water-logged if
not often dried. In severe weather, the fisherman
erects a canvass or skin screen to windward, to
shelter him while he overhauls his nets. Eskimo
snow barricades are much more effective, but pride
will not permit the Orkney or Canadian fisherman
to turn the useful expedients of the Eskimos to
account.

In the winter, Albert built a snow wall very
neatly round the water-hole by which the fort was
supplied, to keep off the snow drifts, cut steps
through the ice down to the water, and then fitted
to the aperture a light snow-lid, that could be
easily removed. By this contrivance the water-
hole required little clearing for a week, and the
convenience was great; but after the first admi-
ration of his ingenuity subsided, the cover was
thrown aside, and the hole allowed to fill up with
snow-drift. The consequence of this neglect was,
that the first man or woman who went for water
in the morning had half an hour’s hard work to
procure it, and then it was necessary to remove all
the impurities left by the dogs which had resorted
there to drink on the preceding day.

VOL. I. G

§2 FORT CONFIDENCE.

Albert found more ready imitators in another
practice which he taught the men. He was ap-
pointed to attend to the officers’ fires, and im-
mediately set about preparing his wood sledge
according to his own fashion. He first coated the
runners with earth or clay tempered with water,
coat after coat freezing as rapidly as it was applied.
Hot water was used in this operation, otherwise it
would have frozen too quickly for him to give it
the convex form and smoothness that were neces-
sary. He next washed the runners with water,
polishing the ice with his naked hand as it formed.
Canadians and Europeans looked on carelessly,
merely saying to one another, “ What can the
savage be about?” but none of them having the
most distant idea that they would follow his ex-
ample next day. The four sledges employed by
the woodmen were of equal size, and each was
drawn by two men. The drawers of wood went out
together, were equally loaded, and, to their extreme
surprise, Albert and his companion outstripped
them all on the journey home; their emulation
was excited, they laboured hard the whole day,
and at night confessed that they were fairly beaten.
Then they tried Albert’s sledge, and found it run
so easily, that forthwith they requested him to
prepare their sledges in the same way; and during
the winter the sledge-men invariably dressed their
runners in the Eskimo mode.

REIN-DEER. 83

The venison that we obtained was the flesh of
the small or barren ground rein-deer, which drops
its young on the coasts or islands of the Arctic Sea.
This kind does not penetrate far into the forest even
in severe seasons, but prefers keeping in the isolated
clumps or thin woods that grow on the skirts of
the barren grounds, making excursions into the
latter in fine weather. A full grown well-fed buck
seldom weighs more than 150 Ibs. after the intestines
are removed. The bucks of the larger kind, which
were mentioned in a preceding chapter as frequent-
ing the spurs of the Rocky Mountains near the
Arctic Circle, weigh from 200 lbs. to 300 lbs., also
without the intestines. Whether these be the same
with the woodland rein-deer, which inhabit the
southern districts of Rupert’s Land and the adjoin-
ing parts of Canada, and of the United States, has
not been determined, no comparisons having been
instituted. The small barren ground deer are ge-
nerally in excellent condition in the proper season,
and yield the very finest venison, hence they can
scarcely be supposed to have been dwarfed through
defective pasture; and it is probable that a rigid
comparison of examples of the several kinds would
elicit specific differences. The rein-deer that visit
Hudson’s Bay travel southwards towards James’
Bay in spring. In the year 1833, vast numbers of
them were killed by the Cree Indians at a noted

G 2

84 FORT CONFIDENCE.

pass three or four days march above York Factory.
They were on their return northwards, and were
crossing Hayes River in incredible multitudes. The
Indians, excited by the view of so many animals
thronging into the river, committed the most un-
warrantable slaughter; man, woman, and child
rushed into the water and stabbed the poor deer
wantonly, letting most of the carcases float down
the stream or putrefy on the beach, for they could
use only a small number of those they slew. From
that date the deer did not use the pass until last
year, when a few resumed their old route and were
suffered to go unmolested, the Indians not being
prepared for their coming. Mr. Rae made two
successful excursions in search of deer in the
winter, and the Hopes likewise went a short way
into the barren grounds on the same errand, but
though the latter also killed animals, their caches
being carelessly made, were invaded by the wol-
verenes, and our store reaped no advantage from
their efforts. The wolverene is extremely wary,
and shows extraordinary sagacity and perseverance
in accomplishing its ends. The Indians believe
that it is inspired with a spirit of mischief, and
endowed with preternatural powers. Though more
destructive to their hoards of provision than the
wolf, or even the bear, and able to penetrate fences
that resist their powerful efforts, it is only about

WOLVERENES. 85

thirty inches long, a foot high at the shoulder, and
one foot six inches at the rump, but it is very
compactly made.* With teeth that do not seem to
be peculiarly fitted for cutting wood, it will sever
a log equal to a man’s thigh in thickness by constant
gnawing. In selecting the spot it intends to breach
it shows as much skill as the beaver, generally

* Its Dog-rib name is Noh-gaiyé, pronounced from the
depths of the throat with a strong aspirate on the h. The
exact dimensions of a wolverene, which was surprised in one
of our caches and killed in the month of March, were as
follows :—

Length from root of tail, measured along the back and Inch.

between the ears to the point of the nose - - - 380°
Length of stump of tail - - - - - - 65
» of long hairs at top of ditto = - - - =F 0:0
Total length of animal, including the entire tail - - 42.5
Height at fore shoulder - - - - - - 12:0
» atrump - - - - - - - =- 126
Breadth of fore paw, the toes moderately spread - -- 25
- of hind paw - - - - - - yi

The legs are remarkably muscular, the fore ones in particular,
when skinned, having a strong resemblance to a finely pro-
portioned, muscular human arm, rather than to the limb of a
quadruped. The paws are covered underneath with long
- matted fur in winter, so that the small callosities that do
exist are discovered with difficulty. The anal glands, one on
each side, of the size of an olive, are filled with a very fetid
secretion of a yellowish colour, and the consistence of cream.
A young female produces two young; an older one four; and
it brings forth later in the summer than other ferine animals
inhabiting the same districts.
G 3

86 FORT CONFIDENCE.

contriving to cut a log near one end, so that it
may fall down into some void space, and thus open
an entrance into the hoard. ‘The animal works so
hard in carrying on this operation that it causes
its mouth to bleed, as the ends of the logs and the
snow often testify. Once admitted into the hoard,
it has to gnaw the pieces of meat asunder, as they
are generally frozen together, and then it proceeds
to drag them out one by one, and to bury them in
the snow, each in a separate place. As it travels
backwards and forwards over the meat, it smears
it with a peculiarly fetid glandular secretion, after
which no other animal will touch it. In this way
one of these beasts will spoil a large cache in an
hour or two, and wholly empty it in a few nights.
The pieces which are carried off are so carefully
concealed in the snow, and the wolverene makes so
many tracks in the neighbourhood, that it is diffi-
cult to trace out the deposits, and they are seldom
found.

Where there are trees, the meat caches are
generally made with logs let into each other at the
corners by notches, as in building a log-house.
This, as we have seen, can be invaded by the wol-
verene. Mr. Rae, however, made a safe cellar by
cutting a hole in the ice, covering it thickly with
snow, and then pouring water over all, until the
frost had rendered the whole a solid mass.

WOLVES. 87

Wolves also follow the hunter, and lurk in his
neighbourhood, to share in the produce of his gun.
Their strength enables them to break occasionally
into a cache, but they have neither the skill nor
the tenacity of purpose of the wolverene, and the
damage they commit is generally on the carcases
of deer recently slain, while the hunter has gone
for a sledge to bring them in. On his return in
an hour or two he often finds only the well
picked bones. These wolves, though of large size,
are a timid race, and seldom or never exhibit the
ferocity and ravenous boldness of their Pyrenean
brethren. When reduced by famine they are very
abject and unresisting. Mr. Bell once, while re-
siding on Mackenzie’s River, caught a full-grown
but famished wolf in a marten-trap tied to a small
log, which it had not strength to carry away.
He went to the fort for a line to lead it home,
and the children who accompanied him back as-
sisted in bringing it in, by pushing it on from
behind. It made no resistance, and suffered itself
to be tied quietly to the stockades of the fort.
The experiment of taming it was not, however,
made, and after the curiosity of the people was
satisfied, it was killed. At another time, a wolf,
driven by hunger, was prowling about Fort Ed-
monton, when, being scared by some of the people

who were passing, it took shelter in the kitchen.
G4

88 FORT CONFIDENCE.

The cook, an old Canadian, who was busily engaged
in frying pancakes, was frightened by the aspect of
his visitor, and oversetting the frying-pan in the
fire, and leaping into bed, he hid himself beneath
the blankets. The poor wolf, astonished at the
novelty of the scene, and amazed by the blaze of
the flaming grease and the screams that issued
from the bed, retreated into the square of the fort,
and was there killed by the people who had rushed
from their several houses on the alarm being
raised.

One of Mr. Rae’s hunting and exploring ex-
cursions was made in the month of December, in
the coldest period of the winter; and he informed
me that at that time the vapour which rose from
the rein-deer completely hid the individuals of a
herd; so that, unless he could approach a detached
one, or get into the midst of them, he could not
take an aim.

Notwithstanding the indolence of a large part of
the Dog-rib and Hare Indians who resorted to Fort .
Confidence, and their total disregard of truth, they
had the merit of being strictly honest with respect
to property, and also of being quiet and unwilling
to offend. No precautions were taken to guard
knives and other articles used in the house to
which they had easy access, but they meddled
with nothing, and we missed none of our effects.

INDOLENCE OF THE DOG-RIBS. 89

The thermometers, of which at least a dozen were
constantly hanging up outside, were never touched,
and none of the natives ever intruded into the
magnetic observatory, after a general intimation
that they were not to do so. When parties of
them came in with venison, they slept in our
dining-hall, and their friends from the fishery joined
them to hear the news, and to talk for a great
part of the night, yet, though the place was crowded,
they gave us very little trouble. Some of the new
comers would frequently enter the sleeping apart-
ments, and crouching down against the wall, re-
main in perfect quietness for an hour together,
gazing at the books and other things exposed to
view, and watching Mr. Rae and myself writing.
In December, January, and February, the Indians
pressed heavily on our store, as the fishery was at
a low ebb, and they had either consumed, or we
had brought in, all the venison that had been put
en cache for us. The more active hunters, with
their families, had followed the game to a greater
distance, and several detachments of stout but idle
young men had joined the fishery encampment.
From these able-bodied fellows we steadily withheld
rations, though they were more than once furnished
with provisions and ammunition to go out on a
hunting excursion. The efforts to get them to do
any thing were, however, ineffectual. They gene-

90 FORT CONFIDENCE.

rally returned when their food was exhausted,
saying that the animals were all gone. ‘They were
afraid, I believe, to venture far in the proper di-
rection, lest they should meet enemies of whom
they are in constant dread, and especially of their
spiritual foes. Their complaints of the want of
game were, however, proved to be unfounded, by
the excursions of Mr. Rae and the two Hopes.

In January, intelligence came that the hunters
had stored up a number of deer at a considerable
distance from the fort, but the news reached Cape
Macdonald as soon as Fort Confidence, and a party
from the fishery set off in quest of it. They were,
nevertheless, too late, some of their wandering
countrymen having discovered and consumed the
store before their arrival, and they were compelled
to return, in a famishing condition, to the fishery.
Our men had also a fruitless journey to the empty
cache. The lies that were told on these occasions
were innumerable, and every one was ready to
clear himself and inculpate some other party. We
generally, however, succeeded after a time in find-
ing out the real delinquents, who consequently
were coolly received, and had short rations when
they came to the fort.

As the months of February and March rolled
away, and the days lengthened, cheering reports
from the hunting parties came in, and some of the

PROVISIONS NOT INDIVIDUAL PROPERTY. oa

more active of the fishery party went to join them.
Mr. Bell, on two several occasions, fitted out the
whole of the residents at Cape Macdonald with
provisions enough to take them to the hunting
stations; but their hearts failing them, they con-
sumed what was given to them, and came with
their daily petitions as before. During this time
they were taking trout, and denying that they did
so, though they occasionally sold us a few. At
length, towards the end of March, two of our fort
hunters, who had left their wives at the fishery,
coming to fetch them, the desire of the whole
party to eat venison became uncontrollable, and
they came in en masse to the fort, with their
sledges and all their moveables, to receive another
fit out. They remained encamped near the house
on this occasion for about three weeks before they
took their departure, subsisting chiefly on the pro-
duce of their trout lines. During this time some
of the young men made two excursions to plunder
the caches of the hunters employed by us, but were
foiled in the attempt, and came back fasting; for
Mr. Bell, taught by former losses, had been very
prompt in sending men for the venison, and had
secured it before the marauders reached the spot.
At this time some considerable supplies were
brought in by the Martin Lake Indians, and we
had several opportunities of observing the way in

992 FORT CONFIDENCE.

which these people act towards each in regard to
provisions. The venison intended for us was
neatly packed on the sledges, but each Indian
generally carried a kind of knapsack on_ his
shoulders, containing some choice pieces of meat
to be consumed on the journey back to his tent.
The sharp eyes of the hungry party at the en-
campment discovered the approach of strangers
while yet at a great distance, and the rumour of
an arrival spreading with rapidity, men, women
and children crowded into the square of the fort.
The first act of the new-comers was to run the
loaded sledges at once into the store-house, which
was opened to receive them; but as they arrived
in succession, the women from the camp generally
pressed in, and throwing their arms round a young
hunter, with much kindness of manner would say
to him, “It is long since we have seen you, my
relation ; how have you fared since we met? You
are a generous man!” and so on. While his
attention was thus engaged, and before he could
free himself from the unwashed sirens, whose
unwonted softness of speech led him to suspect
either ridicule or plunder, one of the females
having cut the strings of his knapsack would
carry it off, amidst the laughter of the crowd.
The young fellow, thus despoiled of his provisions,
however much he might be vexed in secret, was

AN ACCOUCHEMENT. 93

obliged to join openly in the mirth ; and the ex-
pression of face of some of the youths thus preyed
upon, as they endeavoured to force a smile in their
distress, was irresistibly comic. The loss fell ulti-
mately on the store, as Mr. Bell had to furnish the
party with food for their return, though in that case
he did not certainly select titbits. When at length
the great move was made, and the fishery party,
exceeding forty in number, went off, in the end of
March news came that the wife of one of the hunters,
a very small woman, had been taken with the
pains of labour. The three females belonging to
the fort went to her aid, and found the new-born
infant, the mother’s first child, wrapped in a deer’s
skin and stuck into a hole made in the snow. It
was brought into the house, and dressed by the fire.
This event delayed the mother’s departure about
two hours. She then set out dragging a sledge,
and having her first-born suspended between her
shoulders, in a bag or Indian cradle. She was not
suffered, however, to profit by the well-beaten path
pursued by the rest of the party, who had gone
before her, but had to make a new track parallel
to it through the loose snow, always a laborious
task, even to a stout man. Want of success in
hunting, or some other calamity, was sure to befal
an Indian who should incautiously tread in her
footsteps. This was the custom; no slight or

94 FORT CONFIDENCE.

unkindness was shown to her; her husband was,
I believe, really fond of her; and her sledge was a
light one, being loaded only with things belonging
to herself.

Soon after what may be considered a great event
in the simple annals of Fort Confidence—the de-
parture of so numerous a body of hangers-on—we
had a visit from a Dog-rib who had been residing on
the other side of the lake, at the plentiful fishery
opposite Fort Franklin. Our visitor, a stout, able-
bodied fellow, came empty-handed, and introduced
himself as a very serviceable man, who had been of
great use to our two fishermen stationed at Fort
Franklin. We readily understood that the truth
concealed under this self-praise was, that he had
been living by their labours, perhaps bringing in
a little wood for them occasionally, but really
sharing in the produce of their nets. On ques-
tioning him more closely as to the object of his
coming, he at length said that he came to look for
a wife. Had he no wife? Yes, he had had one,
but an Indian had taken her from him. Had he
an aversion to his wife that he had parted from her
without a struggle? No; his wife was a very good
wife; she suited him very well. Then why did he
not fight for her? ‘You see,” said he, “it was a big
Indian that took her! I am a little fellow, what
could Ido!” This hero met with little countenance

MIGIIT MAKES RIGHT. 95

from us, and after being fed for two days, an inti-
mation was made to him that he would receive no
more rations; on which he followed the others,
and, as we afterwards learnt, soon procured another
helpmate.

The singular national custom of the women
being the property of the strongest, had been acted
upon a short time previously at the fishery. <A
blind man, who was more assiduous in setting trout
lines, and more successful as a fisherman than most
of the others, was deprived of his wife on the
general movement of the party, by an old fellow
who wanted her to drag his sledge. Mr. Bell
questioned the ancient Paris about the truth of
the report when he came to the fort, and instead
of denying the fact, or seeming ashamed, he gloried
in the deed as a manly action. A child, the off-
spring of her former connection, followed the for-
tunes of the mother.

After Mr. Bell and I quitted the fort in May, the
rein-deer migrating towards the sea-coast left the
Indians again in straitened circumstances. The
active hunters moved towards the open country in
quest of musk-oxen, and the more helpless threw
themselves on Mr. Rae’s compassion at the fort.
He distributed among them the remains of the
dried meat brought from Fort Simpson, and a
quantity of musk-bull meat, which was too strong

96 FORT CONFIDENCE.

for his own men, but which the natives relished
greatly. Thus furnished they betook themselves
reluctantly to various fisheries. Such is the life
which these poor creatures lead. Occasional feast-
ing and rejoicing, with intervening periods of
want, sometimes of absolute famine. With proper
management, the natural resources of the country
would support a population ten times as great ;
but as long as all the drones of the community
claim a right to appropriate to their own wants
the produce of the exertions of an industrious
hunter or fisherman, no certain provision for the
future will be made. The first step in advance
will be the formation of fishing villages, and the
culture of barley and potatoes; and, under the
euidance of intelligent missionaries, this might be
effected without much difficulty; while, at the
same time, the truths of Christianity might be
brought to bear on the heathenism and moral
defects of the ’Tinne nation.

The preceding details may lead the reader to
imagine that the Dog-ribs or Hare Indians are an
unhappy race; but such is not the case. They are
timid, and assume the attitude and solicitations
of beggars in their intercourse with white people ;
but among themselves they are lively, volatile, and
full of fun and mirth, which even an empty stomach
cannot suppress.

PROGRESS OF THE SEASONS. 97

With regard to the progress of the seasons, the
‘“‘ Indian summer,” as it is called, brought us three
weeks of fine weather after our arrival in Sep-
tember. The centre of Bear Lake usually remains
open till late in December, but by the middle of
October the bays and straits are frozen’ across.
As the structure of ice has of late years attracted
the attention of speculative geologists, principally
in connection with the movements of glaciers, I
am induced to mention here a few facts which in-
truded themselves on my observation during my
residences in the fur countries.

The first step in the freezing of rivers in this
rigorous climate, after the water has been cooled
down to 32° by a succession of cold weather, is the
formation of somewhat circular plates of ice, six or
eight inches in diameter. These drift for a time
with the current, until they have become numerous
enough to cover the surface of the water, when
they are arrested in a narrow part of the river,
or by any slight obstacle, and speedily adhere to
each other, after which the interstices between the
circles fill rapidly with crystals that bind all
firmly together. ‘The sheet of ice thus produced
is at first nearly opaque ; but when, in the course
of a day or two, it has acquired the thickness
of a few inches, it becomes transparent, and re-
mains so until a fall of snow has obscured the

VOL. II. H

98 FORT CONFIDENCE.

surface. In unsheltered lakes the wind drifts the
snow to the beach, and would perhaps keep the ice
clean for great part of the winter, were it not that
in certain hygrometric conditions of the atmo-
sphere small starry tufts of most beautiful tabular
and latticed crystals are deposited at short in-
tervals on the ice, and freeze firmly to it. In a
dry atmosphere these crystals evaporate again, but
should a fall take place of the fine, dust-like snow,
which is the most common kind in the high lati-
tudes, they serve to detain it until it consolidates,
so as to resist the wind. It is rare, however, for
the snow to lie more than a foot deep on any of
the large lakes, unless where it has drifted under
the lee of piled-up slabs of ice, or of rocks, islands,
or other shelter.

During winter the ice receives an increase of
thickness from beneath, and at the same time
evaporates above; the latter process going on with
a rapidity that would scarcely be credible to one
ignorant of the extreme dryness of the air in an
arctic winter. The ice acquires a thickness of
from four to eight feet, according to the severity
of the season, the depth of the lake, and other
modifying circumstances; and I desire here to
advert especially to the fact, that although it
is constructed of successive horizontal additions
beneath, when it decays in spring it consists of

ICE AND SNOW. 99

vertical prisms, penetrating its whole thickness,
and standing side by side like the columns of a
basaltic cliff; which, in their mode of formation,
have, I imagine, a close analogy. Dr. Slagintweit
informed me that neither the ice nor the basalt
forms exact prisms, the angles never having the
precise measurements of true crystals. In this
condition the ice may be strong enough to sup-
port a considerable weight; and I have travelled
over it with a large party on several occasions
when the prisms on which the foot rested were
depressed at every step, and a pointed stick could
be driven through the whole thickness into the
water beneath, with as much ease as into a bank
of snow. The ice then, in fact, presents the phy-
sical characters of a semi-fluid mass, as pointed
out by Professor Forbes, its parts being moveable
on each other, not only vertically, but as in the
case of travelling glaciers, capable of gliding past
one another horizontally.

In spring, when the action of the sun-light is
very powerful, an incipient thaw takes place at
mid-day on the surface of the snow, which, on
freezing again, acquires a glassy crust. As the
season advances, but while the temperature of the
air is still even at noon far below the freezing
point, the crust in clear weather becomes pene-
trated in the direction in which it is struck by the

H 2

100 FORT CONFIDENCE.

sun’s rays at mid-day by innumerable canals, and
finally crumbles into a granular mass like the jirn
of the high Switz glaciers, that crackles under the
feet as soon as the sun sinks towards the horizon.
This firn is not universal; it is more common
within the arctic circle, and in situations where
there seems to have been originally a certain loose-
ness in the texture of the snow, and where its
surface is so much inclined that the sun’s rays do
not fall on it obliquely about noon. I did not notice
it in any quantity on the level surface of a lake.

The rapid evaporation of both snow and ice in
the winter and spring, long before the action of
the sun has produced the slightest thaw or appear-
ance of moisture, is made evident to residents in
the high latitudes by many facts of daily occur-
rence ; and I may mention that the drying of linen
furnishes a familiar one. When a shirt, after being
washed, is exposed in the open air to a tempe-
rature.of 40° or 50° below zero, it is instantly
rigidly frozen, and may be broken if violently
bent. If agitated when in this condition by a
strong wind, it makes a rustling noise like thea-
trical thunder. In an hour or two, however, or
nearly as quickly as it would do if exposed to the
sun in the moist climate of England, it dries and
becomes limber.

Mr. Rae mentioned to me another example of

TEMPERATURE. 101

the same fact, which bears on the transportation of
boulders, and may interest geologists. During his
memorable residence on the shores of Repulse
Bay, he noticed several large boulders which were
partially exposed at low water. When the sea
froze they became engaged in the ice, and were
lifted with it from the bottom by the flood-tides.
The ice gaining at each tide in thickness beneath,
and losing above by superficial evaporation, the
boulders in process of time came to rest in pits
on its surface.

In consequence of the extreme dryness of the
atmosphere in winter, most articles of English
manufacture made of wood, horn, or ivory, brought
to Rupert’s Land, are shrivelled, bent, and broken.
The handles of razors and knives, combs, ivory
scales, and various other things kept in the warm
rooms, are damaged in this way. The human
body also becomes visibly electric from the dry-
ness of the skin. One cold night I rose from my
bed, and, having lighted a lantern, was going
out to observe the thermometer, with no other
clothing than my flannel night-dress, when, on
approaching my hand to the iron latch of the
door, a distinct spark was elicited. Friction of
the skin at almost all times in winter produced
the electric odour.

In November the snow was deep enough for
H 3

102 FORT CONFIDENCE.

sledges to run without receiving much injury.
On the Ist of December the sun was just visible
for an instant at noon, from an eminence behind
the house. This month was a cold one, and the
coldest days in the year were the 17th and 18th,
when the average temperature for forty-eight
hours was 553° below zero of Fahrenheit. The
lowest observation made was at seven in the after-
noon of the 17th, at which time the temperature
was 58:9° F. The thermometer, one of Adie’s
making, was hung by the side of a dozen by the
same artist, none of which differed a degree from
it. When tested by freezing mercury, this one
stood at 86°, which is considered to be from 4° to
6° too high; so that, making the smallest of these
corrections, the actual minimum temperature we
observed was 65° F'.* This is one of the greatest
colds on record, and pains were taken to ascertain
it correctly.

* Mr. Saunders, commander of the North Star, records 642°
F. as the lowest temperature observed in Wolstenholme Sound
in the winter of 1850.

{ In two thermometers made by a London artist, and hung
up beside the others, the spirit retreated into the bulb, though
the scales were graduated down to 73°. In freezing mercury,
these thermometers indicated 55°, being about 15° too low. Mr.
Adie’s thermometers were constructed under the superintendence
of Professor Forbes of Edinburgh. The precautions used to
insure their correctness will be detailed when the meteorological
observations at Fort Confidence are published.

TEMPERATURE. 103

Even at mid-winter we had three hours and a
half of daylight. On the 20th of December I
required a candle to write at the window at ten in
the morning. On the 29th the sun, after ten
days’ absence, rose at the fishery, where the hori-
zon was open; and on the 8th of January, both
limbs of that luminary were seen from a gentle
eminence behind the fort, rising above the centre
of Fishery Island. For several days previously,
however, its place in the heavens at noon had
been denoted by rays of light shooting into the
sky above the woods. The lowest temperature in
January was 50° F.

On the Ist of February the sun rose to us at
9 o’clock and set at 3, and the days lengthened
rapidly. On the 23d I could write in my room
without artificial light from 10 a.m. to half-past
2 p.M., making four hours and a half of bright day-
light. The moon in the long nights was a most
beautiful object ; that satellite being constantly
above the horizon for nearly a fortnight together
in the middle of the lunar month. Venus also
shone with a brilliancy which is never witnessed in
a sky loaded with vapours, and unless in snowy
weather, our nights were always enlivened by the
beams of the Aurora.

In February the lowest temperature was 56° F.
(or 62° corrected), and in March, 44° F. (48°)

nu 4

104 FORT CONFIDENCE.

was the lowest observed. On the 20th of April,
signs of the snow softening on the south side of
the house, contiguous to the walls, were perceived.
The day by this time had lengthened so far, that
I was able to read off the degrees of the thermo-
meter by daylight at nine in the evening. Snow
birds arrived in small flocks, and on the 27th the
snow began to melt in sheltered places, exposed to
the direct rays of the sun. Ospreys, gerfalcons,
eagles, and gulls appeared on the 17th of May;
and, from the 19th to the 23d, melted snow stood
deep on the surface of the ice. On the prior of
these two dates, the first goose was seen. The
geese approach the high latitudes as soon as the
swamps are uncovered, when they feed on the un-
developed flowering stalks of the cotton-grass and
other Cyperacee. Their arrival is thus an indication
of the progress of spring, and frosty weather will
sometimes drive them back for a week or so to a
milder district. The impulse, however, by which
they are urged to their breeding stations is so un-
controllable, that in backward seasons they are
driven to the sea coast before the snow is gone,
and then, from want of food, they are in a very
lean condition. Their incubation, the fledging of
the goslings, and the moulting of the parents, has
to take place before the end of August, when old
and young pass southwards to spend the winter

ARRIVAL OF SUMMER BIRDS. 105

in more genial climes. An indelible attachment
leads them back to their natal places, and the en-
suing summer sees them winging their way north-
wards in cuneal bands, with unerring instinct.
Their arrival in a district enlivens white man and
Indian: during their passage, plenty reigns in every
encampment; and the dingy, pot-bellied children
run about with smiling, greasy faces, brandishing
in each hand the leg or wing of a goose.

The Canada geese come in the van, and remain
breeding in the woody country; snow geese next
arrive, and pass onwards to Wollaston’s Land;
then the laughing geese come and go, holding a
north-west course ; and at the same time with the
latter, the Hutchin’s geese speed to the sea coast.

On the 22d, pin-tail ducks were seen; on the
24th, swans; and, on the 380th and 31st, large
flocks of snow geese and brown cranes passed
northwards. On the Ist of June, bees, sandpipers,
long-tailed ducks or cacawees, eider and king ducks,
and northern divers were seen: the catkins of the
earliest willows also burst their envelopes on this
day. On the 5th, teal, widgeon, scaup-ducks,
shovellers, and jagers arrived ; but, on the 8th, the
fur of the polar hare was still white.

The progress of spring at Fort Confidence,
subsequent to the 7th of May, is recorded from
Mr. Rae’s notes, as on that date Mr. Bell and I

106 FORT FRANKLIN.

commenced our journey southwards. To contrast
with the above the dates of the arrivals of the mi-
gratory birds at Fort Franklin in the same season
are here added, the difference of latitude between
the two places being a degree and three quarters.
On the 11th of May, under a hot sun, a pool of
water had formed on the ice near the bay of the
Deer Pass. We bivouacked on the shore beside
it, and had not yet arranged our sleeping-places,
when a Canada goose alighted in the pool. It
was scarcely allowed to settle before it was shot,
and, with a celerity unknown in civilised lands,
stripped of its feathers and committed to the
cooking-kettle. This was evidently a straggler,
and must have seen the small pond in which it
alighted from a great distance ; for, on our arrival
at Fort Franklin on the following day, we learnt
that neither our two fishermen employed there,
nor an Indian residing near them, had as yet seen
any of the spring birds. On the 14th the Indian
saw gulls; on the 18th, snow geese and various
small birds came, together with the pretty little
gull named Xema bonapartii, which in large flocks
sought for insects in the open water now forming
along the shores of the smaller lakes. On the 22d,
bands of snow geese passed to the north-west, flying
high. They evidently found the country about
Fort Franklin still too closely wrapped in its winter

ARRIVAL OF SUMMER BIRDS. 107

garb, and were winging their way to the valley of
the Mackenzie, where the season is earlier.

Geese, according to Mr. Bell’s information, arrive
at Peel River Fort, upwards of two degrees farther
north, from the 12th to the 15th of May, rarely
varying above a day or two, the 15th being the
date of their coming in backward seasons. At that
time they find the marshy places bare of snow,
and can procure the roots of bents and other plants
on which they feed. There, as elsewhere, the
Canada geese precede the snow geese a day or
two. The Hutchin’s geese* come later, and pass
high overhead towards the north. The Indians
believe that a small finch (Plectrophanes lapponica)
avails itself of the strength of wing of the Hutchin’s
goose, and nestles among its feathers during its
flight. When a goose is shot, they often see the
small bird flying from it. Neither Mr. Rae nor I
noticed such an occurrence, nor did I obtain a
confirmation of it from the personal observation of
any of the gentlemen resident in the country, but
it is generally affirmed by the Indians.

While we were at Fort Franklin, Mr. Bell, who
was employed all day in shooting geese, pointed
out to me a fact in the natural history of the
snow and laughing geese. Though they migrated

* These are commonly called “Eskimo geese” in Rupert’s
Land.

108 FORT FRANKLIN.

in large flocks, each had already selected its mate;
and if the female was shot, the male bird instantly
separated from the rest, and descended to look
after her. In this way, he often fell a victim to
his conjugal fidelity; but if he escaped the shots
aimed at him, and became shy, he would still
continue for hours, and even days, searching the
neighbourhood for his lost mate. The case was
different if the male bird fell first. The female,
it is true, also left the flock, but she kept more
aloof, and generally, after making a circle or two
round the spot where the body of her partner lay,
went off with the next flock that came up.

The laughing geese passed Fort Franklin a few
days later than the snow geese, but a single
individual was often seen some days before the
arrival of the main body, associated with a flock
of snow geese, and generally acting as leader by
assuming a station in the apex of the angle in
which they fly. About the same time, the American
robin, or migratory thrush, came with the yellow-
poll and black and yellow warblers (Sylvia cestiva
et maculosa). The latter fed on the berries of the
Alpine arbutus, as did likewise the golden plovers,
whose stomachs also contained the juicy fruit of
the Empetrum nigrum. The Eskimo curlew at
this time fed on large ants. It would appear that
these insects descend to the stomachs of the cur-

ARRIVAL OF SUMMER BIRDS. 109

lews alive, since I found that several, having taken
fast hold of the lining of the gullet with their
mandibles, remained sticking there, and even after
death required some force to detach them. The tree
bunting (Fringilla canadensis), black-finch (P. hye-
-malis), and white-crowned finch (/'. lewcophrys)*
were also early visitors, and soon after their arrival
began to construct their nests. The Lapland finch
was also seen, but only on its passage to the coast.
The Lestris richardsonii flew about in pairs, and
was observed to have the habit of quartering the
ground like the hen-harrier. In the stomach of
one which I killed, there were the skin and some
of the bones of a mouse, rolled into a ball, like the
pellets that are rejected from the stomach of an
owl. The purple-throated diver visited Bear Lake
River in considerable numbers. This species is
easily distinguished from the great northern diver
(C. glacialis), while flying, by its swollen, bluish-
grey neck. Almost all the summer birds arrived
before we left that neighbourhood; but I have enu-
merated only the earliest comers, or those which
I had not previously seen in so high a latitude,

* T have already mentioned the nocturnal song of this bird,
which breeds throughout Rupert’s Land. In attempting to ex-
press its clear, loud notes by syllables, the nearest approach
I could make was cheet-cheet, tareet, cheet, cheet. ‘The first

two syllables are loud and high, the next two short, and the
two last lower and softer.

HG VALLEY OF THE YUKON.

and whose range is, therefore, not correctly given
in the Hauna boreali-Americana.*

* From Mr. Murray, I have received the following account
of the arrivals of the water-fowl in the Valley of the Yukon.
“Of the two kinds of swan, only the largest sort (Cygnus buc-
cinator) are seen here; they pass on to the northward of the
Porcupine River, to breed among the lakes. Bustards (7. e.
Canada geese) are plentiful, and breed everywhere, from Council
Bluffs on the Missouri to the vicinity of the Polar Sea. On the
ramparts of Porcupine River they frequently build high up
among the rocks, where one would suppose only hawks and ravens
would have their nests. How they take their young down is
unknown to me, but they must be carried somehow. Ravens and
large gulls are very destructive to young geese. With respect to
the breeding-quarters of the laughing geese (Anser albifrons),
I am able to inform you correctly, having myself seen a few of
their nests; and, since the receipt of your letter, made further
inquiry among the northern Indians. Their nests are built on the
edges of swamps and lakes, throughout most of the country north
of the Porcupine, where the ground is marshy. It is only near
the most northerly bends of that river that any are seen in the
breeding season, and these are male birds. They pass to their
breeding-places in the beginning of June, and make their nests
among long grass or small bushes, where they are not easily seen.
They are shy birds when hatching; and, when any one comes
near the nest, manage to escape unperceived, and then show
themselves at a distance, and manceuvre like grouse to lead the
intruder away from the place. Notwithstanding our ruthless
habit of collecting eggs of all kinds to vary our diet, I have
often felt for a laughing goose, whose anxiety for the safety of
its eggs was frequently the means of revealing to us the situation
of its nest. When the bird was swimming some hundreds of
yards off, immediately that any person in walking round the
lake came near its treasure, the poor bird began to make short,
impatient turns in the water, resuming her calm demeanour if

ARRIVAL OF SUMMER BIRDS. Vit

Great Bear Lake is navigable for its whole
extent for only fifty days in the year. It is frozen
over later than shallower pieces of water in its

the intruder passed the nest without seeing it. As soon as the
eggs are taken, the goose rises out of the water and flies close to
the head of the captor, uttering a frightened and pitiful ery.
These geese are more numerous in the Valley of the Yukon
than any other kind; and the numbers that pass northwards there
are perhaps equal to that of all the other species together. The
Gens du large (Neyetse-hutchin), who visit the north coast regu-
larly to traffic with the Eskimos, say that they have never seen
any flying northwards over the sea in that quarter. White geese
(snow geese, Chen hyperboreus) are also passengers here, and
there are likewise black geese, which I presume you have never
seen. A few of them pass down Peel’s River, but they are more
abundant on the Yukon. They are very handsome birds, con-
siderably smaller than the white geese, and have a dark brown
or brownish black colour, with a white ring round the neck, the
head and bill having the shape of that of the bustard.” (This
description applies pretty well to the brent goose (Anser ber-
nicla). The black geese are the least numerous and the latest
that arrive here. They fly in large flocks with remarkable
velocity, and generally pass on without remaining, as the others
do, some days to feed. When they alight, it is always in the
water; and, if they wish to land, they swim ashore. They are
very fat, and their flesh has an oily and rather disagreeable
taste. Bustards, laughing geese, ducks, and large gulls make
their appearance here from the 27th to the 29th of April. Snow
geese and black geese about the 15th or 16th of May, when the
other kinds become plentiful. They have mostly passed by the
end of the month, though some, especially the bustards, are seen
in June. ‘The white geese and black geese breed only on the
shores of the Arctic Sea. They return in September and early

b)

in October, flying high, and seldom halting.’

112 GREAT BEAR LAKE.

vicinity, but the ice remains longer unbroken, and
drift ice continues on its surface till the middle of
August. On the 7th of May, the day on which
Mr. Bell and I set out to travel to Fort Franklin,
the ice was as firm as in mid-winter; and, though
the snow softened in fine weather, it still covered

the ground deeply.

MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION. 113

CiTAP x Var

MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION IN THE SUMMER OF 1849.—1NsTRUC-
TIONS. —HE CROSSES TO THE COPPERMINE. —DESCENDS THAT
RIVER.—SEA COVERED WITH ICE.—SURVEYS RAE RIVER.—
ESKIMOS.— CAPE KENDALL.— CAPE HEARNE. —BASIL HALL
BAY. — CAPE KRUSENSTERN. — DOUGLAS ISLAND. — DETENTION.
—DANGEROUS SITUATION. —AUGUST 23., RETURN. —AUTHOR
AND MR. BELL LEAVE FORT CONFIDENCE. — CROSS GREAT BEAR
LAKE.— DESCEND BEAR LAKE RIVER.—DAVID BRODIE LOST
IN THE WOODS. —HIS ADVENTURES. — FORT SIMPSON. —METHY
PORTAGE. —-RECEIVE ENGLISH LETTERS. —NORWAY HOUSE.—
PART FROM THE SEAMEN AND SAPPERS AND MINERS. — CON-
TINUE THE VOYAGE TO CANADA.— BOSTON.— LAND AT LIVER-
POOL.— SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE SEARCH
FOR SIR JOHN FRANKLIN.

Havine in the preceding chapter mentioned such
occurrences during our winter’s residence at Fort
Confidence as seemed most worthy of notice, this
is the most appropriate place for introducing an
account of Mr. Rae’s endeavours, in the summer,
to reach Wollaston Land, and complete the search
in that quarter. Had we succeeded in taking our
boats up the Coppermine, beyond the reach of the
Eskimos, according to our expectations when the
plan of search was formed, the voyage might have
been resumed in the summer of 1849 with two or
three boats; and, in that case, both Mr. Rae and I
would have gone, that we might aid each other
VOL. II. I

114 MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION. May,

among the ice. But, having been compelled to
leave our craft in September without the smallest
hope of their being found again in a seaworthy
condition, and having only one boat remaining
that could be employed on the service, it became
necessary to determine which of us should take
charge of that vessel and of the small party it could
contain. Setting all personal considerations aside,
and looking solely to the means of providing for
the examination of as large a portion of the Arctic
Sea as could be accomplished, I had no hesitation
in deciding in favour of Mr. Rae. His ability and
zeal were unquestionable; he was in the prime
of life, and his personal activity and his skill
as a hunter fitted him peculiarly for such an
enterprise. The arrangement I made for with-
drawing the European party, and employing volun-
teers from the men engaged in the country, was a
considerable pecuniary saving, which I was bound
to consider, as far as I could, without cramping
the means of search.

It has been already mentioned that Mr. Rae ex-
plored the country between Fort Confidence and
the Coppermine River in winter, to select the best
route for dragging the boat over in spring. In
April he conveyed provisions, boat stores, and other
necessaries across to the Kendall on dog-sledges,
and left two men at Flett’s station in charge of

1849. INSTRUCTIONS. 115

them, together with two Indian hunters. Before
the end of the month we learnt that they had ob-
tained both musk-ox and rein-deer meat, and were
drying part of it for summer use. The subsequent
proceedings are told in the following official docu-
ments, which I quote entire, premising that the

names of the men composing his party were—

Boats crew.

Neil M‘Leod - - . - Orkney man.

James Hope - - - - Cree Indian.

Thomas Hope - = 5 = »

Halcro Humphrey - - - - Orkney man.

Albert One-eye - - - - Eskimo.

Louis Olivier - - - - Canadian.
Left in charge of Fort Confidence.

Baptiste Paul . - - « Canadian.

Louis Dubrill - - - -

95

“Fort Confidence, Great Bear Lake,
(Memorandum. ) May 1. 1849.

‘As in the prosecution of the search for traces of the
Discovery Ships under command of Sir John Franklin,
the continental coast line between the Mackenzie and
Coppermine Rivers has been carefully examined, the only
part of my instructions not yet complied with, is the ex-
amination of the adjoining shores of Wollaston and Vic-
toria Lands, which the state of the ice in Dolphin and
Union Straits rendered inaccessible last autumn. That
these two islands are separated from each other by a strait
lying between the 111th and 113th meridians, is rendered
almost certain by a consideration of the direction of the

flood tide, which, on the west side of these parallels, sets
I 2

116 MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION. May,

to the westward through Dolphin and Union Straits, and
to the eastward of them, sets to the eastward towards Cape
Alexander; coming, we must conclude, from the northward
between the lands in question: for the survey by Messrs.
Dease and Simpson has shown that the coast of Victoria
Land is continuous up to the 111th parallel; and the
latter gentleman records his opinion, that much of the
heavy drift ice that encumbers Coronation Gulf descends
between these lands from the north.

«The exploration of the shores of this strait is of much
importance in the search for the Discovery Ships, for the
following reasons: —Sir John Franklin having been directed
to steer to the south-west after he had passed Barrow’s
Straits, would be led directly into it, and he would be de-
terred from attempting a more westerly course by the cir-
cumstance of Sir Edward Parry having found that route
impracticable for two successive seasons. Should there be
several islands between Wollaston and Banks’s Lands,
and the channels between them be intricate, it is not un-
likely that the ships may have been shut up therein by
ice. It was the intention of Sir James Ross, in the event
of his reaching Winter Harbour last year, to send a party
across the ice this spring to pass between Victoria and
Wollaston Lands towards Cape Krusenstern and the
Coppermine River. To co-operate with that party and to
aid it with provisions, or to supply its place, should circum-
stances have prevented its being sent, it is expedient that
a party should go from hence, and as you and a sufficient
number of men have volunteered for this service, I hereby,
in virtue of the clause of my instructions which authorises
me to detach you and a party of volunteers under your
command, appoint you to this duty. You are therefore
to descend the Coppermine River; and as soon as the sea
opens in July, are to proceed to explore the strait in

1849. INSTRUCTIONS. bias ly

question, endeavouring to communicate with any parties
of Eskimos you may meet with on Wollaston or the
neighbouring islands. Should you reach the northern
coast of Banks’s Land, you are there to erect a pile of
stones, and deposit a memorandum of your object and pro-
ceedings at the distance of 10 feet from its base, marking
that side of the pile with a broad arrow in red or white
paint. You are also to erect similar piles, and deposit in
the same manner on conspicuous headlands, memoranda for
the guidance of the party detached by Sir James Ross, when
you can do so without materially delaying your progress.
Should you discover any signal posts erected by that
party, and learn from the memoranda deposited near them
that the strait has been sufficiently explored down to that
place, you are to proceed no further in that direction; and
you are at liberty to use your own judgment in deviating
from this route, if, from information given by the Eskimos,
or obtained from other sources, you are of opinion that
the ships, or part of their crews, may be found in another
quarter.

“Having the fullest confidence in your judgment, ex-
perience and prudence, I shall not name a period to your
advance, further than by requesting you not to hazard the
safety of the party entrusted to your care, by delaying
your return too long. The last season furnishes a strong
instance of the early date at which the winter occasionally
commences in these seas.*

« Having performed this service, or prosecuted it as far
as practicable, with a due regard to the safety of your

* The 25th of August was the date at which I considered it
prudent that Mr. Rae should endeavour to be on the south side
of Dolphin and Union Straits, and I expressed this opinion in a
private note to him.

118 MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION. May,

party, you are to return with all speed to Fort Confi-
dence, and, embarking without delay the instruments and
stores remaining at that post, to proceed forthwith to Fort
Simpson. Such of the stores as are useful to the Com-
pany are to be valued and handed over to them, and the
instruments are to be forwarded to England, addressed to
the Secretary of the Admiralty. The men are to be sent
to winter at some fishing station sufficiently to the south-
ward to ensure their early arrival at Norway House next
spring; and you are to direct them to be furnished with
nets, that they may provide for their own sustenance
during the winter, with as little expense to the Govern-
ment as possible.

“Immediately on your return from the coast, you are
to communicate an account of your proceedings to the
Secretary of the Admiralty, for the information of their
Lordships; and you are also to transmit to him a chart of
any hitherto unexplored coasts or straits you may discover,
as soon as you have had leisure to construct it.

“Given under my hand, at Fort Confidence, Ist May,
1849.

(Signed) * JOHN RICHARDSON,
Commanding Arctic Searching Expedition.
“ John Rae, Esq.”

Copy of a Despatch from Mr. Rae to the Secretary of the
Admiralty, narrating the Proceedings of the Expedition
under his Command to the shores of the Arctic Sea, in
the Summer of 1849.

“Fort Confidence, Great Bear Lake.
September 1. 1849.
13 Sir,
* T have the honour to acquaint you, for the information
of my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, that the

1849. ASCENDS THE DEASE. 119

expedition under my command, which descended the Cop-
permine this summer to the Arctic Sea, for the purpose of
examining the shores of Wollaston and Victoria Lands, in
search of Sir John Franklin and party, returned to this
place to-day, having been quite unsuccessful in its object,
and with the loss of Albert, the Eskimo interpreter, who
was drowned at the Bloody Fall, the particulars of which
unfortunate accident I shall mention hereafter.

« Having made every requisite arrangement at Fort Con-
fidence for facilitating our progress across land to the
Coppermine, I waited impatiently for the disruption of the
ice on Dease River, to which our boat was hauled on the
7th of June. Next day we learned that the upper parts
of the river were clear of ice; and on the following morning
I started in company with four men and two Indians, and

‘a couple of sledges on which our baggage and provisions
were stowed. The Dease was still covered with strong
and solid ice for two miles up its course, over which we
hauled the boat before getting to open water.

* Our ascent of the stream was extremely slow, owing to
the many barriers of ice (some of them six or eight miles
long) over which we had to launch the boat, and it was
the 15th before we arrived at the forks of the river, where
it was my intention to diverge from the route of Dease
and Simpson. ‘They followed the north branch, whilst we
ascended the south-east one. This stream was also much
obstructed by ice, and so very shallow, consequent on the
coldness of the weather, which prevented the snow on the
high grounds from thawing, that the whole party were
almost continually up to their knees among water and
snow engaged in launching the boat. In ordinary seasons
it was evident, by marks along the banks, that there is

sufficient water for a boat drawing some inches more than
14

120 MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION. June,

ours throughout its whole length, which is little more than
15 miles, including its various curves. On the 17th we
passed over the ice on the lake from which the stream
flows. It contains many islands, and its breadth, where
we crossed it in a nearly south direction, is 35 miles.

“Indian report had led me to believe that there was a
ereek, having sufficient depth of water for the boat, flowing
from this lake into the south branch of the Kendall, which
we were to descend to the Dismal Lakes; but in this we
were disappointed, and consequently had a portage of six
geographical miles to make overland nearly due east. I
had examined this place in the winter, but the ground
being then covered with snow and ice, I could not form a
correct opinion on the subject. The west end of the
portage is situate in latitude 67° 10’ 48” N.; longitude by
account * 117° 18’ W.; and the variation of the compass
50° 49’ E.

«Crossing the portage occupied us two days; the ice
had not yet broken up in many places on the river on its
east side, and the water was 10 inches lower than when
Sir John Richardson and party forded it last autumn; we
consequently found some difficulty in descending it. Its
general course is north-east by east, and length from where
we entered it, to its influx at the west end of the most
easterly of the Dismal Lakes, 173 miles. On the 21st
we arrived at the station on the banks of the Kendall
River, to which provisions for the sea voyage had been
hauled on dog sleds in April, and found the two men who
had been left in charge quite well. We descended the
Kendall next day to the Coppermine, which was still
covered with ice, so firm and solid that a person might

* The rates of the chronometers had become so irregular, or
had altered so much, that they were of no use until rated anew.

*

1849. DESCENDS THE COPPERMINE. oe

have crossed the river without being more than ankle deep
in water.

“‘ During five days that we were detained here, we were
occupied repairing the injuries received by the boat, shoot-
ing deer to save our pemican, and making observations
when the weather would permit. The result of three
meridian observations of the sun gave mean latitude 67°
07’ 20” N., and the mean variation from five sets of
azimuths on different days (the extremes being 49° 38’,
and 51° 55’) was 50° 37’ 48” E. On the 28th the dwarf
birch was observed to be in leaf, and the leaf-buds of the
willows began to develope. In the afternoon of the same
day the river was thought sufficiently open to permit us
to descend it for some distance among the driving ice;
but after proceeding six miles, we found the stream again
blocked up. We were so often and so long detained by in-
terruptions of this kind, that it was the 11th of July before
we arrived at the Bloody Fall, having been fourteen days
in doing the work of one. Notwithstanding the inefficiency
of our steersman James Hope (one of Dease and Simpson’s
men), we ran all the rapids, including the Escape, without
shipping much water, and with all the cargo in the boat.

‘Hitherto deer had been so numerous that we could
easily have shot enough for the maintenance of a party
double or treble our numbers. Here they had become
more scarce and shy, which could be only accounted for
by the proximity of the Eskimos, no recent traces of whom
could however be seen. From the fall to the sea the ice
remained fixed until the 13th, when it cleared away, a
circumstance that was very soon indicated by the numbers
of fish which appeared below the fall. With the aid of
Halkett’s air-boat, which had been brought from a hill
some miles distant, where it had been left last season, a

12? MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION. JULY,

net was set in one of the eddies, and before the men had
finished arranging it, seven fine salmon and two white fish
were caught, and we afterwards obtained a supply for
several days’ consumption.

“On the 14th we entered the sea, and found a narrow
and very shallow channel along the shore of Richardson
Bay, until we came to its north side, where the ice lay
against the rocks. Here the latitude 67° 51’ 19” N. was
observed; and two azimuths of the sun, the one on the
meridian and the other when on the prime vertical, gave
variation 57° 04’ and 56° 25’ E. Whilst encamped at this
place, we were visited by seven Eskimos, one of whom I
at once recognised as the active, intelligent man who had
afforded Sir John Richardson’s party such efficient assist-
ance last season, when crossing the river at the head of
Back’s Inlet. On inquiry I learnt that they had been
well supplied with provisions in the early part of winter
and in spring; but that in the interval they had nearly
starved, owing to the scarcity of seals, having had to
subsist for some time on the skins of the larger species
of these animals, which they had reserved for making
boots. In the winter they had communicated, either
directly or indirectly, with the natives of Wollaston Land,
none of whom had ever seen whites, large boats, or ships.
They were all made happy by some small presents, and a
supply of fish, which they ate raw, and appeared to relish
much. They left us near midnight, promising to return
next day with some boots and shoes for sale.

“On the 16th, by making a number of portages over the
ice, we rounded Point Mackenzie and entered Back’s
Inlet, which was partially open. Having a fine breeze
from the east, we set sail and soon ran to its head, when
we entered Rae River (discovered and named by Sir John

1849. SURVEYS RAE RIVER. 123

Richardson last autumn); and on proceeding three miles
up it, came to the lodges, six in number, of our Eskimo
visitors, who said that they had been so much alarmed at
seeing the boat under sail that they were on the point of
running away.

« As there was no possibility of our making much progress
along shore until the ice wasted a little more, I devoted
the two following days to an examination of this river;
the Eskimo whom I have already mentioned as our active
assistant last year willingly agreeing to accompany us.
At the distance of 93 miles from the river’s mouth, there
is a perpendicular fall of 10 feet, which extends across the
stream, except a few yards on the north side, where the
rock slopes so much that, during the spring-floods, salmon
and white fish are able to ascend, affording the natives a
fine opportunity of spearing them. Here I left the boat
and four of the men, whilst in company with the other
two, and our Eskimo guide, I traced the river 194 geo-
graphical miles further. Its course is nearly due west,
and very straight; about the size of the Dease River, and
varying in breadth from 80 to 200 yards, with a very
strong current, and sufficient depth of water for a boat
drawing 14 or 15 inches. It flows over a bed of limestone,
and is bounded on the north, at the distance of half a mile
or less from its banks, by precipices of basalt from 100 to
200 feet high, superimposed on limestone of the same kind
as that which forms the bed of the river.

*‘ At the extreme west point of our journey, we found a
party of ten Eskimos with their families, who informed us
that the stream maintained the same course and size as far
as they had seen it, which was somewhat more than three
days’ march, or about sixty miles; how much further they
knew not, as they had never been to its source. ‘T'wo of

124 MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION. Juny,

this party returned with us to the boat, where they received
presents, which I had some difficulty in getting them to
accept, as they said they had nothing to give in exchange.
On the evening of the 18th we ran down stream, and landed
our guide among his friends, who seemed very glad to see
him return safe. ‘They were now much less timid than
when we first met them, and we pitched our tent close to
theirs, without causing any apparent alarm, although it was
afterwards observed that two of the men kept watch during
the night.

** Karly on the 19th we took a friendly leave of these
simple and inoffensive people, and pulled down to the mouth
of the river, where I stayed until noon, when the lati-
tude 67° 55’ 20” N. was observed. The cloudy state of the
weather during the two preceding days had prevented any
observations being made. New moon occurring to-day, it
was high water a few minutes before 1 P.M.; the rise
being 10 inches. In the afternoon, when on our way to
Cape Kendall, we experienced a severe thunder-storm from
north-north-west, which obliged us to land for shelter.

“Our advance along the coast was so slow, that we did
not arrive at the place where the boats were left last
autumn until the 24th. We found that they had been
much broken up by the Eskimos to obtain the ironwork.
The tents, oil-cloths, and part of the sails, still remained
uninjured, and were of much value to us, as we were ill-
provided with the two first of these articles. The ‘ cache ’
of pemican and ammunition was also untouched, having
apparently escaped notice from being covered with snow.
The latitude 68° 10’ 44” N., and variation 56° 8’ E., were
observed here.

“On the 27th a west-north-west breeze having cleared
away the ice for a short distance from the shore, we con-

1849. CAPE KRUSENSTERN. 125

tinued our course towards Cape Hearne, which we reached
before noon, and found its extreme point to be in latitude
68° 11/17” N. Basil Hall Bay being filled from side to
side with unbroken ice, we encamped here. Next forenoon
a light south-south-east breeze opened a crack in the ice,
wide enough for the boat to cross to an island in the middle
of the bay, on the north side of which we found some open
water, which enabled us to get two miles beyond it. At
3 Pp. M. on the 30th, we arrived at Cape Krusenstern, and
when opposite its high cliffs a strong breeze sprung up
from north-north-east, which drove the ice so forcibly
against the rocks, that we were obliged to unload with all
haste, and haul the boat up on a drift-bank of snow to
save it from being squeezed. Here for the first time this
season we found the ice broken up in the offing, caused
evidently by the strong currents of the ebb and flood tides;
whereas on looking in the direction from which we had
come, all, except immediately along shore was smooth,
white, unbroken, and apparently as firm as in winter.

«We were now at the most convenient though not the
nearest point for making the traverse to Wollaston Land,
passing close to Douglas Island, and there was no necessity
for our proceeding further along the shore, even had we
been able to do so, which at present was impossible; the
high rocks presenting an insurmountable barrier on the one
hand, and the ice by its roughness equally impassable on
the other. We pitched our tents on the top of the cliffs,
in the ascent of which the before-mentioned snow-bank
served as a ladder, and waited for the first favourable
change in the ice.

« A few days afterwards, Albert (the Eskimo interpreter)
and one of the men, when some distance inland looking for
deer, overtook five Eskimos travelling to the interior with

126 MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION. Ava.

loads of salmon, which they had speared in a rivilet that
falls into Pasley Cove. From these the interpreter learnt
that the sea ice had commenced breaking up only one day
before our arrival, and that they had been in company with
the natives of Wollaston Land during the winter, none of
whom had ever seen Europeans, large ships, or boats.
“During our long and tedious detention here, several gales
of wind occurred, principally from the northward, but the
space of open water was so small that they produced little
effect upon the ice. Our situation was most tantalising to
all the party: occasionally at turn of tide a pool of water,
a mile or more in extent, would appear near us, and every
thing would be prepared for embarkation at a minute’s
notice, in expectation of the opening increasing and per-
mitting us to cross to Douglas Island, but our hopes were
always disappointed. A number of observations were ob-
tained, which placed our encampment in latitude 68° 24’
35’ N., the longitude being very nearly the same as that
assigned to it by Sir John Richardson and Mr. Kendall.
The mean variation of the compass, from eight sets of
azimuths, on different days, and at different hours, was
59° 8’ 08” E., the extremes being 57° 42’ and 61° 25’.
«The ice continued driving to and fro with the tides,
without separating sufficiently to allow of the practicability
of passing among it until the 19th August, when there was
more open water to seaward than we had yet observed,
caused by a moderate southerly breeze that had been
blowing for the last two days. After waiting some hours
for a favourable opportunity of forcing our way through a
close-packed stream of ice that was grinding along the
rocks as it drove to the northward, we at last pushed off,
and after more than once narrowly escaping being squeezed,
we reached comparatively open water, where we had room

1849. SEA COVERED WITH ICE. eae

to use our oars. We had pulled more than seven miles
and were still three miles from the island (Douglas), when
we came to a stream of ice, so close packed and so rough
that we could neither pass over nor through it; a thick
fog had come on, and the ebb tide was carrying us fast to
the south-east. Under these circumstances I thought it ad-
visable to return towards the main shore, on which we landed
early on the morning of the 20th, a short distance to the
south of the place from whence we had started. <A north-
west breeze came on some hours after landing, and cleared
away the ice a few yards’ distance from the beach, of which
we took advantage to shift our quarters, which being under
some crumbling cliffs, were neither safe nor convenient.
We poled along shore for three miles or more towards
Point Lockyer (the only direction in which we could go),
and then took shelter in a small bay, into which we had
scarcely entered when the wind changed to east-north-east,
and in a very short time left not a spot of open water
visible, either near shore or at a distance.

«The wind continued to blow from east and north-east
for the two following days, during which, when the tide
was in, we advanced a few miles to the south, principally
by launching the boat over the ice. On the evening of
the 22d I ascended a hill near the shore, from which a fine
view was obtained. As far as I could see with the tele-
scope in the direction of Wollaston Land, nothing but the
white ice forced up into heaps was visible, whilst to the
east and south-east there was a large space of open water,
between which and the shore a stream of ice, some miles in
breadth, was driving with great rapidity towards Cape
Hearne and its vicinity.

« As the fine weather had now evidently broken up, and
as there was every appearance of an early winter, I thought

128 MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION. Ave.

it would be a useless waste of time to wait any longer in
hopes of being able to cross to Wollaston Land; I there-
fore gave orders for our return towards the Coppermine, at
which I did not expect to arrive in less than a week, as the
ice wore as unfavourable an aspect as it did last year.

*“ At an early hour on the 23d the men commenced
carrying the baggage to Point Lockyer, still more than a
league distant, and afterwards hauled the boat to the same
place; doing this gave all the party ten hours’ hard work;
but our fatigues were soon forgotten on finding some open
water on the south side of the point, in which we were
speedily afloat and sailing before the fast-decreasing breeze.
It fell calm in half an hour; but we plied our oars to such
good purpose, that we pitched our tents late at night on
Cape Hearne. Here I had expected to find the ice close
packed on the shore, and quite impassable, but I was
agreeably surprised to discover as we advanced, that there
was a lane of open water between the beach and the pack,
wide enough for us to pass through. The only way that
I can account for this is, by supposing that the gale of
wind that had been blowing from north-east and east-
north-east had shifted to the north and north-west as it
approached the land, and carried the ice along with it.

“ By working seventeen hours next day we came to the
mouth of the river, and on the following morning ascended
to the Bloody Fall. Here fish were still very numerous,
o, others set a

oD?
couple of nets to obtain a supply for some days. I may

and whilst some of the party were cookin

here mention, that when on the coast, we obtained as
many salmon and herring as we could consume, wherever
there was a piece of open water large enough for setting a
net to be found.

*‘ Dease and Simpson, after hauling their boats over the

1849. FATAL ACCIDENT. 129

rocks opposite the lower and strongest part of the fall,
had them towed up the remainder by water; and as our
boat was now much weakened by the rough usage it had
unavoidably been exposed to, for the purpose of saving
time, and the tear and wear that would be caused by
having it dragged over the portage, I was desirous of doing
the same. I was the more led to do this, as the men were
of opinion that it might be effected with safety. All that
appeared in any way difficult was easily done, and there
was only one short place to be ascended, which was so
smooth that a loaded boat might have passed it; here,
however, from some unaccountable cause, the steersman
was seized with a sudden panic, and called to those towing
the boat to slack the line. This was no sooner done
sufficiently to allow him to get firm footing, than he leaped
on shore, followed by the bowman, and allowed the boat
to sheer out into the current, where the line broke, and
the boat soon oversetting, was carried into one of the
eddies some distance down stream; to which Albert and I
ran, and stationed ourselves at two points of rock near
which the wreck would pass. It drove to where Albert
was, and he hooked it by the keel with an oar until I
came to his aid, when I fixed a pole in a broken plank
and called my companion to assist me in holding on; he
either did not hear me correctly, or thinking that he would
be of more use on the bottom of the boat, sprung to it, and
before I had time to call him off, or even think of his
danger, they were carried by a turn of the current into a
small bay, where I believed both were safe; not so, how-
ever, for the next minute they were swept out again, and
the last I saw of our excellent interpreter was his making
a leap towards the rocks; he missed them and disappeared,
nor did he rise again to the surface.
VOL. Il. K

130 MR. RAE’S EXPEDITION.

«This melancholy accident grieved me much, as the
brave lad was universally liked for his activity, lively and
amiable disposition, and extreme good nature. On James
Hope, the steersman, rests all the blame of the loss of the
boat; his carelessness in using a small towing-line when
there was a much stronger one in the boat, and his
cowardice where there was no danger, can admit of no
excuse.

“On taking up our nets (which we laid carefully on the
rocks for the Eskimos), they were found full of herring-
salmon, in fine condition. We commenced our journey,
across land, towards Great Bear Lake, on the 26th, each
of the men carrying about 90lbs., and my own bundle
being nearly 50 Ibs. Three days’ easy march brought us
to that part of the Coppermine (lat. 67° 12’ N.) from
which it was my intention to make a straight course to
Fort Confidence. Here we expected to meet with some
Indians, but we did not fall in with them until the
following evening, when our loads were much lightened,
and we arrived here early this afternoon (being our seventh
day from the Bloody Fall), accompanied by upwards of
thirty of the natives, who had joined us at different parts
of the route.

“The two men who had passed the summer at Fort
Confidence were well; and having all the stores ready
packed, I shall leave this to-morrow, after supplying the
Indians with ammunition to enable them to hunt their
way to the trading-posts.

. «TI have, &e.
(Signed) “ JOHN RAE.

** Fort Simpson, September 26. 1849.
«« PS. I arrived here this afternoon, and intend sending
off the expedition men to Big Island, Slave Lake, on the

ICE IMPASSABLE. 181

28th, with an ample supply of nets and twine, so as to
enable them to procure sufficient fish for their winter
provisions, without being any additional expense to Go-
vernment.

(Signed) or had 8 oh

Mr. Rae’s failure in crossing to Wollaston Land
is to be attributed solely to the strait being filled
with impracticable ice. I know from his private
letters that the mortification he experienced in the
result is much more severe than he has thought
proper to express in his official despatch. The
presence of ice in Dolphin and Union Straits and in
Coronation Gulf for two or more successive seasons,
where the experience of former years had led us to
expect a comparatively open sea, is suggestive of
the manner in which a party may be shut up in
these regions, and leads to many melancholy re-
flections.

Every reader of my narrative of the proceedings
of the expedition will be aware of how much I was
indebted to Mr. Rae’s activity and intelligence
throughout its progress; and this seems to be the
appropriate place for me to express formally my
sense of obligation to him for his sound.advice and
co-operation on every emergency. His society
cheered the long hours of an arctic winter's
absence from my wife and family, and it was in

a great measure owing to his skill and assiduity
K 2

132 LETTER TO MR. RAE.

in observing, that our experiments on magnetism
during our stay at Fort Confidence were carried on
so as to be productive of scientific results.

In consequence of intelligence obtained from
newspapers on my journey home, I addressed the
following letter to Mr. Rae: —

“Lake Winipeg, August 19. 1849.
“My Dear Rae,

« As I learn from the newspapers which I have just
read, and shall forward for your perusal, that Sir James
C. Ross did not reach Barrow’s Strait till after the
28th of August, and that it is probable that he may have
been arrested short of his intended wintering quarters at
Melville Island or Banks’s Land, and could not conse-
quently send off his proposed spring party to the Copper-
mine River this season, I consider it likely that he may
determine on sending that party next spring; and if so,
by the present arrangements they will, on their arrival at
Great Bear Lake, find Fort Confidence deserted.

“JT therefore think it important that you should engage
either the chief of some band, or two expert hunters, to
pass the months of June and July, 1850, on the portage
between Bear Lake and the Coppermine River, promising
them a handsome reward if they render any assistance to
the expected white party, and paying them such moderate
sums, in addition to a full supply of ammunition, as may
content them for spending the summer on such excellent
hunting grounds.

“You will have no difficulty in engaging either Martin
Lake or Bear Lake Indians for this service; and there is
abundance of time, after the arrival of the March packet,
by which you will receive this letter, for them to reach

LETTER FROM MR. RAE. ta

Fort Confidence long before the snow begins to melt. I
will thank you to furnish them with five or six memo-
randa in waterproof cases, with directions to plant them in
conspicuous places at the mouth of the Kendall, Flett’s
Station, Fort Confidence, and elsewhere.

«These precautions may prove to be unnecessary, as
Ross’s party will most likely, early in their march, discover
some of your landmarks, and learn, by the notes you have
left, your intention of quitting Fort Confidence this season,
and thereupon turn back to the ship. But, at a small ex-
pense, if the Indians carry their instructions out fully, they
will save the party, should it come on, from having to make
the long journey round Bear Lake without assistance.

“J remain, &c.
(Signed) “ JOHN RICHARDSON.

< P.S. Mr. M‘Pherson recommends Tecon-ne-betah for
this service.”

Extract of a Letter from Mr. Rae to Sir John Richardson.

‘Portage La Loche (Methy P.)
July 30. 1850.

‘When the winter packet arrived and I received your
instructions respecting the establishment of an Indian
party on the Coppermine, the Martin Lake Chief Tecon-
ne-betah was at Fort Simpson, and I had no difficulty in
engaging him to pass the summer at certain stations on
the route between the Kendall and Bear Lake. He
received three notes which were to be delivered to any
Europeans he might meet, in which the strangers were
requested to put themselves wholly in the hands of the
Indians, who would guide them by the best road and feed

them by the way. In the event of his not seeing any
K 3

134 JOURNEY HOME. May

parties, other notes, with a rough chart of the best route,
were supplied well wrapped in oil cloths, which were to be
placed on a pole in conspicuous stations.

(Signed) “J, Rag.”

Having by the preceding quotations brought
the narrative of the search made by the expedition
to a close, I now revert to the period at which Mr.
Bell and I left Fort Confidence. A party of men
preceded us by a week, taking with them the
baggage, which they were directed to carry on to
Fort Norman along with some pemican and stores
left at Fort Franklin. This was intended as a
precautionary measure to avoid the delay that
might be caused by Bear Lake River being late in
breaking up.

On the 7th of May we took leave of Mr. Rae,
and left the fort. “Bruce, Mitchell, Brodie, M‘Leod,
and Mastegon accompanied us in our journey
over the ice, which was completed on the 12th,
having occupied five days and a half. On the
northern shores of the lake, the snow had lost
little of its depth, and we had to clear it away to
the thickness of five feet in making our encamp-
ment on Cape M‘Donald; but on the southern
shores we found some exposed sandy spots of
ground bare, and pools of water forming at mid-
day. Mastegon shot the first goose of the season
on the 10th, a straggler that was tempted to cross

1849. FORT FRANKLIN. 135

our pathway by a pool of water produced under
the influence of a powerful sun (p. 105.). Cloudy
weather followed, and five or six days elapsed
before the geese began to arrive in earnest.

The men who preceded us were at the fishing hut,
near the site of Fort Franklin, when we arrived
there. They had transported three sledge loads of
pemican about seventeen miles down Bear Lake
River to the usual winter crossing-place, but, finding
the stream open, they had put them en cache on
the right bank, and returned to wait further orders.
According to their report the rivulets were swollen
with melting snow, and travelling by land with
dog-sledges was at an end for this season.

On the 14th, being Sunday, we assembled to read
prayers; and, early on the following morning,
Bruce set out for Fort Norman, taking with him
Dore, Cousins, Thomas Hope, Mastegon, Plante,
and M‘Leod. They travelled light, carrying with
them merely their blankets and provisions. By
the arrangement I had made with Mr. M‘Pherson
they were to find at Fort Norman a small barge,
which Bruce was directed to bring up to us as
quickly as he could. The only difficulty we anti-
cipated was at the rapid in Bear Lake River, where
lofty walls of ice remain toa late date, covering
the tracking-ground. Hope and M‘Leod, being
part of Mr. Rae’s boat’s crew, were to return over-

K 4

136 BEAR LAKE RIVER. JUNE,

land immediately with some articles from the store
at Fort Norman. They did come back nine days
afterwards, and passed onwards to Fort Confidence;
and we learnt in the sequel that the Mackenzie did
not break up at Fort Simpson till the 23d of May,
being fifteen days later than Mr. M‘Pherson had
known it to do during twenty years’ residence on
its banks.

We remained waiting nearly a month for the
barge, having with us Mitchell and Brodie, with
the two Fort Franklin fishermen, Hector Morrison
and Narcisse Tremble. Our diet consisted of trout,
white fish, Bear-lake herring and geese, the latter
being Mr. Bell’s contribution to the common stock.
Of Fort Franklin the only vestige remaining was
the foundation of a chimney stack; and the fishing
hut not being large enough to hold us all, we bi-
vouacked under the shelter of a boat’s sail, as a
substitute for a tent. When the water had run off
the surface of the ice on the lake, so that we could
transport our effects across it without wetting
them, we moved to the banks of Bear Lake River ;
being glad to quit the vicinity of the hut, which,
like all fishing quarters, became extremely dis-
agreeable as soon as the accumulated impurities
of the winter were revealed to view by the wasting
of the snow. The marshy places or dry sandy
banks first became bare, but many wreaths of

1849. DESCENT OF BEAR LAKE RIVER. 137

drifted snow continued unmelted till the end of
the month. We stayed at the encampment on Bear
Lake River till the 8th of June, much surprised
that the boat did not arrive, and forming various
conjectures to account for the delay. On that day,
Bruce and Mastegon came to us on foot, bringing
information of the lower part of the river being
still covered with ice, and that they had left the
barge a few miles within its mouth. They had been
four days on the march, one of which was occupied
in examining the ice, which they stated formed a
bridge at the rapid many feet in thickness. On re-
ceiving this intelligence, I resolved on descending
to the mouth of the river on foot, and after going
in the barge to Fort Norman, where I could join
Mr. M‘Pherson, to send her back for the stores.
These were accordingly placed in a secure cache,
and left under the charge of Narcisse, to whom we
transferred our surplus stock of fish and geese,
being sufficient to maintain him eight or ten days
without touching the pemican, of which there was
a large reserve. The snow drifts formed excellent —
ice cellars for preserving fresh provisions, the only
precaution necessary being to protect them from
the dogs by branches of trees.

On the 9th, Mr. Bell, Bruce, and Mastegon, em-
barked with me in the fishing coble, and Morrison,
Mitchell, and Brodie, were directed to walk along

138 DESCENT OF BEAR LAKE RIVER. JUNE,

the bank of the river, each of them carrying his
own bedding and clothing. I cautioned them
against going inland, and promised that we would
wait from time to time at particular points for
their coming up. Half an hour after setting out,
finding the river smoother than we expected,
and Bruce being of opinion that we could embark
all the party, we put ashore, and in a short time
Morrison and Mitchell joined us, but David Brodie,
having struck into the woods with the view of
making a straighter course, did not arrive in the
hour that we remained waiting for him. Sup-
posing then that he had gone past, we resumed
our voyage, taking into the coble Morrison and
Mitchell.

The rate of our descent of the stream rather ex-
ceeded four miles an hour, and at half-past six A. M.
we reached the cache situated fourteen miles from
the lake. Brodie not arriving in the course of the
day, I became convinced that he had lost himself
in the woods, and therefore sent Morrison and
Mitchell back to the lake to acquaint Narcisse
with what had happened, and to endeavour to
engage an Indian who was residing at the fishery
to go in quest of Brodie. In the mean time we
fired our fowling-pieces at intervals, and set fire
to some trees that the smoke might be seen from
a distance.

1849. DAVID BRODIE LOST. 139

Mastegon, who knew that part of the country,
informed me, that ten or twelve miles back from the
river, there was an extensive swamp, from which
there flowed one stream that fell into the Mac-
kenzie, and another, named the Black River, which
joined Bear Lake River about four miles below
the cache. The latter stream was so rapid, he said,
that Brodie would be unable to cross it on a raft,
and it was not fordable; he would therefore, by
following it, be certainly led to Bear Lake River.

Next day our two men came back from the lake,
having themselves gone astray for some hours in
the attempt to make a short cut across a neck of
land. After placing written directions for Brodie
in the cache, we all embarked again, and in a
short time came to the influx of the Black River,
which was evidently flooded. Here I left another
paper of instructions for Brodie, directing him
to the cache for provisions, and to remain with
Narcisse until the barge came for them. The
incident of Brodie’s straying gave me much un-
easiness, as I feared he would experience some
suffering, though I did not apprehend that he
would lose his life. He was a man of much
personal activity and considerable intelligence,
and though his judgment would be probably at
fault when he first became conscious that he was
lost, I knew that as soon as he was in a condition

140 BRODIE’S ADVENTURES. JUNE

coolly to consider his position, he would be enabled
to shape a course for the river by the sun, and
following its bank to return to the lake. And so
it eventually happened. When he discovered that
he was walking in a wrong direction, he began to
mend his pace and to run as is usual in such cases,
but took an inland course, and at length came to
the borders of the swamp above mentioned. Here
the woods being more open he obtained a distant
view of the “ Hill at the Rapid,” which he re-
cognised from having seen it on his former journey
to the cache, and as he knew that we must pass it
in descending the river, he resolved on walking
straight for it in the hope of arriving there before
us. After this he came to the Black River, and
being a fearless swimmer, swam across it, carrying
his clothes on his head. The stream, being very
tortuous, came again in his way, when he crossed
it a second and a third time in the same manner,
but on the last occasion, his bundle slipping off
floated away, and he regained the bank with diffi-
culty in a state of perfect nudity. After a mo-
ment’s reflection, he came to the conclusion that
without clothes he must perish, and that he might
as well be drowned in trying to recover them as to
attempt proceeding naked. On which he plunged in
again, and fortunately landed this time safely with
his habiliments. He now refreshed himself with

1849. BRODIE’S ADVENTURES. 141

part of a small piece of dried meat, which, in his
anxiety he had hitherto left untouched, and forth-
with decided on finding the cache, and returning
from thence to the lake. On the third day (11th
June), he found my note together with some pro-
visions which we had suspended to a pole for his
use, but he had so husbanded his own small supply
that he had still a morsel of dried meat remaining.
He had no difficulty afterwards in joining Narcisse,
by keeping sight of the river the whole way.

This adventure is recorded as an example of what
happened to all the seamen and sappers and miners
of the expedition each in their turn. Four of them
were lost in the winter of 1848-49, for three days,
having mistaken their way to the boat encampment
in Cedar Lake. The straggling of the others was
of less account, but none of them could be taught
that they were liable to such accidents until they
learnt it by experience. One man who strayed
in the winter on Cedar Lake, when found, was con-
tentedly steering for the moon, which, being near the
horizon and gleaming red through the forest, was
mistaken by him for the fire of the men’s bivouack.
The snow which covered the ground at the time
fortunately enabled the Indian who went in pur-
suit of him, to trace his steps before he had gone
many miles.

About twelve miles below the mouth of Black-

142 FORT SIMPSON. JULY,

water River we came to the commencement of the
Rapid, and hauling the coble on the beach there,
proceeded on foot to the “ Hill,” immediately below
‘the Rapid,” where we encamped. While on our
march we perceived that the bridge of ice was
giving way, and the river directly fell some feet.
Early next morning Bruce went back with the men
for the coble, and brought it down by the time
that Mr. Bell and I had prepared breakfast for the
party. After concluding that meal, we crossed
the river in her obliquely, among high walls of
ice; and a mile or two below came to the barge
which the crew had brought up so far two days
previously. A short time sufficed to launch her,
embark the tents kindly provided for us by
Mr. M‘Pherson, and descend to the mouth of
Bear Lake River, where we passed the night.
Next day we went on to Fort Norman, where I
purposed to wait for Mr. M‘Pherson, who had gone
to Fort Good Hope to bring up the year’s returns
of furs from that post, and from the Peel and
Porcupine Rivers.:

On his arrival on the 14th I sent back the
small barge, to bring down Narcisse, Brodie, and
the stores, and embarking with Messrs. Bell and
M‘Pherson proceeded to Fort Simpson. The rest
of the journey homewards, being by the same route
as the outward voyage, need not be mentioned in

detail.

1849. METHY PORTAGE. 143

On the 25th we left Fort Simpson, having pre-
viously been joined by the men who wintered at
Great Slave Lake, and also by the small barge,
bringing Brodie and Narcisse Tremble from Bear
Lake. We were detained by drift ice at the west
end of Great Slave Lake till the 6th of July, and
did not reach Fort Resolution till the 11th. On
the 19th we arrived at Fort Chepewyan, and on
the 26th at Methy Portage, which we crossed on
the 27th with all our baggage, on horses hired
from the Indians. From L’Esperance, who was
encamped with his brigade on Methy Lake, I
had the pleasure of receiving English letters,
brought up from Canada by the governor’s light
canoe, which leaves La Chine in May. Mr. Bell
at the same time received instructions to return
to Mackenzie’s River, to conduct the Company’s
affairs there. This was unpleasant tidings to him,
since, having spent the greater part of his life in
that northern region, he had been soliciting a
change, but the mortification was softened by the
society of his two daughters who had been sent
from Isle a la Crosse to meet him. In taking
leave of this gentleman, I must express my ob-
ligations to him for his assiduous endeavours to
forward the interests of the expedition, and my
high sense of his excellent management of the
Indians at Fort Confidence, to which we owed a

144 NORWAY HOUSE.

winter of abundance, and the excellent condition
in which the store was left in spring. I had
enjoyed much pleasure in his society, and parted
from him with regret.

The remainder of the voyage down was per-
formed in company with Mr. M‘Pherson, who was
going down to Canada on furlough with his family.
At Norway House, where we arrived on the 13th
of August, the men of my party who had been
engaged there in 1847 were discharged, and the
Europeans were sent down to York Factory to go
to England in the Company’s ship. During the
time these men were under iy command not a
single act of disobedience occurred. Crews better
fitted for heavy portage work, and for the ordinary
duties of a winter’s residence in the north, might
doubtless have been selected in the country, but
none that I could have depended upon with so
much confidence in adverse circumstances. Dore
and Cousins, the two younger seamen, who were
extremely serviceable from their activity, intelli-
gence, and willingness to perform any duty that
was required, have gone again on the same errand
to Beering’s Straits.

From Norway House I proceeded to Canada in a
brigade of three light canoes, manned by voyagers
who were returning thither at the close of their en-
gagements in the country. On the 14th of Sep-

LAND AT_ LIVERPOOL. 145

tember we came to Fort William, and on the 25th to
Saut Ste. Marie. From thence we went in a steam-
vessel to the lower end of Lake Huron, and taking
a stage coach there for Orillia, crossed Lake Sim-
coe in a steamboat. Then we travelled by coach
through Young Street to Toronto, a distance of
about forty miles, and there embarked in one of
the steam-packets that ply daily between that port
and Montreal.

After a few days passed at La Chine with Sir
George Simpson in revising the outstanding ac-
counts between the Company and the Expedition,
I went to Boston, and embarking in the British
mail steam-packet, crossed the Atlantic, and landed
at Liverpool on the 6th of November, 1849, after
an absence of nineteen months, twelve of them
passed in incessant travelling.

Without delay I presented myself at the Ad-
miralty, and, having laid before their Lordships a
narrative of my proceedings, had the honour soon
afterwards to receive a letter announcing their
approbation of my conduct.

Here the journal of the transactions of the ex-
pedition ends, but a summary of the present con-
dition of the search may not be unacceptable to
the many who take an interest in the fate of our
absent countrymen.

Sir James C. Ross, with the “ Enterprise” and

VOL. II. L

146 PRESENT STATE OF THE SEARCH.

‘Tnvestigator,” reached the three Islands of Baffin
in lat. 74° N., on the 26th of July, 1848, but was
not able to cross the “middle ice” till the 20th
of August, on which day he attained open water in
lat. 754° N., and long. 68° W. He then steered for
Pond’s Bay, and examined the coast carefully from
thence to Possession Bay, in which he landed on the
26th. There he found a memorandum left by Sir
Edward Parry in 1819, but no trace of Sir John
Franklin. On the Ist of September, the ships
arrived off Cape York, where a conspicuous land-
mark was erected. Sir James next examined
Maxwell Bay, and some smaller indentations of
the north coast of Barrow’s Strait, but was pre-
vented by a firm barrier of ice from approaching
Cape Riley at the entrance of Wellington Channel.
Neither could he get near Cape Rennell, because
of compact, heavy ice extending from Welling-
ton Channel to Leopold Island. Not being able
to penetrate to the west, the ships were run into
Port Leopold on the 11th, and on the follow-
ing morning the main pack of ice closed in with
the land and shut them in for the season. On the
12th of October the ships were hove into their
winter quarters. During the winter many white
foxes were taken in traps; and copper collars, on
which were inscribed notices of the situation of
the vessels, and of the depots of provision, having

SIR JAMES C. ROSS. 147

been secured round their necks, they were set at
liberty again.

In May, 1849, Sir James Ross and Lieutenant
M‘Clintoch thoroughly explored on foot the west
coast of North Somerset down to lat. 72° 38’, N.,
and long. 953° W., where a very narrow isthmus
separates Brentford Bay of the Western Sea, from
Cresswell Bay of Prince Regent’s Inlet. They
returned to the ship on the 23rd of June.

In the mean time, Lieutenant Robinson examined
the western side of Regent’s Inlet down to Fury
Beach, and several miles beyond it. Lieutenant
Brown had crossed the inlet to Port Bowen, and
Lieutenant Barnard had traversed Barrow’s Strait
to the vicinity of Gape Hurd, but was unable to
reach Cape Riley on account of the hummocky
state of the ice. By these excursions, taken in
conjunction with Mr. Rae’s expedition in the spring
of 1847, the whole of Prince Regent’s Inlet and
the Gulf of Boothia was examined, with the ex-
ception of one hundred and sixty miles between
Fury Beach and Lord Mayor’s Bay; and as there
were no indications of the ships haying touched on
any part of the coast so narrowly traced, it is
certain that they had not attempted to find a
passage in that direction. Sir James caused a
house to be built at Port Leopold, and covered
with housing cloths, in which he left provisions

Ti

148 PRESENT STATE OF THE SEARCH.

and fuel for twelve months, together with the
Investigator’s launch and steam-engine. He then
proceeded to cut a way out for the ships through
the ice, which was not effected until the 28th of
August, 1849. On leaving the harbour he crossed
over towards Wellington Channel, where he found
the land-ice still fast and preventing his approach.
While contending with the loose packs, and strug-
gling to advance to the westward, a strong gale of
wind on the Ist of September suddenly closed the
ice around the ships, wherein they remained help-
lessly beset until the 25th, by which time they had
drifted out of Lancaster Strait, and were off Pond’s
Bay. As the season was now far advanced, further
search that year was thus frustrated by an acci-
dent, often experienced in the navigation of the
Arctic Seas; and all harbours in that vicinity
being closed for the winter, Sir James reluctantly
gave the signal to bear up for England.

While Sir James C. Ross was still engaged in
the ice on the west side of Baflin’s Bay, Mr.
James Saunders, Master and Commander of the
“North Star,” having been sent out with supplies
in the spring of 1849, was working up on the
east side, with imminent danger to his ship.
Owing to the unusual quantity of ice in the bay
that summer, and the frosts which glued the floes
into one impenetrable mass, he was unable to

‘“* NORTH STAR.” 149

cross over to Lancaster Sound, and his ship be-
coming involved in the ice about the same date
that the “ Enterprise” and “ Investigator” were
caught in the pack, drifted with it the whole of
September, until on the last day of that month she
was providentially driven into Wolstenholme Sound,
where there being a pool of open water she was at
length extricated. There the ship wintered in lat.
76° 33’ N., long. 68° 561’ W., being the most
northerly position in which any vessel has been
known to have been laid up. February was the
coldest month, and the thermometer on two oc-
casions marked 635°, and once 644°, of Fahrenheit
below zero.

On the 1st of August, 1850, the “ North Star” was
hauled out of the cove in which she had remained
ten months, and on the 8th she had crossed over to
Possession Bay, which was examined. Mr. Saun-
ders next proceeded to Whaler Point, Port Bowen,
Jackson’s Inlet, and Port Neill; but being prevented
from landing his provisions at any of these places
by the heavy landfloes of old ice, he bore up for
Pond’s Bay, and succeeded in depositing his cargo
on Wollaston Island.

Meanwhile the search was proceeding from the
quarter of Beering’s Straits. Captain Kellett in
the “ Herald,” on July 25th, 1849, after examining
Wainwright’s Inlet, despatched Lieutenant Pullen

Q

Lo

150 PRESENT STATE OF THE SEARCH.

to the Mackenzie; and afterwards, in standing
along the margin of the ice, discovered a group of
high islands on the Asiatic coast in lat. 71° 20’ N.,
long. 175° 16’ W., with extensive and very high
land to the north of them deeply seated in the ice.”
Commander Moore, also, in the “ Plover,” made
several attempts to penetrate to the eastward at
this time, and not succeeding, returned first to
Kotzebue Sound, and subsequently to Norton
Sound, where he wintered.

Lieutenant (now Commander) Pullen, accom-
panied by Mr. Hooper, mate, and twelve men, per-
formed the coasting voyage to the Mackenzie in
two 27-foot whale-boats. He was convoyed past
Point Barrow by the “ Herald’s” pinnace named
the “ Owen,” and the Royal Thames Yacht-Club
schooner, the ‘“‘ Nancy Dawson.” The latter was
owned and commanded by Mr. Shedden, a mate of
the Royal Navy, who had come thus far with his
small craft, solely at his own expense, to prosecute
the search for the discovery ships, and who, though
he was in the last stage of consumption, was not
prevented by the languor of the disease, which
carried him off two months afterwards, from giving
most efficient aid to Lieutenant Pullen.

* Captain Smyth suggests that this land may be that reached
by Sergeant Andreyer in 1762, which he reported to be in-
habited by a people named Kraibai.

BEERING STRAITS. P5ai

On Sir James C. Ross’s return to England in
1849, the Admiralty resolved that a still more
vigorous search should be organised, and accord-
ingly the “ Enterprise” and “ Investigator” were
again fitted out and despatched to Beering’s Straits,
the former under the command of Captain Collin-
son, C.B., and the latter of Commander McClure.
These ships having separated in the Pacific, the
‘“‘ Investigator,” which was the dullest sailer,
through a fortunate choice of route, reached the
Straits first, succeeded in passing Point Barrow,
and was last seen on the 4th of August, 1850.
The “ Enterprise,” having been unable to penetrate
the barrier of ice, went to Hong Kong to refit in
the winter, and is to make another attempt this
summer of 1851.

The preparations for the search on the side of
Lancaster Sound were on a large scale. The
“ Resolute” was commissioned by Captain Horatio
T. Austen, and the “ Assistance,” Captain Erasmus
Ommaney, was put under his orders, together with
the “ Pioneer” and ‘“ Intrepid,” steam tenders to
the two vessels. Captain William Penny, an ex-
perienced whale-fisher, was also engaged for the
search, and placed in command of the “ Lady
Franklin” and “Sophia.” In addition to these
expeditions fitted out by the Admiralty, others

furnished from private sources showed the interest
L 4

52 PRESENT STATE OF THE SEARCH.

that was widely and deeply felt in the cause.
Captain Sir John Ross, notwithstanding his ad-
vanced years, sailed in the “ Felix” schooner; and
by the munificence of Mr. Henry Grinnell, a New
York merchant, the United States sent forth the
“‘ Advance” and “ Rescue” on the same humane
quest, under the command of Lieutenant De Haven,
U.S. N., and Mr. 8. P. Griffin. Lady Franklin
likewise, with that untiring energy and conjugal
devotion which has marked her conduct throughout,
despatched the ‘ Prince Albert” under the orders
of Commander Forsyth of the Royal Navy.

This squadron was assembled in Lancaster
Sound in the month of August, 1850, at which
time the “ North Star” was also there, forming
in all a fleet of ten vessels. On the return of
the last-named ship and of the “ Prince Albert,”
we received intelligence from Barrow’s Straits as
late as the 25th of August, 1850. By that time
both sides of Lancaster Sound had been thoroughly
searched as far as Cape Riley on the north side,
and Port Leopold on the south, also Prince Regent’s
Inlet down to Port Neill and Fury Beach. On the
above-mentioned date, Mr. Snow, of the ‘“ Prince
Albert,” went ashore at Point Riley to examine a
flag-post, which had been erected by Captain Om-
maney; and found a note from that officer, stating
that he had landed with the officers of the “ As-

BARROW STRAITS. 153

sistance” and ‘“ Intrepid” on the cape on the 23rd,
had found traces of an encampment and collected the
remains of materials, which evidently proved that
some party belonging to Her Majesty's ships had been
detained there. Traces of the same party were found
on Beechey Island. The note concludes by the
announcement that Captain Ommaney proceeds to
Capes Hotham and Walker, in search of further
traces of Sir John Franklin’s Expedition. No
mention is made of the nature of the materials
collected; but the tenor of Captain Ommaney’s
note indicates that he had no doubt of Captain
Franklin having been off Cape Riley. Lieutenant
De Haven, of the “ Advance,” landed on the cape
on the morning of the 25th, and erected a second
signal post, but seems to have carried nothing
away. Mr. Snow gathered and brought off five
pieces of beef, mutton, and pork bones, together
with a bit of rope, a small rag of canvass, and a
chip of wood cut by an axe. From a careful ex-
amination of the beef bones, I came to the conclu-
sion that they had belonged to pieces of salt-beef
ordinarily supplied to the Navy, and that probably
they and the other bones had been exposed to the
atmosphere and to friction in rivulets of melted
snow for four or five summers. The rope was
proved by the ropemaker who examined it to have
been made at Chatham of Hungarian hemp, subse-

154 PRESENT STATE OF THE SEARCH.

quent to 1841. The fragment of canvass which
seemed to have been part of a boat’s swab, had the
Queen’s broad arrow painted on it; and the chip
of wood was of ash, a tree which does not grow
on the banks of any river that falls into the Arctic
Sea. It had, however, been long exposed to the
weather, and was likely to have been cut from a-
piece of drift-timber found lying on the spot, as
the mark of the axe was recent compared to the
surface of the wood, which might have been ex-
posed to the weather for a century.* Mr. Snow
counted five rings of stones with two or three
slabs in the centre of each circle, which he took
for fire-places, but on which there were no traces
of smoke nor any remains of burnt wood. As
tent-pegs could not be driven into the shingly
beach, the stones had been evidently used in the
erection of as many tents as there were cir-
cles, and the slabs in the centre were likely to
have served as stands for magnetic instruments.
Colonel Sabine remarked that four tents would be
needed in using the instruments supplied to Sir
John Franklin’s expedition, and a fifth for the
protection of the observers. If the ships were

* The grounds of these conclusions were fully stated in a
report made to the Admiralty by Sir W. Edward Parry, myself,
aud other officers, which has been published with other parlia-

mentary returns.

TRACES OF THE ‘ EREBUS” AND “ TERROR.” 155

stopped in that locality about the time of the
monthly term-day, the officers would almost cer-
tainly make the term observations, which last for
twenty-four hours, and in that case each ship would
select a separate place of observation. The term-
day in August, 1845, was the 29th; and we may
conclude, from the information which we at pre-
sent possess, that on that day, or about a month
after they were last seen, the discovery ships were
off Cape Riley. It is ascertained that the bones
and rope were not left by any party from other
ships of the Royal Navy that have visited Barrow’s
Straits; and had the ‘“ Erebus” and ‘“ Terror” win-
tered there, a cairn, with memoranda, and many
other evidences of that fact, would undoubtedly
have been found. The ships must have been tem-
porarily arrested by a barrier of ice; and Sir John
Franklin, having good anchorage between Beechey
Island and Cape Riley, turned the delay to the
best account by making the term observations.
With the prospect of soon passing the Straits, he
evidently had not thought it necessary to erect a
cairn, or signal-post, at the threshold, as it were, of
the enterprise.

These first traces of the Expedition are ex-
ceedingly interesting, and they lead directly to the
inference that it pursued its course to Cape Walker.
Had Sir John, finding the Strait barred, gone up

156 PRESENT STATE OF THE SEARCH.

Wellington Inlet, he would undoubtedly have left
a memorandum at Cape Riley, assigning reasons for
departing from his instructions.

On the 25th of August, 1850, the “ Assistance”
and “ Intrepid” were well over towards Cornwallis
Island, and a little to the north of Cape Hotham.
Captain Penny with his consort were standing up
the west side of Wellington Channel, Sir John Ross
was making for Cape Hotham, the “ Rescue” was
near the head of Wellington Sound on the east side,
land being visible from Cape Riley, crossing the
Sound just beyond her, and the “ Advance” was
lying under Beechey Island, having grounded on
a shoal; but Lieutenant De Haven, expecting to
get his vessel off without difficulty, declined the
assistance from the ‘ Albert” which was offered.
Captain Austin, with the “ Resolute” and “ Pio-
neer,” was at that time examining the south side
of Barrow’s Straits. He had visited Possession
Bay on the 18th, and then intended to look into
Pond’s Bay. He has not been seen since, and it
is probable that he passed the “ North Star” and
‘“‘ Albert” without being descried, in the thick
weather that prevailed when they were coming
out of Lancaster Sound.

Such was the state of the search in August, 1850.
As Sir John Ross intended to return in 1851, after

EXPECTED RETURN OF SIR JOHN ROSS. 15%

landing his stores on Melville Island*, we may
expect that he at least will bring further intelli-
gence in October or November next.

* Sir John Ross took with him four carrier pigeons belong-
ing to a lady residing in Ayrshire, intending to liberate two
of them when the state of the ice rendered it necessary for him
to lay his vessel up for the winter, and the other two when he
discovered Sir John Franklin. A pigeon made its appearance
at the dovecot in Ayrshire on the 13th of October, which the
lady recognised by marks and circumstances that left no doubt
on her mind of its being one of the younger pair presented by her
to Sir John. It carried no billet; but there were indications, in
the loss of feathers on the breast, of one having been torn from
under its wing. Though it is known that the speed of pigeons
is equal to one hundred miles an hour, the distance from Mel-
ville Island to Ayrshire being in a direct line about 2,400 miles,
is so great, that evidence of the bird having been sent off about
the 10th of October must be had, before that we can well believe
that no mistake was made in the identification of the individual
that came to the dovecot. Sir John’s letters from Lancaster
Sound mention that when he wrote he had the pigeons on
board.

AJP Pen DT xX.

No. I.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

De

CHAPTER I.

Genera View.—Rocky Mountains. — Their Length. — Their Heigit.
— Glaciers. — Parallelism to the Pacific Coast.— Continental Slopes.
— Russian America.—Eastern Slope.— Prairies.—Mississippi Valley.
— Its Slope —Fundamental Rocks of the Basin. — Silurian Strata. —
Carboniferous Series.—Tertiary Beds.—Lignite Formations.—Series
of Lake Basins. — Transverse Valleys. — Intermediate Belt of primi-
tive, hypogenous, or metamorphic Rocks.—Its Rivers mere Chains
of Lakes. —Its Breadth.— Altitude. — Sources of three great River
Systems. — Great Fish River.— The Yukon or Kwichpack. — Basins
of Excavation. — Glacial Action.— Active Volcanoes.

VaALLey oF THE St. Lawrence.— Altitudes of the Lakes above the
Sea.—Lake Superior.— Lake Michigan. — Lake Huron.— Lake
Erie. — Lake Ontario.— Lake Champlain.— Northern Brim of the
St. Lawrence Basin.— Its geological Structure.— North Shore of
Lake Superior.— Structure of the Country at the Sources of the
Mississippi.

WinIPeG on SaskATCHEWAN VaALLey.— Height of Lake Winipeg.—
Sea River.—Katchewan River. —Thousand Lakes. — Portages. —
River Winipeg.— Red River.— Saskatchewan River.

Missinipr Vatiey.— Its Lakes.—Frog Portage.

Mackenzie River Vattey.— Methy Portage.— Athabasca, Elk, or
Red-deer River.— Lesser Slave Lake.— Peace River. — Slave
River. — River of the Mountains. — Noh’hanne Bute. — Great Bear
Lake.

Yukon Vatiey. — Yukon or Kwichpack.— Volcanic Chain of Alaska.
— Coal. — Fossil Bones.

In drawing up the following Appendix, my object has
been to record facts in the light in which they appeared
VOL. II. M

162 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

to me. When treating of districts which I did not visit,
I have borrowed from every work concerning them to
which I had access. The most important sources of in-
formation are generally named or expressly alluded to;
but I thought that it would give too much formality to
so slight a sketch were I to parade every authority for the
statements it contains. Where practised geologists have
examined the country, their report has been chosen in
preference to my own observations; and this is the case
on the route of the expedition up to the 49th parallel.
Beyond Lake Winipeg no geologist has yet penetrated,
and the descriptions of the rocks occurring within the
space of twenty degrees of latitude that lie to the north of
that sheet of water are, with all their imperfections, entirely
my own. It would be true economy in the Imperial Go-
vernment, or in the Hudson’s Bay Company, who are
the virtual sovereigns of the vast territory which spreads
northwards from Lake Superior, to ascertain without
delay the mineral treasures it contains. I have little
doubt of many of the accessible districts abounding in
metallic wealth of far greater value than all the returns
which the fur trade can ever yield.

The Rocky Mountain chain, which is the northern
prolongation of the Andes, has a general course of north
26° W. for 2,700 geographical miles, from the 30th
parallel of latitude up to the shores of the Arctic Sea.
Its higher peaks rise from 12,000 to 15,000 feet above the
ocean, and enter the region of perpetual snow; but the
northern part of the chain, which touches on the Mac-
kenzie, is so much lower, that even its summits* are
denuded during the short summer of that district, and
perennial patches of snow exist there only in shady cre-

* Supposed to be at least 3,000 feet high, in the 62nd parallel.

ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 163

vices which have a northern aspect. I have not been
able to discover, after many enquiries, that glaciers which
flow through mountain gorges into the lower country are
formed in any part of North America, though travellers
who have crossed to California, Oregon, and New Cale-
donia, speak of hills clothed with perpetual snow ; and the
Copper River, which joins the sea opposite to the peninsula
of Alaska, is said by Bier, on the authority of Klimowskij,
to issue from a solid mass of ice. Several passes which
traverse the chain do not rise more than 6,000 feet above
the sea level, and being free from snow in summer may be
crossed in that season by pack-horses and even by waggous.
The more northern of these passes have long been known
to the fur-traders; the southern ones have lately been
explored and used by the multitudes who have hurried
from the United States to California in search of gold.

Up to the 60th degree of latitude the chain runs nearly
parallel to the coast of the Pacific, and not far distant
from it; the descent to the level of the sea is consequently
rapid on the west, —a configuration which M. Guyot* has
noted as peculiar to the New World, while in the Old
Continent the short slopes are turned to the south, and
the long ones towards the north. A large triangular
corner, which belongs to the empire of Russia, and extends
westward to Beering’s Straits, las a different physical
character, in the existence of a transverse series of active
voleanoes, as we shall hereafter have occasion to notice;
at present my remarks will be confined to the continent
lying eastward of the mountains.

The width of the chain is stated at from forty to one
hundred miles, and the central parts and peaks are said to
consist of granite and other igneous rocks.

* Phys. Geogr., p. 50.

»

M 2

164 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The eastern slope towards the Atlantic commences by
a belt, formed mostly of sandstone, 150 miles in width,
which rests on the shoulder of the chain, with an inclination
of about 37 feet in the mile, in its descent from 8,000 feet
above the sea, to 2,500. The more gradual slope of the
great prairies, beginning at the last-named elevation, has a
breadth of 700 or 800 miles, and retains in its descent the
prairie character of a treeless, sandy, and moderately un-
dulated, or, as it is locally named, “ rolling” plain.

Most of the streams which cross the prairie flow through
deep furrows, sunk abruptly below the general level; never-
theless the Mississippi, Missouri, and some of their larger
tributaries have wider valleys, skirted by successive terraces
and alluvial deposits. On the banks of all the rivers there
are belts of woodland, and clumps of trees that encroach on
the prairie, intercepting grassy lawns, and producing re-
markably fine park scenery, which is often enlivened by
small lakes. In the interior of the prairie, however, water
is scarce, and there is such a total want of wood, that for
days together the traveller can find no other fuel than the
dung of the bison. Near the mountains the soil is coarsely
sandy, strewn with boulders, and sterile; farther eastward
the sand is finer, and the boulders disappear, but they
recur in numbers on the lower border of the prairie: they
are also scarce or wholly absent over very extensive tracts
of the rich alluvial deposits of the valley of the Mississippi,
south of the Ohio.

The Mississippi drains the entire space between the
Rocky Mountains and the Alleghanies or Apalachian
chain, embracing thirty degrees of longitude. The whole
of this vast water-shed may be considered as one valley,
whose bottom, indicated by the channel of the river, has a
southerly course, inclining slightly to the eastward. The
length of the river, from its source in Itasca Lake, at an

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 165

altitude of 1,490 feet above the sea, to Balize, on the Gulf
of Mexico, has been estimated by Schoolcraft at 3,160
statute miles, following its windings, and may be stated in
round numbers at 2,400 geographical miles in a straight
line. The moderate hills and eminences of the country in
which the river has its origin do not rise above the plane
of the general eastern slope of the continent in the same
parallel; and the general longitudinal descent of the great
valley from Lake Itasca is at the rate of 10 inches in the
mile for the upper half of the river, and for the other half
of the way, or from St. Louis downwards, of only two
inches and a half per mile.

As St. Louis is 500 feet above the sea, and about 600
geographical miles distant transversely from the western
summit of the prairie slope (which has been taken at
2,500 feet above the sea), the lateral descent of the
valley to the channel of the river in that parallel is 40
inches in the mile; but the sinuosities of the Missouri, a
mightier stream than the one in which it loses its name,
and of the other grand affluents of the Mississippi that
drain the prairies, give a gentler inclination to their beds.
The Illinois, Ohio, and the minor streams which come in
from the other side of the valley, flow at a lower level
than the western feeders; their upper branches being sub-
ordinate to the general slope, which has there descended
considerably.*

* The following facts, ascertained at the Navy Yard of Memphis,
in Tennessee, by R. A. Marr, Esq., are interesting points in the
history of the Mississippi. The quantity of water passing through
the channel of the river at that place in 1849 was sufficient to cover
an area of 100,000 square miles to the depth of seven feet and a half,
and the quantity of silt it carried down would make a bed of earth
one mile square and seventy-six feet deep. The current in the

M 3

166 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

From the Apalachian chain to the Rocky Mountains
the fundamental rocks would appear to be silurian* over-
laid in large tracts by the old red sandstone and the car-

central area of the river generally exceeded three miles an hour, and

was less towards the sides.— Proceed. Amer. Assoc., p. 340.

* As the silurian rocks are most extensively developed in North
America, and are of constant recurrence throughout the route of the
Expedition, I shall introduce here, for reference, a tabular enume-
ration in the order of their superposition, as ascertained by the United
States geologists, beginning with the lowest.

A. CHampiain Division; supposed to underlie three-fourths of the
territory of the United States, and to occupy the surface of one
half.

1. Potsdam sandstone; a quartzose rock, generally grey, often
striped, sometimes partially or wholly red: is supposed to be the
lowest sedimentary fossiliferous rock. The Taconic rocks of
Dr. Emmons, consisting of lamellar white limestone, with specular
iron ore, are supposed to be the earliest deposits of this period,
modified by metamorphic agency. Footmarks of reptiles have
been found by Mr. Hunt in this sandstone.

2. Calciferous sandrock ; a deposit of calcareous and earthy matter
variously mixed.

3. Black river or Chazy and Birds-eye limestone ; a brittle limestone,
having a smooth, flat-conchoidal fracture. ‘This limestone, cha-
racterised by its peculiar fossils, is of frequent recurrence north-
wards, up to the islands of the Arctic Sea.

4. Trenton limestone; a dark-coloured limestone, interlaminated
with dark shaly matter. Often metalliferous.

5. Utica slate; dark-coloured carbonaceous slates, which readily
disintegrate.

6. Hudson River group, Loraine shales, Frankfort slate, and Rubble-
stone; mostly dark slates and shales, and grey thick-bedded grit
stones.

B. Ontario Division, includes a series of limestones, shales, and
sandstones, which pass insensibly into each other.

7. Grey sandstone of Oswego.

8. Medina sandstone; red or slightly variegated, and of every
degree of coherence. Originates many brine springs.

9. Oneida conglomerate; a variable intermixture of sand and quartz
pebbles.

10. Clinton group; consisting of deposits of various characters,

SILURIAN STRATA. 167

boniferous series. The sandstone, which rises on the flanks
of the Rocky Mountains to the height of 8,000 feet above
the sea, is referred by some geologists of the United States

such as thin shaly sandstones, shales, conglomerates, thin-bedded
impure limestones, with iron ores.

11. Magara group; consisting of dark-bluish shale and dark lime-
stone, and taking its name from the cataract, where a section of
both its members is exposed.

C. Herpersere Division.

12. Onondago salt group, is an immense development of argillaceous
shales and marls with shaly limestones, veins and beds of gypsum,
giving origin to copious and very rich salt springs. ‘This forma-
tion re-appears near Slave River, on the 60th parallel of latitude,
and also, I believe, on the shores of the Arctic Sea.

13. Water-lime group, consists generally of two layers of drab-
coloured water-limestone, with an intervening layer of blue
lime-rock.

14. Pentamerus limestone; named from its characteristic fossil, and
rarely a pure limestone, being more or less mixed with black
shale.

15. Delthyris or Catshill shaly limestone ; composed of beds of sub-
crystalline grey limestone, slaty limestone, and slaty argillaceo-
siliceous limestone.

16. Oriskany sandstone; a whitish sandstone, composed of sand
derived from granitic rocks or mica schist.

17. Caudagalli grit; named from the feathery forms in which it
abounds. It is a drab-coloured or brownish calcareous and
argillaceous sandstone.

18. Shoharie grit; a fine-grained calcareous sandstone, from which
the calcareous matter may be washed away by long exposure,
leaving the siliceous skeleton of the rock.

19. Onondago limestone ; recognisable by its crystalline structure,
toughness, and numerous organic remains.

20. Corniferous limestone ; a fine-grained compact limestone, which
is very durable, and produces cascades where the smaller streams
traverse it. It is the uppermost of the important limestone beds
of the New York or silurian system, being succeeded by shales
in which the limestone fossils give place to others of a different
character.

D. Eris Division, referred by most English geologists to the De-
vonian or to the carboniferous series.
M 4

168 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

to the triassic system ; but its exact geological position is
not yet satisfactorily determined. Cretaceous beds, known
by their organic remains (but not containing white chalk
with flints), occur extensively along the Missouri, and
spread widely on both sides of the Mississippi, below the
influx of the Ohio. They exist also near the Rocky
Mountains, high above the sea, in the vicinity of the
sources of the Arkansas, Platte, and Gila*; while towards

21. Marcellus shales ; black, slaty, bituminous shales, containing
septaria, with occasional thin bands of limestone. Similar in
lithological characters to Genesee slate.

22. Hamilton group; an immense deposit of dull-olive calcareous
shales, which change to light ash-grey in weathering. It con-
tains septaria.

23. Tully limestone ; usually thick-bedded, blue, or nearly black,
limestone, often divided by seams into irregular fragments.

24. Genesee slate; is a great mass of argillaceous, black, fissile
slate, which rapidly exfoliates and falls down. Fluid bitumen is
of common occurrence. Either this deposit or No. 21. exists on
the north side of Methy Portage, on the Elk or Athabasca river.

25. Portage group; a vast deposit of shale, flag-stones, and thick-
bedded sandstone, rising with a slope or abruptly from the shales
on which it reposes.

26. Chemung or Ithaca group; a highly fossiliferous series of shales
and thin-bedded sandstones.

To the last succeed the Orp Rep Sanpstone and the Coan Mza-

SURES.

The lower part of the Champlain division has been considered as
the equivalent of the Cambrian system, the Utica slate being parallel
to the Landeilo flags ; the Hudson River group and Ontario division,
up to the Niagara group, is thought to be equivalent to the Caradoc
sandstone; the Niagara group and the whole Helderberg division is
supposed to be co-equal with the Wenlock rocks; and the Erie
division as equivalent to the Upper and Lower Ludlow rocks, in-
cluding the Devonian system of Phillips. — Vide Hall, Geol. Report of
New York, p. 518.

* “The cretaceous formations terminate in the Atlantic regions of
New York, before they have reached the city of New York, so that
their limit scarcely touches the 40th degree of latitude, or 16° lower
than in Europe. In Kentucky and Tennessee it remains below 37°,

TERTIARY BEDS. 169

the mouth of the Mississippi there are very extensive
recent tertiary and alluvial deposits, which, skirting the
Gulf of Mexico, run into Texas on the one side, and along
the Florida coast on the other.

Tertiary coal, containing dicotyledonous leaves, exists
in the Raton Pass, between the sources of the Red River
and the Arkansas, at an elevation of 4,600 feet. Coal of
the same description, associated with similar leaves, occurs
on the Mackenzie in latitude 65° N.; and at various in-
termediate parts on the flanks of the Rocky Mountains

but it is very different far up the Missouri; this great river flows
uninterruptedly from the foot of the Rocky Mountains for 1,400 miles
through strata of chalk, at least as far as the Sioux river. This is
the result of the researches of the Prince of Neuwied, and of the
reports of the celebrated astronomer, Nicollet. In these western
parts of America the chalk rises to 50° of latitude. There, also, it
shows a continuous extension, greater than that of any other formation
on the globe. Captain Fremont saw chalk strata and fields covered
with Jnoceramus crispii, on the River Platte ; Lieutenant Abert found
them on the Arkansas, and Dr. Wizlizenus also beyond the Rio del
Norte, near Monterey and Laredo. The Rocky Mountains, and their
continuation beyond Santa Fé, have entirely cut off this cretaceous
sea. No trace of chalk was discovered either by Captain Fremont
on the Columbia River or on the Humboldt, in that wonderfully great
basin which dips to the Pacific; or yet by the observant Captains
Cooke and Johnstone along the River Gila, in Sonora, or California.”
“The whole of this vastly extended chalk formation consists only
of the upper beds. After very careful and accurate investigation,
Sir Charles Lyell decided, that in the whole of North America, chalk
strata, from the Maestricht beds down to the gault, alone occurred;
and Mr. Ferdinand Romer, as the result of his highly valuable and
accurate researches in Texas, goes the length of considering all the
strata in that region, already so far removed from the Atlantic coast,
as entirely of the upper division, and not even touching on the gault.
This peculiarity is, however, singularly enough, limited to North
America alone. Even in Mexico deeper chalk beds occur; and
Darwin saw cretaceous shells in abundance 2,000 feet above the sea,
near Port Famine, in 53° south latitude.” —Silliman’s Journal, Sept.
1850.

170 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

beds of lignite are known to exist, which are probably
also of the tertiary era.*

In the whole width of the Mississippi basin, from the
falls of St. Anthony downwards, no primitive (or hypo-
genous) rocks appear, except in the low ridges of the
Ozark Mountains, which have a hilly prominence, owing
to the excavation of the valley ; but their summits scarcely
rise above the plane of the general slope, supposing that
it were extended with an even descent to the Atlantic.
They range from Red River to St. Louis, parallel to the
Alleghanies, and consequently make an angle with the
Rocky Mountain chain. Coal measures crop out on their
flanks.

Of the forty degrees of latitude which intervene between
the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic Sea, the valley of the
Mississippi occupies, as we have seen, about one half; and
the whole drainage of that portion west of the Alleghanies
is accumulated in one great channel, which is directed
southwards and a little eastwards. From the head of Lake
Superior northwards, there is a series of great transverse
excavations, occurring in succession, on to Great Bear
Lake, which lies under the Arctic circle; and it is re-
markable that nearly all the lake basinst of these valleys
commence in the silurian strata, and are continued into
or entirely across a belt of primitive, or hypogenous, and
metamorphic rocks}, which extends from Lake Superior

* Vide Journ. p. 194.

+ This grand series of lakes forms the line of canoe navigation
from Canada northwards ; and the fact of its position in the fracture
between limestone and granite, was perceived and recorded by Sir
Alexander Mackenzie.

{ My imperfect acquaintance with the science of geology renders
me incompetent fully to appreciate the worth of the several systems
that profess to explain the mode in which the beds forming the crust
of the earth have been formed; neither have I exclusively adopted

PRIMITIVE ROCKS. 171

to the shores and islands of the Arctic Sea. The western
limit or strike of this formation, which I have traced for
more than 1,400 geographical miles, has a general course
of north 30° W., its rhumb line, consequently, inclines
slightly towards the axis of the Rocky Mountains, and
the intercepted space grows narrower towards the north.

On the other hand, the Apalachian chain, running
parallel to the Atlantic coast for a thousand miles up to its
termination in the Shickshock and Notre Dame Mountains
of the promontory of Gaspé, and having a direction of
north 46° E., diverges from the Rocky Mountain axis at
an angle of 72°. These are the three chief pyrogenous
systems of North America, the Ozark Hills being of lesser
account, and coinciding, as has been said above, in di-
rection with the Alleghanies.

The middle belt of primitive rocks may, both from its
position and diagonal direction, be distinguished as the
intermediate primitive or hypogenous formation. Its altitude
nowhere entitles it to the appellation of a mountain chain.
Its hypogenous rocks, which are chiefly granite and gneiss
associated with trap, scarcely rise above the mean eastern
slope, and do not present acute peaks or continuous ele-
vated ridges. They exhibit generally rounded or dome-
shaped summits, or form oblong eminences, which are sepa-
rated from one another by narrow inclined valleys. Most of
these valleys, and the larger ones without exception, are
occupied by lakes, which are often deep ; and the proportion
of water in the district is very great, probably considerably
exceeding that of the dry land.

The rivers that traverse the intermediate primitive belt

any of the current opinions: I would therefore be understood to use
the terms “ primitive,” “‘ hypogenous,” and “ metamorphic,” as desig-
nations of the rocks so called by geologists, and not as exponents of
theories.

L7z PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

(and for ten degrees of latitude all the rivers that originate
high on the prairie slope do so) form, on entering it, lake-
like expansions, which are studded with rocky islets, and
send long winding arms into all the neighbouring valleys.
These dilatations have little or no current, but they are
connected with each other by one or more straits, in
which the stream is turbulent and rapid, and the overfall
frequently great enough to produce a cascade. The tor-
tuous arms of such expansions often wind for many miles
through the country; and the Indian, by making short
portages from one string of lakes to another, may travel
with his canoe in every direction, as far as the formation
extends. Sometimes a river forks in this rocky district,
and its branches running far apart, just as they would in
an alluvial delta, unite again, intercepting a considerable
tract of country of the prevailing character, that is, having
a predominance of water surface. Examples of this pecu-
liarity occur in the River Winipeg, which conveys the
waters of the Lake of the Woods to Lake Winipeg; also
in the discharge of the latter sheet of water by Nelson
River and Play-Green Lake; as well as in some of the
expansions of the Missinipi or Churchill River. Instances
also of lakes having more than one outlet are not rare in
this formation; and now and then, though comparatively
very seldom, these outlets lead to distinct river systems.

On the east side of Lake Winipeg the width of the
primitive belt is about two hundred geographical miles ;
and from the summit of an eminence which rises only a
few hundred feet above the general level, but yet is suffi-
ciently conspicuous to have obtained the distinctive ap-
pellation of “the Hill,” thirty-six lakes may be counted.
In many localities, where the knolls are denuded of soil,
the surfaces of the rocks are evenly ground down, and are
sometimes smooth, polished, and striated.

PRIMITIVE ROCKS. gs)

By a rough measurement, the centre of this formation
on the 53rd parallel of latitude is found to be between 700
and 800 geographical miles from the Rocky Mountains;
the Great Canadian Lake district is of equal width; and La-
brador on to Newfoundland and the eastern shores of Nova
Scotia occupy a similar space in the map. Now assuming, as
we have done, and as the observations of the topographical
surveyors of the United States entitle us to do, that the
height at which the gentle eastern slope of the continent
commences is 2,500 feet, and supposing the descent to be
equable, we should have an altitude above the sea in the
country from whence the sources of the Mississippi proper,
the St. Lawrence, and the Red River of Lake Winipeg
issue, of 1,800 feet. The actual elevation of that district
is between 1,400 and 1,500 feet*, and the only marked
hilly eminence in the district, which is named the hauteur
des terres, and is said to consist of drift-sand and boulders,
does not appear, from the descriptions we have of it, to
rise more than 300 feet beyond the general level. The
summits, therefore, of this tract of land, distinguished
though it be by shedding its waters into three separate
river systems and as many different seas, are also subordi-
nate to the general eastern slope of the continent.

Before naming more particularly the transverse basins
which cross the intermediate belt of primitive rocks, I may
state that the Mackenzie, inferior indeed to the Mississippi,
but yet a river of the first class, running in an opposite

* Schooleraft estimates the height of Itasca Lake, from which the
Mississippi issues, at 1,490 feet above the Gulf of Mexico. Major
Long, who ascended the St. Peter’s, a head branch of the Mississippi,
reckons the altitude of the short portage, which separates its sources
from those of Red River, at 1,400 feet; and my own barometrical
observations and estimates place the summit of the water-route be-
tween Lakes Superior and Winipeg, traversed by the Expedition, at
1,460 feet above the tide level of the St. Lawrence.

174 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

direction, drains seventeen degrees of latitude into the
Arctic Sea, taking its course through a valley which
differs in its character from that of the Mississippi, as the
details of progress of the expedition through it have
already shown. In this place it will be sufficient to
recall to mind that from Methy Portage (Portage la Loche)
to the sea, a distance of 1,400 geographical miles, the fall
is about 900 feet, the successive portions of the river being —
designated the Washacummow, Elk or Athabasca, Slave,
and Mackenzie Rivers.

Two other rivers of magnitude cross the Arctic circle,
viz., Back’s Great Fish River, which, originating near
Great Slave Lake at an altitude of 150 feet above its
surface, runs east-north-east into the Arctic Sea, draining
the north-eastern corner of the continent; and the Yukon,
which, rising to the westward of the Rocky Mountains,
not far from the union of the Francis and Lewis, which
form the Pelly, flows first to the north, and after receiving
a large tributary named the Porcupine, to the westward,
falling into Beering’s Sea, where it is known to the
Russians by the name of the Kwichpack.

A glance at the map will show, that on the eastern side
of the continent the water basins generally maintain the
north-easterly inclination of the Alleghanies, while further
to the westward the basins of the two great rivers assume
a parallelism to the Rocky Mountains; and that the in-
fluence of the intermediate hypogenous formation has been
of a different character, the rivers winding their way across
it, sometimes with a southerly, sometimes with a northerly
inclination, seemingly indicating the obstruction offered by
the harder rocks to the agent by which the river channels
were excavated. On emerging from the belt, the lower
parts of the rivers generally incline towards the north-east,

SOURCES OF THREE GREAT RIVER SYSTEMS. 175

with a considerable degree of parallelism to each other
before they fall into Hudson’s Bay.*

The peculiar configuration of the continent which I
have endeavoured to sketch must be duly considered by
any one who endeavours to detect the agency by which
the river valleys and lake basins were excavated. It is
not, however, my purpose to enter upon the discussion
of this question, or to speak of the partial and often
repeated elevations and depressions by which the lacustrine
and fluviatile terraces have been accounted for ; nor would
a summary of this kind admit of the necessary elucidations.
I shall merely say that, adopting the opinion of the United
States’ geologists, that they are basins of excavation, I
consider them all to be of the same epoch, and that the
currents or waves of translation, if such they were, must
have had an easterly direction in the middle latitudes, and
gained strength as they rolled towards the Atlantic, when
they swept away wholly or partially the fossiliferous de-
posits that once covered the primitive rocks of Hudson’s
Bay, Canada, and the eastern parts of the United States ;
the former extent of the newer rocks being indicated by
the patches which remain. By a singular coincidence of a
political with a natural limit, the northern boundary of the
United States, or the 49th parallel, marks the line on the
great prairie slope, where the current took a southerly
direction, to excavate the wide and magnificent valley of
the Mississippi. A similar diversion of the excavating

* A study of the map will show, that the lake basins north of the
St. Lawrence have generally their long axes across the river courses
to which they respectively belong, and that many assume a greater
or less degree of parallelism to the intermediate primitive belt. Per-
haps movements of elevation or depression had occasioned an exten-
sive disruption of strata along the western border of the hypogene
rocks, previous to the removal of the silurian beds on the excavation
of the lake valleys.

176 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

force northwards would produce the basin of the Mac-
kenzie, commencing on the 53rd parallel, but in a district
narrowed and disturbed by the approximation of the in-
termediate primitive rocks to the Rocky Mountains.

Supposing the continent to have retained its present
form since the era of these excavations, it seems scarcely
possible to reconcile the existence of extensive glacial action
with any modification of climate; yet the smoothened sur-
faces, streaks, and furrows referred to that action, whether
in the form of glaciers or of drift ice, are of no rare
occurrence, wherever durable rocks show themselves, be-
tween the St. Lawrence and the Arctic Sea.

In connection with the excavations of the North Ame-
rican continent, the fact may be mentioned of the great
indentations of the coast line, including Hudson’s Bay,
the Gulfs of St. Lawrence and Mexico, and the Caribbean
Sea being on the east side; while breaks of the west shore,
to the south of the peninsula of Alaska, are comparatively
small, and both coasts of South America are nearly entire.

The geologists of the New York Survey consider that the
present continent of North America was constructed from
the debris of land lying more to the eastward. Mr. Hall,
speaking of the strata exposed between the Hudson and
the Mississippi, states that they contain organisms which
must have lived in the bed of the ocean, and that the chief
source of the sedimentary deposits lay to the east and
south-east. To the westward, the sedimentary rocks
are of a finer grain, and at the same time diminish in
quantity, while the carbonate of lime increases, indicating,
in conjunction with the contained fossils, the bottom of an
ocean of greater depth and more quiet condition. ‘The
cretaceous and tertiary deposits of the western prairies
show, according to the geologist just quoted, that the
eastern part of the continent was first elevated, and that

VALLEY OF THE ST. LAWRENCE. VG

the older rocks in the west were subsequently overlaid by
the new deposits. However that may be, the occurrence
of the chalk fossils and tertiary deposits in their present
position and altitude clearly indicates that the elevation of
the Rocky Mountain chain was one of the latest of the great
movements that have occurred in this continent. It is to
the westward of these mountains only, along the Pacific
coast, and in the peninsula of Alaska*, and the Aleutian
chain of islands, that recent volcanic action can be traced.
The existence of coal measures, containing ferns and
other plants of a tropical character, in Jameson’s Land
and Melville Island, in the high latitudes of 71° and
75°, is a curious fact, to be accounted for by those who
theorise on the ancient condition of the surface of the
earth; and the vast accumulations formed at a later epoch
in the Siberian Sea and Kotzebue’s Sound, of fossil bones
of mammoths, rhinoceri, and other animals which do not
exist in arctic regions at the present day, and the pre-
servation to this date of some of their undecomposed car-
cases, are equally interesting facts, which need explanation.

VALLEY OF THE ST. LAWRENCE.

The first in order of the great transverse excavations, and
the grandest, is the basin of the St. Lawrence, which has
a length equal to the whole course of the Mackenzie, and
contains by far the greatest accumulation of fresh water in
the world. It has no connection with the drainage of the
prairie slopes in the same parallels, which is performed by
the Missouri and its numerous affluents on one side, and
on the other by the Saskatchewan and its tributaries,
aided by the upper feeders of the Mackenzie. It differs
from the three great lacustrine basins which succeed it, in

* Spelt thus, and also Alashka in Cook’s Third Voyage. The
French and Russian authors write the word Aliaschka.

WOle il N

178 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

its head lying within or to the eastward of the termina-
tion or elbow of the “intermediate primitive rocks.”
The position of this head, or as it is well named from its
elevation above the other members of the basin, Superior
Lake, is midway between the Gulf of Mexico and the
Arctic Sea, and its water-surface is 641 feet above the
level of the tide.* The other great lakes descend suc-
cessively in the fcllowing order of their heights above the
sea: Lakes Huron and Michigan, 600 feet; Erie, 565 feet ;
Ontario, 492 feet; and Lake Champlain, 93 feet.

At the west end of Lake Superior, and on its northern
shores, several promontories, having an altitude of from
800 to 1000 feet above the water, give a mountainous
character to the coast when seen from the surface of the
lake, but which it is far from possessing when viewed in
relation to the country lying behind it. It is such as
would result from the excavation of the basin by the re-
moval of the softer rocks which have covered the granites,
porphyries, and traps of these eminences. The silurian
beds, not having been so extensively broken up to the west-
ward of the Fon du lac, envelop the pyrogene nucleus so
as, in conjunction with recent arenaceous deposits and drift,
to cover it on that flank almost to the summit. From this
locality, which is rather a plateau than a mountainous
district, issue the feeding streams of the three several river

* Some discrepancy exists between the heights assigned to this
lake by different authors. We have taken that deduced by Captain
Lefroy from barometrical measurements made in connection with the
observatory at Toronto. Dr. Houghton, the Michigan geological sur-
veyor, estimates its height at 641 feet; but he makes the descent
from it to Lake Huron 45 feet, while Professor Henry reckons this
descent at only 18 feet, which must be under-estimated. Mr. Logan,
in 1847, sets down the height of Lake Superior as 597 feet, having
adopted for the height of Lake Michigan 578 feet, from Professor

Henry. In the height of Erie and the inferior lakes authors are
generally agreed.

LAKES MICHIGAN, HURON, AND ERIE. 179

systems, —of the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, and Saskat-
chewan, —as has been mentioned in a preceding page.

If we trace the south side of the St. Lawrence basin
from this quarter, we find that already on the upper lake
it assumes a different aspect, being composed chiefly of
sandstone, and having less elevation than the north bank.
Lake Michigan runs far to the southward among the
silurian strata, entering as it were into the valley of the
Mississippi. So small is the elevation of the ground
between the Fox River which falls into Green Bay on
the west side of that lake, and the Wisconsin, a tributary
of the Upper Mississippi, that in times of flood a barge
_ may float readily from one stream into the other.* A very
moderate elevation in like manner separates the south end
of Lake Michigan from the Illinois, another affluent of
the Mississippi, so that a depression of 600 feet would
produce a communication between the waters of the Gulf
of the St. Lawrence and those of the Gulf of Mexico,
through the Illinois valley.; The basin of Lake Huron
is excavated in the silurian strata, and the great promon-
tory which divides it from Lake Michigan is said to be a
deposit of old red sandstone enclosing the extensive coal
measures of Saginaw. ‘The lake shores are bold, but not
mountainous.

Lake Erie has lower shores, and is the shallowest of the
series. Its bed and much of its northern margin is formed
of the corniferous limestone, one of the upper members of

* Featherstonhaugh.

t A depression of thrice that amount would carry the ocean to the
western border of the prairie islands, leaving, as insular ranges, the
summits of the Alleghanies and their continuation in Vermont, New
Hampshire, and Gaspé, with a few peaks in the hilly region of New
York, which lies between Lakes Ontario and Champlain; while the
primitive masses on the north of Lake Superior would be mere reefs,
over the highest of which an agitated sea would dash its spray.

N 2

180 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the silurian rocks. Mr. Hall remarks that, had the eroding
agency removed this bed, and penetrated to the soft strata
of the Onondago salt-group, Erie would probably have been
the deepest of the lakes.* The southern brim of its basin
is so low, that an easy canal communication has been opened
to the Ohio, a tributary of the Mississippi; and other water
connections might be made with facility. Lake Ontario
occupies a hollow in the silurian rocks inferior to those of
the Erie basin}; and the country which lies to the south of
it has in general a level character, though the Clinton and
Niagara groups of rocks rise in places in high escarpments.

For a full account of the heights of the southern border,
the whole valley of the great lakes and the St. Lawrence,
and for detailed descriptions of the rock formations, the
reader may consult the several geological surveys published
under the authority of the legislatures of New York,
Michigan, and Ohio: the preceding brief notices have
been extracted therefrom for the purpose of showing the
general character of the country, and the lowness of the
barrier which separates the valleys of the Mississippi and
St. Lawrence. I may add, as a further exemplification
of the passes on the south side of the St. Lawrence, that a
subsidence of 400 feet would cause the waters of Lake
Ontario to flow through the valleys of the Mohawk and
Hudson into the Atlantic, and at the same time con-
vert Lake Champlain into a maritime strait, thereby
forming islands of the states of New York, New England,
and Maine, and of the British colonies of New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia.

Before we proceed to trace the northern bank of the
valley of the St. Lawrence, it will be convenient to notice

* Hall, p. 408.

+ In the Medina sandstone, grey sandstone, the Hudson River
group of shales, and, towards its eastern extremity, in the Trenton
limestone. — Hall.

LAKE CHAMPLAIN. 181

more particularly Lake Champlain, since it is there that
we have an approximation of the Apalachian chain to the
primitive rocks which form the northern brim of the St.
Lawrence basin, and unite with the intermediate belt on
the north shore of Lake Superior.

Dr. Emmons* estimates the length of the valley of
Lake Champlain at 180 miles, and its average width
at about 20. Its bed is most depressed between West
Point, Burlington, and Port Kent, where its soundings
reach 600 feet, or 500 below the surface of the ocean.f
It is in fact a deep chasm with a very abrupt slope
on the western side, and a more gradual one on the
eastern bank. The direction of the lake is north and
south; it opens into the St. Lawrence basin on the north,
and the valley of the Mohawk crosses its axis at some
distance on the south. The summit level of the canal
which connects it to the Hudson is only 147 feet above
the tide; and a depression to that amount would cause
the waters of the ocean to flow through it from New
York Sound into the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

The New York highlands, bounded by Lake Champlain,
the St. Lawrence, and Lake Ontario, are formed of pri-
mitive granite, hypersthene, and limestone rocks, which

* New York Geol. Survey.

} The lake lies, as has been stated in a preceding page, 93 fect
above the tidal waters of the St. Lawrence: hence the fall of the
St. John or Richelieu River, which discharges its waters just above
the tidal level, may be estimated at 10 inches in the mile; and the
descent of the St. Lawrence from Lake Ontario, excluding the com-
paratively currentless expansions of the Thousand Islands’ Lake and
Lake St. Francis, is nearly in the same ratio. These facts may aid in
the calculation of the inclination of the beds of similar rivers. With
the same view, I may add that the fall of the St. Lawrence between
Kingston, at the outlet of Lake Ontario, and Montreal is 220 feet, in
a distance of 160 geographical miles in a straight line, of which a
considerable part is lake-way, which gives an average of 16 inches in
the mile.

a
Nv

182 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

constitute many striking and picturesque groups of conical
peaks. Among these Mount Marcy rises 5,467 feet above
the tide; Mount M‘Intyre, 5,183; Mount Seward, 5,100;
Mounts Martin and Santanoni, each 5,000; and Whiteface,
Taylor’s Mountain, and Nipple-top are a few hundred feet
lower. These highlands extend into Canada, where they
form a mountain belt twenty-five or thirty miles wide,
along the sources of the Chaudiere and St. Francis.*
They are separated from the neighbouring districts of the
state of New York by the river and lake valleys named
above; and, being impassable for an army, Lake Champlain
was the only route by which the Atlantic states could be
assailed from Canada East, or vice versé;—hence the
celebrity of its defiles in the annals of colonial and revolu-
tionary warfare.

The valley of the lake is excavated in the lowest group
of the silurian rocks. The Potsdam sandstone, together
with a greenish-white marble, and a trap rock, are quarried
extensively at Whitehall, situated at the upper extremity
of the lake, for the double purpose of clearing sites for
houses, and procuring building stones. In various parts
of the lake shores, the silurian rocks are covered with beds
of clay and sand, in which there have been detected about
twenty species of marine shells, which exist in a living
state on the coast of the Atlantic at the present time.
The general character of the scenery, and especially of
the upper half of the lake, is bold, hilly, and picturesque,
often rocky, but occasionally cliffs of clay and sand
100 feet high border on the water. The shores are low
and shelving only in the bays, which are formed by short
lateral valleys.

* Orford and Sutton Mountains are each reckoned at more than

4,000 feet high. The latter is the summit of a wide hilly tract, com-
posed of chloritic and micaceous schists and gneiss. — Hunt.

‘ GREEN MOUNTAINS. 183

The state of Vermont lies along the east side of the
Champlain Valley; and the country, as it recedes from the
lake, rises gradually into the acclivities of the Green Moun-
tains, which are a continuation of the Alleghanies, and are
prolonged into the Shick-Shock and Notre Dame Mountains
of the promontory of Gaspé on the Gulf of St. Lawrence.*

The predominating rocks on this slope are an alternation
of argillaceous slates, with slaty and fine-grained sand-
stones, and shaley grits belonging to the Hudson’s River

* Mr. Hunt, of the Canada geological survey, says that “the
whole of the Green Mountain Rocks belong to the Hudson River
group, with the possible addition of a part of the Shawagunk con-
glomerates. The fossiliferous rocks of the St. Francis valley are
referrible to the Niagara limestones of the upper silurian beds: a
similar formation exists at Gaspé, and has been traced 150 miles
south-west (in the direction of the Green Mountains) ; and from the
similarity of Nétre Dame (Gaspé) to the Green Mountains, and
the fact that the Hudson River rocks flank the St. Lawrence to
Cape Rosiere (Gaspé), we may conclude that the upper silurian
rocks will be found to be nearly continuous throughout. Rest-
ing upon this formation, in Gaspé, is a body of arenaceous rocks,
7,000 feet thick, which apparently correspond to the Chemung and
Portage group of New York, with the old red sandstones. As
this formation is found extending quite to the Mississippi, it is pro-
bable that it will accompany the silurian rocks through New Eng-
land, surrounding the coal-fields of New Brunswick, and of eastern
Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. To this may be referred, in part,
the rocks of the White Mountains, which may sweep around the
western border of Massachusetts’ anthracite formation, until lost
under the super-carboniferous rocks of the Connecticut River. The
limestones of western New England seem to be no other than the
metamorphic Trenton limestones of Phillipsburg; while the chlorito-
epidotic rocks and serpentines of Sutton valley appear again in the
rocks of southern Connecticut, between these limestones and the new
red sandstone. With such a key to the structure of the meta-
morphic rocks of New England, and of the great Apalachian chain
of which these form a part, we may regard the difficulties that have
long environed the subject as in a great degree removed, and the
bold conjectures as to their metamorphic origin, which have been
from time to time put forth, fully vindicated.”— Hunt, Proceed. Am.

Assoc. at Cambr., 1849, p. 333.
n 4

184 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

group. In breaking down, the shales produce a cold,
clayey, retentive soil, much less favourable for agricultural
purposes than the “ birds’-eye” and other limestones which
crop out nearer the shores of the lake. *

With respect to the northern slope of the St. Lawrence
valley, a reference to the map will show that the brim of
the basin, where its feeding streams have their source, is
generally about 150 geographical miles from the centre of
the lake-way from Ontario upwards, and considerably
further off from the river channel lower down. The bays
of the great lakes, in many places, curtail the breadth of
the slope; and it is every where exceeded in breadth by
the northern slope towards Lake Winipeg, James’s Bay,
and Hudson’s Straits. It will also be perceived that the
valley, with reference to its northern bank, makes an acute
bend, of which the west end of Lake Erie forms the elbow ;
the lower or eastern arm being parallel to the Alleghany
range, while the upper one takes more the direction of the
axis of the Rocky Mountains. The angular form of the
basin is in conformity with the course of the primitive
rocks from Labrador to Lake Superior, where they blend
with the “ intermediate belt.” + The general level of the

* During our voyage through Lake Champlain, I was informed by
a fellow-passenger that the agriculture of Vermont was very superior,
especially near Burlington, where there are many large orchards, and
sheep farming is extensively pursued. Cleared land, he told me, sells
currently at forty dollars (8/.) an acre, and fifty dollars are thought
to be a high price. Two hundred acres form a good-sized farm in
the opinion of the neighbourhood, and eighteen hundred acres a very
large property. Many steamers are constantly employed in summer
in visiting the various bays of the lake, and carrying the produce to
Whitehall, whence it is transferred by canal to the Hudson.

+ The whole belt from the Labrador coast, along the valley of the
St. Lawrence, and northwards to the Arctic Sea, seems to be a segment
of the border of a great basin of which Hudson’s Bay is the centre,
and fragments of its eastern brim may be found on the shores of
Hudson’s Straits, and in the islands to the north.

ST. LAWRENCE BASIN—GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE. 185

ridge formed by these rocks does not exceed the height
of 700 feet above the river or lake surface; but, par-
taking of the general eastern slope of the continent, it
attains a height of about 1,400 feet above the sea on the
north side of Lake Superior.* The course of the St. Law-
rence through Canada East is conformable to the general
strike of the beds in which the channel is excavated.

The geological structure of the north side of the St.
Lawrence basin, as ascertained by the Canadian state
survey under Mr. Logan, has been summed up as follows
by his assistant, Mr. Hunt: — “ A formation of syenitic
gneiss, often passing into mica-schist, and interstratified
with crystalline limestone, forms a ridge of high land ex-
tending from the coast of Labrador along the north side
of the St. Lawrence, at a distance of from twelve to twenty
miles from the shore, until it crosses the Ottawa, near
Bytown, and thence is traced across Lake Simcoe to the
shores of Lake Huron, where its northern limit is observed
near the mouth of the French River, while it again ap-
pears at the south-eastern extremity of the lake in Matche-
dash Bay. esting upon this is a series of rocks forming
the whole north coast of the lake, and numerous small
islands. It is made up of sandstones, often coarse-grained,
and sometimes becoming conglomerate from the presence
of red jasper pebbles. These beds are associated with
slates and one or more bands of limestone. . . . The

* The following ascertained points may be noticed :— Lake Tem-
iscaming, which is high up on the Ottawa, and near the line dividing
the water-shed of that river from the Abitibbe and Moose River,
which falls mto Hudson’s Bay, was ascertained by Mr. Logan to be
612 feet above the tide. The dividing portage between the Ottawa
aud Lake Nipissing is 696 feet above the sea, the lake itself being,
according to Mr. Murray, 647 feet high. Lake Simcoe was ascer-
tained, by the same observer, to have an altitude of 704 feet above
the tide. — Logan's Geol. Rep. for 1848.

186 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

formation is much cut by greenstone dikes, and exhibits
very frequently interstratified beds of greenstone, often of
great thickness. Both these and the sedimentary rocks
contain metalliferous quartz veins, of which the copper
mines of this region are examples. Resting uncomform-
ably on the tilted edges of this formation, and in other
places directly upon the southern limit of the syenitic
gneiss, appear the silurian rocks, identical with those which
are found in New York, and covering the peninsula be-
tween Lake Huron and Lake Ontario. Beginning with
the Potsdam sandstone, we have, upon the Manatoulin
Islands and the coast between Matchedash Bay and Sarnia,
a complete exposure of those formations known as the
Trenton limestone, Utica slates, Loraine shales, Medina
sandstones, and the Niagara limestones, with the rocks of
the Clinton group. All these are well characterised by
their respective fossils, and are spread out quite undis-
turbed at a very gentle dip of about thirty-five feet in a
mile.

“Passing to the east, we find that the syenitic rocks
have divided where they cross the Ottawa, and, taking a
southward course, are spread over a considerable extent
of country between the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence.
Crossing this river below Kingston, they constitute the
greater part of the Thousand Isles *, and are extensively
developed in the northern counties of New York.”

Mr. Logan gives a more particular account of the north

* In the Lake of the Thousand Isles, as the funnel-shaped outlet
of Lake Ontario is denominated, many of the round-backed hummocks
of granite which form the innumerable islets exhibit the parallei
furrows, streaks, and smooth surfaces attributed by some geologists
to glacial action. This expansion, in fact, has exactly the aspect of
many of the dilatations of the northern rivers which flow through the
“intermediate primitive district.”

NORTH SHORE OF LAKE HURON. 187

shore of Lake Huron, of which I have made the following
abstract : —** The north shore of Lake Huron, on which
twenty-two mining locations haye been claimed of Govern-
ment, presents an undulating country rising into hills
which sometimes attain the height of from 400 to 700 feet
above the lake. These occasionally exhibit rugged escarp-
ments and naked rocky surfaces; but, in general, their
summits are rather rounded, and their flanks, with the
valleys separating one range from another, are most fre-
quently well clothed with hard and soft wood, often of
large growth, and of such species as are valuable in com-
merce, in many places giving promise of a good arable
soil. Many of the slopes are gentle, and many of the
valleys wide. ‘The Thessalon, of the reported length of
200 miles, and the Spanish river of 120 miles, flow through
this country, with three other rivers of from 50 to 60 miles’
length each.” With respect to the rocks occupying this
country, he says, that “for 120 miles from the upper
end of the lake one great formation, having a breadth in
some places of ten and in others exceeding twenty miles,
exists. It is composed of sandstones, conglomerates, slates,
and limestones; the sandstones often vitreous, and pre-
senting the character of a perfect quartz rock. These are
associated with greenstone trap and other igneous rocks, in
the form of overflows, dykes, and veins, and with amyeda-
loidal trap in layers. The whole reposes on granite, which
is the metalliferous rock of the district, and lies beneath
the lowest known fossiliferous beds. The Potsdam sand-
stone, Trenton limestone, Utica slates, and Loraine shales
are exposed in successive deposits, resting on the tilted
beds of the quartz rock in a nearly horizontal, unconform-
able position in the Grand Manatoulin, La Cloche, Snake,
Thessalon, Sulphur, and other islands, and at the east end
of the lake. Medina sandstone and Niagara limestones

188 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

exist in certain localities of the promontory of Cabot’s
Head.”

Of the mining places above alluded to by Mr. Logan,
the Bruce mines, situated on the main shore behind the
island of St. Joseph, are the principal; and, in 1849, when
I was returning to Canada in the month of September,
and had an opportunity of visiting them, 160 people were
there employed, forming, with their families, a consider-
able village population. Mr. Logan calculated that 250
tons of dressed ore might be raised monthly, yielding, at
an average, about 15 per cent. of copper. At present,
fuel for mining purposes is obtained from the Pennsyl-
vania coal-field, through the port of Cleveland, on Lake
Erie; but, ere long, the coal district in Saginaw Bay,
on the south side of Lake Huron, will become the smelt-
ing place for both the Huron and Lake Superior
minerals.

To complete the outline of the north bank of the
St. Lawrence valley, we may state that the primitive
rocks continued from Lake Huron to the outlet of Lake
Superior, form there the bold promontory of Big Cape
(Gros Cap), which is a mass of flesh-coloured granite and
porphyry rising 700 feet above the water. Point Iro-
quois, on the opposite side, three miles distant, is 600 feet
high, has a more table-shaped summit, and from its base
a line of low sandy beach stretches away on the south
side, sending out a projecting tongue named “ White-Fish
Point.” The north shore, as seen from Big Cape, presents
a grand and finely varied coast line, deeply indented by
Goulais and Batchewaung Bays, with the promontory of
Mamainse, composed of rugged and crumbling amyg-
daloid, dipping into the wide expanse of waters on the
north-west. The granitic ridge which skirts the bottoms
of these bays comes out in bold cliffs on both sides of

NORTH SHORE OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 189

Michipicoten Bay, at the Otter’s Head, and at the bottoms
of Nipigon and Thunder Bays, projecting also in various
capes between them. From the last named bay it
stretches across the nortbern bend of the Kamenistikwoya
River, by which stream the canoe navigation to the interior
is carried on.

Mr. Logan considers the granite, which frequently
passes into gneiss, as the base of the series of rocks com-
posing this bank of the lake. 2. To this succeeds gneiss,
and both are traversed by dykes and veins of granite.
3. The next in order are dark green talcose slates, and a
pebbly and slaty conglomerate. 4. Resting unconform-
ably on these, is a series of bluish shales, interstratified
with trap. 5. Lastly, white or spotted sandstones, indu-
rated marls, and conglomerates interstratified with trap.
Trap dykes in vast numbers traverse all the beds down
to the granite. Veins containing copper, lead, zine, and
silver, belonging to two systems,— one coincident with the
rock masses, the other parallel to them,—occur in very
many places on the north shore. The courses of the
veins vary in different bays, and Professor Agassiz has
shown that the outline of the lake has a close connection
with the directions of the trap dykes, of which he describes
six different systems, each of them associated with one of
the great curvatures or bays.

A granite porphyry, which is very durable, forms a
considerable portion of the boldest and most barren parts
of the north shore of the lake; the projections of amyg-
daloid, being more perishable, assume the most picturesque
shapes; and some of the loftiest headlands are thickly
capped with greenstone, basalt, and other trappean rocks.
The low, flat, well-wooded islands are mostly sandstone.
The general elevation of the northern brim of the Lake
Superior basin may be stated at between 800 and 900

190 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

feet above the water surface, and the distance of its crest
from the margin of the lake at from 20 to 50 miles.

Many mining stations have been granted to adventurers
by the Canadian legislature, but workings are carried on
in three only; viz. one in Pigeon Bay, one among the.
islands of Nipigon Bay, and the third in Mica Bay. At
the last named 100 miners were employed in 1849, when
the establishment was broken up by a foray of Chippe-
ways, who thought that their territorial rights were in-
vaded.* But little ore has as yet been shipped from the
Canadian side of the lake. ‘The export of native copper
from the United States shore is considerable. In 1849
1,114 tons of pure copper were transshipped at Saut Ste.
Mary.t

Our limits will not allow us to dwell longer on the
St. Lawrence basinf; but with respect to the general
character of the ridge which divides it from the Winipeg
excavation, the aspect of the country traversed in pur-

* Narrative, Vol.I. p. 73.

¢ The Detroit Free Press states that, in 1850, the shipments ex-
ceeded 4,000 tons, and it is calculated that they will equal the whole
consumption of the United States, which is 6,000 tons in 1851. There
are twenty-two copper companies in operation on the Michigan
shores, employing 800 men. The masses of native copper on Kewa-
woonan Point are enormous; but, from their very purity, they can
neither be blasted nor hewn out in the ordinary way. The method
adopted at present is to use long iron chisels, which are turned slightly
by the hand at each blow of the hammer. In this way large slabs
weighing two tons or more are cut out, to which not above five per
cent. of quartz rock and other impurities adhere. On this point
there are said to be parallel ridges of trap rising through beds of
sandstone. Among these the native copper lies in walls or veins
which have two directions, one running across the trap ridges in
N.W.6 N.2N. direction, the other parallel to the ridges and strike
of the sandstone.

{ Professor Agassiz has devoted a large volume to the natural
history of Lake Superior alone, which is full of interesting facts and
comprehensive general views.

LAKE SUPERIOR. 191

suing the canoe route may be considered as a type of the
whole. The surface of that tract is hilly, the granite
rising in rounded and sometimes in rugged knolls abruptly
from lakes or swamps, but only to small heights above
the general level. Here and there, but particularly to-
wards the summit of the ridge, there are considerable de-
posits of sand, gravel, and loam, with many boulders.
The term ridge is used with reference to its being a
height separating two depressions; but its summit is a
marshy plateau of some extent, across which narrow
winding lakes afford a canoe navigation in a variety of
directions. *

This summit of the water-shed, which, level as it is
with respect to its water communications, is rendered very
uneven by the protrusion of numerous granitic masses to
various but moderate heights, lies much nearer to Lake
Superior than to Lake Winipeg; and in descending to-
wards the north, the same rocks appear in succession
which have been noticed as forming the bank of the
St. Lawrence valley, the “ birds’-eye limestone” of the
Champlain division of the New York system being the
newest-deposit on the Winipeg Lake.

If we trace the water-shed to the south-west, beyond
the head of Lake Superior, by the sources of the St.
Louis and head waters of the Mississippi, the uneven
marshy surface gradually merges in the sandy prairie
lands of the Red River, the Saskatchewan, and Missouri,
where the naked rocks disappear, or are to be found only
in the deep river channels.

The manner in which an elbow of the “ intermediate
primitive rocks,” which form the nucleus of the water-
shed here spoken of, encloses the head of Lake Superior,

* Vide map of the district in Franklin’s Second Overland Journey.

192 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and extends along part of its south coast until lost under
newer deposits, may be learned from the subjoined extract
of a “ Report by Dr. Owen, geologist to the States of
Towa and Wisconsin.” *

* “The protozoic strata form sections on the Mississippi for an
average distance, in a direct line, into the interior of Wisconsin, of
from fifty to seventy-five miles, or up to the low falls of the principal
eastern tributaries of that river, where the crystalline rocks first
appear. In this part of the country the igneous ranges do not rise
into elevated mountains, but, on the contrary, they are seldom seen
except in the immediate cuts of the streams, being, for the most part,
covered with drift. The character of the country generally, towards
the summit levels leading to Lake Superior, is a succession of ter-
races of moderate elevation, chiefly composed of drift, having a
nucleus, no doubt, of granite, syenite, or hornblende rocks; but
these protrude only occasionally. At intervals the streams are ruffled
into rapids, being filled with boulders which materially obstruct their
navigation. A portion of these boulders may have been transported
‘from great distances, but the greater part appear not to be far re-
moved from their parent rock, It is a matter of surprise that so large
an area of the interior of this district, and indeed of the sources of the
Mississippi generally, should be level tamarack and cedar swamps,
since, on approaching a great water-shed that gives rise to one of the
greatest rivers in the world, one is led to anticipate a country with
physical features of quite a different character. Interposed between
the crystalline and igneous rocks of the interior of the district and
the lowest sandstones, some green and red schistose beds have been
observed at different localities. These appear to have been derived
from the decomposition and detritus of the more easily disintegrating
felspathic granites. The lower beds of sandstone adjacent to the
igneous outburst are not unfrequently changed to hard quartzite.”....
“ The highest ranges of the Wisconsin side of Lake Superior, situated
from ten to sixteen miles from its south shore, are estimated to be
near 1,000 feet above the lake, and are formed of hornblende rocks,
metamorphic slates, syenite, and trap. No organic remains have been
detected in the great mass of sandstone bounding this part of the
lake whereby its geological era may be determined. On the west
side of the Mississippi, north of the Winebago reserve (Minesota), and
as far north as St. Peter's river, limestone, with underlying sandstone,
prevails to the extent of half a degree of longitude.”

VALLEY OF THE WINIPEG. 193

VALLEY OF THE WINIPEG OR SASKATCHEWAN.

The next great transverse excavation includes the
whole valley of the Saskatchewan and Nelson Rivers ;
and from the sources of the former near Mount Hooker,
one of the Rocky Mountain peaks said to be 15,700 feet
high, to the mouth of the latter in Hudson’s Bay, the
axis of the valley runs in a direct line about east-north-
east for 660 geographical miles. Lake Winipeg, the
principal lake basin in connection with the river, lies at
right angles to that axis, is nearly parallel to the Rocky
Mountain chain, and forms one of a series of great lakes
succeeding one another in a north-north-west direction.
Their names are Lake Superior, Lake Winipeg, Deer
Lake, Wollaston Lake, Athabasca Lake, Great Slave
Lake, Marten Lake, and Great Bear Lake; the northern
coast line being moreover indented on the same bearing by
Liverpool and Franklin Bays.

Lake Winipeg itself is 230 geographical miles long and
about 40 wide, but its width would be increased to 120
miles, if Moose Lake, Muddy Lake, Winepegoos and
Manitoba Lakes, which differ very slightly from it in level,
and are evidently component parts of the same lake basin,
were included in the measurement. Into this great lake
the Saskatchewan, by its two diverging branches, gathers
a wide extent of prairie drainage, its northern tribu-
taries being conterminous with the affluents of the Elk
or Athabasca River, and its southern ones with those
of the Missouri. The Assinaboyn also traverses much
prairie land, one of its branches originating on the
banks of the great southerly bend of the Missouri; and
the Red River, which the Assinaboyn joins, rises, as has

VOL. II. O

194 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

been already mentioned, on the same level and in the
close neighbourhood of the sources of the Mississippi and
St. Lawrence. The waters of the lake wash, on the east
side of the basin, the “ intermediate primitive rocks,” and
find their way through them by anastomosing channels
named Sea River, Katchewan, and in its lower part Nel-
son River. After it has passed through the intermediate
belt, it takes its way over silurian limestones, and finally
enters Hudson’s Bay through alluvial deposits of some
extent.

The surface of the lake has been calculated to be 853
feet * above the sea, and its basin is excavated in the
silurian beds. Along the whole eastern shore the granite,
eneiss, and trap rocks are every where exposed, the first
named rock being the most extensive; and nowhere do
these masses rise to the altitude of hills. On the north
and west the birds’ eye limestone is the prevailing rock,
and forms low cliffs, in a country otherwise every where
flat; and towards the south end of the lake, and in the
narrows, arenaceous deposits appear in the immediate
vicinity of granite, trap-rocks, and chlorite slates, having
a close resemblance to those of Pigeon Bay of Lake Su-
perior, where argentiferous veins occur. It is, therefore,
an interesting quarter for exploration by the practical
miner.

In ascending from Lake Superior by the Kamenis-
tikwoya, and its upper branch named the Dog River,

* Captain Lefroy’s observations :—“ In the Geological Appendix
to Sir John Franklin’s Second Journey, I estimated the height of
Lake Winipeg above Hudson’s Bay at 800 feet, which I considered
to be a rough approximation. Major Long places it at the same level
with Lake Superior, and the dividing ridge between the two basins
at 600 feet higher; but, by the best estimates I have been able to
orm, he makes the summit of the ridge 230 feet too low.”

HEIGHT OF LAKE WINIPEG. 195

to Thousand Lakes* (Milles Lacs), forty portages are
made, in which the whole or part of the cargo is carried,

* The height of this lake above Lake Superior was ascertained
approximately as follows :—

Feet.
Foot of Mountain Portage estimated by Captain Lefroy - 48
Upper end of ditto (bar. meas. Rich.) - - - 127
Ascent of river to Dog Portage (estimated, Rich.) - - 150
Upper end of Dog Portage above the lower (bar. meas. Rich.) 332
Ascent of Dog River to Thousand Lakes (estimate) - 160

817
Lake Superior above the sea - - - - 641
Thousand Lakes above the sea - - - - 1458

Owing to the obstructions in the upper part ‘of the Dog River, the
canoe route diverges from that stream at Cold-water Lake, and
passes by the Prairie, Middle, and Savannah Portages, and a small
stream which flows from the latter into Thousand Lakes. The heights
of this part of the route are as follows :—

Feet:
Dog Lake, above Lake Superior - - - 657
Ascent of Dog River - - - = 14
Portage to Cold-water Lake - - - - 2
West end of Prairie Portage and Middle Portage” - - 161

834
Lake Superior above the sea - - - - 641
Height of Prairie or of Middle Portage above the sea - 1475

The difference of height between the ends of the Mountain Portage
was carefully ascertained by me with Delcro’s barometer in 1849.
Major Delafield estimates the difference at 125 feet, and Lieutenants
Scott and Denny, who accompanied Major Long in his voyage up
the St. Peter’s, at 130 feet. Mr. Murray, of the Canadian Geological
Survey, measured the actual height of the falls here (named Kak-
kabikka) from the smooth water at their summit to the base, and
found it to be 119 feet; but at least 8 feet must be added to give the
difference between the ends of the portage, which terminates some
way above the brow of the cascade. Captain Lefroy makes the height,
by barometrical measurement, only 115 feet.

In 1849 the height of the upper end of Dog Portage was ascertained
by me with Delcro’s barometer; in the previous season the aneroid

o 2

196 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

there being besides some long rapids where it is not
necessary to unload; and in descending to Lake Winipeg
the portages are about fifty, their number and even the
route varying with the height of water. Thousand Lakes
(Journ. p. 62.) is an extremely irregular piece of water,
having many extensive arms, some of which are very
shallow. Multitudes of islands well covered with birch,
aspen, arbor-vite (Thuya occidentalis), and the various
pine trees of the region, render the scenery pleasing. <A
few granite knolls and mural precipices show among the
trees; but many of the islets appear to be formed of sand,
of which sections twenty feet high occur. The lake not
only branches into the neighbourhood, but water com-
munications diverge from it in every direction, as is cus-
tomary in the ‘middle primitive belt.”

From the Thousand Lakes the canoe route keeps on
the border of the primitive rocks, touching on silurian
deposits, when it bends to the southward or westward.
At first it is flanked on both sides by granite. In
Rainy Lake there is much mica-slate; and at its outlet
the stream, falling over gneiss rocks, produces the cas-
cade of La Chaudiére. The greater fertility of the
country about Nemican Lake and Rainy River show
the vicinity of newer formations. In the Lake of the

barometer gave 328 feet as the height, which was a greater degree of
accordance between the instruments than I generally found. Major
Long estimates the water-shed between Lake Winipeg and Superior
at 1,200 feet above the tide; Major Delafield calculates the height of
Cold-water Lake at 505 feet, to which, if 161 be added for the Prairie
Portage, and 641 for Lake Superior, we have 1,307 feet for the height
of Prairie Portage above the sea. Captain Lefroy, by barometrical
measurements made in connection with the observatory at Toronto,
makes the west end of Prairie Portage 1,361 feet above the sea; but
the distance between the two places of observation renders the result
liable to some error.

COTEAU DES PRAIRIES. 197

Woods Dr. Bigsby found the Pentamerus Knightii, a
fossil characteristic of the upper silurian rocks; but
granite is the chief constituent of the islands and
shores of the lake. The River Winipeg flows wholly
within the granite district, and has the lake-like dilatations
and other characteristics of the streams which traverse
the “intermediate primitive rocks.” The wide extent of
land which its reuniting arms enclose is remarkable.
One of its affluents, named English River, issues from
Lake Sal, which lies near the water-shed, dividing the
Winipeg basin from that of James’s Bay. The Berens
River which falls into Lake Winipeg, issuing from the
common brim of the same basins further north, in the vici-
nity of the sources of the Severn River, affords a canoe
route to Hudson’s Bay. From my own observations in
1819, and Mr. Barnston’s at a later period, it has been
ascertained that limestones of the silurian epoch occur on
the northern flank of the “ intermediate primitive belt,” as
well as in the basin of Lake Winipeg. The Red River,
which has been already repeatedly referred to, and which
to prevent confusion with its southern namesake it would
be well to call Osnaboyna, lies wholly to the westward of
the “intermediate belt,” and has a direct course from
Lake Travers of 300 geographical miles. The sandy
ridge named Céteau des Prairies, or Hauteur des Terres,
separates its upper part from the Missouri valley ; but
the metamorphic rocks which present themselves around
the sources of the Mississippi and its tributary the St.
Peter, are also visible near Lake Travers. In the lower
part of Red River limestone crops out in one place only,
and is quarried by the settlers. Elsewhere the rocks are
concealed by the sandy deposit forming the soil of the

prairies, along whose eastern border the river flows. Major
0 3

198 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Long enumerates thirty affluents of the Red River, and
its western branch, the Assinaboyn.

The Saskatchewan, which is to be considered as the
main feeder of the Winipeg basin, flows from a consider-
able distance above Pine Island Lake down to Lake
Winipeg over horizontal beds of limestone, through so
flat a country that the river forks as it would in an allu-
vial delta. A rich mud is deposited in parts, particularly
between Pine Island Lake and the main stream, and round
Moose and Muddy Lakes. In Beaver Lake, which lies
immediately to the north of Pine Island Lake, the silurian
strata are again seen coyering the flanks of the primitive
rocks ; while to the southward an eminence named Bas-
quiau*, lying at the distance of nearly a degree, sepa-
rates the river valley from the Red Deer Lake and Swan
River. As powerful salt springs exist on this eminence,
we may conjecture that it belongs to the Onondago salt
group.

I have been more particular in the topographical
and geological remarks on the St. Lawrence and Saskat-
chewan basins, because economy of space made it expe-
dient to omit the details of the voyage of the Expedition
through them. The remaining districts will be more
briefly mentioned here, since the narrative included many
facts relating to them.

VALLEY OF THE MISSINIPI.

The next river basin that we have to notice is that of
the Churchill, English River, or Missinipif, the latter, or

* See Journal, I. p. 68.
J Misi or mitchi, in Cree, signifies “much or great,” and nipi
“water,” while sipi means “ river.”

VALLEY OF THE MACKENZIE. 199

Cree appellation, being nearly synonymous with Missis-
sippi. This basin, in crossing the intermediate primitive
rocks, lies nearly parallel to the Nelson River or Katche-
wan, which is the lower part of the Saskatchewan. Deer
and Wollaston Lakes, which discharge their waters into the
Churchill River, lie in the line of lake basins mentioned
above as running northwards from Lake Superior; but
their axes do not cross the river valley so nearly at a right
angle as Lake Winipeg does the valley with which it is
connected. Further up the Missinipi the Methy, Buffalo,
Clear, and Isle 4 la Crosse Lakes, which are situated just
to the westward of the primitive rocks, taken in the aggre-
gate, lie more in the plane of Lake Winipeg. On the
eastern flank of the intermediate primitive ridge lie Big
Indian and Waskayow-washgow Lakes, belonging also to
the Missinipi river system.

The Missinipi, by its principal feeder, the Beaver River,
has its source lower down the eastern slope than the Sas-
katchewan, and drains a comparatively small extent of
prairie lands. At the Frog Portage and elsewhere the
two basins are divided from each other by rocks only a
few feet high, over which, in times of flood, the waters
pour; so that the two may be viewed as one great valley
through which two large rivers flow, their trunks running
parallel to each other.

VALLEY OF THE MACKENZIE.

Further to the north lies the great valley of the Mac-
kenzie, extending to the Arctic Sea, but having also its
subordinate transverse lake basins, which differ from the
southern ones in their heads merely entering the western

border of the intermediate primitive rocks, and their dis-
o 4

200 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

charging streams taking an opposite direction through the
newer deposits.

Methy Portage forms the dividing brim between the
Missinipi basin and the Mackenzie River valley, at the
place where it is crossed in the usual canoe route; and,
though the country be wooded, it may be considered as
a partial extension of the prairie slope. The strata are
bituminous shale* resting on silurian limestone, and
covered with a thick arenaceous deposit. This is deeply
furrowed by the channels of the Elk River, and its tribu-
tary the Washacummow ; but the lake basins which mark
out the border of the intermediate primitive rocks must
be sought for further to the eastward. It is probable that
this border touches a straight line drawn from Knee Lake,
across the outlet of Athabasca Lake, to the deep northern
arm of Great Slave Lake, and onwards by Marten Lake,
across the two eastern arms of Great Bear Lake, to the
Copper Mountains. That portion of the line which lies
between Athabasca Lake and Methy Portage is little
known, because the water route lies to the westward of it.
Wollaston and Deer Lakes already mentioned, will, if this
line be correctly drawn, be situated considerably within
the border of the primitive rocks; and an illustration of
the manner in which the waters occupying the minor
valleys of that district communicate with each other is
afforded by Wollaston Lake sending a stream from its
north end into Athabasca Lake, and one from its south
end into the different river system of the Missinipi. This
fact, which, as reported on the authority of the fur-traders,
is expressed in Arrowsmith’s map, may be considered as
proving that Wollaston Lake is considerably elevated.

* Tt is doubtful whether this shale be referable to the Marcellus
shale or not.

ATHABASCA RIVER. 201

Indeed, it seems to be high up on the water-shed which
separates the Mackenzie valley from the basin of Hudson’s
Bay.

According to Captain Lefroy’s measurements and esti-
mates, Methy Lake is about 1,540 feet above the sea; and
T ascertained the summit of Methy Portage road to be 188
feet higher than the lake; while the Washacummow, or
Clear-water River, on the north side of the portage, is 590
feet below it, and by my calculations 910 feet above the
sea. From Methy Portage westwards, the country, though
deeply furrowed by river courses and ravines, and more or
less thickly wooded, partakes so much of a prairie cha-
racter that horsemen may travel over it to Lesser Slave
Lake and the Saskatchewan. At the junction of the
Washacummow with the Elk, the channel of the river is
sunk 925 feet below the summit of the portage, which
may be assumed as near the mean level of the district, and
is 1,688 feet above the sea. *

The Athabasca, Red Deer (La Biche), or Elk River,
the most southerly feeder of the Mackenzie, originates in
the Rocky Mountains near Mount Browne, which is said
to rise 15,000 feet above the sea, and, flowing through
prairie lands, receives the waters of Lesser Slave Lake,
whose axis crosses its general course, and afterwards those
of Red Deer Lake. Its bed is in many places deeply cut
beneath the level of the prairie plateau, which is not
separated by any marked ridge from the Saskatchewan
prairie country. Further north, the wide-spreading sources
of the Peace River drain the Rocky Mountain chain for
four degrees of latitude, and the trunk formed by their
union curves across the slope to join the Athabasca a

* See Narrative, Vol.I. p.114. Captain Lefroy’s estimate of the
height of Methy Lake exceeds mine by 40 feet.

202 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

little below the transverse basin of the Lake of the Hills.
The channel of the Peace River is cut into silurian or
Devonian strata; but the Lake of the Hills, or Athabasca
Lake, runs eastward among the “ intermediate primitive
rocks,” and, as has been said above, receives a tributary
stream from Wollaston Lake, situated near the water-
shed which divides the basin from Hudson’s Bay. The
conjoined stream of the Peace and Athabasca Rivers as-
sumes the name of Slave River, which flows in the frac-
ture between the silurian and primitive rocks. The
junction of the western arm of the river with Great
Slave Lake marks the western border of the primitive
rocks, which is also indicated on the northern side of the
basin by the Fort Providence Inlet. Aylmer and Artillery
Lakes lie 150 feet higher at the east end of the lake, into
which they send their waters; and in their immediate
vicinity, on the same plateau, are the sources of the Great
Fish or Back’s river, which falls into the Arctic Sea, as
has been already stated. The streams that run from the
westward into Chesterfield Inlet must come from near the
same place; and this inlet, from its transverse direction,
and east-north-east bearing from Great Slave Lake, has
an evident connection with that excavation, their axes
being nearly at right angles to the Rocky Mountain chain.

In Great Slave Lake the Mackenzie is deflected from
the intermediate primitive belt, and flows first westwards
then northwards, in a channel scooped out of the upper
silurian strata and still newer deposits, for 1,000 statute
miles of river course, or nearly 600 geographical miles in a
direct line; neither granite, gneiss, nor mica slate are seen
on its banks, and even trap rocks are rare, if any actually
occur.

The River of the Mountains, embracing by its feeders
a more northern part of the Rocky Mountain chain, after

NOH’HANNE BUTE. 203

disengaging itself from the rugged hills from which it
draws its supplies, makes a northerly bend nearly parallel
to Slave River, and then joins the Mackenzie at Fort
Simpson. Of this mountain stream I have already given a
slight notice in the Narrative (Vol. I. pp. 167—170.) ; and
I may add here that for twenty-five miles upwards from its
mouth it flows through sand and shale, with limestone
occasionally cropping out. At the end of that distance
there is a rapid, above which low wooded points exist,
with at intervals mountain bluffs coming down to the
banks of the river. The most remarkable of these stands
at the influx of the Noh’hanné River, and is named the
NoWwhanné bute. It is the highest hill in that quarter,
and is about seventy-five miles from Fort Simpson.
Perhaps it is a member of a range whose prolongation is
seen indistinctly in descending the Mackenzie about half-
way between Hare Skin River and Fort Simpson.
Messieurs M‘Pherson and Bell ascended it, and the latter
gentleman was seized with nausea and vertigo before
reaching its summit; so that its altitude is probably con-
siderable, but the snow disappears from it in summer. On
its top there is a salt spring, having a basin fifteen feet in
diameter, which is never dry. For this notice I am in-
debted to Mr. M‘Pherson, who brought from it some
fragments of limestone that were similar in lithological
character to those procured at the rock by the river’s side,
described in page 182. of the first volume of the Narrative.

Great Bear Lake, the most northerly of the transverse
freshwater lakes, lies about 150 feet’ above the channel
of the Mackenzie, and crosses the arctic circle on the
line where the hypogenous and silurian rocks meet. Coro-
nation Gulf is also excavated on the same line, which
has a general parallelism to the Great Slave Lake series
of excavations enumerated above.

204 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The northerly trending of the coast line west of the
Mackenzie is evidently due to the prolongation of the
Rocky Mountains, whose successive ridges or spurs come
out en échelon, diminishing in altitude as they approach
the shore.

The short western slope of the continent from the
Rocky Mountains to the Pacific differs from the eastern
one in its configuration, its river valleys being all more or
less transverse. The peculiar wing-like projection in the
north, towards Asia, is evidently due to the volcanic chain
of Alaska, which runs at right angles to the Rocky Moun-
tains. The great transverse river valley of the Yukon or
Kwichpack lies “to the north of it. The western sea-
coast from Cook’s Inlet to Behring’s Straits is delineated
in a map attached to Baer’s “ Nachrichten iiber den
Nordwestkiiste von Amerika,” published in 1839, though
it seems to have been hitherto neglected by our topo-
graphers; and the interior of Russian America has re-
mained a blank in our maps.*

For the following information respecting the Hudson’s
Bay Company’s land to the west of the Mackenzie, and
for some account of Russian America gathered from the
natives, I am indebted to Chief Factor M‘Pherson, Chief
Trader Bell, and to the letters of Mr. Alex. H. Murray,
alluded to in a preceding page. By ascending the River
of the Mountains, and tracing its north-west branch to
Lake Frances, a very elevated mountainous country is
reached. In this the Lewis, which flows towards the
Pacific, takes its rise, its sources springing to the east-
ward of those of the River of the Mountains; so that here,

* The newest work on this district of America is, “ Beitrage zur
Kenntniss der orographischen und geognostischen Beschaffenheit der
Nordwestkiiste Amerikas, von Dr. C. Grewingk, St. Petersburg, 1850 ;
but this I have not been able to procure.

THE YUKON. 205

as well as in other parts of the Rocky Mountain chain,
the rivers falling into opposite seas interlock at their origin.
In lat. 61° 30’ N., long. 130° W., the Lewis is joined
by the River Francis, which has no connection with the
lake of a similar name, but comes from Russian Lake, a
sheet of water lying more to the south. At the junction
of the Francis and Lewis, Mr. Roderick Campbell has
built a trading post, named “ Pelly Banks,” which, ac-
cording to his experiments with the boiling water ther-
mometer, is elevated 1,400 feet above the ocean. The
united streams take the name of the Pelly, which falls
into the Pacific, probably into Tchilikat or Lynn Canal,
but the exact situation of its mouth has not been ascer-
tained. Native traders come from the head of Tchilikat
to Pelly Banks in a fortnight.

From the same elevated district in which the Lewis or
Pelly and the north-west branch of the River of the
Mountains take their source, the Yukon, a river of great
magnitude, issues; and for a considerable part of its course
flows to the north, through a country which, as far’as I
can judge from, the descriptive notices of it which I have
collected, closely resembles the valley of the Mackenzie.
Mr. Murray was disposed at one time to identify this
river with the Colville, which falls into the Arctic Sea
about 120 miles to the east of Point Barrow; but more
recent and full native information leads him now to con-
clude that it flows towards Norton Sound; and one of the
officers of the Enterprise, in a private letter which has
been published, states that the Russians have established
its identity with the Kwichpack, which falls into Beering’s
Sea between Cape Stephens and Cape Romanzoff. *

* The following is an extract of a letter to me from Mr. Murray,

dated May 1850, on the Yukon :—“ My account of the course of this
river, also a sort of chart I made of it from the description given by

206 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

In 1847, Mr. Bell, having heard of the Yukon from the
Kutchin who visisted the fort on Peel’s River, set out
in quest of it accompanied by a native guide. He first
crossed the mountains to a stream termed the Rat River,
on which an outpost named La Pierre’s House has since
been built. This post is about sixty miles distant from
Bell’s Fort on the Peel, and is about ten miles to the
southward of it. Shortly after embarking in a canoe on
the Rat River, Mr. Bell came to one of much larger size
to which it is tributary, and which is named the Por-
cupine. Three days’ descent * of this carried him into the
Yukon, which it enters at right angles in the 66th parallel,
and in the supposed longitude of 147° west.t At this
place the Yukon is 1} mile wide, and is full of well-
wooded islands, with a very strong current in the channels
which separate them. After issuing from the mountainous

the Indians, might, perhaps, lead you to have a wrong impression
respecting the mouth of the river. I am now convinced that it is not
the same with the Colville, and I have for some years suspected that
its mouth lay to the west. The Russians have come up the lower part
of the river regularly for some seasons: I was at first informed that
they entered it from another river, but I am now told positively by
Indians who went down and met them last summer that they come
into it direct from the sea. By one of these Indians I received a
letter from the Russians, which, being in their own language, is
unintelligible tome. Salmon and hooked-nosed trout (Salmo scoulert)
ascend the river, but are not found in the Mackenzie, or rivers falling
into the Arctic Sea. Again, I have made frequent inquiries of the
‘Gens du large,’ or the northern Indians, who visit the Arctic Sea-
coast, and find that they are unacquainted with the mouth of the
river. For two winter days’ walking below the Porcupine, the Yukon
trends to the west and south-west, and the natives say that it flows
on in the same direction. I am therefore inclined to believe that
the Colville is a smaller river, and that the Yukon empties its waters
into Norton Sound.”

* In returning from the Yukon against the stream, by tracking the
canoe, nine days were required to reach Rat River.

t+ By Mr, Murray’s courses and distances.

COURSE OF THE YUKON. 207

district north of Pelly Banks, the course of the Yukon is,
according to the Indians, to the westward of north; and
in one place where it cuts a spur of the Big Beaver
Mountains, it passes between high limestone cliffs re-
sembling the “ ramparts” on the Mackenzie. Its current
is every where more rapid than that of the river just
named. The first important tributary which it receives is
the Red Island River, that flows in from the mountains
on its eastern bank, and is divided at its source from the
head of the Peel by a single ridge of land. Between it
and the Lewis there is a barren plateau, which the In-
dians cross in four days, but on which they find no water.*
Another tributary from the east comes in lower down, and
below that Deep River enters from the west. The Rus-
sians appeared on this stream with a skin boat (baidar),
coming overland, it was supposed, from the Copper River
or Atna, which joins the Pacific in Comptroller’s Bay.
From below the “ ramparts,” which are reckoned to be
about seventy miles above the influx of the Porcupine,
the Yukon flows to the north-west through a flat country ;
but twenty or thirty miles below the mouth of that tri-
butary it again cuts a spur of the Beaver Mountains, trend-
ing at the same time to the south-westward and westward,
and finally issuing in Beering’s Sea, under the Eskimo ap-
pellation of Kwichpack, as has been mentioned above.
Below the Big Beaver Mountains it receives from the
south the ** River of the Mountain Men,” which runs
parallel to the main stream for some distance before en-
tering it. From thence to the sea the Kwichpack flows,

* There is a district in Siberia on which neither snow nor rain is
said to fall. This may be a similar one; for it can scarcely be, in so
rigorous a climate, that melting snow, if it exists, should not leave
pools of water all the summer.

208 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

according to the natives, through a low, marshy, and very
sparingly-wooded country.

Mr. Murray, in his letter to me quoted above, mentions
his intention of exploring the Yukon as far as he had
leisure to do so in the summer of 1850; and it was pro-
bably the report of his party having been seen which in-
duced Captain Collinson to land Lieutenant Barnard and
Mr. Adams at Fort Michaelowsky, that they might ascer-
tain who the white men were.

‘On the Pacific coast only of North America does vol-
eanic action exist at the present time. Many peaks
throwing out fire and smoke are mentioned by Biir.
They lie in a line running west-south-west from the north
side of Kanai or Cook’s Inlet, through the peninsula of
Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. Many of their summits
rise into the region of perpetual snow. Among these
Tliimiin has a height of 13,151 feet, and Winkelhohe of
11,270, both lying on the north bank of Cook’s Inlet.
In Alaska there is the Peak of St. Paul, and in the islands
Schischaldin which is 8,953 feet high, besides Schimaldin,
Makuschkin, Korowenskische, and many others. The line
in which these volcanic peaks lie when prolonged to the
eastward, strikes the Big Beaver Mountains on the Yukon.

Mounts Edgecumbe, Fairweather, and St. Elias are, I
believe, extinct volcanoes, which form, with those of
Alaska, nearly the segment of a circle.

On the side of the Atlantic modern volcanic rocks occur
in Jan Mayen’s Island only, whose principal mountain,
Beerenberg, rises 6,870 feet above the sea. In the coal of
Jameson’s Land, lying in north latitude 71° on the east
side of Greenland, and in that of Melville Island, in lati-
tude 75° north, Professor Jameson found plants resembling
fossils of the coal fields of Britain. This fact is sufficient
of itself to raise a world of conjecture respecting the con-

FOSSIL BONES. 209

dition of the earth when these ancient fossils were living
plants. If the great coal measures, containing similar
fossil vegetable forms, were deposited at the same epoch
in distant localities, there must have existed, when that
deposition took place, a similarity of condition of the
North American continent from latitude 75° down to
40°.*

In concluding this sketch I shall advert to the dis-
tribution of the fossil remains of mammalia, and especially
to those of the mammoth. Teeth of this animal have
been discovered on the banks of several rivers in Russian
America, north of Mount St. Elias; and there is a cele-
brated locality in Kotzebue Sound where the thawing and
waste of frozen cliffs is continually exposing the bones and
tusks of mammoths and other quadrupeds. Dr. Buckland,
in his interesting account of the specimens collected at
this. place, on Captain Beechey’s voyage, enumerates frag-
ments of bones of mammoths, and of the urus, the leg-bone
of a large deer, and a cervical vertebra of some unknown
animal, different from any that now inhabit Arctic Ame-
rica. Along with these there were found also the skull of
a musk ox and some bones of the reindeer in a more recent
condition than the others. In Asia, from the Don to
Beering’s Straits, on the banks of all the great rivers,
bones and teeth are still more plentiful, the local deposits
being richer and more extensive the more we advance to
the north. They are especially abundant on the islands
north of Sviatoi Noss (Sacred Cape), lying between the
73d and 76th parallels; and some of these islands seem
to consist in a great part of organic remains, which fill
more space than the matrix in which they lie. The soil

* The coal of Vancouver's Island and Oregon belongs, it is said, to
the great coal measures.

VOL. Il. le

210 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

containing them is frozen as hard as a rock; and, as it
thaws annually, the bones drop out or are quarried by the
natives. From time immemorial this has been pro-
ceeding, and the ivory hunters have been obtaining their
annual supply without any sensible diminution of the
store they draw from. Some tusks found in New Siberia
weigh 480 lbs., and from that island alone the merchants
of Yakutzk, in 1821, obtained 20,000 lbs. weight of this
fossil ivory. Though the tusks of the mammoth (Elephas
primigenius) are chiefly sought for, bones and teeth of
other animals are found, and among the rest those of the
Rhinoceros tichorinus, of which the skulls, flesh, and skin,
with its hair, have been procured. The remarkable dis-
covery in 1799, by a Tungusian, at the mouth of the Lena,
of the entire carcase of a mammoth, in excellent preserva-
tion, is well known. ‘The existence of these numerous
testimonials of an ancient fauna is suggestive of many
curious speculations, and geologists seem hitherto to have
failed in explaining the circumstances under which accu-
mulations so vast could occur in such high latitudes. The
difficulty is increased when we consider that these bones
have not been detected to the east of the Rocky Moun-
tains in the northern latitudes. None have hitherto been
found in Rupert’s Land, though the annual waste of
the banks of the large rivers and the frequent land slips
would have revealed them to the natives or fur traders
had they existed even in small numbers. They are rare
also, or altogether wanting, in Canada, but in the valley
of the Mississippi the bone-licks are well known as most
extensive and furnishing the remains of a different series
of extinct quadrupeds.

The existence of the skull of a musk ox in Kotzebue
Sound is of much interest. This relic is preserved in the

BOULDERS. 211

British Museum, and the naturalists who have compared
it with recent skulls of the animal brought from Melville
Tsland or Churchill, perceive no difference. But, as the
species is not known to frequent any district to the west-
ward of the Mackenzie, the transport of any of its bones in
modern times to Kotzebue Sound cannot be readily ac-
counted for.

In a preceding page I have alluded, in a general way,
to the distribution of boulders on the eastern prairie slope
and in the valley of the Mississippi. The journal of the
voyage shows that these are everywhere present in the
north. The surface soil, the beds of rivers, and sea-shore
abound in them. I noticed them also in various places
accumulated in clusters, forming small eminences of from
10 to 100 yards in diameter, and from 8 to 20 feet high.
These may be ice-borne boulders. The usually circular
form of the heaps militates against their being glacier
moraines. Such collections are of frequent occurrence on
the borders of Great Bear Lake, and in the valleys that
separate the spurs of the Rocky Mountains,—several
hundred feet above the present levels of the lakes and
rivers. They also occur in more southern localities.

22 CLIMATOLOGY.

No. II.
CLIMATOLOGY.

Snow Line.—Ground Ice.—Thermometrical Observations in the Valley
of the St. Lawrence.— Comparative Temperature of the Two Sides
of the Continent. — Phenomena of the Seasons at Penetanguishene:
At Fort William: At Fort Vancouver. — Thermometrical Observ-

‘ations in the Valley of the Saskatchewan. — On the East and West
Sides of the Continent in that Parallel. — Phenomena of the Sea-
sons at Cumberland House: At Carlton House: At Marten’s Falls
on Albany River. — Thermometrical Observations on the Missinipi
and in the same Parallels on the East and West Sides of the Con-
tinent. —'Thermometrical Observations in the Valleys of the Mac-
kenzie, Yukon, and Pelly.— Progress of the Seasons at Fort
Franklin. — Thermometrical Observations on the Arctic Seas. —
General Remarks. — Nocturnal Radiation.

THE remarks which follow on the climate of North
America have reference especially to the districts through
which the Expedition travelled, some general facts
being, however, illustrated by observations made in other
quarters.

The course of the snow line has always engaged the
attention of travellers, who have ascended high mountain
ranges, or penetrated into Polar regions. Nowhere on
the route of the Expedition is the snow permanent; not
even on the summits of that part of the Rocky Moun-
tains which skirts the Mackenzie. Snow may indeed be
occasionally found in summer which has drifted into some
narrow ravine, or under a high cliff with a northern ex-
posure; but these patches are of small extent, and have no
general influence on the temperature of the district in
which they occur.

SNOW LINE. 2 ils

In lat. 65° N., the snow remains continually on the
ground from the middle of October till the beginning of
May, at which time the soil begins to appear after it has
been covered up for 200 days. The thickness of the
snowy covering materially affects the depth to which the
low winter temperature can be traced into the subsoil.
In places of small extent, sheltered from cold winds, and
having a good drainage, with a southern aspect, the vernal
rays of the sun assist in removing the snow early ; while
a retentive clay, even in lower and more southern localities,
produces a tardy summer and late frosts. Such are the
hypogenous or primitive districts, which from their cold
climate and ungenial soil have been justly named “ barren
grounds,” and are analogous to the ¢erra damnata of
Lapland, described by Linneus ; or the tundras of Arctic
Siberia; in such tracts the snow falls early and remains
long. The active vegetation of forest lands reacts on
the soil; excited by the sun’s rays, the trees are roused
from their winter’s sleep, while the soil is still as hard
as a rock, and the snow disappears sooner from over
their roots than elsewhere. At the Equator the per-
manent snow line is said to vary from 15,000 feet of
altitude to 20,000, to sink to 3,800 on the 60th parallel
of latitude, and to be one foot high on the 75th parallel.*
The latter assumption does not, however, accord with
observations in the northern hemisphere. In no arctic
district to which man has yet penetrated, is there a
permanent covering of snow through any wide extent of
low country. Even at Spitzbergen, only nine degrees from
the Pole, there is a summer in which vegetation pro-
ceeds, of which we have witnesses in the flora and fauna.
The well-fed herds of reindeer, which that hyperborean

* Von Buch states the height of the snow line at the North Cape
(Europe) at 2,275 Prussian feet.— Meyen, Geog. of Plants.
P 3

v14 CLIMATOLOGY.

land maintains, must find grass and lichens, whereon they
fatten.*

On the north side of Lake Superior, the duration of
the winter’s snow is less by at least sixty days than it
is in lat. 65° N., that being the difference due to about
twenty-seven degrees of latitude. In favourable seasons,
at Melville Island, in lat. 743° N. and long. 110° W.,
the snow towards the end of June lies only in the
valleys where it had drifted deeply, and the level mea-
dows remain uncovered for seventy days, or till the
beginning of September. In Regent’s Inlet, which is
more to the eastward, the snow dissolves less rapidly ;
and at Igloolik, still further east, notwithstanding a
difference of 53° of southing, the soil is uncovered for
a still shorter period, furnishing an illustration of the
depression of temperature on the eastern coasts, on which
some observations will be made in a subsequent page.
The subjoined tables will furnish the dates of the dis-
appearance of the snow in the spring, of various more
southern localities.

The opinion held at no distant date by eminent mete-
orologists, that a mean annual temperature of the freez-
ing point of water coincides with the snow line, has been
satisfactorily disproved by observation. Everywhere to
the eastward of the Rocky Mountains, the isothermal of
32° F. is below the fifty-seventh parallel of latitude.

When the rigour of the climate of Arctic America is

* The Herald Island, discovered by Captain Kellett in lat. 71° 197
N., long. 175° 23’ W., to the north of Beering’s Straits, is 1200 feet
high, and consists of granite precipices to the height of 900 feet, and
then a succession of terraces, on which there grows a turfy vegetation.
Eight species of plants were gathered from these terraces, viz. a Hepatica,
Poa arctica and another grass, Artemisia borealis, Cochlearia fenestrata,
Saxifraga laurentiniana, a moss and a red lichen, which covered the
rocks,

GROUND ICE. 215

considered, the under limit of permanent snow on the
hills appears to be very elevated. The true laws of the
altitude of this line have not yet been ascertained.
Correct measurements have shown that within the tropics
the snow line varies several thousand feet, even in the
same range of mountains, according to its different
aspects. The active radiation of the sun in the continuous
day of an arctic summer, in conjunction with the com-
paratively small winter deposit, must tend to elevate the
snow line; while within the tropics, the effect of a vertical
sun is compensated by nocturnal terrestrial radiation,
and the deposition that attends the sudden cooling of an
atmosphere charged with moisture. The same or similar
causes must tend to vary the breadth of the mountain
zone, comprehended between the summer and winter snow
line. The east coast climate everywhere north of Canada
has an analogy to this zone, and not to its upper limit or
the permanent snow line.

Another phenomenon intimately connected with the
mean temperature of a district, is the “ ground ice” or
“ permanently frozen subsoil.” The lateral extent of this
substratum, its southern limits, and its thickness, are in-
teresting subjects of inquiry. It is well known that the
warmth excited by the sun’s rays is conducted slowly and
progressively into the earth, the effects of seasons and
years following like tides, but becoming less sensible and
less distinct until they are blended, and at a certain depth
vanish altogether. Professor Forbes says, that “ the
decrease of the annual range is common to the strata
of the air above the surface of the earth and to those
of the soil beneath; both ultimately, no doubt, exhibit a
limit, first where the diurnal variations disappear, then
the annual.” The cause, however, he states is different in

the two cases; the one being chiefly the result of the
Pp 4

216 CLIMATOLOGY.

radiation, and the other of the conduction of heat. The
limit here spoken of, or the depth to which the periodical
changes of summer and winter are felt, is influenced by a
variety of circumstances, and differs in different localities.
The temperature of that limit would be, it is supposed,
that of the mean of a number of years (fourteen or fifteen
perhaps) forming a complete cycle of the annual variations.

The limit or commencement of permanently frozen soil,
or ground ice, is coincident, according to Bier, with the
isothermal line of 32° F.; and its thickness increases in
proportion as the mean temperature of the locality falls
below that degree, its unlimited descent being checked
by the interior heat of the earth.

Observations of the temperatures of mines and of arte-
sian wells have established the fact that the temperature
rises as we penetrate into the crust of the earth; but the
rate of increment has not yet been satisfactorily deter-
mined. The temperatures of mines in the same district,
and of different parts of the same mine at equal depths,
vary ‘greatly. Some authors fix the increment at one de-
gree of Fahrenheit for every forty-five feet of descent,
after the superficial stratum which is directly influenced
by the solar heat has been passed.

At Yakutzk, in Siberia, on the sixty-second parallel,
with a mean annual temperature of 14° F., a well dug
to the depth of 382 feet just penetrated the frozen earth,
and the resulting increment of heat there is one degree for
twenty-eight feet of descent. At Fort Simpson, on the
Mackenzie, very nearly in the parallel of Yakutzk, but
having a mean annual temperature of 25° F., the frozen
substratum was found to terminate at the depth of seven-
teen feet from the surface, the underlying bed being loose
and sandy. The surface soil there was thawed at the close
of summer (19th October, 1837), to the depth of nearly

GROUND ICE. 917

eleven feet, so that the ground ice was only six feet
thick.

At York Factory, on Hudson’s Bay, in lat. 57°, in Oc-
tober, 1835, recent frosts had penetrated eight inches
into the soil; the thaw due to the summer heat extended
twenty-eight inches beyond this, beneath which a frozen
bed seventeen and a half feet thick reposed on thawed
mud which had a temperature of 33° F. The mean
annual heat of this place is 254 F., being equal to that of
Fort Simpson, which lies five degrees further north.

At Severn outpost, exactly one degree of latitude to the
South of York Factory, and on the same coast of Hudsoi’s
Bay, the surface had thawed at the close of the summer
of 1835 nearly to the depth of six feet, and the frozen
substratum was dug into seven and a quarter feet, being
thirteen feet in all, but not passed through, so that its
thickness was not ascertained.

I have no information respecting the ground ice of the
Peace River or Saskatchewan prairie districts.

At Rupert’s House, on James’s Bay, near the level of
the sea, in lat. 51° 26’ N., long. 78° 40’ W., the soil in an
exposed situation in the month of April was frozen to the
depth of seven feet; but under a snow-drift the frost had
penetrated only thirteen inches into the earth. At East
Main, situated on the opposite side of the same bay, in lat.
52° 15’ N., long. 78° 40’ W., the ground under a snow-
drift eight feet thick was frozen to the depth of only ten
inches. The pits at these places were not dug deep
enough to give any information respecting the existence
of a permanently frozen substratum.

On Michiskum Lake, which lies in lat. 49° N., long. 78°
W.., on the north side of the watershed that divides the Abi-
tibbe, or eastern branch of Moose River, from Lake Temis-
eaming and the Ottawa, and which is about 700 feet

218 CLIMATOLOGY.

above the sea, the frost towards the close of winter had
penetrated three and a half feet in a cultivated field, while
in the woods not above six inches of soil were frozen. No
search was made for a frozen substratum. These are the
chief observations* I have been able to collect, having
reference to this subject. It is plain that much more ex-
tensive researches are required to enable us to form any
general conclusions which can be relied on.

Professor Bier informs us that in Europe and Siberia,
the farther we go east, the more southerly do we find the
limit of perpetual ground ice to be. In the environs of
Lake Baikal, ice remains at least in one locality all the
year. No permanent ice was found at Tobolsk in lat. 58°
N., but Humboldt discovered small pieces at the depth of
six feet in summer in the elevated district of Boguslowsk,
near the foot of the Ural Mountains, in lat. 59° 45’ N.
Tt would appear from these instances that the ground ice
has a more southerly limit on the shores of Hudson’s
Bay than in Siberia; and that in America, as far as obser-
vations go, that limit follows the course of the isothermal
lines which dip to the south as they proceed to the east-
ward.

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS IN THE VALLEY OF
THE ST. LAWRENCE.

The subsequent tables of temperature and notices of
the progress of the seasons are arranged so as to convey,
as far as my materials go, a view of the climates of the
successive lake basins from the St. Lawrence northwards.
Table If. is intended also to illustrate the fact that the
climate, on the west side of the continent, is milder than

* All the experiments made in Rupert's Land, in 1835-36, are
detailed in the Ed. New Philos. Journ. for January 1841.

VALLEY OF THE ST. LAWRENCE. 219

in the eastern states. Fort Vancouver being upwards of
forty miles from the coast in a direct line, its climate
cannot be called maritime, and its temperatures may be
conveniently contrasted with those of Montreal, which is
also situated on the banks of a first-rate river, and not
under the influence of sea-breezes.

There is very little difference in the latitudes of the two
places, or in their altitudes above the sea; but the direct
distance between them exceeds 2,200 geographical miles.
The difference of their mean annual temperatures is, at
least, eight degrees of Fahrenheit in favour of the Pacific
coast, and is equal to what would be produced by a dimi-
nution of four or five degrees of latitude on the same
meridian. The greater mean heat of the Pacific side of
the continent has been long known, and a reference to
the table will show that it is mainly due to the milder
winters; the mean difference between the summer and
winter temperatures being twice as great at Montreal as
on the Oregon. On the other hand, the summers are
sensibly warmer at Montreal. The notices of the progress
of the seasons on the two sides of the continent will illus-
trate these facts equally well. The early spring at Van-
couver, with the two inches of snow and a rainy winter,
contrasts strongly with the long dry winter and three feet
of snow at Penetanguishene, where the ice does not dis-
appear from the lake till past the middle of April.

Columns 1. and 2. of the same table refer to places
immediately on the coast, and Franklin Malone is at an
altitude above Fort Vancouver, which is considered to be
equivalent to two degrees of mean annual temperature.
If we compare these columns with column 4., we perceive
that with little change of mean annual temperature, places
on the coast have a more equable climate, the three winter

220 CLIMATOLOGY.

months being comparatively milder, and the three summer
ones less warm.

Table I. shows that as we advance into the interior,
the heat of the summer is kept up, or even augments,
notwithstanding the elevation above the sea attained by
ascending the successive stages of the St. Lawrence basin.

The nature of the rock formations has a considerable
influence on the climate of a district. In the primitive
country, such as has been described in a preceding page
as abounding in lakes and swamps, the climate is extreme,
the winters being not only longer, but also more severe,
the dissolution of the ice in such districts absorbing much
heat. A marked difference occurs when we pass from the
‘intermediate primitive range” to the prairie districts
lying to the westward; for, notwithstanding the greater
elevation of the latter, the winters are milder, the snow
less deep and less durable, the rivers break up earlier,
and the sap flows sooner in the trees. A corresponding
difference in the vegetation occurs; the prairie plants have
much less of an arctic aspect than those of the primitive
districts. Professor Agassiz, in his work on Lake Supe-
rior, has instituted a very interesting comparison between
the vegetation of that basin and the lower and middle sub-
alpine zones of the higher tracts of the Jura, proving
their very great similarity. With the prairie districts, the
analogy of the Jura is very much less strong. Many of
the plants which.give the peculiar character to the prairies
south of the Missouri, range northwards to the branches
of the Peace River, a main affluent of the Mackenzie; and
several prairie plants enter the silurian wooded tracts
which lie to the westward of the “ intermediate primitive
range,” though they have not been discovered in the more
eastern parts of the continent.

i

TEMPERATURE OF VARIOUS PLACES.

TABLE I.

TEMPERATURE OF VARIOUS PLACES IN LAKES ONTARIO, ERIE,
Huron, AND MICHIGAN.

221

Lake Michigan

Lake Ontario, Lake Huron, : Lake Erie, Lake Erie
North Side East Side Green Bay, East End and R. S. Clair,
Toronto. Penetanguishene.| Fort Howard. Buffalo. | Detroit.
Lat. 43° 40’ N. Lat. 44° 48’ N. Lat. 44° 40’ N. | Lat. 429 55’ N. | Lat. 42° 19’ N.
Long. 79° 22’ W.| Long. 80° 40’ W. | Long. 87° 00’ W.) Long. 78° 55’ W.| Long. 82° 58” W.
Alt. 340 Feet. | Alt. 626 Feet. Alt. 600 Feet. Alt. 575 Feet. Alt. 575 Feet.
Periods, 8 and 8.
Gdevtor | Ci TOM | oeftSayy | the Ferm. NY.) 34 Year,
Magn, Obs. | gotrected by’ | Dove's Form. | yr "Ois, | Dove's Form.
(1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.)
January - - 25°34 23°42 17°76 23°41 20°26
February - - 23-01 22°60 20°05 21:14 31°32
March - - 30°37 31:90 30°87 35°49 39°88
April - - 43°38 37°82 42°83 40°70 49-68
May - - 53°28 55°36 56°57 55°29 | 00:07
June - - 60°88 67°99 67°86 67°45 68°02
July - - 66°28 (sol 71°71 G1-da 70°83
August - - 66°73 69°40 68°67 69°99 68°87
September -| 58°71 56°03 56°91 59°89 61°68
October - - 45°69 50°11 46°74 48°75 54:28
November - 36°03 38°86 33°97 37°22 38°05
December - 27°24 25°24 20°95 27°80 | 29°32
Year - - 44°81 45°74 44°57 45°54 49°10
Winter - - 25°43 23°75 19.59 24°12 26°97
Spring = = 42°34 35:02 43°43 43°83 48°87
Summer - - 64:43 70°24 69°41 | 69°66 69:24
Autumn - - 46°81 48°34 45°87 48°62 51°34
Difference of |
hottest and 48°81 49:99 53°95 50°41 50°57
coldest months
Difference of
summer and 39:20 46°49 49-82 45°54 42:27
winter -

No. 1. is taken from the volume of observations made at the ob-
servatory at Joronto, published by Government.
lin’s Second Journey. Nos. 3., 4., and 5. from Dove’s tables in the
Report of the British Association for 1847.

No. 2. from Frank-

222

CLIMATOLOGY.

TABLE

CoMPARATIVE TABLE OF TEMPERATURES ON THE EAST AND

Periods.

January
February - -
March - -

April - -
May - -
June - -
July - -
August - -
September -
October - -
November -
December =
Year - -

3 Winter months
3 Spring months

3 Summer months
3 Autumn months

Difference of
hottest and
coldest months

Difference of
summer and
winter =

East SIpr.

Atlantic Coast.

Maine,
Eastport,
Lat. 449 54’ N.
Long. 66° 56’ W.
Alt. 15 Feet.

q.)*

Nova Scotia,
Halifax,

Lat. 44° 39’ N.
Long. 63° 38’ W.| Long. 74° 23’ W.

Alt. 15? Feet.

(2.)

St, Lawrence Valley.

North N. York,
Fr. Malone,
Lat. 44° 50’ N.

Alt. 645 Feet.

(3.)

Canada, East,
Montreal,
Lat. 45° 3)’ N.
Long. 73° 35’ W.
Alt. 60 Feet.

(4.)

19:18 20:00 28°24 13°03
22°71 18:00 26°15 17°68
29°85 25°00 31°42 30°89
38°72 30°00 45°08 46°80
48°99 40:00 52°67 53:97
56°31 50°00 60°22 59°73
63°28 63°00 66°90 68:90
63°24 70:00 65°45 68:04
57°15 51:00 55-17 57°61
46°33 51:00 46°92 46°50
36°18 38°00 32°85 31:58
24°55 25:00 21:22 19°66
42°41 40-08 43°52 42°12
22°15 21:00 21:87 16:95
39°19 31°67 43°06 39:03
60°94 61:00 64:19 67:26
46°55 46°67 44°98 45°18
44:10 52:00 48°66 55°87
38°79 40:00 42°32 50°31

* Columns 1., 2., and 3. are extracted from Dove’s paper, published in the Report of the
British Association for 1847, being corrected for the diurnal variation computed for Toronto

by Dove, in the same paper.

No.4. is abstracted from a paper by J. S. M‘Cord, Esquire,

printed at Montreal,and discussing observations of temperature for 1839 and 1840, and 1840-41,
12 times daily at the even hours.
Column 5. is also from Dove’s paper, and is reduced by his formula.
Columns 6. and 8. are abstracted from a year’s observations, by G. B. Roberts, Esquire,
of the Hudson’s Bay Company, with a thermometer of Newman’s construction. Column 6.
is reduced for the hours of observation, according to Dove’s formula for Toronto.

Column 8. is transcribed without correction.

the Rev. S. Parker, also corrected by Dove’s formula.

The subjoined is an abstract of observations fer seven years, made by Henry Poole,
Esquire, at Albion Mines, near Pictou, in Nova Scotia, and on the coast of the Guiph of
St. Lawrence. Mr. Poole ascertained the minima in the night by a self-registering ther-
mometer, and the maxima between | and 2 P.M., by a thermometer hung on the north side

Column 7. is an abstract of observations by

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TEMPERATURES.

10%

223

West SIDES OF THE CONTINENT NEAR THE 45TH PARALLEL.

WEsT SIDE.

Oregon State.

Fort Vancouver on the Columbia, 50 m. from the Sea.

Lat. 45° 37’ N.
Long. 122° 45’ W.

Periods.

Hours 7, 2,9. | Hours 8 and 8. Hours 7—1.
(5.) (6.) (7.)
37°62 36°58 37:10

42°89 35°37 38°98
43°68 44°05 47°47
45°55 50°22 - -
53°44 58°43 - -
62°48 58°72 = =
65°46 61:76 - -
65°84 63°05 - -
60°30 61:10 - -
53°23 52°62 48:27
42°68 38°83 39°23
42°95 34°49 38°60
51:34 49°73 - -
41°15 35°49 38°23
47°55 50°90 - -
64:67 61°30 - =
52:00 50:92 ue -
28°28 28°56 - -
23°52 25°81 - -

|
|

Hour 2 p.m.

(8.)

40°68
44:07
55:06
62°50
74°61
73:17
75°71
79°74
74:27
68°16
48:27
42:06

61:91
42°21
64:07
76°14
6471

39°06

33°93

January.
February. ~
March.
April.
May.

June.

July.
August.
September.
October.
November.
December.

Year.

3 Winter months.
3 Spring months.
3 Summer months.
3 Autumn months.

Difference of
| hottest and
coldest months
Difference of
| summer and
winter.

of the house, and sheltered from the north winds by a plantation of firs at the distance of afew

yards.

sunrise, and 2 Pp. M.

The observations are corrected for the Toronto diurnal variation for an hour before
As there appears to have been some local cause, producing higher

winter temperatures than in other parts of the coast, I did not think it expedient to intro-

duce these observations into the comparative table.

Abstract of Temperatures at Albion Mines, 120 Feet above the Sea, Lat. 45° 342’ N.,

Long. 62° 42’ W.

Jan. 50°58F.| March 52°53 | June 68:86 | Sept.
Feb. 51°85 | April 5451} July 70°64 | Oct.
Dec. 51:11 | May 58°64 | August 70°61 | Nov.
Wint. 51°18 | Spring 53:23 Summer 69-04

Means of Maxima.

62°42 | Year

55°10

56°03 |

49 98

Diff. hot and cold mths, 20°66

Autumn 55°83) Diff. of sum. and wint. 17-36

224

TABLE OF

CLIMATOLOGY.

TABLE III.

UPPER PART OF THE OTTAWA RIVER.

Periods.

January - -
February - -
March = -
April - -
May - -
June - =
July = =
August - -
September -
October - -
November -
December -

Year - -

3 Winter months
3 Spring months

3 Summer months
3 Autumn months

Difference of
hottest and
coldest months

Difference

of
summer and
winter months

Lake Superior.

TEMPERATURES ON LAKE SUPERIOR, AND ON THE

Fort Brady,
Saut St. Mary.
Lat. 46° 31’ N.

Long. 84° 25’ W.

Alt. 660 feet.

Wenn.
Dove
corrected.

C1.)

+18°30
19°69
27°04
38°05
52:00
58°61
65°36
64°36
55°55
44:75
33°59
22°23
41°63
20°07
39°04
62°77
44°63

46:06

42°70

North-east
angle,
Michipicoten.
Lat. 47° 56’ N.
Long. 85°6’ W.
Alt. 660 feet.

8 and 8, by
G. Keith, Esq,

corrected by
Dove’s form.

Thunder Bay,
Fort William.
Lat. 48° 232/ N.
Long. 89° 22/ W.
Alt. 660 feet.

8 and 8,
corrected by
Dove’s form.

L. Temiscaming,
H. Bay Post,
on the Ottawa.
Lat. 47° 19’ N.
Long. 79° 31’ W.
Alt. 630 feet.

Sunrise, sunset,
and noon,

by —
Severight, Esq.,
corrected by
Dove’s form.

(2.) (3.) (4.)
+1063 45°70 +9-23
16°66 8:22 18°44
26:09 22:72 24-4]
34:66 31°42 39-04
51°88 48:87 49:35
55:00 58.73 62°75
57-03 62°19 67:28
60:04 58°84 65:58
49:67 48:16 53°39
44-92 41°88 40°83
29:01 23°43 25-97
22°38 18°16 17-68
38:25 35:90 38°58
16°68 10°75 15:02
37°57 39-67 37°58
57°39 59:94 65-23
41:24 37:80 40-07
49°41 56:49 58:05
40°71 49°19 5021

Column 1. is extracted from Dove’s paper, already referred to;
columns 2 and 38. are compiled from documents obtained from the
Hudson’s Bay Company ; and column 4. is extracted from Mr, Logan’s

Geological Report for 1845-6.

PROGRESS OF THE SEASONS AT MICHIPICOTEN. 225

Phenomena illustrative of the Climate of Penetanguishene,
on Lake Huron.*

The spring sets in very suddenly. Snow continues until the
latter end of April, and longer in the forest than in cleared
lands. ‘The weather in March is clear and cloudless, and the
ice, which in winter has attained a thickness of sixteen inches,
begins to dissolve. ‘Towards the end of the month the sap of
the maple flows, and the sugar harvest commences. Flocks of
Canada geese and various ducks appear about the same time,
and are the harbingers of fine weather. The ice disappears on
an average on the 24th of April. Alders and various willows
flower about the middle of the month, and the Hepatica triioba
blossoms on the 25th. Potatoes are planted between the Ist
and 20th of May, and cucumbers and melons are usually sown
between the 25th and the end of the month. Viola blanda,
Xylosteum, Leontice, Erythronium, and many other plants,
blossom in this month; the forest trees come all into leaf about
the 16th, and, about the 19th, the moscheioes begin to be trou-
blesome.

In the month of June the temperature rises to 90° F. in the
day, and heavy dews fall in the night. Barley and oats are
sown about the 15th, and towards the end of the month garden
peas are fully podded, and the male flowers of maize spring up.
The Lilium philadelphicum blossoms at this time.

In July and August the weather is usually dry and sultry.
About the beginning of the former month Penstemon pubes-
cens, Rhus typhinum, garden melons, and cucumbers blossom ;
and, towards the middle of August, melons grown without
artificial warmth are ripe, and the wheat and oat harvest com-
mences. Maize is fit for pulling about the end of the month,

In September numerous flocks of Turdus migratorius and
other birds arrive from the north, and remain for a time feed-
ing on the berries of various rasp bushes. Maize ripens about
the first of the month, and near its end frost destroys the

* By the late C.C. Todd, Esq., Surgeon, R. N.
VOL. II. Q

226 CLIMATOLOGY.

cucumber and melon vines; forest trees change their hue, and
potatoes are dug and stored for winter use.

The forest assumes a variety of autumnal hues in the be-
ginning of October; about the middle of the month, many
flocks of geese and ducks pass to the southward, and their ap-
pearance precedes a series of cold weather, which strips the
leaves from the trees. <A fall of snow usually occurs about
the 25th.

November is generally calm and pleasant, and about three
weeks of peculiar weather, named the “ Indian summer,” oc-
curs. It is characterised by a fog or haze rising from the earth,
through which the sun is seen obscurely, and there is little or
no wind. In December, the thermometer sinks a few degrees
below zero, and much snow falls.) The harbour freezes in the
beginning of the month. In January, the thermometer sinks
20 degrees below zero, and rarely to—32°. The snow attains a
depth of three feet in the woods, but the ground it covers is
not frozen. A great fall of snow takes place in February, and
there is usually a temporary thaw about the end of the month,
accompanied by heavy rain, and occasionally by thunder.

Phenomena indicating the Progress of the Seasons at
Michipicoten, Lake Superior*, in the year 1840.

Jan. 19. Open water in the bay. Mergansers frequenting it.

Feb. 14. Bay again closed by ice.

March 8. Snow birds departed for the north. 26th. The snow
birds returned again, the weather having been
severe. Domestic hens began to lay eggs. ‘Two
ducks seen.

April 10. Lake clear of ice in Michipicoten Bay. 12th. Turdus
migratorius came.

May 2. All the snow gone. 6th. Swallows came. 22nd.
Potatoes planted.

Sept. 4. Small trout collecting in the rivulets to spawn. On

* By chief factor George Keith, Esq.

"

PROGRESS OF THE SEASONS AT FORT WILLIAM. 227

the 23rd they ceased spawning. Frosty nights.
Potatoes not hurt. 26th. Corregonus lucidus spawn-
ing in the river.

Nov. 10. Ice beginning to drift in the river. 18th. The large
trout and Corregonus albus cease to spawn here
at this time, though they carry on this operation
later in other parts of the lake.

Dec. 3. Ice broken up in the river. Little snow lying on the
ground. 13th. River again frozen over. Season
mild.

Phenomena indicating the Progress of the Seasons at
Fort William, Lake Superior, in the year 1840.

Feb. 29. Thermometer at noon rose to 39° F.

March 1. Temperature 61° in the middle of the day. On
the 27th a grey hawk, and on the 31st a barking
crow, Corvus americanus, were seen.

April 2. The sap of the sugar maple began to run. On the 4th
small holes began to perforate the ice. On the
9th the first wild ducks of the season came, and on
the 10th butterflies, blue flies, and gulls were noticed.
2t0Oh. The general thaw commences at this period.
Ground frozen to the depth of 3 feet 9 inches. 2Ist.
Anser canadensis, Anas boschas, and mergansers
frequenting the neighbourhood. 28th. Heard a
nightingale (Tuwrdus?). 30th. River partially open.

May 2. River free of ice. Bay of the lake full of drift
ice. 6th. Anser hyperboreus passing in flocks.
8th. Moschetoes seen. 10th. The birch tree and
maple budding.

June 15. Swallows building in the outhouses. 17th. Stur-
geons spawning in the rapids of the river. 19th.
Catastomi beginning to descend the river from the
rapids. 21st. Corregonus lucidus comes to the en-

trance of the river in shoals.
Q.2

228 CLIMATOLOGY.

July 3. The Corregoni have left the mouth of the river.
15th. Barley just coming into ear. Potatoes in
flower. The Lepus americanus having its second
litter of young. 81st. Raspberries ripening.

Aug. 8. Red currants and blue berries (Vaccinium) perfectly
ripe. 10th. Reindeer begin to rut. 19th. Barley
ripening. 29th. Peas quite ripe. 31st. The swal-
lows have disappeared.

Sept. 2. Reindeer rutting season ends. On the 7th the leaves
of the birch and aspen change colour. 10th. Small
trout begin to spawn. 13th. Potatoes, cabbages,
turnips, and cauliflowers nipped by the frost. 14th.
A few ducks arriving from the north. 16th. The
first stock-ducks arrived from the north this au-
tumn. 20th. Small trout spawning abundantly
on the shoals. 23rd. The orioles have departed
for the south. Canada geese arriving from the
north, and going southwards. 30th. Corregonus
lucidus begins to spawn in the rapids of the river.

Oct. 6. The large trout begin to spawn in the lake at the
Shaguinah Islands; they cease on the 18th. Thun-
der. 7th. Leaves of the birch and aspen falling.
10th. The Corregonus lucidus has ceased spawning
on therapids. 14th. Thunder. Anser hyperboreus
arriving from the north. 15th. Passing in large
flocks. 20th. Hail, thunder, and lightning. Plovers,
divers, snipes, orioles, geese, and ducks in the
neighbourhood. On the 31st, snow-birds began to
arrive from the north.

Nov. 38. The small lakes frozen over. On the 9th, the river
(Kamenistikwoya) covered by a sheet of ice, which
broke up again. 21st. The spawning season of
the Corregonus albus terminates.

Dec. 1. Ice driving about in the lake with the wind. On
the 17th, the bay was frozen across to the Welcome
Islands.

PROGRESS OF THE SEASONS AT FORT VANCOUVER. 229

The following Notices of the Progress of the Seasons at
Fort Vancouver in 1838*, may be contrasted with the
state of vegetation at the same times of the year in the
valley of the St. Lawrence : —

Jan. 2d. Short young grass, affording good pasturage for
sheep in places that were flooded in summer. 8th.
Berry-bearing bushes budding, such as the wild
cherry, black currant, &c. Swans abundant, ducks,
geese, and cranes scarce. 10th—12th. Snow fell
to the depth of an inch and a half, and vegetation
was retarded by unfavourable weather till

Feb. 17. when wild gooseberry bushes were observed budding.
Between the 26th of this month and

Mar. 16. Thunder and hail showers occurred. Ribes san-
guineum blossoming. Trillium grandifiorum, having
the local name in Oregon of “ Herb Paris,” in full
flower. 21st. Apple and pear-trees budding. The
wild gooseberry in full leaf, and further advanced
than bushes from England cultivated in the garden.
24th. The swallow first noticed. 30th. Humming-
birds appearing ; strawberries flowering.

April 3. Mahonia in blossom, and, on the 5th, peach-trees
flowering. 8th. Potatoes that have lain in the
ground all winter, beginning to show. I1th. Dog-
wood and elder in blossom. 17th. Several species
of violet in flower. 20th. Field iris in flower.
23d. Brambles flowering. On the 25th, clover in
bloom; and, on the 26th, wild tares flowered.
Hail and thunder storms. 28th. Blossoms of the
fruit-trees falling.

May 1. Lupins in flower. 7th. Wild rose and eglantine in
flower. 12th. Strawberries ripening. 28th. Field-
peas in blossom. 30th. Garden-peas brought to
table. ‘Thunder.

* By G. B. Roberts, Esq., of the Hudson's Bay Company.
Qa 3

230 CLIMATOLOGY.

June 1. Spring barley in ear. Sth. New potatoes raised from
tubers, left all winter in the ground, fit for table.
7th. Oats in flower. 10th. Spring wheat coming
into ear. 17th. Bramble-berries ripening. 23rd.
Gooseberries, currants, and raspberries ripe. Thun-
der. 26th. Blackberries (Vaccinium) ripe.

July 4. Humming-birds scarce this season. 19th. Barley fit
for the scythe. 22nd. Winter wheat ripe. 28th.
House-flies numerous.

Aug. 38. Oats ripe. 7th. Field-peas harvested. 9th. Foggy
mornings, followed by a clear sky and excessive
heat. Dewless mornings succeeded by rain. 12th.
Salmon season usually ends. Several cases of ague
occurring. 27th. Moschetoes very troublesome.
Geese arriving from the north.

Sept. 7. Hail and thunder. 12th. Buckwheat harvested.
13th. Ague prevalent. 19th. Mowed barley that
was sowed on the 16th of June—a fair crop. 22nd.
Peas sown on the 19th of June, on alluvial land,
that was flooded in winter, now ripe.

Oct. 27. The Columbia or Oregon river unusually low, the
greatest depth opposite the fort being less than
fifteen feet.

Nov. 8. Potatoes killed by the frost. 18th. A little drift
ice in the river. 20th. Rain and sleet.

Dec. 26. Snow at this time two inches deep, being the greatest
fall this season, and less than usual.

TEMPERATURES IN SASKATCHEWAN VALLEY. Jan:

TABLE IV.
THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS. — VALLEY OF THE SASKAT-
CHEWAN.
Cumberland Oxford House. | York Factory. | Rupert House.
House. Lat. 549 55’ N. | Lat.5790’ N. | Lat. 51° 21’ N.
Lat. 53° 57’ N. |Long. 96° 28’ W.|Long. 92° 26’ W.| Long. 83° 40’ W.
Long. 1029 20’W.) Alt. 400 Feet ? | Alt. 20 Feet. Alt. 20 Feet ?
Months and Seasons. Alt. 900 Feet. Mean Temp., | Mean Temp., Mean Temp.
Mean Temp., 7 a.M., Noon, | Morn., Noon, corrected,
8 A.M.,8P.M., and 8 P.M., and Evening, |Sunrise, 13 p.M.,
corrected, corrected, corrected, Sunset,
1839. 1833. 1830, 1839
June - - - - - - 47°67
July Bay) a eres S SS 59-99
August - - 62°84 - - 54°85
September - 44:50 - - 41:90
October - = 33°15 gos 33°43 34:80
November - 21°48 13°29 PISNT/ BSS
December - - 7°94 —23 06 3°73 15°59
January - -| —0°89 —22:06 —5:12 —4:09
February - - —8:06 — 1:90 —6°60 —0°68
March - - 18°30 8°57 4:77 7-64
April - - 27°01 28°62 19°21 21:05
May - - 52°59 38°01 33°53 41°51
Year - - 33°20 . - 25°63
Summer - - 62°62 ” - 52-07
Autumn - - 33°04 = - 33°50
Winter - - —0'17 —0°82 —2°53 0°14
Spring - - 32°70 751 19°17 0°78
Difference of
hottest wal 72°06 - - 66°59
coldest months
Difference of
summer wna 61°79 - - 54:60
winter -

The observations recorded in the above table were made at Cum-
berland House, by chief factor John Lee Lewis, between the
beginning of August 1839 and the end of September 1840, the register
being deficient in June and July, when Mr. Lewis was travelling on
the business of the company. ‘The temperatures were measured by a
thermometer made by Newman, and sent out at that time with many
others, by the Geographical Society, but at the expense of the Hud-
son’s Bay Company. The monthly means of the combined tempera-
tures at 8 A.M. and at 8 p. M. were corrected by Dove's table, calculated
for Toronto.— Rep. Br. Ass. 1847.

The observations at Oxford House were made between October

Qa 4

232 CLIMATOLOGY.

TABLE? V.

CoMPARATIVE TABLE OF TEMPERATURE ON EAST AND WEST
SIDES OF THE CONTINENT.

Nain. Okak. Sitka,
Lat. 57° 10 N. Lat. 57° 30’. Lat. 57° 3’ N.
Long. 61° 50’ W. Long. 66°. Long. 135° 18” W.
Periods. Alt. 20 Feet. Alt. 20 Feet. Alt. 20 Feet.
: 3 Years. 2 Years. 21 Years.
8.12. 4.8. 8.12. 4.8. Reduced.
Dove. Dove. Baer.

June - - - 42°53 44°65 53°83
July - - - 50°18 51°65 57°11
August - - 50:99 52°00 57°79
September - - 44:98 44°45 55°96
October - - 33°98 31:15 46°63
November - - 26°51 22°40 42°89
December’ - - 6°51 8°45 36°32
January - - 0°95 2°15 34:18
February - - 3°51 1:95 33°60
March - - - 752 8:25 38°01
April - - - 29:97 29:00 40°64
May - - - 36°23 38°25 48:18
Year - - ~ 27°82 27°86 45°44
Summer - - 47°90 49°43 56°24
Autumn - - 35°16 32°67 48°49
Winter - - 3°66 4:18 84:74
Spring - - - 24°57 25°17 42:28
Difference of hot-7

test and ces 50:04 50°05 24°19

months - -
Difference of sum- C

mer and winter | a =e aioe

1833 to May 1834, at 7 A.m., noon, and 8 p.M., and these are also
corrected by Dove’s formula for Toronto.

The register for York Factory, Hudson’s Bay, was kept by chief
factor Joseph Charles, from June 1830 to end of May 1831, the tem-
peratures being recorded in the morning, noon, and afternoon, but
the exact hours of the morning and evening are not specified. ‘They
have been corrected by Dove’s table, on the supposition that the hours
were sunrise and sunset.

The observations at Rupert House, on the east side of James’s
Bay, were made at sunrise, an hour and a half after noon, and at sun-
set, and Dove’s corrections have also been applied to them.

An examination of the several columns will show clearly the effect
of open water in Hudson and James’s Bays, in tempering the atmo-
sphere in the months of October, November, and even December, and
of the presence of ice in those seas, keeping down the summer heat.

EDMONTON HOUSE.—CARLTON HOUSE. 235

TABLE VI.

ABSTRACT OF A RECORD OF TEMPERATURES OF THE AIR IN THE
SHADE, KEPT By Mr. Drummonp, at Epmonton Hovssz,
Lat. 53° 40’ N., Lone. 113° W., Aut. 1,800 Fret.

Monthly Means

Months.
Of Maxima. Of Minima. Of these.
1827.
Jan; = 18°68 3°42 11:05
Feb. - 29°96 3°68 14°32
TABLE VII.

Extreme Temperatures.
Highest. Lowest.
+42:0 —27-0
+47:0 —25°0

ABSTRACT OF A JOURNAL OF TEMPERATURES KEPT AT CARLTON
House sy THE AuTHor, Lat. 52° 51’N., Lone. 106° 13 W.,

Aci. 1100 Fret:

Monthly Means Extreme Temperatures.
Months.

Of Maxima. | Of Minima. Of these. Highest. Lowest.
Hebs last. 9:50. | . —1-20 5-65 31-0 —29-0

10 days
March - 23°10 +0°74 11-92 42°0 — 26:0
April - 40°97 18°53 29°75 59:0 | -- 2°0
May - 61:90 33°95 47°92 75:0 | + 22:0

234 CLIMATOLOGY.

TABLE VELL:

TABLE OF THE EXTREME TEMPERATURES OCCURRING IN EACH
MoNnTH AT SEVERAL PLACES IN THE SASKATCHEWAN VALLEY,
AND IN Hupson’s AND JAMES’S Bays.

Cumberland House.|| Oxford House. York Factory. Rupert House.
Lat. 53°57’ N. Lat. 54° 55’ N. Lat. 57° 00’ N. Lat. 51° 21’ N.
Long. 102° 20’ W.|| Long. 96° 28’ W. || Long. 92° 26’ W. |} Long. 83° 40’ W.
Alt. 900 Feet. Alt. 400 Feet. Alt. 20 Feet. Alt. 20 Feet.
Highest | Lowest || Highest | Lowest || Highest | Lowest || Highest | Lowest
Temp. | Temp. || Temp. | Temp. || Temp. | Temp. || Temp. | Temp.
June -| 87 42 - - 83 25
July =). 98 47 - - 96 35
August -| 90 49 - - 79 40
September] 73 30 - - 70 28
October -| 68 5 49 |—3 58 19 61 13
November] 38 —10 39 — 6 42 8 36 —10
December |} 25 —26 32 | —29 30 | —30 37 | — 6
January-| 25 | —32 Oo | —44 19 | —34 16 | 32
February | 34 | —35 30 | —33 37 | —35 39 | —36
March -| 50 — 9 34 —27 AT —25 34 —25
April -| 55 |—38 || 64 |—8 || 55 |—9|| 53 | =I16
May -| 93 27 || 65 15 || 62 15 || 71 19

This table shows that tropical temperatures occur in the Saskat-
chewan basin, for a day or two, or it may be only for a few hours at
a time in summer, yet that the three summer months seldom pass
without night frosts. These destroy tender plants, and in untoward
seasons injure the growth of cerealia. Wheat, however, ripens well in
the drier limestone districts, and still better in the prairie country ;
but it is there subject to periodical ravages of the larve of caterpillars,
which come like an army of locusts, and eat up all that is green.
Were the country more generally cultivated, and rooks and domestic
poultry encouraged, this plague might be lessened. Maize ripens
well at the Red River and Carlton, and, I believe, at Cumberland
House also, though I did not see it in cultivation there. The 54th
parallel may be considered as its northern limit, but its profitable
culture does not, perhaps, extend beyond the 49th or 50th degree on
the east side of the Rocky Mountains.

PROGRESS OF SEASONS AT CUMBERLAND HOUSE. 235

In the following Table of Phenomena, indicating the
Progress of the Seasons at Cumberland House, I have

combined my own observations in the spring of 1820
with those of chief factor John Lee Lewis, in 1839 and
1840, distinguishing the remarks by the years. The sup-
posed altitude of Cumberland House above the sea is
900 feet, according to Captain Lefroy’s calculations.

March4.

ts

8.

12.

21.

24.

April 2.

10.

12.

Water collecting in pools round the establishment.
1840.

Much bare ground visible.

The snow which covered the ground to the depth
of three feet, was observed to moisten in the sun
for the first time this season. 1820.

Temperature in the shade rose for the first time to
+ 30°F. The melting snow began to drop from
the eaves of the houses.

Patches of earth became visible, the season being
in respect to the melting of the snow fourteen days
later than that of 1840. The river Saskatchewan
broke up partially, the melting snow covered with
Podure, as it is also frequently in the autumn.

A white-headed eagle was seen, this being almost
always the first of the summer birds which arrives ;
it comes as soon as it can obtain fish. In 1840,
the first eagle was seen on the 26th.

The river Saskatchewan froze over again, after some
very cold days.

. Barking crows (Corvus americanus) seen. They

were not observed till the 19th in 1840.

. First snow bunting seen (Hmberiza nivalis). 1840.
. A merganser seen. 1820.

Willow catkins beginning to burst.

Geese and swans seen in 1820. In 1840 they were
not seen till the 20th; and pelicans and ducks
were observed that year on the 21st. 7

236

April 13.
ibe

20.
26.

28.

CLIMATOLOGY.

Buds of Populus balsamifera bursting. 1820.

Plovers, grakles, and orioles seen, and, on the follow-
ing day, Canadian jays and fly-catchers. Frogs
croaking.

Coltsfoot, Nardosmia palmata flowering.

Alder flowering. The sugar harvest, which is col-
lected in this district from the Megundo fraxini-
folium, commenced in 1820, on the 20th of this
month, and lasted till the 10th of May. The flow
of the sap is greatly influenced by the direct action
of the sun, and is greatest when a smart night’s
frost is succeeded by a warm sun-shining day.
The flow ceases in a cold night.

The Saskatchewan thoroughly broken up. The ice
on Pine Island Lake did not disappear until nearly
a month afterwards. Wahlenberg observes that the
mean temperature of the air in Lapland must rise
to 40° F. before the rivers are completely free.
The Saskatchewan opens in this district before
the mean heat for ten days rises so high; but its
upper part flows from a more southerly and warmer,
though a more elevated, country.

. Commenced ploughing. 1840.
. Anemone patens, or wind flower, in blossom, its Slew

not yet expanded. 1820.

. A fall of snow to the depth of two feet. 1840.
. Planting potatoes.
. Sowing barley. 1820. Negundo fraxinifolium and

gooseberry bushes in flower.

. Willows, gooseberries, aspens (Populus tremuloides

in leaf. Various Drabe in flower. 1820. In
1840 the trees were bursting their buds at this
time.

. Wheat sown on the 8th of this month, above ground

to-day, having germinated in nine days. 1840.

. Barley sown on the 14th above ground, having taken

seven days to germinate.

PROGRESS OF SEASONS AT CUMBERLAND HOUSE. 237

May 22. Leaves of the trees expanding rapidly.

24. Ulmus americana flowered. 1820.

25. Pine Island Lake clear ofice. 28th. Prunus pennsyl-
vanica, P. virginiana, and Amelanchier in flower.
30th. From the 28rd to the 30th of this month in
1840, the temperature in the shade at 2 P.M. varied
between 78° F. and 93° F. On the 30th, potatoes
planted on the 13th appeared above the ground.
1840.

June 12. All the forest trees in full leaf. 1820.

Aug. 1. Commenced reaping barley. On the 15th, 18th,
19th, and September 1., the thermometer at noon
ranged between 80° and 90°, being the hottest
days in the month. ‘There was much thunder and
hail on these days. 1839.

Sept. 2. Flocks of water-fowl beginning to arrive from the
north. 38rd. The first fall of snow this autumn. 4th.
Vast numbers of water-fowl flying southwards. A
severe fall of snow and frost in the north causes
these birds to hurry to the south. 11th. First hoar-
frost. Birch and aspen leaves turning yellow.
14th. Wild-fowl numerous. 20th. Snow; 2lst,
ditto very heavy. 24th. Thunder and lightning.

Oct. 1. Taking up potatoes. 5th. Leaves all fallen from the
deciduous trees. On the 11th, thermometer at
2 p.M., in the shade, 68° F., being unusually high,

14. Water-fowl passing southwards in large flocks. 1839.

15. Bays of the lake frozen over. 16th. The ground frozen
hard. 17th. Last water-fowl seen this season. 18th.
Lake entirely frozen over. In 18389, the Little
River was frozen over on the 24th of this month,
but broke up again in part, and remained partially
open all the winter.

31. Waveys (Anas hyperborea) passing. Lake partially
opened.

238 CLIMATOLOGY.

The following are the Phenomena of the Spring of 1827
at Carlton House, in lat. 52°51’ N., long. 106° 13’ W., on
the eastern limits of the Saskatchewan prairie lands, and
at an elevation above the sea of about 1,100 feet.*

Feb. 15. Snow thawing in the sunshine, and on the 17th
many sandy hummocks on the plains were bare.
This is at least three weeks earlier than the thaw
commences in an early season at Cumberland House,
which is a degree further north, but is 200 feet
lower.

March 6. Trees thawed in fine days, and on the 8th the
black earth on the immediate banks of the river
was softened to the depth of two inches by the
power of the sun’s rays. At this place the westerly
winds bring mild weather, and the easterly ones
are attended by fog and snow.

13. Sparrow-hawks (Falco sparverius) arrived from the
south, and on the 17th several migratory small
birds were noticed.

29. Large flocks of snow-birds (Emberiza nivalis) came
about the establishment; and, by the 31st, steep
banks, which had a southern aspect, were clear of
snow.

April 1. Many Fringillide (birds of the sparrow tribe) were
seen, On the 2nd, swans arrived, and, by the 8rd,
much snow had disappeared from the plains.

4. The snow at this time was melting in the shade,
and the sap of the maple trees (Negundo fraxini-
folium) began to flow.

* This was estimated in 1827 at 1,000 feet from the length of the
river course between Carlton House and York Factory, making a
smaller allowance per mile for the descent, as far as Lake Winipeg,
and a considerably greater one for the falls and rapids of Nelson
River. It accords sufficiently with Captain Lefroy’s observations ;
and its error does not probably exceed 200 feet at most.

PHENOMENA OF SPRING AT CARLTON HOUSE. 239

April 6. Geese arrived. Stormy weather, about the middle

22.

of the month, retarded the arrival of the summer
birds; but the plants continued to grow fast. On
the 20th, the Telltale plover (Charadrius vociferus)
and several small birds came.

Turdus migratorius, Pyrrhula ludoviciana, and
Lanius excubitor were seen, and the flowers of
Anemone patens expanded.

. Ice in the river Saskatchewan gave way. Frogs

began to croak.

. Canada cranes ( Grus canadensis) arrived.
May 1.

Sturnus ludovicianus arrived, and the last flocks of
Emberiza nivalis departed for the north.

. On this day, Icterus pheniceus and Scolecophagus

JSerrugineus were seen, and most of the water-fowl
had by this time arrived. On the 4th, Phlox hoodit
flowered.

. Ranunculus rhomboideus, Viola debilis, Nardosmia

palmata, and several carices flowered.

. Mirundo viridis and many gulls arrived.
. On this day the sap of the ash-leaved maple, which

had flowed scantily for ten days, ceased to run
altogether, and the sugar harvest closed. Avocetta
americana arrived. Populus tremuloides in flower.

Crow-blackbirds were first seen. Corydalis aurea,
Corylus americana and rostrata, Hippophie cana-
densis, Thermopsis rhombifolia, Vesicaria arctica,
and Alnus viridis flowered. 12th. Potentilla con-
cinna, Townsendia sericea flowered. 14th. Goose-
berry bushes coming into leaf. Ash-leaved maple
flowering, seven days after the sap had ceased to
flow from wounds in the stem. 16th. The Picus
varius arrived in considerable numbers, and on the
19th the Viola nuttalliana flowered.

The average antecedence of spring phenomena at Carlton

240 CLIMATOLOGY.

House to their occurrence at Cumberland House is between a
fortnight and three weeks. The difference of latitude, which
is only one degree, is nearly counterbalanced by 200 feet of
greater altitude; but the dry sandy soil of the plains, which
are early denuded of snow, gives the spring there a great
superiority over that of the lower country, where the ground
is almost submerged, and the greater part of it icebound for
a month after the river is open.

I obtained no other register of temperatures at Edmonton
House, or from the country near the base of the Rocky Moun-
tains in that parallel, than the daily maxima and minima for
two winter months observed by Mr. Drummond in 1827.
These are included in the subjoined table; and it will be
observed that the winter, as far as we can judge from a few
isolated observations, is even milder at Edmonton than at Cum-
berland House, though it is on the same parallel and at a much
greater altitude. Edmonton House is in latitude 54° N., and
longitude 113° W., and its elevation above the sea is estimated
by Captain Lefroy, from his observations on the boiling point
of water, at 1,800 feet.

Neither have I been able to procure registers of temperatures
kept at any post in the southern parts of the Saskatchewan
basin. ‘The Red River Colony extends to the boundary line of
the United States, or the 49th parallel; and I have been informed
that the Fagus ferruginea, or American beech, grows within the
limits of the settlement, though it does not exist on Lake Supe-
rior, but terminates in that direction at Michilimackinac, on the
46th parallel. In the interesting account of the Alps of New
Hampshire by Professor Agassiz, the trees which grow in the
zone comprised between the elevations of 830 and 1,500 feet
above the sea are the same kinds which grow on the Red River
and forks of the Saskatchewan at nearly as great altitudes, and
from five to ten degrees further north; with the addition of the
oaks, which find their northern limit on Lake Winipeg, though
they do not enter the corresponding New Hampshire zone.
The same trees, however, if I understand the passage in the

MARTIN’S FALLS. 241

work on Lake Superior (p. 186.) to which I here refer, continue
to ascend the New Hampshire Mountains to the height of 2,080
feet; above which, to the height of 4,350 feet, the vegetation
consists almost entirely of Abies alba and balsamea, and Be-
tula excelsa and papyracea. Betula excelsa scarcely reaches the
Saskatchewan basin, or, if it does, is rare even in the southern
parts; but the other trees here named go northwards on the
Mackenzie till the 69th parallel, and terminate there on
coming within the direct influence of the winds blowing from
the Arctic Sea. The summits of the New Hampshire Alps
6,280 feet high, present a truly arctic flora, much more so, I
believe, than the slope of the Rocky Mountains at that eleva-
tion on the 52nd parallel. On this point, however, I cannot
speak with any confidence, as I have no measurements of the
heights at which Mr. Drummond gathered his plants, and he is
the only authority for the botany of that district.

That I may carry on as complete a view of the climate of
the country as I can produce from the observations of others
as well as from my own, I introduce here a table drawn
up by a very intelligent officer of the Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany, chief factor George Barnston*, giving the progress
of the seasons at Martin’s Falls. This post is situated
in lat. 51° 32’ N., long. 86° 39’ W., on Albany River,
about 200 geographical miles in a direct line from the
coast of Hudson’s Bay, an equal distance in a westerly
direction from the water-shed between the Albany and
Winipeg Rivers, and somewhat less from the beach of Lake
Superior bearing south. According to Mr. Barnston’s re-
mark which follows, the country about the falls is similar in
its geological character to the west side of Lake Winipeg,
and referrible to the silurian epoch. Our geological

* Mr. Barnston having sent me this paper in 1840, I published it
in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for April, 1841.

VOL. Il. R

242 CLIMATOLOGY.

position,” says that gentleman, “ is upon the confines of
the great basin of James’s Bay, an immense extension of
the older calcareous strata. Between the ‘falls’ and the
coast the bed of the river is composed of limestones and
clays, both containing extinct genera of shells; while
above, towards the interior, little is to be seen but gneiss
and greenstone schist, with a mixture here and there of
less fissile granite rocks. The fossils I have been able to
procure in this neighbourhood are principally spirifers,
producta, terebratula, and impressions of trilobites. Al-
though in winter we have the cold of Russia, in the
months of July and August we enjoy the climate of Ger-
many and the north of France.” (Barnston, |. c.) A re-
ference to the map will show that there is a canoe route
from Winipeg River through Lake Sal, and by a portage
over the water-shed to Lake Saint Joseph, and Albany
River, and also a shorter one from the Peek River on
Lake Superior to the southern tributaries of the Albany.
In short, as has been already frequently stated, the primi-
tive rocks forming the brims of these several river basins
are traversed in every direction by sheets of water oc-
cupying more surface than the rocks themselves.

On the Progress of the Seasons at Martin’s Falls.

Dec. Jan. Feb. We are frequently visited in these dead winter
months by the white owl (Sérix nyctea) from
James’s Bay, but the hawk owl (Strix funerea) is
our most common bird of prey. Tetrao umbellus,
T. canadensis, and T. phasianellus are residents
in this district the whole year. The Tetrao saliceti,
or willow ptarmigan, is a winter visitor which
comes from the north.

SEASONS AT MARTIN’S FALLS. 243

March. Martens (Mustela martes) pair, and soon afterwards
rabbits (Lepus americanus).

15. In the middle of the month the snow often melts
in the height of the day, and by the 20th a snow-
bird (Emberiza nivalis) may be seen occasionally
if the season be early.

20. Tops of the higher grasses, which have been con-
cealed beneath the snow, begin to show. A few
brown feathers clothe the necks of the willow-grouse,
and these birds leave us.

April. A slight crust now forms on the snow, produced
by night frosts after thaw in the day. In mild
weather, a few insects show in the sunshine.

8. ‘Iwo species of Perla and one of Nemoura come up
through the crevices of the ice and porous snow,
and all proceed straight to the nearest beach. The
cold renders them too weak to fly, though most of
them have got rid of their nymphine investments
before emerging from the ice.

15. Snow-birds have become plentiful, and are now
joined by the Emberiza lapponica and Alauda
alpestris. 20th. The flesh-fly is still scarce. The
small owl (Scops) calls in the warm nights, and
the common woodpecker (Picus pileatus) drums on
the hollow trees. 22nd. The Canada goose (Anser
canadensis) and stock-ducks (Anas boschas) some-
times arrive at this date, but are frequently forced
to return for want of water, and by northerly
blasts.

25. A few spots of ground bare; (more than a month
later than the earth begins to appear at Carlton
House.) 28th. The red-breasted thrush ( Turdus
migratorius) and cattle blackbird (Scolecophagus
Jferrugineus), are now arriving, and pick up the
benumbed grubs and caterpillars. Goshawks ar-

rive.
R 2

244

CLIMATOLOGY.

May 1. Snow melting rapidly. Ground getting barer. th.

Wild geese and ducks passing to the northward.
Hawks still arriving. 10th. Every fine day brings
an accession to the small bush birds, fly-catchers,
&c. Food for these is still scarce, and they ap-
proach the houses in quest of Diptere, which rise
from the manure and rich earth round the place.
Snow-birds have left us, and ermines and hares
(Lepus americanus) are becoming altogether brown.
The ice is now shingly and dangerous, and strong
currents and rapids are open. Wavies (Anser hy-
perboreus) and brents (Anser bernicla) passing to-
wards James’s Bay in large flocks. No weather
stops them after this time.

12. The northern diver (Colymbus glacialis) and several

black ducks (Anas nigra, fusca, and perspicillata)
are still scarce, but are sometimes seen. The buds
of the balsam poplar, aspen, and of various willows,
swell. On the latter may be found the earliest
Tenthredines, the larve being nursed in the tender
bud. Two species of butterfly (Vanessa and
Argynnis) sport over the ice and snow, when these
are not gone.

15. The larger rivers break up. (The Saskatchewan

opens about twenty days earlier at Carlton House).
Fish ascend the small streams to spawn. The pike
(Esox lucius) and doré (Lucioperca) spawn.
Sucking-carp (Catastomz) soon follow them. Trout
take bait greedily. The cliff-swallow (Hirundo
fulva, Vieillot) is seen. (On May 28th, 1849,
Mr. Rae found this swallow on the banks of the
Coppermine, having constructed its clustered nest
against the cliffs at the mouth of Kendall River,
lat. 67° N., but not yet laid its eggs.) Swamps
and stagnant pools are thawed. Frogs begin to
croak, and moschetoes to bite.

SEASONS AT MARTIN’S FALLS. 245

May 20. Shells (Zimnei) begin to move in the pools along
the river. Snails (Limax, Helix, Bulimus, &c.)
remove from under stones and fallen timber. The
end of the month discloses some species of moths
(Noctualites).

25. Our only goatsucker (Chordeiles virginianus), and
the golden-winged woodpecker ( Colaptes auratus),
the last of the spring birds in this district, arrive.
Beavers, otters, and musk-rats have their young.

28. The balsam poplar, and aspen expand their leaves.
(Not so early as on the Saskatchewan, two or
three degrees further north.) The Hudson’s Bay
reindeer has young.

June 1. Sturgeon begin to frequent falls and rapids, and to
spawn. 5th. Insects are busy on warm days; the
Tenthredinide on bushes, the Sphingides, Andre-
nete, and Pangonie on the ground, all attended by
a variety of parasite ichneumons. The first flowers
blow, and those of the willow are surrounded by
Sylphides and flower-flies (Anthomoye).

10, A night-frost will sometimes intervene, even at this
late period; and, in the woods, the ground is still
frozen solidly at the depth a foot from the surface.
Vegetation, nevertheless, still goes forward. Mos-
chetoes become a torment; the swamps and puddles
swarm with their larvee. Small tadpoles abound in
the pools. 13th. The country is now covered with
verdure. Birds are nestling ; geese and ducks
hatching. The natives are occupied with the
sturgeon fishery.

ED The latest shrubs are in leaf, and the majority of
moths and butterflies are disclosing themselves.
The large Ephemere (Perle and Phrygane@) issue
from the water. 20th. Trout take the fly-hook.
White-fish (Coregonus albus) rise to the surface.
Cattle seek the houses to get rid of the tormenting

RB 3

246 CLIMATOLOGY.

Tabani. In dry seasons rivulets become low,
though rivers retain their strength.

July. Our warmest month. The river unusally gets low.
Sturgeon fishing continues. Cattle become lean,
being tormented by flies in the day, and feeding in
the night only. 10th—20th. Many genera of Cole-
optera appear, some of them of forms more charac-
teristic of warmer climes; Cicindele, Necrophori,
many Buprestes, and a species allied to Lucanus.
Of those whose larve live on wood, the Serropal-
pus, a very fine Dorcacenis, Cerambyx, Callidium,
Lamia, and numerous species of Lepturete. Neu-
roptera are abundant on the banks of the river —
Libellule, Agrion, &c.; and on the leaves Heme-
robius, Panorpes, Sialis. In the other orders, also,
there are many genera to keep up the character of
the month. It ends with bringing in strawberries,
and in sending off sturgeon, which return to the
depths.

Aug. The raspberries begin to ripen. Young ducks are
well feathered. We have sultry weather for a few
days, and then thunder-storms followed by chilly
nights. 10th. Pigeons (Ectopistes migratorius) are
numerous. Young geese (Anser canadensis) can
fly. Gnats decrease, and sand-flies ( Similiwm) re-
place them.

15. The raspberries, and red and black currants ripen.
Grasshoppers are full grown. Trout move about,
ascending the river. Sturgeon are very scarce.
Grass becomes brown in dry situations. 20th. The
noisy lesser tell-tale (Totanus flavipes) appears,
and if we have much rain we are visited by a
species of snipe. The golden and ring-necked
plovers are not uncommon.

Sept. The air is generally cooler and the wind stronger,
and frosty nights may be expected.

SEASONS AT. MARTIN’S FALLS. 247

Sept. 10. Trout spawn. Many insectivorous birds depart. The
passenger pigeon disappears. Hawks and the large
horned owl ( Stria virginianus) are common. Night
frosts frequent.

15. Tops of potatoes always blackened. Caterpillars
nearly all cased. Trout refuse the fly-hook, but
still take bait; they are now poor fish. Canada
geese pass to the southward. Ducks abound in the
grassy lakes. Leaves turning yellow rapidly. 20th.
Pleasant weather at mid-day but cold in the night.
The fall-moth (Phalena autumnalis) is now to be
seen. Sand-flies bite only in the height of the
warmer days. The moscheto is utterly defunct.
Diving ducks common; the others gone.

Oct. 1. Pools and swamps crusted with ice. White-fish
(Coregonus albus) begin to spawn. dth. Sucking-
carp ( Catastom?) and trout desert the small streams.
Foliage is yellow, and falls. Deer rut. Instead of
rain we have snow, which generally melts, the
earth being warmer than the atmosphere.

10. A single blast of northerly wind will now suffice to
bare the trees, strip the shrubs, and send all water-
fowl to the south. The last of these are weak or
lingering flocks of wavies (Anser hyperboreus),
which may be observed passing. They seldom alight
unless when met by adverse winds.

20. The small lakes and rivers sometimes frozen. (Be-
tween the 2lst and 28th is the usual period for
the freezing of the lake at Cumberland House.)
Tullibee (Coregonus artedi) spawns. Quadrupeds
acquire thick fur. The willow-grouse ( Tetrao sali-
ceti) arrives from the north. There is usually a
little snow on the ground; and the American hare
and ermine are becoming white.

Nov. 1. The ground is covered with snow, which in mild
weather harbours multitudes of Podure. 10th. I

R 4

248 CLIMATOLOGY.

have frequently observed at this time, and later, a
wingless tipula (Chionea hiemalis) crawling about.
20th. Large rivers and the lakes often solidly
frozen; strong rapids filling with ice, and setting
fast. American hares and ermines entirely white.
Swamps passable, and winter fairly set in.

(Geo. Barnston.)

The following abstract of temperatures, ascertained by
John Rae, Esq. in 1846-7, at Fort Hope, Repulse Bay,
62° 32’ lat., 86° 56’ long., which was accidentally omitted
to be inserted in Table XII., is placed here, the space
being convenient for its reception.

The observations were made eight times in the twenty-
four hours, at equal intervals; and the house was situated
only a few feet above the sea level.

Sept. 28°57 | Dec. —19°27 | March —28°10 | June 31°38
Oct. 12°56 | Jan. —29°32 | April -—395 | July 41°46
Nov. 0°63 | Feb. —26-68 | May 17°88 | August 46°32

Aut. 13°81 | Winter—25°04 | Spring —-473 | Summer 39 59

Mean heat of the year 1846-7 - - 6°14° Fah,

Difference of hottest and coldest months - 75°64
5 summer and winter - - 64°63

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TEMPERATURES.

TABLE IX.

249

TEMPERATURES BETWEEN THE PARALLELS OF 52° anp 613°
Nortu Larirupe.

Periods,

January
February
March -
April -
May -
June -
July -
August -
September
October
November
December

Year -

Winter -
Summer
Spring -
Autumn

Difference of hot.
and cold. months

Difference

summer and

winter

Churchill.

Pelly Banks.

Lat. 59° 02’ N. G land? Lat. 61° 30’ N.
on eeot, | Fiedertoksthal. | Ugpe. 130) W.
Year, 1838-39. ats 602M: 5 Months,
Morning, Aftern., Hone: Soa fe 1848, 1849.
evening. Wore! unrise, 3 P.M.,
Corrected by usk.
Dove’s formula. Corrected.
(a) (2.) (3.)
—21:21 19°62 —21:95
—7°31 18°72 —14°73
—4'63 22°10 —0:99
16°29 27°50 20°44
28°42
44:69
56°80
53°39
36°03
26°50 32°45
Bisy 35°15
—14:00 29°75 —13°98
18°19 30°00 ?
—14:17 22°70 —16°88
51°63
13°36
21°95
78-01
65°80

No. 1. The register at Churchill was kept by Mr. Harding, of the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s Service, from February, 1838, to May, 1839,
the observations being made daily in the morning, afternoon, and even-
ing. Column 2. is extracted from Dove’s table; and for column 3.
I am indebted to Murdock M‘Pherson, Esq., who sent me a register
kept at Pelly Banks by R. Campbell, Esq.

250 CLIMATOLOGY.

TABLE
THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS IN THE VALLEY OF THE
Godhaab. Fort Chepewyan.|Fort Resolution.) Fort Simpson.
Lat. 64° 10’ N. | Lat. 58° 43’ N. | Lat. 61° 10’ N. | Lat. 619 51’ N.
Long. 52° 24’ W.|Long.:118° 20’ W.|Long.113° 51’ W.| Long.121° 51’ W.
t Sea level. Alt. 700 ft. Alt. 500 ft. Alt. 400 ft.
Periods. |
(1.) (2.) (3.) (4.)
January - - 12°38 — 876 0°42 —12°54
February - = 12°56 —401 —25'60 —9:°06
March - = 15:60 3°08 9-95 5:00)
April - = 22°01 19-80 12°88 26°28
May - = 32°16 45°40 40:14 48°16
June - = 39:09 55:00 - - 63°64
July - - 41:92 63:00 = = 60:97
August - - 40°84 58:10 - - 53°84
September = 35°65 43°53 - - 49:10
October = ~ 29°84 33:00 26-06 24:28
November = 21:94 19°13 12:04) 8°53
December - - 17:49 2°76 —2°59 —8°36
Year - - 26°79 PsP 21:00? 25:75
Winter - - 14:14 —3°34 —8:09 — 10:00
Summer - - 40°62 58°70 = - 59°48
Spring - - 23:26" 22°76 20°99 26°66
Autumn - - 29°14 31°89 - - 27°34
Difference of
hot. and cl 29°54 71°76 - - 76°18
months -
Difference of
summer and } 26°48 62:04 - - 69°48
winter -

No. 1., extracted from Dove’s table, Seventeenth Rep. Br. Ass.
p- 376., gives the temperature of the west coast of Greenland in that
parallel, and is inserted for comparison.

No.2. is compiled from 33 years’ observation by Messrs. Keith
and Stewart in 1825 and 1826, and by another officer in 1838 and
1839. In the latter case, the times of observation were eight and
eight, and the correction for these hours, calculated by Dove for
Toronto, has been applied. The summer months were not entered in
the register on the second occasion. Observations were also made at
2 p.m., ond are recorded in another table.

No. 3. is abstracted from a register of observations made at eight
and eight, in the winter and spring : Dove’s correction has been used.

No. 4. is an abstract of 2} years’ observation by Murdock
M‘Pherson, Esq. in 1837, 1838, 1839, and 1840, at eight and eight,
with Dove’s correction for Toronto applied.

X.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TEMPERATURES.

MACKENZIE; IN GREENLAND ; AND ON THE YUKON.

251

Fort Reliance.
Lat. 62° 46’ N.
Long. 109° 00’ W.

Alt. 650 ft.

6.)

Fort Enterprise.| Fort Franklin. |Fort Confidence.) Yukon.
Lat. 64° 28’ N. | Lat. 65°12’ N. | Lat. 66° 54’ N. | Lat. 66° N.
|Long. 113° 06’ W.| Long.123° 13’ W.| Long.118° 49’ W.| Lon. 147° W.
Alt. 850 ft. Alt. 500 ft. Alt. 500 ft. Alt. 200 ft. ?
(6.) (7.) (8.) (9.)
—15°57 —23°33 —21°57 —26°85
—25°88 —16°75 —21°52 — 26°44
—13°48 —5'38 —20°21 ella
5°78 12°35 —471 12°66
31°20 35°18 - - 41:24
- - 48-02 - - 53°49
- - 52°10 - - 65°75
= - 50°56 - - 59°90
31°59 41-00 - - 38°66
21°75 22°47 19°43 21°60
—1°70 ——Onel — 3°68 —8'28
—30°54 —10°88 —38°69 — 18°43
17°94 17°75 9:00 ?} 14°58
—24:00 —17:00 —27°26 —23°80
55°00? 50°41 - - 56°73
23°50 12°69 - - 14:60
17721 21:15 - - 17°37
86°88 ? 74°43 - - 92°60
79°00 ? 67°41 - - 80°53

Periods.

January.
February.
March.
April.
May.

June.
July.
August.
September.
October.
November.
December.

Year.

Winter.
Summer.
Spring.
Autumn.

of

hot. and cold.

| Difference

months.

summer
winter.

| Difference

No.5. is compiled from Sir George Back’s observations in 1834,
(fifteen daily.)
No. 6. is abstracted from a register kept at Fort Enterprise in

1820, 1821, and 1822.

The summer observations are defective; but

the mean summer heats are inferred from observations made in travel-
ling over the barren grounds further north.
No. 7. Two years’ observations at Fort Franklin; first year nine-
teen observations daily, except in summer, during which, and in the
second year, six observations daily at equal intervals.
No. 8. Fifteen to seventeen observations, daily.
No. 9. Observations at six and six in summer; and in winter as
early as the thermometer could be read in the morning, and as late

in the evening.

been applied.

Dove’s correction for these hours at Toronto has

of
and

252

CLIMATOLOGY.

TABLE

TABLE OF THE SUMMITS OF THE DAILY OR MONTHLY CURVES OF
BETWEEN THE PARALLELS OF 582° AND

Periods.

January -

February

March -
April -
May -
June -
July -
August -
September
October -
November
December

Year =

Winter -
Summer -
Spring -
Autumn -

Fort Churchill.
Lat. 59° 02’.

Fort Chepewyan.
Lat. 58° 43’ N.

Fort Resolution.
Lat. 61° 10’ N.

Fort Simpson.
Lat. 61° 51’ N.

Long. 93° 10’. | Long. 118° 20 W. | Long. 113° 51’ W. | Long. 121° 51’ W.
Sea Level. Alt. 700 ft. Alt. 500 ft. Alt. 400 ft.
i (2.) (3.) (4.)
2p.m. |Monthly| 2P.m. | Monthly Monthly 2 P.M.
Mean. |Maxima.| Mean. | Maxima. Maxima. Mean.
—16°48}) —2 |—7:04| 22 202 —17°55
—118} 42 32) 44 2 —1°'68
Soll 30 16772) 47, 37 12°68
31°66] 58 39°12} 65 32 47-22
37°94) 65 33°33 | 76 64 56°98
55°17} 82 62°00} 97 - - 73°40
66°81} 86 69:00} 78 - - 70°61
62°97} 83 66:10} 72 - - 65°87
54:09} 84 46:00) 65 - - 60:00
33°32} 46 41:06} 56 47 30°08
8:00} 23 16°71) 39 31 12°51
—9°77 5 4:95! 40 20 —7°98
27°59) 86 32°61 | 197 - - 33°51
—9'14 - 0°38) 44 20 —9°37
61°65) - 65°70| 97 - - 69°96
26:04 - 29:72) 76 64 38°89
31°80); - 34:59} 65 - - 34:15

‘XL

| Fort Enterprise.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TEMPERATURES.

253

Fort Franklin. Fort Confidence. Yukon. Pelly Banks,
Lat. 64° 28’ N. Lat. 65° 12’ N. Lat. 66° 54’ N. Lat. 66° N. Lat. 61° 20’ N.
Long. 113° 06" W. Long. 123° 13’ W. Long. 118° 49’ W. Long. 147° W. Long. 130° W.
Alt. 850 ft Alt. 500 ft. Alt. 500 ft. Alt. 200 ft. ? Alt. 1,200 ft.
65 (6.) (7.) (8.) (9-)
| Means of| Monthly|Mean Temp.| 2 Years, |Mean Temp.| Monthly} Mean at |Monthly| Mean at | Monthly
Maxima.| Maxima.| at2p.m. |Mnthly Max.| at2p.m. |Maxima.| 1P.M. Maxima.| 3p.mM. |Maxima.
—9°68} 20 —21°53 11°8 —17°83 | 26:0 | —27°58 17 |—16°61) 16
—19°10 1 —8°24 27°8 —16°49 | 27:0 | —23°55 10 |—00°32) 29
—090) 24 VEC(al 31°8 —7:45 | 12°8 | —0°94 28 10°35) 34
16°40) 40 23°21 49:0 6°70 | 24°5 19°43 52 36°50) 50
42°80} 68 41°65 69:0 - - 4881 70
- - 51:00 75°0 = - 62:00?
- - 59°02 80°0 = - 74°84 76
- - 56°88 74:0 = - 70°94 86
39°30) 53 44°82 66°0 = - 52°73 69
27°90) 37 23°75 47:0 22°42 | 32:0 9°49 50
2°80} 25 4°81 32°5 0-41 | 19:0 | —5-40 28
—25°80 6 —12°07 27°5 —32°53 | —7:0 | —5:39 22 —0°34 4
i| @: 22:09 | 80 = : 23°89 | 86
|-17°15| 20 —14:14 27°8 —22°28 | 27 — 22°70 22 —5°72| 29
| o- - 55°64 | 80 . - 6928 | 86
}| = - 22-18 | 69 - - 22-71 | 70
23°33) - 24°45 66°5 - - 26°03 69

“TEMPERATURE IN THE VALLEYS OF THE MissINipI, MACKENZIE, YUKON, AND PELLY,
66° 54’ N., EXPRESSED IN DEGREES OF FAHRENHEIT.

Periods.

Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.

Year

Wint.
Sum.
Spr.
Aut.

254 CLIMATOLOGY.

Progress of the Seasons at Fort Franklin, on Great Bear
Lake, in lat. 65° 12’ N., long. 123° 12’ N.

The mean temperature of the three winter months varies
comparatively little in different years; but the relative tem-
peratures of these months differ greatly among themselves, so
that in one year December is the coldest month, in another
February, and in a third January. In some years the tem-
perature of places exposed to the sun rises for a day or two in
winter above the freezing point, and the snow moistens on the
surface ; but in other winters no thaw whatever occurs,

In March the snow is deepest, and averages about three feet,
being, however, often drifted to a much greater thickness under
cliffs and on the borders of lakes. In the end of March or
beginning of April trees begin to thaw, the mean temperature
in the shade being about zero Fah. ; but the effect of the sun’s
rays on the blackened bulb of a thermometer being sufficient to
raise the mercury to + 90° Fah.

About the 10th of April the snow begins to thaw decidedly
in the sunshine, and myriads of Podure are seen at such
times moving actively in its cavities. Ptarmigan begin to
assume their summer plumage towards the end of the month.

From the lst to the 6th of May, according to the season,
water-fowl arrive. The Colymbus glacialis and arcticus ?
arrive occasionally earlier, and frequent a piece of water at
the efflux of Bear Lake River from the lake, which remains
open all the year.

Swans (Cygnus buccinator and americanus) are among the
early arrivals, the larger species coming first. The Anas acuta,
A. crecca, Clangula histrionica, and Oidemia perspiciliata
make their appearance within the first eight days. Gulls come
about the 9th or 10th. Singing birds, orioles, and swifts
arrive about the middle of the month; the latter varying
their time of appearance to a week later, if the spring is
tardy. Pools of water and swamps must have been thawed
long enough to release a sufficiency of winged insects for the
support of the swallow tribe, before they show themselves in a

SEASONS AT FORT FRANKLIN. 250

district. About the 10th or 12th of the month small streams
break up, the mean temperature of the ten preceding days
having risen to 87° Fah. Bear Lake River, which is fed from
the depths of the lake with warmer water, breaks its bonds at
its efflux earlier. Lower down, this river remains fast till the
first or second week of June. Mackenzie River usually opens
at Fort Simpson about the 7th of May, and in the more north-
ern quarters in the course of a week later; the boats which
follow the flood in its descent taking about that time to go to
Fort Good Hope. In 1849 the river broke up on the unprece-
dentedly late date of the 23d of May.

At this latter date there is bright light at midnight on
Great Bear Lake, and the Fringilla leucophrys is employed with
other songsters in singing at that hour.

Snow-geese arrive about this time, or a week earlier, and
are followed in a fortnight by the laughing-geese. Both kinds
wing their way northwards in bands of from fifteen to forty
individuals, which are passing every few minutes day and
night for about three weeks. Many go on without halting;
others alight in the marshes to feed on the nascent stems of the
early Cyperacee, which are developed with marvellous rapidity
after the commencement of the thaw, and, though still wrapped
in the dead leaves of last season, have acquired juiciness and
a sweet taste by the time that the snow has mostly gone.
Towards the end of May, or in the first week in June, accord-
ing to the earliness of the spring, Chrysosplenium alterni-
folium, Arbutus alpinus, Eriophorum vaginatum begin to
flower, and the Betula glandulosa and some willows show their
tender foliage and catkins. Early in June the Potentilla
fruticosa, the Rhododendron lapponicum, and several anemones
flower. Frogs at this time croak loudly ; and by the middle of
the month, summer may be considered as fairly established.
About the 24th or 26th of July, ripe bleaberries ( Vaccinium
uliginosum) may be gathered. Strawberries are generally a
week earlier, and the Arbutus alpina and Rubus chamemorus,
or cloudberry, are somewhat later.

In the beginning of August stars may be seen at midnight;

256 CLIMATOLOGY.

and in the last week of this month the van flocks of snow-geese
are seen going southwards, having spent between eighty and
ninety days at their breeding stations. The laughing-geese
follow in a day or two; but they pass on in autumn without any
of the delays that characterise their spring flights, which are
necessarily checked as often as a few cold days arrest the melt-
ing of the snow on the sea-coast. Drift ice obstructs the navi-
gation of the lake in some seasons till the first or second week
of August.

In the last week of August, or in the beginning of Sep-
tember, snow falls, and by the 10th of the month the deciduous
leaves begin to drop. By the 18th, most of the birds which
breed in the district have migrated southwards, a few water-
fowl and the winter residents alone remaining. Between the first
appearance of vegetation, till the falling of the leaves of deciduous
trees, about a hundred days elapse; but although this may
be taken as the length of the season for the growth of plants,
some of the grasses continue to ripen their seeds till the be-
ginning of October, notwithstanding much severe frost before
that date. In ordinary seasons the frost sets in severely before
the end of September, and the seeds of carices and grasses, in-
stead of dropping off, are frozen hard in their glumes, and remain
hanging on the culm till next spring, when they drop off into a
soil prepared by the thaw for their reception. It is on these
grass seeds of the preceding year that the graminivorous birds
feed on their first arrival from the south. In October, when the
soil begins to freeze again, the summer thaw has penetrated
about twenty-one inches in the neighbourhood of Fort Franklin.
The small lakes are covered with ice by the 10th or 12th of the
month; and, when that occurs, the last of the water-fowl depart.
By the 20th of the month the smaller trees are frozen through,
the larger ones remaining soft and moist in the centre. By the
end of the month, or early in November, the young ice, filling
the bays, puts an end to the navigation of the lake, after it has
continued open about sixty days. The centre of the lake does
not freeze over till late in December.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TEMPERATURES. 257

TABLE XII.

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS IN THE ARCTIC SEAS.

Wolstenholme

Melville Island.| Port Bowen. Igloolik. Winter Island. Sound.
Periods. Lat. 7429 N. Lat. 732° N. Lat. 693° N. Lat. 663° N. Lat. 764 N.
2 September, 1819-|September, 1824-| August, 1822- | August, 1821- | Six times daily.
August, 1820. August, 1825, July, 1823. June, 1822. August, 1849-
July, 1850.
1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.)

September - | +22°66 +25°90 +25°10 +31:62 +26°76
October - -| —3:02 +10°84 +13°72 +13:15 +11°32

November - | —20°85 —5:00 —18°66 +7-80 —18°60
December - - | —21°80 —19°05 —28'°25 —14:24 —27°05
January - - | —30°64 —28°91 —16:13 —23:13 —25:07
February - - | —32°31 —27°31 —19°58 —24:01 —34:02
March - -| —18:10 —28°36 —19:01 —10°78 —17:47
feeapil =6- | — 8:80 —6-50 —0'85 46:50 —3'74
May - - -| +16°74 +17°62 +25°14 +23°31 +25°82

June -| +36°22 +36°12 +32:16 +33°16 +39°73
July - -| +42°43 +38°87 +38°58 +35°33 +40°52
August - - | +32°63 +35°77 +33°88 +36°88 +33°67

Year - - +1:43 +4°33 +5:°76 +9°80 +4°54
Spring - -| —313 —5'74 +1:79 +6°35 +1:59
Autumn - - —0°43 +10°58 +6°80 +17°53 +6°55
| Summer - - | +37:09 +36°93 +35:07 + 35°15 +37:97
| Winter - - | —28°36 —25°02 —21°38 —20°35 —28°53
Difference of
hot. and cold. 74°74 67:78 66°83 60°89 74:54
months
Difference of ‘
summer and 65°45 61:95 56°45 55°50 66°50
winter
SPITZBERGEN.
| June. July. August. Sum. Quarter.

Hecla Cove,
lat. 80° N.
Trent cruizing,
| m. lat. 80° x 33.73 35°98 33°80 34°52
| long. 10° E. |

+35°86 +4017 +38°40 +388°15

Columns 1, 2, 3, and 4. are extracted from a paper which I pub-

lished in the Ed. Phil. Journ. for 1841. Column 5. is an abstract of a

thermometrical register kept by James Rae, Esq., surgeon of the

| Royal Navy, on board the North Star. An observation was made
every four hours.

VOL. 10% Ss

er

258 CLIMATOLOGY.

The preceding pages contain the temperatures of the
districts through which the Expedition travelled, wherever
T have been able to ascertain them, and also data for extend-
ing the lines of mean annual heat (ésothermal), mean summer
heat (‘sotheral), and mean winter heat (¢sochetmenal) across
the continent. By comparing the sea-coast temperatures
in Table II. and those of the shores of the great lakes in
Table I. with those of places in France and Italy lying
between the same parallels of 42°—45° north latitude, we
perceive that the mean annual heat of Europe is from 8°
to 15° Fah. greater than that of America at the same
distance from the equator, while the summer heats differ
only from 2° to 6°.* The inferior mean heat of America
is therefore due principally to excessive winter colds, and
this is decidedly the case in the interior. As the summer
heats, however, regulate the culture of the cerealia and
the growth of deciduous plants generally, the severe
winters of America do not cause a scanty vegetation.
From the 50th parallel northwards the trees are frozen
to their centres in winter; and, consequently, the de-
velopment of buds and other vital processes which go on
in the temperate climate of England, even in the coldest
months, are completely arrested. This hybernation of
plants increases in length with the severity and duration
of winter which, generally speaking, augment in the in-
terior of America with the latitude. The summer heats

* Dove’s table in the Report of the Brit. Association for 1847
has furnished the means of making this comparison. The places
compared were Alais, Arles, Bourdeaux, Dax, Manosque, Marseilles,
Montpellier, Pau, Puy, Tarascon, Toulon, Toulouse, Perpignan, Alba,
Bologna, Cascina, and Lucca. Oleron of Bearn has the same altitude
with Lake Superior, and Mount Louis is 4,900 feet high. All of them
lie within the parallels of 43°—45° except the last, which is in
42° 50’ N. The maps of isothermal lines of this author express the
general results of the study of the table referred to. _

COMPARISON OF TEMPERATURES. 259

do not, however, decrease in the same ratio as we go to
the north; on the contrary, the isotheral lines nearly
follow the canoe route, and run to the northward and
westward. The elevation of the prairie slopes has less
influence in depressing the summer heat, than the nature
of the soil and other causes have in raising it.

Experiments are still wanting whereby we may ascertain
the ratio of the decrease of mean heat in America with
the increase of altitude. In Table II. we find that, not-
withstanding the elevation of Franklin Malone above
Eastport of 645 feet, its mean temperature is greater; its
interior position giving it an advantage in summer heat
over the sea-coast, which its greater altitude does not
destroy. If we refer to Dove’s table, and contrast the
temperatures of Mont Louis, which lies near the 43d
parallel, with those of low country situations enumerated
at the foot of the preceding page, we find a mean dif-
ference of temperature of one degree of Fahrenheit for
350 feet of altitude. A similar allowance for the eleva-
tion of the successive steps of the St. Lawrence basin
would place in still greater prominence the rise of the
isothermal lines, and more still that of the isothzral ones,
as they recede from the Atlantic coast. There is, how-
ever, this difference in the climate of the summit of a
mountain and of an elevated plateau, that in the former
case we approach near the line of invariable temperature,
and the summer heat therefore differs less from the mean
of the year, and more from that of the plains, than on a
plateau where the depression of mean temperature pro-
duced by elevation is due chiefly to winter colds, and in a
small degree only to defect of summer heat.

From Table II. also we may learn that the mean tem-
perature of the coast districts of the Pacific is greater than

that of the Atlantic countries, and, at the same time, more
s 2

260 CLIMATOLOGY.

equable; the difference between the hot and cold months
being less) We find in it an expression of the general
fact, that the west coasts of continents are warmer than
the east ones; and as Montreal and Fort Vancouver lie
nearly in the same latitudes and at the same altitudes
above the sea, and both are far enough removed from the
coast to be beyond the direct influence of the sea breezes,
columns 4. and 6. furnish the means of eliciting many
of the peculiarities of climate on the two sides of the
continent. Instead of four or five months of continuous
snow and ice which Canada may be said to enjoy, for it is
the season of general enjoyment, Oregon has an open, rainy
winter, with little frost or snow; but, at the same time,
a summer of less power.

Table V. exhibits even greater differences in the Pacific
and Atlantic climates in a higher parallel. The course of
the ocean currents, and the interposition of the peninsula
of Alaska and its prolongation by the Aleutian chain of
islands, protect the west coast of America from the masses
of drift ice which in the same latitudes encumber and
chill the Labrador coast for most of the year. Even in
the polar regions the west coasts have milder climates.
Table X. shows, as far as it goes, that the mean tem-
perature of the west coast of Greenland exceeds that of
places on the continent, up to the 150th meridian, though
the summer on the coast is greatly colder than that of
the interior. By the study of Table XII. we learn that
in the polar seas the summer heats vary little, as we might
expect from the constant presence of ice; but the annual
mean seems to decrease generally with the latitude, the
only exception being that of Wolstenholme Sound, in which
we have a confirmation of the greater mildness of the west
Greenland coast. In the high latitudes the mean heat of
the three winter months does not differ greatly in different

NOCTURNAL RADIATION. 261

years; but in some seasons one of these months, in others
another, is the coldest, the temperature being ruled greatly
by the prevailing winds.

Generally speaking, the mean annual temperature of
places in the interior of North America falls within a
degree or two of the mean heat of the two months of
April and October. The mean temperature of the whole
surface of the earth is, according to Dove’s calculations,
58-2° Fah., being 54° in January and 62°in July. For
such a mean annual heat in America we must descend to
the 34th parallel of latitude; but the July heat of 62°
Fah. extends northwards to the Mackenzie.

The intense winter colds in the high latitudes are appa-
rently in a great measure owing to the active nocturnal
radiation into the clear blue sky. The observatory,
which was a small log building without a fire-place, fur-
nished us with the means of judging how much greater
the depression of temperature in the night was in places
exposed to the sky, than in those covered in.

The daily curve of atmospheric temperature for the three
winter months was a bold and nearly regular hyperbolic
curve, of which the mean was —25°2° Fah., the maximum
—22-2° Fah., and the minimum —26'7° Fah.* The maxi-
mum occurs at lh. 18m. P.M., and the mean line is crossed
by the curve at 9h. 19m. A.M., and 6h. 28m. P.M.; the
lowest temperature being reached at 7 A.M. The ascend-
ing branch of the curve, therefore, corresponds to an in-
terval of 6h. 18m., and the descending one to 17h. 42m.
During 14h. 51m. the temperature is below the mean, and
it is only 9h. 9m. above it, which indicates a tolerably
bold curve in the day, and a nearly horizontal course in
the night.

* The correction for the error of the thermometer at low tempera-
tures used in Tab. X. col. 8. was not applied to these numbers.

2

So

262 CLIMATOLOGY.

In the observatory the mean for the same period was
only —15:91° Fah., and the range no more than 0-97°. The
maximum occurred at 6 P.M., being retarded 4? hours;
and the minimum at 10 4.M., being delayed 3 hours. For
most of the night the temperature was above the mean, —
such being the effect of the interposition of the building
between the thermometer and the blue atmosphere. ‘The
walls of the observatory, it is necessary to remark, were by
no means air-tight, and the door was opened at least once
an hour in the day, and sometimes, especially on term days,
much oftener. There was, consequently, a considerable and
frequent admission of the external air; and, on the other
hand, during the experiments on magnetic intensity, the
heat of the observer’s body had an evident effect in raising
the temperature of the room.

T had intended to have instituted a series of observa-
tions, with Sir John Herschell’s actinometer, on the noc-
turnal radiation, and also on the momentary intensity of
the direct rays of the sun; but the instrument was un-
fortunately broken on the voyage. The Edinburgh New
Philosophical Journal for 1841 contains the results of
observations made at Fort Franklin, with the black bulb
thermometer, on the heating power of the sun’s rays, and
I renewed these observations at Fort Confidence; but,
as they were not carried on later than April, they furnish
no information respecting the power of the sun in the
months in which the processes of vegetation are active.
As the black bulb thermometer indicates the accumulative
effect of the sun’s rays, it seems to be an useful instru-
ment for ascertaining the heating power of the sun on the
stems and larger branches of trees, at least, if not also on
their leaves and on herbaceous plants. The hybernation
of trees ceases long before the temperature of the at-
mosphere is sufficient to restore activity to the vegetative

EFFECTS OF SUN-LIGHT ON VEGETATION. 263

processes, and before the earth, still enveloped in its snowy
covering, has felt the influence of returning spring. ‘This
is evidently mainly or wholly due to the sun’s light
direct or reflected; and perhaps its rays as reflected from
the pure and glassy surface of the snow, after the days
have increased considerably in length, may have the same
powerful effect on the forest that, according to Professor
Forbes, they have on the black-bulb thermometer. For
some time after the trees have begun to thaw by day, they
freeze again in the night; and in more southern localities,
where the sugar-maple grows, the sugar makers are well
acquainted with the fact that a hard frost arrests the
flow of the sap in the night. Should a hot day, however,
follow such an occurrence, the flow is more abundant
than ever, the short rest seemingly increasing the irrita-
bility of the organs by which the sap is eliminated and
circulated.*

* As I was revising this sheet, Sir William Hooker favoured me
with an extract from the journal of Mr. Berthold Seeman, botanist of
the Herald, part of which follows: —‘“ During our stay at Port
Clarence, in September, 1850, I made several experiments to ascertain
the depth to which the thaw penetrated the soil: the result varied ;
in some places it did not descend above two feet into the earth, while
in sandy places the ground was free from frost to the depth of four
or five feet. The season was much colder than in 1849, the sea more
loaded with ice, and the terrestrial vegetation less vigorous.’

264 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

No. III.

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS
IN THE COUNTRY NORTH OF THE 49th PARALLEL
OF LATITUDE,

Generic and Specific Forms of Plants’ Decrease in Number as the
Latitude increases. — Analogy between Altitude and Increase of
Latitude. — Culture of the Vine.— Of the Cerealia. — Maize. —
Wheat.— Oats.— Barley.— Potatoes. — Botanical Districts. — Their
Physiognomy.— Woodland District.— Barren Grounds. — Prairies.
— Rocky Mountains. — Sitka. — Polar Plants. — Arctic Zone. —
Trees and Shrubs. — Table of Distribution of Species in three
several Zones. — Carices. ,

TuouGcH the tsotheral lines, when the term is restricted
to the mean temperatures of the three summer months
of June, July, and August, run from Lake Superior
northwards to the Mackenzie, yet the short duration of
the summer on the banks of that river, and the occasional
frosts in June and August, and in some years even in July,
render the climate unsuitable for numbers of vegetables
which flourish in the northern districts of the United
States. Many trees, shrubs, and perennial roots can be
frozen without injury if the frost be continuous throughout
the winter; and they acquire so much irritability in their
hybernation, that the stimulus of perpetual though less
fervid day within the arctic circle causes them to perform
the functions of foliation and fructification with a rapidity
unknown in more temperate regions. Other plants which
need longer time to perfect their fruit or woody fibre, ter-
minate in succession according to their several constitutions
as the latitude increases. ‘Their place is only partially

LAKE TITICACA. 265

supplied by other species, which have in like manner
their equatorial and polar limits. These are not, how-
ever, so numerous as those which die out, there being
no rule more general than the decrease of generic and spe-
cific forms in passing from temperate zones to arctic or polar
ones.

There is a similarity in many respects between the vege-
tation of alpine tracts and that of high latitudes, but not
an identity, the condition of the two regions differing in
some essential particulars. No more apt illustration of
this fact is needed than that adduced by Meyen, of
Titicaca. This alpine lake, situated on the plateau of
Chuquito in southern Peru, at the elevation of 12,700 feet,
is surrounded by a rich and beautiful vegetation, which
flourishes under a perpetual spring. On its banks a popu-
lous community, inhabiting magnificent cities, is supported
by a fertile soil, yet trees are wanting in the country;
whereas we have seen that the pine forest extends in North
America to the 69th parallel beyond the limits of the
cerealia. On the shores of Lake Titicaca barley and oats
grow, but wheat does not succeed, and maize is raised only
by artificial heat. In respect of these products, therefore,
its climate agrees with that of Fort Simpson on the 62nd
parallel. Its summer heat, which, according to Meyen,
ranges between 52° and 66° Fah., is more equable than
that of Fort Simpson which has a mean daily summer
temperature of about 59° Fah., with a mean at noon of
70° Fah.; anda range of from 90° Fah. down to below the
freezing point.

It is necessary to remark, however, that the decrease of
vegetable forms with an increase of latitude has more
analogy to that which is observed on a lofty isolated moun-
tain than on an elevated plateau ; and plants actually grow
on the summits of the White Mountains of New Hamp-

266 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

shire which are not met with again until we reach the
shores of the Arctic Sea.

The peculiarities of the climate of Canada and Rupert’s
Land may be in part shown by reference to a few of the
plants usually cultivated for food. The vine would thrive
with the summer heat of Fort Simpson were the season
long enough ; but the September and October heats, which
are required to ripen its fruit, do not occur in any district
of Rupert’s Land; and the grape is destroyed by the
severe night frosts which are frequent in autumn even in
so low a parallel as the north shore of Lake Superior. The
conditions essential to the due growth of the vine, mentioned
by Meyen*, do not extend in the basin of the St. Lawrence
beyond the 43rd parallel, while on the Rhine wine is a
profitable production up to the 51st.

Maize is a plant which thrives best in the dampest and
hottest tropical climates, where it brings forth eight hun-
dred-fold. Its culture extends into temperate regions, but
with a greatly diminished yield; and it is cultivated near
its northern limit only as a green vegetable, the grain seldom
ripening, and being eaten in its milky state. This is its
condition in most parts of Great Britain, when reared in
the open field. On the western shore of Europe it is not
cultivated beyond 46°, though in the valley of the Rhine
it extends to 49° north lat. In South America, on the
Chili coast, it is planted as low as 40° south lat.; and on

* This author states that the culture of the vine is regulated more
by the length of summer than by its high temperature, though the
latter is also an element in the proper ripening of the grape. It will
succeed, he says, under every tropical heat, provided the atmosphere
be not too moist. It thrives well under a mean heat of 60° Fah.;
it ripens with a lower mean heat of 48° Fah., and a summer heat of
67° Fah., but the juice contains less sugar and yields less alchohol.
(Meyen, Geogr. of Plants.) :

WHEAT. 267

the Peruvian plateau, at the height of 12,000 feet, above
which it requires artificial shelter and warmth. A profit-
able return can be obtained from it in Rupert’s Land
between the 49th and 51st parallels, where, however, the
vine does not accompany it as on the banks of the Rhine.
Garden cultivation and shelter from spring frosts would
extend its cultivation in Rupert’s Land even higher than in
England. On the fertile acclivity of Young Street which
leads from Toronto to Lake Simcoe, and crosses the 44th
parallel of latitude, we may behold heavy crops of maize,
and cucumbers and gourds, ripening, in the same field, with
but little expenditure of care or labour, though the mean
annual heat, being 41° Fah., is inferior to that of the Ork-
ney and Shetland Islands, where barley, one of the most
northern of the cereals, grows imperfectly. The summer
heat of Young Street, however, exceeds that of any part of
the British Isles.

Wheat is the cereal which requires most heat of those
usually cultivated in England. Its culture is said to as-
cend to 62° or 64° north lat. on the west side of the Scan-
dinavian peninsula, but not to be of importance beyond the
60th. On the route of the Expedition it is raised with
profit at Fort Liard in lat. 60° 5’ north, long. 122° 31’
west, and having an altitude of between 400 and 500 feet
above the sea. This locality, however, being in the vicinity
of the Rocky Mountains, is subject to summer frosts; and
the grain does not ripen perfectly every year, though in
favourable seasons it gives a good return. At Dunvegan,
on Peace River, lying in lat. 56° 6’ north, long. 117° 45’
west, and at an altitude of 778 feet, the culture of this
grain is said to be equally precarious. It grows, however,
freely on the banks of the Saskatchewan, except near
Hudson’s Bay, where the summer temperature is too low.
From Mr. M*‘ Pherson I learnt, that on the west side of

268 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

the Rocky Mountains good crops of wheat are raised with
facility at Alexandria, on Frazer’s River, in lat. 52° 30’
north, long. 122° 40’ west, and 300 or 400 feet above the
sea; also at Fort George, on the same river, more than a
degree further north, and 100 feet higher.

At Fort James, on the borders of Stuart’s Lake, in lat.
541° north, in a mountainous region near the source of
Frazer’s River, wheat continues to grow, but often suffers
from the summer frosts. In these quarters the grain
comes to maturity in about four months. In the colony
of Red River its growth is luxuriant, though the upper
part of that country, which touches the 49th parallel of
latitude, is elevated about 1,000 feet above the sea. Period-
ical ravages of grasshoppers, however, frequently destroy
the hopes of the husbandman.

At Fort Francis, situated on the banks of Rainy River in
lat. 48° 36’ north, long. 93° 282’ west, wheat is generally
sown about the lst of May, and is reaped in the latter
end of August, after an interval of about 120 days. In
1847 multitudes of caterpillars spread like locusts over the
neighbourhood. They travelled in a straight line, crawl-
ing over houses, across rivers, and into large fires kindled
to arrest them. Throughout the whole length of Rainy
River, on the Lake of the Woods, and on the River
Winipeg, they stripped the leaves from the trees, and ate
up the herbage. They destroyed the folle avoine on Rainy
Lake, but left untouched some wheat that was just coming
into ear. This was the first time that Fort Francis had
experienced such a visitation. When we passed that way
in 1848, the still leafless trees were covered with the
coccoons of last year, in each of which there remained the
hairy skin of a caterpillar.

On the island of Sitka, lying in 57°—58’ north latitudes,
though the forest, nourished by a comparatively high mean

OATS. — BARLEY. 269

temperature and a very moist atmosphere, is equal to that
of the richest woodlands of the northern United States,
yet corn does not grow.

In the middle temperate zone of France wheat is culti-
vated to the height of 5,400 feet only. In Mexico its
culture commences at the altitude of 2,500 or 3,000 feet,
and ascends to more than 9,000 feet. On the plateau of
southern Peru, 8,000 feet above the sea, its yield is extra-
ordinary ; and on the foot of the voleano of Arequipa it
succeeds as high as 10,000; but it will not grow in the
equable temperature of Lake Titicaca, the heat there not
being sufficient to ripen either it orrye. It requires for its
growth, says Meyen, the mean annual heat of 39° Fah.,
combined with a summer heat of 56° Fah. : a much inferior
mean heat is, however, sufficient in the extreme climate of
subarctic America, provided the summer heat for 100 or
120 days be great enough.

Oats are little cultivated in Rupert’s Land; they re-
quire longer time than barley to ripen, and are therefore
not likely to grow so far north. They have not been
tried at Fort Norman, however, which is the most ad-
vanced post in that direction where barley is cultivated.
Mr. M‘ Pherson finding some grains of oats accidentally in
a barley field, propagated them, and raised some good crops
on the River of the Mountains, and I believe also at Fort
Simpson. On the Scandinavian peninsula this grain is said
to extend to 621° N. and 65° N., but, even on the latter
parallel, falling five degrees short of the latitude which
barley reaches. Meyen saw ripe oats at Lake Titicaca.

In good seasons barley ripens well at Fort Norman on
the 65th parallel, as has been mentioned in the narrative
(Il. p. 165.). All Mr. Bell’s attempts to raise it at Fort
Good Hope, two degrees further north, failed. It reaches,
as we have just observed, the 70th degree of latitude on

270 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

the Scandinavian peninsula, and it is cultivated for green
fodder in Peru up to the height of 13,800 feet, but seldom
ripens its grain higher than 10,000 feet. (Meyen.)

Potatoes, which have been cultivated from time immemo-
rial on the banks of Lake Titicaca, yield abundantly at
Fort Liard, and grow, though inferior in quality, at Fort
Simpson and Fort Norman. They have not succeeded at
Fort Good Hope, near the 67th parallel. At the latter
place turnips in favourable seasons attained a weight of
from two to three pounds, and were generally sown in the
last week of May. At Peel’s River the trials made to grow
culinary vegetables had no success. Nothing grew except
a few cresses. Turnips and cabbages came up about an
inch above the ground, but withered in the sun, and were
blighted by early August frosts.

In the preceding narrative, as well as in the geographical
sketch, we have had frequent occasion to allude to several
great divisions of North America, each of which has a
peculiar physiognomical character in its vegetation.

Ist. The eastern woodland country constitutes the first
division, in which the forest extends from the Atlantic
westward till it meets the great prairies.

2nd. The second division lies to the north of the forest
lands, and is appropriately named the ‘“ Barren Grounds.”
This tract has its greatest north and south extension
on the eastern coast. On the shores of Hudson’s Bay
and the Welcome it reaches from the 60th or 61st pa-
rallel to the extremity of the continent, but narrows to
the westward; since the boundary line of the woods takes
a diagonal or north-east direction from the 91st meridian,
and, before reaching the 120th, has risen to the 67th
parallel. Further to the west the Barrens Ground form a
border to the Arctic Sea of greater or less breadth accord-
ing to the northerly prolongation of the continental pro-

DISTRICTS OF VEGETATION. pA

montories, since the southern limit is nearly coincident
throughout with the arctic circle, on which it approaches
Beering’s Straits — clumps of spruce fir*, the usual outliers
of the forest, having been observed on Buckland or Noatak
River which falls into Eschscholtz Bay. The fertile
alluvial deposits of the well-sheltered valley of the Mac-
kenzie interrupt the continental continuity of the Barren
Grounds by carrying the woods nearly to the sea shore;
but there seems to be no other material indentation of the
barren district; and even on the Mackenzie the valley is
bridged, as it were, by the naked summits of the alpine
ridges.

3rd. The prairie slope forms a third physiognomical
district of vegetation, which has the greatest transverse
expansion on the Missouri, and, narrowing as it goes north,
runs out on the 60th parallel, having, after passing the
Saskatchewan, been much indented by the woods which
feather the numerous rivers that drain the declivity.
These prairies have much analogy with chalk downs in
aspect as well as in mineral constitution.

4th. The Rocky Mountain chain, and the alpine ranges
and isolated peaks which rise to the westward of it, may be
considered as a fourth district which nourishes some pecu-
liar species of plants.

5th. And the lower woodland country on the Pacific
side of the range forms a fifth.

If we trace any one of these districts northwards, making
due allowance for the varying altitude of the country above
the sea, we may ascertain the effect of increase of latitude
on the vegetation of that meridian; but, if we compare one
district with another, we must keep in view the climato-
logical fact of the rise of the isothermal lines in proceeding
westward. The course of the forest boundary is one illus-

* The species is doubtful.

272. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

tration of this phenomenon; and we have another in the
range of certain species or forms constituting that forest.
Thus the Cupressus thyoides is rare beyond the 49th
parallel in the eastern district, and terminates altogether
along with the Thuya occidentalis on the 53rd, while the
magnificent Cupressus or Thuya nutkatensis adorns the
forests of Norfolk Sound on the 58th parallel of the Pacific
coast. The distribution of the Pinus inops, Abies cana-
densis, Rubus nuthanus, and of some other conspicuous
trees and shrubs, show that the vegetation of the district
of Sitka on the north-west coast is equal and similar to
that of the eastern states of Wisconsin or Minesota eight
degrees further south.

The physiognomy of the woodland district through which
the canoe route lies has been incidentally touched upon in
the descriptions of several localities that have been intro-
‘duced into the narrative, yet it will not be out of place to
recall its general features here. Of this district, which
has a breadth of about 600 geographical miles between the
50th and 55th parallels, the white spruce is the most
abundant and characteristic tree; yet up to the 54th pa-
rallel it is conjoined, and especially on the banks of rivers,
with other trees which break the monotony of the dark
evergreen forest. Beyond the banks of the Saskatchewan
the oaks, elms, ashes, maples, bass-wood, white thorns,
Virginian clematis, and various other trees and shrubs
cease to grow; and the white spruce may be said to cover
the face of the country, except on the alluvial borders
of rivers and lakes, where the aspen, balsam poplar, balsam
fir, alder, and multitudes of willows usurp its place, or on
the edges of swamps where the black spruce leads a linger-
ing, unhealthy existence. With the black spruce the larch
is often associated; though it is not confined to morasses,
yet it is too much isolated in its distribution to produce a

WOODY DISTRICT. 28

difference of tint sufficiently massive to please the eye,
except in a very few localities. The Banksian pine is
more frequently seen in considerable patches, and its ap-
pearance is agreeable to the voyager; for, independent of
the fact that its spreading branches and general form, re-
sembling that of the Scotch fir, is a rest to the eye
wearied with the tapering stiffness of the spruce, it offers
the prospect of a dry and comfortable encampment. It
always grows in a sandy soil, and is remarkable among the
Rupert’s Land trees for its freedom from underwood. Not
so the white spruce, which admits of a thick undergrowth
of willows, cornel bushes, viburnum, roses, brambles, and
gooseberries ; and, in the country south of Lake Winipeg,
of maples, American yews, and many other shrubs and
trees. The willows, especially when conjoined with the
falling or inclined stems of forest trees — the growth of
bygone centuries, form a barrier to the progress of a white
man in the forest; but the slim and agile native glides
through the tangled thicket with a noiseless and ghost-
like ease, impassive to the annoyance of the moscheto
clouds that darken the air. The prickly twming Panax
horridum, which interlaces and arms the brushwood on the
north-west coast up to the 58th parallel, has no represen-
tative on the east side of the continent, except perhaps the
Aralia hispida, which, though of the same family, has feeble
defences, and is not a climber. The Crategi have the
most offensive weapons of any of the shrubs in Rupert’s
Land.

Even beyond the Saskatchewan, where the maples, am-
pelopsis, and some other trees and shrubs whose leaves
assume the orange and red tints before they fall, cease to
grow, the river banks are enlivened by the bright purplish
shoots of the white cornel berry (oster rouge) and the gay
spires of the Epilobium angustifolium, which rise above a

VOL. II. dk

274 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

man’s height in the alluvial deposits, and are varied also by
other shrubs that have been noticed in the descriptions in-
terspersed through the preceding pages. These are merely
the foreground incidents, however; the sombre spruce
everywhere forms the back ground.

The agency of man is working a change in the aspect of
the forest even in the thinly peopled north. The woods
are wasted by extensive fires, kindled accidentally or in-
tentionally, which spread with rapidity over a wide extent
of country, and continue to burn until they are extin-
guished by heavy rains. These conflagrations consume
even the soil of the drier tracts; and the bare and whitened
rocks testify for centuries to the havoc that has been made.
A new growth of timber, however, sooner or later springs
up; and the soil, when not wholly consumed, being gene-
rally saturated with alkali, gives birth to a thicket of
aspens instead of the aboriginal spruce.

The frozen subsoil of the northern portions of the wood-
land country does not prevent the timber from attaining a
good size, for the roots of the white spruce spread over the
icy substratum as they would over smooth rock. As may be
expected, however, the growth of trees is slow in the high
latitudes. On the borders of Great Bear Lake, four hun-
dred years are required to bring the stem of the white
spruce to the thickness of a man’s waist. When the tree
is exposed to high winds, the fibres of the wood are spi-
rally twisted; but in sheltered places, or in the midst
of the forest, the grain is straight, and the wood splits
freely.

At the limit of the woods the white spruce is everywhere
the most advanced tree, growing either solitarily, with its
branches clinging to the ground and its dwarfed top bent
from the blast, or in small clumps in some favourable
locality. The Salix speciosa may indeed be said to pass

WOODY DISTRICT. 275

beyond the spruce; but it does so only on the alluvial
points of rivers, and not in its tree form.

Though the species of plants become less numerous as
we advance northwards through the woody region, there is
no falling off in the number of individuals of the species
that remain. For not only is the forest crowded, and often
almost impenetrably so, when the trees are young, but on
the margins of rivers, and other open places, there is a
dense herbaceous vegetation, which clothes the ground in
Rupert’s Land as perfectly as it is covered in a lower lati-
tude, though the vegetation be less rank. On the inun-
dated alluvial flats tall carices grow as closely as they can
stand, and furnish an abundance of nutritious hay. There is,
however, a total absence in the north of the Lianas, Tilland-
ste, and parasitic Orchidee, which impart so peculiar an
aspect to the forests in some of the warmer districts of
the earth. The great hedge bindweed, (Calystegia,) the
Virginia creeper, the hop plant, and the twining herba-
ceous Smilacina, with its grape-like clusters of blackberries,
disappear on the south side of Lake Winipeg, and the only
aerial parasite in the north is the leafless Arceuthobium
oxycedri, which seats itself on the branches of the Banksian
pine. The graceful Usnee which hang from the branches
of the ancient black spruces in long, thread-like hanks,
have, it is true, some resemblance to the Til/andsie which
forms an elegant drapery to the ever-green oaks of Georgia
and Florida.

In the eastern woodland district, from the St. Lawrence
to the Saskatchewan, the Composite are the most nume-
rous family of plants, and they form between the sixth and
seventh of the whole phenogamous vegetation. Next to
them come the Cyperacee, which, owing to the great
development of the genus Carex, constitute more than one-

ninth of the Phanerogamia of the district.
T 2

276 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

In the second, or barren ground district, in places where
the soil is formed of the coarse sandy débris of granite, and is
moderately dry, the surface is covered by a dense carpet of
the Cornicularia tristis, divergens, ochroleuca, and pubescens,
mixed in damper spots with Cetrarie cucullata and islan-
dica. In more tenacious soils other plants flourish ; not,
however, to the exclusion of lichens, except in tracts of
meadow ground. The Rhododendron lapponicum, Kalmia
glauca, Vaccinium uliginosum, Empetrum nigrum, Ledum pa-
lustre, Arbutus uva ursi, Andromeda tetragona, and several
depressed or creeping willows, lie close to the soil, their
stems short, twisted, and concealed, with only the summits
of the branches showing among mosses or lichens. Here
and there, on the moister sides of the hills, there is a gay
display of saxifrages, pediculares, or primroses; and a few of
the sandy spots on the coast are enlivened by a beautiful
dwarf phlox or a handsome dodecatheon. On the alluvial
banks of rivers only are willows of erect growth to be
found, and of these the Salix speciosa is the most robust and
the handsomest. On the sandy shore of the sea the Pisum
(or Lathyrus) maritimum, the Polemonium ceruleum, various
blue and yellow Astragali, and several Artemisi@ flourish.
Most of these plants also occur, though more sparingly, in
the interior. One circumstance which came under my
observation, and has been cursorily alluded to in the Narra-
tive (I. p. 322.), is the existence of very ancient stumps of
trees, either solitary or grouped, in various places of the
barren grounds, seemingly the vestiges of the forest, which
had spread more widely over the country some centuries ago
than in the present day. Further evidence that such was
the case may be obtained in the extension of Pyrole, and
some other woodland plants, to the coasts of the Arctic Sea.
On the sheltered banks of rivers, even in the barren
grounds, clumps of living trees occasionally occur; but the

BARREN GROUND DISTRICT. ed.

stumps I speak of stand often on the exposed side of a hill,
and indicate a deterioration of climate, however that may
have been produced. We saw no young firs growing up
in such situations to leave similar vestiges in a future
age.

In many sheltered valleys on the sea-coast, and even
in the more elevated interior, especially where a fertile
soil has been formed by the decomposition of trap rocks,
there is a good growth of grasses, several of which flourish
well on lands that are occasionally inundated by the sea.
Among these are Elymus mollis, Spartina cynosuroides,
Calamagrostis stricta, Carices stans, compacta, glareosa, mem-
branacea, and livida, Colpodium, Deschampsia, Festuca, and
several Poe. In some of the maritime meadows to which
the reindeer resort to bring forth their young, there are
treackerous mud-banks, which are soft enough and deep
enough to swallow up a deer or musk ox, that may rush
heedlessly into them when chased by a wolf; but in general
the frozen subsoil is so near the surface as to preclude any
such accident. The existence of these boggy places, which
were seen only on the sea-coast, scarcely affords a satis-
factory solution to the problem of the entombment of a
living elephant or rhinoceros, and the subsequent preser-
vation of the entire carcass in the frozen soil. But in
whatever manner this may have taken place, I should infer,
from the economy of the arctic regions, that these animals
were migratory, like the reindeer of the present day, and
wintered in milder climates.

On approaching the arctic circle the relative proportion
of the Composite greatly decreases, and that of the Cype-
race@ increases within the woody tracts, though it falls
off on the barren grounds. Taking the whole zone between
the arctic circle and the extremity of the continent, which

includes much woodland, the Cyperacee are the most
tr 3

278 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

numerous family of plants, and are more than double the
Graminee. The Crucifere come next to the Cyperacee
in this zone. In the polar regions beyond the continent,
the Crucifere take the first place in respect of number of
species, then come the Graminee, which are closely fol-
lowed by the Sazifragee.

The third, or prairie district, has the prevailing aspect of
a grassy plain, the herbage, however, having a considerable
intermixture of carices among the true grasses. The
herbage grows up rather wiry in the dry summers of that
region; but, in consequence of the fires that frequently
spread over vast tracts, a young growth takes place, to
which the bison and deer resort. On the Arkansas, the
“buffalo or bison grass” is the Sesleria dactyloides.
Whether this species extends to the Saskatchewan or not,
I am unable to say: we certainly did not gather it there ;
but at the time that Mr. Drummond and I visited that
part of the prairie, recent fires had made flowering speci-
mens of grasses very rare. Of the phenogamous prairie
plants actually collected, the Graminee form about the
eleventh, and the Cyperacee the sixteenth. On the plains
the Composite are numerous and showy; there is a con-
siderable variety of handsome Leguminose, with some pretty
Boraginee ; and the Artemisie, owing to the quantity of
surface they cover, though the species are not numerous,
contribute greatly to the hoary aspect of the prairie vegeta-
tion. The Rosacee vie with the Cyperacee in number of
species ; but many of them are fruit-bearing shrubs, growing
on the banks of the rivers that serpentine among alluvial
points, in channels sunk deeply below the general surface
of the prairie.

Between the 32nd and 33rd parallels, on the Gila and Rio
del Norte, west of the Rocky Mountain ridge, Colonel Emory
gathered many examples of Cact?, of which Dr. Engelman

PRAIRIE DISTRICT. 279

has described fifteen species belonging to the genera Mam-
millaria, Echinocactus, Opuntia, and Cereus. Among these,
the Pitahaya, or Cereus giganteus, is the most remarkable,
as it grows in the shape of a candelabra, or Titanic tuning-
fork, with three or four prongs, to the height of sixty feet.
Cacti are numerous also on the eastern side of the moun-
tains in the same parallel; and the smaller kinds, chiefly
Opuntie, range northwards over the prairies to the 49th
parallel, and perhaps still further north. We gathered
Opuntia glomerata, or the crapaud verd of the voyagers, on
the Lake of the Woods; and a species of the same section
of the genus attains an equally high parallel on the Pacific
coast.

With the physiognomy of the vegetation on the Rocky
Mountains, and of the district to the west of that range,
Lhave no personal acquaintance, and borrow the following
notice of the vegetation of Sitka from Bongard. Sitka is
situated in the entrance of Norfolk Sound, on the 57th
parallel, near an extinct volcano, named Mount Kdge-
cumbe, which marks the entrance of the sound. The most
remarkable mountain in the immediate vicinity of the
settlement is Westerw6i, which is 3,000 Parisian feet in
height, and is clothed to its summit by a dense forest of
pines and spruces, some of which acquire a diameter of
seven feet, and the prodigious length of 160 feet. The
hollow trunk of one of these trees formed into a canoe, is
able to contain thirty men, with all their household effects.
The climate of Sitka is very much milder than that of
Europe on the same parallel. The cold of winter is neither
severe nor of long continuance; but the atmosphere is
charged with vapours, whose condensation occasion almost
constant rains. In the month of July the sun is seldom

visible on more than three or four days, and then only for
wh Gs

280 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

an instant. This humidity gives astonishing vigour to the
vegetation, yet corn does not grow there; and, in fact, the
want of level surface is an impediment to cultivation. In
six weeks the botanists collected 222 species of plants, of
which thirty-five were new to science.

Of the Polar plants, amounting to ninety-one species,
which inhabit Melville Island, the shores of Barrow’s
Straits and Lancaster Sound, and the north coasts of Green-
land, between the 73rd and 75th parallels of latitude,
about seven-ninths range to Greenland, Lapland or
Northern Asia. Of the remainder, some have been
gathered on the shores of the Arctic Sea from Baffin’s
Bay to Beering’s Straits; and it is probable that if
these high latitudes were fully explored, the flora of the
entire zone would be found to be uniform. Some of the
more local plants will perhaps be ascertained, on further
acquaintance, to be mere varieties altered by peculiarities
of climate. That the flora as well as the fauna in the high
northern latitudes is nearly alike in the several meridians
of Europe, Asia, and America, has long been known. And
even when we descend to some distance south of the arctic
circle, we find that this law is superior to the intrusion of
high mountain chains, and is but partially infringed upon.
In taking the St. Lawrence basin for instance, if we allow
for the rise of the isothermal lines on the west coast, and
make our comparisons in an oblique zone, including Sitka
and Wisconsin, we shall find that there is much similarity
in the floras on the two sides of the continent. The Rocky
Mountain ridge is not by any means a boundary to the
peculiar vegetable forms of the Pacific coast; on the con-
trary, many of them cross the ridge to its eastern declivity,
though they do not descend into the low country; and
there is actually more similarity between the vegetation of

POLAR PLANTS. 281

the prairies of Oregon, and those of the Missouri and Sas-
katchewan, than there is between the latter and the eastern
parts of the United States and Canada. In still more
southern latitudes the case may be different ; and Ehrenberg
has found a totally different group of Infusoria in California
from that which exists on the east side of the continent;
the Rocky Mountains, in his opinion, proving a complete
barrier to these organisms.

The families of Polar plants which are most rich in species
are the Crucifere, Gramineae, Saxifragee, Caryophyllee,
and Composite. Of these the Sazifragee are most cha-
racteristic of extreme northern vegetation. All of them
that inhabit the 74th parallel in America are found also in
Spitzbergen, Lapland, or Siberia; and even the polar
species are twice as numerous as those which exist in the
wide district which Gray’s “ Flora of the Northern States ”
comprehends. If we reckon all that enter the arctic circle,
we shall find them to be four times as many as those which
Dr. Gray enumerates; and we may add that the plant
which Humboldt traced highest on the Andes was a saxi-
frage. The Caryophyllee and Crucifere, which vie with
the saxifrages in number on the 74th parallel, include many
of the doubtful local species above alluded to. Of the most
northern Graminee, about one half are, as far as we yet
know, exclusively American; the few species which the
other families contain have as extensive a lateral range as
the saxifrages.

Arctic zone.-—On descending to the main land from the
71st parallel down to the arctic circle, including a zone of
four degrees of latitude, we find that the species have in-
creased eight-fold in number, and there is a large addition
of generic forms, as might be expected on entering within
the limits of the forest.

282 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

The Polar families are—

Ranunculacez Composite Polygonez
Papaveraceze Cichoracee Salicaceze
Crucifere Eupatoriacee J unceve
Caryophyllez Senecionidee Cyperaceze
Leguminosze Campanulaceze Graminez
Rosaceze Ericee Lycopodineze
Onagrariz Polemoniacez Equistaceze
Saxifragez Scrophularineze Cryptogamia

In addition to the above the following enter the Arctic

Circle :—
Sarraceniee Caprifoliacese Chenopodiez
Fumariaceze Valerianez Eleagneze
Violariez Compositee Santalaceze
Droseracez Asteroidee Empetre
Polygalez Vaccinie Urticeze
Linez Monotropez Betulaceee
Balsaminez Gentianez Coniferze
Celastrine Diapensiaceze Juncagines
Haloragee Hydrophyllez Aroideze
Ceratophyllez Boraginez Naiades
Portulacez Orobanchee Smilacez
Crassulacez Labiatee Melanthacez
Grossularie Verbenacese Asphodelez
Umbelliferze Primulaceze Orchideze
Araliacez Plumbaginez Tridez
Cornez Plantaginez Filices

I made a pretty full collection of lichens and mosses
within the arctic circle; but since so many of them are
almost cosmopolites, and a still greater number are common
to both the temperate and frigid zones, under similar con-
ditions of moisture and exposure, I have avoided swelling
the lists with their names. Fungi are not wanting in the
northern regions, but the difficulty of preserving them pre-
vented me from gathering many. All the families in the
above two lists are represented in England, except Dia-
pensiacee, which is a Lapland form; and Sarraceniee and
Araliacee which are more purely American.

Between the arctic circle and the south side of the Wini-
peg or Saskatchewan basin on the 50th parallel, embracing

ST. LAWRENCE PLANTS. 283

the entire width of the continent, the following families
make their appearance : —

Berberidez Terebinthaceze Euphorbiaceze
Nympheacez Cucurbitaceze Ulmaceze
Capparidez . Loranthacez Cupuliferse
Cistineze Paronychiez Myricez
Malvacez Jasmine Liliaceze
Tiliaceze Apocynez Alismacez
Hypericinez Asclepiacez Pontederiaceze
Acerinez Convolvulaceze Restiaceze
Ampelidez Solaneze Hydrocharide
Geraniacex Amaranthacez Marsiliaceze
Oxalideze Aristolochiez Salvinaceze
Rhamnez

The families which reach the St. Lawrence basin, but
do not extend northwards to the Winipeg valley, or enter
the western prolongation of that zone, are—

Menispermacez Hamamelidez Saururez
Podophyllez Composite Juglandace
Limnanthacez Vernoniacee Platanaceze
Oxalideze Acanthacez Camelineze
Rutaceze Nyctaginez Hypoxideze
Lythrariez Phytolacceze Dioscorez
Cacteze Laurines

To give a further view of the accession of families in
going southwards, the following are added from Dr. Gray’s
«Botany of the Northern States”: —

Magnoliacese Hippocastanaceze Nyssacez
Anonacez Melastomaceze Podostomez
Cabombaceze Hydrangez Balsamifluze
Resedacez Aquifoliaceze Amaryllidaceze
Elatinacez Ebenacee Heemodoracez
Anacardiacez Bignoniaceze Xyridacee

In tracing individual species to their northern limits, we
did not discover in any one instance that the crest of
a water-shed between successive transverse river basins
was a boundary to the plant. Many of the more remark-
able trees, oaks, &c. flourish in the neighbourhood of
Rainy Lake and on the upper part of Red River, but die

284 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

out on approaching the south end of Lake Winipeg. Others
go a degree or two further north to the banks of the Sas-
katchewan, about Cumberland House, and there make
their last appearance: among these are the ashes, elms,
and maples. Some which are not seen beyond that locality
on the canoe route, go three or four degrees further north
on the western side of the prairies, in the sheltered valleys
of the Rocky Mountains. In these valleys also the lamented
Drummond found a considerable number of the species of
the Pacific coast, their range not being cut short by the
dividing ridge, but being seemingly more effectually limited
by the dry prairies. It is unfortunate that the vertical
limits of the species gathered by Drummond in the moun-
tains were not noted, as a careful list containing that
element, and which no one was more able than he to make,
would have conveyed much information with respect to the
distribution of plants. The statistical enumeration of the
mountain species, collected between 52° and 57°, in the
subjoined table evidently contains a mixed flora; some
families having an arctic, almost a polar character; others a
subarctic, or almost temperate one.

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS.*

RANUNCULACEER. — Clematis virginiana is common to Oregon,
the eastern United States, and Canada, and extends northwards

to the Saskatchewan.
BEeRBERIDEH. — Berberis vulgaris has been found in Canada,

* T am indebted to Dr. Asa Gray for some valuable information
respecting the range in the United States of some of the trees in the
following list. The Northern States referred to in the list extend
from New England to Wisconsin, and south to Ohio and Penn-
sylvania, inclusive.

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 285

Newfoundland, and New England, and is considered as having
been introduced from England. The pinnate-leaved barberries
or Mahonie are natives of Oregon, and perhaps extend north-
wards into New Caledonia or Vancouver’s Island.

Cistinp&. — Hudsonia tomentosa grows in New Jersey and
Canada, on the borders of all the great lakes, and onwards on
the canoe route to Clear-water River on the 57th parallel, beyond
which it was not observed.

Tiw1acex.— Tilia glabra, the lime tree, white wood, or
bass wood, is a familiar ornamental and useful tree in the
United States and Canada. We observed it as far north as
Lake Winipeg, but only as underwood, sending out long flexible
branches, which the natives convert into temporary cordage.

ACERINEX. — Acer montanum (vel spicatum), the moun-
tain maple, has a range from Maine, Pictou, Wisconsin, and
Minesota, to the River Winipeg, and, from the beautiful orange
and red tints which its leaves assume in decay, is a great or-
nament to the woods in autumn. A. circinatum is confined to
the west coast, is common in Oregon, and extends to the British
territory on that side of the mountains. It grows in the woody
country only, and chiefly in the pine forests, where its pendulous
branches, taking root, form almost impenetrable thickets. The
close-grained tough wood is used by the natives for making
hoops.

A. saccharinum, sugar maple, with the variety, or perhaps
species, named A. nigrum by Michaux, has been traced by
Dr. Asa Gray along the Alleghany Mountains to Georgia. In
the low country it scarcely passes to the south of Pennsylvania,
but on the west side of the valley of the Mississippi is found as
far south as Arkansas. Its northern limit is a short way beyond
the 49th parallel on the elevated southern water-shed of Lake
Winipeg ; but it may, perhaps, attain a greater northern latitude
in the lower country of Canada. A little to the south of Rainy
Lake it yields abundance of good sugar. The variety named
bird’s-eye maple grows on one of the islands of the Lake of
the Woods, and has been employed for making gun-stocks.
Goat Island, at the Falls of Niagara, according to Mr. David

286 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Douglas, nourishes some of the largest sugar maples in North
America.

A. rubrum, red or swamp maple, ranges southwards, accord-
ing to Dr. Gray, to Florida, and round the whole Gulf of Mexico
to northern Texas; but some of the southern forms, he says,
would probably be considered by European botanists to be
specifically distinct from the northern tree. It grows in Nova
Scotia, throughout Canada, westward to Lake Winipeg and the
Rocky Mountains on the 52nd or 58rd parallel, and also crosses
that chain to the head waters of the Columbia.

A. pennsylvanicum, striped maple, or moose wood, comes
down along the coast to Boston, and follows the mountains
from Pennsylvania to the borders of Georgia, to which Dr. Gray
has traced it. It grows also in Kentucky, and was seen by us
on the banks of the Winipeg, where it has more the character
of a flexible willow than of a tree. A. macrophyllum is confined
to the mountainous country on the Pacific up to the 50th parallel,
and is one of the most graceful trees, rising to the height of
ninety feet, with a circumference of sixteen. A. dasycarpum,
white or silver maple, is a fine large ornamental tree, well known
in the United States. It is found on Lake Huron, but does
not appear to rise northwards out of the St. Lawrence basin.
Good sugar is made from the juice of this tree.

Negundo fraxinifolium or aceroides, ash-leaved maple, does
not, to Dr. Gray’s knowledge, grow wild in New England. It
abounds in Pennsylvania, and extends westwards to western
Texas and the Rocky Mountains, growing at the high elevation
of 6,000 or 7,000 feet near Santa Fé and the Pawnee Fork,
according to Lieut. Abert. It terminates northwards about
the 54th parallel on the banks of the Saskatchewan, and is the
tree which yields most of the sugar made in Rupert’s Land.
Though this product varies much with the skill of the operator,
the kind obtained from the juice of this tree is generally of a
darker colour than that which the true sugar maple yields.

AMPELIDEE. — Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Virginia creeper,
or American ivy, extends northwards to Lake Winipeg, and is
a great ornament to the protruding rocks over which it creeps.

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 287

It is a familiar shrub in the Northern States, but I have
not been able to ascertain its southern limit. The Vitis cor-
difolia or riparia, frost grape, grows, on the evidence of
collections made on my former journeys, as far north as the
south end of Lake Winipeg, on the 50th parallel. I did not
observe it on my late voyage, in which, indeed, I had very little
leisure to search for plants; and if it actually grows in so high
a latitude, it does not produce edible fruit so as to attract the
attention of the residents, who could give me no information
concerning it. Together with the Vitis estivalis, or summer
grape, it is common in Wisconsin and Minesota. Some of the
native American vines are cultivated in the eastern states; and
the Isabella grape, a variety of the Vitis labrusca, has an agree-
able though peculiar flavour.

ZANTHOLACEE. — Zanthoxylum americanum, northern prickly
ash, and Ptelea trifoliata, the shrubby trefoil, grow in Canada
and Wisconsin, where they seem to find their northern limit.

CELASTRINEX. — Staphylea trifolia, bladder nut; Ewonymus
atropurpureus, burning bush; £. americanus, strawberry
bush ; and Celastrus scandens, inhabit Canada and Wisconsin,
but were not observed to the north of Lake Superior. £. atro-
purpureus crosses the continent to Oregon.

Ruamnez.— Rhamnus alnifolius, alder-leaved buckthorn,
grows from Maine and Michigan northwards, to about the 58th
parallel. It is a low shrub, and is applied to no economical
purpose. &. purshianus is an Oregon plant, which extends to
Vancouver’s Island and New Caledonia. Ceanothus ameri-
canus, New Jersey tea, ranges from Maine, Michigan, and
Wisconsin, to Canada West, but was not gathered by us to the
north of Lake Superior. The C. levigatus, a west-coast species,
which extends from Oregon to Vancouver’s Island, seems to be
the only member of the genus that enters the British territory.
C. sanguineus is common in the valley of the Columbia, and
crosses the mountains to the upper tributaries of the Missouri,
forming one of the many instances of west-coast plants traversing
the dividing ridge to the eastern prairies, but not extending to
the eastern woodland districts.

288 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

TEREBINTHACER, or ANACARDIACEEH. — Rhus radicans or
toxicodendron, the poison oak; FR. aromatica, the fragrant
sumach ; and #. glabra, the smooth sumach, reach the banks
of the Saskatchewan, or latitude 45°. #. typhina and R. ve-
nenata extend to Canada, but have not been discovered north
of Lake Superior.

Lecumnosm.— Amorpha fruticosa, false indigo; A. cane-
scens, lead plant; and A. nana, grow abundantly on the
prairies of Osnaboya, and are the only shrubby leguminous
plants which extend to Rupert’s Land. Robinia pseudacacia
is plentiful in Canada East.

C#SALPINEE. — Gymnocladus canadensis, the Kentucky
coffee-bean tree; Cercis canadensis, red bud; and Cassia
chamecrista, partridge pea, have their northern limits in
Canada or Wisconsin.

RosacExz.— Prunus americana, the wild yellow plum, seems to
reach its northern boundary on the River Winipeg, not having
been observed by me beyond the 50th parallel. Lieut. Abert
gathered its fruit as far south as the banks of the Canadian and
Pawnee forks of the Arkansas, on the 40th parallel. It isa
common bush on the river banks in the Northern States. The
American plums and cherries require further investigation, as
the number of the species and their distinctive characters are
imperfectly known. ‘This one grows to the height of ten or
fifteen feet on the Winipeg, producing in the woods long flexible
branches, armed with a few slender sharp thorns. Its ripe fruit
is fleshy and well flavoured, but rather mealy, of a yellowish
colour inclining to orange. It has an ovoid shape, with a
shallow groove on one side like a peach, is nearly an inch in
diameter, and its stone is so much compressed that its thickness
is less than half its width; while its length, being 0°63 inch,
exceeds the width by a fourth part. The nut is oblique, with
convex valves, being circumscribed by two unequal curves.
One edge is acute, with a groove on each side of it; the other
edge is occupied by a narrow groove. I have been thus par-
ticular in the description of the northern fruit, that it may be
compared with plums growing in other districts. The fruit is

_

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 289

the Puckésaminan of the Crees; and La Prune, or the plum, of
the white residents.

The Nekd-u-mina of the Chippeways, or Theka-u-mina of
the Crees, and sand cherry of the residents on Rainy River
and Lake Winipeg, is a bush or small shrubby tree a foot and
a half high, which grows on sand hills. The bark of its annoti-
nous and biennial shoots is reddish, and the older twigs are
brownish, with small warty specks. When in fruit (in which
state only I examined it in September, 1849) the fruitstalks
are solitary, and spring from the base of the summer’s growth ;
they are rather more than half an inch long, or about equal to
the diameter of the fruit, which is black and rather austere,
but edible. The stone is 0°38 inch long, almost regularly
elliptical and acute at the ends, but more so at one end than the
other. Its valves are very convex, so that its width exceeds its
thickness very little. The sides are not acute-edged : one su-_
ture is depressed, forming a shallow groove; on the other side,
which is very obtuse and almost flattened, there is a furrow
above and below the suture, and rather remote from it. The
annotinous shoots are smooth, angular, and generally flexuose,
with the leaves springing alternately at the curves. The leaves
measure two inches and a half, the footstalk forming about one
fifth part of this length. ‘The lamina is lanceolato-elliptical ;
that is, nearly regularly elliptical, with an acute end, and a gradual
tapering into the footstalk; it is serrated by acute, appressed
teeth at the upper end, and is entire towards the footstalk ; its
under surface is pale and somewhat glaucous, the upper one
dark green, and both sides are perfectly smooth. The foot-
stalks are edged by the decurrent lamina for more than half
their length, and the deciduous linear-lanceolate stipule are
inciso-pinnate inferiorly. This cherry is probably the Cerasus
pumila of Michaux and later American botanists. It was not
traced by me beyond the 50th parallel.

Another small shrubby cherry grows, on moist sandy soil, by
the banks of rivers and lakes, from Lake Superior to the Elk
River on the 57th parallel. Its fruit is scarcely half the size of
the preceding, but is, like it, black, and hangs generally on

VOL. IT. U

2990 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

solitary footstalks, though the flowers grow by twos or threes
in short racemes. This shrub lies close to the ground ; makes
no approach to the tree form ; seldom exceeds a foot in height ;

and so much resembles the Salix myrsinites and some other
depressed willows, that, on looking for catkins, I have not been
undeceived until I found the footstalks of the last year’s cherries.
The fruit of this sand cherry is sweeter than that of the pre-
ceding one. Whether it be the Cerasus depressa of some
botanists I cannot determine ; nor do I pretend to clear up the
confusion that exists in botanical works respecting C. pumila
and depressa.

C. pennsylvanica, wild red cherry, the Pasts-so-wey-minan
of the Chippeways, and Péasi-a-wey-minan of the Crees, pro-
duces a small sour red fruit, which grows in a many-flowered
raceme on long slender footstalks. Its equatorial limit, accord-
,ing to the United States’ botanists, is the New England States
and Pennsylvania, where it is a slender tree 20 or 25 feet
high. Its polar limit is within the Saskatchewan basin, which
it ascends towards the base of the Rocky Mountains, nearly
to the height of 2,000 feet above the sea. C. virginiana, choke
cherry, is named by the Crees Ta-kwoy-minan, and by the
Dog-ribs Ki-e-dunné-yerré. It was found by Lieut. Abert on
the Kansas and Arkansas, and on Purgatory Creek; and is, in
northern latitudes, a shrub with long branches. At Fort Liard,
on the 61st parallel, it is 20 feet high, and on the confines of
the arctic circle, where it terminates, it does not exceed four or
five feet. The fruit can scarcely be said to be edible by itself ;
but it is often pounded, stones and all, and mixed with pemican.
C. serotina, wild black cherry, is a general inhabitant of
Rupert’s Land, extending westward to the valleys of the Rocky
Mountains on the Pacific side, where, however, it is generally
dwarfed ; and northwards to near Great Slave Lake. It is said
by Dr. Gray to be a fine large tree in the Northern States, with
purplish-black fruit, having a pleasant vinous flavour. Besides
these I gathered specimens of a cherry-tree, not in flower, on
Athabasca and Slave Rivers, which Sir William Hooker is in-
clined to consider as the C. mollis, discovered by the unfortunate

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 291

David Douglas, on the banks of the Columbia, growing on
subalpine hills to the height of from 12 to 25 feet.

Purshia tridentata inhabits the Rocky Mountain prairies
near the head waters of the Missouri and Columbia, and extends
northwards to the 49th parallel. Spirea opulifolia, nine bark,
ranges from Maine, Canada, and Wisconsin, westwards to the
valley of Oregon, in which it is found from the sources of the
Columbia downwards. It is common on the low islands of Lake
Superior, and has its polar limit in the colony of Red River.
S. chamedrifolia inhabits the north-west coast up to Sledge
Island in Beering’s Straits, and Chamisso Island in Kotzebue
Sound. It does not cross the Rocky Mountains, nor does any
other Sptrea go so far north on the east side of the continent.
S. betulifolia is another western species which inhabits the Blue
Mountains and Mount Hood, and crosses the Rocky Mountains
to their eastern valleys between latitudes 52° and 54°, but does
not descend to the lower eastern country. SS. tomentosa, hard-
hack or steeple-bush, is common in the meadows and low grounds
of New England, and spreads through Nova Scotia, Canada, and
Rupert’s Land to Lake Winipeg. SS. douglasit is an Oregon
species resembling the preceding, which extends to the Straits
of Da Fuca. 8S. ariefolia forms part of the underwood in
forests on the Pacific coast, on the MKooskoosky, Spokan,
Flathhead, Salmon, and M‘Gillivray Rivers up to the 49th
parallel. S. salicifolia is very abundant on the banks of every
lake and river in the St. Lawrence and Saskatchewan basins,
and northwards to Slave River. It is often associated with the
Myrica gale, growing in the water. In its northern range it
approaches the S. chamedrifolia of the west coast, but does not
attain so high a latitude, owing to the greater severity of the
climate on the east side of the mountains.

Rubus occidentalis, black raspberry or thimbleberry, ex-
tends from the Northern States to the Saskatchewan basin, and
also to the Pacific coast. A. strigosus, wild red raspberry, is
also found on both sides of the continent; on the east side it
inhabits the United States, Newfoundland, and Canada, and
may be traced in the interior canoe route throughout the Sas-

u 2

292 GEOGRAPIIICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

katchewan basin. &. nutkanus, white flowering raspberry,
was discovered in Queen Charlotte’s Sound by Mr. Menzies in
lat. 51° on the Pacific coast, since which time it has been found
in Norfolk Sound, lat. 57°, and traced down to Cape Orford in
lat. 43°, and to the head waters of the Columbia in 52°. On
the eastern declivity of the Rocky Mountains it grows between
latitudes 52° and 54°, and on the River Winipeg, Lake Superior,
and Upper Michigan. Near the Pacific it is ten feet high, and
forms the underwood on the island of Sitka; but in the passes
of the Rocky Mountains dwindles down to a foot or eighteen
inches. In thickets on the Winipeg its leaves attain remarkable
dimensions: the fruit is inedible. 2. odoratus, purple flower-
ing raspberry, is a native of the Northern States, Canada, and
the country between Lake Superior and the Saskatchewan.
RR. spectabilis is a prickly shrub, ten feet high, inhabiting the
Pacific coast from Oregon to Unalashka. #. suberectus, bram-
ble. This species, which is also European, is an inhabitant of
Newfoundland, and of the country between Lake Superior and
the Saskatchewan, where it was found both in 1825 and 1848.
#. villosus is common in the Northern States, and is found also in
Nova Scotia and Canada-West up to Lake Huron and Wiscon-
sin. It is included in Elliott’s “ Flora Carolina,” but I have not
ascertained its equatorial limit. &. hispidus vel obovalis, run-
ning swamp blackberry, is common in the Northern States, and
extends through Canada to Lake Superior. &. canadensis (L.),
vel trivialis (Pursh), low blackberry or dewberry, has a similar
range with the preceding species. #. nivalis (Douglas), is
an alpine shrub, found on the snowy ridges of the Rocky Moun-
tains, and not growing more than six inches high. There are
also several herbaceous species of this genus; as R. triflorus,
dwarf raspberry, which is common in the Northern States and
throughout Rupert’s Land, northward to Slave and Mackenzie
Rivers. The Dog-ribs name it Taszlle-ki-eh. Its northern
limit is about lat. 68°. R. chamemorus, cloudberry, is found
on the White Mountains of New Hampshire near the limit of
trees; also in Maine and Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and
Labrador. In lat. 54°, and more to the north, it crosses the

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 293

continent, and is found on the summits of the Rocky Mountains
between latitudes 52° and 56°; in Unalashka, on the shores of
Beering’s Straits, and on the most northern promontories of
the continent. Near the Arctic Sea it is a common plant on
mossy plains, but produces fruit there only in fine seasons. The
fruit, which has a rich honey flavour, perishes with the early
frosts. It is perhaps the most delicious of the arctic berries when
in perfection, but cloys if eaten in quantity. R. stellatus, re-
sembling the preceding, has been found only at Fogey Harbour
on the north-west coast. 2. arcticus and PR. acaulis inhabit the
shores of Hudson’s Bay, Labrador, and the country westward
to Kotzebue Sound. Their southern limit seems to be in the
Saskatchewan basin, in about lat. 53°. On many parts of
the flat beaches of Slave and Mackenzie Rivers the lively red
flowers of #. acaulis cover large patches of ground which are
partially flooded by small rivulets. In woods the last-mentioned
species has a stouter growth, and emits long flagelli which run
among the mosses.

Potentilla fruticosa, the shrubby cinquefoil, grows abund-
antly from the northern states to the Arctic Sea, by river banks
as well as in the most exposed and elevated situations. It
occurs in the high valleys of the Rocky Mountains, at Pelly
Banks on the west side of that range, and in Kotzebue Sound.
On the Coppermine River near the sea it is almost herbaceous,
the woody stem being extremely short and subterranean.

Rosa woodsit, R. carolina, R. blanda, R. cinnamomea, R.
majalis, and fF. stricta grow in the wooded districts; but, from
their similarity to each other, their respective limits have not
been ascertained. AF. blanda was found flowering freely near
the mouth of the Mackenzie on the 69th parallel. This species
and &. cinnamomea cross to the Pacific coast. A. woodsi and
majalis have been traced as far north as the Mackenzie. &,
nitida and lucida grow in Newfoundland and in the New Eng-
land States. &. fraxinifolia is confined to the Pacific coast ;
and R. levigata has not been found beyond Lake Huron. AR,
setigera, a fine climbing rose, grows from Ohio to Wisconsin,

but kas not been detected to the north of the great lakes.
u 3

294 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Crategus punctata, dotted thorn, is found everywhere in the
Northern States, extends northwards to Wisconsin, and crosses
the continent to the coast of the Pacific; but has not, so far as
I have learnt, been found within the British territory. C.
glandulosa occurs in Canada, and northwards to the south side
of the Saskatchewan basin; probably also on the Pacific coast.
C. coccinea, scarlet-fruited thorn, is a common low tree in the
Northern States; was found by Lieut. Abert, as far south as
Stranger Creek, in lat. 89°; and extends to Wisconsin and the
great lakes. CC. cordata, Washington thorn, is supposed by
Dr. Asa Gray to have been introduced into New England, but
to grow wild in Pennsylvania and the more southern states.
Tt is found from Canada to the Saskatchewan and the valleys of
the Rocky Mountains, and about the sources of the Columbia,
in between lat. 52° and 54°. The Crategi flourish on the banks
of Rainy and Winipeg Rivers; but are scarce further north.
Mertens found several in the forest lands of Sitka. Amelanchier
canadensis (botryapium et ovalis), shad-bush and_service-
berry, is La Poire of the voyagers, the Misass-ku-tu-mina of
the Crees, and the T'ché-ki-eh of the Dog-ribs. This shrub ex-
tends along the banks of rivers nearly as far northwards as the
woods go, and produces fruit up to the 65th parallel on the Mac-
kenzie. It is common in the Northern States, in Nova Scotia,
Newfoundland, and Labrador, and westward to the Pacific.
The black fruit is about the size of a pea, is well tasted, dries
well, and in that state is mixed with pemican, or used for
making puddings: for which purpose it nearly equals the Zante
currant. Its wood, being tough, is used by the natives for
making arrows and pipe-stems, and has obtained on that account
the name of bois de fleche from the voyagers; but in the United
States the name of arrow wood is given to a different tree.
The variety or species named A. sanguinea was traced up to the
60th parallel.

Pyrus rivularis, Powitch tree, inhabits Oregon and Van-
couver’s Island. Its fruit is edible, and its wood, which is hard
enough to take a fine polish, is used for wedges. P. ameri-
cana, the American mountain ash, is found on the southern
parts of the Alleghanies, and more commonly in the swamps

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 295

and mountain woods of the Northern States. It is frequent on
the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior; but is seldom seen
on the canoe route beyond Lake Winipeg. On the acclivities
and in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains, however, it ranges
northwards to Fort Liard, near the 60th parallel. It has been
observed as high as the 56th degree of north latitudeon the Pacific
coast, from whence it extends southwards through the subalpine
regions of Oregon. P. arbutifolia, choke-berry, is common in
the damp thickets of the northern states, in Newfoundland, in
Canada, and onwards to the Saskatchewan basin; but was not
observed so far north as the immediate banks of that stream.
GROSSULARIEZ. — The species of this family seem to attain
their maximum number to the north of the United States.
Ribes oxyacanthoides, sharp-thorned gooseberry, inhabits New-
foundland, Canada, and the canoe route northwards to the 62nd
parallel, or perhaps further. &. eynosbati, prickly gooseberry,
is common in the rocky woods of the Northern States, and
accompanies the preceding species northwards to Slave Lake.
£. saxosum inhabits New England, the shores of Lake Huron,
and the valley of the Saskatchewan, extending also probably to
Oregon. &. hirtellum, short-stalked wild gooseberry, the most
common species in New England, extends to Canada, Wisconsin,
and northwards to Great Slave Lake. The preceding one seems
to be considered by Dr. Asa Gray to be a variety of this species.
R. lacustre, swamp gooseberry, is common in the most northern
parts of the United States, and Nova Scotia; crosses the moun-
tains to North California and Oregon; and extends northwards
along the Mackenzie, nearly or quite to its delta. It is the
Tagossay-ki-eh of the Hare Indians, which name is common to
several kinds of gooseberry in the Dog-rib country, where
there is a greater variety of species. £2. divaricatum is common
near Indian villages on the north-west coast, from 445° to
52° north lat. RR. rotundifolium, Michx. (triflorum, Willd.),
is a rare inhabitant of the mountainous districts of Oregon, and
inhabits the Northern States from Massachusetts to Michigan
and Wisconsin, but has not been found on the north side of

Lakes Superior or Huron. &. rubrum, the common red
u 4

296 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

currant, native both of Europe and America, extends from the
northern states very nearly to the shores of the Arctic Sea,
having been gathered beyond the 69th parallel; and it ranges
westward to Kotzebue’s Sound. It is the Ai-eh-eth-lule-aze of
the Dog-ribs and Hare Indians. W&. prostratum, fetid currant,
inhabits cold damp woods from Nova Scotia and the Northern
States northwards to the Athabasca, and westward to the Rocky
Mountains and Oregon. The fruit is produced in copious
racemes; but, in common with the foliage, it has an unpleasant
odour, and a strong taste of turpentine. &. hudsonianum.
This is the Nat-sinne of the Dog-ribs, and is a common goose-
berry from Hudson’s Bay to the Rocky Mountains and subalpine
districts of Columbia; also in a northerly direction on the
Mackenzie to lat. 67°. R. floridum, wild black currant, re-
sembles the preceding, and is a common species in the Northern
States, westward to Wisconsin, and ranges northwards to lat.
54°. RR. sanguineum, which has become so common an orna-
ment of our gardens, is a native of the Pacific coast only, where
it ranges from 88° north lat. to 52°. There are several other
very handsome species in Oregon, and, among others, the rich
P. aureum; but they have not been traced beyond the 49th
parallel. “

ARALIACEE. — Panax horridum, prickly ash-leaved panax,
a twining shrub common in California, Oregon, and New
Caledonia, as far north as 57° or 58°, crosses the Rocky
Mountain ridge to the upper tributaries of the Saskatchewan,
but does not descend to the eastward. <Aralia hispida, bristly
sarsaparilla, may be considered as the eastern representative
of the preceding, though it is scarcely shrubby, having merely
a very short, tough stem, almost buried in the crevices of the
rocks from which it springs.

CornE&.— Cornus alba vel stolonifera, red osier cornel. This
willow-like shrub, which is the oster rouge of the voyagers,
ornaments the river strands from the Northern States, Nova
Scotia, and Newfoundland, northwards to near the mouth of the
Mackenzie, and westward to the shores of the Pacific. It is
named by the Crees, on account of the bright red colour of its

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 297

twigs, Withkwa-pé-min-ahtik (red stick), and its fruit Muskwa-
mina (bear-berry), because the bears eat it. The Dog-ribs call
this berry, Kai-gossai-hi-eh. A warm decoction of the bark
and twigs is used by the natives for bathing their limbs when
swelled by fatigue. C. alternifolia, C. paniculata, C. sericea,
and C. cireinata, which are inhabitants of the Northern States,
are said to extend to Canada; but except the last named, which
occurs on Lake Superior, none of them were gathered by us
on the canoe route. C. sericea and C. florida, also Canadian
species, cross the continent to Oregon, but do not occur north
of the great lakes. The herbaceous C. canadensis reaches the
shores of the Arctic Sea, crossing the continent from east to
west; and the P. swecica, a European plant, is found in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on the west coasts of arctic America
as high as Kotzebue Sound, and southwards to Oregon; but has
not been detected in the interior districts.

LoRANTHACE&. — Arceuthobium oxycedri, this leafless para-
sitical shrub, is common to Europe, Central Asia, and North
America, where it grows on cedars and pine trees. On the eastern
declivities of the Rocky Mountains it ranges from lat. 52° to 57°
north, and also eastward to Hudson’s Bay, growing on the Pinus
banksiana. On the western side of the mountains, from the
Spokan River in 47° north lat. to near the sources of the Co-
lumbia, it infests the Pinus ponderosa.

CAPRIFOLIACEX.— Sambucus canadensis, black-fruited elder,
was gathered by Lieut. Abert on the Cottonwood Creek of the
Neosha, in lat. 883° north, at an altitude of about 1,400 feet.
It has its northern limit in the Saskatchewan basin, and ranges
westward from Nova Scotia across the prairies. S. racemosa
vel pubens, the red-fruited elder, is common in the Northern
States on the shores of Lake Superior, going northward to the
Saskatchewan, and westward to Oregon. Its polar limit, as far
as ascertained, is on the eastern declivity of the Rocky Mountains
between 52° and 59° north lat. V. prunifolium, black haw, or
sloe-leaved viburnum, reaches the north shore of Lake Huron;
but is more common in New York and Ohio. VI. lentago, sweet
viburnum, is a handsome tree in the Northern States, grows in

298 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Nova Scotia and Wisconsin, and extends northwards to the
south side of the Saskatchewan basin. V. nudum, withe-rod,
is more common from New Jersey southwards than towards
the great lakes; but occurs as far northwards as the last-named
species. V. dentatum, arrow wood, is common in the low
grounds of the Northern States up to Wisconsin, and is said by
Pursh to extend to Canada; but it seems to be rare in that
country. V. acerifolium, maple-leaved arrow wood, is a more
northern species; and, in common with other shrubs that ap-
proach the arctic circle, it crosses the Rocky Mountains to the
valley of Oregon, and also to Sitka. It has been traced as
far north as Great Slave Lake, occurs also in Newfound-
land, and is common in the rocky woods of the Northern States.
V. opulus vel oxycoccus. Sir William Hooker is inclined to
consider the European and American shrubs known by these
names—and of which the handsome snow-ball tree, or guelder
rose, is acultivated variety—to be one species, and Dr Asa Gray
unites them. In America the shrub extends from the Northern
States and Nova Scotia to lat. 68° on the Mackenzie, and perhaps
very nearly to the verge of the woods. It also crosses to the
Pacific coast, having been found in the valley of Oregon. Its
fruit, of a bright pinkish red colour, has a sharp acid taste, and
is the Mongsé-a mina (moose-berry ) of the Crees, and the Dunne-
hi-e or Indian-berry of the Dog-ribs and Hare Indians. The fruit
being sometimes used as a poor substitute for cranberries, has
obtained for the bush the name of cranberry tree in the Northern
States. V. edule, the pembina of the voyagers, was traced by
us northwards to the Elk River. It is much less common than
the preceding, and has a more fleshy and less acid fruit, of an
orange-red colour. The voyagers relish this fruit; and it has
given name to many of the rivers of Rupert’s Land. It is the
Nipi-minan (water-berry) of the Crees. Michaux, Dr. Asa
Gray, and other authors consider it to be scarcely a variety of
V. opulus: I have found, however, its foliage retaining pretty
constantly its peculiar character. In V. oxycoecus the lobes of
the leaves are separated by acute sinuses, and have long, taper-
ing, jagged, or deeply serrated points. In V. edule the sinuses

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 299

between the lobes are rounded, and the lobes themselves are
shorter, though the lamina of the leaf is cut to within a short
distance of its base. The European V. opulus has generally
obtuse sinuses, and a less deeply cut lamina, but the lobes also
short. Pursh, who separated V. oxyeoccus from edule, de-
scribed the bases of the leaves of the one as acute and of the
other obtuse; but, as there seems to be no difference in that
respect, it is probable that he meant the sinuses.

Diervilla trifida vel canadensis, bush honeysuckle, has a
herbaceous aspect, and is one of the most common underwoods
on the portages. It occurs in all the woody districts of the
Saskatchewan basin up to the acclivities of the Rocky Moun-
tains, but is rare to the north of Cumberland House. It grows
also on Lake Superior, in Wisconsin, Nova Scotia, and the
Northern States. Lonicera parviflora, small honeysuckle, has
a conterminous range with the preceding. L. douglasii gathered
on Saskatchewan is considered by Dr. A. Gray to be merely a
variety produced by cultivation. L. hirsuta, hairy honey-
suckle, is a coarse-leaved climber, common in moist rocky woods
of the Northern States, and Canada as far as Lake Huron, JL.
ciliata, fly honeysuckle, grows at Pictou, on the Catskill Moun-
tains, in Ohio, Wisconsin, generally throughout the rocky woods
of the Northern States ; also on Lake Superior, and northwards
along the whole Saskatchewan basin. ZL. ee@rulea, the mountain
fly honeysuckle, extends northwards to the arctic circle ; it like-
wise ranges from the Labrador coast and Newfoundland to the
Rocky Mountains, and we should suppose also to the Pacific
coast, since it is both a European anda Siberian species; but it
is not named by Mertens or Bongard among the Sitka plants,
nor does it appear to have been found by Douglas, Tolmie, or
Scouler in Oregon. It grows in Wisconsin, New Hampshire,
Massachusetts, and New York.

Symphoricarpus racemosus, snow-berry, and S. occidentalis,
wolf-berry, range from Vermont, Michigan, and Wisconsin, over
the St. Lawrence and Saskatchewan basins, to the 60th parallel
on the Mackenzie. They also occur in the Oregon valley, Van-
couver’s Island, and doubtless much further along that coast.

300 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Rusracex. — Cephalanthus occidentalis, button bush. This
shrub, which belongs to the sub-family of Cinchonee, occurs
in thickets of the Northern States and Canada, but does not
extend to Lake Superior.

Composira.— Of this large family no shrub has been
detected in the canoe route north of Lake Superior; though
the Crinitaria viscidiflora grows as high as the 55th parallel
on the banks of the Salmon River, west of the Rocky
Mountains, and on the upper branches of the Columbia above
the Kettle Falls. A small annual herb was found on the Sas-
katchewan, which Sir William Hooker placed next this species;
but, from the imperfect specimens, he could not ascertain its
genus satisfactorily.

VaAccInE&Z. — Gaylussacia resinosa, black huckleberry, is
common in the Northern States westward to Wisconsin, and
extends northwards to the Saskatchewan. Vaccinium corym-
bosum, common swamp blueberry, extends from the Northern
States to Newfoundland and Canada, as far north as Quebec,
but has not been gathered to the westward of Lake Superior.
V. pennsylvanicum, low shining-leaved blueberry, is very
common in the dry rocky woods of the Northern States,
Canada, and the country between Lakes Superior and Winipeg.
V. canadense, downy-leaved blueberry, is the most abundant
species by the sides of streams and in thickets, from Maine and
Michigan to the shores of Hudson’s Bay, and northwards in the
woody districts to the arctic circle. It extends also westward
across the mountains to the upper feeders of the Columbia.
V. uliginosum, bog bilberry, occurs on the summits of the New
Hampshire Alps; on the Green Mountains of Vermont, and
on Essex county mountains of New York; on the Newfound-
land, Labrador, and Greenland coasts; also from Lake Superior
northwards to the Arctic Sea. On the west side of the Rocky
Mountains it has been gathered on Sitka, Unalashka, and Kot-
zebue Sound. In Europe it grows in the forests of the higher
Jura, in England, and the Scandinavian peninsula. Beyond
the arctic circle its fruit is not abundant every year; but in
good seasons it is plentiful to an extraordinary degree, and is of

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 301

a finer quality than in more southern localities. It then affords
food to the bears and large flocks of geese, which fatten on it,
and acquire a fine flavour. The berries, when frozen by the
autumnal frosts, remain hanging on the bushes until the snow
melts in the following June, and may then be gathered in a
very juicy but tender condition. V. salicitnum, willow-leaved
bilberry, is an inhabitant of Unalashka. V. myrtillus, myrtle-
leaved bilberry, was gathered by Mr. Drummond on the
summit of the pass between the head waters of the Saskatche-
wan and Columbia, but has not been detected further to the east,
though it is a European plant. Chamisso found a Vaccinium on
Unalashka, which he was inclined to refer to this species ; but
his specimens were imperfect. Bongard, however, enumerates
it as existing among the plants gathered by Mertens on Sitka.
V. myrtilloides vel angustifolium is found in Canada, and
from Hudson’s Bay to the woody declivities of the Rocky
Mountains, between the 52nd and 54th parallels. It crosses the
dividing ridge also to the alpine valleys of Oregon, and to the
sea-coast further north, where the purplish-brown fruit is
eaten with relish by the natives. V. c@spitosum, dwarf bil-
berry, grows on the alps of New Hampshire, the shores of
Lake Superior near James’ Bay, and northward to the valley
of the Saskatchewan and the Rocky Mountains, between
52° and 57° north; also in the Oregon valley. V. ovali-
felium grows in Oregon from the mouth of the Columbia
up to the Portage River, near the crest of the Rocky Moun-
tains, on the 50th parallel, and also on the island of Sitka
at lat. 57° north. JV. vitis-id@a, cow-berry, or alpine cran-
berry, is the W%i-sa-gii-mina of the Crees, and the cranberry
most plentiful and most used throughout Rupert’s Land. ‘This
berry is excellent for every purpose to which a cranberry can
be applied; and though inferior to the V. oxycoccus in flavour
in autumn, is far superior to it after the frosts ; and, as it may
be gathered in abundance in a most juicy condition when the
snow melts in June, it is then a great resource to the Dog-ribs
and Hare Indians, as well as to the immense flocks of water-
fowl that are migrating to their breeding places at that date. It

302 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

grows in perfection, in the most exposed situations, round a
boulder or granite rock, over whose face its branches may
spread, and where it can have at one time both moisture and
the reflected heat of the sun’s rays. It is found at Danvers, in
Massachusetts, in Maine, and the higher mountains of New
England, where its fruit is reported by Dr. Asa Gray to be
barely edible, bitter, and mealy. In the parallel of Lake
Superior it spreads from the Atlantic to the Pacific (being
absent, however, on the prairies). In a higher latitude it
crosses the continent also from Churchill Fort to Sitka and
Kotzebue Sound, and it extends in the middle districts to the
Arctic Sea in latitude 71°. In Sitka its leaves are said to be
small. In Rupert’s Land they vary in size, according as the
plant is exposed or under shade. V. ovatuwm is common in
Oregon and rocky places of the west coast northwards to the
49th parallel. V. oxycoccus, dotted cranberry, is, like the pre-
ceding, common to the New and Old World. It grows in peat
bogs from New England and Wisconsin, northwards to the arctic
circle, and from Newfoundland and Labrador to the Rocky
Mountains, between 52° and 57° north lat.; in Sitka on the
latter parallel, and in Kotzebue Sound. V. macrocarpum,
American cranberry, is common in the peat bogs of the
Northern States, and has its limit in the Saskatchewan basin.
Tt crosses the continent from Newfoundland to Oregon; and the
natives near the mouth of the Columbia eat its fruit, when
boiled, under the name of Sw-labich. Chiogenes hispidula,
creeping snowberry, is common in the Northern States, where it
erows under evergreens in turfy places. It extends across the
continent from Newfoundland to the sources of the Columbia,
and northwards along the Rocky Mountains to the 55th
parallel.

Erice&. — Gaultheria procumbens, creeping winter-green
tea-berry, chequer-berry, partridge-berry, or box-berry. This
fragrant creeping shrub is a great ornament of the woods north
of Lake Superior. It inhabits moist woods in the Northern
States, grows at Pictou and on Lakes Huron and Superior, and

ir Bat =)
was traced by us northwards to the Lake of the Woods, or near

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 303

the 50th parallel. G.? myrsinites has hitherto been found on
the declivities of the Rocky Mountains only between the 52nd
and 57th parallels. Mr. Drummond says, that its small berries
have a delicious pine-apple flavour. The plant was cultivated
in the Botanic Garden at Glasgow, but I have not heard that
it produced fruit there. G. shallon is an Oregon plant growing
between Cape Mendocino and Puget Sound, but not extending
inland more than a hundred miles from the sea-coast. Epigea
repens, ground laurel, or trailing Arbutus, inhabits sandy and
rocky woods in the northern states, Canada, Nova Scotia, New-
foundland, and Rupert’s Land, as far north as the Saskatchewan.
Arbutus menziesii and A. tomentosa inhabit Oregon north-
wards to Puget Sound; but no true Arbutus has been detected
on the east side of the Rocky Mountains. Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi, bear-berry, is common to Europe and America, and
descends from the Arctic Sea-coast to Rainy Lake and the rocks
and hills of the Northern Sates. It crosses the continent to
the valley of Oregon, where the Chenook Indians mix its dried
leaves with tobacco. It is used for the same purpose by the
Crees, who call it Tchakashé-pukk ; by the Chepewyans, who
name it Kleh ; and by the Eskimos north of Churchill, by whom
it is termed Attung-d-wi-at. On account of the Hudson’s Bay
officers carrying it in bags for a like use, the voyagers gave it
the appellation of Sac-a-commis. On the north-west coast,
Mertens found it at Sitka, and it doubtless extends along the
whole coast. Its dry farinaceous berry is utterly inedible. A.
alpina, alpine bearberry, though a herbaceous plant, may be
mentioned with the others: it is also European. In the United
States the only habitat given is the Alps of New Hampshire ;
but it grows at a much lower altitude in Newfoundland and
Canada. It was found by Drummond on the Rocky Mountain
ridge, and is very common on the barren grounds beyond the
woody district, and along the whole arctic coast to Kotzebue
Sound. ‘There are two varieties, one with bright red and more
juicy fruit; the other, having a dark purplish-black berry, of
more fleshy consistence, and a stronger peculiar flavour. Both
are eaten in the autumn; and, though not equal to some of the

304 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

other native fruits, are not unpleasant. ‘The two kinds are
exactly alike in foliage. Andromeda hypnoides, moss-like an-
dromeda, an inhabitant of the Alps of New Hampshire, Mount
Marcy in New York, Labrador, and the north-west coast,
was not detected by us on the interior canoe route. A.
lycopodioides, a2 Kamtschatka plant was found by Chamisso
on Unalashka. A. cupressina inhabits the Rocky Mountains
in lat. 56° north. A. mertensiana and A. stelleriana, so named
by Bongard, were discovered on Sitka by Mertens. A. tetra-
gona is one of the most northern plants, being an inhabitant of
the north end of Spitzbergen. It occurs on all the islands and
coasts of the Arctic Sea, from Greenland to Kotzebue Sound,
at Sitka, and as far south as Mount Hood on the 45th parallel.
It is also a Lapland and Siberian plant. Like the two pre-
ceding species, it is rather a wiry herb than a shrub.. The
withered leaves of past years remain attached to the thread-like
stem, and may be used as fuel, a fact which Mr. Rae so fully
demonstrated, as we have mentioned, in a preceding page.
A, polifolia, rosemary andromeda, inhabits the Alps of New
Hampshire and New York, Wisconsin, Lake Superior, and the
country northwards to the Arctic Sea; also the whole breadth
of the continent from Newfoundland and Labrador to Sitka
and Kotzebue Sound, with the exception of the prairies. It is
an inhabitant also of the higher Jura. A. calyculata, rusty~-
leaved andromeda, grows in sphagnous bogs and on the flooded
strands of clear streams in the Northern States, and Rupert's
Land as far as the upper part of the Mackenzie, and also on the
shores of Beering’s Sea. A. racemosa, cluster-bearing andro-
meda, grows in the moist copses of Canada, Massachusetts,
and New Jersey near the coast, extending from thence south-
wards. A. ligustrina, privet andromeda, a common shrub of
the Northern States, extends northwards to the Saskatchewan
basin. In this genus and in Arbutus it may be noticed, that the
more herbaceous species have generally the highest range.
Phyllodoce taxifolia, or Menziesia cerulea. 'This English plant
grows on the New Hampshire Alps, and has been found on the
Labrador coast. Steller is also said to have gathered it on the

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 305

American coast and islands opposite Kamtschatka. M. ferru-
gmea and M. aleutica were found by Mertens at Sitka; the
former, which is one of Menzies’s discoveries, has since been
gathered by Seeman on the coast of Beering’s Sea, and the
latter was previously found by Chamisso on Unalashka. Men-
ziesia glanduliflora is one of Mr. Drummond’s discoveries on
the Smoking River, an elevated tributary of Peace River, on
the 55th parallel. It is remarkable for its gracefully drooping
yellow flowers. MW. empetriformis inhabits Vancouver’s Island
and the alpine districts of Oregon. MW. grahamii and M. inter-
media grow on the Rocky Mountains, in lat. 55° eastward of
their crest. MM. globularis inhabits the same districts on the
Smoking River northwards to 56°; and, according to Pursh,
it occurs also on the high mountains of Carolina, and on the
Cacapon Mountains, near Winchester, in Virginia. None of
the Menziesie are mentioned by Dr. Asa Gray as existing in
the Northern States; and it would appear that many of the
species are very local, particularly the alpine ones.

Kalmia latifolia, calico bush, mountain laurel, or spoon wood,
forms dense thickets on the mountains of Carolina and Penn-
sylvania, and is common northwards from Maine to Ohio and
Canada, where it is a much humbler shrub. It was not ob-
served by us on the north side of the St. Lawrence basin.
K. glauca inhabits moorish places from the Northern States to
the Arctic Sea, and crosses the continent to Sitka. A. angus-
tifolia, sheep laurel, is common in the Northern States and
Canada, to James’s Bay and Newfoundland. We did not
observe it on the canoe route north of Lake Superior. Azalea
viscosa inhabits the Northern and Eastern States and Canada,
but was not seen by us beyond the St. Lawrence basin. A.
nudiflora, purple azalea, or pinxter flower, a common shrub in
the Northern States, extends to Canada. The Rhododendron
maximum, which is common on the mountains of Carolina and
Pennsylvania, and is more rare in the Northern States and
Canada, grows also in Oregon, on the subalpine range of Mount
Hood, and more to the north on the high mountains near the
“ Rapids” of the Columbia. &. lapponicum, Lapland rose-bay,

VOL. II. x

306 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

is another arctic plant which is found isolated on the peaks of
the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and on Mount Marcy in
the north corner of New York. It has been gathered as far south
on the coast as the Labrador peninsula and the shore between
York Factory and Churchill River, and grows on the summits of
the Rocky Mountains on the 56th parallel, and throughout the
whole extent of the barren grounds from Repulse Bay to
Norton Sound, and northwards to the Arctic Sea. An infu-
sion of the leaves and flowering tops was drunk by us instead
of tea, but it makes a less grateful beverage than the Ledum
palustre. It is a Scandinavian plant. F. hamtschaticum is an
inhabitant of the north-west coast in lat. 53°, and of Una-
laschka, as well as of the Asiatic shore. RR. albiflorum, an
elegant and ornamental plant, was discovered by Drummond on
the Rocky Mountains between 52° and 57° of north latitude,
where alone it has been found.

Loiseleuria vel azalea procumbens inhabits the alps of New ©
Hampshire, and the coasts of Newfoundland, Labrador, Hudson’s
Bay, and the Arctic Sea; also the north-west coast at Mount Edge-
cumbe, Sitka, and Kotzebue Sound. Ledum palustre, narrow-
leaved Labrador tea, the Ka-hi-ki-pukwa (perennial leaves), or
the maskégo-pukwa (medicine leaves), of the Crees, is an in-
habitant of the colder parts of Canada, the coasts of Newfound-
land and Labrador, and the whole of Rupert’s Land to the
Arctic Sea, on whose shores it grows from Repulse Bay and
the mouth of the Thlewee-choh to Kotzebue Sound. It is also
found at Sitka; but Dr. Asa Gray has seen no specimens gathered
south of the United States’ boundary line. It is frequently
used as a substitute for tea. L. latifolium grows in the woody
districts of Rupert’s Land, often in the immediate vicinity of
the other species; but extends further south, being common in
cold boggy grounds in the Northern States.

MonotropE&.— Cladothamnus pyrolifolius ( Tolmiea, Hook.)
inhabits Norfolk Sound on the Pacific coast in lat. 57°, and the
country southwards to Puget Sound. Chimaphila umbellata,
Prince’s pine, Pipsissewa, goes northward to 53° on the Rocky
Mountains, but does not pass the 50th parallel in the much

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 307

lower country through which the canoe route lies. It crosses
the dividing range, descends to the mouth of the Columbia,
and is common in the Northern States. The Chippeways, in
whose country it grows abundantly, do not appear to have dis-
covered its admirable diuretic qualities. C. maculata is a
more southern species : it was gathered by us on the great lakes,
but is not common north of the Middle States.

JASMINE. — Fraxinus sambucifolia, black ash, is said to
grow in Virginia, and by Dr. Asa Gray to range from Maine to
Wisconsin. It also inhabits New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and
Canada. F. americana, white ash, was found by Lieut. Abert
on the Arkansas, high up on the western slope of the Missis-
sippi valley. It is a large forest tree in the Northern States.
It grows at Pictou, also off Lake Superior, Rainy Lake,
the River Winipeg, and the banks of the Saskatchewan,
to latitude 54° north, where it is stilla tree. /. pubescens, red
ash, does not grow thicker than a man’s thigh on Rainy River,
where it terminates near the 49th parallel. It extends south-
wards to the Middle States, and also across the mountains to
Oregon.

ELraGnace&. — Eleagnus argentea, silver berry, is a very
common shrub on the banks of rivers throughout the basins of
the Saskatchewan and Mackenzie, up to the 68th parallel of
latitude. Its dry husky berries are covered with the same
silvery epidermis that gives the hoary appearance to the leaves,
and are used by the Kutchin to ornament their dresses. This
apparently sapless fruit is often found in the stomachs of geese
on their northerly migrations. It is the wapow-muskwa-
minan, or “ white-bear berry,” of the Crees; and the branches,
which harden in drying, are used by the natives for making
pipe-stems. It ascends the Saskatchewan, and occurs in
Canada, but does not find a place in Gray’s “Flora of the
Northern States.” Shepherdia canadensis grows from Vermont
and Wisconsin northwards to beyond the arctic circle, and
is very common on the Mackenzie. Its small, red, juicy,
very bitter, and slightly acid, berry is useful for making an
extempore beer, which ferments in twenty-four hours, and is

x 2

a

308 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

an agreeable beverage in hot weather. S. argentea is a prairie
shrub common to the plains of the Missouri and Saskatchewan,
but which does not grow in the eastern districts. It is the
Mith-yui mina or blood-red berry of the Crees.

TuyMELE&. — Dirca palustris, leather-wood, is common in
the Northern States, and extends to the north side of Lake
Superior, disappearing about the Lake of the Woods.

EmpPETREE. — Empetrum nigrum occurs on the alps of
New Hampshire and New York, and is found throughout the
whole extent of Rupert’s Land up to the Arctic Sea, along
which it ranges to Kotzebue Sound, descending the western
coast to Sitka, and perhaps lower. It is absent only on the
prairies. In the more sandy tracts of the barren grounds it
covers the surface with its prostrate branches, that are loaded
with fruit in favourable seasons. The snow-geese feed and
fatten on the berries, which, after the fresh frosts, become very
juicy, and are highly refreshing to the weary and thirsty
traveller.

Utmace&. — Ulmus americana, white elm, was found by
Lieut. Abert on the Pawnee Fork in latitude 38° 10’ N., at an
elevation of 1,658 feet; and Dr. Asa Gray informs me that it
descends to Texas. It is a majestic tree in the Northern States,
much prized for its rapid growth and the beauty of its form.
Its wood is in requisition there for the use of wheelwrights.
On the north banks of the Saskatchewan, in about latitude
54°, which is its polar limit, it grows only in rich alluvial
soil, and, being crowded among balsam poplars and other trees
which inhabit such places, does not exhibit its handsome outline
so as to strike the eye. Its timber there is often decayed at
heart, and, even when sound, is so porous that we found it to be
unfit for planking boats. It is probable that the U. fulva,
slippery or red elm, known by the corky and angled bark of its
branches, has an equal northerly range ; but we did not trace it,
though two kinds extend to the Saskatchewan, and we gathered
their flowers. It is perhaps an elm of which I heard, but did
not see in leaf, which inhabits wet places on the banks of
Rainy River, and produces a wood that is considered there to

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 309

be of no value. Dr. Asa Gray has not traced U. fulva on the
Atlantic side of the Alleghanies further south than Maryland.
Celtis occidentalis, sugarberry or hackberry, is common in the
Northern States, and extends to Wisconsin and to the Oregon,
but was not seen by us on the north side of Lake Superior.

JUGLANDINEZ.—Juglans cinerea, butter-nut; J. nigra, black
walnut ; Carya alba, shell bark or shag bark hickory ; C. amara,
bitter nut or swamp hickory; and C. glabra, pig nut or broom
hickory, reach Wisconsin and the basin of the St. Lawrence,
but were not seen by us north of Lake Superior.

CUPULIFEREZE. — Quercus obtusiloba vel stellata, post oak,
abounds in Texas as far as San Antonio de Bexar, wherever
any hard wood grows. It was traced with Q. rubra, red oak, as
far as the River Winipeg. Of the latter, Dr. Asa Gray says
that he does not know whether it extends to Texas or not. It
is a good-sized tree in the Northern States, and common in rocky
woods. Q. alba, white oak. This, a most valuable forest tree
in the Northern States, ranges northwards to Lake Winipeg,
where it has a crooked and rather unsightly growth of 20 feet.
Michaux states that its southern limit is in Florida; but I do
not find it in the lists of plants gathered by Messrs. Emory and
Abert in their journeys from Fort Leavenworth on the Missouri
to North Mexico and California. Q. bannisteri; Q. tinctoria,
quercitron or black oak; Q. macrocarpa, burr oak; Q. bicolor,
swamp oak ; Q. prinos, swamp chesnut oak ; and Q. palustris, pin
oak, grow in Canada or Wisconsin, but were not detected by us
to the north of the great Jakes, with the exception perhaps of
Q. macrocarpa, since I gathered the immature acorns of an
oak resembling this on Rainy River. Q. garryana inhabits
Oregon northwards to Puget Sound, is a tree which reaches
80 feet in height, and is well adapted for shipbuilding.

Fagus ferruginea et sylvestris, American beech: is said by
Pursh to range southwards to Florida; it ceases at Mackinac on
Lake Huron, and does not grow on Lake Superior, but re-
appears further to the north-west on the Red River of Lake
Winipeg, beyond which it was not seen. Carpinus americana,
hornbeam, blue or water beach, called also iron wood, inhabits

x 3

310 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Canada, Wisconsin, and the other Northern States, but was not
seen by us on thecanoe route. Ostrya virginica, hop hornbeam.
This tree, which has also the trivial name of iron wood, grows
as far north as the River Winipeg, and is plentiful on Rainy
and Red Rivers. Its southern range, according to authors, is
to Carolina and Georgia.

Corylus americana, hazel nut, and C. rostrata, beaked haze,
nut, range northwards to the Saskatchewan, the former also
crossing the continent to the Pacific coast.

Myricaceaz.— Myrica gale, sweet gale or Dutch myrtle, is
also a European shrub. It is common in North America, on
the stony margins of lakes, and in peat bogs, from Virginia to
the arctic circle, and in the island of Sitka. The native popu-
lation of Rupert’s Land use the buds as a material for dyeing:
Comptonia asplenifolia, sweet fern, is common in the Northern
States, and terminates on the northern slope of the Saskatchewan
basin; it ranges southwards along the mountains of Carolina
and. Georgia.

BetuLracez.— Betula papyracea, paper or canoe birch, is an
invaluable tree to the population of Rupert’s Land. Its bark
is indispensable for the construction of their canoes, and also
serves for the covering of tents in localities where the skins of
large animals are scarce. Neatly sewed and ornamented with
porcupine quills, it is moulded into baskets, bags, dishes, plates,
and drinking vessels ; in short it is the material of which most of
the light and easily transported household furniture of the Crees
is formed. The ruder Tinné use it, but dispense with many of
the forms into which it is worked by their southern neighbours.
The wood serves for paddles, the framework of snow shoes,
sledges, hatchet helves, and occasionally for gun-stocks ; and in
spring the sap forms a pleasant sweet drink, from which a syrup
may be manufactured by boiling. Beyond the arctic circle it is
a scarce and crooked tree, but occurs of a small size as high as
the 69th parallel. It grows in perfection on the north shore of
Lake Superior, in the neighbourhood of Fort William, where,
owing to the ample supply of good bark, a manufactory of canoes
or the use of the Hudson’s Bay Company has been established.

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. Sift

As the Kolushes north of Sitka use birch-bark canoes, I infer
that this tree extends to the Pacific; but Ihave not seen it in the
lists of plants of that coast. Pursh mentions Hudson River as its
southern limit; and Gray states its range as extending from New
England to Wisconsin, but chiefly through the northern parts of
that district. It grows in Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and
Labrador. JB. occidentalis occurs in Oregon, along the Rocky
Mountains, northwards to the straits of Da Fuca, and crosses the
ridge to the vicinity of Edmonton House, on the 54th parallel.
B. excelsa, yellow birch, was not traced by us beyond the banks
of the Kamenistikwoya, which falls into Lake Superior. In
the Northern States it is a stately tree, 60 feet in height. B.
lenta, cherry or sweet birch, is a rather large tree, which is
common in the Northern States, Nova Scotia, Canada, and
Newfoundland ; but does not appear to go far westward, as it
was not found by us nor by Agassiz on Lake Superior. B.
pumila vel glandulosa, little birch, is rare in New England, but
grows in bogs of the northern parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Michigan, and Wisconsin; also in Nova Scotia, Canada, New-
foundland, and Labrador. It goes considerably beyond the
arctic circle, being found on the banks of the Thlewee-choh,
the Coppermine river, and other arctic streams, and also on
the Mackenzie to about the 68th parallel. It is very like the
following, but has a more erect and slender growth, which
may be perhaps owing to locality. ‘The leaves are generally
longer. B. nana, dwarf birch, exists on the summits of the
White Mountains of New Hampshire, and of the Essex Moun-
tains of New York. It grows also in the higher parts of La-
brador and Canada, along the shores of the Arctic Sea, from
Davies’ Straits to Kotzebue Sound; and generally through-
out the Barren Grounds. Alnus viridis, green or mountain
alder, and A. ineana, speckled or hoary alder, range northwards
to the delta of the Mackenzie on the 68th parallel, and from
Newfoundland and Labrador to Kotzebue Sound; the first
species being also found on Sitka. ‘They are common bushes in
New England and Wisconsin; but I have not seen their southern
limits mentioned. A. rubra, red alder, is an inhabitant of

x 4

312 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Sitka and Norfolk Sound, and extends southwards to Oregon.
It seems to be the western representative of the A. serrulata of
the southern parts of New England.

SALicacEa. — Willows are numerous on the east side of the
Rocky Mountains, and seem to attain the maximum develope-
ment of species in the southern parts of Rupert’s Land, but to
be less abundant on the Pacific coast, except to the north of the
peninsula of Alaska. From Lake Superior to the Arctic Sea
they form dense thickets on the shores of every river and lake.
It is scarcely possible to note the range of willows, or to collect
satisfactory specimens of the species on a rapid journey, as
many of them which perfect their catkins before the evo-
lution of their leaves, remain undetermined in the herbarium.
Of twenty-two species described by Dr. Asa Gray as inhabitants
of the Northern States, only S$. ¢ristis, Aiton; S. humilis,
Marshall; S. sericea, Marshall; S. alba, L. ; and S. angustata,
Pursh, were not collected by us on our northern voyages. S,
uva ursi, S. repens vel fusca, and S. herbacea, which grow on
the alps of New Hampshire, extend beyond the arctic circle on
both sides of the continent, the latter being one of the most
northern plants, as it grows on the north end of Spitzbergen.
The other fourteen named by Dr. Gray reach one or more of
the northern basins.

The following were traced from Lake Superior to the arctic
circle, or beyond it: S. villosa, S. rostrata, S. discolor, S.
viminalis, S. lucida, S. longifolia, S. cordata, S. rigida, S.
planifolia, and S. pedicellaris. Some others were not gathered
higher than the valley of the Saskatchewan, but their south-
ward range included the St. Lawrence basin: as S. candida;
S. petiolaris, S. rosmarinifolia, S. purpurea, and S. fragilis.

S. drummondi, S. barattiana, and S. cordifolia were gathered
near the elevated sources of the Saskatchewan only, though the
last named has been detected by other collectors on the Labrador
coast. Salix’ sitchensis is known only as an inhabitant of the
island from whence it derives its name. Salix richardsonii
and S. acutifolia are common to the Saskatchewan and Mac-
kenzie River basins, the former being also-an inhabitant of the
coast between York Factory and Churchill.

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 313

The following are specially arctic in their habitats: S. myr-
sinites, S. vestita, S. speciosa, S, reticulata, and S. nivalis, which
grow on the peaks of the Rocky Mountains between 52° and 57°
north, and within the arctic circle, some of them reaching very
high latitudes. S. reticulata grows on the coast between York
Factory and Churchill. S. speciosa inhabits the Arctic Sea
coasts from Coronation Gulf to Kotzebue Sound, and ranges
southwards on the Mackenzie to about the 60th or 61st parallel.
It is perhaps the handsomest of the genus, having an agreeable
growth, and very large leaves, which are of a silvery whiteness
beneath, and when bruised have a rather pleasant odour. On
the Mackenzie it grows to the height of 15 feet, in form
of a bush, with very stout and long yearly shoots, which dis-
tinguish it from all the other willows of the same localities
On the coasts of the Arctic Sea, wherever the rivers afford a
suitable point of alluvial soil, a thicket of this willow may be
expected as tall as a man. Mr. Seeman observed it in the
tree form on the north-west coast, where it is from 18 to 20
feet in height, and having a stem five inches in diameter. It
resembles S. lapponum in its habit. S. stwartiana and S. re-
tusa grow on the more northern banks of the Mackenzie and in
Kotzebue Sound, and have not as yet been detected south of the
arctic circle. SS. rostrata, S. speciosa, S. lucida, S. longifolia,
S. depressa, S. reticulata, S. arctica, and S. polaris, have been
enumerated by authors as crossing to the Pacific side of the
Rocky Mountains in their respective zones. Salix glauca was
found by Seeman on the shores of Beering’s Sea.

The following are not confined to the American continent,
but range to either Europe or Asia, as well as to Rupert’s Land,
or the arctic coasts: S. petiolaris, S. rosmarinifolia, S. vimi-
nalis, S. purpurea, S. fragilis, S. acutifolia, S. fusca, S. myr-
sinites, S. stuartiana, S. reticulata, S. herbacea, S. polaris
and S. ammaniana.

The most common in Rupert’s Land are the S. rostrata, which
extends southwards to New England, and in the north forms
almost impenetrable thickets 20 feet or more in height, in which
the old twisted and sordid grey stems spread in all directions.
S. longifolia, which has the growth of an osier, covers the new-

314 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

formed sandbanks of the rivers up to the 68th parallel, its
flexible, densely growing young stems serving to arrest the
mud, and speedily to raise the bank above the ordinary level of
the water. In drier spots, by river banks in the Saskatchewan
basin, it forms bushes from 20 to 25 feet in height. Even
in the passes of the Rocky Mountains, as at Jasper Lake, it
grows freely on drifting sands. Lieut. Abert found it growing
at Council Grove, and Hundred-and-ten-mile Creek, at the height
of 1,200 feet above the sea, between the 38th and 39th parallels.
It inhabits also the banks of the Susquehannah, and all the
Northern States. The soft pliable twigs are a favourite food of
the moose-deer, and might, indeed, as they grow on the flooded
sandbanks, be mowed like hay. Populus balsamifera, balsam
poplar, or tacamahac, was found growing on the banks of the
Mackenzie up to lat. 59°, where it makes a very slender tree.
In the southern part of the delta of that river it forms groups
of healthy young trees, and from thence to the United States it
flourishes on rich alluvial and occasionally flooded banks of rivers
to the exclusion, on such spots, of most other trees: its trunk
attains a greater circumference than any other member of the
northern forest, but its wood is of no value, except for fuel ; and,
when old, the tree is unsightly from having very generally lost
its top. Its growth is rapid, and its decay apparently equally so.
I measured some drift logs of this tree which were floating
down the Mackenzie, and found them to be about 15 feet in
circumference, with a very moderate tapering upwards. The
Crees name it Matheh-metus, or ugly poplar. Dr. Asa Gray
gives as its southern limit New England, Wisconsin, and per-
haps Pennsylvania, but not further. It crosses Beering’s Sea
to Kamtschatka; and on the rivers of Oregon it grows, ac-
cording to Douglas, to the height of 140 feet, and 20 feet in
diameter. P. candicans, balm of Gilead, which greatly resem-
bles the preceding, has not been detected north of Wisconsin :
it is the common balsam poplar of Pennsylvania, New York,
and New England. JP. monilifera, levigata vel canadensis
(Mx.), is a more southern species, being rare in New England,
but taking the place of P. candicans in Western Pennsylvania,

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 315

Ohio, and Kentucky. Itegrows on the banks of the Arkansas
and other southern tributaries of the Missouri. P. tremuloides,
aspen. Dr. Gray believes that, south of Pennsylvania and
Kentucky, this tree is confined to the Alleghanies, and even
on these mountains it is rare. In the Northern States it is
common, and varies in height from 20 to 50 feet. It abounds
in Rupert’s Land in the more fertile soils, and very generally
springs up in place of the white spruce, when that tree has
been destroyed by fire. Its range is co-extensive with the
forest land ; but towards the Arctic Sea, and in lat. 69° on the
Mackenzie, it is a slender willow-like tree. It is the best fire-
wood in the country, but is applied to no other economical
purpose, except that its ashes are collected on account of the
abundance of potash they contain. It do not know whether it
inhabits the Pacific coasts or not. LP. grandidenta, big-toothed
aspen, is common in the Northern States, and reaches New
Brunswick and Canada, but did not come under our notice on
the canoe route.

PLATANACEH. — Platanus occidentalis, American Plane-tree,
resembles the well-known P. orientalis in the way that its ex-
terior bark falls off in thin plates. It extends northwards to
Canada, but does not appear north of Lake Superior.

Conirera&. — Pinus banksiana, gray pine, the Cyprés of the
voyagers, grows from the arctic circle on the Mackenzie, down
to the great Canada lakes, south of which, Dr. Gray has scarcely
seen it, but has heard that it is found in the northern districts
of Maine ; and it occurs in the list of Wisconsin plants pub-
lished by the American Association. It crosses the Rocky
Mountains to the Spokan River in latitude 47° north. This
would be an ornamental tree on many sandy and otherwise

“unproductive wastes. P. resinosa, red pine, has its southern
limit, according to Emerson, at Wilkesbarre, in Pennsylvania
(latitude 413° north). I have traced it to 561° of latitude
on Methy River, and it crosses the Rocky Mountains to lati-
tude 43° in Oregon. Dr. Gray says that its height in the
northern states is from 60 to 80 feet, and Emerson relates
that a few years ago it was not uncommon to find trees

316 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

of this species in the southern parts of Maine exceeding
100 feet in height, with a stem four feet in diameter. P.
tnops, which was not seen by us on the canoe route to the
north of the United States’ boundary, extends on the north-
west coast from Oregon to Sitka, and ascends Mount Rainier
to near the snow limit. PP. strobus, white or Weymouth pine,
has its equatorial limit on the Alleghanies of Virginia or North
Carolina, and it ranges northwards to the south end of Lake
Winipeg. Inthe Middle States this tree has a shaft of 100
feet ; and Emerson has collected instances of trees formerly ex-
isting which had the extraordinary length of from 220 to 260
feet. Even near its northern termination it is still a stately tree.

Abies balsamea, balsam fir, was not traced beyond the 62nd
parallel on the canoe route. It is Le Sapin of the voyagers,
who prefer its spray to that of any other tree for laying the
floor of a tent or winter bivouack. Dr. Gray traced it on the
Alleghanies only to Pennsylvania. In the latitude of Norfolk
Sound (57°) it crosses the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. In
Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia, Pinus fraseri, or the
small fruited balsam fir, occupies the Alleghanies to the ex-
clusion of the preceding. It does not reach the great lakes.
A. canadensis, hemlock spruce, was observed on the Kameni-
stikwoya, but not further north than the 49th parallel ; though
Mr. Tolmie traced it up to the 57th degree of latitude on the
shores of the Pacific, and it was observed by Mertens on Sitka.
In Maryland this species is found on the Alleghanies only;
and Dr. Gray thinks that it ceases to grow in North Carolina
and Tennessee. A. alba, white spruce. Of this species we
have had frequent occasion to speak in the preceding pages,
as it is especially the forest tree in Rupert’s Land. It is
Lepinette blanche of the voyagers, and the Mina-hik of the
Crees. Within the arctic circle it seldom exceeds 40 or 50
feet in height; though in ravines, where it is well-sheltered,
and has a suitable soil, it attains twice that altitude. Its
age in these high latitudes exceeds 400 years before it shows
signs of decay. It most probably has a range from one side of
the continent to the other, but has not yet been detected on the

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. SF

west coast. From the 69th parallel on the Mackenzie, it crosses
obliquely to the 61st or 60th on the coast of Hudson’s Bay ; and
it is the common spruce in Canada, Nova Scotia, New Bruns-
wick, and New England, but its southern limits are unknown
to Dr. Gray. In Canada the sweet cedar is much used for the
thin hoops (varandes) and lining of the bark canoes, being a
straight-grained light wood; but in more northern districts
the white spruce supplies its place. It is also exclusively used
north of Lake Winipeg, for building purposes, sawing into
deals, and boat-building. With its tough roots split to a con-
venient thickness, and used under the Cree appellation of
Watap, the pieces of canoe bark are sewn together; and, in
districts where birch bark is scarce, a rude canoe is formed of
the bark of a spruce fir. A well grown tree, with 380 feet or
so free from branches, is chosen ; an incision made down to the
wood along one side; and the bark, being skilfully raised in one
piece, receives the canoe shape by the two ends being skewered
together and stuffed with a few branches to add stiffness. The
cargo is then placed in the middle, and two or three Indians will
descend a rapid river in this extempore vessel. Before many
days, however, it becomes water-logged, and, losing its stiffness,
spreads out flatly almost to the level of the water, so as to be
nearly useless as well as dangerous. Pieces of the bark are.
sometimes used for covering the roofs of houses.

A. nigra, black spruce, falls little short in its northern range
of the preceding, but in the higher latitudes it is a much in-
ferior tree in numbers, beauty, and utility, and is almost con-
fined to swamps and bogs. According to Emerson, it is in
perfection in the northern parts of Maine, or about the 46th
parallel, and is less flourishing in more southern localities. It
is found on the higher mountains of North Carolina and Ten-
nessee. Up to the Saskatchewan it retains a vigorous growth,
beyond which it becomes visibly inferior to the white spruce,
its branches being short, irregular, and overgrown with usnee
and other parasitic lichens. A. mertensiana and A. sitchensis
grow in the forests of Norfolk Sound on the north-west coast
in lat. 57°; Mr. Seeman found the latter extending northwards

318 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

to the coasts of Beering’s Sea ; and a spruce which grows on the
banks of the Niatok or Buckland River is thought by Sir
William J. Hooker to be one of these Sitka species, and de-
cidedly different from A. alba, to which Mr. Seeman at first
referred it.

Larix americana, American larch, tamarack or hackmatack,
L’epinette rouge of the voyagers, and the Wagginda-gan or
“tree that bends” of the Crees, ranges northwards to the arctic
circle, and from Newfoundland and Labrador across the con-
tinent to the Pacific. It grows in the swamps of the Northern
States, and extends southwards to Virginia, where it is confined
to the mountains. In high latitudes this tree yields a very
heavy wood, so much twisted in the grain as not to be readily
worked, but it is tough and very durable. It is a tree of no
great importance, and is generally thinly scattered through the
forest, and if it is any where grouped in numbers it is on the
borders of swamps, where it never attains much height.

Cupressus thyoides, white or sweet cedar, extends from North
Carolina to the south side of the Saskatchewan basin. Clumps
of it grow on the west side of Rainy Lake, and solitary trees
range northwards to the vicinity of Cumberland House in lati-
tude 54°, where a specimen was gathered by Mr. Drummond.
C. nutkatensis vel Thuja excelsa inhabits the Pacific coast
from Norfolk Sound down to Observatory Inlet and Van-
couver’s Island. Thaja occidentalis, American arbor vite, also
called white cedar, has its northern limit on the east side of the
Rocky Mountains at Lae Bourbon or Cedar Lake, a dilatation
of the Saskatchewan lying between the 53rd and 54th parallels.
Michaux mentions the mountains of Virginia as its southern
limit. It is a handsome ornament to the banks of Rainy River
and the River Winipeg, where it overhangs the water in a
picturesque manner; but, as it commonly grows on the occa-
sionally inundated points of lakes and in swamps unmixed with
other trees, it has a sombre aspect; and its stems are generally
inclined, crooked, and even contracted. TJ. gigantea, the Wyeth
of the Wallamet Indians, grows in the valley of Oregon from
the Rocky Mountains to the sea, and northwards to Vancouver’s

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 319

Island. Mr. Douglas found it growing to the height of 170
feet, with a trunk 40 feet in circumference.

Juniperus communis extends from the vicinity of the Arctic
Sea to the New England States and Newfoundland. It pro-
duces berries freely on elevated grounds within the arctic circle.
J. prostrata (Persoon), repens, vel humilis aliorum, is considered
by Sir William Hooker to be a variety of J. sabina, which
includes the J. virginiana. It has always the prostrate form
in Rupert’s Land, and was observed within the arctic circle,
1,000 feet above the sea, associated with the preceding, and
bearing fruit. Dr. Gray informs me, that it is not found in
this prostrate flagelliform condition south of New York and
Northern Pennsylvania. The ordinary J. virginiana, red cedar
or savin, ranges to the furthest limits of Texas, and to the
country about Santa Fé and Tampas Creek, which is elevated
from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea. Col. Emory found it
on the 35th parallel, at an altitude of from 6,000 to 7,000 feet,
in form of a large tree. Taxus canadensis, American yew or
ground hemlock, grows in Massachusetts and Newfoundland,
and on the borders of the great lakes northwards to the south-
ern slope of the Saskatchewan basin. It is a very pleasing
underwood, with an almost herbaceous aspect, which grows
thickly under the shade of many kinds of trees. On the canoe
route it never assumes the tree form; but in the valley of
Oregon Mr. Douglas found yew trees as large as those of
Europe.

The following table is founded on Sir William J. Hooker’s
Flora Boreali- Americana. Since the publication of that
work, Sir George Back’s voyage down the Thlewee-choh,
Messrs. Dease and Simpson’s through the Arctic Sea, Mr.
Rae’s from York Factory to Repulse Bay, the voyage
detailed in the preceding pages, a list of Nova Scotia
plants contributed by Mr. Dawson of Pictou, a collection

520 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

of plants gathered by Mr. Campbell at Pelly Banks, and
Dr. Asa Gray’s important Botany of the Northern States,
have contributed to our knowledge of the distribution of
species, and have been severally had recourse to,

The first zone extends on the eastern side of the conti-
nent from latitude 45° to 55°, or it comprehends the St.
Lawrence and Saskatchewan basins: it rises obliquely,
in accordance with the course of the isothermal lines, in
going westward, and on the Pacific coast it includes the 49th
and 58th parallels, or Vancouver’s and Sitka Islands. It
is subdivided into three districts; viz., the eastern forest |
country, the eastern prairies, and the country west of the —
crest of the Rocky Mountains.

The second zone comprehends all the country lying
between the arctic circle and the extremities of the conti-
nent in latitude 72°. It was not found practicable, owing
to the way in which the herbaria were formed, to separate
the barren ground species from those growing in the oot,
country, and the zone has been made to include three dis-
tricts, one of whichis Kotzebue Sound, where 273 species
have been collected by Chamisso and others.*

The Rocky Mountain ridge, between the 52nd and 57th
parallels, has been made a second district of this zone, as
many arctic species go southwards along the elevated crest
of the ridge. I have not been able, however, to separate
the species collected by Drummond in the lower valleys of
the ridge from those gathered high up on the peaks. From
the untiring diligence and unrivalled quickness of eye of
this celebrated collector, we may consider the district as
well explored; and had the vertical ranges of the species

* Mr. Seeman, who was employed as botanist in the Herald’s late
voyages to that quarter, has made a much more ample herbarium of
the north-west coast; but as he has just arrived in England as these

pages are passing through the press, I can avail myself only partially
of his researches for the improvement of the table.

SECOND AND THIRD ZONES. Spell

been noted, there would be nothing more required for the
present investigation.

The third district of the zone comprises the entire arctic
country, from Barrow’s Point to Davis’ Straits.

The third zone lies to the north of the 73rd parallel, and
extends from Melville Island to Spitzbergen, including a
few species gathered above that parallel in Baffin’s Bay,
and some collected by Dr. Scoresby on the east coast of
Greenland. No American land to the westward of Mel-
ville Island in so high a latitude has been discovered; and
I have met with no flora of the polar Asiatic islands; but
it is probable that, so far north, a nearly uniform vegetation
encircles the earth.

VOL. II. ‘6

322 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

STATISTICAL ENUMERATION OF THE NUMBERS OF SPECIES BY
THEIR FAMILIES AND GENERA IN DIFFERENT ZONES.

Tirst Zone.
Between Lat. 45°
to 55° on East side,
and Lat. 49° to 58°

West side.

Second Zone. Third or
From Arctic Polar Zone.
Circle northwards }Lying North
to 72° N. of 73° Lat.

Families.

Total Species in Three Zones.
Species in First Zone.

On Pacific Coast.

On Eastern Prairies.

In East. Woody Distr.
Species in Second Zone.
Kotzebue Sound.

Rocky Mts. 52° to 57°.
Eastern Arctic Distr.

Europe, Asia, and Africa.

| Species in Third Zone,
Spitzbergen.

|
i<e)
pig
8 |

DICOTYLEDONEZ: |1718]1499'498/391)1130}551/230|340376170

I. RaNuNCULACEZ - 72 59 42| 12) 31) 23) 5
Clematis - =
Thalictrum - -
Anemone - -
Hepatica - -
Hydrastis - -
Adonis - -
Ranunculus -
Caltha - =
Trollius
Isopyrum
Coptis - -
Aquilegia
Delphinium -
Aconitum - =
Actza - =
Cimicifuga - -
Hydrastis = =
Pzonia brownii -

t: 4 | Lancaster Sound, &c.
6 | North Greenland,

bo
>
| el
to
bo

—s
a
eo Oo

m— A bo 60
bo

oO ee oO eH
~I
_
~J
_—
iss)

oo

'

'
Hee DON ON NRK BOY HHH OO
©) CO me et © HB

wD
bo @

— ee bo
eo bd
a
—

de Oe oO

meee bp wo NWN He

—
=

II. MenisPerMACEx -
Menispermum -

—
—

III. Bereerivex -
Berberis - -
Leontice - -
Epimedium -

— 0 in
m— me 6O

TV. PovorayiteZx -
Jeffersonia - -
Podophyllum -
Hydropeltis -

se 09
— = 69
ee ee)

NUMBERS OF SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ZONES.

Families.

V. NymMrumacem -

Nymphza
Nuphar

Nelumbium -

VI. SaRRACENIEZ -

Sarracenia

VII. Papaveracez

Papaver
Stylophoru

m -

Sanguinaria -

VIII. Fumariacex

Dielytra
Adlumia
Corydalis
Fumaria

IX. Crucirerz -
Cheiranthus -
Nasturtium -

Barbarea
Turritis
Arabis -
Cardamine
Dentaria
Parrya -
Vesicaria
Draba -
Erophila
Cochlearia
Thlaspi
Hutchinsia
Cakile -
Hesperis

Sisymbrium—-

Camelina
Braya -

Platypetalum -

Eutrema
Oreas -
Sinapis

323

First Zone.

Second Zone. 2

sp oe on [eer ACH Pear Zee,

: E. side, and Sea ntiG Lying N. of

S Lat. 49° to 79° N. 73° Lat.

5 58° W. side.
N a
ca ie aS cre est (ee he =
a |S (2S lels|- (ales &
Bi| | FS eee etd SELES GN ene ES 2
Se /Ole/ SIs ls| Sle lalel els
2} j2/s| = [elol/Sl<fe|s|2/Si<
GIF /15/6| 3 IFS 2lalel3l2 Fla
44 4/1 4 1}
rt Pa 1

2) 2 1
1) 1

i al yea | joa 1] 1
il} a est | Pal 1| 1

3 2 Aa Veet ea heat fess] SNP ae ea eed | al
1 Ty) Detect ab pelted tne T
il ]

al eal 1

og} 67] 3/1] 5 | 4} 2] 1) 2 )
ALG Gy ot fy

i il 1

gf 2 21 3] 1] 1} 2 1
1} 1 1 ]
104] 65/31/21/48 }66|16/34/53]16/14| 7) 5[50
Lipeelieed

44 4) 92) 1/ 3 f 1) 1) 1] 1 3
3] 3] 2] 2} 241 il|| a 7)
7m 5| 21 3) 4/16 5| 5 i
71 7} 3] 2] 6 | 2) 1] 2} 2 4
71 5) 2| 2] 5 | 6! 4] 3} 52] 1] 1] 1, 4
a 9 2

7) Q| 1 1} 1 1} 1
3} 3] 1| 3) 17 2] | a1

25] 8] 5] 1| 5 }22) 5| 9/16) 7| 6] 2] QN5s
dled 1 1
8} 4] 3 1) Siar 3! 4| 3| 3 4
3] 3 3]1 1 3
1 foal ]
yy esi a

a 1 } 241) 1 7)
10] 9] 6] 5) 7 | 7] 1| 57 3
2) | mt |) a) 2
4 Aleit nile

2) 1| 1] 14 2) 2] 1] 1
2 2| 1) 1
toi} 1 |

21 2 | 2 2

4

bo

324

Families.

Crucirer& — (continued.)

Lepidium -
Capsella -
X. CapparipE®
Cleome =
Polanisia -
XI. Cistinez -
Helianthemum -
Lechea - -
Hudsonia =

XII. Viotarina -
Viola - -

XIII. Droseracex
Drosera -
Parnassia =

XIV. Potyearez--

Polygala -
XV. CaryvorHyYLLEx
Dianthus -
Saponaria -
Silene - -
Lychnis -
Agrostemma = -
Mollugo =
Spergula -
Larbrza =
Stellaria -
Arenariz =
Merckia -
Cerastium a

XVI. Linez -

Linum -

XVII. Matvacez -
Malva - =
Hibiscus -
Sida - =

First Zone.

Second Zone,

Between Lat. : Third or
45° to 55° on ie Arciie Polar Zone.
E. side, and URE ars “I Lying N. of
| Lat.49°to | “OS Yo | 73° Lat.
& | 58° W. side. 7
) : oe Sl i=
z $ | é}2]8| [Bls]sls <
PIN SEA TsI/_|Sls[slels| Ie
ele /2/2F/S/EizlalGlElela| 1s
2 lSial Ss siSistsi zie ;
Pe Pome eee cae ©
g] 2 2/5/F lel\s/2\<[s|s/s/e1<
ois /3\2| 2) si2lelE18| 8lelale
272 (2 a feisisisislelelsye
Sie 6/6| 6 lFelelslaisizlala
3 212) 22 2 1
1} 1 lj 1 1 1
oF 29
Ij 4) 1
Ty ala
Sh -5 5
ly 1 1
3 3 3
ns 1
18] 18) 4] 5) 15] 2 2 1
18) 18] 4] 5|)-15) 2 2 1
9 «67| 3) 3} 6 6] 31 6 4
44 4) 2| 2) 412) 1] Q 3
5S) i ies oes 1
vi abel
7 7 1
66] 48)26/13) 33]35/15|\19/25]11| 7| 7| 7429
Lyd
1 ]
10} LO} 3) Ue 72a a Vy a
2 gil) lj 1 PAL Yh)
] 1
iyi 1
S| 2) i= 2 Sielieg 1 1] 4
Wed 1 1 1
14) 10) 7| 3) 5) 9) 4) 5 S| ino oes
19) 11) 7| 5| 9§13) 4) 6/11f 3} 3] 1) 11 9
1 I
10; 8} 5] 2} Sf 4) 2) 3 1} 1) 1} 1] 4
STS Seinen 1
3) 1) 2i- St 2) ae 1
5| 1) Ze Ss 1)
See
1 ]
1! 1

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

ot

NUMBERS OF SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ZONES. 325

First Zone.
Between Lat. Seco Zone Third or
45° to 55° on Fan 0y si Polar Zone.
. | E.side, and [rr ors | Lying N. of
g | Lat. 49° to TsON. | 73° Lat.
5 58° W. side.
N a
S fl | - fo 3} aS
Families. = S g = iS = ELS S =
BN | ome iol (sists lela] je
Blo }alse!/afelsio Ar le =
n Zz S o amd S 5\a ehal|s ai se
om Sislo|“ is aes
a Ole] S falal-|eielalolel=
ol] & ~! = o| o
S)e2/5|* elelS\<]2|s/5| |<
13 /3/3|elelalelElsleicia1e
Sis |hl8| 5 lols|#| Shs S|/S|s]o
Si ejsiz Para ees
Bl AI6/O/] & lai ielalalalZioja
XVIII. Tiviacrez - - ol ed |e) 2
Tilia - - = =i |eD 2 2
XIX. Hyrericinrx = -| 8748 8 1
Hypericum - - -| 8 | 8 1
XX. AcERINEZ - - SY el ea) NS
Acer - - - =| 7 1-7 |2 5
Negundo - ~ -|1]41 nied
XXII. AMPELIDEZ = -| 414 4
Ampelopsis = - =i ler 1
Vitis - - = =| 6} || @ 3
XXII. GErRANnIAcExZ - -| 616] 3} 1/3 4
Geranium - - SS) ey | Sy )) A 03 3
Erodium - - =e aede eed 1
XXIII. Barsaminra - - 2 1 iy) al
Impatiens - - -| 242 2),})- 4 1} 1
XXIV. LimnanTHAceEx - Sia {fal 1
Floérkia - - = lalek 1
XXV. OxaLipex - myllesy } | Zoya pa G Was} 1
Oxalis - - = =I Om o! | eSludtins 1
XXVI. Rutacez - - -|4])4 4
Xanthoxylum - - -| 3738 3
Ptelea - - - =ielengrad 1
XXVII. CenasrrinExX - Se Sal Sr eS lyr, pelle =
Staphylea - - =| 1 | - L
Euonymus - - = 22) 1 z
Celastrus - - =i Ht 1 |
Myginda - - =o elated | lied 1| 1
Mex? *) - - - = (1 ft 1
Prinos - - - ee Ne a 1
Nemopanthes - - -| 171
XXVIII. RHamMneH - =|nGntnGn eo 3 |
Rhamnus - - Sh S| ey al 1
Ceanothus - - -|4]4|2 2
VES:

326

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

First Zone.

r at. °
45? to 552 on {EFM Arctic! poiar Zone
| Eiitgant | raedero" [SENS 2
# | 58° W. side. 729 N
, N oé
o oO u g fori) P| =
Families. ais a| 2 Ss BiS)8|8 <
SIS lslE/Sisle/slalS|eis| fz
SlelSls| eS ]slElo SIE Els a
8 oe eee CC See
S) 2/815) F lele|2l<)s|s\2| als
“3 8/2) 8] s/aiSlelals else
S13 (Fla SIS iSieieleleiare
a} 76/6/28 |eieieialaialz lela
XXIX. TreresinrHace& 1 6
Rhus - = 6} 6) 1 6
XXX. Lecuminosz 98} 88/27/34) 51119)11\/11/14) 2) 2) 1) {19
Thermopsis = 4 NY 1 1
Baptisia - Al 4 4
Medicago - Py | 4 2) 2
Trifolium - 7h |e GRE 8) 3
Psoralea - 5} 65) 3| 3
Petalostemum - Qe Pl.
Glycirrhiza - Thy Sau baie al
Tephrosia - 1} 1 ]
Amorpha - 3). 3 Spee
Robinia = 1} 1 1 1
Phaca - - 12] 10} 2] 7) 2 4) 2) 2) 47 1) 1 2
Oxytropis - 9] 4 4| 2) 6] 4] 4) 47 1) 1) 1 5
Astragalus - 12} 10) 4) 7} 2) 2 Til 2
Desmodium = bes 5
Hedysarum - 2 1 I] 2) 1) 1) 1
Lespedeza - 5} 5 5
Vicia - - S| 4) &) Al Da ae 2
Ervum - Lael 1
Lathyrus . Wh 2 di 2 Sle 6) 2ST) elie ]
Amphiecarpea_ - 1} 1 1
Apios - - eel 1
Phaseolus - Leal it
Lupinus - 6} G6) 5) 2) 1 22)
Gyranocladus_ - ny}. at 1
Cassia = = Di 1
Cercis - & ijl 1
XXXI. Rosacrez 1244106/37|33| 78]43/20.25 27} 5| 4) 4) 119
Cerasus - 8} 8] 1| 4] 8} 1 1
Prunus - iy} al 1
Purshia - | abl TE
Lutkea = ih ed |e
Spirea - - 8] 8] 6] 3} 63} 2) 1) 1 1
Gillenia - Led 1
Dryas - - St 2) 1) Li 2) S)s2 1k 2 eS elie 1
Geum - - 4) Ala Oe Sia 1 ]
Sieversia - Ay Ss} If 1} 1
Comaropsis - 2H) 21 1 1
Rubus - - 18} 16} 8] 3] 12} 5} 3) 3) 4 2

NUMBERS OF SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ZONES.

Families.

Rosacr a — (continued. )

Dalibarda - -
Fragaria - -
Potentilla = =
Sibbaldia = a
Chamezrhodos - =
Agrimonia - -
Alchemilla = =
Sanguisorba— - -
Poterium - -
Rosa - = =
Crataegus - -
Amelanchier - -
Pyrus - - -
XXXII. Onacrarie =
Epilobium - -
Gaura - - -
(£nothera - -
Clarkia s =
Isnardia = -
Circeea - = =

XXXIII. Hatoraci,g -

Proserpinaca- -
Myriophyllum - ~
Callitriche - -
Hippuris - .

XXXIV. CeraropHyLLExZ
Ceratophyllum - -

XXXV. LyruraRiZ -
Lythrum = 3
Decodon - -

XXXVI. CucursBITAcCEz -
Sicyos - - =
Echinocistus - -

XXXVII. Portutacex -

Montia < z
Portulaca - -
_Lewisia - -

First Zone.

Second Zone,

O27

foo to 57 0n [brom Arctic | poi Zone,
g] Lataseto | “ardsto [Mg hot
ES 58° W. side. TN :
N .
21s] |cle]el lelelgle
aye! (2/218 /Si2|si4{_|
S)e |S /2] 8 lals/2|elela|s|¢
212 /2/5|* jele/fi<lelsl2i &
“13 /3/8|2)alaiSlelglaicls
BPS6/6) 8 las |elale|Sl2\o
Ve 1

s} sia) | ai) | aja
36] 24) 6 14| 16119|101319] 3| 2] 2
fe TAU ee

Pod) Nts it

ied 1

ea 1

aya} a} | aaa | a

i a 1

of 9} 1) 2} 3f 3] | aj} 3

a} | 1/2} 3[ 1) | 1

a ai} | a1 1
6| 6 4) | 3
28] 25| 911] 11] 7) 5| 6| 4| 2| 1| 2
12] 9] 5] 2 7|5| 6| 4] 2/ 1] 2
4) 4) | 4

7 7| 2| 5| 3

ad

ie 2

a} al il | 2
10) 8| 2} 4| 7] 5] 3| Q| 4

1 1

3} | 1] 3s} 2} | ale

3) 1| 2] 2

1} 1) 3] 11 3] 3} a] 2

Wis) Gt ara
1

3 5

2 2

1 1

a || 2

1 1

ise erie
13] 11] 9] 1] 3} 3] 3) 1

1| 1

1 1

ia

| Europe, Asia, and Atrica.

m= to bo

328 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

First Zone.
Between Lat.
45° to 55° on

Second Zone. ;
= Third or
From Arctic Polarizonel

| Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Circle north-} 7 |;
g| Tanaeu | warasto [sera
a 58° W. side.
N .
a1 ¢ : 18 ae ie
Families. 212] /s/2|8| [S/s]gis
PIS js/£/4]e/|Slalslels
Sle le/ElSlelSlolofelels
afxslolg| 6 folsiSisislsi=
5 em be =| Sala AS Ala 8 E
BE] 2/5|F lele|ei<leis/8/&
a 2] 3 Vo al? o
ee |6/6) 5 lFl2 ieee) sale
PortuLace% — (continued. )
Talinum = = 1} Joe ]
Claytonia = - ON 7 ak ole)
XXXVIII. Paronycuiz#- B) |B 1 al
Anychia = - ie 1
Paronychia - - lj 1 1
XXXIX. Crassunacex - 31.3 UM peace VU Pa 1
Sedum - ~ - A | 2) Wh a 1 1
Penthorum - - er 1
XL. Cactezx - - Oy ced aN Ne al
Cactus - - - Qiao} Ii aye al
XLI. Grossunarine - 16] 16] 8} 3} 10) 4} 1} 2| 4
Ribes - - 16] 16) 8} 3} 10} 4] 1| 2) 4
XLII. Saxirracez - 56) 32\13} 4] 19135/23)/21|18}12,11| 7| 7418
Heuchera - - 61 66) 3} 1) ~3p 1 Lan
Tiarella - - Sie 3 ine j
Tellima - - Tea A
Mitella - - 4) 38 1} 23 3| 1
Chrysosplenium - 2} 1 OY Vso aati | at) I
Saxifraga - - 381 17) 7| 2) 11]28)20)15/15{11\10) 7} 7417
Eriogyna - th) Sal st ESM ext) al
Leptarrhena + - 1 1} 1
XLIII. Umsetrirera - 39} 36/13] 6} 29]10} 6} 2) 5
Hydrocotyle - - a, 2
Eryngium = - 1} 1 1
Sanicula - - Te | 1
Cicuta - - - Si SibL 3 1
Zizia = - - 31.3 eS te 1) 1
Ammi - - - 1} 1 1
Carum - - 1} 1 1
Cryptotenia = - - fo ]
Sium - - - Al GA SAY al] Ss
Bupleurum - - i | 1} 1} 1
Seseli - - - vy at ] 1 1
Cnidium - - Lee 1
Thaspium = - We ai 1
Ligusticum —- - 1 | au al 1} 1) 1
Conioselinum - - | ye al 1} 1] 1 1

NUMBERS OF SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ZONES.

First Zone.

Second Zone.

329

Between Lat. [From arete| pZind or,
: ye alge vand pitcle aiorth: Lying N. of
2 300 W. side. 122 Ni spe
N ; s
ots sis o| .fe]. =
Families. Els sl=is| |S/e1sls <
FIN 3/2) Afclg/S A N als 3
SS Se | See lo Elels a
n =H | Ola, & o|s Ss 2e\|s\= =
STE Ole] Ss lalel|slala| sles
S) 22/5] F lzle/Sl<lelslz\ els
Te lels| 2 (Slee Elsi sls lale
iS) aIEIS| gfalo|/ol|siala|olais
Bin |OlS| Sin iMiMiginigiazlnia
UMBELLIFER & — (continued. )
Angelica - - a 2 2
Archangelica - - 1 PA) 1
Pleurospermum - 1} 1) 1
Ferula - - DOD
Imperatoria = - - 1} 1 1 1
Pastinaca = - 1} 1) 1 1 ]
Heracleum - - ill sie ]
Laserpitium = - - 1 1} 1
Polytzenia - - Hl) 7 a 1
Daucus aa = TU shy GE
Osmorrhiza - - | G4) @ 2
Conium - - Wal 1
Erigeneia - - i) al 1
XLIV. ARALIACE - hie Ay SU Gh Fey fal Hel 1
Adoxa - - - hal 1} 1 ia] 1
Panax - - - SI Sie li re 2
Aralia - = - Sins 3
XLV. HaMaMELIDE = ial 1
Hamamelis - - Ta 1
XLVI. CornExz - - Ne a BCoV Deena 1
Cornus - - Tl bow CA ab ape cd (ey Ab ala 1
XLVII. Lorantuscex - 1p ayer) sy au al 1
Arceuthobium - - ] 1 1 el 1
XLVIII. Carrirouiacez - 24) 24). 7} 23) 6] 2] 6] 3 2
Sambucus - - Or GB) ally Shy oy
Viburnum - - 9] - 9} 2I gf 1 oi |
Diervilla - - ul Vina 1} 1 1
Lonicera - - &}- 8} 1) a S3)-1) 3) 1 1
Triosteum - - i} 3 ] |
Symphoricarpus - ae 2 2
Linnea - - UY) aU a ay a at al 1
XLIX. Rusiacez - 15] 15| 5] 2) 14] 3) 3) 2] 2 2
Hedyotis - - {| 3 3
Mitchella - - lj 1 ] i
Cephalanthus - “ We 1
Galium - - 9} 9| 5| 2] 8 3) 3} 2] 2 2
Spigelia - - I} 1

330

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Families.

L. VALERIANEZ -
Valeriana -

Fedia - -

LI. Comprosira =

1.

to

4,

5.

Cichoracee
Sonchus -
Nabalus -
Lygodesma
Leontodon
Apargia -
Cynthia -
Lapsana -
Cichorium
Crepis -
Hieracium
‘Troximon

Krigia-

Cynaree -
Centaurea
Arctium -
Carduus -
Cirsium -
Saussurea

Vernoniacee
Vernonia

Eupatoriacee
Kuhnia -
Eupatorium
Mikania -
Liatris -
Nardosmia
Adenocaulon

Senecionidee
Silphium -
Xanthium
Ambrosia
Parthenium
Iva -

| Total Species in Three Zones.

ise)
& bo
eS aD

m CON) 0 ee OW NOON —

—

tb 69 Dee 0

First Zone.

| Species in First Zone.
EAH

[Xs
cs 0

—
MSP NOOWHK RE rPNNRFADAA

one oO

104\¢

Second Zone. .
Between Lat. : Third or
45° to 55° on ero arene Polar Zone.
E. side, and ee eee “| Lying N. of
at. 49° to = 73° Lat.
58° W. side. | 72° N- z
S
aledel (lZlelgle &
2/5 IN 7 (215/38
slEl/A dole SAS |els &
a s ea 5 S/Q/of£/a = Oy
o/u| 6 Jol|S/S][s]s] Zia cal
Cle] 2 1a ale|ete al|slets
alo Fl-/o/S/<]./-/2|8l<
Sle] 3 (2B lelsislelsle
Ale) § |S |SiS Sle sleisle
6/6) 8 eZ l2|Slel8 lz l\Sla
Dike SUES eles 1
QI DiS) i ee eel ]
]
66/80 218]85|31/60\57} 7| 6} 3) 1146
7| 9) S1f11}) 2/10) 6] 1) 1) 1) Ile
B12 otal Tel dq
1
i 1
2)2 2), 2)-2)) SIT Ee
1 1!
1
1
1 2 2) 1 ]
3] 10] 3 Zia 2
1 2 2) 1
1) AD ORS Ra ee 5
1
1
ea 3 ‘31 g
PA IY al ]
1
]
2} 4; 14] 4) 2) 2) 3] 2) 2 2
]
2
Le 3} 1) 1) 31g] 2 1
1} 1 pelted
36/29] '74135|21/24/251 4) 3] 2 23
]
A| II
Wal

=e ahd ®d

NUMBERS OF SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ZONES. 331

First Zone.

Betweentliat. Second Zone. ‘i
45° to 95° on JETOm Arctic poiar Zone.
. | E. side, and wards to. | Lying N. of
g Lat. 49° to 720 N 73° Lat.
58° W. side. ave
N a
eis 218] lols! =
Families. =| 8 gi21s!| IBISlsls <
BPS | fel A isl (sists loicl_ is
| 2S SS Set Se leet o\3|c &
on al/xsx|nlofolE/Q/ofS/E/5 oo)
SLHlSim| SIS/SiISiSIFlslal .fe
BI Sle] s 14/4) s/S]E/2/8| ez
B18 l2/5|" felsisi<]s]sle| aie
aS lel2] 3 islzlelslel gis lalé
2/3 |-|8| 8 [sls /sleys|sizisye
a] 2 |6/6| 614/22 18/4 8/2 |
Comrositz, Senecionide—(continued. )
Heliopsis - - Si) al peal i al
Echinacea = - 1} 1 1
Rudbeckia - =|) Bl og By ey
Lepachys - =) eal) 1
Coreopsis - ail ots! |} 3
Helianthus = -| 12) 12!) 2) 3} 9
Bidens - - = 6] 6) 1 6
Gaillardia c > 4 ON toh en" TI
Trichophyllum- - = aro) 29) 19
Hymenopappus - =) a oa) 1
Picradenia - = a et 1
Helenium = - Maurie gL Hs Ua
Anthemis = = i eal 1
Marruta - - - | al
Achillea - = . 3i 3] 2) 1 2) 1} 2) 2 1
Chrysanthemum - ° 4) 3) 2 S| 3) 1) QF 1 1 2
Pyrethrum - =e pp ty a) at 1
Cotula - - - Ue ay a 1
Omalanthus ~ = 1 [sitll ] 1
Tanacetum - Olt ei | Gta ]
Artemisia = -| 17] 12] 6| 8 1l| 7} 7| 8 5
Gnaphalium - -| 6) 6) 1 4
Antennaria - -| 6] 5) 313 4) 1) 4] 2) 1) 1) 1 4
Arnica - - S|) ele eal! Sa Se Lay 1
Senecio - - - | 16) 12} 3] 3] 10} 9] 6] 5) 71 2
Cacalia - - =|) 24 | 1
6. Asteroidee - - |134]119)20/36) 87|30) 5|20:21 4
Solidago - - =| 31] 31} 4) 5) 30) 3) 1) 3] 2 1
Aster - - - | 591 49) 7|10) 37}11 5| 9 ]
Eurybia - - - 2
Seriocarpus - -{ Jol
Tripolium - =1]e2ay 22 2 1 1
Galatella - - - 2
Townsendia - - ill | eat 1 1 1
Erigeron - - - | 17] 12] 6| 6 12/ 1/10; 8 9
Dipplopappus~ - -| OF 9} 1] 6
Boltonia - - - 1) a
Brachyris - 3] oo 1
Polymnia - -| fol
Madia_ - - - i] an 1
Crinitaria - - Al Sale alley
Donia - - -| 4) -4) 1) 38 2 ibaa

Sag GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

First Zone.
Between Lat. Recon Zone Third or
45° to 55° on Gincla Seah Polar Zone.
E. side, and | i

Lat. 49° to | Wardsto | F307 at,

g | 58 W. side. | 72°N-
S :
Famili 2 a 5 2 = a 2 3 &
amililes. = 8 3 2 A = c ° Z 8 ie s Bs
21s /3lei S1siBloe Els|a 5
lz lelel Slee gtelzlel da
SLR Ole] Sf lal8l;|e]ela| slats
Sie lel5)F [slo si<]e/s E | SIs
— pet . — Ss MS o ry -
i) Sisi|s|/ 2ysiele Elgls Paes 0-9
S18 FS a lsisisisie/eieisie
Sfale|s! {Sl s|/solalslalsolaps
Hina /OlOl| Ss IaiMialalalialazalnia
LIT. Campanuracex - -| 147 11] 3) 1) 9f 4] 3) 2) af 1 Lis
Campanula - = =|) Sh 5S) A SiS oeotmn 1} 1] 2
Lobelia - = “| O) 6 6 1
LITI. Vaccinea - = - | 16] 16/13] 5} 10} 6| 2] 5) 4 4
Vaccinium = = - | 16} 16/13] 5} 10] 6| 2) 5] 4 4
LIV. Ericez - - - | 40} 33/19} 3). 23118} 8/13/10} 2} 1] 1) 2I10
Gaultheria - - es et SA A GI 9) | 2
Arbutus = = = 44 4| 3} 1] 2 2) 2) 2) 2 2
Andromeda = - - | 10} -9} 6| 1) 6f 4] 2) 2) 3f 2] 1] 1) a 2
Menziesia - = Sees a4 a3 1] 4 4 1
Kalmia = - - Si eSivl 3] 1 Le
Epigza = - =) Li 1 1
Rhodora - = = 1h) al 1
Rhododendron - - =|) (6) 75) 1 4] 2) 1} 2] 1 2
Azalea - 2 = - Teed | |e 1} 1/1 1 ]
Ledum - < : |) 9) | POleo: 21 2) 2 2 2
LV. Monorrorea - - | 167 15] 8] 4) 10] 6| 2} 5] 5 5
Cladothamnus . - - Dae
Pyrola - - - -| 101 9] 6| 3) 5S} 6} 2! 5) 5 5
Pterospora - - -/ 1] -1 1
Monotropa - - =|" 2) 2 2
Chimaphila = = - hee leeligee 2,
LVI. JasmMiInE& - - Se] Sifu 3
Fraxinus - - - Shiees eal |e
LVII. Avrocyne& - - - 4) 4 I}; 3 1
Apocynum - - -| 4) 4 Lip es ]
LVIIT. Ascrerrapez = -| 11} 11 2) 11 1
Asclepias - - -| 11] 11 2) 11 1
LIX. Genriane . - | 34] 27/10) 2} 1913] 8} 9] 8 5
Gentiana - - -| 23] 16) 6 11}10| 6) 7| 6 2
Pleurogyne = = = lj 1 Pl} 1 1 1
Swertia - = - it eee 1
Halenia = = - 31 3 1} 3} 1 ]
Sabattia = = - Zee 2
Menyanthes - - Sfp ea Sy a at aorta 1
Villarsia : - a | ol) Bie)
Limnanthemum - = ee ot 1

NUMBERS OF SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ZONES. 333

First Zone.
Between Lat. poco’ Zone, Third or
45° to 45° on Polar Zone.

Circle north-

E, side, and Lying N. of

ee ec Mil
els Je de Coy eo) Ae &
Families. é g 3 2 NS B/S161g <
SNS |s/E/AQ}sle/8la NS) sid
Ele 2\/S| m12/B lo ro! (relies =
el= |Sie|S18l2\SiS]2] Ze! da
S18 |Slel Pf ISlalelelalalé| els
Gis |2\o = slolSi<a}c|+|2] &l<
Ola |lalalslalzialelslzlolale
oie lelela (els ieee gisisis
Ciel adele ei
LX. PotemMoniacE& - ly albel OLA) Ze Ray) atsh veel en) Con | at 1} 2
Polemonium - - || Ah Th ed eau aul ait} at 1} 1
Phlox - - - - 9] 7| 2 51 3) 1) 1) 1 1
Collomia - - Sh AN Al OTH a
LXI. Dtarensiacez - - 1 1 1 1
Diapensia - - -| J 1 1 1
LXII. ConvotvutacEZ2 - -| 6] 6] 2| 2| 6 2
Convolvulus - . Speci 2 2 1
Calystegia “ - sell fer) 2 1
Cuscuta - - i) SY SA lp oy
LXIII. Hyprornyitex - - 4 1; 4} 2] 1) 2} 1
Hydrophyllum - - - 3
Eutoca - - - - 1 1 ON ily A) a
LXIV. Boracingz - - | 27] 25} 7| 6| 20) 9) 4| 5] 6
Myosotis - = - 319211 | i yi a
Echinospermum - - 7 l g, 1) 1
Lithospermum - - - | 14] 13) 4) 3] 11] 6} 3) 3) 4
Onosmodium - - - 1 ]
Echium - - - 1| 1
LXV. SotranEZ - - - 8) 4) 2
Solanum - - - 2 l
Datura - - - - 1
Nicandra - - - 1
Nicotiana - - - 202
Physalis - - - 221 1
LXVI. OrosancHE”® - - 6] 3| 3 1} 1
Orobanche - - - 4) 3) 3 1
Conophilus - - - ]
Epiphegus - - . 1
LXVII. AcanrHaceal - - 2
Dipteracanthus - - 1
Dianthera - - - 1
LXVIII. ScrorpHuLARINEs& - | 741 69)27|22| 46120)10)13/14] 2} 2) 1
Verbascum - - - 3
Linaria - - - 2
Collinsia - - - 4 1

334 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Families.

ScrRopHULARINE — (continued. )

Chelone -
Penstemon -
Mimulus -
Gratiola =
Synthyris =
Limosella -
Veronica =

Gymnandra~ -
Romanzoffia -
Gerardia -
Orthocarpus~ -
Castilleja -
Euphrasia -
Bartsia - -
Rhinanthus -
Melampyrum -
Pedicularis -

LXIX. Lasiata -

Mentha -
Lycopus -
Salvia - =
Monarda =
Blephila -
Pyenanthemum

Collinsonia -
Cunila - =
Hedeoma -
Micromeria -
Melissa -
Prunella -
Scutellaria -
Lophanthus~ -
Nepeta -
Dracocephalum

Physostegia —-
Lamium -
Leonurus -
Galeopsis -
Stachys -
Marrubium -
Teucrium -

Trichostema_ -

| Total Species in Three Zones.

_

Cy OD ON RO

ro

cS

Ba ODD OO OO Oe RE O

First Zone.

Second Zone.

45° to.350-0n [ETOM Arctic pola Zone,
580 Ww. side. 729N ‘
3 | sae oO. | a oulee
2/s/e|S08/8lo (Slee s
WO ol3s/vx;/2° Si
B\O|S| 6 13/3\" | Sie ioe
Peg aa ect Waheed ieee) 4) =
ay et pd) erat “= | Oo
3 /zl2| a lslaiclelslalcis
FI6/6| Sle 2 lelsle|Sl2|F
1 1

s| 5] 4| 1

4} a| 1] 2

Tf We ay

1 I

1 1

11| 6| 4| sf 3/1] 3} 1

1 Todi allied

2| 9 ine

6h aledle te

gies deg

5| 3| 3] 4} 3) 2] 3 3

1 1

1 1

Dien} is. perloe eal en

re er

12| 3} 4| shal s| 6| 8} 2] al 1} a
40| sil0| 37] 2} | 2| 2
Dia) ala ot

4} 1| 2| 2

1 1

3 3

1 1

3 3

1 1

] ]

1 1

1 1

1 ]

Weaenie. a

6| 3) al 5

Si Votlecs

1 1

1 1 ae alan
niealpoe: in

1 1

] 1

1 ]

3} 1} 1} ofa} | aja

1 1

1 1

1 1

| Europe, Asia, andjAfrica.

rT

oon a a

— ee et

NUMBERS OF SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ZONES. 335

First Zone.
Between Lat. Sepond/ Zone Third or

45° to 55° on ciecle rae Polar Zone.
E. side, and JUICE NOTU-1 7 ving N. of

Z fo) wards to )
| oN Gide
N <
ap 2 g A g Z Sales 2 3 é
Families e; ke 4 < A S ; a = Ss Ee a is
So. |e\/e|/ etelslo Elels 5
22 lee! 8 [el elsislelsial ela
sy lolele (2j@/s/£/2/7/8/ se
218 le/sl" [slelsl<is|/ sls] 21%
213 iel\s|2/8/2l-/F)3/8l2/a18
S78 HF a peisieispeleleisye
G1 F16/6| 8 [el 2leislalslzlata
LXX. VerBenaces& = - | 15) 15) 5) 5) 13) 4 4| 2 6
Verbena - - - 6] 6) 2) 2| 5 1
Phryma - = = it) al i
Utricularia - = = 6] 6! 1} 6] 2 PN 5l
Pinguicula - - -| 2) 2) 2) 2) IJ@ 2 2
LXXI. Prmuracex - - | 234 17) 9} 7) 13411) 7] 4| 8 10
Dodecatheon - - - 2} (i) Ie O52, 1
Androsace = - - 2 2) 2) 2) 2 2
Douglasia - = - | al! 1 1 1
Primula - - Sy St) i as) 4
Trientalis - = = 3] 3) 2 1 1
Lysimachia - - = || 6h) 6] 2) 2) 6] 1 1 1
Glaux - = - - TU} rt aU ei Peat ]
Samolus = = = i) ae nF aU al 1
LXXII. Piumpacinez - = | Ab It 1 Fi} al 1 1
Statice - - - - BA GA GT 2) 1) 1 1 1
LXXIII. Puanracinrzx - =|! Sai tal el ans ch | 2| 3
Plantago - - =| 5) 5) 3) 1] 4) 2 2 3
LXXIV. NycracInExX - S| 2 1 2
Oxybaphus - - |) all) eat al
Allionia - - | 2
LXXV. AMARANTHACEZ - - 6) 6) 1] 2| 6
Amaranthus) - - - 6) 6] 1) 2) 6
LXXVI. CHENoropEZ - - | 20] 19] 6/11] 12] 4! 3 ] 14
Salicornia = - - | Ay all) i) ll 2
Salsola - - - - eed 1 1
Corispermum - - Sy) a uu a ]
Eurotia - - - pel 1 1
Blitum - - - a2 ie 1
Chenopodium - - =e Sie T|3| Ole apt 1 5
Ambrina - - - 1} 1 1
Atriplex - - ree a4 el She SS 3
LXXVII. Puyrotacerz - - 1 1
Phytolacca - - - 1 1

336 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

First Zone.
Between Lat. pacond Zone: Third or
45° to 55° on Givers arte Polar Zone
d ae sane paranies A Tylney of
wn t. 49° t 3 te
S 580 W. side. | 72°N. ae
N
o . 5 .
o oO bl g fou -; o .
re = PI os 7 3 ad STE;
Families. a 8 i 2 A |S BSE < a ‘
¢ Sls} Ly Itis/S|Algisis
= Telalf/ so 1slelolofzels]s
of /|Sola| efelslalisial2is
SIR Sle] Sls la) cele lalsle
S12 /2ls/"— felelel<feislele
2/13 /Sl2) 2/slsislelaigicls
2/3 (P/F seisizlerssleis
B(S/6/6| s[Fi2 ls isle Sle le
LXXVIII. Potyconrx - - | 34] 32/16) 8} 22111] 6] 6] 9F 2) 2| 2] 2
Konigia - - Satie 1} 4) 1
Oxyria 3 2 Sy bee 1] a} .1)) a alent
Rumex - - -| 10) 10) 5; 4) 9} 5] 1) 2] 4
Polygonum - - - | 18) 17) 7} 2)-13% 4) 3) 1] 47 1) 1) 1] 1
Eriogonum - - -| 4) 4) 3) 2
LXXIX. Laurint® = =| 2 2 2
Benzoin - = = lj 1 1
Sassafras - - - Deel ]
LXXX. Ereacnez - -| 3| 8 Qe D9 2
Eleagnus - - = yal) =) a Le 1} 1
Shepherdia - - =| 2p 2 i 1
LXXXI. Tuymeres: “ - lj 1 1
Dirca - = = 1} 1 1
LXXXII. Santatacem - =i QI 19 2} 21 1} 1
Comandra - = a 2 OIE 4) i 1) 1
LXXXIITI. Aristrotocu - tit 1
Asarum - = - 1} 1 1
LXXXIV. EmeretrreExZ - - 1} 1 Wa ae
Empetrum - - -| || 1 Ua Ae
LXXXV. EvrnHorsiacex - si 8} 2) 2) 8
Euphorbia - - - A) FQ or &
Acalypha - - Safi Hal 1
LXXXVI. Urticexz - -| 10] 10 1} 10} 1 1
Urtica - - = =i Ot) 25 ell) His eS te l
Pilea - - - - 1 =1 1
Parietaria - - - 1 1
Boehmeria - - - 1} 1 1
Humulus - - - Lied 1
Cannabis - = - lj 1 ]
LXXXVII. Utmacem - = 3} =3) 1 g
Ulmus - = = = 2) | BO} g
Celtis - = = = i yh yt ]

~1 © +» q | Europe, Asia, and Africa.

NUMBERS OF SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ZONES. SOW

Becket Second’ Zone- I) Third.or
45° to 55° on arom sretie Polar Zone.
, E. side, and eer ~ | Lying N. of
& | Lat. 49° to 58° TOON. 73° Lat.
5 W. side. my .
S Pe
AH Ele! |elelél iglelgle 2
amilies. = s : 2 5 Ss Z 2 S % é rs
Seale ele lela |omelseial 2
n = OnLy S Ss 2 io & 6 5/5 «
ea Glee GEG
sfsi2g is |F ie lele/<]el,|2/a]<
ole|sielels lzizlelsisclsl|
SIS lS (FSIS iSl|F| shel sisis] se
2 |g | eaife ta) eS) et
Elelslé lalallala le slsiel2
LXXXVIII. SaurureEx -!| 1} 1 1
Saururus = =| thee ]
LXXXIX. Juctanpinrz -| 4) 4! 4
Juglans - = = 2) g
Carya - = = B)) ey, 2
XC. Saricacez - - | 48] 39) 8) 6] 36) 27] 8] 14] 24] 3! 1] 3] 11 14
Salix - - = |) 449-35) - 7) 3) 32) 25) 7) W298 si qi Sh a TS:
Populus - - =) Ab Ae eda. Dien 2) «9 1
XCI. Betunacez - a2} PULL 4 64) Oh 6131-6) 75 2
Betula - = = 81° 8) - 92) 2i- 7] 4-1), 4] -3 1
Alnus - - =H Stee oles Oe Dl QP el Olero 1
XCII. Praranacezx - fd. J 1
Platanus - - mV) at 1
XCIII. Cururirerz =e doa 15) =D a4
Quercus - =| 10) 10) +1 9
Fagus - - =o Lined 1
Carpinus - = 15 au | al | 1
Ostrya - - - lj 1 | 1
Corylus = - = 2) 4) ail) Gh
XCIV. Myricacez Heese oe 2) able 2 1 ]
Myrica - - = 9 2! 2) et al ]
Comptonia - =H elf el ]
XCV. ConIFERE - - | 20] 20|- 9] 6) 14) 7)-}) 4) 6 2
Pinus - - =| ed |e el fel 1
Abies - - =|) <6] 86\4= 3], 2) +4) 3)1| eo x9
Larix - - = it | al |, oa 1
Cupressus . =| 2) 2)/- 1) 1
Thuja - - <I) SOURED. El i= 2
Juniperus - =i} [Shp eS|i= 2) 2) - 21-2 A) 2
Taxus - - - i | al 1
MONOCOTYLEDONES /5541493 1621223991198 53)120,146;21|20) 9) 91188
XCVI. CometinEZx Sip eal | i 1 |
Tradeseantia - - il) yal 1
|

VOL. II.

338 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

First Zone.
Between

apace see | “en? | 73° Lat
iS W. side. $6
a 5 . ree el | She .
Families. ele| |£|ZI8| |8|2 s\s| | I<
als | dle lele Els lclelzlg) (e
eS eee ee
Qhcle|s = alolzei(<is|s/s So}
Sheol mliso|] .f2/s S a) D1] eh os
a Bla|a a S/O] py 5 o)|3le | 2
SPs FF lars is|Zlepeelelsys
ElZ|6/6|sle\elelala| diz | aja
XCVII. AttsmMacem - - =| 3} 3) 2) 2) 3 3
Sagittaria - - - Hea) a ale ai] al 1
Alisma = - = PW) A at al 2
XCVIII. Juncacinex - - - 1| 3] 4 2) 1 3
Scheuchzeria = - - 1 UH Ya 1 1
Triglochin - = = - | 31 3} 1] 2] 381 i a 2
XCIX. ArowrErx - = - {13912} 2] 3/11} 3} 1) 3) 2 10
Acorus = = - = (ead 1h al 1
Orontium ~- . - -| 1g 1 1
Arum - - = -| 1f 1 1
Calla - - - = |e 1
Symplocarpus - - - | 21 2) 2 1 2
Lemna - - - -~| 33 3 3
Sparganium - - -| 31 2 1) Qf 2) 1) 2} 2 3
Typha - - - ~| 171 by) Tl) | 3 iN Gl 1
C. Nalapes - - = ~ |14414) 3). 1149 7 Lim 9
Zannichellia - : = 1} 1 1 1
Naias = - - = 1 1
Ruppia - - - - ij al 1 1
Potamogeton - - =~ |L1f11) 1) {119 1 1) 1 7
CI]. Smirace# - - - - |19919] 6} Si16) 3 3| 2 4
Smilax - - - - 3 1} 3
Streptopus - - - - Si) 3) 2) 2 2
Uvularia - - - - 6| 1|-1] 5
Smilacina - - es : 6| 2| 4| 513 3) 2 il
Polygonatum - - - ] 1 1
CII. Meranryacex - = ~ |16]16| 7| 4|13) 4) 2] 3) 3 3
Limnanthemum - : Set Pa
Zigadenus - - - -| 1) a} 1) 1 1) 1) 1
Xerophyllum - - Si idles
Helonias’ - - = =| IF 1} 1
Veratrum - - = ale He Uy aL 1 1
Tofieldia - - - -| 37 3} 2) 2 Q| 1) J 2
Medeola_ - = « Spel jot
Trillium - - = mayer dle ]
CIII. Lintacez = “ -| 9F 9) 6) 1 1
Lillum = - - - | 3) 3) 2) 1

Families.

Litiacea — (continued.)

Fritillaria - -
Erythronium -
Calochortus =
CIV. AsPHopELEZ os
Anthericum é
Allium S 2
Camassia- 2
Brodiza 5 -

CV. PontepERIAcEz -

Pontederia - =
Leptanthus - -
CVI. Restiacex =
Eriocaulon - =
CVII. Juncex 2
Luzula - 2
Juncus - =

CVIII. HyprocuaripE&

Valisneria - -
Udora - -
CIX. Orcuipex
Microstylis - -
Liparis - -
Corallorrhiza -
Amplectrum -
Calypso” - -
Orchis - -
Gymnadenia -
Platanthera - -
Peristylus - -
Arethusa - -
Pogonia- -
Calopogon - -
Spiranthes - -
Goodyera - -
Listera - -
Cypripedium -

First Zone. F
Between Second Zone, q
Lat. 45° to } From Arctic Boone oe
55° 2 Be: Circle north- Tyine N oF
« fside, and Lat.f wards to q
Z] 49° to 58° | 72° N. EES
° W. side.
N 3
3. a eel cs
a es) .| 3 fs| fe} -ic . Bo]
ysl (2lalS|_(SiZisi2le| te
a lelalelelsls /Alelzlz &
STelalSi/olsl|siQlofe]s]s Gy
hE /Sie | Shel sis /sl4|s/a] -[s
sil [afc Stala| s/f |a| Ss] ata
o (=| = DNiN|wals= Qilka
ole ties Bigls|<]4/s/&| a=
2tels|elefele|S|213| aici s1e
6 ee ase Bees
S =| a i
eae Eaeieaes eae (gee cy
7) GA 2) 1
3} 3) 1 2
ay ah a
12911) 7| 3} 4) 2) 1 2 1
1 iia ]
8h 8] 4) 3) 491 1 1
lf 1| 1
D252
Zi 2 2)
1j 1 1
lq 1 I
1f 1 1
1h 1 ] il
2390/10} 9)15§17| 8)14\13] 3] 2) 2) 2114
7) 6| 4) 2) 49 5| 4] 5) 37 2) 1) 1) af 4
16§14| 6) 7\11412) 4) 9/10) 1} 1) 1 10
gh 2 1
1} 1 1 1
1y 1 1
54§52)17) 9/43310] 3) 8) 8 ]
3y-3| 1 2
2-2 2
Ste Si) Si Ve 2h Tt
14 1 1
Hy oli aly cabin jal 1} 1
21-2) 1 1
1j 1 1
20320} 7} S5i15_ 3) 1) 3] 3,
fo} 1] 1\ 1
lj 1 1
Qh 2) 2
Med 1
SES Diese 2 2| 1
21 1 1, 1 Liew
7 | 2A) 2
8}-7| 1 71 2) 11 1] 2

N
bo

340 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

ee ————————— eae

|
Between Lat. [Second Zone} pird or
45° to 55° on Gicclomonthe Polar Zone.
E. side, and SE Ge Lying N. of
3 Lat. 49° to 790 N, 73° Lat.
a 58° W. side.
By g
2 me ol is &
Families. rey e 3 a S = 2 g 2 iS
ets lelels 12 Isic Ieee le
n Ks S a 3 8 5 3 2 Ss 5 = a
7 GM ee ae
2] 2 ie] s efe/S/<pel515|>)<
A | ay Np ell S| Sy IS elnlelOlota
sl2icis/ S72 (2izistslsigiste
SfSlelc|2'8/1s/8iaisisielais
BT RIOlO] Ie IMlelalal|4a|4lafe

CX. Iripex - - - i) ZA a 74 | A 1
Tris = - - - 7 66) 1 64 2) 2
Sisyrinchium - - - TW) 6D) 1 1-1 1

CXI. Hyvroxipex - . 1 at ]

Hypoxis - - Si a il 1

CXII. Dioscorrz - - i a ]
Dioseorea - - - 1} 1 ]

CXIII. Cyperacea - = |218]184/51|}33/1609102\12|54|77) 5) 5| 1 2,81
Carex - - - - |1834153'39/24)131f 91) 9/45/68] 3] 3) 1) 2,65
Elyna - - - « 2 PA i
Eleocharis - - -| 7 6] 4) 3) St -s 21 2 5
Scirpus - - - | 10] 10} 3} 5] 10 4
Eriophorum = - =) RShma| Ra 7{ 6] 3] 5) 6} 2) 2 6
Dulichium - - - 1f- 1 1
Cyperus - - =H oll oO 14
Rhynchospora - - -| 2) 2) 1 2 1

CXIV. GramMiInEx - - |1534134/48/46) 96) 51/24,32'36113/13| 5| 6156
Leersia - - - Qi Ql | 9
Hydropyrum - = = ]

Alopecurus - - - 40 3) Ziel! (Sh - 2) Wi Soi eel 3
Phleum - - - A} | APA) at al 1} 1 2
Phalaris - - - 1 a ee 1 1
Hierochloe - - - 31.2 1) (QF 3/12) 2) 521250 et eee
Anthoxanthum - - - ng het 1 1
Milium - - - Wo ] 1
Panicum - - + sf 68} 1) 3} 8

Holeus - - - ly 1 J 1
Oplismenus - - = en) al 1
Setaria - - - lf 1 ]

Cenchrus - - - ufo 1

Oryzopsis - - =|) Gt} a SI

Stipa - - - -| 4) 4 3}

Muhlenbergia - - -| 6f 6) 2e1) 5

Phippsia - - =i) 22 D152 Te i 1
Colpodium - - =| oa) Ty +2) 2) Aor

Vilfa - - - - vt al 1

Agrostis - ~ -| 6] 6] 6) 2) 3f 3 Sit 4
Calamagrostis - - =| 10} 9] 3/-2) 7-3) 2) 3ig 2g
Ammophila_ - - Hf dl al 1 1

NUMBERS OF SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ZONES. 341

First Zone.
Between Lat. Second Zone. Third or
45° to 55° on From Arctic Polar Zone

E. side, and Circle north- Lying N. of

B Lat. 49° to 58° wards to 72° N. 73° Lat.
S W. side.
N x
Salas a is | =
Families. A g = 2 i & 3 kR = <
ef |3/4 sig /*|Alsls|s| Jz
= = ee) lesiilerse pee | OS [eon wel a hee Co
sale foe l=s pee te |= |S lelslel.f2
oI my ra] S n|n Ps z= & N|Vicf a
Beene eles. ie) ewes | ro) |, une a aos
Sys |*/8/1 S81 S18] 2) 0s ZlZislé
Bia lé/6| e]alelelalalsiziela
Graminex— (continued. )
Graphephorum - 1 1 1
Phragmites - - = SU aif 1 1
Spartina - - 1 1 | al
Eutrianas- - J 1 1 | al 1
Deschampsia - | aU allen AN) aU! 1 1
Dupontia - - Hy ail LE eal 11a 1f 1
Boutelouia - - ie? Qh
Aira - A ais) joes a EN 1
Trisetum = = - Zhe 24 il [ay aU) 2 2a 1 1 ]
Avena - - 2 1 Ul Wee 1 1 1
Danthonia - - ] 1 1}
Poa - = -| 26f 23] 10] 6| 15) 11] 7] 5 3| | 2| af 13
Eragrostis - - il] al 1}
Glyceria- - co) HOGI) lio: | es Higa: [ag 2
Pleuropogon - 1 \ 1/1
Reboulea - - of 2 1 2) 1
Catabrosa- - WOU 1} 1
Koeleria - - il} aul 1 1] 1
Festuca - - og] 66} 2 2) 3 3 HI) a! 1} 4
Bromus - - 3 aie By Sat? a IL
Ceratochloa - - Ue at
Brizopyrum - iM Je at at a
Triticum - By etic) cI) ie 2 2 3
Elymus - 5) IS (| | | FP 5
Asprella - (sell | a 1j
Hordeum - roe |r OO eL il | 1
Andropogon Sait cat Wy | 1
ACROGENES -| 71} 67| 26] 18) 57] 30) 6) 21) 2 26
CXV. Eaquisrtacex - Oe ON Sh Poh Sh Gin 2i) 74 8
Equisetum - - ON Osi 4g $1 6) 2] 4 8
CXVI. Firices - -| 477 43) 16) 11] 35] 20) 3; 13) 16 20
Polypodium - - Sti Sh) 3} 1 3
Woodsia_— - - Gl oS 1 3] 2 1 2
Cistopteris - - Siig ] 9} | AN iN 2
Aspidium - =| JI JO) 5) 2) .9) 4) 21 3 6
Onoclea - - 1 1 1}
Struthiopteris - 1 1 1
Athyrium - - eS a a i | eal 1
Asplenium - - a 5 | A) 3
Blechnum - - i J aN} al } 1] 1

342 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FLANTS.

First Zone. ;
Between Lat. Second Zone. Third or
45° to 55° on From Arctic Polar Zone.
E. side, and Circle north- Lying N. of
ra Lat. 49° to 58° wards to 72° N. 73° Lat.
= W. side.
fo) .
N : §
o : o . © —_
‘) : ey fe) : . tea
Families. = a a | %@ 3 | 3 g <
FINS |/s/f/A fe g|-l|Aalslsls =
Ale (312/818) 2/e sie
fle |olelelela|el2ee eas
Bre l/2iS/F laels/s|s]elsia/e1s
n w 3 | a 33 a | 2 pe Vise ht fore ies. | |
=a ® a Co a © cy >) oye |S|/e)/2q &
SPs R/S) sls | Sie lalate le ieee
) el eels a 2|/ce¢]e|alels|olay s
a nan l|Oolo| €IF|M lala lzalAlzZlofA
FrL1cEs — (continued).
Pteris - - 3 Sivaie 3h ] ]
Cryptogramma - 1 IN ahi) al ails
Adiantum - - 1 ih a 1
Cheilanthes - = 1 il, =a 1 1
Dicksonia_ - - 1 1 1
Osmunda- - - 3 3 3 1
Schizzea - - 1 1 ]
Botrychium - - Sy) 5 ai 1} 2 Hil 1
CXVII. Lycoropinrm - NE PA Po Gy) SIS all Sle ale) a
Lycopodium - Nat a OG As esi TCO) | ze OA Sell oss} 7
Selaginella - - 1 1 1
CX VIII. Hypropreripes 3 3 3 1
Isoetes = ~ J 1 1 1
Salvinia - - 1 1 1
Azolla - - ] 1 J
Dicorytepones = |1725 1499 498 391|1130]568|27 1|340/377{69|57|40/29f403
Monocorytepones | 554] 493162122) 399]198) 521201146]91|20) 9| 9}188
2279)1992\660/513)1529]766|324 460) 523)90)77|49|381591
ACROGENES - 771i 67} 26) 18} 57] 30) 6) 21) 24 26

Obs. In the preceding table, and in that which follows, species that range
to several zones are enumerated in each. The proportionate numbers of the
second table are found by dividing the whole Phanerogame of a district by
the numbers of each family in that district, and they may, therefore, be con-
sidered as denominators of fractions having 1 for a numerator.

The proportions vary remarkably in different districts. The predominance
of Compound Flowers, Leguminous and Rosaceous plants in the Prairies,
combined with the paucity of Saxifrages, Gentians, and Ericaceous plants,
affect the proportions of the other families materially. The Grasses, as
might be expected, are more numerous in the Prairies than elsewhere, with
the remarkable exception of the Polar Zone, in which the Graminee form
one-seventh of the species, and in conjunction with the Crucifere, Caryo-
phyllee, and Saxifragee, constitute more than half the Phanerogame. ‘The
small numbers of Asters, Willows, and Carices, on the Pacific coast, modify
the numbers of that district.

PROPORTIONS OF PHANEROGAMOUS VEGETATION. 343

PROPORTIONATE NUMBERS OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL FAMI-
LIES TO THE WHOLE PHANEROGAMOUS VEGETATION OF THE
SEVERAL DISTRICTS OF THE THREE ZONES.

First Zone. Second Zone.
E
a re : 3
% A E go" § c=
Families. is) E Z 3 ae 2 co
g = S A So e | £5
EP sean teeth Puli. eink
a a E g <
Monocotyledones -} 4:1 4-2 3°8 6°1 3°8 3°6] (4:3
Composite - - | 10-0 6:4 7:0 90 UETE|\ 21k) | IDES)
Cyperacen - =) 12°91) 15-9 925) 27-0 8:5 6:8] 18-2
Graminee ~=- -]| 13°8 112 159 ISP 14°4 14:5 7:0
Rosacez - =) 1758) 15-65) 19501) 120 18-45) VOR 18 -o
Crucifere - I le Sa 44a Sle ON ela e329 9°8 6'1
Leguminose - =P 245) 15-1 |) SOLO e23e) | 41 <8) arse oe
Scrophularinee -[ 24-4) 23:3] 32:2] 27:°0| 35:4) 37-1] 45-5
Caryophyllez -1|25:4| 39:°5| 46-3] 18:0} 242] 20-9 83
Ranunculacez =| 27-5 | 27:0) 32-5] 23-1 | 14-85) 29-71 18°9
Ericez - - =| 34-7 | 171-0) 66:5 | 36:0 |) 35:4.) 52°2)) 45:5
Orchidez - -| 38°8| 57°0| 35°6]108°0| 57:6] 65:3
Saxifrageze - -] 50°8 | 128:2|} 80°5] 12°5 21:9; 29:0 735
Umbelliferze - -| 50°8| 85°5}| 54:5] 54:0 | 230°0 | 104:4
Gentianeze - - | 66:0} 256°5| 80°5] 40°5| 51:1} 65-2
Coniferz - -|73°3| 85:5 | 106°4]324:0/125:0| 87:0
Labiatz - SS 2-Sale Oil Su) elles D3°ON me 26e2
Salicacee = - -|82°5| 85:5] 42°5] 40°5| 32:9} 21-7] 30:3
Boraginee = - -|94:3] 85°5| 76°4] 64:8; 11°5]| 87:0

A list of the plants collected by Mr. Seeman on the coasts of
Beering’s Sea having been received subsequent to the first part of
the preceding tables having passed through the press, some emenda-
tions are requisite. The numbers of Dycotyledones, in p. 342., are to
be substituted for those in p. 322., and the following changes made in
the column headed Kotzebue Sound: viz. Ranunculacee, 14; Cruci-
fere, 19; Caryophyllee, 18; Leguminosae, 14; Rosacea, 27 ; Portu-
lacee, 5; Saxifragee, 26; Composite, 36; Hricee, 9; Boraginee, 5 ;
Scrophularinee, 12; Verbenacee, 1; Diapensiacee, 1. ‘These occasion
some slight alterations in the first column of the second zone, and in
the total number of plants.

344 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

The following Table of the Distribution of the Carices
was drawn up by Dr. Boott, whose intimate acquaintance
with that genus of Cyperacee renders it of the highest
value to the student of the Geography of Plants: —

London, May 6th, 1850.
My prar Sir Jou,

I have examined the Carices you brought from your last
excursion to America. They are — |

C. scirpoidea Michxr. Arctic Sea coast.

ursina Dewey. Arctic Sea coast.

glareosa Wahlg. Arctic Sea coast.

stans Drejer. Arctic Sea coast.

saxatilis Z. Arctic Sea coast.

compacta Brown. Arctic Sea coast.

fuliginosa St. § Hoppe. Arctic Sea coast.

livida Willd. Arctic Sea coast.

Nove Anglie Schwz. Arctic Sea coast and Methy Portage.

canescens L. (§ 6.) Arctic Sea coast and Methy Portage.
3 var. polystachya. Lakes Superior, Rainy, and of the

Woods.

adusta Boott. Methy Portage.

siccata Dewey. Methy Portage, Saskatschawan.

lanuginosa Michx. Methy Portage, Saskatschawan.

lenticularis Miche. Methy Portage.

Houghtonii Torrey. Methy Portage.

Raeana Boott. Methy Portage.

utriculata Boott. Methy Portage, Lakes Superior, Huron.

aquatilis Waklg. Methy Portage, Lakes Superior, Huron, Fort
Simpson and Chipewyan.

umbellata Schk. Methy Portage, Lakes Superior, Huron, Fort

Simpson and Chipewyan.

oligosperma Michx, Lake Superior.

aristata Br. Lakes Superior and Huron.

scoparia Schk. (§ b.). Lakes Superior and Huron, Winipeg,
Athabasca.

vulgaris Fries. Lakes Superior and Huron, Winipeg.

retrorsa Schwz. Winipeg River, Lake of Woods.

pedunculata Muhig. Winipeg River, Rainy Lake.

intumescens Rudge. Lake of Woods, Rainy Lake.

(Ederi Hhrh. Rainy River and Lake.

TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION OF CARICES. 345

Pennsylyanica Zam. Saskatschawan, Winipeg, and Cumberland
Lakes.
incurva Light. Valleys of the Sask. and Mack.

Of the above, C. Raeana is new, and C. stans new to British
America.

I find from my notes that the number of Carices in North
America is 250; of which 178 are found in all Arctic America,
including 97 common to Arctic America and the States, leaving
81 Arctic species.

Of these 81, there are 836 common to Europe, leaving 45
peculiar to Arctic America.

Of the 97 found in Arctic America and the States, 28 are
common to Europe, leaving 69 exclusively American.

There are in the States, besides, 72, of which 4 only are Eu-
ropean, leaving 68 exclusively American.

The exclusively American species are therefore 182, and 68
common to America and Europe.

American species in Arctic America = - aa] A)

E ‘ 81
uropean do. - = 36

American species in Arctic America and the States} 69

E 97
uropean do. do. - 28

American species in the States - - -| 68 79

European do. - - - + is

182 68 250

You will find that the large proportion of Carices in the
Northern part of America, common to it and to Europe, is in
accordance with the observations of Agassiz, made in his late
interesting excursion to Lake Superior. He remarks that the
farther north we proceed the greater is the uniformity of the
plants common to the two continents; and it is remarkable
that Leconte, in his list of the Coleoptera of Lake Superior, was
struck with the absence of all the groups peculiar to the Ame-
rican continent, the large increase of the species of genera
feebly represented in the more temperate regions, and the ex-
istence of many genera heretofore regarded as confined to the
southern parts of Europe and Asia.

Yours sincerely,
F. BOOTT.

346 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

The 97 species found in Arctic America and in the States, are —
C. Richardsoni Brown.

C. anceps Muhlg.
arida Tor.
aristata Brown.
aurea Nutt.
angustata Boolt.
arectata Boott.
adusta Boott.
aperta Boott.
aquatilis Wahl.
atrata L.

blanda Dewey.
bromoides Schk.
Backii Boott.
bullata Schk.
Buxbaumii Wahl.
cephalophora MuAl.
conoidea Schh.
cristata Schwz.
erinita Lam.
commutata Gay.
capillaris Z.
eanescens L.
chordorrhiza Hhrh.
capitata LZ.
debilis Wicha.
Deweyana Schwz.
digitalis Willd.
eburnea Boott.
Ehrhartiana Hoppe.
festucacea Schk.
flexilis Rudge.
filiformis L.

flava L.

C. fulva Good.

grisea Wahlg.
gracillima Schwz.
granularis Muhlg.
gynocrates Worm.
hystericina Muhilg.
intumescens Rudge.
irrigua Willd.
lupulina Muhlg.
lagopodioides Schk.
Liddoni Boott.
longirostris Tor.
lanuginosa Miche.
lacustris Willd.
lenticularis Miche.
limosa ZL.

livida Willd.
Muhlenbergii Schk.
miliacea Muhlg.
monile Tuckn.
muricata L.

Nove Angliz Schwz
oligosperma Miche.
(Ederi Ehrh.
polytrichoides Muhl
pubescens Muhlg.
PennsylvanicaLam,
pedunculata Muhilg.
plantaginea Lam.
pseudocyperus L.
pallescens L.
pauciflora Light.
rosea Schk.

retrorsa Schwz.
rostrata Michz.
retroflexa Muhlg.
rigida Good.
subulata Miche.
squarrosa L,
striata Micha.
stipata Muhlg.
scoparia Schk.
straminea Schk,
seabrata Schwz.
Schweinitzii Dewey
siccata Dewey.
seirpoidea Micha.
stellulata Good.
triceps Micha.
tentaculata Muhlg.
trisperma Dewey.
teretiuscula Good.
tenuiflora WaAl.
tenella Schk.
umbellata Schk.
utriculata Booitt.
varia Muhilg.
verticillata Boote.
vulpinoidea Micha.
vesicaria LZ.
vulgaris Fries.
vitilis Fries.
Willdenowii Schk.

Of the 97 in Arctic America and in the States, 28 are European.

In England.

C. Buxbaumii Wg.
canescens L.
filiformis Z.

flava L.

fulva Good.
irrigua Willd.
limosa Z.
muricata L.
(Ederi Ehrh.
pseudocyperus L.
pallescens L.
stellulata Good.
teretiuscula Good.
vesicaria L.
vulgaris Fries.

In Scotland.

C. capillaris L.

aquatilis Wahl.
atrata Z.
pauciflora Light.
rigida Good.

C.

In North of Europe.
chordorrhiza Ehrh.
capitata L.
gynocrates Worm.
tenuiflora Wahlg.
livida Willd.
tenella Schk.

vitilis ries.
Ehbrhartiana Hoppe.

TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION OF CARICES. 347

Of these 28 species of Europe, 12 are Alpine, or found in high
northern latitudes.

C. Ehrhartiana is found in Germany, and is probably a form of C.
teretiuscula Good.

C. fulva was originally established upon a Newfoundland specimen,
and has only been found once near Boston, U.S. A.

The 72 found in the United States are —

C. alopecoidea Tuckn. | C. folliculata L. |C. polymorpha Muhlg.
estivalis Curtis. glaucescens Eh. | refracta Schk.
alveata Boott. Grayil Carey. | retrocurva Dewey.
Boottiana Benth. | gigantea Rudge. | — sterilis Willd.
Barrattii Tor. hyalina Boot. | sparganioides Muhd.
Baltzellii Chapman. Halseyana Dewey. Sartwellii Dewey.
Buckleyi Dewey. Hitchcockiana Dew. — setacea Dewey.
crus-corvi Shutt. imbricata Boott. | Shortii Tor.
Careyana Dewey. juncea Willd. _ Steudelii Kunth.
CherokeensisSchwz.) Knieskernii Dewey. _ styloflexa Buckley.
Crawei Dewey. lucorum Jiilld. | stenolepis Tor.
Cooleyi Dewey. lupuliformis Sartw. Sullivantii Boott.
Caroliniana Buckley) — leevigata Smith. | sychnocephala Car.
comosa Boott. mirabilis Dewey. strictior Dewey.
decomposita Dewey.| Mitchelliana Curtis tenax Chapman.
Davisii Schwz. microdonta Tor. | tetanica Schk.
dasycarpa Muhlg. | Meadii Dewey. torta Boott.
exilis Dewey. mirata Dewey. | turgescens Tor.
Elliottii Tor. oligocarpa Schk. Tuckermani Boott.
Floridana Zor. oxylepis Tor. vestita Willd.
Fraseri Sims. preecox Jacq. venusta Dewey.
feenea Willd. panicea L. | virescens Muh.
formosa Dewey. platyphylla Carey. vulpina L.
flaccosperma Dewey| — planostachys Kunz. Woodii Dewey.

Of these 72 species, 4 only are common to Europe (England).
C. precox Jacq. (introduced), found only in Salem, Massachusetts.
levigata Smith (introduced), found once near Boston, Massachu-
setts.
panicea LZ.
vulpina Z. Doubtful, probably a form of C. stipata. (Ohio,
Illinois.)

I can offer you little that is satisfactory to myself as to the geogra-
phical range of the 97 species that are common to Arctic America and
the States, for want of precise data as to the Carices of the Southern
and Western States.

A.—I find, from such data as I have, that from lat. 30° to 35°, that is,
from N. Orleans through the Carolinas, there are 33 species
extending into Arctic America, one of which, C. Nove Angliz
Schwz., ranging from N, Orleans to the Arctic Sea, maintains
an equally vigorous development through 40° of latitude.

348 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

B.—From lat. 37° to 41°, Kentucky to Rhode Island, there are 21
species extending northwards.
C.—From lat. 42° to 45°, Massachusetts to Wisconsin, there are 43
species extending northwards.
Of the 72 species found in the States, 27 are southern species,
ranging from Florida to Kentucky.
Of the 81 in Arctic America, there is, in

Newfoundland, 1. C. remota, Z.

Labrador, 3. C. recta B., nigra All., ustulata
Weg.

Greenland, 9. C. duriuscula M7., hematolepis

Dr., reducta Dr., rufina Dr.,
holostoma Dr., hyperborea
Dr,, microglochin Wg., pe-
data Wg., microstachya Ehrh.

Canada, 1. C. miliaris Mz.

Rocky Mountains 8. C. petasata Dy., petricosa Dy.,
filifolia Nutt., Geyeri B., Ly-
oni B., Jamesii 7., dioica L.,
Pyrenaica Wg.

Rocky Mountains and Altai, 1. C. Franklinii B. (C. macrogyna
Turczon).
North-West coast, 18. C. anthoxantha Pr., antheri-

coides Pr., Hoodii B., ampli-
folia B., Gmelini H., circinnata
Mr., leiocarpa Mr., marcida
B., micropoda Mr., macro-
cephala W., Mertensii Pres.,
nigella B., Sitchensis Pres.,
Tolmiei B., elongata Z., le-
porina Z., stricta G., physo-
carpa Presl.

Newfoundland to Rocky Mts., 1. C. ovata Rudge.

Greenland to Lake Superior, 1. C. bicolor Ad.

C

and Newfoundland to 1. C. glareosa Wg.

” ) 5
Arctic Sea,

3 to Cumberland House, 1. C. subspathacea Worm.
55 to Arctic Sea, 3. C.stans Dr., vablii S., ursina Dy.
5 Slave Lake, and Ft. 1. C. rotundata Wg.

Enterprise,

. rariflora Sm.
. Supina Wg., vaginata Tausch.

and Mackenzie River, 1. C
Bear Lake, and 2. C
Rocky Mts.,
5 Bear Lake, Church R. 1. C
and Sask.
= and Repulse Bay, 1€

. ampullacea G.

. fuliginosa St. § Hop.

TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION OF CARICES.

549

Greenland, Arctic Sea, Rocky 1. C. compacta Br.

Mountains, and
North-West coast,
to Rocky Mountains,

”

=f to North-West coast 3.
(not Rocky Mts.),
Arctic Sea, 1.
Hudson’s Bay to Methy Portage, 1.
- to Cumberland H., 2.
Cumberland House, Mackenzie 1.
River, and Rocky Mts.,

Carlton House, 2
54 to North-West coast, 1
Methy Portage, 1.
Wooded Country, 2
Rocky Mountains to North- 5.

West coast,

7.

C. festiva Dy., incurva Light.
lagopina Wg., nardina Fr,
obtusata Zil., rupestris Ail.,
saxatilis L.

C. salina Weg.,
Mr., stylosa Mr.

C. marina Dy.

C. Houghtonii Tor.

C. heleonastes A., maritima
Mull.

C. concinna Br.

cryptocarpa

. C. Torreyi Tuck., Hookeriana Dy.
. C. Parryana Dy.

C. Raeana B.

. C. affinis Br., podocarpa Br.

C. Douglassii B., Rossii B.,
nigricans Mr., macrocheta
Mr., stenophylla Wg.

Of the above 81 species, 36 are European!

England! | Scotland !
C. remota L. C. ustulata Wg.
dioica LZ. vahlii Schk.

elongata L.
leporina L.
stricta G.
ampullacea G.

rariflora Sm.
vaginata Tausch.
incurva Light.
lagopina Wg.
rupestris All.
saxatilis LZ.

North of Europe!
| C. bicolor All.
subspathacea Worm.
fuliginosa S. § Hop.
nigra All.
microglochin Wg.
microstachya Ehrh.
rufina Dr.
Pyrenaica Wg. (Py-
renees !)
obtusata Lil.
supina Wahl.
salina Wahl.
maritima Muller.
stenophylla Wahlg.
heleonastes Ehrh.
glareosa Wahl.
festiva Dy.
nardina Fries.
pedata Wahlg.
rotundata Wahlg.
hyperborea Dr.
(Lapland).
| holostoma Dr.
(Lapland).
cryptocarpa Mr.
(Iceland).

350 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Of these 36 European species found in Arctic America, 30 are
Alpine or belonging to high northern latitudes.

C. Pyrenaica Wahlg. is confined in Europe to the Pyrenees!

C. remota Z., common in England, has been found only in New-
foundland. Royle has found it also on the Himalayas and at Ku
nawur in the East Indies!

C. festiva Dewey, found in Norway, Finmark, and Lapland,
extends in America from Greenland to Unalaschka, and along the
Rocky Mountains to the Straits of Magellan!

The 45 American species in Arctic America are :—

C. duriuscula Meyer. | C. Houghtonii Terrey.| C. podocarpa Brown.
circinnata Meyer. reducta Drejer. compacta Brown.
leiocarpa Meyer. heematolepis Dreer.| concinna Brown.
micropoda Meyer. stans Drejer. Geyeri Boott.
stylosa Meyer. petasata Dewey. Lyoni Boott.
nigricans Meyer. petricosa Dewey. Hoodii Boott.
macrocheta Meyer. Hookeriana Dewey.| Rossii Boott.
anthoxantha Presi. marina Dewey. Tolmiei Boott.
anthericoides Presi. ursina Dewey. marcida Boott.
physocarpa Presl. Parryana Dewey. nigella Boott.
Mertensii Prescott. TorreyiZuckerman.| Douglassii Boott.
Sitchensis Prescott. ovata Rudge. Franklinii Boot.
miliaris Michaux. Gmelini Hooker. Raeana Boott.
filifolia Nuttall. macrocephala Willd.| amplifolia Boott.
Jamesii Terrey. affinis Brown. | recta Boott.

A.—New Orleans, Cumberland House, Rocky Mountains, C. wmbel-
lata, debilis.
Greenland, Rocky Mountains, Arctic Sea, C.
Nove Anglie.
Texas to Canada, C. retroflexa, grisea, blanda, triceps.
Hudson’s Bay, C. Muhlenbergit.
3 Carlton House, North-West coast, C. anceps.
Georgia to Canada, C. lupulina, commutata, squarrosa, tentacu-
lata, striata, hystericina, miliacea.
South Carolina to Canada, C. cephalophora, varia, granularis,
vulpinordea.
hy 3 i and Rocky Mountains, C. bromoides.
Cumberland House, C. crinita, intumescens.
Rocky Mountains,
North-West coast,
C. stellulata.

”

rh)

>? ” ? 2?

» » ” x North-West coast, C.
stipata, scoparia,
lagopodioides.

~ Hudson’s Bay, Norway House, C. poly-

trichoides.

TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION OF CARICES. SOU.

South Carolina to Lake Winnipeg, C. lacustris,

$ 5: North-West coast, C. rosea.
North Carolina Mountains of, Observatory Inlet, Cumberland
House, North-West coast, C. Buz-

baumit.
“5 5 to Canada, C. conoidea.
. PA Cumberland: House, Rocky Mountains.

C. Pennsylvanica.

B.— Kentucky to Canada, C. pubescens, digitalis.
. Pa Mackenzie River, Rocky Mountains, C. eburnea.
Tllinois, Cumberland House, Rocky Mountains, North-West
coast, C. Richardsoni.

New Jersey to Canada, C. Schweinitzit.

5 North-West coast, C. aperta.

3 to Hudson’s Bay, Arctic Sea, Rocky Mountains,

North-West coast, C. livida.
Ohio to Cumberland House, C. arida.
»» Carlton House and Rocky Mountains, C. Bachii.

Pennsylvania to Canada, C. subulata, scabrata, bullata.

F Cumberland House, C. gracillima, cristata,
plantaginea.

s3 % 55 Rocky Mountains, C. pe-
dunculata, utriculata.

+ Greenland, North-West coast, C. vesicaria. ,

fs North-West coast, C. angustata.”
Rhode Island to Bear Lake, C. monile.
Greenland, Cumberland House, Rocky Moun-
tains, North-West coast, C. adusta.

C.— Massachusetts and Newfoundland, C. Sulva.

North-West coast, C. muricata, verticillata.
Michigan to Canada, C. festucacea.
a Cumberland House, C. Ehrhartiana.
x Carlton House, Rocky Mountains, C. teretiuscula,
trisperma.
a Canada, North-West coast, C. straminea.

5 and North-West coast, C. Liddoni.
New York to Canada, C. arctata.

- As Rocky Mountains, C. Willdenowit.

+ Cumberland House, C. pallescens, pseudocyperus,
tenuiflora, vitilis, flava,
aristata, filiformis, irrigua,

33 3 ae Rocky Mountains, C. sic-
cata, longirostris.

352 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

New York to Cumberland House, North-West coast, C. re-
trorsa.

Greenland, Hudson’s Bay,
C. Gideri.

Mackenzie River, Rocky Mountains, C. aquatilis.
North-West coast, C. lanu-
ginosa. ;
Bear Lake, Rocky Mountains, North-West coast,

C. limosa.

Hudson’s Bay, Carlton House, Rocky Mountains,
North-West coast, C. aurea.

7 Newfoundland, C. flevilis.

s ie Greenland, Arctic Sea, Rocky
Mountains, North-West coast,
C. vulgaris, canescens.

Rocky Mountains, North-West
coast, C. pauciflora.

% Greenland, C. gynocrates.
New York Mountains of, to Mackenzie River, C. lenticularis.
+5 Greenland, Arctic Sea, Rocky

Mountains, C. scirpoidea.

Labrador, Arctic Sea,
C. rigida.

White Mts. of New Hampshire, Bear Lake, C. oli-
gosperma.

North-West coast,
C. rostrata.

New Hampshire, White Mts. of, Canada, Greenland, Rocky
Mountains, C. atrata.

Greenland, Hudson’s Bay,
Rocky Moun-
tains, C. capi-
tata.

Bear Lake,
Rocky Moun-
tains, C. capil-
laris.

” rb) ”

” ”

” ”

” ” ”
”

” ” ” 9

Wisconsin to Canada, C. tenella.

Cumberland House, Hudson’s Bay, C. chordorrhiza.

Rocky Mountains, C. Dew-
eyana.

29

? ” ”

The geographical range, as far as I know it, of the 72 species
found in the United States is as follows : —

TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION OF CARICES.. 353

Florida, C. tenax, Baltzellii, oxylepis.
» to New Orleans, C. gigantea, Floridana.
” Georgia, C. dasycarpa, turgescens.
_ Carolinas, C. glaucescens, venusta, Elliottii.
” New England, C. folliculata, polymorpha.
Texas, C. alveata, hyalina, imbricata, microdonta, planostachys.
» to Alabama, C. Cherokeensis.
” Kentucky, C. stenolepis.
» New Jersey, C. flaccosperma.
A Rhode Island, C. fenea.
New Orleans, C. Boottiana.
“F to Wisconsin, C. Meadii,
Carolina, South, C. Buckleyi, Caroliniana, Mitchelliana, Fraseri,
juncea, styloplexa, lucorum.
$5 to Virginia, C. @stivalis.
35 Massachusetts, C. comosa.
Carolina, North, to Ohio, C. Sudlivantii.
Virginia to Kentucky, C. Shortii.
Kentucky to New York, C. oligocarpa, Hitchcockiana.
+ Connecticut, C. Davisii, virescens.
Ohio, C. tetanica, crus-corvi.
3, to Pennsylvania, C. strictior.
oo New Jersey, C. T'uchermani.
a New York, C. Careyana.
35 Illinois, C. vulpina.
Pennsylvania, C. refracta.
+ to Cherokee, C. sterilis.
5s Connecticut, C. torta.
New Jersey, C. Barrattii, Kneishernit.
3 to Rhode Island, C. Halseyana, platyphylla.
5 Connecticut, C. vestita.
New York, C. alopecoidea, formosa, lupuliformis, mirata, sychno-
cephala, Woodii.
Michigan, C. crawei, Sartwellii, decomposita, Steudeliz.
Rhode Island, C. retrocurva.

ss Massachusetts, C. exilis.
a8 Connecticut, C. Grayii.
Massachusetts, C. setacea, precox, panicea, levigata.'
“ to Michigan, C. mirabilis.

Michigan, C. Cooley.
Wisconsin to New England, C. sparganioides.

VOL. II. AA

354 INSECTS OF ARCTIC NORTH AMERICA.

For the following notice and list of insects collected on
the Expedition, I am indebted to Adam White, Esq.,
F.L.S., &c., of the British Museum. With respect to
the extent of the collection, it is to be observed that no
time was devoted to the capture of insects. Such as pre-
sented themselves at convenient times were taken, but
none were sought for; and the numbers of the list are not,
therefore, to be considered as a criterion of the richness of
the country in that division of the animal kingdom.

Notre on HyMenopterA IN Arctic NortH AMERICA.

“Otho Fabricius first, perhaps, recorded any of the Hymen-
optera of Arctic North America. Doubtless Baffin, Frobisher,
and other manly navigators recognised humble bees and other
bees during their summer voyages, and may have, in print or
in manuscript, with sailor-like earnestness, made mention of
every such occurrence in their journals. It is delightful to read
the notices of flowers and verdure in their accounts of the
hurried spring, summer, and autumn two months of a Green-
land year, of five-sixths winter. Where flowers and verdure
abound, even for six weeks or a shorter time, there insects
must be found;—¢here insects of the order Hymenoptera, the
order to which this notice is limited, must occur. Flowers and
Hymenoptera must be together.

“OQ, Fabricius records two species of Hymenoptera as being
brought by him from Greenland. His book, so admirable a
model of a local fauna as to be even now one of the standards of
excellence, was published in 1780, The next considerable
accession to our acquaintance with the Hymenoptera of British
America was made by Redman, who collected in Nova Scotia
many fine species now in the British Museum. Some of these,
such as Pelecinus, Sirices, Ichneumonide, &c., were very pro-
minent species, and are now being worked out in the vast col-
lections of the National Museum.

*‘ Sir John Richardson and his brave comrades collected many

NOTE ON THE HYMENOPTERA, ETC. 355

species, which were lost during their disastrous journey. They
still, however, brought many insects to England, and in the
‘Fauna Boreali-Americana’ these insects are described by the
venerable Kirby. The species of Hymenoptera are very few ;
there are only ¢hirty-two altogether; the circumstances attend-
ing the journey not admitting of their collection and preserva-
tion.

* An eminent man, reasoning on such data as he had, has re-
corded his belief that it will be found that Hymenoptera do not
abound in British North America; now it may be remarked in
making generalisations on the distribution of animals, espe-
cially those of the lower orders, ‘that, before generalising on
a collection from any place not often visited or not often ex-
plored, attention be paid to the taste or tastes, or, in other
words, to the bias or direction of the eye, hand, and mind of
the person or persons who collect, supposing such reasoning is
recorded as on authentic data.’

“ Mr. George Barnston, to whose researches Sir John Rich-
ardson directed public attention in the ‘Edinburgh New Phi-
losophical Journal’ for April, 1841, has published a very ad-
mirable summary of the Progress of the Seasons as affecting
Animals and Vegetables at Martin’s Falls, Albany River,
James’s Bay, about lat. 51° 30’ N., and in long. 86° 20° W. In
this fresh and refreshing journal, there are more than indications
that Hymenoptera, Diptera, and JVeuroptera abound. In a
year or two afterwards Mr. Barnston came to London and pre-
sented his collection to the British Museum.

“ As one instance of his excellence as a collector, I may men-
tion that Mr. Walker, who named and described the species
of Diptera in the Cabinet of the British Museum, has alluded
to or has described nearly 250 species of his dipterous insects
from the single station mentioned above; there being only
14 species of these insects recorded in the ‘fauna Boreali-
Americana’ of the Rev. Wm. Kirby. Mr. Barnston’s researches
among the Neuwroptera also were considerable and very valuable.
One insect brought by him, the Pteronarcys regalis (although
previously found in Canada), afforded Mr. Newport a fit sub-

AA 2,

356 INSECTS OF ARCTIC NORTH AMERICA.

ject for his genius as an accurate anatomist and recorder of
facts and reasonings on the insect economy. ‘This gentleman
discovered persistent branchie in the imago or perfect state
of the Pteronarcys, and has recorded his discovery and quoted
some observations of Mr. Barnston’s in a paper read at the
Linnean Society. As Mr. Gray’s Catalogues of the collections
in the British Museum, (mines of information to the reasoner
and writer on geographical distribution,) are published, it
will be seen how valuable are Mr. Barnston’s and Sir John
Richardson’s collections to our acquaintance with the articu-
lated animals of British North America, especially in its more
northerly parts.

“J have mentioned that Kirby describes or alludes to only
thirty-two species of Hymenoptera in his ‘Insects of North
America ;’ while Mr. Barnston iz one spot found 192 distinct
species, exclusive of Chalcidide. ‘I subjoin a comparative
list of the families of Hymenoptera, the comparison being made
with the British species existing in the Museum collection at
the time of this record. Mr. B. and myself worked out the
Tenthredinide ; my friend and coadjutor Mr. Frederick Smith,
an able hymenopterist, determined the other species; so the
list may be deemed as correct as the circumstances will admit.

“It must be borne in mind that our British collection of Hy-
menoptera has been accumulating for at least thirty years, was
a favourite part of Dr. Leach’s collection, and has been made
over a wide and variegated country; while Mr. Barnston’s
was formed in three months, on one spot and under almost
unheard-of disadvantages, counterbalanced, however, by an
enthusiasm not easily deterred by difficulties.

8 British Collection Collected at
in British Museum. Martin’s Falls.
Cimbicide - - - 10 - - - 4
Tenthredinide - - 157 - - - 76
Siricide, &e. - - - 7 - - - 2
Tchneumonidax - - 200 - - - 47
Chaleididee - ~ - ? - - - ?
Chrysididee - “ - 22 - - - 1

Formicide - - - 11 - - . 7.

COLEOPTERA. 857

British Collection Collected at

in British Museum. Martin’s Falls.
Mutillide - - - 5 - - - (0)
Sapygide - - - 2 - - ° ce)
Pompilide, &c. - - 38 - - - 2
Crabronide - - - 57 - - - 16
Vespide - - - 17 - - - 4
Apide - - - - 170 - - - 33

“ A striking proof that the time has not yet come to reason
correctly on the distribution of Hymenopterous insects, — at
least in British North America.”

LIST OF INSECTS

TAKEN BY Sir JOHN RICHARDSON AND JOHN Rag, EsqQ., IN
Arctic NortH AMERICA, DRAWN UP BY ADAM WHITE,
Esq., F.L.S., ETC.

CoLEOPTERA.

Cicindela longilabris, Say. (C. albilabris, Kirby). Shores of Arctic
Sea, lat. 70° N.; and at Fort Simpson, lat. 62° N.

Cicindela hirticollis, Say. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers,
lat. 59°— 62° N.

Dromius nigrinus, E’schsch. Great Bear Lake, lat. 66°—67° N.

Carabus — ? n.s. (C. gladiator, Barnston MS.). Borders of Mac-
kenzie and Slave Rivers, lat. 50°—65° N.

Carabus Chamissonis, Eschsch. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers ; and Cape Krusentern, lat. 58°—68° N.

Carabus —? n.s. (C. Hudsonicus ?) Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers, lat. 58°—65° N.

Calosoma calidum, Auct. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers,
lat. 58°—65° N.

Loricera pilicornis, Auct. Great Bear Lake, lat. 66°—67° N.

Elaphrus intermedius, Kirby. Great Bear Lake, lat. 66°—67° N.

Notiophilus sibiricus, Motchoulsky. Great Bear Lake, lat. 66°—67° N.

Dicelus — ? n.s. (D. sculptilis?) Borders of the Mackenzie and
Slave Rivers, lat. 58°—65° N.

Agonum melanarium, Dej. Great Bear Lake, and district to the
south of Lake Winipeg, lat. 49°—68° N.

AA 3

358 INSECTS OF ARCTIC NORTH AMERICA.

Argutor brevicornis, Kirby. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Omaseus orinomum, Leach. District south of Lake Winipeg, lat.
50°—5 4° N, ,

Platysma vitrea, E’schsch. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Pecilus lucublandus, Say. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Harpalus — ? n. s. (near H. obtusus). Borders of Mackenzie and
Slave Rivers.

Stenolophus — ? n.s. Great Bear Lake, lat. 66°—67° N.

Amara —? sp. (near A. trivialis). South of Lake Winipeg, lat. 49° N.

Amara —? sp. Great Bear Lake.

Bembidium conicolle, Motchoulsky (B. impressum, Kirby). Great
Bear Lake, and north of Lake Winipeg, lat. 49°—67° N.

Acupalpus —?n.s. Great Bear Lake, lat. 66°—67° N.

Peryphus —? sp. Great Bear Lake.

Platytrachelus —? n.s. Great Bear Lake.

Notaphus nigripes, Kirby. Great Bear Lake.

Notaphus variegatus, Kirby. South of Lake Winipeg, lat. 49° N.

Dytiscus Harrisii, Kirby. South of Lake Winipeg.

Agabus — ? n.s. (near A. arcticus). Cape Krusenstern, lat. 68° N.

Colymbetes — ? sp. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Hydrophilus picipes, Auct. South of Lake Winipeg, lat. 49° N.

Heterocerus —? n. s. (near H. fossor). Great Bear Lake.

Staphylinus villosus, Grav. South of Lake Winipeg, lat. 49° N.

Quedius, n.s. (near Q. molochinus). Great Bear Lake, lat. 66°—67° N.

Omalium, n. s. (near O. rivulare). Shore of Arctic Sea, near mouth
of Mackenzie River, lat. 70° N.

Anthophagus, sp. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Silpha Lapponica, Auct. Fort Simpson; Borders of Mackenzie and
Slave Rivers.

Silpha opaca, Auct. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Silpha, n.s. (near S. Baikalica), Motchoulsky. Borders of Mackenzie
and Slave Rivers.

Ptinus fur, Auct. South of Lake Winipeg. Throughout Rupert's
Land.

Byrrhus —? n.s. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers, lat. 58°
—65° N.

Byrrhus —? n.s. South of Lake Winipeg.

Rhisotrogus fervens, Gyll. South of Lake Winipeg, lat. 49° N.

Platycerus piceus, Web. Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie River,
lat. 62° N.

Cyphon fusecipes, Kirby. Great Bear Lake.

Elater xripennis, Kirby. Shore of Arctic Sea, near Mackenzie
River, lat. 70° N.

Elater zneus ? Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

COLEOPTERA. 359

Elater, n.s. (mear E. melancholicus). Borders of Mackenzie and
Slave Rivers.

Elater, n. s. (near E. sanguineus). Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers.

Ludius, n. s. (near L. sibiricus). Great Bear Lake, lat. 65°—67° N.

Ampedus, n.s. Great Bear Lake.

Buprestis tenebrica, Kirby. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Chrysobothris, n.s. Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie River, lat. 62° N.

Trachypteris Drummondi, Kirby, var. Fort Simpson, on Mackenzie
River, lat. 62° N.

Trachypteris decolorata (Bupr. appendiculata, Kirby). Fort Simpson,
on Mackenzie River, lat. 62° N.

Ellychnia corrusca, Auct. South of Lake Winipeg.

Ragonycha cembricola, Eschsch. Great Bear Lake, lat. 65°—67° N.

Thanasimus abdominalis, Kirby. Great Bear Lake.

Hydnocera, n. s. Great Bear Lake.

Blapstinus eneus, Deg. South of Lake Winipeg.

Upis ceramboides, Auct. Fort Simpson, and Borders of Mackenzie
and Slave Rivers.

Anthicus—?n.s. Great Bear Lake.

Formicoma—?n.s. Great Bear Lake.

Stenotrachelus Roulieri, Motch. var. Shores of Arctic Sea, near
Mackenzie River, lat. 70° N.

Serropalpus —? sp. Fort Simpson, on Mackenzie River.

Hylobius— ? sp. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers,

Alophus —? sp. South of Lake Winipeg.

Alophus —? sp. Cape Krusenstern, lat. 68° N.

Erirhinus, sp. (near E. tremule). South of Lake Winipeg.

Tomicus —? sp. South of Lake Winipeg.

Asemum striatum, Auct, Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie River.

Callidium bifoveolatum. Cape Krusenstern and Arctic Coast, between
672° and 68°.

Callidium Proteus, Kirby; and C. simile, Kirby, var. Arctic Coast,
between 672° and 68°; Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie River,
lat. 62° N.

Clytus undulatus, Say. Shore of Arctic Sea; Mouth of Mackenzie
River.

Clytus —? sp. Shore of Arctic Sea; Mouth of Mackenzie River,
lat. 70° N.

Acanthocinus pusillus, Kirby. Great Bear Lake, lat. 66°—67° N.

Monochamus resutor, Kirby. Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie
River.

Monochamus confusor, Kirby. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers.

AA 4

860 INSECTS OF ARCTIC NORTH AMERICA.

Acmeops Proteus (Kirby), Leconte; Leptara strigilata, var.? Fort
Simpson, on the Mackenzie River. =

Acmeops strigilata (Fabr.), Lec. Shore of Arctic Sea (Mouth of
Mackenzie).

Pachyta liturata, Kirby. Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie.

Pachyta, n.s. Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie.

Rhagium lineatum, Auct. Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie.

Syneta carinata, Eschsch. About Great Bear Lake.

Galleruca marginella, Kirby. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers ; and about Great Bear Lake.

Chrysomela multipunctata, Say. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers.

Phedon Adonidis, Pall. Shore of Arctic Sea (Mouth of Mackenzie) ;
Fort Simpson.

Adoxus vitis, Fabr. District about Great Bear Lake, and Borders
of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Coccinella 13-punctata, Auct. Great Bear Lake, lat. 65°—67° N.

Coccinella 5-notata, Kirby. Shore of the Arctic Sea; Mouth of
Mackenzie, lat. 70° N.

Coccinella ocellata, Auct. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

ORTHOPTERA.

Locusta tuberculata, Pal de Beauv. ? Borders of Mackenzie and
Slave Rivers ; Fort Simpson.

Locusta, four species. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Acrydium granulatum, Kirby. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers ; Fort Simpson.

NEUROPTERA.-

fEschna borealis, Zetterst. ? Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Libellula — ? sp. Fort Simpson on Mackenzie.

Libellula scotica, Donov.? Between Lake Winipeg and Lake
Superior.

Agrion cyathigerum, Charp. var. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers.

Ephemera viridescens — ? n. s., Barnston. Between Lake Winipeg
and Lake Superior, lat. 47°—52°.

Ephemera —? n.s. South of Lake Winipeg, lat. 49° N.

Pteronareys regalis, Newman. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers.

Pteronarcys Proteus, Newman ? Shores of Arctic Sea (Mouth of
Mackenzie River), lat. 70°.

NEUROPTERA, HYMENOPTERA. 561

Perla — ? (sp. near P. abnormalis, Newman). Borders of Mackenzie
and Slave Rivers.

Perla — ? (sp. near P. sonans, Barnston). Borders of Mackenzie and
Slave Rivers.

Semblis —? n.s. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Phryganea striata, n. s., Barnston. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers.

Phryganea variegata, n. s., Barnston, and two or three other species.
Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

HYMENOPTERA.

Trichiosoma lucorum, Awct. Fort Simpson, on Mackenzie River.

Tenthredo (Nematus). Great Bear Lake

Tenthredo (Nematus) — ?n.s. South of Lake Winipeg.

Tenthredo integra ? About Great Bear Lake.

Tenthredo (Dolerus). South of Lake Winipeg.

Sirex flavicornis, Fabr. Cape Krusenstern; Fort Simpson on Mac-
kenzie, and country south of Lake Winipeg.

Ephialtes — ? sp. Fort Simpson, on Mackenzie River.

Aspizonus — ? sp. Arctic Sea (Mouth of Mackenzie River).

Ichneumon — ? sp. Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie River.

Ichneumon — ? sp. Cape Krusenstern, and Fort Simpson on the
Mackenzie River.

Cryptus —? sp. South of Lake Winipeg.

Chrysis — ? sp. Cape Krusenstern.

Mutilla — ? sp. About Great Bear Lake.

Formica herculeana. About Great Bear Lake; Borders of Mackenzie
and Slave Rivers ; Fort Simpson.

Formica sanguinea. South of Lake Winipeg, and Fort Simpson.

Pompilus — ? n.s. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Odynerus — ? n. s. Shore of Arctic Sea (Mouth of Mackenzie
River).

Vespa maculata, var. Borders of Mackenzie.

Vespa vulgaris, Auct. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers and
Fort Simpson.

Vespa marginata, Kirby. Cape Krusenstern.

Halictus — ? (m. s. near H. quadricinctus). South of Lake Winipeg.

Halictus, three black species. South of Lake Winipeg.

Megachile Willughbiella ? Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie River.

Bombus arcticus ? Arctic Coast between 672° and 68°; Borders of
the Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Bombus (sp. near B. lapponicus). Arctic Coast between 672° and 68°,

Bombus —? sp. Shore of Arctic Sea (Mouth of Mackenzie River).

362 INSECTS OF ARCTIC NORTH AMERICA.

Bombus pratorum. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.
Bombus, n.s. (near B. lucorum). Arctic Coast between 674° and 68°
Bombus, n.s. Arctic Coast.

HEMIPTERA.

Acanthosoma boreale, Hope. Great Bear Lake.

Acanthosoma nebulosum, Kirby. South of Lake Winipeg.
Miris —? sp. Great Bear Lake.

Rhyparochromus, two species. South of Lake Winipeg.

Salda — ? sp. (near S. riparia), Cape Krusenstern, lat. 68° N.

HomorterRa.

Aphrophora, sp. Great Bear Lake, and to the south of Lake Winipeg.

LEPIDOPTERA.

Papilio Turnus, Z. Fort Simpson, on Mackenzie River.

Pontia casta, Kirby. Arctic Coast between 672° and 68°.

Pontia, sp. Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie.

Anthocharis — ? n.s. (near A. Simplonia). Arctic Coast between
671° and 68°.

Colias Paleno, Z. Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie River.

Colias Boothii, Curtis. Arctic Coast between 672° and 68°.

Colias Chione, var. ? C. Arctic Coast; Cape Krusenstern.

Argynnis Freija (Thunb.), var. Melita Tarquinius, Curtis. Arctic
Coast between 674° and 68°.

Argynnis —?n.s. Arctic Coast.

Vanessa Milberti, Godart. (V. furcillata, Say). Fort Simpson, on the
Mackenzie River.

Vanessa Progne, Godart. (V. C.argenteum, Kirby). Fort Simpson, on
the Mackenzie River ; Arctic Coast between 674° and 68°.

Nymphalis Artemis, Auct. Fort Simpson on Mackenzie River, and
Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Chionobas Bore, Boisd. ? Arctic Coast between 672° and 68°.

Hipparchia, n. s.? (near H. discoidalis), Kirby. Arctic Coast be-
tween 672° and 68°.

Hipparchia Rossii, Curtis. Arctic Coast between 673° and 68°.

Polyommatus Franklinii, Curtis. Arctic Coast.

Arctia Americana, Harris, var. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave
Rivers.

Hadena Richardsonii, Curtis. Arctic Coast between 672° and 68°.

Anarta —? sp. Arctic Coast between 672° and 68°.

Geometridx, two species. Arctic Coast between 672° and 68°,

Tineide, three species. Arctic Coast between 67’ and 68°,

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 363

Diptera.

Culex —?sp. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Chironomus, sp. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Tipula, sp. Arctic Coast between 674° and 68°,

Tabanus, three species. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Tabanus, two species. Arctic Sea, Mouth of Mackenzie River.

Eristalis flavipes, Walker. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave River,
and district to the South of Lake Winipeg, lat. 49°—65° N,

Syrphus, sp. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Musca, five species. Borders of Mackenzie and Slave Rivers.

Musca —? sp. South of Lake Winipeg.

Cistrus Tarandi ? Arctic Coast between 671° and 68°.

No. V.

VOCABULARIES.
A. Eskimo Vocabulary.

Tue Kuskuchewak column of the following vocabulary is
extracted from Bier’s work.* To draw up an effective
comparative table would require a thorough acquaintance
with both dialects, since the names of articles of dress, and
implements of art, change with the materials of which
they are formed; natural objects are differently designated,

* Baer, Statische und ethnographische Nachrichten iiber die Rus-
sischen Besitzungen an der Nordwestkuste von Amerika. St. Peters-
burg, 1839, p. 259. The Kuskuchewak words being written in this
work in Russian characters, with which I am unacquainted, J. F. von
Bach, Esq., of the British Museum, had the kindness to furnish me
with a translation. ‘This gentleman drew up carefully columns repre-
senting the conventional English equivalents of the Russian cha-
racters for each word, and added also the French pronunciation,
which want of space compels me reluctantly to omit. I have made
some small alterations in words written by him according to the
English pronunciation, to suit the plan of orthography which I have
followed in the other vocabularies.

364 VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

according to the circumstances under which they are
viewed; and the terms for actions are altered, as the
agents, time, place, and other circumstances, vary. Un-
less, therefore, these facts be known and attended to
by one who forms a vocabulary, there may appear to
be no resemblance between the dialects of two tribes who
mutually understand each other, and converse together
with ease. The introduction of the syllabic characters
used by the late Rev. Mr. Evans in teaching the Cree
Indians would, I believe, remove the difficulties which
orthography throws in the way of a European, who en-
deavours to reduce the native languages of North America
to writing.

The column containing Eskimo spoken on the Labrador
coast, is extracted from a pretty large vocabulary and
grammar, which the Rey. Peter Latrobe had the kindness
to procure for my use on the expedition. I have reason
to believe that some errors may have crept into this
vocabulary, from the similarity of the German written h
to s not being always adverted to by the transcriber, and
also from the uncertainty of the proper English equiva-
lent of the German v. These are not, however, I trust
numerous among the examples I have used. Where the
Labrador dictionary was defective, the excellent English
and Eskimo vocabulary, drawn up by Captain Washington,
and published by the Admiralty for the use of the Search-
ing Expeditions, has been referred to. The dialects spoken
by the intermediate Eskimo tribes inhabiting the north
shores of the continent are seldom quoted, my object having
been to identify the language spoken by members of the
nation occupying geographical positions the most remote
from each other.

In writing out the table it was obvious to me that the
Labrador dialect is in general the softer of the two.

ESKIMO VOCABULARY. 365

Instead of the hard ¢ch so frequent in the Kuskuchewak
tongue, the east coast tribes generally use s, and in Coro-
nation Gulf h is substituted. The strongly aspirated sound
which is heard in the Scottish word “loch” is of frequent
occurrence in the Kuskuchewak column of the vocabulary,
where it is denoted by 42. An Englishman in attempt-
ing this sound lets the & be heard, which he ought not
to do. The difficulty of constructing a correct Eskimo
vocabulary is increased by the necessity of previously
mastering the exceedingly numerous inflections of the nouns,
adjectives, pronouns, and verbs, which supply the place
occupied by auxiliary verbs, possessive pronouns, prepo-
sitions, and adverbs in the European languages. These
inflections are briefly noticed in the introduction to Capt.
Washington’s vocabulary, and I shall merely add here,
that in the Labrador grammar, obtained for us by Mr.
Latrobe, there are examples of thirty different terminations
of the dual and plural numbers of nouns, which have eyi-
dently had their origin in euphuism.

Each noun has six cases in each number, distinguished
by their terminations, the vocative being, however, absent
in some. ‘The cases are formed by affixes having the
power of prepositions, as mut, mik, mit, me, and hut in the
singular, and nut, nk, nit, ne, and gut in the plural. ‘The
nominative is also varied by affixes which perform the func-
tions of possessive pronouns, as ga, go, ne, ait, anga, ara,
&e.; as hivgah, aservant, hivganga, my servant, kivgane, his
servant; nuna, land, nunaga, my land; nelegah, a master,
nelegara, my master; tunnusuga, my nation, &c. Pagit,
panga, or parma are affixes employed when the noun is
connected with a verb signifying action or suffering. The
noun, when changed by a qualifying affix, is declined in its
new form, in the usual way. Besides the ordinary active
nominative, each noun has also an intransitive one, which

366 VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

ends in d, and is differently declined. Examples are sub-
joined. The power of the affixes varies according as the noun
is used with a transitive or intransitive verb. Nouns may
also be varied by affixes expressive of augmentation, dimi-
nution, affection, ridicule, humility, or multitude. Some
of these terminations are arsuk, arsuit, diminutives; and
soah, sudset, sudsek, augmentatives ; vak placed before any
of them increases their power; and the adverbial aluk
denoting *‘ very” may be put after them, and is applicable
to either good or bad. Vavak, signifying an extraordinary
number, is placed before sdéareluit.*

Adjectives have also their declensions; and likewise
comparisons made by the addition of the syllable nek, or by
verbs. The adjective generally follows the noun, and must
agree with it in case and number. If the substantive have
an affix, so must the adjective. Nouns may be changed
into verbs by the affix evok or ovok, and the adjective then
must take the same termination.

Pronouns are declined like the nouns by affixes, which
require much nicety in their due employment, Affixes
supply the place of possessive pronouns.

The third person singular of the indicative is considered
to be the root of the verb, and may be used as a noun with
a change in the termination, “a hunter” being equivalent
to “he hunts.” The inflections of the verb are extremely
numerous, and are expressive of affirmation, negation, in-
terrogation, and of the various circumstances in which the
agent or object can be placed with respect to time, place,
mood, or possession. ‘The infinitive, formed by the termi-
nation nek, is used when things are spoken of indefinitely,
or when two verbs come together, and is conjugated in the

* Akkatu is employed by the Eskimo of Churchill in the same way
as sdareluit, i

ESKIMO VOCABULARY. 367

same way as the other moods and tenses, there being a past
and future infinitive. Generally the verb in the Labrador
Eskimo agrees in its inflections with the Greenland dialect ;
but there are some special differences, and particularly
with regard to the future, which has a threefold construc-
tion in the Greenland tongue, but is more simple in the
Labrador speech. With the ample means which the regular
verb possesses of expressing every mood and tense, the
Eskimo has little occasion for auxiliaries, and in fact the
structure of the language is very regular and exact.

There are, however, one or two auxiliaries which have
an affinity to adverbs — such as pi-wok, which is used in a
variety of ways, sometimes in immediate relation to a
noun, sometimes only as an adjunct to a verb: it occa-
sionally seems to be equivalent to the English “get” or
“do.” When placed after participles, which is its most
common position, it signifies the action of a thing. Ipsok,
another auxiliary, seems to be equivalent to the Latin est;
it often increases the meaning of the verb with which it is

connected. “To be,” or “to have,”

is denoted by the
syllables gi or vz in composition, as nunagiva, “it is his
land.”

The adverbs are numerous, and have relation to time,
place, equality, size, number, order, union, separation,
&c.; and also to questioning, denying, affirming, nega-
tiving, including, excluding, desiring, admonishing, and
distinguishing.

An example of the inflections of a single verb would oc-
cupy many pages, and cannot be given here; but the pre-
ceding short notices will suffice to show that vocabularies of
the same language, formed by different people, may have
little similarity, and that much care is requisite before we
can venture to affirm the distinct origin of two tribes upon
such evidence, In a language which is transmitted orally

368 VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

alone, and which is not preserved in its integrity by an
appeal to the eye, alterations for the sake of euphony are fre-
quent, and these, which are not uncommon with the Eskimo,
vary with the delicacy of the ear of the speaker. Thus
when the termination wangha does not blend pleasingly
with the preceding syllable, dangha is substituted, and the
general pronunciation is more nasal with some small com-
munities, more guttural with others.

EXAMPLES OF NOUNS DECLINED TRANSITIVELY AND
INTRANSITIVELY.

Turek, a tent.
Sing. Dual. Plural.
Nom. tr. Tupek

tiie, tamleib -|tuppak - - - | turket.

Gen. _ turkib -|tuppak - - - | turket.

Dat. tuppek -|tuppak - - - | turket.
tuppermut -|tuppangnut- = - | tuppernut.

Ace. tuppak -|tuppak - - - | turkinut.
tuppernik -| tuppangnit - - | turkit.

Voe. caret.

Abl. tuppermit -|tuppangnit = - | tuppermit.
tuppermut -!tuppangnut = - | turkinnut.

NELEGARA, my master.
Nom. tr. Nelegara_ - | nelegakka - - | nelekakka.
intr. nelekama -/|nelekang-ma_ - - | nelekama.

Gen. nelekama -/|nelekangma- - - | nelekama.

Dat. nelegara’ - | nelegakka - - | nelekakka.
nelekamnut | nelegamnut = - - | nelekamnut.

Ace. nelegara = | nelegakka - - | nelekakka.
nelekamnik | nelegamnik = - | nelekamnik.

Voc. nelegara’ -| nelegakka - - | nelekakka.

Abl. nelekamnit -|nelegamnit = - | nelekamnit.
nelekamnut | neiegamnut- = - | nelekamnut.

Nelegane, his master; neleganga, another person's master; and
similar variations of the noun, have, in like manner, their various
inflections.

ESKIMO VOCABULARY. 369

CoMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE DIALECTS SPOKEN BY THE BEERING’S
SEA AND LABRADOR Eskimos.

Obs. S. denotes “ singular ;’” D. “dual;” P. “plural.” W. points out
words taken from Captain Washington’s vocabulary. a is sounded as in
‘father ;” a as in “law;” e asin “there;” 7 as eein “see;” 7 as in “ink,”
“pin ;” was oo in “ good;” kA or ch in the Scottish word “loch,” or Irish
“lough ;” h after g signifies that the latter has the soft pronunciation as in
“give ;” the hyphen following g, gives nearly the same sound.

English. Kuskutchewak. Labrador Eskimo.
The only Creator = - - - - - | Ping-ortitsi-o-wok.
God (the Creator) -|nuna-lishta - - | Nuna, country.
Heaven; the firma- | ki-il-yak - - | killék.
ment.
Earth, land, a country | nuni_- - - | nuna.
Air - - - | u-i-uchu-yughi-ak - | u-i-a-wak, west wind.
Air, wind, also the - - - - |silla (sillata, im the open
world and reason. air).
Wind - - - - - - - | anorre; sullu-ar-nék, also
breath.
The sun - - -| - - - - | sekkinek ; (P. -erngit) ;
nai-i-a.
Sun - - - | akkta; pukli-anok - | akki-suk-pok, the sun breaks
Sorth.
Moon - - - | tang-ek - - | takkek.
Month - - - | tang-ak ; igal-i-uk. -
Stars - - -| mittit - - - |ubluri-ak; ubloriak; (D.
ubloritsek).
Comet - . - | ag-i-akhn-akhtak.
A star surrounded by - “ - - | agsuk; (P. aguthet).
a halo.
Water - - - | mu-ek - - - | immek,-/resh water.
River - - -|kvak - - - | ku; kok; kogguk; kogeut.
A large river - -| - - - - | kokso-ak.
Sea - - - | immakh-pik - - | immak.
The wide ocean - - - - - | immarbikso-ak.
Lake - - -|nanvik - - - | akker-oktok, a lake where
deer are speared.
A pond, fresh - - - - - - | tessek; (P. tessit).
Brook - - - | kitchikli-ak - - | kogak.
Atear - - - - - - - | kogve; (P. koevit)..
Straits - - - | u-ikakh - - - | ikkarasak, W.

Cliff x = = 5 = - - |ikkargok ; (P. ikkarut).
Deeply cleft - - - - - - | korok; (P. kor-kut).

VOL. I. BB

370

English.
Along inlet - -
Gulf or creek - -
Current - - -

Current in the sea -
Current in fresh water
Bottom of waters -
He treads his boot
down at the heel.
Shore = - -
Mouth or source of
rivers, a well.

A bank in the sea, a

sunken rock - -
Stone - - -
Deep - - -
A sea bird -
It is deep (valley or
river).
Day - - -
In the morning -
The day closes - -
The morning, or the
day.

The front or forehead
It is daylight - -
Toeday -
Night - - -
Marsh - - -
Dry summer
Summer -
Mountain
Lowland - - -

Shell - - -
White shell fish

Mussel - - -
Snail shell = -
The ear - - -
A grain of sand

Sand -

Clay (loam, chalk)
Fire -

One who fires a gun -
Wind - -
Thunder - -
It thunders -
Lightning -
Rain - -

Kuskutchewak.

nang-vagnak - -

tchag-vak
notu-ik

chna; agaynu-ik -
pa-i - - -

ithalh-nuk = - -

tkalhicouke
tuli.

- = - -

ignu-ik - - -

mag-ik -
ki-nu-ig-nu-ik.

ing-ik - - -
tehu-iv-nu-ik -
ammokt - -

kag-u-1-ak.

magai-ak - -
knu-ik - - -
a-nuka = . -
kalik.

tehali-ali-ak ; kitok

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

Labrador Eskimo.

kang-erdluk.

(kang-ti- -agnak ? u-agnak
the west).

sag-vak ; sarvak.

ingerarnek.

aksarnak,

tung-a-wik, W.

tung-mark-pok.

sig-sak.

(pe, a court yard; pa, the
round opening in a
hai-yak).

sicrak-so-ak-nuk, much

sand; ipek-so-ak-nuk,
much mud.
ka-ertok, a rock.

tullik.
ittiwok.

uvlok, or tiblok, a day.
uvlakut ; ublo-tillugo.
uvlokliwok.

kau; kauk; kaut.

ke-uk ; kauk; (P. karrut).
kau-ma-wok.

uvlut ; ubluk ; ovetsi-ak.
u-nu-ak (GE unu-et),unuame
(mannek, moss, W.).

au-i-ak.

kakkak ; (P. kakket).

(su-yuk, wet, dirty).

amomio-yok, an oyster ;
(P. amomio-yut).

ayOarnet.

uvi-lok,

si-ut-terok, W.

si-ut.

si-orak (D. -kek, P. -ket).

machak.

ikoma, ignis.
kukni-wok.

annore, W.; an-o-i, W.

kalukpok ; kalludlarpok.

kaumarlok (vide bright).
silla-luk ; (silla, a7).

ESKIMO VOCABULARY. atl

English. Kuskutchewak. Labrador Eskimo.
Hailstone = - | kakhulat = - | (kakkulak, itis round, W.).
Anything sharp mile st 5 - - - | kakilaut; P. lautit.

It is round - - - - - - | angma-la-rik-pok.

Snow = - | kanikh-chak - - |kannek, falling snow; (P.
kang-it).

Ice - - - |tchiko - - - | siko.

Storm -— - -janu-gavak - | ani-gavak, an extraordinary
quantity of snow ; (anio, a
snow storm).

Strong wind - - |(anug-wei, Kotz.S$.W.).| akkunak ; akkunak-soeak.

Wind or air - - - - - - | annorre; annorer-ho-ak,

great wind.

The wind is still annorre-karung-napok.

Calm - - - | ku-nu-ik - - | kunigok; (D. kunikuk).
Clear -—~ - - | tankikh-tchuk - | alla-kak-pok.
A bright sky - -| - - - - | alla-ki-wok.
Dark - - -|telhk - - - | tek, darkness.
Fog - - - = = - - |tek-tuk; tartuk; (P.
tar-tu-it).
It is foggy Se Oh - - - | niptai-pok, W.
The weather clears - - - - - | nipter-pok.
Vapour or fog ~ - - - - - | iseriak, (isse, severe cold).
Acold - - - - - - - | ikké.
Clouded - - - | tali-guk - - | tali-pok, it is hidden; (P.
-pot).
A cloud - - - - - - - | nu-vu-i-a.
Bright, or light - | ugakhtok - - | kauma-wok, it is bright.
Coals - - -| khumavit - - | P. aumakut; (8S. aumako).
Ashes” = - -|agak - - - |arsek, W.
Blue - - - | vitok; minukh-kat - | (minnu, a sea-weed, W.).
Bluish_- - - - - - - | tungo-i-uktak.
Berry juice - -| - - - - | tungo.
Red - - - | kivagok - - | aupa-luk-tok, it ts red.
Blood - - - - - - - |auk; aggut.
White - - -|/ugolh-kak - - | kaggark-pok, tt is white.
Night - - -|unuk - - - |u-nu-ak; (D. u-nu-ek;
P. unu-et).
Smoke - - -|punk - - - | pu-i-ok, damp smoke, steam.
It smokes - oy ee . - - | pu-i-ok-pok.
Smell - - - | nagnak - - | naimawa, or nai-wok, he
smells something.
Man (homo) - - | tatchu.
A shadow - - - - - - | tatchak.
A looking-glass - - - - - | tatchartut.
Man - - - | nukalhni-ak - - | (nukak, a brother).
Man (relation) stock - - - - |ang-ut; (D. ang-u-tek ;
P. ang-ulit).
His father - - - - - - | ang-uta.
Ahelm - - - - - - - | ang-ut.
An adult - - Sip eas - - - | ang-uti-marik.
| People (Eskimos) - | tagut; yugut - | inu-it (S. i-nuk).

Bhp VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

English, Kuskutchewak, Labrador Eskimo.

Aname - - - - - - - | taggisek.

My nation - - - - - - | tunnisuga.

Life - - - - - - - | inusek.

A portrait of aman - - - - - | inu-i-ak.

White man, European - - - - | kablunak: (P. kablunet).

Eyebrows - - - - |kablo; (D. kabluk; P. -t).

Inland Indian, stranger) alli-a-guk = - - | allani-a-wok ; (S. allak).

A man’s foot mark - - - - |allok; (D. alluk).

Stranger Eskimos - - - - - | si-ad-ler-mi-u ; he-ad-ler-
mi-u.

An unprotected man - - - - - | sek-sariak.

Husband - - -|vi-na- - - | wi, a married man; (P.
wi-nit).

One is with another - - - - - | una.

She has a husband - - - - - | wi-ghi-wok.

Wife - - - | nuli-ga - - - j|nuli-a; (nuli-ang-a, my

She orhe hasa brother’s
son or daughter.

An unmarried woman
A bachelor - -

wife).

nu-a-karpok.

wi-ga-sok.
nule-tok.

Widower - - - - - - - | nuler-tok.

Old man - - - | utchi-nuk ; anuli-uvak.

Male of man or beast - - - - | ussuk.

He is old - - = - - - - | itta-wok; (itok, W.)
Hindmost - - - - - - | ittik.

Woman - - - | aganak - - - |ning-i-yok; (akéa, D. aké-

Old woman =

The oldest of a family
Brother's or son’s wife
Grandfather = - -
Grandmother - =
They have a mother -
Mother - = =
Mother’s milk - =
She is beautiful -

aganukli-uvak

apnugli-uk.

annugli-u

ani -

ak, a mother).
ning-i-vok.
ang. ai-i-uklek.
uk-ang-a.

anenak-si-ak.
mikli-ak-attig-ekput.
anenak ; akko-a.
ammak.
enanau-wok.

A relative ~ - | tunka.

Father - - ~~ -| atti - -- += |attatak; (2. attatet):
The father - - - - - - | attatu.

An adopted gather -| - - - - | attatak-sak.

Son - -|igni-ak - - |ergnek; (P. ergnerit).
Daughter - - | panaga ; panile - | panik; (e. paniknit).
Brother - -|annak - - - ce mother, beauty).

His elder brother =
Elder brother or sister
Younger brother =
Sister = = =

Two uterine brothers
Atwin « - =

anningna.

ango-i-uma.

nukak ; nukka, my brother.

neya; neyango, his sister ;
neyara, my sister.

angu-tauk-attigekpuk.

ikking-ut ; karrisarek, ¢wins.

English.

Aboy - ~
A young woman -
Agirl + - -
Grandchild - -
A child belonging to
the parents.
A mother’s only child
A woman’s last child
It is my child - -
An orphan - -
A fatherless child — -
An orphan deprived
of both parents.
His sister’s child -
Achild - - -
A little, or new born,
child.
Uncle - - -
Aunt - - -
His mother’s sister -

His father’s sister = -

Sister-in-law = ~

A prudent woman -

A robust man - -

A countryman - ~

A friend, one of two
in company.

A walking companion

A travelling com-
panion.

A comrade (house-
mate).

Thou - - -
Thee, ace. - -
He - - -
We - - -
Ye, you - - -
They - - -

He, demonstr. - -

This - = - |

He, or she, intransitive
He, or she, transitive -

They - rs -
Of mine - - -
Tome - - -

To thee - - -
To us - - -

ESKIMO VOCABULARY.

Kuskutchewak.

tangoy-ali-uvak

nozi-atchak = -
tut-khih.

anahkli-uvan.
annomak.

aganak,
woman).

(root?

| khvana

lhpu-it

ikum

ilhli-te-pik = -

una

unut

kvinum

lhpinum

is)

873

Labrador Eskimo.

nuka-pi-ak ; (P. nuka-pitset)
ni-wi-ark-si-ak,
ni-wi-azi-ak.

kittorng-ak.

attung-ektak.

mikki-erngo-a.

kittom-yarivara.

ananak-ang-ilak.

atatai-tok.

illi-arksuk ; (P. illi-arksu-
it)

u-i-orva.

kittorng-ak ; sorusek.

nutarak.

al-ang-a.

at-sang-a.

sak-i-a, W.

arnanda.

atsu-ilik.

nuna-kat ; (P.nuna-kattiget)
illek-sak,

tupperkat; (P. tupperka-
tiget).

ing-i-a-ket ; (D. ingi-akattek
P. ingi-akattiget).

iglo-mokat; (P. iglo-mokat-
tiget).

u-wang-a,

ig-vit.

illing-nik.

taim-na.

u-vag-ut P.; (u-va-guk, D.)

ilipsé, P.; (illiptik, D.; il-
o-wit, Church. Esk.). — |

okk6-a,

| taimna ; taipsoma.

tamanno.

una; tamna.
oma; tapsoma.
okkéa; tapkéa.
uvango; uwango.
uvamnut.
iling-nut.

| uvapting-nut. |

ov

English.

To you -
Tohim -
To them -
Of himself
To themselves -
Whose ? what ? what
kind? of whom ?
Who? what thing? -
What do you say? -
Of or by whom -
With what thing? -
What company? = -

Which - -
His - -
Ofhis - -
Mine - =
Thine - - -
This, mase. - -

This thing - -

That - - -

Self ~ - -
How ? what? - -
The same - -
Thus - - -
Who are these people?

who is the head of
the family ?
Head - - -

Crown of the head -
Forehead - -
Eyes = é 2

Eyebrow - - -
Eyelashes
Ears = - =

Mouth
Face
Nose
A horn
Cheek
Muzzle
Teeth
Beard

Co Oi ties =
fa gee Ay eee te
Us OO ea a ae

Neck = = a

Kuskutchewak.

umu-in ; ikumin

kai-a ; tchambi-a

ke
umnia

kho-in-tchati-ka ;
khvona.

ilh-pu-it ; lhpu-it-ik

unakh-wina - -

tcha-itun

kamikuk ;

niba-gun.

uksi-u ;

tchughi-uk - -
vi-tatu-ik = -

ka-i-ag-mi-ut - -

na-i-utu-ik ; tchu-u-
tu-ik.

kanik

nikh

khu-u-tu-ik
unik “

u-i-anut - -

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

Labrador Eskimo,

illipting-nut.

omunga; tapsomunga.
okkomunga; tapsomunga.
ing-me.

megming-nut.

kina? ki-a, who ? (P. kikut).

suna? su-ub? (P.su-unt).
suva.

ki-mit; kikkunit.

sumik ?

kikkut ?

kiput.

(vide of his).

oma; tapsoma.

u-wanga.

igvit, of thine.

una ; (inung-una, this man).

oma; (oma-pung-a, is
thing).

imna.

nang-ninek ;
merngit).

kannak.

ingna.

tava.

kik-ut ?

ce.

nang-

ni-akko; (P. ni-akkut).

kausek.

ke-uk ; ka-uk; (P. karrut).

i-ye (ai-i-ga, W.); isse;
(P. issit).

kablo, S.; (P. kablut).

kemerit-set

si-ut; (P. si-utik).

kannerk ; kaurngit.

kénak.

king-ak ; (P. king-et).

naksuk; (P. naksu-it).

ulu-ak.

katang-ak.

ki-u-tit ; (S. kig-ut).

umik; (P. umgit), also a
curtain.

u-i-ak; (P. u-i-ait), fore
quarter of an animal ;
konge-sek.

ESKIMO VOCABULARY. 375

English. Kuskutchewak. Labrador Eskimo.
a (human) on the | nu-i-at - - - | nu-i-ak; (P. nutset).
ead.
Hair, fur - - -| mu-ilh-kut - - |merserpok, also a feather ;
(merkut, W.).
A needle - - - - - - | merkut.
A skin, general name - - - - |amek; (D. amok; P.
armgit).
Hands - - - | yagatchu-tu-ik - |aggait, hands and fingers ;
Two, numer. - -| = - - - | aggait.
My hands - -| - - - - |aggakka; aggaktit, your
hands.
Foot - - -|ig-uk - - - | ittigak; (P. ittiket).
Finger - - - | sl-evogat - -
Thumb - - - - - - - |kublo; (P. kublut).
Fore finger - - - - - - |tikkek; (P. tikkerit), also
a thimble.
A sign toindicate any- | - - - - | tikkorut.
thing (finger post ).
Middle finger - =| = - - - | kettert-lek, W.
The middle - - - - - - | kerka.
He is in the middle ~| - - - - | ketterpok.
Third finger - - - - - - | mikilirak, W.
Smallest - - - - - : - | mikke;(mikkinek, the least).
It decreases’ - - - - - - | mikki-orpok.
The first - - - - - - | mikkledklek.
Little finger - - - - - - | erkekok, W.; mikkillerak ;
(P. mikkillaket).
Hands and feet to-| - - - - | igluktuk.
gether.
Belly - . - | aksi-ak - - - | nek, also the body.
Tongue - - - | ali-anuk - - | okak; (P. oket).
He licks with his| - - - - | alluktorpok.
tongue.
My tongue - -| = - - - | okara.
A member of the body | - - - - | nabgo-ak.
Aleg - - - - - - - |nabguk-pa; (ni-o, leg or
thigh).
The trunk or body -| - - - - |mimmernet; time; (P.
timet).
A headless body - - - - - | kattik.
The back bone alate” - - - | ku-i-a-pigak.
The rump - - - - - - | nullok.
Blood - - - | ka-i-unkak - - |auk; aggut.
To speak - - | kalkhtu-ik - - | o-karlune.
He is spoken of -| - - - - | kalle-mavok.
Raecry ~= - - | vikhpa-ga-ga.
The waves roar - - - - - | kadlarpok.
He weeps much -| - - - - | kai-u-mi-wok-nudlarpok.
He distorts his face in - - - - | kakkerlu-arpok.
erying.
To laugh - - | nu-inhli-akhta.

BB 4

376

English.

He laughs in mockery

He is in a laughing or
weeping mood.

To kill - - :

Dead, (he is) - -

A corpse = =

Alive - - =
Life = a
A living man -
Bad - =

He is very bad

He becomes bad
Not good - -
Good - - -
Very good, or great -
He isa goodman -
Brave - - -
Very brave or strong
Coward - - -
He is terror-struck -
He is timid - -
He loses courage -
iin a - -
Lean, not stout -
He is stout - -
Thin, or lean, (he is)
High
Low : - -
Warm - . -
Heat - - -
It boils - - -
To smell - - -
To spit
He spits out - -
To cough - -
Pain - - -
Health - - -
He is healthy - -
Angry
Quarrel - - -
Terrible - - -
Buy - = -

Taken - - -
Take : = =

Give - - -

Kuskutchewak.

tchikaliz-gi-u.
tukumak -

u-nung-vak

tehakli-ul

knu-ignag-kuk

tuvgak - -
alantak -

ukughelghi-a.

kui-migu-ilhnagak

yukhtuli :

yukh-kalhna-gak.

kikh-tchatulk
kalhtok -
nagne-chuk -
kchigu - -
kuzgh-ga -
aknakhtu-a.
yuguntu-a.
wik-nu-i-chuk
agu-l-a-uk -
alu-innakh-kuk
kupuzg-u—-

tkhwaka.
tkhu- -

ta-iz-ghu =

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

Labrador Eskimo.

i-yorkpork.
illapsukpok.

tokkowok.

time (body) -tokkung-a-
yok.

innu-wok.

innusek. -

innuk,.

(ség-lu-wok, he lies).

a-yorpok ; yudlarpok.

assile-wok.

nama-lung-ilak.

ai-ung-itok.

ang-i-yok.

pillorik-pok ; ridlarpok.

aksut, also strong.

aksorso-ak.

erksinadlarpok, afraid.

sakko-arpok.

innimi-wok.

kotso-alavok.

kuini-wok.
sallukpok ; ludlarpok.
portovok.

ki-ek-pok ; onatomik.
kivek; onarsivok.
kallapok.

nawok, he smells.
(sigouk, the beak).
oviakpok.

ko-erlorpok, he coughs.

atsu-ili-wok, W.
ning-akpok ; gadlarpok.
akeiwok, he retaliates.
adhei! (interjection).
akpang-erpok, he buys, W.;
pussi-wok, he buys it.

pi-uk, W.; pi-vok, or pi-
wok, (auxiliary).

ta-ug-si-lugo, let us barter,
W..; pillata-wok, he gives
in reward; pittipa, he
gives it to him to hold.

English.
Sell - - -
Lively, joyous - -
Merry - - -
Tedious - - -
He is weak - -
Song - - -
A song, hymn, or psalm
Dance - - -
Truth - - -
Lie - - -
Thief - - -
Forest - - -

Place having no trees

Grass - - -
Straw or grass on the
sea shore.
Berries - - -
Moss - - -
Sphagnum palustre -
Fir tree - - -
Firewood - =
Birch - - -
Alder - - -
Poplar - - -
Willow - - =
Rock - = -

Vessel, a bark - -
A small boat of wood
Baidare (skin boat) -
Baidarka - -

Flat-bottomed boat -

Dog - - -
Dog-sled - -
Calls the dogs to-
gether.

Tanned sea-cow hide

Arch - - -
A valley - ~ -
A bird arrow - -
Arrow - - -

{

| Fish-hook - - |

ESKIMO VOCABULARY.

Kuskutchewak.

kiputna-waka -

nuna-nikh-kuk ==
nuna-ni-tu.
i-vagun -
kazi-i-achi-kut
pachikh-pi-ak
ikli-uk -
tu-igli-nak = -
nu-i-ku-ig-vakhtut

tchangu-it.

nangat - - -
kumagu-i-tu-it

nu-ikvag-vakh-tugvak.

ilhgnuk - -

tchugvagvat.
avenut.

tehagatu-it - -
u-Ipnat = =

shunnak -

anh-i-ak -

pukhtan ; kai-ak

anhi-akh-li-uk.
anna-kukta_- -

i-kam-chak

amakh-kak.

-ugli-vu-ik = - -

ikkh-uk ;
tchagak.

| karsuk-sok.

377

Labrador Eskimo,

ni-u-werpok, he trades.

pio-ri-wok ; ku-wi-a-sik-
pok, W.

nunan-ghi-a-suk-pok, brisk.

nunenépok ; sanghe-pok.

iming-arkpok,

iming-erut-set.

okkigenek, W.

(padsitik-sak, an excuse).

seglu-wok, he lies.

tiglik-pok, he steals.

nappartok, trees, something
erect.

nappartu-itok.

i-wik ; ibgit.

paung-at.

ting-ang-yak, a bluish
moss; marnek, W.;neka-
gasek, W.

orkso; (P. orksut).

ikko-maksak, W.; (ikkoma,
jire).
okpit; kai-volik; (P. kai-

vogit).

okau-jak.

u-i-arak, a_ stone;
ertok, W.

umi-akso-ak.

umi-arak.

umi-avik.

kai-ak, (for one Eeeed |
(Gee kai- net).

kai-

kemmek; king-mek; (P.
king-mit).

kam-utik, W.

kang-marpok.

korok, W., hollow.
korkinek.
nugit.

karksok ; (P. karksut).

378

English.

Strap - - -

Hand drum, tambour-
ine.
Shaman, sorcerer -

House - - -
Hut, (abode of mar-
ried people).

Tent - - -
Snow house - -
Indian tavern - -
To take a vapour bath
He bathes, he dips it

Armour - - -
Guest - - -
Give for a treat -
He gives a feast -
Eat - - -
Dining hall - -
To make a present of

Salmo orientalis
Salmo sanguineus
Salmo muksun -

Tosew - - -
A needle - - -
To beat - - =
He cuts it in pieces -
Red fish - - -

Salmo alpinus
Salmo proteus

Chaiko 2 - - -
| Syrka - - -
Smelt - - -
Eel pout - - -
Pike - - -
Fishing-net —- -
A bag, a poke -
Spawn - - -
Cup “ - -
Spoon - - -
Pot - - - -

Earthen pot, native -

Bladder - -
Oar (boat’s) -
Entrails - -
Gut - -
Kamlaika (cloth)

Kuskutchewak.

nuk-tchaklik.
teha-ul.

tungalhkh; analhkh-

tuk.

u-ina.

akumgavak.
mu-ichtak,

annu-i-akh-chutu-it.

ali-anik - -
tehaktchu.
nuiga = - -

yaguzhgh-ghi ;
pikazhzgh-ghi.
minka -

puli-akhku

nu-i-ku-it.
taghi-akvak.
kak-ki-a.
ka-ukh-tut - -

ankhli-u-gat
atakak.
nu-ik-ni-at.
imakh-ping-at.
kpuka-chat.
managnat.
tehukvak.
kughya.

mass-i-uk.

val-i-uk - -
gant.

imangvik.

anvagun - -

iggzh-u-igli-uk —-
iggmagna-tu-ik.

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA. -

Labrador Eskimo.

anghe-kok.

iglo; (P. iglut).

tuppek ; (P. turkit).
iglorigak.

missukpok.
allak ; allani-a-wok.

nerri-marpok.
nerri-wok, W., he eats.
nerriving-me.
pilli-ta-wok.

mersorpok, he sews.
merkut; (P. merkutit).
anauwok, W.
pullakpok.

ekalluk, (P. ekalluktut),
salmon trout.
ekalli-et, trout.

pok.

korkok, wide-mouthed-cup ;
erngusok, drinking-cup.
alu-pa-ut.

illuterkut, W.; (illuli-wok,
he hollows it out).

(pa-ut; P. pa-utit) ; epat.
erchavit P.; (S. erchavik).
inelo; (P. inelu-it).

ESKIMO VOCABULARY. 379

kai-rolik.
pai-yarak,
otok.
kassigi-ak.

Middle seal -
Young ditto -
Seal lying on ice
Spotted seal -

English. Kuskutchewak, Labrador Eskimo.

Woollen cloth - - - - - - | ateg-ek-sai-ah, W.

Parka - - - | atkuk.

Fur- boots - - | kamu-ik-si-ak - | kamikso-ak.

Breeches - - - | kbulik - - | karlik; (P. karlit).

Cap - - - | nachak - - - | ketsivak, akkordlek, also a
jacket.

Castor oil - - | alli-ukit-khak.

Beaver - - - | kini-i-uli - - | kig-i-ak; (P. kig-ilset).

Otter - - - | chvignil’nuk.

Sable - - - | kakhchichvak - | karvi-ait-si-ak.

Grey fox - - | u-ikh-pu-ikhtuk - | arvngasek.

Red fox - - - | kavhiatchak - - | ka-i-ok.

White fox - - | ulhi-gu-ik = - - | teri-enniak ; P. teriennit-
sek.

Young fox - -| pl-i-a-gak = - - | pei-a-raka, a young qua-
druped or bird.

Female bear - -| = - - - | akbik.

Bear - - - unu-valh-iakh - | akhlak.

Polar bear - - - - - - |nennok; (P. nennut).

Wolf - - - | ku-isli-unu-ik - |amarrok; (P. amarkut) ;
ammarwok.

Hare - - - | Fa-i-ukh-li - - |ukalek; (P. -lit); ikkingna.

Wolverene - - Kab-tchak - - | kablia-ri-u.

Marmot - - - | kalh-ganakh-tuli ~- | sik-sik; ullick.

Musk rat - - | sig-vak - - | kiv-galuk, W.

Casan marmot (Ci%ti- | kaninik - e | ik-ik; sik-sik.

lus).

Enno - - - | nagulhkk-ak - - | terri-i-a, W.

Lesser otter - - | amagmi-utak - - | pammi-oktok.

Tail of an animals - - - - - | pammi-ok.

Mouse = - - | avilh-nat - - | awing-ak, W.

Fly - - - | chuvat - - - | nivu-l-wok, a lurge fly.

A spider - - Sl = - - - | assi-wak; (P. assi-vait).

Gnat, moschetoe - | ig-tughi-ak ; miku- | kiktoriak; (P. kiktoritset).

ghi-ak.

Walrus tusk - - | tul-i-ak - - | togak, W.; (tok, a point).

Walrus - - -| azgh-vu-ik - - | al-wek; (P. ai-werit).

Mammoth tooth - | chagu-nu-ek.

Back-fat of deer Sli ue - - - |tunnuk; (tunno, the back).

Tallow - - -|anu-ignak == - | kui-ni-wok, fat he is.

Fat - - - - | u-ig-nu-ik.

Rein-deer - -|tun-tu - - - | tuktu; (P. tuktut.)

A large whale - - ” - - - | korchak; (P. korchetset).

Delphinus leucas - | chtvak - - - | (sav-gak, a water-serpent).

A seal, general name - - - - | puese; (P. pue-sit).

Seal, largest kind izli-ugvak = - - | uksuk; oguk.,

Small seal - - - = - | netsi-arksuk; netsek.

380

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

English.

A seal with a pointed

nose.
Unborn seal - -
The seal comes up to
breathe.
I will - = =
I will not - -
Go! - - -
Come! - - -
He comes = -
Icome - - -
Bring - - -
It is
Veril - - -
Yes ; - - -

Certainly not! - -
He says no - -

Not - - -
Yet - - =
It is so 1S you pols

Where? - 2

Where isit? - -
Whither ? -

Which way? whereby! ?
Here -

Here about, arouad .
There - - -
Thither - - -
Hither - - -
There ~ - -
Throw! - - -
So - - - -
Now - - -

In the present time -
Later, afterwards -
A foretime - -
Before - - =
Straight before -
Before another -

Behind - - -
Backwards - -
Above, upwards -
Below, beneath -
Num. 1 - -

” oi = a

” ges i _

” 4 - =

Kuskutchewak.

plyukh-tu-a - -
plyuk-nak-tu-a -
al-i; ai-aghi - -
ikh-tchika - -
ta-i-tchika.

ta-iski-u - -
pitankh-tok.

tchata-i-tok - -

tchali - - -
na-ni? = - ”
nairt? - - -
khonikho - -
yanl; ung-napi = =
yavu-it.
akavu-it - -
khavana - -
igazhghi-u—- -
| khwatum = -
khwatu-a - -
atakh - ~ -
tchu-nu-imtpu -
kanulhklimtiyv.
kulhma - - -
ochi-mi - -
atu-u-chik - -

/a-i-nak; malhkhok

pa-i-na-i-vak - -

- | techamik - -

Labrador Eskimo.

abba; (P. abbit).

iblau.
pu-i-rook.

pivok.
piwak.
ailer-it, W.
kai-it!
kai-wok.

kaitsi-wok, to bring.

ahammarik, (emphatic affir.)

katz ; kassak ; kaitsok ;
aheila ; ang-erpok.

se-1-ovut, aukai-lo.

ang-ing-ilak.

naukak, aukok.

sulle.

ahale.

nane ?

nauk ?

namut ?

naukut ?

ovane mane; tamane.

ovona.

mane; tamane.

ma-ungo; owunga.

ikkane.

millorpok, he throws ;
pok, he throws away.

taimak ; sorlo, as.

mana.

manakut.

king-urgane.

itsak.

sivurnga-gat.

miksane.

ane-taima, also southward.

egi-

knig-o-mut.

kollanut; pa-ungo.

kanna; sammand.

atou-sek.

marruk; maggok, W.;
(agea, hands).

ping-a-sut ; ping-ahuk, W.;
ping-a-nuk, W.

| sittamut.

English.
Num. 65 - -
” 6 - a
” 7- ee
” 8- a
” 9 - =
ss Ok -
ny ll hllate -
m. ell6): -
> 20- -
seca = -
Whale - -
Bird in general
Eagle - -
Raven - -
Magpie -~ -
Hawk - -
Owl - -
Goose - -
Swan - -
Crane - -
Duck - =
Sinew - =

Glass bead -

Blue - -
White - -
It is white -
Red - -
Black - -
Krelle - .
| Axe - -
Adze - -
Pickaxe - -
Knife - -

Aleutian axe -

ESKIMO VOCABULARY.

Kuskutchewak.

tali-mik - -
akhvinok - -
a-iI-na-akh-vanam -

pi-na-i-vi-akh-vanam

| chtami-akh-vanam -

tamimi-akh-vanam -

tzvinnak - -

| akh-vu-ik == -
_tu-in-mi-ak - -

nu-itu-i-gavi-ak = -

kolh-ka-guk - -
kalh-ka~-gai-ak.

naptak - - -
iggi-akhtu-gali -

nu-ikli-uk - -
kughi-uk - -
ghi-na-tuli,
tu-in-mu-ik - -

ulhi-un ; ivali-ut -
tu-ikh-lit - -

oat

tchunaizi ; tehu-a-g

katu-ighi-agvak —-

kivikh-tchitkkhlat -
tunulhgat = - -
tchunaglat; anat -

kalhk-anak - -

ulhvak - - -

| knun.

asl

Labrador Eskimo.

(tallek, the hand), tedlima ;

tellimet.

arvanget ; ping-a-su-yok-
tut, twice three.

ping-a-sullo _ sitta-mello,
W., three and four.

pina-i-u-ik, W.; ping-a-
nuk, W.

tellimella sitta-mello, W.,
Jive and four.

tellima-yoktut, W.

arkang-et.

arvertanget.

igluktut, hands and feet to-
gether.

ungna.

ar-wek.

ting-mi-ak ; (D. ting-mit-
sek).

nektoralik.

kallu-gak.

kiga-wik, W.

upik, W.; upigu-ak, great
owl, W.

nerlek, (P. nerlit).

kog-uk, W.

ting-mi-ak, (P. ting-mid-
eet), a bird, in general.

uli-yut, W.

(tue, the shoulder) ; sang-
pang-ak, beads.

tung-a-yuktak ;
berry juice).

kaud-luk-pok, W.; (kau,
day). |

kaggarpok, W.

auk-palliki-tak ;
ageut, blood).

kerngut; kernerpok; ker-
nian-garvok.

(sunak, W. polar-bear) ;

(annak, refuse of animals).

tukkingai-ok; (P. -ut;
kuksau-tok).

nella-yok.

tik-lak.

ulima-ut, (P. ulima-utit,
a hatchet).

(tungo,

(auk,

382

English.

Scissors - - -
He cuts something off
Needle - - -
Button - - -

Mirror - - -
He sees him, or it -

Iron - - -

Copper - - -
Lead - - -

Shirt - - -
Linen waistcoat -
Worsted ditto - -
Kettle - - -
Dentalium shell -
Ear-rings - -
Long - - -
Short - - -
Broad - - -
Narrow - - -
Fresh - - -
Sweet - - -
Sugar - - -

Kuskutchewak.

ku-ipli-a-unu-ik ==

minkuk; tchikuk -
nikht-ku-tu-it -

tangh-i-u-guk -

nu-ilhkh-agak -

kanukh - - -
khu-i-akak = -
tulhpakhak - -

alkuk - - -
tunulhkh-u-i-alkuk.
gantchavak - -
nuinhi-vaghi-ut.

aklatu-it - -

tatkhli.

nanilh-nuk - =
yu-gu-tuli = -
igu-kink-nuk ”
milukapak.

mi-iknik-kuk -

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

Labrador Eskimo.

kipsaut, W.

kippiwok.

merkut; (sig-uk, a beak).

sennero-ak ; (P. sennerut-
set).

takh-artut.

takko-wok.

kikki-ek, general name,
also a wooden or wwory
pin.

kanu-yak, W. @_

ageiktok, W.

uvinerok; (uvinite

esh).
altighigha, wnder jacket, W.

the

uk-ku-sik, stone kettle.
ukla.

nai-pok.

silikpok, zt is broad and thin.
nerikipok, W.; amitok, W.

mamakpok, it tastes nice.
mamamak-sauk.

VOCABULARY OF THE KUTCHIN OF THE YUKON OR KutcuHi-KutTcHI,
DRAWN Up BY Mr. M‘MurrAy; TO WHICH THE CHEPEWYAN
SYNONYMS WERE ADDED BY Mr. M‘PHeErson.

English. Kutchin. Chepewyan.
Animals.
A bear - - - | so- - - = | |sasz.
grizzly bear - - | si-i - - - | tlizé.
beaver - - | se- - - - |tza; tsha.
red fox - - na-kath - - - | na-ghirhé-gosse.

black fox - -

cross fox - -
white fox (arctic) - |
Canada lynx -
marten - -
mink - - -
otter - - -

musquash_ - :

nakath = barhata -nil-
1Z- Ze.

nakath-so - =
etchi-a-thwi - -
ni-itchi - - -
tsu-ko - - =
tchith-ei - -
tsu-e = - -
tzénn - -

na-ghirhé-sin.

na-zhirhe-netlizzé.
na-ghirhé-gai.

ghise.

tha.

til-chuseé ; tekh-tuse.
na-pi-ekh.

tzén; tshén.

English.

Awolf - -

hare (American)

wolverene -
seal -
moose-deer
rein-deer
goose -
swan -
crane -
duck -
grouse -

fish, a salmon

white-fish (Core-

gonus).
pike - -

blue-fish (grayling)

methy (Lota)

Trading Goods.

Anawl - -
An axe - -
Beads = -
Abelt - -
A blanket -

A tobacco-box -
Buttons - -

Acap - -
A bonnet - -
A capot or coat
A duffle coat -
A chisel - -
A comb - -
A dagger -
A file - -

Tape gartering
A looking-glass
Agun - -
A gun-flint = -
A gun-worm -
Gunpowder -
A powder-horn

A kettle - -
A knife - -
Aring - -
A shirt - -
A small shot -
Aball = -
A fire-steel -
Cloth - -
| Thread - -

KUTCHIN VOCABULARY.

Kutchin.

ZO -
ke -
lekh-ethu-e
nat-tchuk
tin-djuke
bet-zey -
kré -
ta-arr-zyne
che-a =
tet-sun - -

akh-tail -

tleukh-ko -
tleukh-ko-tak-hei

alle-ti-in -

rsi-tcha = -
che-tlukh -

tha - -

ta-é - -
nak-kai-e.

tho.

tselta - -

tseltrow-ti-ak.
yei-kai-thit-le
tsa-kol-u -
tsa-til-ek-ha.
chat-ik.
so-itt-se.
tcheir-zug.
nil-ei-sho -
kuk-i - -
lekath-at-hai-é.
mutchai-e-i-a.

te-egga - -
bech-tsi =
koggo-te -

tegga-kon =—-
a-ki-itché,
thi-a.

Yr’ si = =
ilat-thékk.
azu-e-l-ek =
tegga-atsil -
tegga-atcho -
il-i-a.
athit-li.

_athit-li-itchi.

383

Chepewyan.

yess ; nuni-e.

ka.

nakh-ei.

(nétsek ; netsi-arksuk, Esk).

dunikh.

bedzi.

tcha.

kha-goss.

dhell.

yurrth-tcho,

dikh (pintailed gr.) ; kasba,
(white gr).

tlu-e-tcho; tlu-e-zané, trout.

thlu.

uldai.

thlu-é-detla.
tin-tellei.

thuth, @ spear.
thell; thelth.
tsurai.

bun-eil-lay ; pa-il-lay.
tsa-kulay.

ekh.

la-thuth.
hogulth ; hok-kelth.

tel-gtrthe.

tlé-tell.

ko-édéh.
telgtirre-koun-né.

| tillé.
| bess.

| tse-tsi-eh ; thisitei.
teli-thai-é.
tell-gith-teho.

384

English.
Tobacco - -
Trowsers - -
Vermilion -

Miscellaneous.
Atree - -
A willow - -
Grass - -
The ground” -
Water - -
A river - -
Awlalkce) am -
Rain - -
Warm ~- -
Cold - -
Hungry - -
Fatigued - -
Sick - -
A mountain =
A valley - -
The sun - -
The stars -
A rock - -

A house or fort
A lodge or tent
A bow - -

An arrow -
A canoe - -
Good - -
Bad - -
Day = -
| Night -
Sleep - -
Rest - -
To sit. = -
To walk - -
Torun - -
To shoot - -
Roy kal = -
Aman ~- -
A woman -
Aboy - -
Agirl - -
Adog - =
Asled - -
Numerals.

1 z a

D) a 3

Kutchin.

se’ el-i-ti-it -
illei-ik - -
tingi-ta-tseikh.

tetch-hau -

kai-i = - -

tlo - -
4

nunn - -

tchu = -

han - -

van - =

akh-tsin -
konni-etha -
konni-eka ==
sel-ze-kwetsik
kei-a-sethelth-krei
éth-ill-seyk -

tha - -
kra-tanneé -
r’ sey-€ - -
thun = -
tehi - -
IZZe.

ni-ti-a - -
alt-heikh -
ki-e - -
tri = -
neir-zil = -
bets-hé-té -
tzin - -
tatha - -

nokh-tehi -
tuggath-ila-e
tchith-u-étcha
ka-whot-él_ -
sha-tocha -
at-él-ke -
beshei-en-i-echa
tenghi - -

tren-djo -
tse-a - -
mitchet-ei -
tleine - -

latchan-vultl -

tih-lagea -

nak-hei -

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

Chepewyan.

sel-tu-i.

(karlik, E’skimo).

tsu.
kai-thsinne.
tlo.

nih.

tu; to.
dessh.
theu-tu-i.
dsha.

etu.

etdza.

seth-ithu.
ni-nitsau.

al-a’.

sheth.

shegusse.

sakh.

thun.

thi *tsunne-cho.

neballé ; nepalle.
elthi.

kah.

tsi.

nesu; neso; nazu.
neso-ulla,
tzinna.
hetleghé.

bellkh.

thilleh.

théda.

nathall.
thebakall.
thelouth.
thega-thul.
*diinné; duneh; ’tinné.
tshékwe.
dunne-yaze.
tsekwe-aze.
thling ; thline.
bet-tchinnai.

nthlare, D., (en-clai, L.),
(sthlagi, C.).

nakkhe, D., (nakka, L.),
(nakke, C.).

KUTCHIN VOCABULARY.

385

“Te 163) (Ours ie es

90
100
200

300

English.

Kutchin.
thi-eka - - -
tan-na - - -
illa-kon-élei - -

neckhki-ét-hei -

ataitsa-newk-he = -

nak-hei-etan-na ss =
nuntcha-niko - -

tikh-lagga-chow-et-
hi-en,

tikh - lagga - mik- ki-
tagga.

nak-hei. mikki-tagga

thi-eka-mikki-tagea

tanna-mikki-tagga -

ilakon-élei- mikki-
tagga,

nak-how-chow-ethi-en

nak-how-chow-ethi-in-
unsla-tikh-lagea.
thi-eka-chow-ethi-en
tanna-ha-chow-ethi-en
atla-konélei-chow-ethi-

en.
nikh-ki-at-hei-chow-
ethi-en.
atait-sa.
nich-ki-etanna-chow=
ethi-en.
muntcha-niko-chow-
ethi-en.
tikh-lagga, chow-ethi-
en-chow-ethi-en.
nak-kaggo-chow-ethi-
en-chow-ethi-en.
thi eka-chow-ethi-en-
chow-ethi-en.

Chepewyan.

khtare, D., (ita-rgha, L.),

(takke, C.).
tinghe, D., (iting,
(tingee, C.).
zazunlare, D., (sa-soo-la,
L.), (sasulagi, C.).
eleathare, D., (ut-ke-tlai,
L.), (alkitakhe, C.).
nthlazuntinghe, D., (kko-
sing-ting, L.), (sthlasi-
tingie, C.).
alcatinghe, D., (elzenting,
L.), alketingie, C.).
nthla-otta, D., (kkahooli,
L.), katchine-onnuna, C.).
*nthla-una, D., (ito-nanna,
L.), onnuna, C.).
(sthlagi-juthet, C.).

1)

(nacke-juthet, C.).
(takhe-juthet, C.).
(tingee-juthet, C.).

(non-nanna, L.), (nackhe-
onnuna, C.).
(nacke-onnuna, nathetsin
sthlage, C.).
(tacke-onnuna, C.).
(tingie-onnuna, C.).
(sasulagi-onnuna, C.).

(alkitakhe-onnuna, C.).

(onnuna-onnuna, C.), fen
tens.
(nacki-onnuna-onnuna, C.).

(takhi-onnuna-onnuna, C.).

Note.—The orthography of the names of numerals enclosed by crotchets
is different from that of the other parts of the vocabulary. D. denotes
Dog-rib words obtained by myself. L. is Dog-rib recorded by Capt. Lefroy.
C. denotes Chepewyan words extracted from a list furnished by Mr. M‘Pher-
son, who has adopted the French orthography in part.

VOL. II.

CC

386 VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

The fragment of a vocabulary of the Chepewyan dialect,
which follows, was formed entirely from the diction of
Mrs. M‘Pherson, to whom the language has been familiar
from her infancy. It was written in the following manner :
Having at hand a pretty full vocabulary of the Cree,
drawn up at Carlton House in 1820, in which the words
were arranged in alphabetical order, I propounded the Cree
expressions to her in succession, assisting her with a French
translation when she had any doubt of their meaning. The
Chepewyan equivalent was pronounced by her again and
again, until my ear caught the sound, and I was able to
repeat it after her. I then wrote it down, and read it to
her from the manuscript. Such words as I was unable to
pronounce to her satisfaction, and they were not few, were
left out. The nasal sounds resembling the French final x
were the most difficult, and they are of frequent occurrence
in the language. The Chepewyan tongue also abounds in
the burring sound of the letter 7 combined with an aspirate,
which I know not how to express in English; and such
words have consequently been left out of the vocabulary.
The ordinary aspirate, similar to the och of the Scottish or
Irish, is denoted in the vocabulary by kh. The vocabu-
lary, short as it is, took some weeks to produce. It was
interrupted by a change in our arrangements in travelling,
canoes having been substituted for boats, which made it
less convenient for me to receive lessons in Chepewyan.
This difficulty would not, however, have prevented the
prosecution of the task, especially as Mrs. M‘Pherson
with much kindness expressed her willingness to proceed
until we had gone through the whole Cree vocabulary, of
which about nine-tenths remained; but knowing that the
language was becoming a written one, under the active
superintendence of the Roman Catholic missionaries at
Isle a la Crosse, I gave up my intention of endeavouring

to ascertain its structure, and contented myself with the
following specimen.

CHEPEWYAN VOCABULARY.

387

VOCABULARY OF THE CHEPEWYAN TONGUE, WITH CREE AND
ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS.

A as in “ father ;”

ad asin “awe” “law;

”

““bed;” i as in “ravine,” or as ee in “see;”

in “or” “for;” as in

in “how;”

“loch,” Scottice.

Cree, of Carlton House.

JN
Abu-ye -
Agatha-shu, or aggai-

a-shu.

Aggiskow, or Ow
Agciisk
Atchak, or aidighal
Reoeenene -u
Akop

Ai-ul-wannis
Akwa-napoy-igan-askek
Akwatin -
Amisk
Amis-kwa-wiste
Amu; amo
Annek-kutchass
Annek-kutchassis
Apikh-tow-kishi-kow

Apikh-tow-tippiskow
Apisi-mongsus -
Apiste-shipis -
Apistat-tchékus
Appakwa-sun -
Appek-kusis
Appisk
Appistis-kis
Appoye -
Appoy-nask
Appussuk, (Pl. ee
ye-akhtik, or appussu-
yuk).
Miskahtuk
Akhtai-ye (P. -wuk)

-

soa 6G -?)
oy as in “ hoy ;
“beauty ;” kw as in “awkward ;”
b] }

os. husk ="?
yu as “you;”

Chepewyan, of Athabasca.

é as in “ theme;”

ai as in “aim” “ maim;”
eu as ew in “dew”
ng as the French nasal x; kh as ch in

eas in “ dell”
masta. Soul’: “mks”? aguas

or eau in

English.

tu-a-will
thé-ut-’tinné

el-ka-ti. -
sis-thére
i-yu-ne -
yu-alane-pallé
tsirré, or tchirré
Tsirré-kai-cho
au
tillé-ar abatioln

hatkin
tza -
ekhke ; tza bekong
klize; ti-ranna
tli-i; tchillé -
tillel-kuzé.
*tchi-en-tizé 3 tchinne-
tan-ni-se.
thir-nize

él-kurré; tchikhth-i-
a-se-akhth.

ni-pallé -
kleune -
tannoneé-tcho, big bird
kai-yaze; kai-guse

toth; td-a
kes
thai-ye; meeallieeete yn

(tent legs).

nepalli

the

cc

liquor, soup, or drink.
an Englishman.

pin-tailed grouse.
a blunt arrow.
the soul.
a flag.
a blanket or covering.
a large blanket.
all kinds of goods.
a covered kettle.
frost.
a beaver.
a beaver house.
a bee.
a squirrel.
small or ground-squirrel.
mid-day, or half a day.

midnight.
jumping deer.
a teal, or small duck.

prong-horned antelope.

a leathern tent-cover.

a mouse.

black or white-headed eagle.
a Hutchins’s goose.

paddle or oar,

a spit.

tent poles.

a man’s legs.

| a fur skin.

au as OW

388

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

Cree, of Carlton House

Ammiskwa-tai-yé —-

Askik - = >
Aski; assiski - -
Int’aski - - -
Kit’-aski - - -
Int’askinan - -

Aski-tin-wé-as ; aski-
we-as.
Askow-i - - -

Assam (P. assim-uk)

Ahkik - - -
Assini - - -
Assini-uspogan - -
Assini-watche-a -

Assini-poyt, or, E-askab
Assiske = - ~
Assiske-pak we-sigan -

Assiggan (P. assiga-
nuk).
Assiss-wi - - -
Astu-theggum-ik —-
Astu-tin - - -
Astum-astaik - -
Atchakht, or atchak -
Atchappi - . -
Atchappe-kan - -
Atchimmosis~ - -

Atekh, or attek -

Athappi - - -

Athabiskow = -

Atha-wak-kiska-mat-
tinow

Atha-wastin - -

Athik - . -

Athuskan - -

Atchak-ash - -
Attei-gan - -
Attikh-hameg - -
Attim - - =
Atuspi - - -

Aku-pusé-win - -

Chepewyan, of Athabasca.

tza-the - - -
tille - = -
kwotlés - - -
ni-tanninne - -
na-hinne - -
Be-anninné - -
bét ; per-eline -

ten-de-ila (ice, hard,
not); ten-nailer.

Kin-the leuk - -
akhe; akh; akhi_ -
tille - - -
Sampas-tillé - -
*thekh.

seltu-yé-thekh ; tche-
tut-thékh - -
sheth; the-she

otlés = - -
thlés = - -
tel - - - -
etlé - - -
tsi-yé - - -
tsa - - -

’Tsa-kallé = = =
tsa-ne-tum - -

thin - - -
elté - - -
klewlghe-elting = -
thling-yazé- -
ét-thin - = -
ta-bith - - -
thé-minné-u-ye -
hokar-ritha - -
tethi-el - - -
tsai elle - = -
Tsai-el-cho - =
ta-kallé-chi-a - =
til-chusé - -
yu = = -
thlew - - -
thling - - -
kaithlin-sinné = -
thai-i -

English.

beaver skin.

a kettle.

land.

my native land.

your native land.

our native land.

his land.

raw or fresh meat ; flesh.

holes in the ice.

ice breaking up.

a snow-shoe.

a kettle, or copper kettle.
a tin kettle.

stone pipe, or calumet.

Rocky Mountains.

a Stone Indian.

mud or earth.
wheaten flour.

a sock, foot stocking.

an ice chisel (dit. a horn).

a shed in which canoes are
built.

ladies’ cap
(beaver).

man’s hat.

sunshine.

a star.

a bow.

a fiddle.

a puppy-

rein-deer.

a net.

a rocky country.

a very steep bank.

or bonnet

a calm.

a frog (grenouille).

large frog (crapaud).

a raspberry.

a mink (mustela lutreola).
trading stock.

white fish (coregonus).

a dog.

alder.

a platter.

CHEPEWYAN VOCABULARY.

Cree, of Carlton House.

Apette-ki-higgan -

Akhakhk (a guttural
grunt).
Aka-mik - - -
Aka-mik - - .
Akwa-kukhtin - -
Annutch; atte - -
Atte - -
Annutch-kak-ke-sikak
Annutch ka-tippiskak
Annu-watch-gai-as -
Apikh-tow - -
Apatishew - -
Appatun - - -
Apputchiga = - -
Askow - = =
Astum-uspi- -
Athi-mun - -
Athé-wak - -
Athé-wak kishé-wak-
Athe-wak-petsow -
Eshunila - - =

Ai-a - - -

Int/ai-an ; or int’ai-a-
wa-u.

Kit’ai-an ~ -

Ai-akuski-té-u - -

Ai-ami- - -

Ai-amew ;__ ai-atchi-
me-u.

Ai-amihin - -

Ai-ami-hi-tu-tak -

Ai-ami-hi-tu-wuk -
Ai-ami-hé-u—- -
Tnt/ai-amin - -
Int/ai-ami-ha-u -
Int/ai-ami-hik - =
Kit’ai-ami-hik - -
Ekau-witha-atche-
mow.
Ai-atchémow-akwa -

Ai-ape-tika-u - -
Aikh-tu-ka-mik -
Waska-iggan - -
Wiggi - - -

389

Chepewyan, of Athabasca.

denti-lita-thil-tille -

hekh - - -

nanne - - -
yanna - - -
tit-sa- - -
tu-hu - - -
kaltuné - - -
ti-dzinne - -

terri-kitha - -
tanize - - -
bet-arutha = - -

bet-taritha = -
athké = - -
ekku-azeé - -
sutu-ye - - -
ona-hadztn - -
edzun-kuthé - -
hona-hedza-nitha -
hulé-ho - - -
nitsa-ula - -

se-itza-heila ; hune-
zoni.

netze - - -
petothé-karth - .
yan-ilti - - -
yalti - : -

zedzun-yar-ilti = -
althlai-yalthi (together
let us speak).
elthney-alti - -
yedzonne-alti - -
e-astl - - -
bedze-asti- -
zedzun-alti - -
nedzune-alta - -
zedzun-ye-inne-alti-
hila-kula.
nu-hei-lune - -

peye-onla-honné = -
nu-anku - -
ye kee

cices

English.

a chest lock key (properly,
but used for keys in ge-
neral).

yes.

across.

on the other side.

it is mouldy.

now ; at the present time.

already.

this very day.

this night.

rather long ago.

in the middle.

it is useful.

useful.

once on a time.

sometimes.

since such a time.

it is difficult.

more.

nearer ; very near.

further ; very far.

he is troublesome; badly
disposed.

keep it; have thou it.

I possess it ; it is mine.

it is yours,

it has a broad bill.
speak thou.

he talks.

speak to me.
let us talk together.

they talk to one another.

he spoke to him,

I talk.

I talk to him.

he spoke to me.

he talks to you.

do not tell it.

tell us the news; relate
thou now.

it is full of partitions.

another house.

a house.

a tent or dwelling.

390

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

Cree, of Carlton House.

Ai-ish-ku-shu; ai-ish-
ku-teé-u.
Ai-ish-kutan-né-wu -
Int/ai ish-kuzin -
Int’ai-iskutché-man -
Kitai-iskutché-man-
ni?
Ai-u - - -
Akkushew - -
Tnt’akushin - -
Akkustemmu - =
Int/akkusktemmun -
Anniskutapan - -
Anniskutape! - -
Ing’annisku-tapan = -
Ge-annisku-ta-pe-u -
Apikh-ku-pai-u -

Ge-appaha - -

Apith-kuna ; appaha-
Ne-geé-apith-kunain -
Ne-ge-apa-hain -
Int’apikh-ta-pi-ha-u

Int/apikh-ta-pa-huk -
Apisa! - - -

Apisum - - -
Sa-sey-int/apisain = -
Appi! = - - -
Ute-appi! - -
Appew - - -
Appe-wé-tik = - -
Int/appin - -
Kit’appin-na ? - -
Ki-wi-appin-na? —-
Ashamin ! - -
Kaga-ashami-tin -
Michema; hughes) -

Aspun-ishew - -
Assitina - - -

A-sustatin - -
Kiga-kasustatin -
As-swe-té-u = -
As-swe-ta-u - -
Int/aswetan ss - -
Aswethim - -

Chepweyan, of Athabasca.

kalyé-ni-nan-idza -

kalyé-ni-tan-idza -
kalyé-ne ninna-cha
toth-ne-zin-alnilza -
teth-ne-ni-nan-ilza-
uza ?
nu-a-edzon-illa
ey-a-hilla = - -
ey-a-hezlé—- -
edzil - - -
dzedzil - - -
chas-inninne-al -
chas-nos-al! - -

chas-ninne-al -
tey-kunne-takh = -

tey-kunne-arlth; ney-
ke-urth.
pey-ke-urth - -
kalthonna-pey-ke urth
ey-ke-urrth
peino-harre-kluk -
zunno-arre-kluck -
per-il-thilth! - -

yi-ér-il-thilth -
kuda-ber-il-thilth -
thein-’ti! - -
ey-er-thein-ta! = -
nelti = - -
hed-nilthi - -
thi-ta - - -
thin-ta-uzang? =
unta-uzang- -
bega-van-ilchu! -
ne-a-urchu - -
bet-ho - - -

a-a-ontzun - -
éltan-nilé - -

necha-itus-'i - -
te-yé-thella - -
te-ye-yella
te-ye-ila - =
bega-etu-u-elne—-

t English.

he is tired (with walking).

they are tired (ditto).

I am tired (ditto).

I am tired with paddling.
are you tired with paddling?

he is there.

he is sick or ill.

I am sick.

he is wet.

I am wet.

a knot.

tie a knot!

I will tie a knot.

he has tied a knot.

it has become loose; it is
loose.

he has untied it.

loose it (a knot); open it.

I have loosened it.

I have untied it.

I gave him a blue eye.

he gave me a blue eye.

warm it (as a garment at
the fire).

he warms it.

I have already warmed it.

sit down!

sit here! (here sit!)

he sits.

they sit.

I sit.

are you sitting ?

do you wish to sit ?

sive me food to eat!

I will give you food to eat.

meat and drink; fvod;
victuals.

he is niggardly (of his
victuals).

mingle them; add one to
another.

it is hidden.

I will hide myself from you.

it is in (a bag).

he puts it in.

I put it in.

be on your guard against
him.

CHEPEWYAN

Cree, of Carlton House.

Aswithi-min - -

Ing’aswithi-mow — -
Atchis-chapum-wé-u

Athig-uskow - -
Atbin-i -isew ; eythiniseu
Int’sip- cathi-nisén -
Athinew - - -
Atuskeé-u- - -
Int/atuskaim- -
Atta-wanna! (imp.)

Ki-wi-atta-wanna? -
Atta-wa-gun - -
Atta-thow-ki! - -

Atté-mishi-ka-té-u -
Atté-mi-shé-u - -
Atikh-té-u - -
Atisum - - -
Int/atisain
Atima-ow - -
Int/atima-ow - -
Ing’atima-ow -
Int’atimilk - -
Int’atimahuk - -
Atimi-thowuk
Attohu - - -
Int’attohun - -
Ki-wi-au-toté mémi-
tin.
A-wuss; a-wussete! -

EK
E-atchi-inyu-wikk -
Ek-kwa - - -
Epetche- -kishi-wtkk -
Eskann-shi-ka-un -
Eskwai-atch-tchi-

tchan.
Esputtinow 3 - -

Ethik-kwatin - -
Ethiko-pew - -
Ethikwuk - -
Etiskew - - -

E-a-ha-u; or, ya-ha-u!

Chepewyan, of Athabasca.

zethé-sekor-u-elné -
AN xX

pa-us-o-elne - -

na-seil-hitché - -

ne-etel - - =
hung-ya; huya~s-
hong-she-a_- -
é-hul-ana - -
e-walasna - -
na-inni!
na-ukh-uneuza?- -
yu - = -
sel-honninné !- -
Honneé - - -
necha-ladi-nelthun -

neuth-lurth - .

udedza - - -
uridza - - -
ne-ni-esha = - -

ben-nisha-lillé -

nar-helteth - -
tchirr-ilté - -
tehirr-esté - -
et-te-to-tin-in-uste-

nuse! = - -

et-dunni-’tinneé -
yah - - -
yelkon - - -
edte-thidzi =
tinne-la-dthaille- dzilla

kokkarritha - -

ne-edja - - -
tchanti - - -
ekei-ghe - -
ey! - - -

VOCABULARY.

391

English.

be on your guard against
me.

I will be on my guard
against him.

he gives a side glance to a

girl.

it is br oad.

he is wise or knowing.

he is wise or prudent.

he is abstemious.

he labours.

I labour,

barter! trade!

will you barter ?

goods for trade.

tell a story or fable.

a story.

he grows bigger.

it grows bigver.

it Is ripe or * mellow.

she dyes or tinges it.

I dye it.

he overtakes.

I overtook him.

I will overtake him.

he overtook me.

he overtook me (by water).

they fly from us (birds).

he is choking.

I am choking.

I wish to be your friend.

keep off! let me alone!

Indians of a strange nation.
a louse.

dawn of day.

a horn comb.

the last or little finger.

high ground; a bank (une
cote). ‘

hoar frost —hoar frost.

hoar frost — rimy.

ants.

foot-mark or track of an
animal.

ha! (inter).

392 VOCABULARIES

OF NORTH AMERICA.

Cree, of Carlton House.

E-a-kusin ; thah-kusin
E-apitch - - -

Eka - -
Epetche- Hachiak
Ekushi-kak -
Kishi- kow ; kisgow
E kospi; €g-guspi
K-okwo-pukku -
Eskwai-atch
Espimmi-sik
Espimmik
Etakkusik -
Ethipinné-ok-tapo-an
Etippiskak —- -

A

E-aske-u = -
Int’e-askann - -
Ekau-witha! -
Entau-wi - -
E-ukh-tinne-gate-u -

E-ukhte-nammuk~ -
E-ukhte-num - -
Ne-ukhte-nain - -
Etapoy-ikhta - -
Ethepo-akwow; nepo-
akwow ; athin-ni-
sew.
Ey-thin-akhték -

Ey-thin-attu-shiship -
Ey-thinni-kannu-she-u
Ey-thinni-mina -
Ey-thinni-pithey-u_ -
Ey-thin-yu (P. ey-
thin-yu-wtkk).
Int’ey-apa-huk -

Tans-ey-sinikassort ?

Tans-ey-sini-kassu-
yun ?

Tanna-si-te-kateg-
oma ?

Init. I. sounded as ee.

[-a-pit - -
Kah-nup-ate-i-a- cenit -

Chepewyan, of Athabasca.

nedtha -
Ned-tarrilla

Na teillé

hila -

dzithé -

dziné -

klasing-tingé-
ashmoh = -
no-onte = -
i-yaze-beke -
beké - -
the-dzini-ghe
oti-a-elthe -
hedkléghe —-
Dza-kin -
dza-kin-nannelya -

<
S)
_e
a
©.
1 i

peta-harelta; peta-ha-
elta.
peta-klell

bethna-ilkis
huya -

eln - - -

tchith-tcho
ultai-ye

*dtinne -

etla-hulye? - -
ey-la-hunlye ? -

nakith - - -

English.

light.

not heavy.

still; quiet.

it stirs not.

not.

as the day was coming.
by day.

the day.

at that time.

only that.

last.

a little above.

above.

yesterday.

truly.

by night.

beaver lodge.

he breaks up a beaver lodge.
I break up a beaver lodge.
do not!

go and open it.

it is opened.

open ye it.

he opened it.

I opened it.

mix it stir it.

he is wise — knowing.

small spruce fir (Abies bal-
samea).

stock duck (Anas boschas).

a pike or jack.

bilberries.

Canada grouse.

an Indian of the speaker’s
nation.

he made my eye ache by a
blow.

what is his name ?

what is your name ?

«

how do you call this ?

he has an eye on one side.

CHEPEWYAN VOCABULARY.

393

Cree, of Carlton House.

Tann-ike? - -

Tann-ikh-té-an? = -
Isté-kwa-nan; usté-
kwan ; mistekwan.
Int’istekwanan -
Niste-kwan = - -
Uta-petche-itote! -
Neté-itoté! = - -
Tanti-wy-i-tukh-te-

an?

TCH.

Tehakkatinow - -
Techi-ké-kum - -
Tchi-tche - -

Tchi-ka-égan - -
Tchi-ka-égan-akhtik
Tchetik-sa-égan -

Tche-man
Tchi-pai (P. 5 tikk)
Tchi-pai-tiktim -

Tchi-pai-tikk (dance
of the dead).
Petipan - - -
O-wanni-wagan -
Tchis-a-wan - -
Tchis-ke-pi-son -
Tchis-ta-ba-sun -
Tchista-se-powin —-
Tchista-ka-we-sew -
Tchista-ka-nan-wi-
ship.
Tchistem-ow - -
Tchimm-ashén -
Tchuk-tchuk-athu ;
tehuk-tehuk-ai-u.
Tchika-wa-sis - -
Tchi-kima - -
Tchi-kima-numma ?
Tchi-ka-ka-win -
’Tchist ! tchiste ! -
Techtippasis —- -
N’tcha-ka-pai-huk — -

N’tcha-ka-pi-chi-nin

Chepewyan, of Athabasca.

eta an fe te -

eda - - -

zedthi-ey- a- .
zedthi = - -
é-o-kii-si! .

é-o-kt-si-nék- iltkh !
etla-se-nek-iltkh ? -

shethi-azé = -

shith = - - -
tinnila-theyl 1é (man’s
toe).
thell; kong-kwi -
thell-tchinne - -
klell-thelth ; thléh-
kon.
tsi; alle - -
ethi-a - - -
né-elkai - -
yel-kon - -
pernatal - -

dza-thulth - -
pan-neyla; luneylé-
pe-o-koyl = -
ther-onna -
el-karré (pine- ap
duck)

sel-tu-ye - -
ned-tu-a - -
tadzon-zellé -

yaze (few) - -
ta-tu-ahaddeé - -
ta-tu? - - -
ne-o-ka - -
*tehu! - - -
pei-ya-thi = - -
dzénoy-inke - -

dzé-noy-cke - -

English.

what is the matter ?
what is the matter with you?
the head.

my head aches.

my head.

come hither!

go there or thither!
where are you going ?

a knoll; small hill.
a wart.
a finger.

a hatchet.
a hatchet helve.
a gun flint.

a canoe.

a dead body; the deceased.

you dead dog! an oppro-
brious epithet.

Aurora borealis.

dawn of day.

dusk of the evening.
a hash, or haggis.

a garter.

a button; an anchor.
a fork.

a wasp.

a teal (Anas discors).

tobacco.
it is short.
a blackbird (Scolephagus).

not many.

true, truly; verily.

do you doubt it? it is true.

close to the shore.

hist! listen! look!

below ; underneath.

he poked it (a finger or
stick) into my eye.

it has run into my eye (a
stick)

394

Cree, of Carlton House.

Tchep-wow - -

Tches-kwa ; tchés-
kwa-pitta !

Tchitchei-mi-ktskwe-

su.
Tehika-ai-ge-u -
Ne-tchika-iggan —-
Tchi-ke-si-se-u -

Tehi-ké-si-se-i-wukk

Techi-kwa-ha-meé-u -

Inga-tchi-kwa-hain -
Tchi-pe-ttikk-wow -
Ni-ghe-tchi-pusti-ha-u
Wa-was-ki-shu -
Oya-peyu-mus-tus -
Nosia-mustus - =
Wa-pis-tann - -
Si-kak - - -
Si-ku-sew; sigus -
Winusk - - -
Winuste-key - =
Wapusk - - =
Apek-ku-sis - -
Shi-shi-pise —- -
Key-ask; kai-ask -

Okkau; uka_ - -
Miki-sew - -
Aha-sew - - -

Ottoni-bis - -
Namay-pith - -
O-wi-pi-tchi-sis -
Nipe; nipi - -
The-kwus-kwun -
Kusku-wtntsk- -
Kishi-kau ; kis-gau ;
wa-pan.
Ki-ki-ship - -
Apikh-tow-kishi-kau
(middle-day).
Pakkisimu (sun-set) -
Tippis-kak ; tippiskau
Mistiko-tcheman = -
Wini-pegh -
Thaka-stimmun-aigan.
Paské-ségotin-nis —-

Kitche-kuman - -

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

Chepewyan, of Athabasca.

kai-intchuthé -

karre! - - -
pé-’kunne-neltu-yé

thelth-ta-nai-ilkh-
thelth.

thelth-ta-nai-ilkh-thell

dzeré-hai-éllé -

belekh-hered-ye_ -

tell-klikk
thilk-tas

tsé-thil - - -
ettirre-ya-ne - -
ettirre-su-ta-ha -
tha - - -
nult-si-ai
del-kathlei - -

tel-leh - - -
sass-del-gai_ - -
tlunne - - -
elgarré - - -

bess-gai-€—- -
Kallei - - -
Bekh-hulla_ - -
ettchu-e - -
ded-donné-tcho -
dadsang - =
thé-tchuthe
till-tulei - -
thlu-dathé = - -
tu; to - = =

kothé - - -

kambi - - ~
tsindéssai - .

tehilsin - -
tetsin-tsi - -
tu-tcho - - -
tsini-ball - -
telgurthe-yaze =
béss-tcho - -

English.

it tapers.
wait! wait a little!

he or it has short nails.
he hews with a hatchet.

I hew with a hatchet.

he plays at draughts.

they play at draughts.

he crumbles the leaves
(rubs them to powder).

I will crumble the leaves.

it is light blue.

I put it with my arrow.

the wapiti.

bison bull.

bison cow.

a marten.

a skunk.

an ermine.

a marmot or spermophile.

a Quebec marmot.

white bear.

a mouse.

a teal.

a gull.

a plover.

Salmo mackenzii .

Dore.

an eagle.

an American crow.

Coregonus artedi (Tullibee)

Catastomus.

Hiodon.

water.

it is cloudy.

clouds.

day ; day-light.

morning.
noon.

evening.

night.

a boat.

the sea.

a sail.

a pistol.

a sword (big knife).

Cree, of Carlton House.

Tappis-ka-gan -

Mokasin ; muskesin
Tippiska-wi ’peshim

Kesik ; kishik -

Pinasi-wuk

Wa-waskhsta-punu ;

owa-samusk.

Kunu; koni -

Miskwumi

Piki-se-u (tt is foggy)

Utin; thow-tin
Atchimow

Ni-ku-mun~= -
Mitzu- - -
Wappamow -

DOG-RIB VOCABULARY.

ke -
eltsi -
yaha -
edihi -

= yath “
-|ti-enn -
etzil -
Hothin -
Nahalgi
-|niltsi -
-| yalthi -
Netghin
-|tchéli -
-{etethi -

kothi-ghirre

tsinago-thethi-

Chepewyan, of Athabasca.

English.

a handkerchief.
a shoe.

the moon.

the sky.
thunder.
lightning.

snow.
ice.

fog.
frost.
thaw.
wind.

to speak.
to sing.
a song.
to eat.
to see.

395

Ureltha-nelsi - -

to Lear from you.

Su-sinneé

a great happiness.

The following words of Dog-rib were collected by my-

self at Fort Confidence.

The want of a good interpreter

caused me to discontinue the formation of a vocabulary of

this dialect.

Dog-Rib Vocabulary.

Dog- Rib, of Fort

English. Confidence.

A kettle - - | tille.
Large ditto - | tillé-tcho.
Little ditto - | tille-yaze.
Fire - - | kun.
Fire wood - | sus.
Gunpowder - | tel-kithe-ktn.
Shot - - | tel-kithé-ka.
Shot-pouch - | tel-ketha.
Ball - - | tel-kethi-tcho.
No meat! - | par-ulla!
Dried ribs of rein-) Atcharna; et-

deer. chanka.
Water - - | to.
A tin pan - | thai.

A coat, or capot |

i.

English.

Dog-Rih, of Fort
Confidence.

A blanket

Indian hose
Hair -
The beard

A crooked knife

A knife -

A knife sheath
A fork -
Snow
Smoke

A stone
A brisket

The shoulder

zidda (tzud-di-e,
Mr. O Brian).

thelth.

theo-ya.

tarra.

bess-ha.

bess,

bess-the,

pakwa.

tzill ; tchill.

thiet.

thai.

ana-rane ; ei yid-
da.

ak-kanna.

396

English.

Leg bone or
knuckle.

A firebrand -

A tent - -

Tent poles -

Transverse poles
to hang meat
upon.

Tent door - -

Leathern door for
tent.

Dressed leathern
blanket.

A spark from the
fire.

Rein-deer tongue

Deer-skin hose -

Breeches - -

Deer head -

A shoe - -

Cloth worn by
men round the
middle.

A bag - -

A hatchet - -

A spoon - -

Dog-Rib, of Fort
Confidence.

ak-kai-tchinna.

halai-kun.
nepalle.
thai-é.
taneé-al.

ku-latche.
thidai-nepalle.

tel.
kantida.

et-thu.
et-thidda.
thlai-i.
et-thi.
ku.

than.

naltche ; klelthe.

thelth.
thlus, or slus.

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

English.

A file - -

Pole for hanging
a kettle upon.
Buttons - -

Mittens - -
The head - -
The nose = -
The knee - -

An encampment

The encampment
is distant.

The encampment
is near.

A warm woollen
collar; a com-
forter.

One - - -

Two - - -

Three - -

Four - -

Five - -

Six - - -

Seven - -

Kight - -

Nine - -

Ten - - -

Dog-Rib, of Fort
Confidence.

koketha.
telle-kaiza.

pai-illa.

gis.

ta.

tinnetze.
et-thétha.
zutes.
in-tu-é-zutes.

thi-si-té-zutes,

kow-i-tchitha.

*nthlaré.
nakhke.
khtarre.
"tinge.
zazunlarre.
elkatharre.
nthlazintinge.
alkatinge.
*nthla-otta.
*nthla-una.

The vocabularies which follow were made by gentle-

men whose system of orthography varies more or less from
that adopted in the preceding pages. The dialects of the
Dog-ribs who resort to Great Bear Lake, and of those
who hunt on Marten Lake and visit Fort Simpson, differ
little when spoken, and offer no difficulty to an interpreter
who is acquainted with either; but many of the words have
a very different aspect when written in English characters ;
and these tables may serve to illustrate a remark made in
a preceding page respecting the difficulty which an En-
glish ear experiences in apprehending the sounds of the
The Kutchin words collected by Mr.
M*‘Murray, though not numerous, show a close afhnity

Tinné languages.

between the language spoken by that people and the

DOG-RIB VOCABULARY.

397

Tinné, and will perhaps be considered as a proof of the
common origin of the Tinné and the Kolush tribes down
to the 54th parallel of latitude.

English.
Head -
Neck -
Tongue -
Eyes .
Ears -
Nose -

Cheeks, chin
Shoulders -

Thighs -
Brisket -
Rump -
Belly .
Hands -
Feet - -
Fingers -
Nails -
Teeth -
Brain -
Liver -
Heart -
Blood -
Skull -
Entrails -
Udder; milk
Butter -
Flour -
Sugar -
Tea - -
Pepper -
Medicine -
Paper -

Dog-Rib.

bet-thi.
bdi-korh.
eth-thadu.
mendi,
hed-ze-gai.
mi-gou.
mi-ta.
ai-kon-nai.
ed-zaddai.
a-ethin.
etchin-nai.
be-tchuki.
mila.
ak-kai.
mila-tchinnai.
mila-konnai.
baighu.
bet-the-ghu.
et-hut.
ed-zai.
et-tillai.
et-thi-thu-ine.
et-sl-ai.
et-tuzal.
edgiddai-thlissai
hatai-kotliss.
suka.
suka-tu (sugar
water).
tenni-tsi.
na-diddu.
eddithi.

English.
Go! - =
Come! - -
Take! - -
Cut! = =
Bring! - -
Hunt! ~ -
Large - -
Small - =
Long - -
Short - -
Far - - -
Near = .
Cry! - -
Laugh! - -

Speak! or talk!

How many? -
What do you

want ?

Heavy - -
Light - -
High - -
Low - -
Good - -
Bad - = -
Fat - -
Lean - =
Eat ! - -
Drink! ~- -
Smoke! - -
Sleep! - -
Give! - =
Tell!

Dog-Rib.

aga!

ya-kusi!
hi-tcho !
bekan-néthu !
si-nekai.
no-sai.
nai-tcha.
ti-ula.
nundeth.
nundeth-helai.
nitha.

wha-yai.

azel!
mena-thi-ukla !
betha!
tanna-itai ?
addow-adlis ?

tai-it.
naikel-helai.
yu-te-gai.
u-al.
naisou.
tlenai.
tlaika.
tlaika-helai.
shanai-tai !
ath-uluston !
ustud !
notai!
mi-ne-kai!
adin-dai !

The above vocabulary was formed, I believe, at Fort
Simpson, by one of the Hudson’s Bay officers for his own
use; but, having forgotten to note the circumstances
under which it was drawn up, I can give no further
information regarding it.

398 VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

A VocasuLary OF Fort Simpson Doa-Ris, sy Mr. O'Brian, oF
THE Hupson’s Bay Company.

Dog-Rib.;j English. Dog-Rib. English.
Edza-zinné - | Tetrao umbellus. | Noga = - | wolverene.
Tih - - - | Tetrao canadensis.| Kling - - | dog.
Bet-theu_ - - | owl. Tzus - - | wood fire.
Thlu-ai- - | Coregonus albus. | Tai-tchin - - | trees.
Samba - trout. Tzu - pine-tree.
Kaze - salmon. Ki = birch.
Tsai-teu - Back’s grayling. | Sinnai — - I.
Tai-tellai - Catastomus. Tlinnai- thou
Klogai- squirrel. Ottinai- he.
Emmu-i-u-ai Columba migra- |Ige - - it.

toria. Edetata—- yes.
Khun - fire. Helai; Odelis no.
‘uy = = water. Id-zeunai - to-day.
Techon - rain. Kambai_ - to-morrow.
Yah - - snow. Zeunai—- day.
Teu - - ice. Tethi - night.
Sa - 5 sun. Yakh-kai - winter.
Tethi-sa_ - moon. Klukai—- spring
Thi-u - stars. Senai - summer.
Kose - clouds. Ai-tonkai - autumn.
E-tu-ai- girl. Tai-chin-ala boat.
Ah - - snow-shoes. Ki-ala - canoe.
Kai - - shoes. Tami = net.
Whoghi_ - snare. Tau-ai-on full.
Thai - sinew. Tu-tai- empty.
Do: = - now. Tlon = plenty.
Ye-won - then. Hulai - none.
Tau-dezzei half. Tzuddi-é - a blanket.
Mal-lionai rings. Tai-si-ai - a shirt.
Hai-ai - trowsers. Ed-geid-dai a powder-horn.
Memba-ulai waistcoat. Mad-deli buttons.
‘Esi, = - vermilion. Thai-on-tithel thread.
Sat-su-wal wire snare. Et-thai-ai scissors.
Sas - - black bear. Meni-di-e-dai looking-glass.
Sa-tai-kuzé brown bear. Ai-tchusai beads.
Tsa - - beaver. Ai-tai - ice chisel.
Tsa-thu-ai castoreum. Bai-huch - crooked knife.
Tai-tchesi mink. Bai-chin-ai-i clasp.
Tzin - musk-rat. Bed-do-ai-du pot.
Te-ki - wolf. Tha - - pan.

‘““ MAUVAIS MONDE” VOCABULARY.

399

The following vocabulary of the language of a tribe
dwelling near the sources of the River of the Mountains,
and known to the voyagers by the name of ‘ Mauvais
Monde,” and of the Dog-rib dialect, was drawn up by
Mr. O'Brian, of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s service.

Mauvais Monde.

Thelgai
Olki-e

Ta-dette
Tinghi

Sazelli

Et-seu-ti -
Thlad za-di-e
Et-zan-di-e

Et-thlei-hu-lai
Ken-na-tai -
E]-lai-zai *

Bai-ka -
Ni-tai-ton -
Ai-tai-kai -
Et-ton-nai -
E-tha-thai-on
Utha - -

Thei - -
Ai-tchut -
Bess - -

Ta-chill-ai
Kestu-ai
Theth

Kothegettai
Set-tsa-tai -
Hai - -
A-tai-kai-tenney
Ta-ti-e -

Thai-ka -
Et-hai-ai =
E-kadzi -

Ai-kathai-tai
Klai-si
U-thai
Ustaidge
Ustai -
Kasho
Wollon

Dog-Rib, or Slave.

thli-e
olki-e
fi=eee =
tinghé - -
sazelli ; lakithe, the han
et-seu-ti - -
han-die -
et-zan-di-e -
ethli-e-houlai
O-nal-u-non
tel-kithi-kun
tel-kithi-tcho
thai-thi
sel-tu-e
tel-kithé
hai-ko
tiu-ni-e
thei -
al-tcehut
bess =
et-ley-nai
al -
theth -
Edgiddai
ko-the-gat
tsa -
kun -
seltu-tenne
ta-ti - -
ko-kassé =
baith-laika -
kud-dai -
sa-kathai-tai
sa-tai-kai
no-githi
no-ta =
no-thai
nom-be-ai
teu-di-e

CUimet cat yet Vim omelet Whe Chel Semen fhm POUR Year Vimy Tar Wd iment ae Trae mee eer Tae Moi Me AICS OU) el We od Vga Tie.) L)

d

SP eee ire ie een ' 0) MMe lg Cee Ce Cee nS) cee

English.

one.

two.

three.

four.

five.

Six.

seven.

eight.

nine.

ten.
gunpowder.
ball.

shot.
tobacco.

gun.
oun-flint.
kettle.

axe.

awl.

knife.

cloth (strouds).
coat (capot).
leggings ; also a belt.
powder-horn.
handkerchief.
bonnet-cap.
fire-steel.
tobacco-box.
needle.

file.

scissors.
gun-worm.
garters.

grey bear.
fox.

lynx.

marten.
otter.

male moose-deer.

* This word is used also by the Beaver and Thekanné Indians,

400

Mauvais Monde.

Intsei - =
Wod-su-tchu .
W od-su-mon-bed-sai
Kag-kalai - -

Ogha-tchai - -
Ea-sai - -
U-ta-dja- -
Niton - -
Setsa-on = - -
Te-sonnai - -
Klu-chu-i-nai -
Sunbaddei - -

Dog-Rib, or Slave.

teu-di-etse - -
bed-su - -
bed-su-tsi - -
kam’ba - =
ogha - - -
tai-tonna-tcho -
Uti - -
monalla - -
tchikwe - -
tehillawe - -

bai-tchinai
dsheth - -

VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

English.

- | female moose-deer.
- | male rein-deer.

- | female rein-deer.
- | ptarmigan.

- | goose.

- | eagle.

- | pike-fish.

- | white man.

- | woman.

- | boy.

- | sled.

- | mittens.

A VOCABULARY OF CHEPEWYAN AND DoG-Ris Worps.

The Chepewyan was taken down from the mouth of the inter-

preter at Great Slave Lake.
female interpreter (Nanette) at Fort Simpson.

1844.

Toronto, March, 1850.

‘ Broad, ‘nasal, ’ guttural,

“M

The Dog-rib from that of the

The whole in
J. H. Lerroy.

“nasal and guttural.

English. Chepewyan.
Yes! - - e-h! - - ”
No! - - he-li - - -
Aman - - denne - - -
A woman ~ tza-qui-ie - -
A little girl - ett-er-e-ka - -
A boy - - tchilla-qui-ie = -

A little boy -
Father - -
Mother - -
Brother, elder -
53 younger
Sister, elder -
» younger
To-morrow -
Yesterday -
Tobacco - -
A knife - -

Agun - -

tza-qui-the - -

tza-tah - - -
en-ne - = =
tzoon-noi - -
ssa-ra - - -
kom pee - -
ou-ah-ta-tzenke -
tza-twe - - -
pa-as - - -

thel-ki-the - -

Dog-Rib.

he-li.

tchel-a-qui.
tzek-qui.
tzek-qui-azze.
tenai-u.
tenai-u-azze.
tza-tah.

en-ne.

tzoon-nol.
tzachilli.

sa-rah, or tza-rah.
sa-tez-zah, or tza-tazze.
koume.

ye-hho-a.

tza-twe.

pa-as.

qua-ka- he.

CHEPEWYAN AND DOG-RIB VOCABULARIES.

401

English. Chipewyan. Dog-Rib.
Anaxe - - - | than-thye - - | qua-a-qui.
Gunpowder - - | thel-ki-the-conne — - | thi-ke-e-conné.

Ball - - - | thel-ke-the- ou - | the-ke-e-chou.
Air - - - | nutze - - | e-at-ti-ge.
Fire - - - | kkon - - - | kkon.
Water - - =| tto, = - = - | two.
Earth - - - | wa-kklas - - - | ko-eccla
A fish - - -|clou-a = - - | clou-a
Adog - - - | Gling - - - | Gle.
ANS - - | no-ki-ki-the = - - | e-et- tha-tha.
A buffalo, masculine - | et-cherre - - | et-cherri.
. feminine - - - - - ettzae.
Rein-deer - - | eet-than - - - | et- -thun (ettzae, f.).
A moose - - - | den-nee - - - | denne-a.
Snow shoes - -|ah-he - - - | a-e.
Asled - - - | beth-chin-ne - - | ba-chen-ne.
A kettle - - - | tille - - - | than-ne.
Evening - - -|eetzson - - - | eya-kka-ezza.
Morning - -| kompe - - - | sa-tcho.
Colours — Black - | tel-zonne - - | ta-zun.
: white - | tel-ka-ye - - | tel-ka.
re red - | tel kkosse - - | et-tel-kkos.
- ereen - | ta-ecloze - - | ta-eck-cles.
5 blue - | not distinguished from | ten-é-cle.
black.
“A yellow -/|tel-thoi - - - | tel-thoi.
The sun - - -| ssa - - - - | ssa.
The moon - - | et-cha-aza - - | tthe-tha-za.
A star - - | thun - - - | thun.
(The Great Bear) - | (ya-ee-telli) - - | (ya-tha).
English. Dog-Rib. English. Dog-Rib.
Snow - ~ | yya. Good . - | naa-zo.
Ice - - | t-than. Bad - - | naa-zo-heli;
Numerals—1_ - | en-¢lai. dzoun-de.
a 2 =| na-kka. Beautiful - - | bur-a-oonde3;
” 3 - | tta-rgha. tzoo-na-e-ti.
” 4 -| tting. Ugly - - | pa-chi-ri.
» 5 - | sa-soo-la. Large - - | natza-konde ; in-
= 6 -| ut-ke-ttai. cha.
» 7 -| kkosing-ting. Small - - | tzoo-ta.
” 8 - | etzenting. Heavy - - | net-ta; hinka.
” 9 - | kka-hooli. Light - - | hin-ka-he-li.
a 10 =| ho-nanna. Dark - - | tel-zen.
” 20 =| nou-nanna. Bright =< - | atz-za.
WAG 1BL DD

402 VOCABULARIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

English.
Low -
High - -
Hard -
Soft -
New -

Old -
Dear (beloved)

Wise -
Foolish = -
Strong -
Weak -
Right -
Left - -
My friend
My companion
Head -
Eyes -
Nose -
Mouth -
Ears -
Hair -
Tongue -
Teeth -
Neck -
Arm -
Hand -
Foot =
Legs -
Canoe paddle
Here -
There -

Where? -

Dog-Rib.

ne-otzin-ik.
tan-ne-e-tha.
taa-y-eet.
taa-yeet-heli.
e-e-yes-e.
e-e-ranna.
The word un-
known to the
language.*
koo-rac-yon.
na-a-ghal.
na-tZ-ap.
pa-a-ttha-to-
rghelli,
nochnesse.
intzesse.
tza-teleg-ga.
tza-onenya.
tzat-the.
tzen-nhae.
tze-etze.
tze-thd.
setz-r-rgha.
setz-thé-rgha.
tze-tthou.
tze-w-who ?
tze-e-e-cottle.
tze-int-chinne.
ssa-la.
tze-ka.
tze-thunna,
ola; tho.
d-jahn.
a-c-ya.
djahn-tin ?

English.

When = 5
Which = -
What? - -
To me - -

Tohim - -
To you - -
To us - -

I don’t
stand,
Idon’t speak Cree

under-

I won't give it
you.
I will give it to

you.

What shall I give
you for this ?
Take care =
Make haste -
Get out ( va t’en)
Whereis it? -
Carry this for me
Don’t touch that

What do you
want ?
What do you

want for this ?
Give me a piece
of tobacco.
T have no tobacco

Hold this -
Whose is this ?

Dog-Rib.

kkonde.
mee.
et-cloy ?
tzen-ez-etze.
ne-ghon-em-etze.
ne-nin-etze.
e-e-cla-toon-nim-
etze.
ne-ad-‘hear-des-
tha-helili.
(same sentence
taken down).
na ‘rha tchou-heli.

na ‘rha ochou-
eze

than-etcha-na-rha-

ocla-haze ?
ca-re.
aga-annite.
or-rhink-la.
ye-in-kon-ecla ?
sse-ragh-di-ach.
perrone-te-sonna.
na-nu-at-cloy ?

etcha-nette-ousa-
nousa-ou-sinne ?
tza-twe-tza-gan-
a-two.
tza-twe-ta-0o-
twe.
Ou-net-ton.
me-etze-hande ?

* T endeavoured to put this intelligibly to Nanette, by supposing such an

expression as ma chere femme, ma chere fille.
stood it, her reply was (with great emphasis) : “T° dit jamais ga.
femme, ma fille.”

When at length she under-

T dit ma

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. & IL.

No. 1.

Plates I. and II. represent impressions of fossil leaves
found in a bed of potter’s clay, belonging to a tertiary
lignite deposit near the mouth of Bear Lake River, de-
scribed in vol. i. p. 190. of the narrative. The leaves
must have been very numerous, and were evidently depo-
sited quietly from water turbid with fine potter’s clay,
which forms the matrix. By the spontaneous burning of
the adjacent seams of lignite, the fossiliferous layer has
been subjected to heat of varying intensity, so that some
portions are semi-vitrified and rendered hard enough to
resist a file, while the greater part is in the condition of
moderately baked porcelain biscuit, and in some few
specimens the clay is but slightly altered.

The impressions only, and none of the substance of the
leaves remain; and owing to fusion of the leaves at their
margins from pressure, and the cracking of the clay matrix
from heat, none of the impressions of the larger leaves are
perfect in their outlines, though portions of the surface
are very delicately rendered so that the minute nervation
is distinctly shewn, and the existence of pubescence may
be made out.

Table 1. fig. 2. is a representation of the impression of a
twig which has the character of Tazites acicularis, (Brong-
niart Prodr. 108, and “ Descript. Geol. des Environs de
Paris, p. 362., t. ii. f. 13.” Tazites foliis subdistichis,
linearibus obtusis). The leaf is scarcely half the length
of that of Taxus baccata, and is decidedly smaller than

DD 2

404 EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND II.

that of T. canadensis, beng generally about 0:44 inch in
length and about one-fifth part as wide ; or, more precisely,
the breadth of the lamina is 0:09 inch, which is somewhat
broader in proportion than the leaf of the common yew.
The outline of the leaf is linear with a slightly lanceolate
narrowing near the apex, which is rounded without any
perceptible projection of the mid-rib. Yet though the
matrix has rendered the most delicate impressions of the
surface, an actually existing minute projection of the mid-
rib may have been obscured, owing to the convexity of the
lamina; for on making casts of the common and American
yew leaves in Paris plaster, the acute apices of the mid-ribs
were not distinctly shewn. ‘The footstalk is as short or
shorter than in the common yew, and appears to have had
the same kind of half twist which gives the distichous
direction to the leaves. The surface of the lamina is
slightly convex, with about as much recurvature of the
edges as in the Canadian yew, and there is a regular fine
undulation, or obtuse transverse wrinkling, which is per-
ceptible in all the impressions when they are examined
with a lens; but, except the straight, tapering, prominent
mid-rib, there are no veins.

Owing to the distichous attachment of the leaves, the
impressions of the adnate scales of the bark to which the
footstalks are jointed are oblique, and the proper form of
the scales is not easily determined. They do not appear,
however, to have differed greatly from those of the common
yew. ‘The elevated triangular areas shewn in the stem of .
the figure were depressions in the plant between adjacent
scales of the bark. Ina few specimens the tops of the
twigs are shewn to have had an arrangement similar to that
of the yew. Buds are numerous in the axils of the leaves of
the annotinous spray of yew, and a few impressed hollows
in the fossils may have been caused by such bodies, but
they are comparatively rare. More numerous small de-
tached bodies in the matrix may have been produced by
the berries or nuts of this plant. Five or six of the twigs

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND II. 405

terminate inferiorly in ovate or irregularly oval expansions,
which are such as a cluster of buds situated there would
produce; in only one specimen is there any appearance of
the branching of a spray, and in that the seeming branch
may be merely the impression of one twig crossing another.
Out of upwards of fifty impressions of twigs of this
Tazites, eight or ten have small round depressions on some
of their leaves, disposed sometimes in a pretty regular row
on each side of the mid-rib, but more often they are irre-
gular both in distribution and size. Now and then one or
more of the dots approaches nearer the margin of the leaf
than the others, sometimes they are seated on the mid-rib,
and occasionally one dot encroaches on another. Most of
the dots have a little pit in the centre, and their circum~
ferences more deeply impressed than the area, which is
often convex, though not raised above the impression of
the lamina. They must, therefore, have projected above
the surface of the leaf, whose cast is all that remains.
These dots bear some resemblance to the fructification of a
fern; but on exhibiting the casts to Mr. Brown, he at once
remarked the dissimilarity of the dots to sori, in their
having no perceptible connection with veins, and in the
appearance of a membranous expansion from the epidermis
covering them, which his practised eye detected. On
examining twigs of the Canadian and common yews I
observed many sphacelated dots raised more or less above
the surface of the leaves, which would make impressions
very similar to those of the fossil. The dots in the recent
plant occur more commonly on the under surface of the
leaf than on the upper one, and are generally circular,
though sometimes irregular. They are covered by the
epidermis, which in the larger dots is always ruptured in
the centre. I have not been able to discover their precise
nature; they may possibly be caused by insects, or perhaps
by the rupture of terebinthaceous collections. They do
not appear to be fungi; and when the epidermis is removed,
the minute cavity is found to be lined with indurated

DDS

4.06 EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND II.

parenchyma, which, under the microscope, exhibits cells
similar to those of the rest of the leaf.

Figures 2 and 3 are magnified, but the lithograph has
failed in truly representing the delicate undulations of the
lamina shewn in the fossil casts.

No. 2.

There are also eight or ten impressions of yew-like twigs
differing from the preceding, but none of them sufficiently
perfect to give precise characters. The leaves are narrower
than in the former species, though generally of the same
length: there is, however, more variety in this respect, the
same plant containing leaves of very different lengths. They
are narrowly lanceolate, tapering gradually from the base to
the tip, which is acute. Instead of terminating in rounded
lobes at the insertion of the footstalk, the leaf appears to
be decurrent, with the mid-rib continued into the decurrent
portion. ‘The mid-rib is slender, but distinctly impressed
throughout the whole length of the leaf; and the surface is
less evidently wrinkled transversely than in the first
species. The leaves are also more crowded and more erect,
with less of the distichous appearance, and a 3 arrange-
ment may be made out. Some of the sprigs are branched
like those of the common yew. This plant possesses the
characters of Taxites phlegethonteus of Unger (Plant. fossil.
p- 390.). Round dots also exist in the impressions of this
species, disposed as irregularly as in the preceding one, and
some are visible on the decurrent base of the leaf. Part of
these dots had in the original an elevated margin, a convex
disk, not so high as the margin, and a pointed central
point ; others have left an uniformly concave impression.

Scattered through the matrix, and often in the close
vicinity of the Yazites twigs, but only in one instance
connected with them, there are impressions of a minute
fruit, such as would be made by the nut-like seed of yew,
deprived of its outer investment and of the coloured pulpy

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND II. 407

calix. None of these impressions are, however, above one-
fourth of the size of a nearly ripe seed of the common yew.
They are compressed, ovate, and acute, without a promi-
nent point, and all of them shew a faint furrow descend-
ing on each side from the apex, more acute than the im-
pression which would be made by the slight ridges on
that part of the yew seed, which is only very slightly
compressed. Several shew indications of an imvestment
at the base, and in one impression the soft integument of
the fruit seems to have been pressed aside so as to allow a
cast to have been made of the nut within it. This pulp
enveloped the nut entirely; or, if an opening like that of
the calix of a yew-berry existed, it must have been oblite-
rated by pressure. The solitary fruit attached to a twig
of No. 1, is inclined downwards on a very short fruitstalk.

INiOneS:

Some imperfect casts also exist of a plant, most probably
belonging to the family Hricacee, and approaching nearly
to Vaccinium. Some of the casts shew a five-parted, or
five-leaved calix, composed of thick ovate acuminate sepals
meeting at the apex. In two others a berry seems to
have been crushed, leaving a flat floor of minute, very
numerous seeds, partially covered with integument or
pulp. ‘There are also impressions which may have been
produced by an urceolate corolla. These flowers grew on
short fruitstalks, springing apparently solitarily from the
axils of the leaves. As far as the form of the leaves can
be made out, they are linear lanceolate, narrow, but scarcely
acute at the point, with a concave surface and a not very
prominent mid-rib. The leaves are approximated, appa-
rently not in any regular order, applied to the stem at
their bases, and curving outwards at the tips with a
sigmoid flexure. They are rather more than a quarter
of an inch long, and the height of the swollen calix or
corolla is about as much.

pp 4

408 EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND It.

No. 4.

Plate II. is a representation of a segment of an impres-
sion of the upper surface of a palmately veined leaf, mag-
nified to rather more than twice its linear dimensions.
Though it bears a general resemblance in its nervation,
and in the areole formed by the minor reticulating veins,
to a leaf of the Maple, it differs at least as a species from
the American maples with which it has been compared.
Many small circular depressions of different sizes are irre-
gularly distributed over the surface of the leaf; the more
perfect of them are pitted by twenty or more minute
points visible by the aid of a lens; and in some the central
point is larger than the others, producing the .appear-
ance of an umbo, as in the dots of the Tavzites figured
in Plate I. These depressions were of course produced by
bodies rising above the surface of the leaf and rough with
little points; their unequal dispersion on the leaf, much
of whose surface was smooth, is against their having been
produced by hairy glands, and they were most probably
moulded on fungi growing on the leaf. There are also
some smaller and deeper depressions, most frequent towards
the upper part of the leaf, but considerably less numerous
than the larger shallow ones. Two other fragments of im-
pressions, seemingly of the same kind of leaf, have footstalks
not complete, but exceeding an inch in length. One of
these, representing the upper surface of the leaf, has a few
circular depressions of both kinds; on the other, which is
an impression of the under surface of the leaf, there are no
depressions.

None of the impressions are so complete as to give
the whole outline of the leaf. The base runs at right
angles with the footstalk, and is entire for nearly an inch,
beyond which it is rounded off and crenated by almost
semicircular, minutely apiculated teeth, separated from one
another by very acute sinuses. The leaf appears at first

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND II. 409

sight to be three-ribbed, the central nerve or mid-rib being
straight, and the one on each side curved, so that if pro-
longed they would meet the central one at the point were
the impression complete. There are, however, in fact seven
nerves springing together from the footstalk, the lower
pair having less prominence and more the character of the
secondary veins; the next pair are but little smaller than
the three principal ones. On the upper surface of the
lamina the main veins were concaye, while the impressions
of their under surfaces are sharp and rectangular. The
secondary veins and ultimate reticulations were prominent
on both sides of the leaf. The minute areole are plain
and smooth, and there is no indication of any pubescence
in the axils of the veins.

Impressions of leaves from the coal beds of the Raton,
in lat. 373° N., long. 1043° W., (vide New Mexico by
Emery, Abert, Cooke, and Johnston, p. 522., plate), re-
semble this species, but are too imperfect for identifica-
tion.

No. 5.

An impression of a smaller leaf than the preceding is so
like it in the character of the veins, ultimate reticulations,
and general surface, that, but for a little difference in the
crenatures of the margin, they might be pronounced without
hesitation to be of the same species. The outline is sub-
rotund, transverse at the base near the footstalk, and appa-
rently entire there, crenated more irregularly and with
generally smaller teeth than the preceding on the sides;
and entire near the tip, which is deficient in the specimen.
The diameter of the lamina of this specimen is an inch and
a half. It exhibits none of the round dotted depressions,
but there are some of the irregular clusters of little pits
on different parts of the surface which exist in the speci-
men figured in Plate II. and in some other casts.

410 EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND II.

No. 6.

Another palmately-veined leaf differs from the pre-
ceding ones in the areolez being concave above or puckered
from the tightness of the veins, and in its margin being
sharply toothed and irregularly crenated. Only one impres-
sion of this leaf exists in the collection, and that is imper-
fect, there not being enough of it to indicate the form
of the outline. It does not appear, however, to have been
lobed. The diameter of the lamina is scarcely two inches.

No. 7.

There is still another palmately-veined leaf very dif-
ferent in form from any of the others. It is one-third
wider than it is long, and seems to have been rounded at
the apex, which is, however, narrower than the widely
rounded sides. The base is cut horizontally, and is very
entire. The sides are tooth-crenated, the teeth being seg-
ments of circles, and the crenatures acute, but not deep.
The footstalk is slender, and the primary veins, none of
which are straight, are still more so. They spring five
together from the footstalk; the lower pair being smaller
than the other three, and the mid-rib largest. They are
all branched, and the ultimate reticulations are polygons
of very irregular shape. The areole are smooth and flat.
The length of this leaf is rather more than an inch.

No. 8.

The fourth palmate leaf, of which there is a definite im-
pression, is subrotund, and about an inch and a half long,
with a very entire, or at the most slightly undulated, mar-
gin. More than an inch of slender footstalk remains. The
base is horizontal, with a minute curvature downwards, or
decurrence where it joins the footstalk, then it is widely

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND II. 411

rounded into the slightly concave sides, and rounded again
towards the point which is deficient. Five principal veins
originate from the footstalk, the lower pair, which run
near the margin of the lamina, being less conspicuous than
the other three. The mid-rib is straight, the vein on each
side of it curved in the segment of a circle; so that were
the leaf complete, the three would be found to meet at the
point, as in No.4. Numerous curving and forking branches
spring from all. The areole are of very various sizes, and
their surfaces, when viewed with a microscope, are seen to

be minutely granular, indicating minute pits in the upper
side of the leaf.

No. 9.

Impressions of a penniform leaf resembling that of
Morus alba in its general outline and the character of its
veins, are pretty numerous. Both surfaces seem to have
been quite smooth, there being no evidences of the exist-
ence of any pubescence. The central nerve or mid-rib,
and the primary lateral ones, are very distinctly impressed
in the matrix; and the connecting ones of the second order,
which run from one lateral branch to another, are more
conspicuous than those of the mulberry. They vary, from
being almost straight and parallel to each other, to a
ereater or less degree of curvature, or even a pointed arch,
in the middle of their length, and towards the margin of
the leaf are branched and pass gradually into reticulations.
The minor veins are much less prominent, and form minute
meshes of no uniform shape, but generally oblong, and from
four to eight-sided, having a strong resemblance to those of
the mulberry. The minute areas are flat and smooth. The
lateral veins spring from the mid-rib in pairs, but, except
at the base of the lamina, not exactly opposite to each other.
From the footstalk two lateral branches spring together
with the mid-rib, forming, as in the mulberry, a triple-
ribbed leaf; but there is a greater fulness of the lamina

412 EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND It.

there, and the nervation differs from that of the mulberry
in that part, in two or sometimes three veins of smaller
size originating also from the mid-rib or footstalk to supply
the base of the leaf. Five, or sometimes six veins may,
therefore, be said to spring from the top of the footstalk,
the lower ones being secondary as to size. In the leaf
of the mulberry, these smaller basal veins are branches of
the lateral veins. No entire impression exists. The largest
fragment must have belonged to a leaf between seven and
eight inches long. The general outline seems to have
been cordate, with the lobes at the base full and perhaps
overlapping, and the apex acute, but not acuminate as
in the mulberry. The margin is serrato-dentate above,
and simply undulated, or nearly even, at the base. The
teeth are generally semi-ovate with a little point, or mam-
millate as in the mulberry, but are not so closely set. They
are somewhat unequal in size, and occasionally denticulate,
a larger tooth being notched by a single smaller one. In
some specimens the sinuses between the teeth are acute,
but more generally they are obtuse. This is one of the
most common leaves in the deposit, and one impression of
it often succeeds another in layers thinner than common
writing paper, and so blended together at the margins of
the leaves that the impressions cannot be obtained perfect.

Fig. 1. Plate I. is intended to represent a small frag-
ment of this leaf, drawn of the natural size, but the dis-
tinction between the secondary transverse veins and their
minor ramifications has not been maintained in the figure
as to size, nor are the ultimate veins shown. The tecth
are more obtuse in the side of the cast which has been
drawn than they appear in the layer which was removed
from it, owing to the way in which the matrix has adhered
at that part; but it would appear that some of the leaves
varied in having more obtuse teeth, if we may judge from
two other casts very similar to this one in all other respects.
Upwards of an inch of petiole remains in some of the spe-
cimens.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND II. 413

No. 10.

There are two good impressions of another cordate leaf,
which, instead of the smooth lamina of the preceding, have
the surface densely and equally covered with pores invi-
sible to the naked eye, and which may have been produced
by a close, stiffish pubescence. The outline of the leaf
has been exactly cordate with a short acuminated point,
and the base not so full as the preceding, but rather
reniform. The point has a perfectly even edge, and the
basal lobes are also quite entire; but the rest of the mar-
gin, of which only a small part is quite complete, seems to
have been undulated, the projections not amounting to
teeth. A straight, tapering mid-rib gives off about seven
lateral branches or. each side, at an angle of about 45°, not
exactly opposite, but so approximated as to form pairs. The
lowest pair rise more nearly opposite, but are not so much
more conspicuous than the others as to give a triple-ribbed
appearance to the leaf. Some of the lateral branches fork
near their tips; they are all joined by transverse veins
similar to those of the preceding species, and the intervals
are filled up by less obvious reticulations. The lower
pair of lateral branches send ramifications downwards to
the basal lobes stronger than the ordinary connecting veins.
This leaf is about five inches in length, and of equal or su-
perior breadth. A small part of the footstalk only remains.

No: 11:

Another impression of a pennately-veined leaf presents
a distinctive character in the fine acute reticulating veins,
which are prominent in the cast of the under as well as
of the upper surface of the leaf. The areole are flat,
but traversed also by minute winding prominent veinlets,
the ultimate reticulations being very minute. In the
general character of the principal veins, this species strongly
resembles No. 10. Of the outline, not much can be said,

414 EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND II.

as only the lower half of the cast remains. About an inch
and a half of broad footstalk is met very acutely by the
cordate base of the lamina. The margin is cut by rather
large and somewhat remote acute serratures, the first of
which is about three quarters of an inch from the foot-
stalk, The under side of each tooth of the serrature slopes
gradually down to meet the much shorter upper side of
the next tooth, which stands out horizontally. Each tooth
is traversed by a vein of the third order, which ends in the
acute point. From the fragments we may estimate the
length of this leaf at five inches, and the breadth at three.

I forbear describing other fragments, which probably
represent the upper end of this leaf, as there are some
differences in the surfaces of the casts.

INo: 12:

A very sharp cast occurs among the others of the upper
part of a leaf, which in the acuteness of the veins and their
form resembles T%lia europea, while in its general outline
and rugose surface (but not in its margin) it is similar to
some of the lower leaves of Corylus avellana. The veins
meet the mid-rib in pairs, or alternately; the lower ones
are nearly straight, the upper pairs are segments of a cor-
date curve, concave upwards. ‘The veins of the next order
pass directly between the branches in a straight line, or
with a few anastomoses, and the ultimate reticulations are
minute. The lamina is prominent above, from the tight-
ness of the principal and secondary veins, and the cast of
the upper surface shows also the prominence of the minute
netting, corresponding of course to furrows in the original
leaf, so close as to give it a somewhat woolly appearance
to the naked eye. The cast of the under surface is convex
where that of the upper one is hollow, shows the ultimate
ramifications of the veins less distinctly, and is irregularly
dotted by punctures visible by aid of a lens, and which
probably had their origin in a stiff and scattered pubes-

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND IIL. 415

eence. The axils of the veins do not appear to have been
woolly. No punctures are perceptible on the cast of the
upper surface. The general contour of the end of' the leaf
is very obtuse, and as the central tooth which ought to
form the apex is broken away, we cannot determine whether
it was prolonged into an acuminated point or not. The
existing portion of the margin is tooth-crenated, the teeth
being comparatively large and obtuse, with a minute point
formed by the end of the vein which traverses each of
them. A tooth corresponds to every vein that proceeds
from the mid-rib, and the sinuses between are wide, shallow
curves.

A second east, which seems to be of the same kind of
leaf, shews the apex rounded, without other projections
than the wide and not very prominent teeth.

No, 13.

In contact with the apex of this leaf, and partly hidden
by it, there is the cast of a slender seven or eight-ribbed
fruitstalk with the upper part broken away. Globular
depressions are situated alternately on the sides of this
fruitstalk and in contact with it. They might have been
produced by sessile woolly fruits of the same form with
those of Zila europea, and about half the size, or by little
tufts of withered flowers on an interrupted spike like that
of the male florets of Castanea vesca, but each tuft con-
fined to one side of the fruitstalk, and not, as in Castanea,
verticillate. The exactly giobular form of the cavities
seems to be more accordant with the casts of a fruit, while
their rough interior must have been produced by pubes-
cence or some other inequality of surface.

No. 14.
A rugose leaf differing from No. 12.; has pointed teeth,
but the impressions are very imperfect.
VOL. If. EE

416 EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND It.

INO. 15:

There are two casts of a lanceolate penninerved leaf
having the aspect of a leaf of one of the Rhamnee. In
the outline of the lamina, and the nervation, they closely
resemble a leaf of the common Alaternus, with the excep-
tion of being only slightly crenated instead of serrated.
The greatest breadth is a little below the middle, and the
base is somewhat fuller than the apex, which is acute.
The impressions are an inch anda half long. There is a
fulness scarcely amounting to wrinkling, of the minor
meshes.

No. 16.

Is the lower half of an oval leaf resembling that of a
willow, with a margin entire, or indented only by small
pits, which are probably the casts of minute marginal
glands. The base is obtuse, the apex unknown, and the
Jamina flat and smooth, with a very slight prominence of
the principal veins. The transverse diameter is half an
inch.

There are also various fragments of impressions of
ribbed grasses or carices.

The group of plants seems to be such as one would
expect to flourish in the climate of Canada West, and
belongs perhaps to the meiocene epoch.

EE es

417

POS? SORE YT.

THE preparation of the illustrations, and other circum~
stances, having retarded the publication of these volumes
for some months after the letterpress was ready, the
delay has enabled us to learn the result of the last year’s
search for the lost Expedition. The first traces of the
missing ships, discovered on the south side of Beechey
Island and on Cape Riley, as mentioned in vol 11. p. 155.,
were followed up by the discovery of seven hundred empty
meat-tins, and other remains, which furnish undoubted
proof of Franklin’s ships having wintered, in 1845-6, on
the inside of the above-named Island. The tombs of three
men, with headboards bearing their names and the dates
of their deaths, were erected on the east side of the Island,
not far from the site of the armourer’s forge, an observatory
or store-house, and other enclosures opposite to the an-
chorage. One of these men belonged to the “ Terror,”
and two to the “Erebus,” which is sufficient evidence of
the presence of both ships; and the latest death supplies us
with the date of 3rd April, 1846. The mortality does not
exceed that of previous expeditions; and we may therefore
conclude, that the Expedition was in highly effective order
when it left that anchorage, with only a moderate inroad
into its stock of preserved meats, the seven hundred empty
tins found on the island forming but a small proportion of
the 24,000 canisters with which the ships were supplied.
Captain Penny and his officers, who examined Beechey

EE 2

a

418 POSTSCRIPT,

Island and the neighbourhood very carefully and minutely,
believe that the Expedition did not quit its winter anchor-
age till the end of August or beginning of September, 1846,
founding their opinion mainly on the lateness at which the
ice breaks up; that much of the summer was passed there,
they consider as proved by the deep sledge ruts in the
shingle, which must have been made after the snow had
partially disappeared, and by small patches of garden
ground bordered with purple saxifrage, and planted in
compartments with the native plants.

It is also the opinion of several officers of the searching
party that Franklin’s ships left their wintering station sud-
denly. The reasons assigned for this belief are, that
several articles which might have been useful were left
behind, and that at a look-out or fowling station, on Cape
Spencer, a long day’s journey from the anchorage, the lines
for securing the covering of acircular enclosure, formed by
a low wall of stones, had been cut, instead of having been
deliberately untied, when the covering was removed, leay-
ing the ends of line attached to the stones. The absence
also of any memorandum of past efforts or future inten-
tions, either at the stone cairn erected on the south side
of Beechey Island, at the pile of canisters, or in the neigh-
bourhood of the kitchen, forge, and other marked lo-
ealities opposite the anchorage, is thought by some to be
an indication of the sudden departure of the Expedition.
The value of the articles left behind is too trifling to sup-
port such an inference* and the absence of the diligently-

* These were an armourer’s wooden stand, used when laid on its side
for the support of an anvil, and when standing on its end for the in-
sertion of a vice ; several coal bags, two of them containing coal dust
mixed with a small proportion of small cinders and ashes, some pieces
of rope, and scraps of old canvass, and a small piece of oaken fire wood,
besides many fragments of worn clothing utterly worthless. An iron
stove that had been made on board ship was also found at a fowling

POSTSCRIPT. 419

searched for memorandum does not seem to be sufficiently
accounted for by such a supposition. The time required
for calling in the parties from Cape Spencer, Caswall’s
Tower in Radstock Bay, and other points where they have
been traced, and for embarking the instruments and utensils
from the observatories and kitchen, might have sufficed for
the planting of a copper cylinder or bottle, with a memo-
randum. That the ships drifted out unexpectedly ina floe
of ice is not considered by the nautical men who have ex-
amined the anchorage to be possible. The north point of
Beechey Island being connected to North Devon by a
shingle beach, covered by only two or three feet of water,
no pressure of ice can operate on the harbour from that
direction so as to drive out vessels by the south-eastern
and only navigable entrance, and it is almost certain that
Franklin’s ships must have made their exit by the tedious
and laborious operation of sawing out.

The absence of a memorandum at the wintering station
is remarkable, and, in my opinion, wholly unexplained by
any suggestion that has hitherto been given by the many
writers who have made their opinions known, through the
medium of the periodical press. From Sir John Franklin’s
well-known anxiety to act up to the tenor of his instruc-
tions, combined with the expressed desire of the Admiralty,
that he should embrace every opportunity of forwarding

station near the east corner of the island, but it is stated to have been
not worth carrying on board. The bird’s bones remaining in the vicinity
of the stone enclosure on Cape Spencer show that the sportsmen en-
camped there had been tolerably successful ; and much small shot was
found scattered among the stones with which the enclosure was paved.
In the interstices of the stone wall there were many pieces of news-
papers, also two bits of paper of much interest to the friends of two
of the missing officers —one being inscribed with the name of Mr.
M‘Donald the surgeon ; the other containing part of a memorandum
in the handwriting of Captain Fitzjames, giving directions as to the
times of recording certain meteorological observations.

420 POSTSCRIPT.

accounts of the progress of the Expedition to England,
I should have thought that he would certainly have left
a record of his doings at a winter station, which he knew to
be within reach of the whalers, before he commenced ‘his
voyage of the second season, in the hope of penetrating
either to the south-west or northward, where he knew there
would be little or no chance of finding a channel of com-
munication, unless he succeeded in overcoming all obstacles,
and pushing his way through that archipelago, which has
hitherto proved a barrier to successive expeditions. And
should he, as some suppose, but contrary as I think to all
likelihood, have cut his way out of Beechey Harbour
merely to turn his face to England, still I think he would
have left some authentic record on the spot, mentioning
his labours, and the cause of his return.

As there are no natives on the north side of Lancaster
Strait to disturb any memorial or flag-post that may be
erected, Sir John Franklin would probably not think it
necessary to bury the copper cylinder or bottle containing
his memorandum, but would rather suspend it in the most
conspicuous way he could devise. Now, I have learnt, by
experience, that the wolverene * will ascend trees to cut
down a package hung to a branch; and that bears have
similar habits was fully ascertained by Captain Austin’s
sledge parties. A depdt formed by Lieutenant M‘Clintock
on Griffith Island was entirely eaten by bears, the tin
cases proving to be but a poor defence against the tusks
of these omnivorous animals, who expressed their approval
of preserved potatoes by the way in which they cleared
out the canisters. That they would relish the pemican
which was part of their spoil, might have been predicted.
They did not respect even the sign-post, but overthrew it,

* The wolverene inhabits the islands north of Lancaster Strait, and
its recent footmarks were often seen by Lieutenant M‘Clintock.

POSTSCRIPT. AQ1

and bit off the end of the metal cylinder containing the
record.

The want of this memorial leaves us totally in the dark
as to Franklin’s intended course, which would in all proba-
bility have been decided upon before he left the harbour;
for, from his position, he had the means of ascertaining the
state of the ice both in Barrow’s Strait, and in Wellington
Channel. Ifthe former was open, his course would be to
Cape Walker and the south-west, agreeable to his instruc-
tions; but if Barrow’s Strait was closed, as he had found
it to be the preceding year, and Wellington Channel open,
then he would gladly follow the latter, which one at least
of his intelligent officers considered to be the most pro-
mising route of all, and which the spirit of his instructions
permitted him to take, if shut out from the west or south-
west.

The well-planned and thoroughly organised travelling
patties of the searching squadron, though they traced with
extraordinary perseverance extensive portions of insular
coast, failed in detecting any further decisive vestiges of
Franklin’s course. Captain Austin’s two ships, with their
tenders, wintered at the south-west end of Cornwallis
Island, under the shelter of Griffith Island. From thence
Lieutenant M*‘Clintock, who made the longest journey
of all the pedestrian parties, setting out in spring, rounded
the west end of Melville Island in longitude 114° W., and,
passing over the extreme discoveries of Sir W. Edward
Parry, saw distant land extending beyond the 116th
meridian. The intermediate passages and bays were ex-
plored by Lieutenant Aldrich, Mr. Bradford, and Mr.
M‘Dougall. On the south side of Barrow’s Strait, Cape
Walker, and the adjoining coasts, were traced by Captain
Ommaney and Lieutenants Osborne, Meecham, and
Browne; Lieutenant Osborne haying carried his re-

422 POSTSCRIPT.

searches nearly to the 72d parallel on the 104th meridian.
This was the most southerly point attained. It lies within
180 miles of the south shore of Victoria land, and is perhaps
part of the same island. Throughout the whole of the
great extent of coast-line closely examined by these
officers, on both sides of the strait, no traces whatever of
Sir John Franklin’s ships were discovered, though Lieu-
tenant M‘Clintock found the wheels of a cart used by
Sir W. E. Parry in 1820, and other traces of that officer’s
travelling parties. The signal posts planted by the latter
were thrown down by wind or animals.

Captains Penny and Stewart in the Lady Franklin
and Sophia, wintered in Assistance Harbour, in company
with Rear-Admiral Sir John Ross, of the Felix. The
spring journeys of the two former, and of their officers,
were directed to the examination of Wellington Sound.
Captain Stewart and Dr. Sutherland explored the west and
north sides of this inlet, their most northern points being
in latitude 76° 24’ N. Messrs. Goodsir and Marshall
traced its south and west sides to the 99th meridian; and
both parties, from their most westerly stations, saw a navi-
gable sea extending northward and westward, to the ut-
most limits of their vision. Wellington Strait, closed to the
eastward and northward, opens into this westerly passage
by three channels, separated from one another by Baillie
Hamilton’s and Deans Dundas Islands. Baring’s Island
lies more to the westward, opposite the middle channel. Its
shores, and those of the two other principal islands, were ex-
amined by Captain Penny, who crossed over to the point
of Sir Robert Inglis Bay on the northern shore, which has
been named Albert Land; and from whence he had the
melancholy prospect of boundless open water, which he
had not the means of navigating. A boat was trans-
ported over the ice towards it with much labour; but, the

POSTSCRIPT. 423

provisions of the crew running short, it was abandoned.
Mr. Goodsir found a spar of American spruce, untrimmed,
with its bark worn off, and broken at both ends, twelve feet
long, and as thick as a man’s ankle, on the shore facing the
open water; also many smaller pieces of the same kind of
drift wood, while none was picked up by Captain Stewart
in Wellington Sound. From this fact these officers
inferred, that the drift wood had come from the west-
ward. The currents or tides among the islands at the
western outlet of Wellington Strait, were at times, ac-
cording to Captain Penny’s judgment, not less than four
knots ; and the general opinion of his officers was that the
principal set of the stream came from the westward, and
the prevailing winds from the north-west.

Animal life was abundant in the open water, and on its
coasts. Walruses were seen repeatedly in the several
channels, north and south of Baillie Hamilton’s Island;
and polar bears were numerous and bold, so as to be
dangerous to parties not well armed. Several of the bears
were killed, and one of them contained an entire seal in
its stomach, the practice of these voracious animals being
to swallow their prey without mastication when it is not
too large to pass their gullets. The walrus cannot exist
except when it has access to open water; nor is the polar
bear usually found at a distance from it, except in its
passage from one sheet of water to another. The travellers
also saw polar hares, wolves, foxes, herds of rein-deer,
vast flocks of king and eider ducks, brent geese, and many
gulls and other water-fowl of less utility to man. Musk
oxen were seen only on Melville Island, where Lieutenant
M‘Clintock killed four, and might have procured more had
he wished to do so.

On the 5th of September, 1850, a floe of ice at least two
years old, and upwards of thirty miles in width, filled the

VOL. Il. FF

424 POSTSCRIPT.

lower part of Wellington Strait, and remained fast, though
diminished in breadth, when last visited on the 24th of
July, 1851. Captain Penny is of opinion that open water
existed beyond it all the winter.

With respect to traces of Sir John Franklin’s Expedition,
beyond Cape Spencer none whatever were observed by
Captain Penny’s travelling parties, except a small piece of
drift wood, which had been recently charred, and had been
exposed to little or no friction subsequent to the operation
of fire.* This was found by Mr. Goodsir in Disappoint-
ment Bay, in latitude 75° 36’ N., longitude 96° W.; and
I consider it to be certainly a relic of Sir John Franklin’s
Expedition, as these coasts are not now visited by natives,
and this piece of charred wood could not have been water-
borne from any great distance. It must have travelled,
however, some short way subsequent to its having been
exposed to the action of fire; for if it had been the remains
of a fire kindled on the spot, other fragments of charcoal
would have been found lying beside it. Franklin would,
undoubtedly, during the spring passed in Beechey Bay,
send out a party up Wellington Sound, as he would never
let the opportunity escape of examining, as far as he was
able to do, a route that might influence his future move-
ments; and as the course to the westward within the reach
of pedestrian parties was known, the resources of the two
ships would be turned to the undiscovered way, commen-
cing in their vicinity. That such exploring party went
beyond the limits of Captain Penny’s researches, I infer

* A piece of elm board that had been originally coated on one side
with mineral pitch or tar, and after long exposure to the weather
split by an axe, was too much weathered even on the most recent
surface to come within the date of Sir John Franklin’s Expedition.
Tt was found on Baillie Hamilton’s Island, and must have drifted a
very long way.

POSTSCRIPT. 425

from neither post nor cairn marking the limit of its journey
haying been seen. If the same expanse of open water was
visible, in 1846, from Baillie Hamilton’s Island, which
Captain Penny saw in 1851, we may readily conceive
the efforts that would be made to carry the Erebus and
Terror into it by any practicable extent of ice sawing,
particularly if Barrow’s Strait remained closed. The age
of a floe of ice filling a strait does not indicate with cer-
tainty the length of time that the strait has been blocked
up, for drift ice, loaded with the remains of several years’
snow, may be carried into a narrow passage, so as to shut
it up, and as suddenly removed again on a favourable
concurrence of winds and tides. One navigator, there-
fore, may be able to sail, as Sir W. E. Parry did, nearly
quite through that northern archipelago in one season,
while his successors may find impassable barriers thrown
across the path which he pursued, and new avenues opened.
It would be unsafe, therefore, to argue that Wellington
Strait is always closed, because it was choked by a floe of
some age in 1859 and 1851.

By the efforts of the searching parties, which have just
returned, combined with those of preceding years, all the
accessible parts of the continental coast of America have
been explored, and both sides of Barrow’s Strait, to the
further side of Melville Island, and the land beyond Cape
Walker. Land has also been traced, though only by dis-
tant view, round the bottom of Jones’s Sound. ‘This has
narrowed the lines of search to two distinct points— that
is, to the south west of Cape Walker, which, from its being
the direction in which Sir John was instructed to go, seemed
to be especially the one in which he was to be sought; and
the newly-found channel opening out to the westward from
Wellington Strait. It is greatly to be desired that this one
may be pursued by new efforts.

426 POSTSCRIPT.

Mr. Rae, in April last,was on the eve of setting out from
Great Bear Lake, in the hope of crossing on the ice to Victoria
Land, and of continuing his search in a boat as soon as the
navigation opened. Though hemay not actually attain Lieu-
tenant Osborn’s furthest, he may, under favourable circum-
stances, approach so near to the scene of that officer’s search,
or of Lieutenant M‘Clintock’s, as to prove, should he find
no traces of the ships, that the intervening space is too con-
fined for the seclusion of living men. Captain M‘Clure, who
passed to the eastward of Point Barrow last season, if he
found the sea as open as the more sanguine believe it to be,
may have reached the west side of Parry’s Archipelago, and
have spent the winter not far from the supposed outlet of
Victoria Channel; and this season Captain Collinson may be
sailing eastward in the same direction. It is from Beering’s
Straits, then, that we are next to look for tidings of great
interest to the civilised world, which sympathises so univer-
sally with the efforts made to trace and relieve so many
gallant victims to science.*

20 October, 1851.

* With reference to Sir John Ross’s pigeons, mentioned in a note
on page 157. of Vol. IL., it appears that he despatched the youngest
pair on the 6th or 7th of October, 1850, in a basket suspended to a
balloon, during a W.N.W. gale. By the contrivance of a slow-match
the birds were to be liberated at the end of twenty-four hours.

THE END.

LonpDON:

SPOTTISWOODES AND SHAw,
New-Street-Square.

~~

£0

fait
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