Se Oe OS he Aer HN HAUT \ + Saving HW Dehli PCR GSE Li DURA bl en PE acini tri r flit i i Ha aN ; iy i hint Rater _—< Se ead Vali ii} EE eeeEEeEeEEEeEeeEeEeEeEeEEEOEeEeEeEeeeOeeEeEOeeeEeeeEeeEeE——— EEE ee eee ee ae Oe eee ee en re Witt a 1! ty it} fel, el rene wn ae ew YE ee Te |FOR THE PEOPLE. | FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY ; f Cut ' My! " * cw Fay hd Lise PA VU aria) say 7 f. Boy" Siete RA a vi ar a} + i” iH ; anak | en ee AUGUSTANA LIBRARY PUBLICATIONS. NUMBER 1. SS66S The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits BY JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN, PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK ISLAND, ILL. ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS. 1898. Be / "ESSE SESS SES ESS ESSEC ESSER ESSE SESE SESE SESE SESE SESSE SESS SSS SS ES SSE SSSE SESE SSS SSSS Ae iy ‘ ; AUGUSTANA LIBRARY PUBLICATIONS. NUMBER 1. The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN. PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY. ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS. 1898. CONTENTS. Page. COR TOR NTT SIDAINO NY BAIT Ne p5n355000q0000600800002000000019 0000000000090 000 0c DO DOO ROUSE DEGODGOBHREOROGEAGOEO 5 JULY) CHRANTTILS jcocnn5q9n88e0000d SoDaDDODOsOCORNESoACAODASHCOsHOCEEaCDNodODACOSHEADHSoTaNaIAoDboceu000006 7 IDI RLTSTNTINE: SVAININ)59.4500500000600050600000000900000000000"0060000000000006 C9 NOTOSOOOCUBOR IE SOOCOIOUOIIB000 9 Rolled dribtinoisAan dee -seswcccessecstecsee casmsemececee kececersrcesietascusesesceeetevsedesmsc es ID WAKE) EINE! 4.50¢0ens0a000a50506a000000 From New Boston, Ill...... » Michigan City, Ind ese GOT wi Ola a Koel UI Ge Go eneaescocmetascon SecadacossccodosocdaC uRon BD a aSUe Ga a AeRerEARer BeMRICECOUNtYPWICANS Aensaens secs aes tuldcsstecnenttereets tars asdescecsecssecsactios 16 2 Wolly? si Cowes Masss-.c.pisccvcesscwcsvcese ore csoensoeeccdesdovovecescensentereeses 16 2 er NOLtHND AKO tates ccs ocsecs ices seecssesrsstercoscescestsccutocelsswetssaves popene 2 Ot ee Green) Rivero Basin alles A ceeccccecoeecesecetecseoren ote ccccsdcnosscese esses U7 ILC IN DOMAES, IRENE cooccconnocanacasscesqenbeccaocdascepodaqs6c0d90006 soa 1K 1th Neb raskdinssaisacasecwecs sedated sosaws secen comesceeseseaecesesecares) 4, mm., while in an investigation of the nature of the sorting effected by different mechanical forces, all the grades present in any considerable quantity are of equal significance. In the separations here made the sizes of the fragments in the suecessive grades increase uniformly in a geometric ratio. LAG GRAVELS. sand dunes; 2) drifting sand, constituting the familiar dunes in dry and sandy regions; 5) fine sand, which is soon dropped by the wind in the lee of drifting dunes; +) and dust, which only slowly settles out of the air far away from the place where it was raised. Numerous observations on known eolian deposits in the field and on the mode of action of the wind have also been made to supplement this special study of the mechan- ical Composition of wind sediments, and these will be drawn upon in the discussion of the other data. LAG GRAVELS. In many places where atmospheric erosion is going on, streaks of gravel are to be seen, partly covering the eround. Most often this eravel forms a thin veneer which partly protects the ground from further erosion. Though the present position of this material is due to the action of the wind, it is quite evident that it has not been transported very far. The deposits from which it has been derived may lie close by, and they are never far off. Commonly it is a bank of sand, part of which has been removed. The finer grades have been blown away, expo- sing these larger fragments to the force of the wind, which apparently moves them by undermining and rolling. They sometimes occupy the hollows on the eroded ground. It is evident that the coarseness of this gravel renders it much less subject to the action of the winds than the finer materials. Occasionally it may be found partly or wholly covered by finer materials, but on the 8 LAG GRAVELS. whole it is continually left im the rear of these, which follow the winds with greater promptness. Only ten samples have been examined. These were collected at eight different localities in the central part of the United States, as given in the table of analyses (Tab. I). It is not likely that these few samples adequately represent the composition of similarly formed deposits in other locali- ties. The largest rock fragment in the lot measured only a little over eight millimeters in its longest diameter. It was part of a sample consisting of flat chips of a hard shale. Pebbles over four millimeters in diameter were pre- sent in four of the samples. All the other, with one excep- tion, had pebbles over two millimeters in diameter. The different grades are rather indiscriminately mingled, in a manner determined by the caprices of the wind. Five of the samples have two maxima each. The chief ingredients vary from fine gravel through coarse and medium sand to fine sand. In three of the samples ninety per cent of the weight is distributed among five different grades; in six, among four grades; and in one, among three. In an average of all ten samples ninety per cent of the weight is distributed among five grades. The highest maximum in any grade is sixty-eight per cent and the lowest is twenty-five. The average height of the highest maxima is forty per cent. The lag gravels are the most heterogenous of all the wind deposits. They are generally distinctly stratified. The fine admixtures are sometimes present as an original constituent of the eroded ground, but they may some- times also be deposited with the gravels by the lighter winds. Compared with water-bedded materials of the DRIETING SAND. ) same coarseness, the layers are more irregular and thin- ner. Pebbly layers as much as an inch in thickness are extremely uncommon. On the whole gravels of this kind form very insignificant deposits, where they have been seen. This circumstance does not render it unlikely that lag gravels may have a greater development in regions long exposed to the actions of the stronger winds. DRIFTING SAND. Lag gravels graduate imperceptibly into coarse drift- ing sand, which in the field always lies in front of the eravels, following the direction of the prevailing winds. Farther in this direction the coarse sand becomes in turn finer and finer, until the main deposit is reached, where it always consists of grains of a more uniform size. In fact the main bulk of all sand drifts, large enough to be called dunes, have been found to contain only subordinate pro- portions of sand grains measuring more than one fourth or less than one eigth of a millimeter in dia ineter. Sand coarser than this is present as a maximum in- eredient only in superficial layers of no very great thick- ness, which lie on the rear slopes of dunes. It forms an intermediate series between typical dune sand and lag gravels, and it is capable of being rolled rather than lifted by the winds. This is indicated by the circumstance that it is often the main ingredient on the crests of wind ripples, being heavy enough to remain resting in this exposed position, while the finer dune sand is lifted to the upward slope of the next ripple. It differs from the lag 10 Table I. Mechanical Composition Length of diameter in mm. 1 z 3 4 | 5 Chips of shale From a From a From rear of from Edgemont, “blow-out,” “blow-out.” From north of | qune, Michigan | | Mineral, Ills. S. Dak. Hooppele, Vis. | Hooppole, Tis. City, Ind. BED © eakeges oy) 7 | sesso | ae a |e i144 6 3) |Peng3:| en, ca ail oeeeeer 33.1 14.5 10.1 O74 29.5 Bo. 18.6 35.0 34.5 43.4 110.3 16.6 23:9 Le h 2 | 1.0 25.7 20.4 10.8 4.3 4 20.5 8.8 \16.2 114.7 Sheer 3.33 A 5.3 | oll PESO Oa) Mal eae [ess tere eae | yt dinseeesoe yh Seo tibeeeete ese Peseg | Table IJ. Mechanical Composition 11 12 13 | 14 15 Length of | diameter in Seca ofa Rear pene ofa | Rear plove ofa | Rear ee ofa Rear sue ofa i Alliance; Neb. Tampico, Ills. |New Boston, Ills.| Alliance, Neb. Alliance, Neb. MGS eee alee SU NESSIE eee tn | eet ea | ee SA) erence) gee CS eal nacre gee em |e EAS es | Ne LN ibe Dey) en Se eee 2-1 | 9.0 3.9 | 1.8 © Al 1-4 [80.0 143.8 22.0 37.1 33.7 a 6.6 28.6 46.2 50.9 49.4 i—+ | 5D. 22.0 \26.2 SES 15.0 $ oll eT, | 2.8 ea all ies Reagan ae ee te of Lag Gravels. 6 2 8 9 1] Rottom of a From rear of From wind- From rear of From a ‘“‘blow- | Average. “blow-out,’”” dune, Michigan eroded ground, a dune, out’, | Alliance, Neb. City, Ind. Ardmore, S. Dak | New Boston, Ills Alliance, Neb. | sodnoge) aN BeoeaeNe 7) ntl Bearsrnse iy ke ania (Gere en Ue x0) sBonGad).. © vil decacuet Gemuhln. [unl hctcetrsa iri tal Rael (es a aa ere 1.6 5.9 4.2 ee aly Be eeu | insane 12.6 1.4 28.0 41 26.1 11.5 23.8 23.5 GES 15.0 62.6 68.5 25.11 30.7 15.2 33.5 19.3 8.5 16.9 34.6 31.5 24.9 14 8.5 16.1 4.2 A ORG Wee ces 2.0 3.5 OTe alte AB Ou iy gh wullscxce |, cee 2 Spahad:,. = —. Mb iléoddoan a ncer P&L) bib) Sood Ober Miia mie lny (merci canal tian leer rope Jececees Sadoadp me sediladocepns) = Mecl|laccGbrc 6): teienInS Coote) a inal are oer lesonone of Rolling Drift Sand. 16 17 18 19 20 Rear slope of a | Rear slope of a | Rear slope of a Sand Drift, Sand drift, Average. dune, dune, dune, Griggs co., Griggs co., Hooppole, Ills. Hooppole, Ills. Hooppole, Ills. N. Dak. N. Dak. eer MEM EnMssote Ws ) ailennnet 5) Youth iedascics itis yaad | Gene | Geen eG le Rae a eect 3 ao Qa 6.2 19.3 14.0 27.8 44.4 39.2 45.2 2.9 133.5 40.7 29 4. 30.7 eo) 125.3 4.0 23.4 2.4 2.5 5.5 3 1.2 A 1.8 mo) 118, 3 tr. 12 DRIFTING SAND. eravels in being light enough to be rolled up a gentle slope, and to be moved without any undermining taking place. Eleven samples of such rolling drift sand, asit may be called, have been collected and examined (Tab. II). Its composition is much more uniform and regular than that of lag gravels. The proportions of the different grades arrange themselves in all the samples in two de- creasing series on either side of a maximum, which in three cases consists of coarse sand and in eight cases of medium sand. In one sample the maximum grade consti- tutes eighty-five per cent of the whole sample. The small- est maximum is thirty-four per cent. All the maxima average fifty per cent in the eleven samples. Ninety per cent of each sample is distributed among only three erades in nine of the samples and among four grades in the other two. By different sampling, no doubt some- what different results might be obtained. But these an- alyses indicate that there is a rapid increase in the power of the winds to roll quartz grains, when these begin to be less than oue millimeter in diameter. The same is also indicated by the sudden decrease in several of the analyses of lag gravels in the percentages of the grades, when this limit of size is passed. (See analyses no. 1, 2, 3,4, 5, and 7). The rock fragments which exceed one millimeter in diameter, are too large to be rolled up the rear slope of a dune and are left in the ‘‘blow-outs” as a characteristic ingredient in the lage gravels, but they are, as may be seen in the analyses, only very sparcely mingled in the sand which is rolled up the rear slope of a sand driit. The sand which constitutes the main body of dunes has been found remarkably uniform in its mechanical Ww DRIFTING SAND. ile composition. Thirty-eight samples have been analyzed, coming from eleven different localities. These it will be well to briefly describe, together with the sand from each place. On the north side of the Mississippi river at New Bos- ton in Illinois an ancient terrace is blown up into a sand ridge about a mile in length. From all appearances the Table IIT. Mechanical Composition of Dune Sand from New Boston, Ills. 21 22 23 24 ees - : R 1 f a a ranleniaraiine Dune sand. Top of ripple in| Front slope of a sand. dune sand. dune. NG Siem cer woe cere eee oo! Week inte 8—4 Ae PISS esety oe meine Section elena Reerers zl! 4—2 ESS eee es Cem Baers Hl ts a 2—1 2.0 aL Se ol Eee ye eae Ne ee 5 f= |E99 26 29.6 3.6 11.4 11 |30.4 31.8 56.0 30.8 37.2 eee 4708 64.4 1G 63.6 47.3 ji || 5.0 6 2 2.0 1.9 ie ZN We ela 1.0 3 ati sj—taze. |boecocs—iS*«idif DD. «== | Ic || eg at —— at iin |eosese’ ~—(t=<“‘«‘“‘«~*:*é‘*i GD —i(i‘;*‘*i tcc «Sf Set Sto is |psocose’ = (it*t=‘«*é‘éi@i sfc cect fp sand in these dunes has not yet travelled a half mile. The materials in the original terrace are quite heterogenous in composition (Tab. I). The coarse grades have not yet had time to be quite left behind but appear in a small quaprtity in some of the dune sand (no. 21). One of the samples (no. 23) was taken by skimming the surface on the crest of a ripple. This is unique among all the anal- yses of typical dune sand in having medium sand as its 14 Table lV. DRIFTING SAND. Michigan City, Ind. Mechanical Composition of Dune Sand from the Shore of Lake Michigan, 25 26 27 28 29 Length of dismeter in Upper rear slope Dune sand. Typical Near the crest of) From the crest of dune dune sand. a dune. of a dune. gt ate eee I mney Ci aio | at 8—4 prea hal ee ene wee Gees ahe eh olidduenee coats -lbseendc 4—2 4.1 Pie ry eaten tee yee ka ela te nar ag nae e 2—1 7.4 nfs See Le ta ae De Vital a It 14.1 8.2 9 6.4 | & 1 DOA 25.1 20.7 13.8 6.0 4—t 45.3 64.0 76.8 65.2 92.6 aL 5 1.2 1.0 1.8 6 Shea Tyla, Bh Sra TU Sued lh teat Banas Me ie arI—yze —ileasdoco, sca stSt*s«i lt 00 «© =<“ ti“ sl SSDS ga—ihs 9000000 §—- = —‘Wieoo00c0G = § Wiogn0e00 § ~ £ijicnadgdcen - «=. jloeoqq00 Sen Te a lle sooo (cg Sco Sloot con Table 5. Mechanical Composition of Drifting Table IV. (Continued. ) Sand from the River Bluffs east of Cordova, III. 30 31 Length of Average. diameter in From the top s of a dune. cae soe Sua Ree TE eoocoe souseee tre! 8—4 fh... Boaaass Mi 4—2 Ao sine 3.4 2—1 10.5 3.4 5.5 ee ARO 12.9 17.5 a 1S 2) 73.1 169.5 tt Do 8.7 2.3 i 5.0 netistis we, 2 wee ane DRIFTING SAND. 15 maximum ingredient. Had it been taken a little deeper, it would have been more like the rest, for the coarser grains are least easily dislodged from this exposed posi- tion and remain, while the finer sand is blown away. Some coarse dust is still mixed in the sand at this place in one instance (no. 24). All taken together and com- pared with sand from other places, these samples may be said to be imperfectly sorted, owing no doubt to the recency of the inception of the wind action in this locality. The dunes on the south-east shore of Lake Michigan have furnished the materials for six analyses (Tab. IV). These sand hills have been recently formed and are largely made up of sand that is freshly supphed by present wave action on the shore of the lake. In this place also the coarse grades occur with the typical dune sand in small quantities on the very top and front slope of the hills (see nos. 25, 26, and 28). But there is practically no coarse dust to be seen, presumably because no such fine material is present in the beach sand. This locality and the previous are the only ones that furnish instances of dune sand having a second maximum in the coarser grades (no. 21 and 28). The bluffs facing the bottom lands of the Mississippi, east of Cordova in Illinois, are here and there being eroded by the northwest winds. Some sand taken from a small drift only a foot in height exhibits imperfect sorting like that observed in the sand from New Boston and Michigan City (Tab. V). In Rice county in the central part of Kansas there is a tract of sand hills extending many miles along the little Arkansas river. These are derived from underlying late 16 DRIFTING SAND. tertiary beds. Their extensive development shows that the wind has been at work here for some considerable time. The sand is correspondingly uniform, and rock fragments of either extreme size are absent (Tab. V1). One of the analyses exhibits the mechanical composition of a single thin lamina in the dune (no. 34), evidently laid down under a uniform wind velocity. It is interesting as Table VI. Mechanical Composition of Dune Sand from Rice County, Kans. 32 33 34 Length of ] Di t t Ave lometer in From thefront | Fromtherear | See nore | pee slope of a dune. | slope ofa dune. | (9 single seam) indicating, when compared with the other analyses, the range of variation in the coarseness of the sand due to differences in the velocity of the wind. Evidently this is not very great. At Folly’s Cove in Massachusetts some beach sand is driven inland by the winds. The absence of fine particles in this sand is no doubt partly due to washing on the beach (Tab. VII). DRIPTING SAND. 17 Some sand has been collected from small and freshly formed drifts on plowed fields and on the open prairie in the eastern part of North Dakota. Two samples of this have been placed arbitrarily with the rolling sand, but these differ only slightly from those given here. The rather large amount of dust in all of these analyses is evidently due to the fact that the wind has just begun its work on Table VII.. Mechanical Composition of Dune Sand from Folly’s Cove, Mass. 35 36 Length of diameter in Average. mm. Dune sand. Dune sand. DG To}e: 5 lebcogoct Al UM ecactecam tt agman (eee SAN ieeemen (| levesarne tl 3) int sshens AN ieeccrce a, MUIR (Soe oe meme mn ete 2 eee Al WP; i 6.8 4.3 5.5 en KES 19.0 23.4 a GSts 714 67.6 1—j. Si 4.0 2.4. / 1S rs FING ee S0oce all ti 5 U Hl 32 (ize —«-: |joggo090" ooadog st OG0N0 aie ed 64 128 epacgoqq = {jooonceo = — fF} aoo0n0e jeg | Tes 256) opcoc0pg — —4ioopacogo — = 4] eoqcoone surface deposits, which contain fine materials in some abundancé (Tab. VIII). Scattered dunes occur in the basin of the Green river in Illinois. Though the superficial deposits here are but little affected by the action of the atmosphere now, the topography of several sandy belts in this valley indicates earlier deflation by the atmosphere. The sand is moder- ately well sorted (Tab. IX). = (oa) DRIFTING SAND. Table VIII. Mechanical Composition of Drifting Sand from 37 38 | 39 40 41 alameres ta | Field drift | ; = mm. Field drift in Cooperstown. Field drift, Drifting sand, Drifting sand, | Barnes county. Griggs county. Steele county. | Steele county. | Griggs county. | 166 Meese Py See. LE | eyecee he | eee eee BEA sale cw ET eS en | oer a 7 eli Dero a ee a ete ir cl SD Alls 2—1 2 [aceeeien yo HNSo eee UA Mal eens ail it lus 13.1 6.7 6.4 5.4 3—t 28.7 22.7 19.4 14.2 16.8 t1 (50.4 55.8 62.3 62.4 63.6 ts | Bal | 6.4 9.4 15.6 12.0 —— 1.5 1.3 1.3 ale 12 soar 3 2 3 2 3 plese Ai [ost a ifeeie ko) ine lea | rere aman ieee ele Oe | Re EES on OTL et |i cs Some years ago a drift of sand was blown up in a field near the city of Lindsborg in the central part of Kansas. The soil in this place was composed of a sandy alluvium, which held very little fine material. No specially note- worthy feature appears in the mechanical composition of this sand (Tab. X). The most extensive sand-hill region in the United States is probably found in the western part of Nebraska. Here the winds have been at work for a long time rearranging, shifting, and sifting extensive beds, which were formed in Pliocene and early Pleistocene time. Entire counties are covered by extensive ranges of sand hills sometimes ex- ceeding three hundred feet in height. The bulk of the blown sand in this region largely exceeds that of any other locality from which any material has been collected. The lag gravels are conspicuously absent in the samples DRIFTING SAND. North Dakota. Table 1X. River Valley, Ills. 19 Mechanical Composition of Drifting Sand from Green 42 43 Warnes, Length of a ae glameter te Dune sand Dune sand ESISEES SD: from Tampico. from Hooppole. teeciat 16—8 |....... Siaeens Pere baat 8-4... enna ee snaetts 4—2 fh... Poses sears: tr. 1 2—1 PL alll eae wie, 0 9.2 it iA 2.5 6.9 20.3 ee OR DD) 5 27.4. 58.9 ia WA 61.7 56.5 9.9 ii. | 3.9 14.0 8.9 13 Ee he 1.0 5 3 SMES a extent me unure Hill Rok day 6 [heaiee simu it Mes thas etoosee eats ete aa ee elke =a leasoose aes ee : ‘ Table X. Mechanical Composi- examined, nor do these contain tion of Drifting Sand from Linds- : 2 . borg, Kans. more than a trifle of dust. It may 3 be said to be the most uniformly a4 y Length of sorted of all the sands described Seer as patie eanal (Tab. XI). Two of the samples (nos. 47 and 48) were selected to 1G eee represent the extremes of varia- 8-4 Jw. ° : Ea): tion among a series of layers 4-2 |. . : DEAS 1 eoacere which were seen in an exposure as 5.1 | with well defined bedding. One RL 93.3 was taken from the coarsest seam t—1 69.1 which could be seen and the other Aneta) eno : one ae A from the finest. The difference pubes 5 i LiDaaZS._—| | aosodan in texture was quite apparent to Hoe, Babe | eee the eye, as the seams appeared aepcte dene 20 DRIFTING SAND. in the natural exposure, but it seems rather insignificant in the analyses. South of the city of Moline in Illinois there are some drifts of sand in a remnant of an old terrace. It rises like an island in the bottom lands of Rock river. The bulk of the assorted material in this elevated land is quite free from coarse ingredients but there is a considerable admix- Table XI. Mechanical Composition of Dune Sand from Western Nebraska. 45 46 Az 48 ] Length | paca Dune sand, Front slope of onme See | Pea eee) eee Alliance. dune, Alliance. Hyannis. | | Hyannis. | 1G=80. (eee. > eee. ee ee ee peas or ae Prem eee ty eae AI \oeetog Vt iiberede 1) |btease | bcceane Woo. oes Ai errae Me l beerecs Ne Baie Mea Soo Th || De tet 2.8 1.9 | 4.4 a gee 16.2 10.2 6.6 12.5 1-1 170.5 80.3 71.3 78.4 75.1 fo || Oy 1.9 15.3 12.8 | 9.9 tt eeces = | Baan Eee | tr. ture of fine fragments. Some of these are yet retained, it seems, in the drifting sand, which has not been carried farther than two or three hundred yards (Tab. XII). In the southern part of Henderson county in Illinois there is a range of sand hills which follow the bluifs of the Mississippi river. In their topographic features these hills resemble sand dunes, but the activity of the winds seems to have come to a standstill at present, except in a DRIFTING SAND, Table XII, Mechanical Composition of Sand from a small Dune, south of Moline, Ills. Length of diameter in mm, 49 50 it ro] From the rear slope of the dune. From the top of the dune. Fiom the top of the dune, Lower frout | slope of thedune, Oy is ee | ee ay ea Fe Ik ual Soak beast eee hes i= 2.6 | 3.2 ese | 22 1-f 124.3 15.6 15.9 14.7 Hea GSet 72.0 65.7 66.9 ta OG 7.2 [12.0 12.8 a I 7 3.0 2.0 2.4. ssp r a2, ween & 2 1 i $4 128 ecceese = =—“i«‘“WL ww ee h0LULUmUmUmUClCUCmClCUCCC——Csd ww tee 0600 —idf ww —|___—_ al Ie 356 peceooo OBOE [eceeeee ee tenes Table XII. (Continued.) 53 54 55 56 cas Ton of the Upper front slope Top of the | Lower front AGREES dune. of the dune. duue. ea of theduue. esas pae8Go8 aceooae oodoeda aaccee 1 152 Dell 8) 2.1 12.9 11.0 10.7 10.0 14.0 74.6 73.9 TLD 66.0 69.9 10.6 12.4 12.5 23.7 112.7 6 6 ell 5 1} Saas eal Dbl Perceee 2 Leweees aul 22 DRIFTING SAND. few places on the summits of the ridges (Tab. XIII). Two samples from this locality show a remarkably perfect sorting, though one of them (no. 58), which was taken from a drifting cultivated field, carries the usual quantity of fine grades present in driiting soils. It will be noticed that in all these samples of dune sand, excepting the one collected by skimming the ridge Table XIII. Mechanical Composition of Blown Sand from Henderson County. Ills. 57 58 Length of Mar” |Gogadaeea) Eopesae |e IL BOM Ti 5.4 Hs Lae 4 3.5 84.6 81.4 83.0 8.6 8.0 8.3 2 5.0 2.6 eae 2.0 1.0 of a ripple, the maximum ingredient is fine sand. In one instance ninety-two per cent consists of this grade, while in three cases it forms over eighty per cent oi the bulk. Where lowest it forms forty-five per cent, and it averages sixty-five per cent in all the sand examined (Tab. XIV). In three of the samples ninety per cent is distributed among four grades; in twenty-two, among three grades; and in thirteen, between only two. Here also the admix- DRIFTING SAND. 23, tures arrange themselves in two series decreasing on either side of the maximum. The coarse admixtures form a less rapidly decreasing series than the fine, the former extend- ing over five grades in the general average and the latter over only three grades. The extension of either is di- minished by prolonged wind action, which results in more pertect elimination of grains near either extreme. The occurrence of the maxi- pay. xry, General Average of mum at the same or nearly the the Composition of Dune Sand r (based on the averages for each same point in nearly all the dune {ocality where samples have been sand taken at many different lo- eien): calities, challenges our special . C 5 Length of notice. The size of a particle ca- diameter in Average, pable of being transported by the current of a fluid varies as 16—8 the sixth power of the velocity of s—4 tr. ' the current. The diameter of the 4—2 2 ° . = particles, therefore, varies as the 4 ] a : =} a) square of the velocity. If the Here Ms abe : j—1 (20.8 velocity is doubled, the diameter fei ass 4508 0 of particles transported may be J | 62 increased four times. The range SEE ae 4s : spe al of velocities of dune-making ue ik $f i283 stew eee winds, as usually measured, cer- et eet Oks tainly exceed a doubling of their speed, and it might be expected that the bulk of the sand, in some place atleast, should consist of grains many times as large asin others. It may be that sometimes there is a scarcity of such sand for the wind to work on, but this will not alone account for the uniform composition of the dune sand. Wind velocities are usually measured some 24: DRIFTING SAND. distance above the ground, but the dune sand is moved only by the very lowest layer in the atmosphere. Now it is known that the velocity of the current in this lower- most layer is increased at a very slow rate with an increase in the speed of the layers next above it. The velocity in the layer next to the surface of the ground probably never reaches three miles per hour. It is this comparatively inert layer, which alone comes in contact with the resting sand and first causes it to stir. As veloc- ities much lower than this will not move sand at all, the range of variation of the velocity of the currents which impel dune sand, is most likely quite limited. Another circumstance aids in bringing about the same result. Any load which is picked up, has the effect of retarding the current in which it is carried and the greater the particle which is moved, the greater the retardation will be. In an element of such lightness as the air this retardation must be considerable. Another significant feature in the analyses of the dune sand is the more rapid decrease in the percentages of the finer grades than in the percentages of the coarser grades, in the opposite direction. Evidently the law which goy- erns the separation of the fine admixtures from the dune sand is different from the law which determines the separation of the latter from the coarse admixtures. A little reflection makes this clear. Materials finer than dune sand are wholly lifted up into swifter currents, which promptly remove them. The dune sand itself, on the other hand, is partly lifted and also partly rolled, just as the grains of the nearest larger sizes. Working in this last manner the transporting power of the wind varies DRIFTING SAND. 25 more nearly in approximation to its erosive force than to its lifting force. With changes in velocities the latter varies as the sixth power, while the erosive force varies as the square. It is therefore much easier for the coarser ingredients to be rolled along with the dune sand than it is for the dune sand to be picked up and carried away with the finer ingredients. Table XV. The wind much more rapidly Mechanical! Composition of Sand heaped up by Incipient Drifting. 59 60 61 62 63 peeneth on = aaa aritting fel, Orne ate Baltimore: Md. |st. Peeeeariencts Gannan, Tis. TG Oem eee eae © ps UAE E aie Ula aint ee NEA dy Yall SAE eae Oise bd | Sess | Pay plaltsosetoetties teea tet) IG ee Ae A ine eee Eee lta wiles aul eet 2-1 ise... leet a esate) aed all Pane cs Mca Ml Sores ie 38 5.7 6 tr. 16.8 Ai 5.7 36.3 2.6 3 29.6 GOS 53.5 50.2 97.0 514 ii. (209) 26 44.6 2.9 8 ti, | DS 1.0 BAe pele ee tr. ! ssp Bye! ifedeaeae soul seca e = SMe ae ULES AS aaa | Renae fe eg eLnamm beets erate a Le Pee teem eae Wh Maleate |wmcbil a SETHE agi Ccacee Ai) y jan ceases to lift sand grains exceeding one eigth of a milli- meter in diameter than it ceases to roll grains which be- come larger than one fourth of a millimeter. The opera- tion of this principle is more or less evident in all the samples, but it is best seen in such as have been taken from the surface of the highest ridge and the rear slope of a dune. It is most conspicuous in the general average of the averages of the sands from each locality. 26 DRIETING SAND. Though it is not supposed that all dune sand is as uni- form in composition as are the specimens described here, it seems probable that the wind forms drifts mainly of grains which measure from one half to one eight of a milli- meter in diameter. How promptly it selects just these sizes for drift-building, may be seen in the composition of some specimens of sand collected from widely distant places, where it has just begun to work on materials of quite diversified composition (Tab. XV). In the following table one sample (no. 59) was collected in Kansas in a bottle placed about a foot above the ground in a drifting cultivated field, where the soil held gravel as well as clay ; one (no. 60) was taken from the surface of a snow-drift in Maryland, where the deposit had blown from an exposure of Potomac sand of somewhat heterogenous composition; one (no. 61) is from a gutter in the city of Baltimore and was sifted out by the wind from the dust on a paved street; one (no. 62) is from the beach at St. Augustine in Florida where such sand is reported to be tossed about by the sporting wind with particular ease, owing to the fact that the water has already affected a most favorable sorting; and one (no. 63) was collected in a small recept- acle placed on a drifting railroad bed in the western part of Illinois. The chief ingredient in these sands is alike in all and is of the same grade as that found in dune sand. nN “] LEE SAND. LEE SAND. We have now to see what becomes of the rock frag- ments that are finer than the maximum grade of the dune sand, a small part of which only are retained in the drifts. Right in the front of the dune drift, and confluent with it, there is generally a smaller rippleless drift or bench of Table XVI. Mechanical Composition of Sand taken in the Lee of Sand Dunes In Rice co., Kansas. 64 65 66 67 Tengen Average of ji of diameter (ire GO FEM From six feet in | From 15 feet in From 24 feet in in mm. p Lee drift sand. front of the lee front of the lee | front of the lee drift. drift. drift Gea Sire accecee gi Tuyleere eee Mie siae te Se Te ce OY LP Meeeay Saba issssy 0 qliitezesea fy ieeteees | py Meat 10. + ES, A Dalene a IE Ginecrt ae Ae) eeaoriee mer Olathe | f Las eos Oia tree rem, [Kec UNDG I enc UN elec Oy [eo ' it |) ae D5 2s Fo an ice A It BL @ 16.5 4.6 1.5 jit ee Gas 72.0 60.0 72.3 62.0 LA || De 7.5 31.0 23.8 32.1 ali | Mectonen 7 21 3.4 d= 1 gy eee ee Se ene Ge MUI A), Neale. 6 li GE aT eocosco(:t*«sic | coca SS oscodcg «= lb — lt TSE BIF -co0e00 «= —t—<—t*~i‘s‘*i ss SCs gcc «= (tS fcc sand, which has settled in the eddy in the lee of the larger drift.*) The sand in the lee drift, as it may be called, is found to be a little finer than the dune sand proper. Its grains have been lifted a little higher, and that is the reason why they have been carried a little farther. But the difference is very slight and consists merely in a *) See Die Denudation in der Wiiste ete., Johames Walther, p. 172, fig. 89. 28 LEE SAND. change in the proportions of the percentages on either side of the maximum. It is evident that the finer grains, which may have been present originally or which may have been produced by trituration afterwards, are carried still farther away. Just how far each different grade may be carried from the place where it is first taken up in the wind, has not been made out satisfactorily, but there can be no doubt that the different grades in the fine material are let down at successively greater distances according to their coarse- ness. Some inferences with regard to these distances may however be drawn from the examination of some sedi- ments, which the writer has taken occasion to collect somewhat promiscuously. Four series of wind sediments have been taken from successively more distant points in front of dunes and sand drifts in Kansas, Hlinois and North Dakota. The analyses of these series show that the grains which approximate nearest to the dune sand in size are not car- ried very far. The samples from Rice county in Kansas and those taken near Moline in Illinois exhibit merely a decrease of the coarse admixtures and a corresponding increase in the fine for increasing distances within a range of two hundred feet (Tab. XVI and XVII). The maximum ingredient still consists of fine sand. While this rate of change is not very rapid, it is such as to indicate that the maximum ingredient in the drift sedi- ments in this direction would change to very fine sand a few hundred feet farther out. In distances less than two hundred feet the percentage of the fine ingredients increases from eight in the dune LEE SAND. 29 Table XVII. Mechanical Composition of Sand taken in the Lee of Drifting Sand south of Moline, Ills. V1 12 73 Length of Average of diameter a the dune sand. 10 feet in front 100 feet in front 160 feet in front ‘ of the dune, ofthe dune. of the dune. AGS Sys maleeewn yar ieee cet mae ses AN TAY ease 8 (CON |e ac ae I ON er cm Rete a or A ae eeeete, Me ten Gtecdeed Matin) aller | Aaa. aes I ee ee TL | is OU SIST IVAN LI cate me ie ag cea ae oi HL 4.2 2.6 1.9 1-1 69.9 55.6 58.5 51.8 ia Lay 34.0 28.8 32.0 ai IL 5.6 9.0 37 Se ali 1 3 4 3 ti WZE sey |ecocono = loaog0o pooh ago = TE RSG levees eweeeee nee ee nee eee Table XVIII. Mechanical Composition of Sand taken in the Lee of Drifting Fields in North Dakota. 74 75 Beets ucts lot Dust in a house Dust in a school- cue drifting fold, | drifting Bela. MGS a cl eecerena. ce ollanseanta ho a oteaas SSA emer ule Mister 0) I) bbilleoaese NSO a seconde lucie Mull Neaesneee Ma aie mel seine 2—1 AGB ON Wears ans 1 1 9.2 5 be A (0). 1.0 3. 11 58.9 5.0 4.6 ee ORG 19.8 22.8 de—slr 18 58.9 60.9 dail 3 1 9.4 ihe | Mecca 13 fy ee Wen! tr or. it 30 LEE SAND. sand to forty-one in the lee-sand. The series taken in front of the sand drift at Lindsborg changes more rapid- ily, so that only fifty feet away sixty-five parts in a hundred consist of very fine sand (Tab. XIX). The dune at this place was much lower than the other, and this partly accounts for the more rapid settling of the fine sand, which here had a much shorter distance to Fig. XIX. Mechanical Composition of some Sand taken in the Lee of Drifting Sand near Lindsborg, Kans. 6s | 69 70 Length of diatneter in Dune sand. Sand from 16 feet | Sand from 50 feet mm. | Lee driftsand. | ino front of lee in front of lee | drift. | drift. UGS |bscosee erst leet eee op eerste lice, [Leeae AO ON eceeee sd ~ im SNe ei Seem | ce pl | ee EA NN ere 8 |e it aya! 3.2 6 ut TOSS 18.7 3.3 1.3 ti |G) \71.2 69.3 14.4 io | 3G | 5.0 20.5 65.2 4 3.9 5.9 116.3 beenere al 3 | 8 fall. The samples from North Dakota were taken in buildings and are not strictly comparable to the other, but the small amount of fine sand and even of very fine sand which they contain, indicates that most of the for- mer grade, at any rate, had already settled (Tab. XVIID. As the houses were about four miles away from the place of active drifting, it seems safe to infer that this LEE SAND. 51 distance exceeds that over which fine sand is generally lifted in single leaps. And this quite likely also applies to the transportation of the next finer grade. It should also be noticed here that only a very subordinate percen- tage of particles smaller than one thirty-second of a milli- meter in diameter settles within the distance observed. We may infer that the grades of rock fragments which range in diameter from one eigth to one sixteenth of a millimeter in diameter are mainly deposited, together with some coarser and some finer ones, in front of drift- ing tracts as a thin apron, which becomes finer in com- position with increasing distance to the leeward. There is little doubt that the change in the texture of this apron deposit is most rapid at first and more slow farther out. Its deposition results from temporary lulls in the wind, which allow the coarser grains to fall to the ground. Go- ing down the scale of diminishing particles a size will at last be found, which is capable of almost indefinite sus- pension-in the changeable currents of the atmosphere. Material of this kind is scattered over wide distances and the change in the texture of the deposits formed from this dust progresses with extreme slowness from one place to another. ATMOSPHERIC DUST. To determine the size of the particles that may readily be transported such long distances by ordinary winds, it is only needed to examine the nature of the loads which these winds generally carry. I have collected a number of samples of such dust by different methods, under dif- 32 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. Table X X. Mechanical Composition of some Dust collected in Running Railroad Coaches. 76 77 | 7s 79 Length of dameter 2 Sandstorm in From southern | From Nebraska From Arizona. Minnesota. and Kansas. New England. NG=8i Ree) eee Ee | Pea oe SI om | erred MM | err = as AD [eee te |e Nee) St Ee ee Bribe Wire Oy Beckers 1-4 see Mee oh Pile tr. 2 1-4 6 1.0 5 ie een TeO 14.0 12.0 12.0 14 44.5 32.8 17.2 32.0 fai poo 41.0 52.6 49.0 5.5 9.8 12.5 4.0 6 12 13 5 Table XX. (Continued). 30 31 s2 83 84 From N. Dakota From Rocky Mis. From Utah. From N. Dakota.) prom N. Dakota. and Montana. | and Cascade Mts.) Speed30 mi.prh.) afterastorm. 12 0)| > Sele ine tr.: tr. 5 4.0 3 4. 11.0 5 3.6 15.8 19.0 67.2 5) TI 35.5 29.7 34.0 19.7 39.7 56.8 38. 29.0 er | 7.0 3.9 iB ! ih f= tO o).a pein as a my te) o ta Ww ATMOSPHERIC DUST. De ferent conditions of deposition, and from different local- ities. Before discussing the composition of these samples it may, however, be well to note the nature of some wind- borne sediments which have been carried by the atmos- phere under more than ordinarily favorable circum- stances, and in currents of more than ordinary strength. Such is the sand and dust stirred up from the roadbeds by running railroad trains. Quartz particles considerably larger than fine sand are here moved nearest the ground. But the material which is lifted high enough (five or six feet) to come in through the windows and doors of pas- senger coaches is much finer. Among thirteen samples of such material collected in coaches in different parts of the United States only one Table XX. (Continued). $5 86 87 88 From Western | From Eastern | From Kansas. | From{dao ana] ©T°"O8% Cosby oe Ci ssSatotes fe Pe Ae ne Wk oe ter ink. ' ee a sree lars et 3 2.0 1.0 6 BS 6.4. 49.0 22.8 36.8 54.8 36.6 43.1 65-2 57.0 41.6 42.9 4.9 10.2 4.6 3.3 10.3 5 5 5) 1 2.9 appease hd tua. milldeuetetos onl.) cemwtl PenScyatm lam [eae ae 32 34 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. had as much as seventeen per cent of fine sand, and one had less than one per cent (Tab. XX). In five of these samples the maximum occurs in the grade of very fine sand, which is next in fineness to the maximum grade of the dune sand; in seven of the samples it occurs in the coarse dust; and in one it is in the next finer grade. The small percentages of the coarser grains is no doubt in part due to the reduced veloc- ities of the currents entering the Table X XI. Mechanical Compo- sition of some Dust taken from a Window Sill in a House in Yuma, Arizona. coaches. Analogous causes may have affected the perfection of the arene tor 0) sorting in these samples, which mm. 4 5 5 varies considerably, ninety parts ee in a hundred being distributed OH | eosooac 2 a eno ‘ al ete among four grades in some in- APES) Mme Il) stances and between only two in Dee See. some. But the differences in the le : . iS 2 speed of the trains and the dil- PS .6 ‘ : aes 75 ferences in the mechanical compo- 4 8 % . . u u . jas LL sition of the surface deposits 8 16 s qs—s «36.4 along the railroads must also be d fey BS arf : a 32” 64 fe taken into account. Nor was the Sais 8 . ord . See ae sampling uniform. In some in- DiS imeia16 stances the dust was taken after heavy winds and in others during calm weather, some- times it was gathered up from the window sills and some- times from the seats in the coaches. Some of it was brushed from the wearing apparel of a passenger. Taking all these modifying circumstances into due consideration and remembering that the currents of wind which follow a running railroad train are quite as powerful as the cur- ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 35 rents next to the ground in the heaviest wind storm, the composition of this dust may be said to indicate that fine sand is too heavy to be effectively kept from settling in such winds, that very fine sand and coarse dust are just on the limits of the size which is subject to effective sus- pension, and that particles which have a diameter less than one thirty-second of a millimeter will not readily settle from the atmosphere in a strong wind. It may be inferred also that dust of the kind taken in railway coaches must be capable of being lifted up into the atmos- phere by moderately strong winds. This is also indicated by the composition of some dust gathered on a window sill three feet above the ground in a building at Yuma in Arizona (Tab. X XI). Volcanic dust forms another class of atmospheric sedi- ments which are transported under unusually favorable conditions. It is launched from great heights, to which it never could have been raised by the convection currents of the lower part of the atmosphere, and it is carried by the upper currents, where transportation is much more swilt than below. Nearest the voleanic outburst there is no maximum limit to the size of volcanic fragments which may fall, but beyond the distance of the influence of the projectile force, which seldom, perhaps, exceeds a dozen miles, their size is determined by the sorting action of atmospheric currents and hence will be a true exponent of the nature of this action. Seven samples of such volcanic dust have been exam- ined (Tab. XXII). Five of these are from quaternary deposits on the western plains, one is from the Lahontan sediments in Nevada, and one is from a recent shower on 36 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. Table XXII. Mechanical Composition of Volcanic Dust. 90 91 92 93 Length of diameter i EF ¢ . mm. layer, McPherson | From MePherson|| | Erom_ | Eromszow in POSB7 vilkisse i Vegeweegoc 0) 1 SRE PS Sanath ete Baa tee Meee: ae Elbe hate eg | eee qe ere Me A eee ee NM ae! AUN ill at Fea eer ton (ora etre ee el (Lee ho ee aia eee ball eee coe Hint arte tol 5 2 8 tr. G10 28.8 37.4 10.0 foe 5210 24.8 36.4 42.0 aL LG) 33.4 21.7 42.0 Be DUE NM 111 1.6 5.2 1 EibASr eee 1.2 Do i Spee 1 ee. Nee Sa teen in BS Table XXII. (Continued.) 94 95 96 e F Average. : rom iE ee, Nebr. TSR SUNT Orleans, Nebr. 21 W1SS6 0k tiene «| \Seeesan oll 0 alk o Geetha ain | Sacer oil, 0 7.0 2.4 a2 \18.8 51.0 32.4 19.4 36.8 37.2 40.1 51.0 32.3 3.4 20.2 23.4 9F2 2 5.4 EZ 1.8 saeteoes 6 .2 nit 0 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 57 the coast of Norway, following an eruption in Iceland. The coarsest one forms the bottom layer in a deposit in Kansas, where the material settled in water. It contains only the coarsest fragments, which first settled on the bottom under the water. The other sample from the same place represents more nearly the average of the same shower at that place. The dust from Golden in Colorado is the second in coarseness. It fell nearer the place of the eruption, which propably was somewhere in Colorado. The Norway dust which was carried a dis- tance of eight hundred miles, is of about average fineness, compared with the other samples. The materials from Nebraska and Nevada are finer. The variation in compo- sition is quite remarkable in these samples, but it is largely due to secondary sorting in water. On comparing the average of these analyses with that of saud and dust taken in coaches, the latter are seen to be slightly finer. This appears hardly possible, when we think of the great distances the volcanic dust has been carried, but there are three circumstances which combine to keep the volcanic dust in suspension longer than any other atmospheric sediments. Most of its particles are in the form of flakes, tubes, or hollow bubbles. The flakes may be twenty times as long and as wide, as thick. Such material floats easily in the air. Besides, other sediments have first to be raised by the lower and weaker currents of the air, as already pointed out, while the volcanic dust is thrown up to great heights by an explosion. And then the dust itself is about one fifth lighter than ordinary quarts. We must hence infer that ordinary dust, which is capable of being transported several hundred miles by 38 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. the atmosphere, is finer than volcanic dust, most of which consists of particles ranging from one eigth to one thirty- second of a millimeter in diameter. Somewhat similar inferences may also be made from the nature of some dust taken close to wagon roads, where it was raised by passing vehicles and sifted as it fell by gentle winds. In some dust of this kind, which fell Table XXIII. Mechanical Composition of Dust collected close to a travelled Wagon Road. 97 98 99 | 100 Length of diameter in Dust taken 5 ft. | Dost taken 15 ft. | Dust taken 25 ft. | Dust taken 25 it. | Average. mm. froma road near | fromaroad near | from aroadnear | from aroadnear | Baltimore, Md. Baltimore, Md. Rock Island, flls. Baltimore, Md. 16—8 pireee bene ere oie | ERS SH] 4 bee ule) lie a ee ee | er ere rere Paliceste. | |Eaneccs 2—1 Bc a (ere army Wee) Pe. n-| Geceasd ee EX 1—t 4.0 Py Oe Pare 7 | Ie = 1 4-1 6.7 38 tr. ! |) Oe 2.0 ist BR 3.5 14 3.0 7.9 oe 2G 31.3 29.2 9.6 24.0 So BD 48.6 45.1 58.0 14.2 sa |) ays 14:8 23.1 aL ee ot |) he Pi 5 4 2.4 ek 1 ——e 6 ie ae 6 S five feet from the road, twenty-three per cent was fine sand and eleven per cent cwas omposed oi still coarser grains (Tab. XXIII). In some other dust, which fell ten feet farther away, there was only a little over four per cent of the coarse grades. In this sample very fine sand forms thirty-one per cent. Ten feet still farther out this grade is represented by less than ten per cent. These grades evi- dently easily settle out of gentle atmospheric currents. ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 39 Of particles which are less than one sixty-fourth of a millimeter in diameter, there are only small quantities, presumably because such particles tardily settle even in ordinary low winds. Some dust which was swept by the wind from the banks and the bottom lands of the Minnesota river and lodged on the ice in its channel close by, shows about the same composition as the average of pila es ek Ba Nt the last samples (Tab. XXIV). position of Dust taken on the Ice 7 - inthe Mi ta River. The dust from the railroad sake yer had coaches, the volcanic dust, the ate dust from the wagon roads, and “Ea ion this last sample from the ice of the Minnesota river may be said 1@=8 ho. to indicate that particles, which Say i eee: are capable of suspension in ae oo strong winds, must have a diam- a Rik eter less than one sixteenth of a my % millimeter in length, and that eh 6.1 particles with a diameter of less tis [16.6 than one fourth of this length 13 ee are hindered from promptly sett- ety cs - ling out of such winds. The lat- Preeti Hades ter part of this statement must however be made with a limitation as to the quantity of the load which is carried. Should this be increased be- yond a certain limit, flocculation will take place, and then even finer dust will soon be brought down. Fifty-six samples of dust capable of prolonged suspen- sion in the atmosphere have been studied, and will here be described under three divisions: 1) dust collected 40 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. directly from the atmosphere by means of some appara- tus; 2) dust which has settled out of the atmosphere on suriaces more or less elevated above the ground, as from leaves of trees and from house-roois, and 3) dust which has settled out of the atmosphere on snow, on ice, or on other surfaces nearly on a Jevel with the ground. DUST COLLECTED DIRECTLY FROM THE ATMOSPHERE. One of the devices used in collecting dust directly from the atmosphere consisted of some whisks of broom-corn, smeared with glycerine, and suspended from a pole ninety feet above the ground. The observations were made on a bluif overlooking the Mississippi river at Rock Island Table XX V. Mechanical Composition of Dust collected directly from ihe Atmosphere by means of Whisks of Broom-corn smeared with Glycerine, March, 1895. *) | 102 103 104 105 Length of | diameter in | Maximum Maximum | Maximum Maximum mm. | hourly velocity, | hourly velocity, | hourly velocity, | hourly velocity, 12 miles. | 17 miles. | 22 miles. 28 miles. IGS Gliese o) eee ee ee eee Sater Ei bees a) | ie cae ga |e | 4 Rea eee ann Pee LN Sa) el Sec 2 aie mee ee AN dee 2 Nesesaa3 LEIA betes eee | ee a ne eee iii > ZF a ORO) DOC SSO joseesee = J wanncce ee | eee elboocon Wier bors we icohsos ou. |) lsso905a 4—;5 16.9 3.0 14.8 (12 0 | iL POs 16.2 18.5 15.0 * = | et Oar [34.7 25.9 21.0 6 28 | | thao | 22 | 2.6 | 33 2:2 j 1 *) The method used in making the analyses given in this table was somewhat imperiect and the proportions oi particles ranging in size from a diam. of 4 to; cS ; of a millimeter is too large. ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 4] in Illinois. The whisks were taken down once a day and washed in water which was allowed to stand until the dust had settled. This was then removed, dried, and ignited. One series of such samples was secured during the month of March in 1895. These ware taken daily and mixed into five larger samples, each of which repre- sented days with maximum hourly wind velocities rang- ine between certain limits as indicated in the table of analyses. The range of these velocities during the month was from twelve to thirty-three miles per hour, and the quantities of dust taken were quite proportionate to the sixth power of these velocities, ranging from one tenth of a gram to fifty grams. The analyses do not indicate that there was any decided increase in the size of the par- ticles transported during the days having the strongest wind,as might have been expected Dable XXV. (Continued). (Tab. XXV). The maximum in 106 each of the samples occurs in the Maximum Average: medium dust and the samples hourly velocity, pea taken on the calmest days appear to contain the largest proportion ae ab. S: of coarse admixtures. There is, however, a small decrease of the eyoasno, ese fine admixtures in the dust taken eee onl during the most windy day, when the highest hourly velocity was tr. iP, 14.2 12.2 thirty-three miles. 21.3 18.7 In June the same year mate- oes 43.7 rial was collected in the same way 12.4 D7 : it 1.0 DS and at the same place, daily, for one week, and a separate analysis 42 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. Table X XVI. Mechanical Composition of Dust collected directly from the Atmosphere by means of Whisks of Broom-corn smeared with Glycerine, June 16—22, 1895. 107 108 109 110 Length of diameter in Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum mm. hourly velocity, hourly velocity hourly velocity, hourly velocity, 9 miles. 9 miles. 12 miles. 13 miles. NGS Bee” beg lease an my ee [pero Bet ees we 9 iltectccec Oe wells: leaceeee ASD Nive. Vp ae lage, 9) eg ecm ieee eee 2 nek tS 5 SMe oe ee {scoot em a. ihe eset PEEAU, oye g? yo hed rca Dea TAGS Eon ee eee hee eerie | Limpconce a) Tlisceeacs 0 Netcong i Wits tr. ! iHr, 0 tr. ! 17, | 6.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Lil BIG [32.4 44.0 35.0 a; (43.9 43.0 44.0 40.0 a MOS 19.0 7.0 19.1 se | 1.0 1.0 4 1.2 Table XXVI. (Continued.) 111 | 112 113 Maximum Maximum Maximum Average. hourly velocity, hourly velocity | hourly velocity, 19 miles. 22 miles. | 22 miles. aesq0e , po0deod loeeeees |Jcooocs: | LS) Ee em Boece tr. ! } Wins & 5.7 i | 2.7 3.3 22.9 2325 27.3 31.9 50.2 45.9 49.1 A451 20.0 26.7 ILS) \17.3 2.2 2.3 & 13 ATMOSPHERIC DUST, 43 was made of each catch. The maximum hourly velocities of the wind for each day ranged from nine to twenty miles. In this case also there was a correspondence be- tween the wind velocities and the quantities of the dust caught, but on examining the analyses, it it seen that the coarse admixtures rather decrease than increase with the speed of the wind. The fine ingredients are quite as Table XXVII. Mechanical Composition of Dust collected directly from the Atmosphere by means of Muslin, smeared with Glycerine, July, Aug. Sept., 1895. 114 115 116 117 Length of diameter in From the flagpole Top cloth on flag- | Bottom cloth on Average, mm. during June and Under trees pole, Aug. 19, flag pole, July, 1895, in a grove. 1895, Aug. 19, 1895, SIG Shean seeentempn mn MIM a [Reecevtanh ua) ns NHI Ca Te Pig ae NSS pas a Meaitiae Wane ean [temeeveriele ey L Tm Well ieccy Roum eal Mary ile ue, 2 wer, 9 tr. tr. 4.9 3.9 1.0 ALA 40.7 19.0 24.6 29.1 41.5 47.2 45.1 44.4. 11.5 26 6 28.7 19.5 9 3.0 1.1 1.7 well represented for the days with high winds as for days with low winds (Tab. X XVI). Some dust was collected at the same place and at the same height by suspending two pieces of muslin held horizontally on a frame. The muslin was smeared with elycerine, to which the dust adhered. This was secured by washing and allowed to settle as before. One sample 44 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. consisted of a mixture of daily catches taken during part of June and part of July in 1895. These were thoroughly mixed before the analysis was made. Two samples which were taken, one on the upper cloth and one on the lower, on the nineteenth of August the same year, were sep- arately examined, as was also some other material col- lected in the same manner under some trees in a e@rove about a quarter of a mile from the pole previously referred to. The dust taken in this way resembles per- fectly that which was caught on the broom-corn. The percentages of the several grades correspond almost to within two percent in the two averages (Tab. X XVII). Tt will be noticed that the composition of the mixed sample for June and July is very much like the average for the dust taken on the broom-corn in June, but it is somewhat coarser than that taken on muslin in August. The dust taken under the trees in the grove is also a little coarser than the latter. Another devise for collecting dust from the atmosphere consisted of a hollow cylinder, with apertures on the side for receiving the wind, and with strips of muslin suspended inside. These strips as well as the inner surface of the cylinder were washed once a week, and adhering particles thus secured. Eight samples were taken by this method during the months of July, August and September in 1895 (Tab. XXVIIT)). The cylinder was suspended at the same height and from the same flag pole as the broom-corn and the muslin previously mentioned. In this series of samples, also, there was a correspondence between the wind velocities and the quantities of dust caught, though not so well marked as in the other in- ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 45 Table XX VILT. Mechanical Composition of Dust collected directly from the Atmosphere by Means of Slack Wind in a hollow Cylinder, July, Aug., and Sept., 1895. 118 119 120 121 Length of | diatueter in Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum mm. hourly velocity, hourly velocity | hourly velocity, hourly velocity, 14 miles. 18 miles, 18 miles, 19 miles. INGO Seavey yt. ini alcrde et a ore er ea Ae SE ie eee AAP le Mera coiled al Masser ORS Ni ctoeicc, LM Ol BES Reeeen Ie, IER |\CSetUe ian a PEER eer REIL si Nasco, yh el sal OsaeeSea elem eee ariie amen Tater TS lea Si. Shl ea ee came ne Ca ae CO oat More ~=S«dioopooos ogee | Woopeneo HG opa5on Ai 5 1.0 1.0 5.0 4—7, 11.1 32.0 18.7 20.0 i BRA 40.0 51.4 44.5 € 7 lof teas (13.3 7.5 8.2 7.3 Table XXVIII. (Continued). 122 123 124 125 Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Average. hourly velocity, hourly velocity hourly velocity, hourly velocity, 20 miles. 21 miles. 23 miles. 24 miles. tr.! EOC he ee enans on oo yleeeenss 1.0 6.8 18.7 8.5 9.5 15.6 47.6 51.4 52.9 38.1 44.9 35.4 19.8 27.4 34.9 27.0 9.5 8.2 10.2 15.9 10.0 2 6 2 iL 9 46 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. stances referred to. On the nineteenth of February in 1896, when there was a high wind and much dust in the atmosphere over the Mississippi valley, one more sample was taken in the cylinder, this time suspended only ten feet above the ground (‘Tab. XXIX). All of the dust caught in the cylinder, excepting two samples, is coarser than that which was caught on adhe- Table XXIX. MechanicalCom- Sive surfaces. The maximum Hee neta aasNaie ue Meckect grade consists of coarse dust in Slack Wind ina hollow Cylinder, the former, while in the latter it peu S 08: is medium dust. It appears that 126 the slack wind was not retained diameter in Yaletown, in the cylinder tong enough to allow the fine particles to settle. 1@-8 Lo. In this way the maximum has 84... been transferred toward the 4-2 Jere coarse grades. If then, as we may oy pr suppose, the dust carried by the ca alee air was of the same average com- pa tr. > position in both instances, the sis | 28 rate of decrease from grade to is eee erade on either side of the maxi- ia mum ought to be more nearly be 2 equal in the dust caught in slack wind. Such is also the case, as may be seen from the averages of all the analyses of each kind (Tab. XXX). It is quite probable also that some of the coarse grains were shaken off from the adhe- sive surfaces. An average of these two averages may be taken as representing the nearest approximation to the composition of dust carried in the atmosphere at the place where these observations were made. ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 47 It may be collected in low winds as well as high, and though it appears to be slowly settling, its general presence indi- cates that it is easily held in suspension. Table XXX. Average Mechanical Composition of Dust caught on Adhesive Surfaces and in Slack Wind. Length of Average dust Average dust diameter in caught on adhe- | caught in slack General mm. sive surfaces. wind, Average. GSS) Pulieeoaseee my teak Heeesacunn) Oneal bPacees Saas yy iRexteumy ) Slze ee A Doma Beets By [hero ot) | llaneotes SAAN Soe sae eae em en Sarno RNNle | labo ca iti Uhm ana Dee a an Ue EM Nttr an Pee tr. cei een 9 4. eaten Ge 14.2 10.3 tt (70 42.8 34.9 ee WN 30.1 37.3 tie (OG 10.4 15.0 oe | 1G 9 1.2 DUST TAKEN ON NATURAL SURFACES ABOVE THE GROUND. Several analyses have been made of dust found adher- ing to surfaces of objects more or less elevated above the ground (Tab. XXXI). Eight such samples were washed from the foliage of trees, on which appreciable deposits of dust may always be observed. The maximum erade in this material is medium dust, but the lesser weight and the smaller size of the particles smaller than this renders them less subject to dislodgement by the wind and by occasional shaking and rubbing of the 48 ATMOSPHERIC DUST: Table XX XI. Mechanical Composition of Dust Collected from Surfaces elevated some Distance above the Ground. (Unless otherwise stated the collecting was done at Rock Island, III.) aii 427 ml 128 129 130 131 Length of diameter in Shaken from the} Taken in rain From rain water From Taken in rain Ge Pee Seu” | aacaeGs || “ eataos | Bae DU oy to al Mercere RN emo renee IRE cereale tlc lanaarte | 4) laanot Bee isenbeale Samy Ware eeeene ft / A ese ern mee BE cre | eee AM seamee A) amc! ug). eel sae saete aeaae | y c rEO Peal Wane! eta a Me |e ream Rcemsarioet Sc lbereair ta lbcncaus 1s tr. * DEOMI A elise UPS 0 4.0 $—} tr.» LESS (Gate once tr. 3.0 4—+ 3 2.2 iP, wir, ? 5.0 i. | 6 Wit 4.0 29 TB A (A) 36.0 42.0 38.5 25.6 it M0 36.0 43.0 41.3 47.9 j=. | OG 14.1 9.7 19.2 6.0 at || 2 1 | eae (La a leaves against each other. When collected in the early part of the summer this dust is therefore found to be coarser than it is later on, owing to the more frequent removal of the coarser particles and the more persistent adhering of the finer. In some dust which was washed from the leaves of some oak trees in the months of May and June in 1895, there was about twenty per cent of fine dust (Nos. 186, 137), while in two samples taken in August and September, there was a little over thirty per cent of the same ingredient (Nos. 138, 139), and in another sample, which was washed from leaves remaining on some trees in February, the fine dust was the maxi- mum ingredient making nearly forty per cent of the whole sample. Four of these analyses are of dust taken on the bark of some trees, and two are of dust coming with rain ATMOSPHERIC DUST. Table XX XI. (Continued). 132 133 134 135 Washed from the trunk of an oak Washed from poplar leaves. Washed from the leaves of a Washed from the leaves of a Washed from the leaves of an oak tree, hickory tree. linden tree, tree, June 95. Rr enim ReMi cia” REECE tl). A. ilceeeeet ae gu all Relea BOI] Thos a ge seem ote mila Peete Sim tN ni Ieee ze tr. 6.2 wip, 9 tr. § tr. 1 13.0 11.0 2.0 By 2.0 20.1 17.0 23.0 17.8 13.0 30.1 34.0 42.0 58.7 60.0 26.0 33.0 30.0 21.9 17.0 2.5 3.0 2.0 aS 8.0 Table XX XI. (Continued). 137 138 139 140 eee [Gaon ae ose) Cee | tree, May ’95. at La Salle, Ill. | New Bedford, Ill. Feb. 1895. RaSDE COUN Jeet naman) (Geneaeets tr. 4 Maa Jy ates tr. oly 5 A or oll Oo Wee 1.1 2.5 1.0 1.0 3.0 4.6 16.8 Wot 17.0 20.0 24.7 57.2 40.8 44.0 27.0 43.4. 22.0 31.7 32.0 38.5 21.7 3.0 8.8 CB Qa 3.4 50 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. water from a house-roof. Such rough surfaces as these give a secure lodgement to grains of sand as well as dust. From the analyses it is quite evident that some coarse material is moved even by the gentle winds of the Missis- sippi valley. It may be that many of these grains are raised by the aid of lighter objects to which they adhere, such as bits of straw and leaves. But their abundance in these last samples is best accounted for by the action of occasional strong convection currents and by the in- creased chances for larger grains to find lodgement on rough surfaces. This may be inferred from two analyses, one of which gives the composition of some dust collected from the trunk of a small tree by striking it repeatedly with a hammer (No. 127), while the other shows the ingredients in the material which remained on the bark after this procedure and which was secured afterward by washing (No. 132). The former has a small and the latter a large proportion of the admixtures on either side of the maximum ingredient. Aside from the greater pro- portions of the extreme grades, which may be accounted for by the diminished proportionate chances of the grains of the maximum ingredient to find and maintain a secure lodgement, all of these samples resemble those collected on surfaces rendered adhesive by the application of glycer- ine. The averages of these two series of samples corres- pond closely for each grade. Both are perhaps, on the whole, slightly finer than the dust which is constantly floating in the air over the central part of the upper val- ley of the Mississippi. ATMOSPHERIC DUST, 51 SHOWER DUST. Deposits of an impalpable dust are sometimes observed over this region, especially during winter, when it is apt to fall on the snow and discolor its surface. It generally appears after strong westerly winds, which have been ealled dust storms. Eighteen samples of such dust have Table XX XII. Mechanical Composition of Shower Dust fallen west of the Mississippi River. 141 142 143 alemenannt mim | wanes irate. | Atttowg, | Alte Foye, AG Sea Peeet a, ay euiekune fallen s EU 8 ie melo MP i delle meh 2 ee eaea eereretp Ase tol striae age Sac 2 estenn td een g(a eames aie, a ae ee eae vate ee ect ie Sil a tee penl Puen ont 6 ila Ot ire laces Lai vy, 1.6 ey ii | 86 aS 4.0 i= |bOS 58.2 46.0 tat Dae 28.0 42.0 eee na eng 2.7 7.6 i= | 6 3 Gi been examined, and these represent six different storms. The coarsest fell in Kansas City in the summer of 1890. Nearly sixty per cent of its weight consists of coarse dust, and less than thirty per cent is medium dust (Tab. XXXII). Two samples taken near Alta in Iowa come next to this in coarseness. An average of the two ana- lyses has fifty-two per cent of coarse dust and thirty-five 52 ot the medi ATMOSPHERIC DUST. um. This was collected during and after a heavy wind in the early part of June in 1895. Thirteen samples were gathered from the surface of ice and from snow at Rock Island in Ilinois and these repre- sent three d ifferent showers. One such shower occured in the latter part of November in 1894 (Tab. XX XIII), one in the latte Table XX XIII. r part of January in 1895 (Tab. XXXIV), Mechanical Composition of Shower Dust fallen at Rock Island, Ills., November, 1894. 144 145 146 | Length of | diameter in Takenonthe | Fromtheiceof | From the ice of Average. a Salar sane | encariaieya taal eancesierio meee] | | 1628. checks —* (esa (eae ee eee St ite => Ueto 2 oceans | eee AOS | eet, AS an ale | cere teen ees 2 Na eee Perens Mal sey reas pe alleen! | | iL eae 1—4 20 GE any ew aleene se sit i—1 2.5 aa me il eiesexe 1.0 i=! 6.4 3.4 10 3.6 1A 113.5 15.0 8.9 (12.5 qe—aiz [90.0 133.0 33.4 38.8 a— A, (25.6 43.0 46.8 38.5 fi | 4.3 8.9 47 Tiss eo 7 5. | A and one in February in 1896 (Tab. XXXYV). The selec- tion of these samples was made with a view to find out not only the average composition of the sediment from each shower but also the range of variation in composi- tion which might be due to changes in convection currents in the atmosphere and to the admixture of local material. Dust gather ed on the ice close to land contains compar- ATMOSPHERIC DUST, Table XXXIV. Mechanical Composition of Shower Dust fallen at Rock Island, Ill., January, 1895. 147 148 149 150 Length of diameter in From the ice of From the ice of From a crack in |From the ice of the ee fg eee (aac orate LG Ogee ent anna dle cbmc | peb ce Side I aasapsela |” el eAgorce. 50 iit | Ges eee ann ere CD | GsGiasEG MeL ey. MUISCRRADES IRR Rect seems mi late | Seae HL ON RP Palomba POR LRN Ny Tesco le 2k lie fleets (eon ame Alcorn helps WIRING Ra ek lah ih. Gan 4—}t tr. ! 2 SMM Ullaseeece 2h 2.0 10.9 1.4 7 ti §.0 13.8 15.2 9.0 a—ay [32.0 41.5 44.6 36.3 it TO 29.8 34.0 36.3 ga aiss 9.0 3.9 AT al Si eee Fhe ml oes 3 1.8 atively large quantities of coarse admixtures, evidently derived from the ground close by (Nos. 144, 145, 147, 148, 151), and the same is the case with some material which had accumulated in a long crevice in the ice, across which the wind had been drifting alter the deposit had settled (No. 149). The dust taken near the center of the channel of the Mis- Sissippl river has less of the. coarse admixtures, as does also that taken on snow (Nos. 146, UO; Iz), Iss}, aleyb IL 156). ~~ 55, Table XXXIV. (Continued). 151 Fromthe tee of | AVeraSe- near the bank, wie, 0 8) 1D, 3.3L 11.2 13.0 30.0 36.9 49.0 B72 7.0 7.9 i .i 8 54 Table XX XV. ATMOSPHERIC DUST. Mechanical Composition of Shower Dust fallen at Rock Island, Ill., February, 1896. | 152 153 | 154 | 155 Length | of diameter F tax} in mm. From snow in er aes just | From snownear | From snow close | timber. o pre tpenier | arayine. to a tree. | uffs. | NG=8> Alea” lee | Ee eee Sf. cilsoies, set). gg ee lee AO ees cess a lier eae ea he. ee eee: ees uae ortcase Me mu Cmere Seat re bocce Jesesosa sls ose snc — O) 2 11 & ; 8 12 tr. | _ « 1 lees 4.4, 3.2 47.9 140.7 43.9 38.2 44.0 46.5 | 6.3 eS 5.6 2 A 3 Tuble XXXV. (Continued). 156 | From snow on an | Seas e: open field. | tr. 3 | .4 1.6 4.4 30.9 42.6 54.3 44.4 11.4 > Ce A ieee Over level areas, as out on the ice of the river away from the banks, and on an open field, a greater proportion of fine dust is notice- able (Nos. 146, 150 156), due most likely to a more even pro- gression of the atmosphere per- mitting more of its load to settle, while near places where timber or topographic contours had set up conyection currents, less of the finer dust seems to have been able to come down ( Nos. 144, 152, 1L553))- of these three showers the me- In the averages from each ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 5D dium and the fine dust are present in nearly equal proportions and constitute from seventy-four to eighty- seven per cent of the whole. In the samples collected on the ice, there is nearly three times as much of the two grades of sand as in those taken on snow, owing, it seems, to the greater quantity of local drift raised by the wind from bare ground along the banks of the river. Table XX XVI. Mechanical Composition of Shower Dust, Averaged for five Localities. 157 158 dlameter 1a Kansas City, Mo. a Bae pus mm, Chicago, Tll. Maysville, N. Y. GSR Om era mamta | ONES CT I r Wehr Se alle acter | ry Me bela ksey es an mf ACRE tt eo rem tl (eae Bh) NS Nee Sg teas Ullscen ena Annie Serer ar Meee erates umn, | Aete cr) ll eel (eee ame Bellin seee | eect Steet Me cee i ligase jm, teats tr. SOP an TA Hee team Apo Uisarame ey lleasenee A 3.0 9 | #-1 ae 1.6 2.1 5.5 9 +i 6.6 6.1 9.6 7.8 41 qe—sy (59.5 52.1 39.5 31.5 16.0 so—pe «(27.7 39.0 40.3 36.2 53.6 grits (| 43 Si 6.9 14.1 22.0 aoe ae 6) 5 5 1.5 2.0 A sample of dust was taken just west of Chicago, soon after the shower which occurred in the latter part of Feb- ruary in 1896 (Tab. XXXVI). It contains a considerable admixture of local coarse fragments, but aside from this it is Shehtly finer than the average deposit from the same storm at Rock Island. Still another sample was collected at Maysville in New York, after this storm. This also contains a small quantity of sand, but it is otherwise the 56 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. finest of all the samples of the shower dust examined, having a larger percentage than the rest of all the grades containing particles less than one thirty-second of a millimeter in diameter. The common belief that this shower dust is brought from distant places receives some support from the wide Table XX XVII. Mechanical Table XXXVIII, Average Composition of Storm Dust; (an Mechanica! Composition of 57 average for eighteen samples). samples of Atmospheric Dust. Length of Length of diameter in Average. diameter in Average. mInm. mm. 16—8 _....... NG} |esooone SA ecene 8—4 BD Nene 4—2....... Qe ness Fl a eee tt tr. i “il 4 I 5 tt 2 i—t 21 1+ La 1—_5 8.6 oe 7.9 i532 40.3 io 32 33.1 3262 39.5 320 40.4 ez_ize | 0.8 seizes [14.9 12 B— 356 6 128256 1.6 areal extent of the storms which bring it. The prevailing westerly direction of the winds in these latitudes, taken in connection with the gradual change exhibited by these samples (see Tab. XX XVI) from coarse in Missourito fine in New York, may belooked upon as supporting the same view. This change in the deposits may be the result of a slow sifting out of the coarser particles during transit ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 57 from west to east. But with only a single sample from three of these places and only two from another, this evi- dence is of little weight. Again, it seems quite certain that part of the shower dust is local material. This is indicated not only by the sand it contains, but also by the color of the deposit. When collected from regions where there is a rich black soil, it is apt to be dark, and when observed in the lee of sandy and less fertile lands, it is brownish or reddish. It appears most probable, that part of the shower dust comes directly from distant places, while a part is picked up from the ground nearer to the place where it falls, or from the surface of plants, on which it has previously lodged. Som other obser- vations indicate that there is a constant migration of dust particles in the lower part of the atmosphere. These are apparently picked up and let down unceasinely by the wind. Just what proportion of the deposits which settle from this migrating dust at any particular place or time, is local, and just how much of it comes directly from distant places, is difficult to say. That coarse dust is capable of being transported lone distances in the atmos- phere can, however, under no circumstances be doubted. It floats along in considerable quantities even on the calmest days when the maximum hourly velocity of the wind does not exceed ten or fifteen miles. It constitutes from twenty-two to forty-four per cent of the totals of the dust caught on such days (Nos. 102, 107, 108, 109, 110, 118), and the smallest proportion which it forms in any of the fifty-seven samples of fine atmospheric sedi- ments I have examined, is thirteen per cent (No. 136). It seems sate to conclude that dust, which is present in such 58 ATMOSPHERIC DUST. quantity in the atmosphere, even in calms, cannot escape being carried a hundred miles or more in a strong wind. Medium dust must be capable of being transported still farther and fine, and very fine dust evidently settle with great slowness even in perfect calm, unless present in such quantity that flocculation will take place. This probably seldom occurs except near places of active wind erosion. li we now take a review of all the analyses of atmos- pheric dust here presented. that artificially collected as well as the storm dust, we notice that the maxima are scattered over three grades. In sixteen samples the maximum occurs in the coarse dust, in two it is right be- tween this and the medium dust, in thirty-eight of the samples it occurs in the medium dust, and in one it is in the fine dust. This one sample was collected from dried foliage exposed to the winds for several months, during which time a large proportion of the coarser particles had. no doubt, been dislodged. In all the cases where the maxima consist of coarse dust (except perhaps nos. 152, 155). special conditions of collecting account for the greater quantity of coarse materials. The diversity in composition of the atmospheric dust is hence more apparent than real. In two of the samples ninety per cent is distributed among five different grades; in seyen- teen samples, among four; in thirty-six, among three grades, and in one sample it is divided between two. The average position of the precise maximum (as we may designate that length of diameter. which, if taken as a limit for separation, would divide the bulk of the dust into two equal parts) appears to be a little below but not far removed from the limit between the coarse and ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 59 the medium dust. This in part accounts for the low percentages of the maxima, which never exceed sixty per cent of the entire weight of each sample and which range down to thirty. The decrease from the maximum to either extreme ingredient is uninterrupted, except in two samples collected from rain-water, which came from the root of a house. In these the coarse sand is present in ereater quantity than the medium sand. The slope from the maximum toward the coarse admixtures is more eradual than that toward the fine admixtures in nineteen of the samples. Most of these were taken near the surface of the ground in places favorably situated for the admix- ture of local material, as from the trunks of trees, from house-roots, from ice near river banks, and from snow near bare patches of ground. In thirteen samples the decrease is, on the other hand, rather more gradual to- ward the fine admixtures. Such is nearly always the case when the dust has settled in slack wind, as in the hollow cylinder, among the trees, or under shelter. In twenty- five samples the two slopes are about equally steep. These include most of the dust caught on surfaces smeared with e@lycerine and some of the shower dust. In an average of all the samples, owing to the large admix- ture of local coarse materials in a few instances, the slope is more gradual in the direction of these admixtures. But the difference is slight (Tab. XX XVIII). The significance of this last feature is quite evident. The elimination of the sand from the settling dust follows the same law as the separation of material which is still finer, from this dust. The greater vertical components in the wind near the surface of the ground are able to keep 60 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. the dust in suspension, while sand is dropped, and in the same way lesser vertical components higher up in the air mostly retain particles less than one sixty-fourth of a millimeter in diameter, while particles larger than this are slowly settling. Where no exceptional conditions prevail, the two slopes should therefore be symmetrical, since both are determined by the velocity of the atmos- pheric currents. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. While the wind-borne materials which were collected for these analyses may not represent the greatest extremes of wind work, such extremes were sought in their selec- tion. Even if more extended observation should show, as it hardly can fail to do, that pebbles considerably larger than any seen in these samples, may be moved by the wind, it is evident that atmospheric transportation is confined to rock fragments of comparatively limited range of sizes. The largest pebble found in any of these analyses, measured less than eight millimeters in diam- eter. In the opposite direction infinity is of course the extreme limit, but in the dust collected for this study the quantity of particles measuring less than one two hundred and fifty-sixth of a millimeter in diameter prob- ably in no case amounted to as much as one per cent of the whole, and generally it constituted merely a _ trace, when at all present. It was therefore neglected in the analyses. The limited range of coarseness of wind-borne mate- rials is, of course, due to the lightness of the air. Within GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 61 the same limits of velocity a lighter medium will not move such large fragments as a heavier. Water currents dislodge masses immensely greater than the largest pebble in these samples. As a result of this restriction on the work of the atmosphere, its deposits are necessarily less diverse in their mechanical composition than those of water. Another circumstance, which increases the uniformity of atmospheric sediments, is the great effectiveness of the atmosphere as a sorting agent. In different media the sorting power increases with the decrease of the carrying power. It is a familiar fact, that moving glacier ice can effect no sorting. In the same way a highly viscous liquid is a bad sorter, for its motion is slow, and the small particles it carries are not brought sufficiently far ahead of the larger ones. In a current of water the velocity is greater and the different grades of fragments are farther removed from each other in a horizontal direction, before all have time to sink. In the much lighter air this separation is still wider, owing to the higher velocities which obtain, and still more perfect sorting is the result. Whatever the air lacks in viscosity and weight must be made up by veloc- ity of its currents, if any material at all shall be trans- ported. It might be inferred that this great sorting power of the atmosphere should produce diversity rather than uniformity in the deposits.*) Such is indeed the case whenever the load, dropped during each transient period of somewhat uniform velocity, is sufficient in amount to *) See letter from Prof. Dana, Journal of Geology, Vol. III, p. 342. 62 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. appear as a distinct layer in the deposit. But this prob- ably never occurs except in the drifting dunes, and near them. In dune sand the most perfect lamination is often to be seen, even when the actual difference in the coarse- ness of the separate seams is very small (Nos. 47, 48). The deposits which accumulate nearest in the lee of drifting tracts may also sometimes become more or less stratified, when coarse layers from exceptionally heavy storms are thick enough to remain separate. This does not always happen, for rains and growing plants are effective agents in mingling successive laminae, when not too thick, into a homogeneous unstratified mass. But the lulls which occur even in the strongest winds. soon cause the coarser particles of their load to fall out, and after a while only the finer ones remain suspended. This is plainly indicated by the composition of the sam- ples of sand, which were collected in front of dunes (Nos. 64, 75). As the wind travels away from the place of loading, its many convection currents, turns, and wind- ings cause it to disperse vertically and horizontally, and the load is pari passu dispersed and thinned. From such an atmosphere sedimentation is very slow. From each transient current, marked off by cyclonic, diurnal, or shorter irregular periods, deposits are laid down, which no doubt are different from each other in mechanical composition, but the quantity from each is never suffi- ciently great to form a separate lamina. Hach deposit is. thoroughly mingled with that which has settled before, either by the settling of the particles of the latest deposit in the interstices of that laid down before, as this is not thick enough to completely cover the ground suriace, or GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, 63 else by the subsequent superficial mixing effected by various forces. Such mixing results from the direct action of the winds; indirectly, from the action of the wind on various objects which are caused to move on the surface of the ground; from rain; from frost; from the works of insects and other small animals; and from growing plants. All these agencies acting together can hardly fail to prevent any sub-aerial deposit of dust from acquiring such a fine lamination as is often seen in silts and clays, which are deposited under water and which have accumulated much more rapidly. Eolian loess is never markedly laminated, and the primary cause of the absence of this structure is the great velocity of the atmospheric currents, which scatter the materials in sus- pension over so wide areas that the deposit from each passing current becomes too small to remain as a dis- tinct layer. These analyses plainly indicate that atmospheric sedi- ments are rendered uniform also by the elimination of the finest particles, such as measure less than one one-hundred- and-twenty-eigth of a millimeter in diameter, and even to some extent the particles of the next coarser grade. It will be noticed that the very fine dust in but a few cases exceeds three per cent of the total weight of each sample examined. The fact that this fine material is not spe- cially abundant in the dust caught on the calmest days indicates that it is easily held in suspension. This is no doubt the kind of dust which follows the wind around the globe. It is carried everywhere and must be settling everywhere in exceedingly small quantities, inversely pro- portionate to the greater area over which it is being 64 : GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. spread. Falling on the land it will be washed away by erosion or enter as an inconspicuous component in the coarser atmospheric dust, and falling in the sea it will be lost among the more copious aqueous sediments there. unless places exist where these are absent. On account of this slow settling oi the finest dust we cannot expect to find it forming separate laminae in eolian deposits, for over regions where these are built up, the wind will never remain quiet long enough to permit a sufficient quantity of only fine material to settle and form such layers.*) It appears therefore that the finest wind sedi- ments, which may be laid down in such quantity as to form appreciable deposits, consist in the main oi particles ranging from coarse to fine dust, and do not have any markedly laminated structure. SUMMARY. The work of the atmosphere begins with erosion. This erosion is confined to much smaller areas than atmos- pheric sedimentation. One such area of erosion may be regarded as one oi the corners of an isosceles triangle, pointing against the wind. Between the two equal sides of this triangle transportation and sedimentation is tak- ing place. The quantity of work performed is greatest. near the area oierosion. In this area materials of varied coarseness are moved, up to pebbles which measure at least eight millimeters in diameter. Deposition of the coarsest material. such as gravels, takes place imme- diately. They are leit as a thin veneer on the surface, =) It is interesting to notice that separate layers of such fine material are seldom absent from the silts and clays deposited in waiter. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 65 and this tends to prevent further erosion. The coarser grades of sand, those containing grains from one to one fourth of a millimeter in diameter, are dragged along a greater distance, but they are unable to keep pace with dune sand, which is mostly finer. When present in suffi- cient quantity in the eroded terrane, the medium and the fine sand, and especially the latter, are heaped up into the dune drifts. These may creep over considerable distances in course of time. The sand grains which measure from one half to one eight of a millimeter in diameter, do not seem to be lifted very far in a single leap by the strongest wind, probably seldom as far as a few hundred yards, and much more often only a few feet. The very fine sand, which is next in texture, appears to be mostly dropped before it is carried many miles. Course dust remains much longer in suspension. Most of it probably settles before it is carried two or three hundred miles. The gen- eral presence in all kinds of winds of medium dust renders it likely that much of this may be carried as far as five hundred or a thousand miles before having time to settle. Dust finer than this is no doubt carried stillfarther. It must be largely scattered around the globe and is perhaps often kept floating, until it is brought down by rain. It should be understood that these estimates are for such winds as prevail over the continents. Ina tabular form they may be stated thus: Table of Approximate Maximum Distances over which Quartz Fragments of Different Dimen- sions may be lifted by Moderately Strong Winds in Single Leaps. Gravel (diameter from 8—1 mm.)..................A few feet. Coarse and medium sand (diam. 1—} mm.)..Several rods. Fine sand (diam. 4—4 mm.).............:222- cesses Less than a mile. 66 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. Very fine sand (diam. 4—; mm..).................. A few miles. Coarse dust (Gig—ss MM.)).........-c06..-0ceseseeeceeees 200 miles. Medium dust (4,—@e MM:)..............-000eeeeee eee 1,000 miles. Fine dust (#4; mm. and less).........--..0ccceeeeeees Around the globe. It is evident that the place of greatest deposition is never far from the place of greatest erosion, when the eroded terrane consists of coarse as well as fine materials. It is generally marked by the accumulation of dune sand. From this point deposition decreases, owing to the trans- versely horizontal and the vertical dispersion of the load by spreading winds and owing to the previous settling of the coarser particles. A limit is sooner or later reached, where aqueous erosion is more rapid than the accumula- tion of atmospheric sediments. Beyond this limit the latter will of course not appear. It is also evident that the different grades of materials are so tar separated from each other in the direction ot the wind movement, that even with considerable changes in velocity, the principal area of the deposition of sedi- ments of one grade will not far encroach upon that of the deposition of materials much coarser or much finer. Gravel or coarse sand, for instance, will never be carried to the region of the main dust deposit, nor will the fine sand. For any particular locality a wind sediment will hence be quite uniform in composition in a single triangle. In nature we must, however, expect to find a mul- tiplicity of these triangular areas of wind action, wher- ever the conditions are such that erosion by the atmos- phere may take place. They must be found overlapping and inclosing each other. The sediment in any particular place may hence be found to contain grains of varied GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 67 coarseness, within the limits of the transporting power of the air, and the proportion of the different ingredients will be determined by the position of the place of its accumulation with regard to different areas of erosion. Small areas of erosion are found almost everywhere, and local material will therefore seldom be absent from any wind deposit. Should places of erosion be numerous in any particular region this may itself be regarded as the windward angle in a great triangle with a great area of deposition to the leeward. THE PROBLEM OF THE LOESS. It seems probable that the Western plains and the Mississippi valley maintain the windward-leeward rela- tion to each other. Dust which is stirred up over the plains must be carried east by the prevailing winds, and a part of it no doubt settles over the great central valley. The loess and surface silts, which are spread over most of the territory in this valley, resemble atmospheric sed- iments considerably in their mechanical composition. *) It is generally finer in the east and coarser in the west, and it decreases in thickness from west to east. The ques- tion whether it is, in the main, aqueous or eolian, cannot be considered as yet settled. It seems doubtful if the deposition at present exceeds erosion over all of this area, but a very slight change in elevation or in climate may lately have reversed the condition in this respect. The question of changed conditions is a very complex one. *) See Report on the Examination of Some Soils from Illinois, by Milton Whitney in the Report of the Illinois Board of World’s Fair Commissioners; also Prelim- inary Report of the Driftless Area of the Upper Mississippi Valley, by Chamberlin and Salisbury. 68 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. The following statements, which were made in a letter written by Professor Dana just before his death, set forth certain objections to the eolian hypothesis. “With regard to the eolian work along valley plains, I think great caution is necessary because eolian work is of a fitful kind. ‘The more powerful winds blow in gusts or rather a succession of them, and each of the gusts is of a rather narrow limit; and in each gust great velocity is succeeded by a decline in which the depositions vary accordingly as to fine and coarse and limit. Making loess — unstratified — by the winds would require a steady breeze sufficient to move the light earth or sand long in a common direc- tion, but too near unvaryving in force or velocity to pro- duce alternations from coarse to fine. It is an even kind of work that winds are not often fit for.”*) In the last edition of Dana’s classic Manual the correctness of Richt- hofen’s theory of the Chinese loess is regarded as improb- able owing to the absence of winddrift structure (lamina- tion)**). Possibly the absence of such structure was Dana’s chief objection to an eolian hypothesis of the origin of the American loess. His argument that the deposit from every changing gust of wind must vary in coarseness according to the velocity, expresses a general law which certainly is true, but it seems that there are some special conditions which supervene, as explained above, and that these will necessarily modify the results of the operation of this law and limit its application to such deposits as are accumulating rapidly near places of atmospheric erosion. *) See Journal of Geology, Vol. 3, p. 342. **) Manual of Geology, p. 195. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 69 Other objections to an eolian origin of the American loess have been made. These refer especially to some geographical features, which cannot be considered here, but which will nevertheless have to be taken into account in a full discussion. of the subject. Some distinguished American students of this puzzling formation appear in- clined to suspend judgment or to ascribe its genesis to sey- eral distinct processes. Though the eolian hypothesis has been more or less considered by all geologist who have had occasion to study the loess, it seems that the nature of the work really performed by the atmosphere is too imperfectly known to admit, as yet, of any thorough dis- cussion of the efficiency or inefficiency of the wind as a loess-maker in America. A study of this work should precede a final verdict on the origin of this formation, and this thought has been a stimulus while pursuing the studies whose results are here recorded. Further studies of this kind coupled with a careful examination of the loess and associated silts in all their varied phases promise to aid in the eventual solution of the “problem of the loess’’. An Old Indian Village. BY JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN. ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, 1900. PRINTERS. Ai ‘4, Hh ! PEPAR IE tLe | SOT OAM Mus euy TVTITAR WES Pan A piece from a chain mail, found on the old village site on Paint creek, McPherson county, Kansas. _ An Old Indian Village. BY JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN. ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS, 1900. CONTENTS. Frontispiece ae 2 Contents (BI@UNIEX1Sioreqoouas econ as cecoseeeoedd dcbodads -Sca0s0n du oc ba gon oa DEM aro nBOsbados hoger Seog ses0.c0005 Notched bone Flakers.. Hairpins ? TBXAI2(0 1S par Saacen pean cate Gaede doincscaec odo acutaeddneree .SocseieeEccrcoeoaneosoaceeriaecr ce rcoecado BS SKOXOWMISH CYSTITIS ope seque ad ven doooedd ae a aaondone areca aden A nBSna doearsconcne Acad goer AcenensoHog 19 POTTERY « 2 Forms and kinds of vessels................- 23, Methods of fastening the handles 2 Ornamentation 28 JAIN OTOTS: AIGA} OL? C1E0 141 Gono nasbngodddbodonsnondeadocoLos soadoncodsaddbensosodarosedacroooadenD 31 SYGI OTT AVeT HS aeccnapecdapaocbnconsneaconcsonGon indoden boTasod atocceancecca acca esoqeocandkacnacoodcanas 31 ITEresulariOnmskOtschapeusneeercesseeeereeeer teeter cecee sess eeetecrs oo Flint knives Atrrowpoints.. Spearheads.... MARV Sesser ctete crete stare cles nea Re nacre se a rnin cw ave Meisner ez inbiclom el relein ex Saree ecite imotiente me weston J DUIS ce copoockenaon caesorano asboc a not ee sce Onc HCE ABoe: bila Sos cuPcHonTaSaaoeconceeGacmac map RCnce sats Hand hammers ARTICLES MADE: FROM SANDSTONE Giri A SE OMES Recsseeeae tie ees eee ee eee Oe ee eC Gc bes ose Manes cieai aves 4 JNA RON YASHTWOY 0) XE 129) occocccdadusbocodoa ~oncodadapobocenosuscoasaosbaicebodunaddcosnaccano600 GupPPEGES TOMES Ee acecea cc teee eae se cece esee ee Serere eee c at ae cacles se asaaeeeemwaoeeeses 56 (CACTIE TINT BPP ES hteane esac eererse actu ccukuctiseacae gee orton eo etenen cp atuectsueetres 7 ARTICLES MADE FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS. Stone mallets “0 ARGON ATE HSI OIOVET IY ada cancasansoosdacaosddende-acdodaddesudsdecconnGedbeseroabaadonAacHDaOco 64 SIN JOROO TUE NAIC: THE) I Csceebqodseqoseccoosonousebabbodecodsusdecsocsoces DedeueRBcHeaECRcEecoooC A PIECE OF AN OLD ARMOR PROBABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRIBE TDS)DEX 56 copane BGSCEOSOS aE CoE ROTOSORC CR CaBCOET EDO COnenG dedusaemmencenusaesces neinngcisosohannbocicoccnanosoand 79 AUTHOR’S NOTE. I! the fall of 1881, while engaged as instructor in Bethany Academy, now Bethany College, at Lindsborg, Kansas, one of my scholars called my attention to some mounds south of the Smoky Hill river, where various an- tiquities had been picked up by the settlers. I visited the locality and saw that it gave promise of interesting finds of aboriginal relics. Here was some- thing worth taking care of. During the subsequent seven years I frequently went to the place, sometimes in company with fellow teachers and with students. The contents and the structure of the mounds were noted and their locations . were marked on a small plat of the land. In course of time a collection of relics accumulated. This is yet intact tn the possession of the institution in whose service Iwas then employed, and additions are still being made by my successor Professor J. E. Welin. At the Emporia meeting of the Kansas Academy of Science in 1886 Imade a brief report of my observations on these antiquities. But it was impractic- able at that time to present the details. It seems that these mounds and their relics are of more than passing interest and in a way are representative of the archeology of the state. Before I parted with the material which had been secured up to 1889, I concluded to write an account of the collections then on hand. This account has served as a basis for the present paper. In preparing the following pages I have deliberately had two objects in view. I have sought to present some brief and correct descriptions of a collection strictly limited to one single locality. Thais is done in the hope that the descrip- tions together with the photographic reproductions jpresented in the figures and plates may prove serviceable to science. The author is, however, no archzxol- ogist. This will be his last as well as his first paper bearing on topics of this kind, wnless, perchance, he should again find his residence in the front yard of some prehistoric domicile. I have also sought to write these few pages in such a way that they may prove profitable reading to such of the general public as are interested in the study of Indian relics. It is believed that the material lends itself to such a double purpose. 8 AUTHOR’S NOTE. The average American has a scientific instinct, which he is fond of cultivat- ing wherever he be. Many farmers, merchants, and professional men in the West are making small collections of Indian relics. Should this paper come into the hands of collectors or students of this class, [hope that it may whet their appetite for more and better literature of the same kind. I also hope that it may aid and encourage them in their efforts to study and to take care of the antiquities found in their own immediate vicinity. Tv do this is at the same time their particular privilege and their special duty to the cause of science. To former pupils, fellow teachers, and others who aided in making the ex- plorations on Paint ereek I extend my thanks and my greetings of most pleas- ant recollections. In particular I keep in grateful remembrance the kindly in- terest, aid, and valuable advise always freely bestowed by the venerable pioncer and scientist Dr. John Rundstrom, formerly of McPherson county, Kansas. For special aid in preparing the paper I am under obligations to Dr. C. A. Swensson, president of Bethany. College, to Professor Frank Nelson, Superin- tendent of Public Instruction of the State of Kansas, and to Professor J. E. Welin of Bethany College. The photographs for the illustrations were, with one exception, made by Mr. B. G. Grondahl of Lindsborg, Kansas, and figures 6 and 27 were drawn by Professor Olof Grafstrém of Rock Island, Ii. PALE. Augustana College, May 1st, 1900. INTRODUCTORY. The monuments left by prehistoric races in the United States are much more numerous in the eastern part of the Mississippi valley than over the Western Plains. This is plainly shown on a map issued some years ago by the Bureau of Ethnology and prepared to exhibit the geographical distribution of prehistoric works east sk of the Rocky Mountains.* From the Mississippi river and eastward, the localities of mounds and other pre- historic works appear numerous and crowded, while west- ward from the great river they are few and scattered. Evidently in prehistoric times as at present the more fertile and more richly watered eastern plains afforded a more congenial environment to the inhabitants than the less favored western country. In another respect, also, the monuments of early man in America bear wit- ness to a comparatively small population in prehistoric times westward from the great river. On the Western Plains we find none of those magnificent earthen struc- tures, that were erected by the prehistoric people of the Ohio valley and by those who dwelled near the Missis- sippi. The conditions of existence in the west evidently did not result in the development of such powerful com- munities as could spare the energy needed for the con- struction of great mounds. * Catalogue of Prebistoric Works east of the Rocky Mountains, by Cyrus Thomas, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., 1891. 10 INTRODUCTORY. But the greater observed frequency of antiquities east of the Mississippi river is to some extent due to a less complete knowledge of the western territory. A number of explorers have been at work in the eastern territory for more than three quarters of a century, while comparatively few have paid any attention to archeological explorations on the west slope oi the great central valley. and this for only the last few dec- ades. This region has only tardily received the atten- tion it deserves. There can be no doubt that future work will bring to light many more localities in the west where prehistoric man has left traces of his exis- tence. Some recently made discoveries give decided promise that this will be the case. In the last few years Mr. J. V. Brower has located some sixty hitherto unknown sites of aboriginal villages in the eastern part oi the state of Kansas,* and others have re- ported similar localities from the region north of this state. From such explorations in Kansas as are known to the author of this paper, it appears that the antiqui- ties in this state are associated with two distinct types of mounds: burial mounds and elevated dwelling sites. Many oi the latter. perhaps the greater number, are no mounds at all but merely the flat suriace oi the ground where the dwellings of an earlier race have once been standing. These would never be noticed, were it not for the relics of household art, chase, and warfare scattered about the place. But frequently there occur * Memoirs of Exploraitons in the Basin of the Mississippi, Vol. Il, Harahey, by J. V. Brower, p. V., St. Paul, 1899. INTRODUCTORY. 11 together with these relics heaps of earth a foot or two high and perhaps a rod wide. These village sites, as they have been called, do not occupy any conspicuously high places, but usually lie on or near some flat and fertile lowlands as on the border of an alluvial plain. The burial mounds are different. They are higher and somewhat less flat on top. Frequently there is a pile or a layer of rocks within them, and under this, some human remains. ‘They are usually built on high bluffs or on upland hills overlooking some extensive lowlands. They can almost always be found on bluffs near the junction of larger streams and their size is somewhat proportionate to that of the confluent waters. Mounds of this kind have been reported from near. the mouth of the Kansas,* near the junction of the Big Blue and the Kansas, and near the junction of the Republican and the Smoky Hill.** The author has seen some along the Smoky Hill river west of the latter locality and on several of the high buttes in Saline and McPherson counties, and he has opened: two in the latter county. One of these is on the summit of the highest butte of the Smoky Hills and the other is west of Gypsum creek near the northeast corner of McPherson county. Both mounds were partly built of rocks, under which there were charred human bones and some roughly chipped flints. In the present state of our knowledge of the antiquities of Kansas we are hardly justified in making any conjectures as to whether these two types of mounds * Traces of the Aborigines in Riley County. Prof. G. H. Failyer. Trans. of the Kansas Acad. of Sci., 1879—1880, p. 132. ** Kansas Mounds, F. G. Adams. Trans. of the Kansas Acad. of Sci., 1877 —1878, p. 51. 12 THE PAINT CREEK MOUNDS. are the products of two different people or whether they have been made by the same race for different purposes. In either case there is little doubt that the burial mounds served some purpose in connection with some mortuary or religious customs, or possibly military practices, among entire tribes or nations, while the dwel- ling sites merely mark the place of the abode of some household or clan, occupied in ordinary and peaceful every day pursuits. THE PAINT CREEK DWELLING SITES.* On the west bank of Paint creek about a mile and a half south of the Smoky Hill river in McPherson county there is a group of some fifteen low mounds which must be classified as dwelling sites in an aborig- inal village. They are scattered over the southeast quarter of the northwest quarter of section twelve in township eighteen south -and range four west of the sixth principal meridian. For the most part the group occupies a gentle slope to the southeast and east, which extends from the left bank of the creek. The mounds do not seem to be arranged in any particular order, but the distance separating them is, in most cases, about 125 feet. or a multiple of this distance. (Fig. 1). This left a convenient space beeween the dwel- lings. A line running through the outer members of * These are the same mounds that Mr. J. V. Brower has called the Udden Village Site in his Quivira, Vol. I, Memoirs of Explorations in the Basin oi the Mississippi, p. 55. Itis from no disregard for the distinguished explorer that the present author prefers to here retain the designation above used. THE PAINT CREEK MOUNDS 13 Fie. 1. Plat of the mounds on the old village site on Paint creek in McPherson county, Kansas. The plat covers the southeast quarter of the northwest quarter of section twelve, township eighteen south, range four west of the sixth principal meridian. The dotted lines are contour lines, with ten feet intervals. the group would inclose an area of about twenty acres. The site may have been chosen with regard to con- venient access to water and fuel. There are some good springs in the creek a short distance to the south and there is some small timber along its banks. In other respects the choice seems to have been equally fortunate. To the south and west there is a gravel containing boulders of chert, from which darts and scrapers could be made. The southeast slope of the ground would tend to modify the severity of the northwest winds in win- ter. Fishing was profitable in the Smoky Hill river near by to the north. The surrounding hilly slope of the upland and the river bottoms to the north afforded a variety of game at all seasons. It was an ideal vil- lage site for a savage tribe. 14 STRUCTURE OF THE MOUNDS. STRUCTURE OF THE MOUNDS. Each mound is circular in form and has a diameter of from twenty to twenty-five feet. None are more than three feet high. The average height is somewhat less than two feet, and some rise only slightly above the ground. The material of which these mounds are com- posed is principally loose soil or mud, which is heaped up on the surface of the prairie. On digging down the material was found to be soft until the original prairie level was reached, when the ground became hard. Below this it had apparently never been disturbed. Through the upper loose soil there were all sorts of relics, mostly broken. There were also broken bones of animals, pieces of pottery, here and there bits of charcoal, pock- ets of ashes, flint chips, various kinds of arrowpoints, scrapers, and knives of flint. Occasionally small blocks of sandstone or limestone were met with, which had been subjected to the action of fire. It was not possible to detect any order in the arrangement of the contents of the mounds and there were no buried human remains. Just how the mounds were built seems uncertain. The mud perhaps accumulated inside the dwellings during a repeated residence of the natives, which occurred at some certain season of the year. All the materials found imbedded, were such household goods as may be supposed to have become useless to the inhabitants, or such as may from time to time have been lost. Most of them were broken. The pockets of ashes occasionally found may mark the site of the places where fires were ANIMAL BONES. 15 Fie. 2. Toe, made from a shoulder blade of the bison. ’ Reduced about 44. 16 ANIMAL BONES. made. Possibly the ground was built up for the pur- pose of keeping the run-off away during rains. If such was the case, additions must have been made from time to time, for discarded household articles are found in the lower part of the heaps as well as in the upper. Evidently the mounds were not completed all at once. The bones found in the upper part are not as far ad- vanced in decay as those found near the bottom. In- deed it seems possible that the mounds may have been built up from wind-blown dirt and sand settling in dwellings which were left vacant during some season by a nomadic tribe which occupied them during only a part of the year. ANIMAL BONES. The abundant presence of animal bones testifies that the people who lived here secured a great part of their sustenance by hunting. The meat of the bison must have been their staple food. The long bones o7 this animal have almost always been broken. Evidently the marrow was eaten. Considering the great number of these long bones there was a noticeable scarcity of skulls, ribs, and vertebras. This circumstance may be taken to indicate that the hunters were in the habit of leaving in the field such parts of the bison as did not furnish the most suitable food. Bones of the antelope, the wolf, the wild-cat, the skunk, and the wild turkey were also observed, as well as the vertebras of various fishes. and the valves of common river clams. ARTICLES MADE FROM BONE AND SHELL. 7 ARTICLES MADE FROM BONE AND SHELL. Bones were manufactured into various kinds of imple- ments. The shoulder blade of the bison is frequently found beveled on the verte- bral border in such a way as to suggest that it has been used as a spade or as a hoe (Fig. 2). From the fragments of the long bones gouge-shaped tools were pre- pared by beveling one end on the concave side (Fig. 3). About a dozen of these gouges were found, two of them entire, the others being more or less fragmentary. It seems probable that such tools may have been useful in the preparation of hides, or for digging in the ground. One piece of a bone, about eight inches in length, evi- dently a part of a rib of a bison, was marked by a num- ber of transverse grooves. This may have been some sort of a record or calendar (Fig. 4). Three specimens Fic. 3. Gouge-shaped tool made from a long bone of the bison, Reduced about 44, ARTICLES MADE FROM BONE AND SHELL. of clavicles of some animal were cut off at both ends and smooth- ened and polished as from wear. It has been suggested that these may have been used as hair-pins (Fig. 5). One specimen of the lower jaw of a bison had the teeth worn down straight and smooth to about half their length, as if rubbed against a concave object. The lower end of a tarsal bone of a prong-horn antelope was detached by a circular groove running around the entire bone. There were three tools of bone shaped with one smooth and rounded end, very much like the handle of a tooth brush and marked by irregular ~ transverse cuts near the other end (Fig. 5). These were perhaps used as flakers in shaping flint tools, for they can still be applied so as to detach small flakes from flint chips. This is described by some ethnologists as being done by hold- ing the flaker firmly in one hand and pressing it against the flint, which is placed between the bone and the thumb and held in the other hand (Fig. 6). In his paper on Arrowpoints, Spearheads, and ARTICLES MADE FROM BONE AND SHELL. 19 Knives of Prehistoric Times Dr. Thomas Wilson has mentioned some similar objects, which are believed to have been used in this way. He says they are usually Geneon anne ade or deer horn and ake “short witiie bone !took and round with a point like one’s little finger”. It is difficult to see for what other pur- pose such bones could serve. A few long beads, made from bones of birds, were picked up (Fig. 5), as were also some bear’s teeth. Two large unioshells were found, which had been ground round on the edges and care- fully polished so as to resemble spoons. os These were in a far ot, - ge advanced state of de- Fic. 5. Figure to the left: hairpin? made of bone. Middle A figure: bead made from the bone of a bird. Figure to the cay and fell to pleces right: Flint faker? made from bone. All slightly reduced. before they could be properly cared for. It may be of interest to note that these shells, as near as the author could ascertain, belonged to a species which in- habits the water of the Smoky Hill river, POTTERY. 20 ‘poonpod APUSITS ov Solnsy oy TV * YO UoT[By OARY SaUtt DUVIG OL, “fF 'SY OT *) OM “ABO JO SoUlL TIM poowiq pur suonyeaojsod pojtosur spue YOq WEA eTpusy Vy ‘ge DIT “Moped suOnoTdsuoD AT[BIOeds st SUL SUTOBIG OL, “SY ONVT ‘9 DLL ‘g ‘DI ‘PSY OAT “ABLO JO SHUI TIM poowaq pue suorye1o0jziod out poysosut spuo Yj0q UIT oe[pusy VW PDL “SUM SuLOvaq B YGIM pouotysuedys nay puv uoypiojtod @ UL pojtosut st u ‘7 SY OFT pUud TOMOT OIL, ‘[OSSOA BJO TUTE OY} 09 “PIT puo doddn sjr WIM yougs eTpuBy y "TDI ‘I ALVId JO NOILVNV1dxXd PLATE I. POTTERY. 2% we POTTERY. All through the material of the mounds there was a great number of broken pieces of earthenware, several hundreds of which were gathered up. This earthenware is made from a clay which is mixed with sand, ground shells, or bone. It does not show any great skill on part of the workmen. Most of the vessels have been made with little care. This can be seen in the varia- tions in the thickness of the broken pieces and in their uneven edges wherever these follow the upper rim of the vessels. Finger marks are often to be found on the surface of the sherds. The inferior quality of the work- manship is also evident in the method of attachment of the handles and in occasional rude attempts in de- coration. The burning also seems uneven and imperfect. Only one vessel was found in nearly entire condition, and the workmanship of this was greatly superior to that of the rest. Forms and Kinds of Vessels. It is not possible in every instance to make conjectures as to the real shape of the vessels that are thus found only in broken frag- ments. Some are large enough to indicate the general . y Fie. 7. 1) Large jar. 2) Smaller jar. 3) Bowl. 4) Cup. Various forms of earthenware. POTTERY. 24 ‘ *paonpat ATYSITS ear ¢ pue ‘te ‘T somnsty “STOLRIUAPUT JO SMOI OM} puB seroors MoT[RYS Torpeued OM} WGIM payst[fequia e[pury y “) DI ‘qouy peuyep IIE UB OjUL pus yore ye poaouporid pur ‘uo 3ongs ‘eTpury [[Vus y 'p OMT *pua raddn oyy ye qoux [eyueURUIO T[RUIS B JIM o[puBy osael y ‘9 “DIG *qouy Sapna, -o1d ® YIM pojueuleU -10 o[puRy UeyoIq y "e OLL *soaoods [oTpRaed. eal} UJIM pejuowued -10 o[pury wexo1q VW cea) (sb *PAOCIS 4YYSII4S a[SUIS B YYIM pajueuvusLO ofpuey y “¢ ‘DIT ‘SUO1]R}MepUr punod JO oul, B YJLM pajuomeuso ofpusy vy TPM I] ALVId OL NOILVNV1dxd iw) 7 POTTERY. form. The greater number appear to have been large jars, about a foot in diameter and from eight to ten inches in height, with an opening more narrow than the widest part (Fig. 7, nos. 1 and 2). The upper rim was either vertical or more or less abruptly flaring. One fragment indicated a form quite similar to that of the modern tea-cup (Fig. 7, no. 4). Another must have been a part of a wide elliptical bowl (Fig. 7, no. 3). Methods of Fastening ‘the Handles. Handles were attached to the rim of all large pots. There were two methods in use for fastening these to the vessel. One was that of perforating the sides of the vessel and in- serting the ends of the handle into the perforation and then bracing it by placing a ring of clay around the inserted ends (Plate II, figs. 4, 5, and 7). The other method consisted in merely plastering the ends of the handle to the outer side of the vessel (Plate H, fig. 3). In some cases the two methods were combined and the upper end of the handle was stuck on the rim, while the lower end was inserted into a perforation (Plate I, figs. 1 and 2). When the handles are stuck on, there is also often a bracing ring applied to make the joint stronger. The first method was used in larger vessels as a rule, and the latter method was more common in the case of the smaller ones. In many cases when the handle is stuck on, it is too small for the insertion of a finger and may have been used for the purpose of sus- pending the vessels by means of a thong or string. Near the place of attachment of the two ends of the handle, there is often a protruding knob, which may be absent, however, either above or below (Plate I, fig. 28 POTTERY. 6, Plate I, figs. 3, 4, 6). All of the handles observed, with one exception, were placed vertically. In the case of the exception it extended laterally in a horizontal plane, about one inch and a half below the upper rim of the vessel. Ornamentation. The style of ornamentation occa- sionally seen on the common pottery is particularly crude and consists mostly in the placing of linear and dotted indentations on the handles, or ears, and on the upper rim of the vessels. (Plate Il). These indentations are arranged in the simplest kind of patterns, such as single, | double, or triple lines. No at- tempts to represent animate objects have been observed on any specimens. The convex Fic. 8. A potsherd with partially obliterated indentations of some plaited surface ot a few sherds is fabric. The impressions are on the outer (convex) surface. Slightlyredueed. Hqginted red. On many pieces there were some shallow indentations suggesting partly obliterated impressions of some coarse plaited fabric (Fig. 8), which indicates that the vessels were moulded in some sort of plaited form. This is known to have been a common method of moulding clay among the Indians. On the sherd from the bottom of one vessel there was a circular raised ring (Fig. 9). This seems to be too small for increasing the stability of the vessel on the ground and was perhaps rather intended to secure its equilibrium when placed on the head, where Indian water carriers are in the habit of supporting POTTERY. 29 Fie. 9. A potsherd with an elevated ring, forming the base of the vessel. Slightly reduced. them. In one of the mounds there was found, standing in an upright position, a broken fine vessel of large size, not far from fourteen inches in diameter and about a foot high (Fig. 10). The sides of this vessel were quite thin, only little exceeding an eighth of an inch in thickness. The upper outer surface was decorated by straight parallel lines forming V-shaped patterns. Be- low the widest part of the vessel the outside was smooth. A number of ears adorned the outside of its upper rim. Parts of the upper rim as well as of the bottom were wanting. 30 POTTERY. ’ In its imperfection of manufacture and in its crude ornamentation the pottery gathered from the mounds is related to that of the aboriginal people in the north- ern Mississippi valley.* From the tempering it appears Fig. 10. A piece of a broken ornamented vessel. Slightly reduced. that the potters were familiar with the use of ground shells, which is found in the southern pottery, as well as with the use of sand, which was commonly mixed with the clay for the same purpose among the prehis- toric people in the north.* * See Ancient Pottery etc., Holmes, Rept. Bur. of Ethn., Smithsonian Insti- tution, Wash., D. C., 1882—1883, p. 426. ARTICLES MADE OF CHERT. 31 ARTICLES MADE OF CHERT. Chips and. implements of flint are found all through the material in the mounds and are scattered on the surface on the ground between them. Some of the chert contains silicified fusulinas. This was perhaps brought from the region of the cherty limestone farther east in the state. Other material resembles that found in the Equus gravel and may well have been taken in the surrounding country. It was manufactured into a va- riety of objects such as scrapers, knives, arrowpoints, spearpoints, awls, drills, hoes, spades, tomahawks, and hand-hammers. SCRAPERS. The scraper was the most common tool made from chert. They are found everywhere. The author col- lected some two hundred specimens and many have been carried away by others. These implements average one and three-fourths of an inch in length and one inch in width. It is triangular, with a rounded point at one end and a convex wider base at the other (Figs. 11, 12 and 13.) The scrapers occur in all conditions of per- fection of workmanship and in all stages of wear and hard usage. There are great variations in size. The length runs from seven-eighths of an inch to nearly four inches; the width, from one to two inches; and the thickness, from one eighth of an inch to two thirds. OE nema a BA am a EE SSE 32 SCRAPERS. Fie. 11. Typical scrapers. Natural size. The method of making this tool seems to have de- termined its form. It is always a flake with one flat side showing no chipping. On this side it was evidently detached from a larger piece of chert. Then the edges were trimmed and straightened by small flaking on the outer convex edges. This was the easiest and quickest way of making an edged tool from chert. Some flakes have been put into service without any finishing what- ever, as is evident from their worn unchipped edges. SCRAPERS. Tic. 12. Chert scrapers. Typical forms. Very slightly reduced. But the scrapers that are well finished show the most wear. In two hundred specimens which were carefully examined, one hundred and twenty-two were rounded on the left edge and one hundred and_ thirty-three showed wear on the right edge. Twenty-six of these specimens were also worn on the edge of the base. In this whole number only fifty-two specimens showed no signs of having been blunted by wear. Of thirty-five roughly finished specimens, twenty-three showed no signs of wear. This indicates a preference among the users for finished tools. Some of the specimens indicate 34 SCRAPERS. that the edge, after having been worn round, subse- quently was again sharpened by chipping. The uses to which such scrapers could be applied were no doubt quite varied, such as removing meat from bones and scraping the bark from the shafts of arrows. It seems to be an instrument that was capable of being made very generally useful in primitive indus- tries. It appears to have been held between the thumb and the forefinger when in service, the flat side no doubt preferably being turned against the thumb. If the users were right-handed, it ought to follow that the average wear of the right edge of the scrapers ought to be greater than that of the left edge. Such appears also to be the case. Fic. 13. Typical scrapers. Natural size. IRREGULAR FORMS OF SCRAPERS. Some scrapers had a lengthened and sharpened point and an irregular base, which did not seem to have been shaped for the hand (Plate III, fig. 5). These did not exhibit any wear of the edges and may have had vt IRREGULAR FORMS OF SCRAPERS. Fic. 14. 1, 2, 3. Thin chert flakes, fashioned to knives with sharp edges. 4. Broken specimen of the same kind. 5. Entire knife, finely finished. 6. Roughly finished scraper or knife. 7. A scraper with a rounded spoon-shaped termination. 8. A broken scraper or knife. All natural size. some special use for which the sharp point was designed. They would be effective instruments for flaying a rabbit or for opening a fish or a fowl. Several scrapers agree in being fashioned with a rounded spoon-like termina- tion instead of a point (Fig. 14, no. 7). The edges of these are well rounded and worn. Nine specimens were long and narrow and had only been chipped on one EXPLANATIONS TO PLATE III. ae = Fig. 2: a A yery even- ly chipped thin and small knife Fie. 1. A form of flint tool intermediate a : Whe es 29 between a scraper A typical Enife. . F and a knife. chipped very * ale smooth. Fic. 3. A small flake knife only slight. chipped. : | ‘Fic. 7. 2 The largest scraper Fie. 5. Fic. 6. : _ found. The reverse flat ‘ A long and pointed _ _ A typical flaked side of the specimen scraper. 2 Enife. hasa concave flexure of -1875 of aninch in the direction from point to All figures are the natural size. PLATE III. wy 7. FLINT KNIVES. 39 edge, the other edge being a fracture inclined at a high angle to the flat side. Only three of these had the chipped edge worn; one of them was broken. The form sugeests an adaptation of an accidentally formed chip for easily obtaining a tool with a long edge. FLINT KNIVES. Some of the flint imple- ments which have a partic- ularly sharp edge, may properly be called knives, as they were probably used for cutting. Thesearemade of thin flakes which are more straight and usually longer than the scrapers (Fig. 14, nos: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,.and Plate III, fig. 1, 2, 3, 4,6). In a lot of fifteen none exhibited the rounded blunted edges commonly seen among the scrapers. By proper effort and care they can yet be used to cut off stems of shrubs and small branches of trees. One of these knives shows a considerable amount of skill and care by the 40 ARROWPOINTS. maker (Fig. 15). It is nearly five inches in length and measures almost two inches in width and not more than a quarter of an inch in thickness, with an even, sharp edge all around. Another flint which was sharp enough to be used as a knife, showed no finish whatever. ARROWPOINTS. Forty-five arrowpoints of flint were found, and of these only ten were entire. The rest were more or less broken. The greater part are so called bird’s arrow- points. These are about three quarters of an inch in Fie. 16. Arrowpoints. Natural size. length and a little less than one half of an inch in width and very thin (Fig. 16). Near the base they are quite thin, and have a triangular form, without any barbs or notches for attachment. Only three of them had such notches (Fig. 16, no. 5), and these otherwise per- fectly resembled the other specimens. Another type of arrowpoints was somewhat larger, being a little more than one inch in length and slightly less than one inch in width, generally with notches above a narrow base. No points with true barbs have been noticed on the village site, as far as the author knows. SPEARHEADS. 41 Flints of this kind are among the most common of prehistoric relics, and the number found in this locality seems rather small in comparison with that of the scrapers. It should be remembered that they are of small size and not quite as conspicuous in the field as the scrapers. Nor is it likely that scrapers were as well taken care of as the arrow-points, which were more difficult to make. Arrows were used and lost on the hunting grounds rather than in the village, beyond the limits of which the scrapers may not so often have been taken. SPEARHEADS. There were also found thirty-two chipped flint imple- ments, which are supposed to have been used as spear- heads. Only six specimens were entire. Ten were broken- off points, six of the fragments had the base entire, and ten had both the base and the point broken off. Three different types may be distinguished in the lot. In two of these types the left edge has been beveled upward and the right edge downward in such a way that when thrown the spear would tend to rotate from right to left (Plate IV, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6). In the other type the chipping is equal on both sides of each edge and the edge itself is sharper (Plate IV, fig. 5). There are two kinds of the beveled spearheads. One has a base which is separated from the point by wide notches, evi- dently intended for strengthening the attachment (Plate IV, figs. 2, 4), while in the other kind the base is drawn EXPLANATIONS TO PLATE IV. Fie. 2. Tite. il A narrow, Fie. 3. eee probably sever- al times re- chipped bevel A broken, prob- ably re-chipped A large bevel edged spear- head with a flat base. Not much used. edged spear- bevel wee spear- Them aan pee with a flat notched base. 3 Broken. | 1 | Fie. 5. * A spearhead with a flat base and equally Fie. 6. Fie. 4. much flaked on A bevel edged : A broken bevel edged the two sides of the spearhead with flat spearpoint with a notched | edges. The pointis base. Made of dark base. down and the orig- yellow flint. inal photograph is somewhat imper fect. « All are nearly the natural size. PLATE IV. ; i s SPEARHEADS. 45 out into a flat point without any notches (Plate LV, figs. 1, 3, 6). Most of the specimens seem to be of this latter kind. The users of these spearheads were prob- ably in the habit of sharpening them by chipping off flakes on the beveled edges, whenever these would be- come blunt, for in some of the specimens that seem to have been much used, the point tapers very slowly at first and then rapidly toward the base, the whole edge presenting a concave outline instead of a convex one (Plate IV, figs. 2, 3). The edge may originally have been made straight, and sharpened by flaking ‘after- ward. The same is also indicated by the nature of the edge itself. The largest of the spearheads were four inches in length and one and three quarters of an inch in width. Archaeologists have found it difficult to establish a precise distinction between arrowpoints and spear- heads.* Some of the above described specimens may have been used for large arrows. The chief difference in the use of the spear and the arrow was that the former was thrown from the hand while the latter was impelled by the bow-string. Both were used in warfare and in chase. The spear was probably also used in fishing. Dr. Thomas Wilson, who has made a special study of the bevel-edged spearheads, states that in their dis- tribution these flints are confined to the interior part of the United States and to the South. He also regards it as evident that the beveling was intended to make the missile rotate in its flight, and notes that this * Arrowpoints, Spearheads, and Knives of Prehistoric Times by Thomas Wil- son, An. Rept. Smith. Inst., 1897, p. 889, 46 AWLS. might have been more easily effected by twisting the feathers on the shaft. It should be remembered in this connection that if the point were not also twisted in a rotating spear, its penetration would no doubt be less, as the cutting edge would be made to traverse a plane which would always be more or less oblique to the plane of the point itself. AWLS. About a dozen implements of flint were of such form as to suggest a use like that of the awl, for making perforations through hides. These had an extended sharp point from half an inch to an inch in length, Fie. 17. Awls made from flint. Very slightly reduced. about three sixteenths of an inch in width, and almost the same thickness, extending from a base of variable shape (Fig. 17). In one instance this base showed that the implement had been made from a scraper. These points can readily be used for making stitches through leather and, if proper care be taken, for boring small holes in soft wood. LEAF-FLINTS AND TOMAHAWKS. 47 DRILLS. Related to the awls, there are some carefully chipped drills, which differ from the awls in being thicker, longer, less sharply pointed, more straight, and more uniform Fie. 18. Drills made from flint. Very slightly reduced. in width (Fig. 18). These have no widened base to be used as a handle. Most of them show considerable wear on the edges and the nature of this wearing is such as to suggest that it may have been produced by turning the instrument in a hole. ‘The drilling observed in some catlinite pipes, described farther on, may have been made by means of these tools. LEAF-FLINTS AND TOMAHAWKS. Quite a number of large chipped flint pieces were found which may have served as hoes or spades for cultivating the soil and for digging in the ground (Figs. 19, 20). Only two of these specimens were found en- tire. One was six inches long, three and one half 48 LEAF-FLINTS AND TOMAHAWES. Fie. 19. Hoe(?) made of flint. Fic. 20. Hoe(?) made from flint. Reduced to about % of the natural size. Considerably reduced. inches wide, and three-iourths of an inch thick. Some of them must have been about a foot in length, perhaps six Inches wide, and about an inch in thickness. They are oval in shape and are chipped to an irregular edge all around. They resemble the leaf-flints common in the mounds in the Mississippi valley. One large flint is evidently a tomahawk (Fig. 21). It is nearly five inches long, and has a wide constriction, produced by flaking around the middle, dividing it into two lobe-like ends. This constriction is worn smooth and polished by the handle to which it had been fastened. HAND HAMMERS. 49 Fic. 21. Tomahawk made from flint. Somewhat reduced. HAND HAMMERS. Some irregularly shaped flint pieces were perhaps raw material for the manufacture of implements. Others were rounded and battered and have probably been used as hand hammers, as balls in games, or as nut crackers (Fig. 22). A aD 50 ARTICLES MADE FROM SANDSTONE. ARTICLES MADE FROM SANDSTONE. Grindstones. Several kinds of useful implements were made from sandstone. The most important of these were perhaps the grindstones, or metates and pestles (Figs. 23, 24). These are sandstone slabs some eight- een inches long, ten inches wide, and from two to six inches in thickness. They have a shallow concavity on one of their flat sides. This hollow was evi- dently produced by wear in grinding. The upper stone, or pestle, as it may be called, was about eight inches in length, three and a half inches in width, and about two Fe. 2. Battered hand hammer made of flint. sane aa thickness. It Reduced to about four-fifths of the natural size. was convex on both sides, but more flattened on the side which was applied to the lower stone. Three entire and several broken lower stones have been found on the site of the mounds, and more than a dozen pestles. Prof. J. E. Welin has kindly furnished the following measurements of these stones. GRINDSTONES. MEASUREMENTS OF METATES. 51 Naiiben CONDITION. LENGTH WIDTH | THICKNESS in inches. in inches. in inches. 1 Entire (Wig 23). .......... ...... 21. 14. 6. 2 Entire (Fig 24)................... 18. 9.2 3. 3 13) (LON loneendoooseenadecas-ceecraeernacd: 16.5 10. 3.8 4 Much worn, and broken..... 10.5 155 5. 5 IDIOT) Geqgnapooscdoucnee wonascsodseoed 14. 82 1.5 6 1D) AO CO loqnsasequeuolbsaaedoancoee eaaae) 95 5.5 1.6 7 Broken at both ends .......... 5.5 9), 2.2 MEASUREMENTS OF UPPER OR HAND GRINDSTONES. Number. CONDITIONS. revcens Wrintaeies l0 dariuctee. 1 1 OL ee aenesaan even bose RoR orCE EEE 10. 38 26 2 IBM GING hes Sayskeeceas saaee csteceneness 9.2 3.7 2.9 3 13) 010) 0 Xo eaceonetascrocaccsecaaeneannencor 8.7 3.6 1.8 4 GINO nrea-t te seanene nore eset 8.7 3.8 1.7 5 1 DIM ob Reyes coRabaonaetesatoneeseecraora 8.2 3.6 2. 6 d DIR GTA aes aaeedhodonesecenscenaaeeare 8. 3.5 2.2 7 Entire, much worn............ 7.2 3.5 1.4 8 1D) TTA Ue once sadonecdoseeneCbYConaeSeAcanc 7. 2.7 1.6 9 (LO) TILES WS) aeepecobaouacemnadee oaecasemacd 6.5 3.3 1.7 10 1D} OLA aaceeocodesbercoac see aceneeencen 6. 3.2 1.4 1 Fimtire yee oi taae ood 6.2 2.8 1.6 12 I nhineseeaccocescctoss tecccee ee 6.2 3.7 1.7 183 nine eee eee eee 47 4.1 1.4 “i {Entire, but changed TavO)| i a mallet by cutting a 5.7 3.7 3.2 \groove around the middle| TIS ATH Fan Adah ces a aneerecmann coat Narra eae 5.2 3.3 1.7 16 Imperfectly shaped............. 8.2 4, 1.9 17 Possibly a broken metate... 6.7 3.6 1.7 18 IBPOKenseee tee ssesre ee 5.5 3.6 1.7 52 GRINDSTONES. Much worn large lower grindstone, or‘ metate, with a hand grindstone, both made from sandstone. The metate is twenty-one inches long. Fig, 23. ARROW-SMOOTHENERS. On Co Most, if not all, of these grindstones are made from the Dakota sandstone. Specially indurated blocks have been selected. The metates have not all been dressed to their present form. LITERATURE PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK ISLAND, ILL. GUSTAV ALBERT ANDREEN. ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTER 1902. mgs Pe LS ARN A TUECUI Roe ie PX Ve ine Vie 6 nA : WUSEUM BAIR Rie i SEL ELL WET EY A b j AUGUSTANA . LIBRARY . PUBLICATIONS NUMBER 3. STUDIES IN Pe TDN GER MAN LID ede UGE GUSTAV ALBERT ANDREEN. ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1902, ee ake ohh aay iad \: TO MY WIFE ; THIS STUDY j meat 1S LOVINGLY DEDICATED. anid , i Wwe TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Inrropuctory: THe Ipyt In CLaAssic LITERATURE. The four great periods of Idyllic literature. The Idyl in Greek Literature. Theocritus. The Idylin Latin Literature. Vergil. CHAPTER II. Ipyiuic LIteRATURE IN GERMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ, The Idyl of the Court of Charlemagne. Idyllic Literature in the Middle Ages in Germany. The Idylin the humanistic movement in Germany. CHAPTER III. PaAsTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. Introductory: The Renaissance; Pastoral Literature in Italy. State of Literature in German at the Beginning of the 17th Century. Opitz and Weckherlin. The imitators of Opitz. Sprachgesellschaften. Tendency toward Marinism. Reaction against Bombast. Literature descriptive of Nature. Brockes, Haller and Kleist. The Influence of Gottsched; Critische Dichtkunst and Atalanta. Patriarchaden. Writers of Idyls immediately preceding Gessner. CHAPTER IV. GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IpyL. Life and works of Gessner. Characterization of Gessner. Gessner and Theocritus. The imitators of Gessner; Kleist and Bronner. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. Tur ReAListic Ipyu. Advance in the Theory of the Idyl; Mendelssohn, Herder. Storm and Stress. Maler Miiller. Works and Characterization of Miiller. Johan Heinrich Voss. Life and Works of Voss. Der Siebzigste Geburtstag; Luise. CHAPTER I. InrRropuctory: THE Ipyt In CuaAssic LireRATURE. The purpose of this dissertation is to set forth the origin, de- velopment, and character of the idyl in German literature up to the time of the publication of the Luise by Voss,in 1795. This in- cludes three main parts: 1, idyllic literature in Germany before Opitz; 2. the development of the pastoral idyl depicting an ideal existence and its culmination in Gessner; 3. the reaction which followed, resulting in the realistic idyl of Maler Miiller and Voss. In this thesis the term Jdy/ is used in the sense of a small “Genrebild,” complete in itself, which pictures simple life in close communion with nature, as over against the more Definition of complex conditions of an advanced civilization, Tdyl. especially of city lite.1 This Genrebild or Idyl may depict real life (as in Theocritus and Voss), or idealized existence in an imaginary Golden Age (as in Gessner). 1 This definition of the idy] proper is based mainly on the full treatment of the theory of the idyl in Herman Baumgart’s Handbuch der Poetik, p. 268, f., and p. 346, ff. Koberstein’s definition of the idyl (Gesch. d. Deut. Nat. Lit., V. 63) better fits the idyllic epos, than the shorter Genrebild or idyl proper, showing that he must have had Luise or Herrman und Dorothea in mind. Hesays: “Die Idylle— diejenige Dichtungsart, welche die Mitte zwischen der streng epischen und der mahlerisch-beschreibenden Gattung hilt, indem sie die Erzihlungsform—die aber auch 6fter durch die dialogische vertreten wird—weniger auf die Darstellung yon Thaten und Handlungen als auf Schilderung von Zustiinden und Hreignissen anwendet.”’ Cf. also Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theokrit, p. 4. 10 THE IDYL IN CLASSIC LITERATURE. In the literature of the world idyllic and pastoral poetry has flourished especially during four periods. It first appeared in the third century before Christ in the idyls of Theocri- The Four Great tus, followed by those of Bion and Moschus. Then Periods of Idyl- in the first century before the Christian era, Vergil lic Literature. laid the foundation of his poetic fame by wri- ting his allegorical idyls, in which he found many imitators. The third period has its roots in the Italian Renais- sance, which eventually produced the allegorical pastoral drama and romance, affecting and moulding the literature of all Europe, especially of the other romance countries and of England. In Germany, where the Reformation completely absorbed all other interests, it did not assert its influence before the beginning of the seventeenth century, when Opitz introduced the shepherd drama, and Weckherlin the pastoral idyl. the influence of Opitz being paramount in German literature for a hundred years. The fourth great period in which idyllic literature flourished belongs especially to Germany. During the latter half of the six- teenth century this literature again took the form of the idyl proper, bursting into bloom in the works of numerous authors. In Gessner the idealized pastoral idyl reached its culmination; a reaction necessarily followed, and the idyls of Miller and Voss came back to a realistic portrayal of actual life, as is found in Theocritus. The circle was complete. These different periods have, of course, organic connection with each other. Hence it seems necessary to give a short sketch of the characteristics of the preceding periods as an introduction to the main subject. During the great classical age of Hellas, the Greek, ‘‘the most versatile man the sun ever shone on,” as Gosche! says, had seem- 1 See the excellent article by Dr. Richard Gosche in Archiv fiir Litteratur- geschichte, Vol. 1. (1870). pp. 169-227: Idyll und Dorfgeschichte im Altertum und Mittelalter. THE IDYL IN CLASSIC LITERATURE. 11 ingly exhausted all the forms of literature. Then The Idyl in came the non-productive and critical Alexandrian Greek Litera- era, no longer believing in the gods, and subjecting ture. Theocritus. the old heroes to historical criticism. New motives and styles of poetry were sought for, and with an advanced civilization came a surfeit of city life, a dissatisfaction caused by complex social conditions.!| The idyls of Theoecritus, grounded in this general feeling, were hailed with joy. These idyls led one away from the bustle and hollowness of over-refinement back to nature, to ascend the mountains, to listen to the rustle of the brook, walk over the meadow covered with pasturing flocks, and rest in the shadow of the tamarisks. But this description of nature, beautiful as it is, was not the most important part. It served after all only as the background for those who peopled it. These characters, simple, natural, in full accord with their surroundings, far away from the disordered state of Greece and Heypt, in Sicily ‘rich in flocks,” pipe and sing, talk in dialogue or soliloquy so naturally that we really seem to hear them. They lay bare before us the primary and common emotions and passions of the human heart. All is fresh and has the flavor of reality; like the shepherd’s skin in the sev- enth Idyl: “The smell of rennet clinging to it still;’’? or, like the bowl in the first: ‘‘Smacking still of the knife of the graver.””* Idyllic elements are found in literature before Theocritus.* But Theocritus stands before us as the creator of this form of litera- 1 This thought is also brought out by E. C. Stedman in his Victorian poets (Boston 1876) in the chapter entitled Tennyson and Theocritus (p. 201), in which he shows the similarity of these two idyllic authors and of the periods in which they lived. He claims the superiority of Tennyson over the Syracusan “because his thought and period are greater’! (p.187).—Cf. also Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theocritus,p.11,and Lang’s Theocritus, p. XX XVI.—Cf. Gosche 4 LG., L.. p. 184, ff. 2 Idyl VII, 15: veas tapicoro rotécbov. 3 Idyl I, 28: ere yAvpavo.o rordcbov. 4 Even the Iliad (XVIII. 525) shows us Hephaestos inscribing on the shield of Achilles a pastoral scene. The Odyssey has more of such elements, as in the story of Nausikaa, or Polyphemus, or the description of Calypso’s cave. Further- more, the satyr-drama, comedy, and mimes have material of idyllic nature. See Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theocritus, p. 5, fi.—Gosche, p. 183, ff. 12 THE IDYL IN CLASSIC LITERATURE. ture,! and his idyls have ever been the model to which all later authors are obliged to return, like the works of Homer and Phi- dias, unsurpassed, perhaps unattainable. Three qualities espe- cially mark the work of Theocritus: power of depicting genuine emotion and passion, love for nature, and the ability to give to his characters the backgronnd that most harmoniously blends with their disposition and state of feeling. In the next century Bion and Moschus? followed in the foot- steps of Theocritus. But we appreciate keenly the greatness of Theocritus as soon as we compare his work with that of his suc- cessors. For with all their grace and skill, there appears already in them, especially in their treatment of love, a tendency towards sentimentality and trifling, towards rhetorical ornamentation, which became so prominent characteristics of later pastoral poetry. The idyl was on its way to Vergil. The eminently practical Romans had a less keen sense for poetry per se than the Greeks, and with all their love for outdoor life,t they saw nothing in pastoral life to arouse The Idyl in their admiration or to celebrate in song. Only Latin Litera- when the shepherds became the mask for promi- ture. Vergil. nent personages did this added spice make the idyl acceptable to the palate of literary Rome. This allegory and personal allusion, which in Theocritus had been mere episode,’ became rule and aim in Vergil’s eclogues.* The shep- 1 Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theocritus, p. 1, 11. 2 So in Idyl I, Simaetha endeavoring to reconquer her lover by magic, does it under the moonlit sky, some distance from town and within the sound of the sea. Cf. also Idyls I1., VIIL., ete, 3 See Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theocritus, p. 23. 4 This, as well as their practical tendency, is witnessed by their rich literature on agriculture. 5 In Idyl VII. Theocritus refers to himself; in XIV. to Ptolemy. 6 Ci. Les Oeuvres de Virgile par E. Benoist (Paris 1867), p. LIII; also Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theocritus, p. 23. Also History of Rom. Lit. by Teuffel and Schwabe, Vol. I., p. 430. In the very first eclogue Vergil, under the mask of Tityrus, praises Augustus for restoring his land to him; in III., VI., X. he praises and flatters his patrons, and so on. THE IDYL IN CLASSIC LITERATURE. 13 herd’s dress became but a mask, the pastoral poem was to be allegorically interpreted. Vergil’s influence in this respect was of lasting importance, determining for more than seventeen cen- turies the character of pastoral literature in the Romance coun- tries, in England and in Germany, until nature and healthy real- ism again asserted themselves in the idyl of theeighteenth century. Classic Latin literature, however, has given us at least one perfect idyl, some say only one: the Moretum, of unknown authorship. * In the third century, when the classic era was nearing its close,? Greek literature produced one more work of enduring power, the shepherd romance Daphnis and Chloe, attributed to Longos.? It has all the healthy enjoyment of simple life that we find in Theocritus, and is of importance as being the great model for the later pastoral romance. CHAPTER II. Ipytuic LITERATURE IN GERMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ. As we enter the Middle Ages, when the classics fast became a sealed book, the idyl as a literary form almost disappears. We 1 W. Hertzberg in the Gedichte des Virgilius (Stuttgart 1856), p.93, speaks of this, calling it a ‘“‘literarisches Unicum’’—Cf. Gosche, ALG., I., 205. 2 Of the followers and imitators of Vergil may be mentioned: Calpurnius, the gross flatterer of Nero; Nemesianus, Ausonius of Bordeaux, the first Christian writer of eclogues, the best being Mosella, a description of a journey along the rivers Mosel and the Rhine (before 375). 3 Gosche in ALG., I., p. 211, says: The old Greco-Roman world completed its idyllic poetry in these three stages: The great Theocritus, the unknown au- thor of the Moretum, and Longos. 4 Its place is, perhaps, supplied by Christian legends and stories, some of which, especially those of the hermits, contain idyllic elements. But these are few, as the very seclusion of the hermits was to show in what utter contempt - they held the outer world. it IDYLLIC LITERATURE IN GERMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ. do not meet it again till the beginning of the ninth The Idyl at the century, at the German court of Charlemagne. Court of Here a renaissance movement had led to the form- Chralemagne. ine of an academy ior scientific and literary study. The study of Latin authors soon led to the cultivation of the idyl, especially under the influence of Vergil and Calpurnius. Most of these poems® possess no value apart trom their historical interest. They teem with classical phrases and allusions, oddly mingled with Christian views. * One idyl, however, written by some member oi the circle around Charlemagne. deserves our special attention as being “‘the first real eclogue of the Middle Ages,”+ namely: Conflictus Veris et Hiemis. Wt is full of dramatic movement, representing Spring and Winter as vying with each other in song. Spring greets the cuckoo, while Winter threatens the bird in order to drive it away. until Palaemon bids him cease (Desine plura, hiems), and wel- comes the cuckoo (Salve, dulce decus. cuculus, per saecula salve).* The winter described is the winter of Germany, not the mild win- i This circle chose names from antiquity, biblical and classical. in odd confu- sion. Charlemagne was David. Aleuin (oi England) Flaccus, Angilbert Homer. and other court dignitaries bore the pastoral names oi Menalkas and Thyrsis. See Wattenbach: Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter (Berlin 1885). Vol. I.. p. 147. 2 These poems are iound in E. Dimmler’s collection Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini (Berlin 1881) Vol. I. 3 Angilbertus, in the academy called Homer, wrote an Ecloga ad Carolum Regem (David) in which he offers fulsome praise to the king (Diimmler’s Poetae Latini, 1. 360). There are several refrains, each repeated nine times, which in themselves show the character of the poem. These are: Surge, meo domno dulces fac, fistula, versus. David amat Vates, vatorum est gloria David. David amat Christum. Christus est gloria David. Surge meis caris dulces fac. fistula, versus. In an ecloga by Naso (Diimmler’s Poetae Latini, I. 385, #.) a youth and an aged man converse of song, after which follows a description of nature and out- door life. _ + Gosche ALG, L.. p. 213. 3 In a later idyl by the Anglo-Saxon Alcuin (See Dimmler’s Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini, Vol. 1.. No. LIX.). who possibly wrote the Conflictus, too, a simi- lar theme is treated (beginning: Nance cuculus ramis etiam resonavyit in altis) . A description of spring is given in which Phoebus. Bacchus, and Cupid are men- tioned. It closes, however, with an admonition to praise Christ: “Dulcisunu Christum resonuantis semper in ore.” or IDYLLIC LITERATURE IN GERMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ. alt ter of the south; and the cuckoo as harbinger of spring also be- longs to Germany.! This idyll is of importance, too, as being the origin of the Streitgedichte,? so popular during the Middle Ages, and which may be traced down even to Hans Sachs. In the history of the development of Germany, the Dorf occu- pies a very prominent position. Around this cluster the first be- ginnines of the Dorfgeschichte (Tales of Country Idyllic Litera- _ Life). The Latin poem Ruodlieb? is one of the ture in the Mid- first to contain elements of this nature. We find dle Ages in these elements, too, in such works as Gudrun‘ Germany. and Parzival,® and more especially in the lyrics of Neidhart von Reuenthal.. But the oldest Ger- man Dorfgeschichte is Meyer Helmbrecht* by Wernher der Gar- tenaere. It is a social tragedy—a warning to peasant sons not to leave their sphere. During the followmg centuries contempt for peasant life as- 1 See article by Adolf Ebert: Naso, Angilbert und der Conflictus Veris et Hiemis in Zeitschritt fiir deut. Alt XXI1I., pp. 328-335. 2 See W. Scherer: Geschichte der deut. Lit. (1884), p. 53. Also Adolph Ebert, ZfdA, Vol. XXII., p. 333. 3 Ruodlieb, a rhymed Latin poem of the eleventh century, is really a romance of chivalry; the third and fourth fragments, however, describe the arrival and stay of Ruodlieb in a small village, and his intercourse with the shepherds. 4 Especially Horant’s song (See p. 86, ff., in Martin’s Kudrun, Halle 1872). 5 In the third book of Parzival, Wolfram sets over against the world of chiy- alry the life of Herzeloyd in the wilderness Soltane; in this idyllic world Parzival’s childhood is spent. 6 His summer and winter songs, dances, etc., describe the peasant world in a realistic manner. See E.T. McLaughlin’s Studies in Medieval Life and Litera- ture, p.71. 7 Written before 1250. It describes a peasant’s son, who, despising his father’s occupation, enters the service of a robber-knight. After a year he returns home, and by his swaggering manners, grieves his father, who laments the decay of court life. The wayward son induces his sister to run away with him and become the wife of one of his companions. At the wedding the rest of the robbers are caught, but he escapes, though maimed. At home he is disowned by his father, and later hanged by peasants whom he had robbed. Cf. Studies of Medieval Life and Literature (N. Y. 1894) by E. T. McLaughlin, who speaks at length of this work (p. 102). 16 IDYLLIC LITERATURE IN GERMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ. serts itself more and more.! We see it in the very words: vilanus becomes villain, Dérfer degenerates into Télpel. The awkward- ness and stupidity of the “boors” is the never-ending subject of jests, fables, and Fasnachtsspiele; especially in these carnival plays is he made the butt of rough and obscene ridicule, always drubbed, drubbing being one of the most indispensable parts of old German comedy.? During the fifteenth century, in spite of the oppressed condi- tion of the peasant class, the peasants began to feel more and more conscious of their own worth.? Others, too, placed their hope for the future in them. We find some echoes of this in litera- ture, especially in the Meistergesang.* When this feeling culmi- nated in the uprising of 1525, even Luther was terrified, and attacked the peasants most bitterly. The revolt was put down with much bloodshed, and the condition of the peasants was worse than beiore. To sum up: The idyllic element in early German literature had ever been but a small rivulet; we find now and then along its course some inviting idyllic spots; but finally itis lost in the swamps of contempt for rural life, and blindness to the beauties of nature. 1 Little or no influence was exerted on German literature by the French pas- tourelle, oi which the drama Robin et Marion by Adam de La Halle was a development. Cf. Gosche, ALG, I., 219. ii. 2 This feeling is expressed in the old couplet; Der Bauer ist an Ochsen statt Nur dass er keine Horner hat. 3 (i. Bezold’s Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (Berlin 1890), p. 142. ff. See also A social Reformer of the XV. century, a paper by Frank Goodrich, in Yale Review, Aug. 1896. + Rosenbliit, who wrote from 1431-60 at Niirnberg, turned from court poetry to sing the praises of the lower classes: *Tche lobe dich du edler Bauer fiir alle Kreatur fir alle herrn auf Erden - Der Kaiser muss dir gleich werden.” Hans Sachs in his Gesprdch zwischen dem Sommer und Winter (Ci. Streitge- dichte, p. 6), shows a deep appreciation of nature and simple life; yet he, too, made the peasant and his foibles the object of his jests. IDYLLIC LITERATURE IN GHRMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ. il'7¢ The humanistic movement in Germany did not produce any idyllic literature of enduring value, or any that inspired later writers. The Bucolicon of Eobanus Hessus ap- Theldylinthe peared at Erfurt 1509, containing: twelve eclogues, Humanistic the second edition of 1528 increasing the number Movement in to seventeen. They were written in imitation of Germany. Vergil’s allegorical eclogues. The ease with which Hessus composed made his style vague and full of rhetorical bombast.!- He also made a translation of Theocritus into Latin verse. In the year 1580 the gifted Nicodemus Frischlin? delivered at Tiibingen a speech, De vita rustica, as introduction to his lectures on Vergil’s Bucolics, in which he bitterly attacks the inhumanity and corruption of the nobility and the court,? and lauds the honest simplicity and occupations of rural life. But the appeal died away like an echo, unnoticed or soon forgotten. Humanism in Germany led to no real idyllic literature, and what little there is entirely lacks originality in thought and form, and left no trace of influeuce upon succeeding literature. Other countries, especially Italy, were meanwhile producing the literary ‘models, which for a century and a half were to determine the form and character of pastoral literature in Germany. 1 See Allg Deut Biog. In his Carmen or Song of praise of Niirnberg 1732 (Noriberga Illustrata, edited by J. Neff, Berlin 1896), are idyllic traits, especially lines 387, ff., and 601, ff., which contain a description of a woodland fountain. 2 See Alg. Deut. Biog. Many of his plays contain idyllic elements, especially one Der Weingiirtner, 1576, setting forth the conditions and feelings of the peo- ple; but unfortunately this has been lost. 3 This speech and his views on this matter lost him his position, his liberty, and finally his life. 18 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. CHAPTER III. PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM Opitz TO GESSNER. When the classic studies again began to flourish in Italy, Vergil Was at once enthroned as king of poets, and became the pattern whom all imitated. Lyric, romance, and dramatic Introductory: literature alike were soon influenced and con- The Renats- trolled by his pastoral allegory. sance; Pastoral The allegorical eclogue was first re-introduced Literature in by Petrach? and Boccaccio: the latter also wrote Italy. a pastoral romance, L’Ameto. The pastoral was first developed into the shepherd drama by Polizi- ano in the shepherd-play Orfeo,? 1471, which had for its subject the descent of Orpheus into the lower world. The pastoral romance Arcadia, by Jac. Sannazaro,? occupies a most important place in popularizing the pastoral element and fixing it upon later literature. It electrified all Italy; and was published more than sixty times during the sixteenth century.* Influenced by the great popularity of this work, Tasso wrote his shepherd-play Aminta, which in turn was imitated in Guarini’s famous J] Pastor Fido (1585). The character of these works is to a great extent determined by the fact that the scene is laid in the Golden Age® of which 1 On account of the allegorical element, Petrach had to give a key to his poems, in order to be understood. 2 This was the first theatrical representation which differed from the so- called mysteries. See P. A. Budik: Leben und Wirken der vorziiglichsten lateinischen Dichter des XV.-X VII. Jahrhunderts. 3 He always celebrated Vergil’s birthday by a feast. He wrote Latin eclogues which show the influence of Theocritus, whose first seven idyls had been trans- lated into Latin hexameter by Phileticus in 1483. 4 Arcadia was first printed 1502-4. In it Sannazaro describes, in prose and verse, the hardheartedness of his mistress. his wanderings and misfortunes. la- ments the death of his mother and of his shepherdess. disclosing to us the secrets of his life and the history of his time. ° In Pastor Fido. end of act IY.. a chorus sings of the Golden Age and the Guilty Age: PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. 19 even Theocritus had sung. The accepted name of the home of this ideal existence is Arcadia,’ which was inhabited not only by shepherds and nymphs, but also by all the divinities of the an- cients, and by allegorical figures of all kinds.? Into this ideal world the poet was ever introducing the characters of contem- porary men whom he wished to praise. With these incompatible elements (shepherds, gods, allegory, and contemporary men), how could incidents ever seem real, or characterization be any- thing but vague?’ The pastoral literature of Italy was admired and imitated in the other romance countries and in England. In the year 1558 Montemayor published his great Spanish shepherd-romance, Diana. Upon this, as well as upon Pastor Fido, the Frenchman Honore d’Urte, modeled his allegorical pastoral novel, Astree (first part 1609). These works ushered in a long series of imi- tations, which were even more unreal and turgid than their mod- els. In English literature the eclogues of Alexander Barclay, Spenser’s Shepherd’s Calendar (1579), and Faery Queen (1590-6), show this pastoral influence. Of especial importance for us is the famous Arcadia® by Sir Philip Sidney. This is not a mere imi- tation of Spanish and Italian models, as Sidney describes scenes not only from pastoral life, but also, with equal skill, from hunt- ing and chivalry. The seeds of this pastoral literature were now wafted into Ger- many, where they sprang into luxurious growth, producing fruit that was abundant, though not of superior quality. At the beginning of the seventeenth century German poetry had reached its lowest ebb. Not only the upper but also the mid- 1 Vergil in eclogue VII. speaks of Corydon and Thyrsis as Arcades ambo. 2 Cf. Jacob Burckhardt: Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien, p. 349, fi. 3 So Boccaccio makes one of his nymphs a good catholic. Cf. Burckhardt, p. 350. 4 A clear presentation of this whole subject is given by Homer Smith: Pas- toral infineuce in the English Drama, in the Publications of the modern lan- guage association of America, 1897, Vol. XII., No. 3 (New Series, Vol. V., 3). >» Arcadia became the model of the Hercynie by Opitz; see p. 21. 20 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GHSSNER. dle classes held the German language in contempt; State of Litera- everything was to be written in Latin. The glori- ture at the Bee ous era of German poetry during the Middle Ages ginning of the seemed utterly forgotten. What poetry did exist 17th Century. in the Volkslieder of the time did not interest the -Opitz and educated. It was the example set by the neigh- Weckherlin. boring countries of using, cherishing, and develop- ing their own language, their vernacular, and making it a fit vehicle for their literature, that also turned the attention of the Germans to their mother-tongue. This was done in the first place by translations of foreign literature into Ger- man. The pastorals occupy a most important place among these translations,! especially as they to a great extent determined the character of German literature for the next century and a half. The two most important poets who usher in this era are Weckherlin and Opitz. The author who, more than any one else, established the su- premacy of this foreign and pastoral literature in Germany was Martin Opitz.2 But as he did this by translations of foreign models into good German, he also stands at the head of the movement whose special aim was to cherish and cultivate the German language. In his first important work, Aristarchus, sive de contemptu lingue Teutonice,* 1619, he praises the German language, claiming that it is just as capable of producing a litera- ture based upon the models of antiquity, as Italian, French, or English. This work, and his Buch der Deutschen Poeterei (pub- lished seven years later), opened the eyes of the educated to the importance of cultivating the German tongue. 1 We notice the following: Bergeries de Juliette by Nicholas de Montreaux, transl. 1595; Guarini’s Pastor Fido, 1619; D’Urie’s Astree, 1619; Sidney’s Ar- cadia, 1631. 21597-1639. Opitz was born in Silesia; early distinguished himself by the ease and grace with which he wrote Latin poetry; this accomplishment opened to him the doors of famous scholars and of princes, whose fame he sang. Dur- ing the greater part of his life he was in the service of Silesian princes. 3 It is characteristic of the times that this work, in defence of German, had to be written in Latin, so as to attract the attention of the educated. PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNDR. 21 There now follows in Opitz’s life a period of translations, or paraphrases, of foreign works, whose importance consists in the fact that they created the literary diction of Germany, and be- came the standard for succeeding writers. ! In the year 1627,” Opitz introduced the pastoral opera into Germany by his translation of the Italian opera Dafne.’ This was followed by the most famous and most original of Opitz’s works, the pastoral drama Hercynie (1628). It seems to have been suggested to Opitz directly by Sir Philip Sidney’s Areadia,* which he was at this time translating.* The influence of Her- cynie on subsequent works, both in diction and form, was so wide- spread and lasting, that its place in the history of literature, even though its intrinsic literary value is small, is of the greatest im- portance. The action of the story is given in prose, while the lyric elements are reflective. Some idea may be gained of this kind of literature from the 1 “Die erste (Schiiferei) in Deutschland, gleichwie auch die edelste, ist Opitz- ens unvergleichliche Hercynie”’ says Birken in Teutsche Rede-Bind-und Dicht- Kunst (Niirnberg 1679), p. 301. So HarsdGrfier (see Tittman’s Opitz, p. 57). 2 Previous works of Opitz also contain pastoral elements: The praise of rural life, 1625, based upon a similar poem by Fischart, both a paraphrase of Horace’s Beatus ille-—Pastoral echoes are also found in his Oden or Gesédnge, in Zlatna oder Getichte von Ruhe des Gemiithes.—For Fischart’s poem: Fiirtretfliches artliches Lob des Landlustes, etc., see Goedeke’s ed. of Fischart (Leipzig 1880), p. 251. 3 The pastoral drama had developed, or from a literary point of view, deteri- orated, into the Opera (see Introduction, p. LX XIV. of Opita’s Ausgewéihlte Dichtungen, edited by J. Tittman). The opera Dafne was first given at Florence 1594. The court at Breslau, standing in intimate relations to Florence, obtained it to enhance the festivities at the marriage of Prince George. Opitz in translating it into Alexandrine verse, added much of his own invention, whence the court musician had to write new music to it, the nature of whieh is not known. Dafne has five acts, each concluded by a chorus (of shepherds and nymphs). Apollo, after slaying a monster to the great joy of the shepherds, is himself overcome by Cupid, for having twitted him on his bow and arrow. He falls in love with Dafne (a mortal), who flees his advances: When he is about to overtake her, she is by her own prayer changed into a laurel-tree. 4 See Friedrich Strehlke: Martin Opitz—eine Monographie (Leipzig 1856), p. 185. 5 This translation was published 1631, followed by a second improved edi- tion 1638. 22 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. plot of the Hereynie, which is as follows: When the scene opens, the poet (Opitz) is wandering over hills and fields. While carving a poem on a tree, he is joined by other shepherds, who converse with him of love! and travel. Near a fountain they meet the nymph Hercynie, who conducts them into the cave of the nymphs. from which cave flows the source of the fountains of the vicinity; she delivers a lengthy panegyric upon the ruling family of the country.? of whose genealogy she shows an intimate knowledge. After the disappearance of Hercynie, the poets praise the land- scape before them, the effects of winter and spring, sing sonnets to the fountain and in honor of the ruler of the country. The author recites the concluding song, of which the burden is, that the Muses alone bestow immortality. This work created a pleasing German style, which at once be- came the standard for succeeding writers. But they also adopted and carried to the extreme elements which were detrimental in their effects upon literature. The pastoral Hercynie, like his works in general, show that Opitz possessed neither great originality nor power of imagina- tion, as they were all based upon foreign models. But the very fact that he stood so little above the level of his contemporaries, and was so intelligible to them, made his influence the more imme- diate and extensive. He broke down the sway of the Latin lan- guage among the educated; the German language was again cherished and cultivated, so that eventually the literature could, and in the eighteenth century did, penetrate into and permeate the nation as a whole. In this sense he may still be called the father of German poetry, or with Paul Fleming* one may say: 1 One of them (Niissler) says in words which only too well characterize the writings oi this and the following periods: “It is the manner of poets in repre senting love to make no concessions to nature, but to invent things which never have been, nor ever will be, and which he himself has never experienced, nor in- tended to perform.” 2 This panegyric is really the heart of the play. Much of it is in Alexandrine verse. 3 Fleming in a wedding poem of 1631 surpasses his model Opitz. See Ge- dichte von Paul Fleming, edited by J. Tittman (Leipzig 1870), pp. 36-44. also Barthold: Geschichte der Fruchtbringenden Gesellschaft, pp. 210-12. bo PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. “Die sch6nen Pierinnen Die nun durch Opitzen auch hochdeutsch reden k6nnen.”’ The other important Renaissance poet, Georg Rudolph Weck- herlin,’! possessed greater power than Opitz, and may claim the priority in having introduced the Renaissance style into Ger- many.” He Yelt keenly the contempt in which German poetry was held at the German courts, at the same time appreciating its inferiority, when compared with that of France or England. Harly he determined to become a regenerator in this respect, and to make German poetry ‘“‘presentable at court.” In imitation of foreign models he began to sing the praises of princes in Hof-ge- dichte, which lacked great depth, and teemed with mythological allusions. They were received, however, with pleasure by those in whose honor they were sung. In these Hof gedichte he was imitated by Opitz and other seekers aiter courtly favors. Among Weckherlin’s best works are his six shepherd-poems or eclogues,* published in 1648.° These show, especially in form, the influence of Opitz; but as idyllic literature they are superior to anything that Opitz wrote; in fact, they surpass any pastoral poetry written in Germany during the seventeenth century. They sulfer, to be sure, from the ordinary faults of the allegorical pas- toral, with its conceits and trifling sentiment. Yet by introdu- cing into these idyls himself (under the name of Philidor) and his wile (under the name of Myrta), to whom he was exceedingly de- voted, he has infused into some of this poetry a glow and affec- 1 Weckherlin (1584-1653) was born thirteen years before Opitz; after travel- ing through Germany, France, and England, he obtained a position at the court of Wiirtemberg. He was married to an Englishwoman, Elizabeth Raworth of Dover; in 1620 he settled down in England, rose to the position of Secretary of Foreign Tongues (1644), was superseded by Milton 1649, later becoming Milton’s assistant. 2 He was the first to introduce the sonnet and the Alexandrine verse in Ger- many. 3 Ina poem of 1610 he could boast that German poetry was no longer de- rided: even the gods (the members of the court) were delighted with it. 4 Hiirtengedichte, given in Weckherlin’s Gedichte, edited by Herman Fischer, Tiibingen, 1894. 5 The first eclogue had been published in 1641. 24 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. tion, and hence a genuineness, that we miss in other pastoral poetry of this period. The first eclogue is written in praise of his wife! and of mutual love. Eclogues II-V* sing of the four seasons.? The contents of the VIth may be summed up in the couplet: “°Tis better to haye loved and lost Than never to have loved at all.” Though Weckherlin’s works show more originality and power, his influence was entirely overshadowed by that of Opitz. This is explained in the first place by Weckherlin’s residence in Eng- land during the last thirty-three years of his life; in the second place, by the fact that Opitz, through his translations and para- phrases, which were excellent in form and style, introduced the ereat pastoral works of other languages, which were the literary fads of the time. From now on the pastoral element enters into and controls all the various kinds of literature, romance, dra- . matic, didactic, and lyric, for more than a hundred years, till finally the sound of the shepherd’s flute dies away at the end of the eighteenth century. The flood of pastoral literature which followed Opitz came in two large waves: the former, the smaller wave, reaching its high- est point about the middle of the seventeenth cen- The Imitators tury. After a subsidence this was followed by a of Opitz. Ten- larger wave, reaching its highest point about the dency Towards middle of the eighteenth century (see table No. 1)- Marinism. The former period and the earlier part of the lat- ter with all their pastoral poetry did not produce 1 Philidor expresses his joy at having won “this crown of the island of Al- bion.” 2 Tn the third eclogue, as in no other, Weckherlin gives free play to silly tri- fling, both in form and contents, using diminutives and dallying expressions ad nauseam. So Chloris says in verse 106, ete.: “‘(wie selig bin ich) Dass den Taublein gleich wir uns einander schnabelen, Mit Kiissen Nektar-gleich begabelen, erlabelen.” Eclogue LY., though containing some conceits, gives a good description of a har- vest festival, in which occurs a vigorous responsive song; the shepherds celebrate Bacchus, the nymphs Cupid. 3 They remind one somewhat of Thomson’s Seasons, even to the occasional incidents. 4 See Scherer’s Gesch. d. deut. Lit., p. 320. =e PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. 25 an idyl proper. Hence, only a brief survey and characterization of this body of literature is necessary for our purpose. The influence of Opitz and of pastoral literature in general was greatly furthered by the Sprachgesellschatten, which were founded all over Germany. Their chief purpose and aim was to cherish and cultivate the German language, and to preserve German cus- toms. The first and most important of these societies was Die Fruchtbringende Gesellschatt, or Palmenorden,! tounded 1617, of which Opitz later became a member. Most prominent of those that sprung up in imitation of it was Die Gesellschatt der Pegnitz- Schéfer, instituted 1644 at Niirnbere by Harsdo6rffer and Klaj. Especially did these Pegnitz-shepherds recognize Opitz as their chief model,? and they imitated him in numerous shepherd-plays. But they “‘outheroded Herod” and went far beyond Opitz in the introduction of allegory and metrical conceits into their works; so that compared with their plays the Hercynie of Opitz really seems a work of superior merit. The ascendancy of foreign literature which Opitz mtroduced soon showed itself in numerous romances and pastoral dramas. The romances? imitated Hercynie, with its alternating prose and 1 Die Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft was founded by some princes and no- blemen the very year that Opitz wrote his Aristarchus. See F. W. Barthold’s Geschichte der Fruchtbringenden Gesellschaft, Berlin, 1848. Other similar societies were Die aufrichtige Tannen-gesellschatt, Strasburg 1633, Weckherlin being one of its members; Die Teutschgesinnte Gesellschaft, Hamburg 1643; Der Eibschwanenorden, founded by Johann Rist 1660. 2 Siegmund yv. Birken (1626-1681), for some time ‘‘Oberhirte der Pegnitz- schiifer,” in his Deutsche Redebind und Dichtkunst 1679 (p. 301), in speaking of the pastorals says: “Die erste in Teutschland, gleichwie auch die edelste, ist Opitzens unvergleichliche Hercinie: massen auch er der erste und edelste Teutscher Poet ist.” 3 Up to 1640 the following pastoral romances were published: Theatrum Amoris 1630, Schéfferey oder keusche Liebesbeschreibung 1632, which went through eight editions, Wintertags Schiifferey by Dachsdorf 1636, Filamon und Belliflora by Neumark 1640. (For full titles see table No. 2). These romances also imitated Hercynie in the use of alternating prose and poetry; the action was carried on by the prose, while the lyric parts were reflect- ive. te The Idyl in German Literature. 26 PASTORAL LITERATURE PROM OPITZ TO GESSNER, poetry, while the pastoral drama took Guarini’s Pastor Fido and Tasso’s Aminta’ for its models. All the stress was laid upon form. The attempt to be original, however, led to conceits and fantastic metrical schemes of the most varied kinds. As to the contents, the poet was not supposed to express his own feelings in his writings; everything was conventional. In the words of Bir- ken: ‘‘Das Herz ist weit von dem was eine Feder schreibt.’’? Another characteristic, too, inherited from Opitz, added to the conventionality of the pastorals: they were usually written in honor of the powerful and wealthy, and hence thrived mainly by the favor of the courts. To become a Hofpoet was the aim of every writer of verse; every prominent man, every court festival (births, marriages, deaths, namedays, return from journeys, etc. ), was celebrated in highsounding poems, Gelegenheitsdichtung in the worst sense.2 It seems as though this personal element 1 One of the first is Daphnis u. Chrysilla by Schere, Hamburg 1638, the in- terludes being mainly in low German. Five pastoral dramas treat of the close of The Thirty Years’ War, the stress of the times naturally turning the thoughts and longings toward an ideal happy world. The authors were all members of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft. Birken and Schottelius were also Pegnitz- schdfer. These dramas were (for full titles see table No. 2): 1. Lamentatio Germaniae Expirantis, by Schottelius, 1640. 2. Das Friede-wiinschende Teutschland, by Rist, 1647. It wentthrough four editions. 3. Teutschland Kriegs Beschluss u. Friedenschluss vom Schafer Flor- idan, Birken, 1650. 4. Margenis, das vergniigte, bekriegte und wieder befriedigte Deutsch- land, by Birken, 1651. 5. Das Fridejauchzende Deutschland by Rist, 1653. 2 Se also note 1, p. 22 3 Even Hereynie was written in honor of a court (see p. 22). Of the num- berless poems of this kind we may mention the following of those that were pastoral in form (for full titles and persons celebrated see table 2): Der Elmen-Nymphen Lust.-Gebiiu by Glaser, 1750. Der getreue Hiirte by Geller, 1653, Verlibtes Gespenste by Garahing, 1660, Pegnesische Gesprichspiel-Gesellschaft, by Birken, 1665; Jauchzende Cupido by Cronpusch, 1669; Der unbegiliickte Schiifer by Reich, 1686; Etliche Schéfer- gedichte by Wernicke, 1701; Schdifergedicht by Konig, 1730; An Friedrich II by Lindner, 1741; Schiéifergedancken by Neukirch, 1742 (?); Schéferspiel die Herbstfreude by Neuberin, 1753; Idylle auf Marien Charlotten by Regel- sperger, 1768; Der begliickte Friihling by Rautenstrauch, 1770. To show the extent to which this tendency was carried may be mentioned the poems of Joh. PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. 27 ought to have imbued their poems with some life; but all realistic tendencies were entirely smothered by other elements: 1. the de- sire on the part of the authors and those whom they celebrated to withdraw as much as possible from the crude realities of life;1 2. the thought of a Golden Age, an ideal shepherd world, which colored the character of the productions, even though in many of them the shepherd garb was but a mask;? 3. the introduction of the gods of Greek and Roman mythology; 4. the personifica- tion of all the affections and qualities of man; symbolism carried to the extreme. a What made this ideal shepherd world so general in the litera- ture of the time was the fully accepted belief that it once had really existed. In portraying scenes from an ideal pastoral existence the poet felt confident that he was going back to the very source and origin of poetry. This Arcadian life, however, could furnish but few character-types, as they were all to be good and virtuous, or, at least, not vicious. Hence the same charac- ters and motifs keep recurring continually. There is a dreary sameness in all these pastoral works, brightened by only an occa- sional flash of individual genius. Many of these pastorals were after the model of Opitz’s Dafne, Ulrich v. K6nig. In his works published at Dresden, 1745, there are 98 poems of which 82 are Gelegenheitsdichtungen in the sense mentioned above. 1 The founders of the Blumenorden in the preface to the Pegnesische Schii- fergedicht state that the description of actual peasants’ conversation and real boorish manners would be more disgusting than entertaining, and that the shepherds who appeared in their works denoted ‘‘durch die Schatfe ihre Biicher, durch derselben Wolle ihre Gedichte, durch die Hunde ihre von wichtigen Studien miissigen Stunden.” (See Koberstein Il 193—4). 2So in Hercynie, under the mask of the shepherd dress we are expected to recognize the poet himself, or some one he wishes to celebrate, or even the person- ification of some quality. 3 Cf. Sealiger, Poet. 1:4.— See Birken’s Teutsche-Redebind und Dicht- Kunst (Niirnberg 1679), especially the Zuschrift and Vorrede. The first sentence of the Zuschrift reads; ‘Dass die Dicht-Kunst in Feldern und Waldern gebohren und erzogen worden, erscheinet aus deme, was in niichst folgenden Vorrede hier- von gesagt worden. Sie ist eine Tochter der ersten giildenen Zeit.” — And page 293: “Die Poesy hat das Feldwesen zum Vatterland, und die Hirten zu ersten Urhebern.”’ 28 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. set to music, which had the effect of still further increasing the un- real character of the play. The pastoral and allegorical elements also forced their way into religious poetry.! Only when these elements entered the popular lyrics did they acquire more life and naturalness.2 The tendency towards Marinism and affectation reached its highest point in the works of Hoffmanswaldau (1617-1679) and Lohen- stein (1635-1683), the leaders of the so-called Second Silesian School. Literature had become more and more smothered with allegory, conceits, and bombast, and in the search for fine phrases, foreign words forced their way into the works of some authors to an incredible degree. As a consequence, popular interest in lit- erature almost died out. theshepherds of Theocritus are too “grob und plump,” Ver- gil was “artiger,” though his shepherds were not always virtuous enough; fisher-idyls are not in good taste, as a fisherman’s work is too laborious; vintagers, however, are proper subjects for idyl- lic description. Only in one point did Gottsched show any advance on Fonte- 1 “Herr von Fontenelle, dem ich diese Anmerkungen mehrertheils abborge.”’ Crit. Dichtk. p. 589. 2 Ci. Von der deutschen Poeterey by Opitz (Breslau 1624) pp. 23, 33. Also Birken’s Teutsche Redebind- und Dichtkunst (Niirnberg 1679), especially the Zuschrift and Vorrede. 3 P. 581: Man kann gewissernmassen sagen, dass diese Gattung (Idyllen) die allerailteste sey.’ — To defend this statement he adds: ‘‘Die allerersten Poesien sind nicht bis auf unsre Zeiten gekommen,”’ 4 P, 582, Gottsched says; ‘‘Poetisch wurde ich sagen es (ein gutes Schiifer- gedicht) sey eine Abschilderung des giildenen Weltalters; auf christliche Art zu reden aber eine Vorstellung des Standes der Unschuld, oder doch wenigstens der patriarchalischen Zeit, vor und nach der Siindfluth. 5 P. 585: “Kurz, die unschuldige Schiferliebe muss von allen Lastern frey seyn, die sich durch die Bosheit der Menschen allmiihlich eingeschlichen haben.”’ The shepherd, he adds, must be “ganz tugendhaft und vergniigt.”’ 34 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. nelle in the direction of naturalness; for he criticises Fontenelle for having made his shepherds ‘witty Parisians clad in satin.” The extreme development, however, in the theory of the idyl? appears in J. A. Schlegel’s satire Vom Natiirlichen in Schafergedich- ten,*? published 1746. He intended this essay as a satire upon Gottsched and his followers; yet his theory does not fundamen- tally differ from Gottsched’s view of the idyl as expressed in Critische Dichtkunst. But it goes beyond Gottsched, and shows the extreme of the rococo taste in excluding everything that at all smacked of realism. Sickness, sweat, ordinary labor of any kind (‘What have the Muses to do with household work?”’) must he utterly excluded. Gessner’s fastidious shepherds show that this theory also influenced him. It is interesting to notice that The Guardian,’ translated from the English by Frau Gottsched (1749), contains the first beginnings of a sound realistic conception of the idyl. Especially does it oppose the traditional cult of Vergil, and points out the genuineness of feeling which is displayed by the shepherds of The- ocritus, as compared with the rhetorical tone of Vergil’s. Gess- 1 Gottsched himself probably felt the unreal character of this kind of poetry, as is shown by J. J. Schwabe’s preface to Gottsched’s Gedichte (1736), his ec- logues being omitted in this edition. Schwabe says (after calling the reader’s at- tention to the fact that there are no shepherd-poems in this edition); “‘Wo ist die gtildene Freiheit, die reine Liebe, und die tugendhafte Hinfalt, die das Wesen der- selben sind? — jetzt verzeih uns nur, dass wir euch mit keinem Hirngeburten un- terhalten, denen ihr doch nicht dhnlich sein wollt.’”’ See Gottsched’s Gedichte 1751, pp. 20, 21, 2 Among others who discussed pastoral literature was Christlob Mylius, Les- sing’s cousin, in an article on Schéifer Poesie, 1745. He makes the absurd pro- position that ‘‘ein vollkommener Kenner des Charakters aller Arten von Schifer_ gedichten nach dem Inhalt der Muster der guten alten und neuen Schafergedichten eine Geschichte von Arkadien als Richtschnur fiir die Poeten verfertigen und herausgeben solle,’’ See Netoliczka p. 56. 3 Vom natiirlichen in Schifergedichten, wider die Verfasser der Bremischen neuen Beytrige veriertiget vom Nisus einem Schifer in den Kohlgarten einem Dorfe vor Leipzig- Von Hanns Jérgen gleichfalls einem Schafer, Zitirich, 1746. Nisus was J. A. Schlegel, Jorgen Bodmer. 4 Gleim’s Bléder Schifer is criticised for making mention of “Heu und Erbsenstroh.” See Kérte; Gleim’s Leben, p. £1. 5 Se Page 59, Netoliczka. or PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER, 3 ner, too, in spite of his unreal and conventional shepherds, claimed that Theocritus was his model. Whether he was at all influenced by said article, I do not know. Ever since Opitz had imtroduced the Opera into Germany through his translation of Dafne, with its mythological and pas” toral character, the opera had been a favorite form of entertain- ment, first at court-festivities,' later in some of the large cities, especially Hamburg, Braunschweig, and Dresden, and grew to be exceedingly popular. Ballets, pantomimes, and masquerades were introduced into these operas, whence the music and display became all-important, while the text was utterly disregarded. When Gottsched began his reforms of the German stage, he found the stage occupied by this form of opera, which he heartily despised.” Wishing to drive the opera off the stage, he pro- posed to substitute for it the shepherd-play to be spoken, not sung, and wrote his Atalanta (published 1741) with this purpose in view.* He succeeded, too, beyond his expectations; German literature was literally deluged by imitations of Gottsched’s play- During the ten years immediately following the publication of Atalanta more than thirty shepherd-dramas appeared, seven be- ing published in the year 1746 alone. In Atalanta and these plays which it called into existence there is no individual characterization; all allusions to the ordinary oc- cupations of life are carefully avoided. The shepherds are mere conventional types, puppets without life and reality; the writers do not give any motives for the entrance or exit of the actors, 1 As a good example of these operas may be mentioned Johann von Besser’s Singspiele, 1707, (‘‘mit mythologischem Prunk ausstaffiert’”’), page 563 of Des Hernn von Besser Schrifften 1732, 2 “Wenn nicht die Regeln der ganzen Poesie iibern Haufen fallen sollen, so muss ich mit dem St. Evremond sagen: Die Oper sei das ungereimteste Werk, der menschliche Verstand jemals erfunden hat” Krit. Dichtk. p, 369. 3 See Das deutsche Schiferspiel des 18. Jahrhunderts (Inaugural Disser- tation), Halle a, 8., 1885, by Friedrich Riihle, In this he sets forth the importance of Gottsched’s Atalanta in the development of the pastoral drama. 36 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. wherefore these plays lack all unity of dramatic action. No real advance can be traced in these dramas;* on the contrary, a tendency towards shallow and sensual triviality manifested itself, so that Gleim laments the deterioration of the literary taste, and calls these plays ““Schweinhirten-spiele.”’* The importance of these plays in their influence upon the idyl lies in this, that they filled Germany with the atmosphere of this unreal pastoral world. Hence it seemed necessary to the first writers of idyls to retain this ideal hazy shepherd-life in their works in order to make them acceptable to their contemporaries. A protest against these Schweinhirten-spiele and a return to an imnocent ideal world is seen in the many works of the time which went back to the patriarchal age of the “‘Patriarcha- Bible for their motives. These ‘“‘Patriarchaden,” den.” usually epic in form, may be traced to the influ- ence of Klopstock and even to Milton. The works emanated from the circle that was opposed to Gottsched,* and exerted great influence upon Gessner. This ‘‘seraphic poetry,” as Julian Schmidt calls it, suffers from the common fault of the period, vagueness and lack of characterization. The earliest and best written idyls of the period immediately 1 Bodmer’s pastoral drama Cimon (written 1747) is noticeable by its giving reasons for the entrance and exit of the actors, and by its haying a definite local- ity, “‘zum ersten und einzigen Mal in einem Schiiferspiel” (Netoliczka, p. 68).- Yet even Bodmer was unable to imbue his characters with any life or reality. 2 See Netoliczka p. 19. 3 In the year 1746 Gleim writes to Uz as follows: ‘Nach meiner Meinung hat in Deutschland nie ein so schlimmer Geschmack geherrscht als jetzt.- Man macht Schiiferspiele, die man mit Recht Schweinhirten-spiele nennen kann.’ See Gleims Leben by K6rte (1811) p. 43. 4 Milton’s Paradise Lost was translated by J. J. Bodmer 1732, revised edition 1742; this as is well known greatly influenced Klopstock’s Messias, three books of which were published 1748. 5 Bodmer’s “‘Patriarchaden”’ were a weak imitation of Klopstock’s Messias; they were: Noah 1750, Jacob and Joseph 1751, Jacob and Rachel 1752; Klopstock in turn followed his example in Der 70d Adams 1757, which work Gessner imitated in Der Tod Abels 1758; Maler Miiller showed the influence of his predecessors in Der erschlagene Abel 1775, and Adams erstes Erwachen und erste selige Néichte 1778. PASTORAL LITERATURE PROM OPITZ TO GHSSNER, 37 preceding Gessner are Johann, Christoph Rost’s Schéfererzéhlun- gen.1. Both in style and contents they show a Writers of Idyls_ reaction against the conventional French taste of Immediately Pre- Gottsched, and contain many anacreontic ele- ceding Gessner. ments. He abandoned the idea of an innocent Arcadian existence, and employs the form of the idyl for presenting the grossest sensual descriptions, though writ- ten in exceedingly light and pleasing style. Rost’s lasciviousness was imitated only by C. N. Naumann, whose work is merely vulgar, as he lacked Rost’s ability. As Gessner was closely associated with Hagedorn and the “Hallenser”’ circle, they exerted great influence upon his style. Hagedorn’s Fabeln und Erzéhlungen (1738) gave models for the epic treatment of bucolic material. From the ‘Hallenser’’ circle (Gleim, Uz, G6tz, etc.) emanated a species of poetry which com- bined anacreontic and pastoral elements.? The idyls of J. N. G6tzt were added to his book of poems: Die Oden Anakreons in reimlosen Versen (1746). These idyls are written in rhymed verse, and, like the works of all these anacreontic writers, are very light and charming in style. From these authors Gessner ac- quired much of his pleasing and graceful style, and the anacreon- tic element also enters into his idyls.* In the idyls of Chr. Fr. Zernitz appears the tendency of again turning to an innocent pastoral world. However, his work, Versuch in moralischen und Schétfergedichten, 1748, written in strophic form, is wholly worthless. ° 1 See Versuch von Schifergedichten und andern poetischen Ausarbet- tungen 1760 (name of author and publisher not given on title page). The popularity of this work is attested by the fact that it went through eleven edi- tions. Of similar nature is Rost’s Die schénste Nacht, Berlin, 1763, one of the most famous poems of German erotic literature, 2 Sieben Hirtengedichte vom Schoch dem jiingern aus Sachsen- 1743.- See Netoliczka, p. 19. 3 See Anakreontiker in Deut. Nat. Lit. 4 See Koberstein V. 56, and Netoliczka, p. 62. 5 See Scherer’s Deut. Lit. Gesch. p. 430. 6 See Koberstein V. 56, and Netoliezka 57. (uuy io’) GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. None of these idyllic writers preceding Gessner had struck the note that suited the visionary, sentimental mood of their time.? Their work is of importance mainly as calling the attention of their contemporaries to this literary form. The sentimentality of the time was now to find its best expression in the idyls of Gess- ner. CHAPTER LY. GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IpyL. Gessner gathered together all the threads of pastoral poetry running throug’ the literature of the period at the end of which he stood, and wove these into his idyls. Hence in his works we find all the elements of weakness as well as of excellence, charac- teristic of the rococo eighteenth century. Solomon Gessner was born in 1730 at Ziirich, where he spent most of his life, thus coming directly under the influence of the Swiss school and of Klopstock. Early in his youth he was at- tracted to the descriptive poetry of Brockes, for which he enter- tained a predilection all through life. When nineteen years old he went to Berlin to learn his father’s trade, that of book-dealer, but soon turned to the study of drawing and painting. At Berlin he made the acquaintance of Ramler, to whom he showed his first poetical efforts, and who exerted a lasting influence upon his lit- erary development. From 1751 on he resided at Ziirich. Unable 1 Of other writers of idyls I may also mention K. A. Sehmidt.- See Koberstein VY. 56. Hirtenlieder und Gedichte was published at Halle, 1753, by ananonymous writer. See Netoliczka p. 63.- Concerning F. W. Zachariaé’s Phaeton 1754. Geryinus says it could not be called anything but an idyl, if it did not smack of being a parody on Ovid’s Phaeton. See Gervinus IV. 22. tle GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL, 39 to earn his living: by his literary labors, he took up painting as his calling. After the death of his father he assumed control of the book-shop. Meanwhile his works had made him famous, so that he was honored by his townsmen with many positions of trust until his death in 1787. Before he came to write the idyls upon which his fame chiefly rests, he tried his apprentice hand upon other works. His first poems were anacreontic,! in imitation of Hagedorn and Gleim. The next step towards the idyl was the pastoral romance Daphnis (1754), suggested to him by a chance reading of a translation of Daphnis and Chloe by Longos, which has been the great model for so many works of this nature. Gessner’s Daphnis lacks ac- tion and reality as compared with the original. The story is full of tenderness and delicacy, but these qualities do not make up for what it lacks in strength and variety. In the short sketch of Genrebild Gessner found the literary form for which his talent best fitted him. His first idyls, twerty in number, were published in 1756, followed by his Neue Idyllen, twenty-two in number, in 1772. The later idyls are to a great extent a reflection of the best parts of the first collection. Yet though they lack the freshness of the first idyls, the style and lan- guage show an advance in being less diffuse. These idyls, especially the first edition, suited as no other had done, the “‘sweetish”’ sentimentality of the time, and were hailed with joy. In what did this feeling consist? The tendency of German poetry to turn to a visionary world of imaginary innocence and happiness, away from the conditions of surrounding distress, is one of the most marked characteristics of the time.2 The peasants and shepherds were almost without 1 See Frey’s Gessner, Introduction, p. 10. Frey in his indroduction to Gessner’s works, page 18, says: “Aallers prophetische Strafrede, Gessner’s liebliche Idylle, Lessing’s Emilia Galotti, Goethe’s G6tzund Schiller’s Jugenddramen— sie liegen hier alle in einer Linie; die Sehnsucht der Idylle wendet sich seufzend von ihrer Zeit ab, der Zorn der stiir- mischen Dramen stészt diese um,”’ 40 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. exception so poor and oppressed, that a realistic portrayal of their condition would have attracted no attention. As Gessner puts it: ‘Was soll der Schafer mit der Wirklichkeit wo der Bauer mit saurer Arbeit unterthinig Fiirsten und Stiidten den Uberfiuss liefern muss, wo Armuth und Unterdriickung ihn ungesittet, schlau, und niedertrachtig gemacht haben?”’! But this feelmg of aversion was directed not only against pastoral or peasant life; civilization as a whole was blamed for having produced all the crime and unhappiness in the world. This common sentiment found its best expression in the works of Rousseau. Even in his first great works,? which appeared before the idyls of Gessner, Rousseau appears as the great apostle of freedom from the restraints of civilization, and in tones which re- echoed throghout the world, preaches a return to nature. Gessner, in common with his contemporaries, turned away from the present state of the world and of.civilization, which seemed all wrong, to an ideal world which was thought of either as wholly imaginary or as having existed in the past. Such periods they found in an ideal Arcadia, and also in the patriarchal times as pictured in the Bible stories treating of the periods before and after the deluge. Especially did Klopstock and the Swiss turn with religious fervor to depicting the Patriarchal Age.$ Gessner and his contemporaries entertained an unshakable belief and assurance that such an ideal world had actually existed. Was not the Bible narrative in itself absolute proof that this earthhad 1 Gessner’s Introduction to the idyls, p. 64, 2 In 1750 appeared Discours sur les sciences et les arts, which shows Rousseau’s “‘Kulturfeindliche Stimmung;’ it appears still more forcibly in his Discours sur Pinegalité parmi les hommes 1755, translated by Moses Men- delssohn in the following year. 3 Gervinus IV, 174, says: “Dass wir die Idyllen von Salomon Gessner aus Ziirich auf eine Linie mit diesen Patriarchaden stellen, wird niemand wundern, der die Geschichtlichen Verhiltnisse beachtet hat. Er ging aus Klopstock hervor, wie Thomson aus Milton,” 4 Gessner writes: ‘Kurz, sie (die Ekloge) schildert uns ein goldnes Weltalter, das gewiss einmal da gewesen ist, denn davon kann uns die Geschichte der Patriarchen iiberzeugen, und die Hinfalt der Sitten, die uns Homer schildert.” GHSSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THER PASTORAL IDYL, 41 seen an age of innocence and perfect happiness, when pastoral occupation was the most important? And was not the legend of the Golden Age, which had come down from classic authors corroborative evidence? In this ideal shepherd-world, too, all poetry had its origin and source, and to this era of perfection man must always go for his noblest ideals and highest aspirations. Gessner tried to depict this era as he imagined it had really exist- ed,1_ and ardently hoped that it might again bless the earth and usher in a new age of innocence and happiness. In’ Gessner’s idyls description of nature occupies the most prominent place. Of the forty-two idyls of Gessner, twenty lack dialogue altogether, and are purely descriptive or narrative; and of the dialogues, fifteen or more come in this same category, leaving but a few in which the descriptive element is of minor importance. A Swiss and a painter, he seems to have been doubly qualified for describing the grand nature of his native country; but not even Haller’s Alpen had opened his eyes to the beauty and grandeur of the mountains. On the contrary, nature in his works is too conventional and overadorned, like the ornamental French gardening of the rococo period. Gessner intentionally made the descriptive element so promi- nent, following the examples of Haller and Kleist, and more especially of their predecessor Brockes, whose minute vapid de- scriptions had charmed him in his youth. In common with these great descriptive authors Gessner still labored under the theory that poetry could and should vie with the landscape painter, and in his idyls he entered into this unequal contest. In his Brief tiber die Landschattsmalerei he says: ‘Die Dichtkunst ist die wahre Schwester der Malerkunst. — Wie mancher Kiinstler wiirde mit mehr Geschmack edlere Gegenst&nde wiihlen, wie mancher Dichter wtirde in seinen Gemiilden mehr Wahrheit, mehr Malendes im 1 Gessner says: “Diese Dichtungsart bekon:mt daher einen besondern Vortheil, wenn man die Scenen in ein entferntes Weltalter setzt; sie erhalten dadurch einen héhern Grad der Wahrscheinlichkeit.” The Idyl in German Literature. 3 42 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL, Ausdruck haben, wenn sie die Kenntniss beider Stiicke mehr ver- banden.”’! This tendency naturally developed much Kleinmalerei. In his Brief tiber die Landschaftsmalerei Gessner characterizes his early work as a painter; this criticism is also the best character- istic of his literary productions, including the idyl. He writes: “Meine Neigung ging vorztiglich auf die Landschaft. Das Beste und der Hauptendzweck ist doch immer die Natur. So dacht’ ich und zeichnete nach der Natur. Aber ich wollte der Natur allzugenau folgen und sah mich in Kleinigekeiten des Detail verwickelt, die den Effekt des Ganzen st6rten; und fast immer fehlte mir die Manier, die den Gegenstéinden der Natur ihren wahren Charakter beibe- halt.’’? Just as the grand nature of the Alps finds no reflection in Gessner’s idyls, he also fails to imitate Haller in introducing actual idyllic life of the mountain people who dwelled in almost patriar- chal simplicity. However, Gessner did people his beautified nature with inhabitants: shepherds, satyrs, fauns, and zephyrs. Even though the former are more natural than Fontenelle’s shepherds (‘courtiers clad in silk’), yet two causes contributed to make the characters represented seem unreal and lifeless. In the first place they were only of minor importance as compared with the scenery of which they were intended to be the ornaments and decorations. In the second place, the scenes are laid in an ideal Arcadia, an innocent Golden Age, and in consequence the characters are vague and unreal, too innocent and virtuous to be really human. This Arcadian innocence and goodness makes the characters all of one general type; it was always the same shepherd in different situations. This poverty of character-types is all the more noticeable as there is hardly any action in the idyls. In twenty 1 Continuing, Gessner writes: ‘‘Der Landschafts-malér muss sehr zu beklagen sein, den z. B. die Gemiilde eines Thomson nicht begeistern k6nnen. Ich habe in diesem grossen Meister viele Gemiilde gefunden, die aus den besten Werken der grdssesten Maler genommen scheinen, und die der Kiinstler ganz auf sein Tuch tibertragen konnte.”” Brockes is also mentioned. p. 288. 2 See Brief iiber die Landschaftsmalerei in Gessners Werke (Deut Nat. Lit.) p. 282. GESSNER AND THI CULMINATION OF THI PASTORAL IDYL. 43 of the fourty-two idyls no dialogue occurs at all, and what dia- logue there is, is lacking in dramatic life, being: either descriptive or narrative. The conversation of the shepherds which ought to bring out the difference of character only shows how exactly alike they are,!. most of what is said would be equally appropriate in the mouth of either shepherd. This sameness is necessarily fatal to any continued interest in the characters. Their calm dialogue cannot move us even when it, as in the idyl Der Sturm, describes a storm at sea and a shipwreck. As Goethe says: “Voltaire kann zu Lausanne aus seinem Bette dem Sturm des Genfer Sees im Spiegel nicht ruhiger zugesehen haben als die Leute auf dem Felsen, um die das Wetter wiitet, sich vice versa detailliren was sie beide sehen.”’ Two of Gessners idyls, however, deserve special mention as differing from the others, and showing an approach toward realism. Der Faun (idyl 20) has some of the spirit of Theocritus, and excellently characterizes two different types; the love-sick Faun, whose suit has been rejected, gives way to despair, while hisfriend banters him on account of his passion and eventually induces him to join the merry procession in honor of Lyaeus. In only one idyl does Gessner leave the dream-world of an Arcadian existence and descend to terra firma; in only one does he foreshadow the realistic idyl, which wassosoon to appear, descri- bing characters and scenes of the native soil. Das hdlzerne Bein, eine Schweizer-idylle portrays in the old invalid soldier a charac- teristic figure with the grand mountains of Switzerland as a background. The veteran describes in animated words to an 1 Goethe says: “Zeigt das nicht den gréssten Mangel dichterischer Empfind- ung, dass in keiner einzigen dieser Idyllen die handlenden Personen wahres Interesse an und mit einander haben? Entweder ist es kalter, erziihlender Monolog oder was eben so schlimm ist, Erziihlung und ein Vertrauter der seine paar Pfennige quer hinein dialogisiert, und wenn denn einmal zwei was zusammen finden, empfindet’s einer wie der andre, und da ist’s vor wie nach.’’ See Goethe's excellent review of Moralische Erzihlungen uaod Idyllen von Diderot und S. Gessner in Frankfurter Gelehrte Anzeigen 8, 273 (1772). 44 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. admiring young shepherd one of the severe battles fought for the independence of Switzerland. But even this idyl Gessner over loads by bringing in an account of the shepherd’s subsequent visit to the soldier’s home, and hismarriage with the soldier’s daughter. Of the first part of this idyl Goethe says: ‘‘Wie ich anfing, sie zu lesen, rief ich aus: O, hitt’er nichts, als Schweizer-idyllen gemacht: Dieser treuherzige Ton, diese muntre Wendung des Gesprachs, das National-interesse! Das hélzerne Bein ist mir lieber als em Dutzend elfenbeierne Nymphenftisschen!’’! The hexameter would have been the most natural form for Gessner to adopt in his idyls after the example set by Klopstock and Kleist, and by Bodmer in his Patriarchaden, especially as that is also the meter of the classic idyls. But at the advice of Raimler he began to write in a rhythmical prose,? which together with a poetic and elevated style he adopted in nearly allhis works. Everywhere occur fragments of iambic? or dactylic verse, occasion- ally even a whole hexameter line.4 Thisrhythmical prose appears in the works of many of the immediate imitators of Gessner, especially writers of idyls, some of whom tried to hide their inability to put their weak products into a strict poetical form, and hence chose this easier rhythmical form. The idyl or Genre-bild suited Gessner’s peculiar talent. But with success came the ambition to produce some greater work. Under the influence of Klopstock and the Patriarchal epics of the Swiss, he wrote Der Tod Abels which was considered by his 1 In Frankf. Gel. Anz., 1772. 2 Later Ramler became possessed with the mania to “improve” the works of his friends. Among other ‘‘improvements’”’ he turned Gessner’s prose idyls into verse and published them under the title: Gessner's auserlesene Idyllen in Verse gebracht (Berlin 1787). ; 3 So in idyl I there are long iambic passages; e. g, “Die, Daphne! dies allein, belohne meine Lieder, dies sei mein Ruhm, dass mir an deiner Seite, aus deinem holden Auge Beifall liachle.”’ 4E. g., in Gessner’s wellknown idyl Mirtil (No, 5), we meet the following dactylic prose, the latter part of it constituting an hexameter line: “Ttzt schwieg er und sah mit thriinendem Aug’ auf den Greisen; Wie er lachelnd da liegt und schlummert! sprach er itzt schluchzend.”’ GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. 45 contemporaries, especially in France, as his best work. He des- cribes in it the same idyllic world as in his idyls, with the same lack of action, and inability to characterize. Abel is the embod- iment of good, Cain of evil, but as Gessner could create no genuine human villain, there is no real climax. Der erste Schiffer (1762), altogether pastoral in its character, is considered Gessner’s best work both as to the plot and style. Gessner informsus, that in his idyls he took Theocritus for his model. He says: ‘Ich habe den Theokrit immer fiir das beste Muster in dieser Art Gedichte gehalten. — Ich habe Gessner and ‘ aieites 3 meine Regeln in diesem Muster gesucht.” And out- Theocritus. Rena SS z A : wardly he did imitate Theocritus and the ancients in choosing their shepherd-names, as Daphnis and Daphne, Amyntas and Alexis, Damon and Thyrsis, Phillisand Chloe, Tityrus and Me- nalkas; further, by the introduction of satyrs and fauns, by the use of songs and refrains, and by referring to the ordinary occupations of shepherd-life. Yet there is a wide difference between the two: Gessner described a beautified nature which he adorned with Dresden China shepherds. Theocritus described human characters to whom he gave an appropriate natural background. Seemingly Gessner himself did not appreciate in all its extent the difference between himself and Theocritus. This self-deception may to some extent be explained by Gessner’s inability to read Greek; it is possible that the French translation of Theocritus, which he used, may have blurred the distinctness and vigor of the original out- lines: So in the introduction to his idyls Gessner several times speaks of the unverdorbene Herzen and sanfte Miene der Unsckuld ihrer Liebe of the shepherds of Theocritus, asifthey, too, belonged to an innocent Arcadia. By omitting such realistic features as seemed to him inappropriate according to his standard,’ he 1 Frey says in his introduction to Gessner’s works: Uber dem ganzen Werk- chen ist ein unendlicher Zauber siisser Sehnsucht und nirgendsschimmert Gessner’s traumhafte Welt in solechem Glanze, wie hier.’”’- Cf. Koberstein V, 57, 11. 2 “Zwar weiss ich wohl dass einige wenige Ausdriicke und Bilder in Theokrit bei so sehr abgeiinderten Sitten uns veriichtlich worden sind; dergleichen Um- 46 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. thought that he could produce a world which was as real as that of Theocritus, without the latter’s seeming coarseness, not appre- ciating that it is just the combination of all these small touches in Theocritus which give color and life to his characters and to his poetry. Though Gessner himself challenges a comparison of his idyls with those of Theocritus, we cannot judge them by the same standard, but must always remember, that the aim and purpose of the two poets was altogether different.1. It was Gessner’s aim to describe a Golden Age, in which piety and virtue and calm happiness reigned supreme; it was his aim to portray a nature beautiful and perfect, like the paradise of the Bible. Besides this there was the moral purpose: Gessner wished to strengthen in his readers the desire to lead a life of virtue and contentment, and wished to arouse a deep appreciation of the beauties of nature. And who would deny that Gessner has accom plished this his purpose to a remarkable degree? He must ever be honored on account of the tenderness of his feelings, the purity of his thought, the grace of his presentation, and the harmony of his language. Even though Gessner misunderstood the character of Theoc- ritus’s idyls, yet by turning to them for his models he called the attention of his contemporaries and successors to Theocritus. The need of a greater realism began to make itself felt and gave an impulse towards the later realistic development of the idyl. If you wish briefly to sum up the characteristics of Gessner’s idyls, it can be best done in the words of Goethe: ‘“‘Malender Dich- ter! — Dazu charakterisiert sich Gessner selbst, und wer mit Les- singen der ganzen Gattung ungtinstig wire, wiirde hier wenig zu loben finden: Mit dem empfindlichsten Auge fiir die Schénheiten der Natur hat G. reizende Gegenden durchwandelt, in seiner Hin- bildungskraft zusammengesetzt, verschGnert — und so standen stindgen hab ich zu vermeiden getracitet.’’ Se Introduction to Gessner’s Idyls, p. 65. 1 Concerning the character of the idyls of Theocritus, see page 11. GHSSNER AND THI CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. 47 paradiesische Landschaften vor seiner Seele. Ohne Iiguren ist eine Landschaft todt; er schuf sich also Gestalten aus seiner schmachtenden Empfindung und erhéhten Phantasie, staffierte sein Gemiéilde damit, und so wurden seine Idyllen. Und in diesem Geiste lese man sie! und man wird tiber seine Meisterschaft erstaunen.”’? Gessner’s ideal pastoral idyl is the culmination of the pastoral literature which has been introduced into Germany at the begin- ning of theseventeenth century. But this culmination also brought with it a surfeit and a reaction, by which the unreal elements of this literature were thrown off, just as Goethe overcame his senti- mental Werther-mood by giving expression to it in Werther’s Leiden. After Gessner the notes of the shepherd’s pipe, which had been heard on every hillside, were soon to die away in German literature. His strains were not the beginning of a new era. They were the swan’s song of one about to end. Most of the immediate imitators of Gessner in their desire to be original substituted fishermen and gardeners for the shepherds. a Yet we discern no real advance in the works of these The imitators of Becca: imitators; their atmosphere and setting is the same innocent and perfect Arcadia which we find in Gess- ner; the characters represented are Gessner’s shepherds in the garb of fishermen. These idyls are not only narrative and descriptive, but the moral and religious element occupies a most prominent position. The authors who persisted in clinging to this ideal world of innocent Arcadian existence thereby showed that they were untouched by the re-awakening influence which began to dominate German literature, and that they retained the phantom ideal, which others had already cast aside. Hence much of the work of these imitators is of a very low order of merit; in fact, Julian Schmidt places it among the least enjoyable literary pro- ducts of the time. Two of the imitators of Gessner, Kleist and Bronner, rise above the others in ability and mastery of form. 1 See Frankf, Gel, Anz. 1772, 48 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. Ewald Christian v. Kleist who had exerted a great influence upon Gessner by his descriptive poem Der Friihling! is now in turn led by Gessner’s works to try his hand at writing idyls.? Even in his earliest idyllic works? written before Gessner’s idyls he shows a tendency to turn away from the world of shepherds. So in Amynt (1751) and in other poems the shepherd element has almost vanished. Now when Gessner’s example led him to write idyls, he endeavors to enlarge their scope. In the introduction to his Neue Gedichte (1758) he says, that the French by taking the subject matter for the idyl from shepherd-life only, had made the limits of the idyl altogether too narrow; Kleist thought that other phases of country life were equally suitable for idyllic treat- ment. However, as Kleist’s aim was moral and religious, he insisted that only pure and pleasing pictures should be given, trivial and unenjoyable traits were to be carefully removed. In his Milon und Iris and Irin he contributed a gardener-idyl and a fisher-idyl. These, like all his works, are full of pious senti- ment; pray to God, rely upon him; He directs the world for the best; He will bestow a lasting happiness upon all who obey His will. The idyls of J. Chr. Blum,’ though written in a pleasing 1 See page 32. 2 In imitation of Gessner Kleist wrote the gardener-idyl Milon und Iris 1758 and his fisher-idyl Irin 1758. 3 See note 2, p. 32. 4So in Jrin the son admires the beauty of the sea and shore, but the most important part of the idyl are the moral precepts of the father: “‘O bleib der Tugend immer Treu Und weine mit den weinenden Und gieb von deinem Vorrat gern Den Armen.” In order to complete the moral, even though it makes the idyl as such less perfect, the death of Irin is mentioned, and that the son “folgete Stets diesen Lehren. Segen kam Aufihbn. Sein langes Leben diinkt Thm auch ein Friihlingstag zu sein,” 5 See Koberstein V. 60- Several of Blum’s idyls written in blank verse had been printed in the G6ttinger Musenalmanach, before they were collected and published in the year 1773. GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF 'THIE PASTORAL IDYL. 49 form, are unimportant in themselves and in the influence they exerted. Kleist wrote only one fisher-idyl, His example was followed by one whose name is inseparably connected with idyls dealing: ex- clusively with the life of fishermen, Franz Xaver Bronnert (1758 —1850). In his youth he had been a most ardent reader and admirer of Gessner, and early tried his hand at translating idyls from the Greek. From the window of his cell in a Benedictine convent he had a fine view of the Danube and of a fisher-village, so that he at all times saw fishermen plying their trade among the small islands that dotted the water. This sight aroused his interest in the village-life, and led him to the composition of his first fisher-idyls. Diffident of his own powers he did not venture to publish these idyls, until after his flight from the convent to Switzerland. Here he met Gessner who encouraged him in his writing of fisher-idyls, and introduced his first volume to the public in 1787.? Re-assured by the success which greeted this publication he issued his Neue Fischergedichte und Erzéhlungenin 1794. With little originality Bronner everywhere shows the influence of the models whom he followed. In all his idyls he adopted the rhythmical and lofty prose of Gessner and the moralizing tone of 1 See Bronner’s Introd. to Vol. II. 24, where he makes special mention of Kleist’s Zvin “eine der lieblichsten versificierten Fischeridyllen. Wer hort nicht gern den frommen Vater zu, der seinem Sohne beym Reusenlegen die schénsten Lehren ertheilt? Und wer fiihlt sich nicht sanft geriihrt, wenn er den Schluss liest, aus dem ein so feiner Ton siisser Wehmuth lispelt?- Méchten nur die folgenden Fischergedichte auch so allgemein gefallen, als Kleist’s Irin.”’? Se Gervinus IV, 188. 2 Fischergedichten und Erzihlungen mit einem Vorwort von Gessner, 1787. — Among other things Gessner says: ‘Der Verfasser hat diese Gedichte in einsamen Stunden der Musse verfertiget; vom Fenster seiner Kloster-zelle, wo er die Jahre seiner Jugend auch unter ernstern Studien der Mathematik und Natur- kunde hinbrachte, hatte er die ausgebreitete Aussicht auf einen Fluse, und seine schattenreichen Ufer, und auf die anmuthigen Inseln, die er umschwamm. Bey der Lektur des Theokrit, Virgil und Sannazar staunte er diese Scenen an, beobachtete die mannigfaltigen Sch6nheiten, die vor ihm lagen und die Bewohner der Gegend, deren meiste Beschiiftigung der Fischfang ist, ward begeistert, und schrieb so, was er sah, was ibn riihrte, und so entstanden seine ersten Fischergedichte.”’. See p. 3. 50 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. Kleist. Die erste Fischerin is an evident and weak imitation of Gessner’s Der erste Schiffer, and the idyl Der Bad seems to be based upon the bathing scene in Thomson’s Seasons. In the introduction to his idyls Bronner justifies his selection oi fishermen for the actors in his descriptive idyllic poems by citing the example of classic authors, of Sannazaro and of Kleist, and claims that fishermen are fully as capable of idealized treat- ment as are shepherds;! furthermore, the fisheridyl had the advantage oi not being worn threadbare.* And he was acquaint- ed with the life of the fisherfolk; for years had he studied and observed their ways and habits, their daily work and pleasures. He says himself: “‘Erinnern Sie sich nur, dass ich, sieben Jahre lang, taglich ein Fischerdori mit aller semer Geschaitigkeit vor Augen hatte; dann werden Sie es ganz begreiflich finden, wie sich meine Phantasie allmahlich mit Fischern bev6lkern konnte.”’? In spite of this fact, that Bronner’s idyls are based on personal observation and actual acquaintance, and ought therefore to contain real human characters, we feel at once that it is not the fresh and invigorating sea-air which pervades them, but the per- fumed atmosphere oi conventionality and idealization. And even Bronner himself appreciated that his characters are not men of fiesh and blood. On the contrary, his very definition of fisher- idyl indicates his purpose to describe an idealized and innocent world. The fisherman’s garb was but a mask for ideal charac- ters, in some of whom he even expected his friends to recognize themselyes.* The very names he gives his fishermen show their un- 1 Introduce. to Vol. IL, p. 9 of Bronner’s works. 2 Iniroduc. to Vol, IT. 9. 3 Introduce. to VoL L.. 10. + Bronner defines the fisher-idyl as “einzelne den saniten Geifiihlen Schmei- chelnde Bilder, Handlungen und Kleine Scenen aus dem Fischerleben.* Later he adds: “Thre Charakiere diirien und sollen veredeli sein. wie man sie vielleicht nirgend antrifit. aber wie man sie doch anzuirefien hoffen kann.” See Introd. to Vol IL, pp- 6, 8. 30“Meine Bekannten werden sich, bey der Durchlesung derselben, wohl selbst erkennen.” See Introd. Vol. L.. 12. GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL, 51 real character and their kinship to Gessner’s shepherds: Clinias and hardly astonished at meeting a mythological incident, as when a Naiad transforms the drowning Calmus into a water-plant. The Theone, Palemon and Myrson, Asphalionand Lyde. The time of the idyls is laid in a remote and hazy antiquity, wherefore we are characters all belong to the innocent Golden Age; if at any time a fisherman does commit any wrong, no motive is assigned for his action, and he immediately repents.1_ Dramatic dialogue islack- ing and the action is stifled by the long descriptions and more especially by the moralizing reflections.? The very titles are often suggestive of sermons: Geniess im Stillen, Maissigung, Die wahren Reichen, etc. Real fishermen of his day Bronner did attempt to introduce into two of his idyls, but with little success. He thinks it necessary, however, to preface the first of these idyls with an apology to the reader for thus rudely taking him away from the pleasing illusion of a “better world”, an illusion so necessary to idyllic poetry. But even in this idyl, Der Fischer bey Hote, ein modernes Fischer- gesprach, the purpose is didactic, the fisher-element disappears, and the idyl becomes a satire, in which Veit describes to Hans his impression of a visit at court. The second attempt at a realistic idyl again shows Gessner’s influence; just as Gessner had closed his idyls with eine Schweizer-idylle, in which the soldier with the 1 So e. g. the idyl Die Rache des Redlichen. 2 That Bronner considered these moralizing reflections an important ingredient of his idyls we see by his own statement: “‘Vermégen die eingestreuten moral- ischen Ziige, hier und da, eine schGnere Empfindung in unverdorbenen Herzen zu wecken, so halte ich mich doppelt fiir meine Arbeit belohnt.’’ See Introd. to Vol. The, J1P2. 3 Bronner’s apology which also shows the character of his work is as follows: ' “Teh menge hier unter Gedichte, deren handelnde Personen alle in ein enferntes Zeitalter zurtickgesetzt sind, ein Fischergespriich aus neueren Zeiten. Zwar muss ish fiirchten meine Leser dadurch auf eine unangenehme Weise aus dem Traume za wecken, in den ich sie gern eingewiegt hiitte, um ihnen desto bequemer Bilder aus einer bessern Welt vormahlen zu kénnen. Allein ich hoffe doch, das kleine Stiick, eben weil es modern ist, werde so viel Interesse haben, dass man mir die geflissentliche Aufhebung einer dieser Dichtungsart so vortheilhaftes Taéuschung mu gut halten wird.’ See Bronner Vol. I. 98. 52 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. wooden leg describes a battle, so Bronner makes a ballad celebrat- ing the Swiss struggle for liberty the chief element of his last idyl, Schwanau, ein Schweitzerisches Fischergedicht. Other writers of little or no original powers imitated Gessner and Kleist in their idyls, losing themselves in reflections and vague descriptions of an idealized and hazy world of innocence. Oi these authors Briickner is of importance only in sofar as he in no small degree influenced the first idyls of Voss, with whom he was inti- mately associated. Briickner’s Idyllen aus einer Unschuldswelt appeared 1774—5 in the G6éttinger Musenalmanach,: of which Voss was editor. These idyls also contain descriptions of innocent precocious child-life (as Die Unschuld, Jesus als Kind) later published under the title of Kinderidyllen. — Briickner’s Unschulds- welt together with works of a similar nature, Wilmsen’s Samm- lung fiir Geist und Herz, and Breitenbauch’s Jtidische Schafer- gedichte mark the lowest ebb which German literature of this period reached.? ; Meanwhile the new and vigorous era of a literary re-awakening had begun in Germany; literature became a genuine reflection of actual conditions and real life. The decaying literature descrip- tive of an imaginary Golden Age, heard its doom from every side, best expressed in the words with which Gryphius closes his Schwar- mender Schiffer: “Aus Nymien! Schaffer aus! Aus mit der Schiéifferey! Man kehr auifts Schloss! Last Kleid und Hirtenstab heim senden Weil Lysis nun entbaumt, ist dieses Spiel zu Enden.” 1 Sauer in G6ttinger Dichterbund (Deut. Nat. Lit.) p. 31 says: ‘Es macht keinen erfreulichen Eindruck dass dieser Almanach der mit Klopstock so kraftig einsetzte, mit Briickner so schwachlich endet.” 2 See Julian Schmidt Gesch d. Deut. Lit. CHAPTER Y¥. Tap REALISTIC iDYL. With the middle of the eighteenth century the day of a new li- terary era began to dawn upon Germany. The foreign forms and materials which had dominated German literature for centuries were overthrown by destructive criticism and by the impetuous onsets of the Storm and Stress period, whereupon followed the most remarkable development of a classic national literature which modern times have witnessed. In the idyl we can see the same successive stages which German literature as a whole passed through, namely: 1. the theory of the idyl perfected in the era of criticism; 2. the rough naturalistic idyl in the Storm and Stress period represented by Maler Miller; 3. the idyl in its German classic perfection, at least as to form, in the works of Voss. The critics immediately following Gessner, especially Schlegel! and Ramler,? find only words of approbation for Gessner, con- sidering his style and conception of the idyl al- most perfect. But with quickening literary life in Germany, men began to doubt whether the idyl in Germany had been developed along right lines. Was this idealized description of a Golden Age the highest possible devel- Advance in the theory of the idyl. 1A. J. Schlegel in his edition of Batteux, 1751, still characterizes Schéfer dichtung as follows: “Ihr wesentlicher Inhalt sind die sanften Empfindungen eines gliickseligen Lebens, die vermittelst einer einfachen weder heroischen noch lacherlichen, sondern natiirlichen Handlung entwickelt werden, und in der fiir sie gehérigen Scene, in der reizenden Scene der Natur, aufgestellt werden.” He lays stress, then, upon action as the essence of the pastoral, but action that includes no ordinary labor. In the second edition, 1759, however, in the article Von dem eigentlichen Gegenstande des Schiifergedichts he accepts and approves of Gessner’s descriptive idyls with their moral reflections as a new kind of pastoral. 2 In the second edition of Ramler’s Batteux, 1762, Ramler says that Gessner had written in the true spirit of Theocritus: ‘‘Man findet hier gleiche Siissigkeit , 54 THE REALISTIC IDYL. opment of this literary form? Could the unreal, hazy characters of Gessner’s idyls be ranked with the real shepherds of Theocritus? 4 The review of Schlegel’s treatise by Mendelssohn in Briefe die neueste Literatur betrettend, Berlin (1762) marks the first im- portant advance in theory. He defines the idyl as ‘‘der sinn- lichste Ausdruck der hdchst verschonerten Leidenshaften und EHmptindungen solcher Menschen, die in kleineren Gesellschatten leben.’ Mendelssohn defends local coloring in the idyl as over against the conventional background which Schlegel demand- ed, and advocates the introduction of more complex action and motives than an innocent Arcadia could offer. Mendelssohn claims that the peasant of the time, with some degree of idealiza- tion to be sure, could well be made the subject of idyllic treat- ment. In laying down this principle Mendelssohn made a great advance, for he thus brings the idyl back to the actual life of the immediate present. But Mendelssohn places Theocritus, Vergil and Gessner in one and the same category of idyllic writers, and thereby shows that the did not carefully distinguish genuine naive feeling from sentimentality. It was reserved for Herder, ® as he was the pioneer in the theory of all modern German poetry and culture, to lay down the principle governing realistic idyllic poetry. In his Fragmente he points ut for the first time the impassable chasm which separated Theocritus and Gessner. The emotions and passions of Gessner’s gleiche Naivetiit, gleiche Unschuld in den Sitten. Seine Empfindungen sind man- nigfaltig, seine Plane regelmiissig, nichts ist sch6ner als seine Colorit. Er hat zwar nur in Prosa gesungen, allein seine Prosa ist so wohlklingend, dass wir den Klang des Theokritischen Verses nur wenig vermissen.” 1 Koberstein V. 59, states that the first testimony of this change of feeling which he could find occurs in a letter from Abbt to Mendelssohn in the year 1762. Abbt writes (see vermischte Werke 3, 60): ‘‘Dieser Tage las ich etwas von Idyllen, fieng an dariiber nachzudenken, dass sie fiir unsere Zeiten und fiir unsere Liinder immer sehr ungeschmackt sein miissten, weil weder Natur noch Staat die Originalien dazu geben kénnen.”’ ; 2 See Herder’s Frag mente tiber die neuere deutsche Litteratur, the chapter headed Theokrit und Gessner, 1767. Ol THE REALISTIC IDYL. are made so pure and ethereal that they cease to be passions, while Theocritus stands on the soil of real nature, his shepherds have really hnman passions; their innocence is the naive innocence of the child, while Gessner’s shepherds do not give the impression of being artless and ingenuous. In the words of Herder: “Wenn Ramler sagt, man finde bei Gessner eine gleiche Stissigkeit wie bei Theokrit, so ist die Stissigkeit des Griechen noch ein klarer Wassertrank aus dem pierischen Quell der Musen, der Trank des deutschen dagegen ist verzuckert.” Herder wished that idyllic literature should no longer be a mere conventional presentation of ideal life, but should become a plant of native growth and development, grounded in the rich soil of actual popular life. This principle he laid down in the following words: ‘‘Nicht nachamen sondern im Sinne des eigenen Geistes nachschatien.”’ ‘This return of idyllic poetry to the actual present excluded from the idyl the conventional, virtuous and perfect characters, which were so utterly unreal. Only by repre- senting human characters, with all their weaknesses as well as excellences, could the idyl attain its best and highest form. Herder states his ideal of the purpose of the idyl as follows: ‘“‘Wenn man Empfindungen und Leidenschaften der Menschen in kleinen Gesell- schaften so sinnlich zeigt, dass wir auf den Augenblick mit ihnen Schafer werden, und so weit verschGnert zeigt, dass wir es ftir den Augenblick werden wollen: Kurz bis zu Illusion und zum héchsten Wohlgefallen erhebt sich der Zweck der Idylle, nicht aber bis zum Ausdruck der Vollkommenheit oder zur moralischen Besserung.”’ Under Herder’s influence poetic beauty was no longer confunded with moral perfection, and thus a return to depicting real life was made possible. Furthermore, Lessing had given the death blow to purely descriptive poetry in his Laokoon (1766), that famous analysis of the difference between the plastic arts and poetry, where he claims that action constitutes the essence of poetry. Thus criticism cleared the ground and prepared the soil for the wonderful growth which was so soon to burst forth. Men turned away with a feeling of surfeit from the old literary forms and 56 THE REALISTIC IDYL, subject-matter, and rejoiced to behold the dawning glory of classic German literature. In this great German renaissance the idyl, too, was regenerated; the principles which Herder had laid down were crystallized into form in the realistic idyls of two authors of superior merit, Maler Miiller and Voss. Fredrich Miller (1749—1825), one of the most fruitful poets of the Storm and Stress period, was born in the Rhenish Pala- tinate, which he has celebrated in his best idyls. He early showed artistic talent, and for sometime was in the service of a Prince of the Palatinate as a painter and engraver. When 21 years old he came to Mannheim where he spent his happiest and most productive years in a congenial literary circle, assuming the pen-name of ein junger Maler, later Maler Miller. Through the recommendation of Goethe he obtained a pension to go to Italy to continue his studies as an artist. He spent the remainder of his rather unhappy life at Rome without accomplishing mush further.t The very name heassumed, Maler Miller, indicates how his efforts were divided between painting and literature, a distraction of interests fatal to the highest suc- Maler Miiller. cess in either. Miller won the favor of the public of the Storm and Stress period by his idyls,? since he, as hardly any one else feltand gave expression to the various forces which were at work in this period of fermentation and transition. It is interesting to notice how the old and the new influnces struggled for the mastery in his mind and in his works, a reflection of a struggle which was going 1 He died at Rome in 1825. His wellknown epitaph, written by himselfreads as follows; “Wenig gekannt und wenig geschiitzt, hab’ ich beim Wirken. Nach dem Wahren gestrebt, und mein héchster Genuss. War die Erkenntniss des Schénen und Grossen — ich habe gelebet! Dass Fortuna mich nie geliebet, verzeih ich ihr gern.” 2 The idyls af Maler Miiller in the order of publication are: in 1775 appeared Der erschlagene Abel, Bacchidon und Milon, Der Satyr Mopsus, Der Faun, Die Schaafschur; in 1778 Adams erstes Erwachen und erste selige Niichte. Das Nusskernen and Ulrich von Kossheim were not published till 1811, but must have been written much earlier. THE REALISTIC IDYL, 5 bo | on all over Germany in all phases of literary and intellectual life. Miiller, however, never emerged from his period of Storm and Stress. Although in his idyls he passed from the imitation of Klopstock and Gessner to a natural and naive presentation of life, yet his works from beginning to end bear the stamp of Storm and Stress, and are throughout characterized by a rough natur- alism and and an entire lack of restraint. We obtain the best view of the influences affecting Mtiller by considering his idyls in three groups: 1. Those depicting the Patriarchal Age; 2. The faun and satyr idyls, based upon classic models; 3. The idyls describing the village-life of his own home near the Rhine. Klopstock and Gessner exerted a great influence upon young Miller; their example led him to select Biblical subjects as material for his idyls. His Der erschlagene Abel is an imitation of Gessner’s Der Tod Abels. An episode in the latter work Miller expands into the idyllic romance Adams erstes Erwachen und erste selige Néchte. Yet though Miller in these works adopts Gessner’s rhythmical prose and still makes his characters too sentimental, we at once notice an improvement upon Gessner’s in characterization; instead of Gessner’s vague, paradisical forms Miiller has produced characters with real human feelings and passions. The different persons appear sharply outlined against the background of an idealized nature. For instance, in Miiller’s idyl Cain is areal villain who, however, succeeds in arousing our symphathy. The style is lively and vigorous. ! In the faun and satyr idyls Miiller frees himself still more from Gessner’s influence. The satyr Mopsus, Bacchidon und Milon, and Der Faun (1775), even though sometimes coarse and burlesque, are instinct with life and action, and are written in that vigorous language which betrays the dramatist of the Storm and Stress 1 See Hettner’s edition of Maler Miiller p. VI. The Idyl in German Literature. 4 58 THE RHALISTIC IDYL. period. They are also full of sparkling humor of which we find no trace in Gessner.! In Mopsus, the counterpart of Polyphemus of Theocritus, how ludricrous is the lament of the deformed satyr, whom the nymph Persina, pretending to answer his suit with favor, had decoyed into the brambles! The most humorous, however, of his idyls is the second, describing the youthful eager- ness of Milon to read his poem to Bacchidon, whose attention he had to buy by offering him wine. The garrulous old man with his unquenchable thirst continually interrupts him with: “Halt ein, Milon, keine Silbe weiter! Hierauf muss erst getrun- ken sein!”’ When the reading is ended and the wine, too, is gone, how droll is Bacchidon’s elegy” to the empty wine-flask!? The third idyl of this group possesses the proper brevity for an idyl, while the previous ones are too diffuse. It tells of the lament of Molon at the funeral-pyre of his wife. His rough, wild nature, his genuine emotion, his love for the wine-flask from which he drinks repeatedly between his sighs and lamentations, is all set forth in vigorous and choppy language thoroughly characteristic of the uncouth character depicted. The third group of idyls, volksttimlich-deutsche, Miiller treats in a manner wholly independent and original. Here he describes peasant life of his home in the Palatinate (Die Schaafschur and 1 Though Bronner, in his introduction to his idyls, states that in private life Gessner was exceedingly witty. 2 “Todt, runzlicht, entstellt liegst du, zuvor so angespannter Schlauch! Gern, herzliebster Schlauch, wollt’ ich linger bei deiner Leiche weinen, stiinde nur, wie sich’s gebitihrt’, neben deiner Bahre ein wohlgezogenes junges vollbackiges Schlauchlein, dein Sohn oder Enkel, der mir hernach mit seinem Balsam wieder abwiische meiner Thriinen Salz. Aber wehe mir Trauermann! Der erblichene war eine Waise. — Leer! zu friih leer! Ach armer Weinschlauch!” Hettner’s Miiller, p. 83. fa 3 The review in Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek (XX XI. I 222) says: Die Bescreibung der ganzen Scene, der Ausdruck der rohen ungeschminkten Natur in der Trauerklage des Alten und des Kleinen hat etwas so Wahres, Charakteristi- sches, Hindringendes, dass es Herz und Sinn riihrt. Die Sprache ist hart, ver- stiimmelt, hingeworfen, wie es fiir seine Faunen, die er einmal als ehrliche Wilde bildet, geziemt.”’ THE REALISTIC IDYL. 59 Das Nusskernen) or goes back to the chivalry of the Middle Ages for his material (Ulrich von Kossheim). Never before in German literature had the simple life of the common people been depicted with such force and vigor, with such faithful adherence to reality, as here in Miiller’s idyls descriptive of his Rhenish home. In the German poetry of the Middle Ages we see the beginnings ofa Dorfgeschichte; but this phase of life had for centuries remained entirely disregarded, until Das SchaafSchur again taught men to appreciate actual simple life of the present, and thereby gave renewed impulse to the Dorf-geschichte which in the modern novel has proven to be such a rich and productive field. Miiller’s descriptions are so true to life and full of vigor, so full of small traits of everyday occurrences that these idylsseem almost photo- graphic representations of the life of his native village. His love for folksong and folk-tales crops out everywhere in the many selections from these sources which he introduces. But unfortu- nately, satirical and polemical elements directed against pedantic critics and conyventionality, interesting as they are from aliterary point of view, weaken the poetic effect of these idyls.? Maler Miiller put his idyls on the basis of reality. But there is a certain wildness in his scenes and characterization, a rough- ness in his prose, which shows that he had not overcome the 1 “Wir diirfen eine begiinstigte Gattung unseres Jahrhunderts, die Dorfge_ schichte, auf Millers Versuche zuriickleiten.’’ See Miillers Werke in Deut. Nat. Lit. edited by August Sauer, p. V. 2 The following passage illustrates both the vigorous style and polemical tendency of Miillers writings. In Die Schaafschur one of the characters, Walter, in speaking of ideal shepherds virtually attacks Gessner and his followers. Walter says: “Der Schulmeister bringt mir weiss der Kukuk was fiir ein Buch, heisst Idyllen, Gedrucktes, so von Schiifern; schreit, larmt und jubilirt und gaudirt sich wegen des Zeugs, so drinnen steht; liest mir dann auch hin und weider etliches vor. — Hi freilich, sagt ich; wo giebt’s denn Schiifer wie diese? Das Schiifer? Das sind mir curiose Leute, die weiss der Henker wie leben; fiihlen nicht, wie wir andere Menschen, Hitze oder Kiéilte: hungern oder dursten nicht; leben nur yon Rosenthau und Blumen und was des sch6nen siissen Zeugs noch mehr ist, das sie bei jeder Gelegenheit einem so widerlich entgegenplaudern, dass es einem mein Seel’ wider der Mann geht. — Das Pack da ist nicht von Herzen lustig, nicht von Herzen traurig, alles im Traume nur.” etc. See Hettner’s Miiller p. 87. 60 THE REALISTIC IDYL. Storm and Stress period, and attained classic calmness and self- control. Between the two extremes, the pleasing form and unreal world of Gessner and the rough naturalism of Miller, stands Voss. While Gessner marked the culmination of the pastoral idyl, descriptive of an ideal] state of existence, in Voss the realistic idyl of the classical period of German literature reached its highest development. He wished to describe in his idyl actual ‘simple life as it existed in Germany, and to do this in the spirit of Theocritus. We are told that the idyls of Theocritus had their roots in Homer. The study of Homer, too, greatly influenced the character of the idyls of Voss. And so after various deviations and wanderings the idyl comes back to the form and spirit of the idyls of Theocritus, and the circle is complete. Johann Heinrich Voss! (1751—1826) was born and lived in Northern Germany, and itis the natural scenery and the life of Northern Germany which is reflected in his works, especially in his idyls. While struggling along in poverty as a private tutor he sent some poems to Gottinger Musenalmanach (1772), and thus began a correspondence with the editor Boie (afterwards his brother-in-law), which led to his going to Gottingen in the same year. He and some associates of similar bent of mind founded the well-known G6ttinger Dichterbund (Hainbund), a circle of poets of no small importance in the history of literary Germany. He also assumed the editorship of the Musenalmanach in which most of his idyls first appeared. From 1775—1802 he again lived in Northern Germany, (at Wandsbeck, Otterndorf and Eutin), most of the time as teacher and rector at a Gymnasium. These years. were the happiest and most productive years of his life: now he wrote his idyls, carried on his classical studies, especially in Ho- mer, and produced his incomparable translation of the Odyssey Voss. 1 See Johan Heinrich Voss in Géttinger Dichterbind of Deut. Nat. Lit. edited by August Sauer.- Also Johann Heinrich Voss by Wilhelm Herbst, 3 vols., 1872—1876. THI REALISTIC IDYL. 61 (1780). In 1802 he moved to Jena where he was in close inter- course with the Weimar circle, especially with Goethe. But soon an advantageous offer induced. him to go to Heidelberg (1805). Here during his last years he busied himself with collecting and filing his earlier poems. Voss shows in his works that he, too, was carried away by the influences which dominated his contemporaries. The whole period was characterized by a longing to flee from the artificial and oyertrained culture of the so-called ‘‘Zopfzeit’’? back to sim- plicity of life and manners, — and this feeling is the very soul ofall idyllic poetry. We seethis feeling manifested in the extravagant joy with which men hailed Rousseau’s attack upon civilization and his theory of a return to a state of nature, in the deep and and universal appreciation of nature and country life, in the growing respect and admiration for the folksong, and in the revolt from Neo-classicism in literature. The age went back to the classic Greek literature for its inspiration; for now men were able to un- derstand and appreciate Greek art and literature with a deeper and fuller sense of its beauty and greatness. ' Early in his youth Voss’s attention had been called to the idyl by his bosom friend Briieckner, a devout admirer and imitator of Gessner in his Jdyllen aus einer Unschuldswelt.1 Gessner and Klopstock also charmed the receptive mind of young Voss.* At Gottingen, however, he at once showed a predilection for classical studies; especially did ancient Hellas attract him, after Herder’s writings had opened his eyes to the grandness and beauty of Ho- mer. He also made Theocritus and the bucolic poets an object of thorough study. Notes were collected for a future edition of Bion and Moschus, and he had in mind to write a long treatise on 1 See page 52; also Herbst’s Voss II. 84. 2 At the end of 1774 Voss wrote to Briickner: ‘Gessner ist so leicht als Gellert und doch ein Dichter, ein grosser Dichter.’’ — But only a few months later he speaks of how Gessner had imitated the Italians and filled his world with Arcadian inhabitants. ‘‘Was gibt du mir,” he adds, ‘‘wenn ich dir zeige, dass er nur da vortrefflich ist, wo er wirkliche Natur hat’’, 62 THE REALISTIC IDYL. ancient pastoral poetry. The study of the Greek literature, espe- cially of Theocritus and Homer, determined both the form and the character of his idyls. . One reason why the idyl attracted Voss was the sense of his poetic limitations. He felt that he did not possess the originality and the creative power to produce great masterpieces in epic or dramatic poetry. Least of all was he a lyric poet. But if any one of these forms by itself was beyond his poetic powers, might he not accomplish something of value and of Jasting value in the less pretentious idyl, into which he might introduce elements from all these forms of poetry? Through the study of Theocritus and Homer, Voss cameto the conclusion, that the hexameter was best fitted to give dignity and stateliness to his poetry.! But of greater consequence was their influence on Voss in his choice of subject-matter. Like Theocritus he wished to depict reality, not an imaginary shepherd-world.? But his was not a slavish imitation; in the spirit of Theocritus he embodied in poetic form the idyllic features of his own time and of his native country with their local coloring and in their definite forms. He studied conditions about him, in order to depict them truthfully. So in March, 1775, he wrote to Ernestine Boie that he intended to visit Dithmarschen “um Studien zu Dietmar- scher Idylle za machen.” Headds: ‘Ich glaube dass diese Dich- 1 Klopstock’s hexameters were from a technical point of view very halting; many of them can hardly be scanned. It is Voss’s great merit that he firstreduced the German hexameter to sound metrical rules and fully naturalized it in German poetry. The metrical dilettanteism of Goethe and Schiller advanced under Voss’s influence to a mastery of this form of which Herbst says: “Unsere neuere Kunst- poesie in charakterischen Hauptzweigen hat sich recht eigentlich am Hexameter, dem Culturvers im eminenter Sian, aufgerichtet.” (Herbst’s Voss, II. 88). “Wer eine wahre Form erschafit,’ says W. yon Humboldt with reference to Voss, “der ist der Dauer seiner Arbeit gewiss.” 2 In a letter to Briickner written while at G6ttingen he says: “Ich habe vieles iiber die Idylle mit dir zu reden. Theokrit hat mich zuerst auf die eigentliche Bestimmung dieser Dichtungsart aufmerksam gemacht. Man sieht bei ihm nichts von idealischer Welt und verfeinerten Schiéifern. Er hat sicilische Natur und sicilische Schiifer, die oft so pobelhaft sprechen, wie unsere Bauern.’’ See Kober- stein V. 63. THI REALISTIC IDYL. 63 tungsart grossen EHinfluss auf die Menschen haben kann, denn sie ist die einzige, in die die jetzigen Menschen (d. h. Landsleute und die niedern Sténde die nichts mit der grossen Welt zu schaffen haben) vollig hineinpassen.” The idyls of Voss! clearly reveal how for a long time he kept groping about seeking for proper idyllic material. They showa gradual improvement in choice and treatment of the sub- ject-matter, until he finally found the proper sphere in which he accomplished his best work. Most of his idyls are based on real life, such as had come within his own experience, wherefore they have the effect of an autobiography. In his very first productions he celebrates the theme, which like a thread runs through so many of his later idyls, and finds its highest expression in Luise, namely his love for Ernestine Boie. In Der Morgen? and Selmas Geburtstag behind the names Selma and Selino we at once recog- nize Voss and his betrothed. But the immaturity of the beginner and the beginner’s tendency to follow extraneous influence, are 1 The Idyls of Voss most naturally fall into four groups, corresponding to Voss’s residence at G6ttingen, Wandsbeck, Otterndorf and Eutin. These idyls appeared first in various periodicals. They are as follows: 1. The G6ttingen period 1774—5: Der Morgen; Selmas Geburtstag, Die Leibeignen (in two parts). 2. The Wandsbeck period 1776—8: Die Bleicherin, De Winterawend, Die Elbfahrt, Der Bettler; De Geldhapers, Das Stindchen, Der Riesenhiigel; Der Abendschmaus, Der Hagestolz. 3. The Otterndortf period 1780: Der bezauberte Teufel, Die Kirschenpfiiic- kerin, Der siebzigste Geburtstag. 4. The Eutin Period; Der Geburtstag 1782 Combined in Der Briutigams Besuch 1783. Luise 1795. Luise 1784. Die Heumad 1784, Philamon und Baucis, 1785, Die Erleichterten 1800, Fragment einer Fischeridylle (language indicates a late date). The first important publication of Voss works was Johann Heinrich Voss, vermischte Gedichte und prosaische Aufsitze, Frankfort und Leipzig, 1784. 2 In Der Morgen the sentimental lyrical element is unduly prominent, and Klopstock’s angels haunt the poem. So Selma’s guardian angel flies to console the absent Selino: “Und ihr Seraph entflog auf goldnen éitherischen Schwingen Hin zum fernen Selino,”’ 64 THE REALISTIC IDYL. still noticeable and to a marked degree, especially in the pompous style and theintroduction of the “‘seraphic” element of Klopstock’s Messias. The angels Sulamith and Thirza, sent to assist at the birth of Selma, sing a responsive cradlesong to the music of the golden harp, in sonorous hexameters out of keeping with their thoughts. With Die Leibeigenschaft Voss begins a long series of idyls which have properly been called Tendenz-Stticke. As he wrote these idyls with the express purpose of instituting social reform by holding up to view certain social wrongs of the period,? he consciously or unconsciously imbued many of these idyls with the bitterness of satire.? This bitterness introduced an element which necessarily injured the idyllic atmosphere. Voss was descended from serfs; narratives of his father and. others, to- gether with what he himself had actually seen of the curse of bondservice as it still existed in parts of Northern Germany had filled his soul with hatred and indignation against the tyranny of the nobility. His soul burned with a desire to bring about an amelioration in the condition of these peasants. This indig- nation and reformatory desire prompted the idyls Die Pferde- 1 They even decide to inform her future lover of her birth: “Meld ihm des Kindes Geburt, du Genius, dem er vertraut ward, Dass ihm die Ahndung das Herz erliiutere wiirdig zu sein.”’ 2 The whole era of the Storm and Stress is characterized by restiveness under restraint and a desire to break the bonds and shackles of tyranny under what- ever form they existed (we remember Goethe’s ‘““Tyrannen-blut trinken’”’). This revolutionary tendency also manifested itself in the G6ttinger Bund, and inmany of their poems took the form of a tirade against those whom they considered responsible for the social inequalities which existed. Later while at Wandsbeck when theardor of youth was somewhat allayed, Voss’s tendency became didactic; he writes himself, that the work of a poet is “die Sitten des Volks zu bessern und besonders dem verachteten Landmann feinere Begriffe und ein regeres Geftihl seiner Wiirde beizubringen.” See Sauer’s GOttinger Dichterbund, p. 16. Also Herbst’s Voss 1. 190. 3 Boie writes to Voss in March 1777: “Ihr Talent liegt in der Idylle. — Sie werden auch unser Juyenal werden, wenn Sie wollen.”’ THE REALISTIC IDYL. 65 knechte and Der Ahrenkranz, which in parts are characterized by a tone almost savage.! This didactic and to some extent satiric element appears in almost all the idyls Voss wrote while at G6ttingen and Wands- beck. Der Bettler declaims most bitterly against intolerance; it is based on an actual incident which had come under Voss’s immediate observation: a rationalistic and liberalminded minis- ter has been persecuted and deposed by his more orthodox superior... We hear Voss’s own indignation when the idyl tells us that the deposed minister is now supported by Der Bettler, the cripple Tiess,? and is often obliged to starve, ‘‘weil er nur, was Gott gesagt, nicht Menschensatzung, lehrt.” Jtirgen, the shepherd, is but the mouth-piece of the poet, when he bursts forth: “Ikopthanger ihr, ihr Wolt’ in Schaisgestalt.’? However we feel as if the moralizing element went a little too far when Jiirgen adds: Doch Gott sei euer Richter! Tiess und du Habt mich so weich gemacht, dass mir so ist, Sonntag, will’s Gott, zum Abendmahl zu gehen.” 1 Michel describes how his uncle in a dream had seen the noblemen feasting in hell: “Statt der Musik erschallt aus den Wéanden ein Heulen und Winseln. Drauf wird die Tafel gedeckt. Ganz oben setzt sich der Stamherr Vom hochadligen Haus’, ein Strassenréiuber. Sein Beinkleid, Wams und Bienenkapp’ ist gliihendes Eisen. Sie fressen Blutiges Menschenfleisch, und trinken siedende Thriinen.”’ 2 The lame Tiess is probably modelled after the soldier in Hélty’s Das Feuer im Walde which in turn was a copy of Gessner’s Sch weizer-idylle. Ludwig H6lty (1748—1776) an intimate friend of Voss, wrote several idyls; Das Feuer im Walde being by far the best one. He gained entrance into the G6ttinger- bund by a translation of The Rape of Europa from the Greek of Moschus, 1770. We trace the influence of Voss’s idyls depicting the life of northern Germany in H6lty’s Christel und Hannchen, eine Schnitteridylle, 1774. Just before Hélty was carried away by consumption he wrote Der Arme Wilhelm, in which idyl Wilhelm mourns the premature death of his love and expresses a presentiment that he too soon will die. J. M. Miller, also of the G6ttingen circle, wrote a couple of unimportant idyls (Daphnis und Daphne, Wilhelm und Lischen, 1773). 66 THE REALISTIC IDYL. In like manner Voss in the form of the idyl attacks many other real or imagined vices of his times: so he declaims against avarice in De Geldhapers, against superstition in Der Riesenhitigel, against bachelorhood in Das Stédndchen, against gluttony in Der Abend- schmaus. These may be compared to the modern social story or novel which preaches some special social reform. Yet even in these idyls Voss considered the satirical and di- dactic element less important than the idyllic. He wished to make the idyl the reflection of life about him, with which he was per- fectly familiar, of the manners and customs of his home. The very names he gives to his characters, Hans, Michel, Henning, etc., the introduction of popular sayings, and the outspoken language colored with provincialisms show that he had abandoned entirely the ‘“‘Frauen- und Unschuldswelt’’ of Gessner and Briickner, and placed himself on the soil of reality. More and more he drops the satirical tendency in his idyls, and turns to the delineation of the sweet joys of legitimate love and of home life. The idyls De Winterawend and De Geldhapers! are two excel- lent Genrebilder from peasant life written in Low German dialect.” In these idyls as well as in the ones immediately following them the influence of Theocritus becomes more and more apparent. 1 Claudius (the editor of Wandsbecker Bote) considered De Winterawend as Voss’s most perfect idyl. Although the dialect to one not thoroughly used to it conceals the excellence of the poem somewhat, yet one can appreciate the fol- lowing charn:ing song in praise of country life, sung while the members of the family are gathered around the fireplace of a winter-evening. When Peter urges Kvischen: “Sing du, ik groele dato, und im Schorsteen orgelt die Ostwind,”’ the latter sings: Wat ist doch voiir en quadlig Ding, In Wall und Muhr to lawen! Drum hew ik mi ok vix und vlink Wol up dat Land begiiwen. As Landmann, liiw ik gans gewiss Vergnégter, as de Kaiser is.” 2 “Voss hat den Schritt bis zur voller Anwendung des Dialekts gewagt, und so der reichen Dialektdichtung der nachklassischen Zeit den Weg gebahnt.” See Sauer’s Introd. to Maler Miiller p. 5. : THE REALISTIC IDYL, 67 Voss himself defends his use of dialect by referring to Theocritus’s The Syracusan Women, which idyl evidently was in his mind when he wrote De Geldhapers. The two women of Syracuse force their way through the crowd at the Adonis festival, asthe two peasants in Voss’s poem press through the crowd of wagons and people on the market place. The former admire the royal horses-of-state, the splendid carpets and Adonis on the silver couch, as the latter the Danish hussars with the bright sabres. Dramatic move- ment and excellent characterization distinguish this idyl above all others. Sauer claims! that were it not for the unusual dialect of the idyls, they would be more popular in Germany than the “still-life” picture of Der siebzigste Geburtstag.’ The most perfect of all the idyls in which Voss used the dra- matic form combined with lyrical elements, as we find in Theocri- tus, is Die Kirschenpfltickerin. The whole idyl is pervaded by the calm and balmy atmosphere of the orchard on a summer’s day. How charming is the roguish Rebecka who takes away the ladder from the tree in which Hedewig is picking cherries! The unwilling prisoner is not released, until she has sung a song composed by her lover. But the peasant life of the North offered a rather unyielding material for poetic treatment, and besides was too remote from the interest and sympathy of the majority of Voss’s readers. Not until Voss in his idyls described scenes and conditions, in which the simplicity of the country and the culture of the city were reconciled and united in perfect harmony, did he fully charm the hearts of his audience. This union of lowly life with high imtellec- 1 See Sauer’s Introd.to Voss in Géttinger Dichterbund (Deut. Nat. Lit.) p. LULL. 2 Other less important idyls based upon Greek models are Das Stiindchen (an imitation of Theocritus’s Cyclops) with its rather forced humor, and Der Riesenhiigel (imitation of Theocritus’s Magican, Idyl II.) with the strange refrain in the song of the witch: “Trommile, trommle den Riesen zum Leichnam, Abrakadabral”’ 3 Voss writes in a letter to Gleim to whom he dedicated the idyl: ‘Es ist ein Versuch, wie weit man die Denkart der Landmiédchen veredeln kann.’’ 68 THI REALISTIC IDYL. tual interests Voss found in the country school-house and parson- age, and his choice and treatment of just this field revealed genuine poetic discrimination and even creative power on his part. Here, too, Voss felt perfectly at home. His father had taught school and his wife Luise was the daughter of a country parson. The happiest experiences of his life had come to him in this harbor of peace, upon whose secluded shore the ocean-waves of the troubled world beat only with gentle murmur. This attractive sphere Voss has depicted in Der Siebzigste Geburtstag, and the three idyls which eventually were united into the idyllic epic Luise. In Der siebzigste Geburtstag Voss has erected a beautiful monument to his parents. He himself is the expected son who brings Ernestine to visit the old home. This poem marks Voss’s highest power as a writer of idyls, ‘‘eine Perle unserer Litteratur’, as Julian Schmidt says. It is replete with the atmosphere of love and restfulness, in its simplicity and brevity it is the most perfect panegyric of happy family life. With what art does the poet describe the mother’s busy preparations for the reception of the son and the daughter-in-law who were coming to join in the birthday celebration of the aged father! With what loving minuteness does Voss refer to every detail of his childhood home!! With what grace does the young wife’ on her arrival, when she sees the slumbering father, awaken him with a kiss!? — Voss wrote no other idyl of equal power and objectivity. 1 See Voss p. 137, lines 21—30 in Deut. Nat. Lit. 2 The fine closing lines are: (The mother) “(Offnete leise die Klink’und liess die Kinder hineingehn. Aber die junge Frau mit schGnem lachelndem Antlitz Hiipfte hinzu und ktisste des Greises Wange. Erschrocken Sah er empor und hing in seiner Kinder Umarmung.”’ 3 When Voss for the first time collected and published these idyls in his Vermischte Gedichte, we can see by Wieland’s review in Der teutsche Merkur, August 1785, how they were received by Voss’s contemporaries. Wieland says: “Seine Idyllen sind nicht Kopieen, nicht idealisierte Nachahmungen des grie- chischen Hirtendichters: essind wahre Theokritische Gedichte, nicht bloss in seiner Manier sondern mit seinem Geiste gedichtet, der durch Idealempsychose in un- sern Landsmann iibergangen zu sein scheint. Gerade so, denke ich... . wiirde THE REALISTIC IDYL. 69 When Voss composed Der siebzigste Geburtstag he was just completing his translation of the Odyssey (1780). Not only did the translation charm all Germany with its beauty and freshness, so that Schiller could say: ‘‘Und die Sonne Homers siehe, sie lachelt auch uns”, but the Odyssey also sets its stamp upon the later idyls of Voss. From now on he employs altogether the epic form, no lyrical elements are introduced, and the conversation is drawn into the epic narrative. Furthermore the minute descriptions of household furniture, of preparations for meals and other duties, point to similar descriptions in the Odyssey as the model. The epic form Voss employed and developed in the idyls Des Bradutigams Besuch (1783), Der Geburtstag, and Luise (1784), each in its brevity and conciseness affording a charming picture of the calm idyllic life in a German country parsonage. ' All that can be said in praise of Der siebzigste Geburtstag is equally true of these idyls. The happiness of ideal home-life is the theme, which Voss describes with all the affection of his heart. And how could it be otherwise? ‘Die rosenwangige Jungfrau” “die freundliche sch6ne Luise’’ is to Voss his own Ernestine, ‘‘der ehrwiirdige Pfarrer von Griinau” and ‘‘die alte verstandige Haus- frau”? her parents, in whose home he had spent the sunniest days of his life. True, there is a lack of psychological depth in these Theokrit oder Homer selbst diese Natur und Dorfscenen aus unsrer heutigen Welt behandelt und geschildert haben, wenn er in unserer Zeit gelebt, und (wie unser teutscher Theokrit) in der Lage gewesen wiire, die Natur von dieser Seite belauschen und studieren zu k6nnen.” Furthermore, Wieland praises in these idyls the Newheit, Wahrheit, Reichthum der Bilder, Poesiedes Styles, Versifi- cation, Auswahl der Umstinde, Natur und Landleben and Rusticitét. 1 In the words of a critic (in Neue Bibliothek der schGnen Wissenchaften, vol. 56, 261): “Schon der Kreis, aus dem die handelnden Personen gewiihlt sind, ist so beschaffen, dass er der Phantasie des Dichters einen giinstigen Spielraum er6ffnet und den Leser in einen anziehenden Standpunkt versetzt. Wo lassen sich Tugend und Unschuld, Gutherzigkeit und Zufriedenheit mer erwarten, als in der Familie eines wiirdigen und biedern Landpfarrers, oder, wo wird der gebildete Mann lieber einkehren und sich besser und gliicklicher fiihlen, wenn er auf dem Lande des Gewiihls und Getiimmels der Stadt vergessen will.” 70 THE RWALISTIC IDYL. characters, a lack of individuality in the poetic treatment, a lack of action in the whole plot, but in spite of this or perhaps, in consequence of it, we feel at once soothed, calmed and at home in this peaceful atmosphere and in the presence of these attractive people, whom we after all would not care to have otherwise. Goethe often read these idyls to his circle in Weimar, and we are told that certain passages moved him to tears; and he would close the book with the words: ‘‘Hine heilige Stelle.” In these idyls Voss like Homer describes family life, furniture, the kitchen utensils, and household duties. The description of nature occupies a much more prominent place than in either Ho- mer or Theocritus, as might be expected in modern poetry with its deeper feeling for and appreciation of nature in all its moods. But the dessription is not too prominent in these idyls, for we feel that it is an essential element of the poem: these surroundings are a fitting and necessary background to these characters. At the advice of Gleim, Voss changed these three idyls and combined them into one, publishing the whole in 1795, under the title of Luise, ein landliches Gedicht in drei Idyllen. This change and amalgamation made of the unpretentious idyls a pretentious epic poem.t What in the idyl had been minor shortcomings, (such as the comparative lack of action and of individual charac- terization) in the larger epic strikes the reader as gross blemishes. Furthermore, the simple natural tone has given way to one more pretentious and pompous.” The old realistic parson speaks and moralizes much more than in the originalidyls, he has become the main figure, as the poet wished to express his own philosophy 1 The original idyls had been increased by 468 verses (from 1392 to 1860) to form the epic. And with every new edition Voss showed a misguided desire .to improve his work by adding to their length, and by changing the simple tone to one more stilted. In the final edition, the Luise had been inerrased to 2825 verses, one quarter of the length of the Odyssey! In almost every case the original form is the more simple, natural, and pleasing. 2 The “Kaffee” of the original had become “Trank der Levant,” etc. See Sauer’s Voss, p. 56, I THE REALISTIC IDYL. 71 of life by the mouth of the parson. The didactic elements suffocate the idyllic. Yet the Luise does mark agreat advance and deepened in Voss’s contemporaries the appreciation and the respect for the dignity and worth of simple idyllic life such as we find here represented. Schiller felt this when he says: ‘‘Die Luise ist ei recht poetisches Werk, mit welchem Voss unsere deutsche Litteratur nicht bloss bereichert, sondern auch wahrhaft erweitert hat.”! And Goethe writes to Voss immediately after the publication of Luise:? “tir das was Sie an Luisen aufs neue gethan haben, danke ich Ihnen, als wenn Sie ftir ee meiner Schwestern oder fiir eme alte Geliebte gesoret hatten. Ich habe besonders die dritte Idylle, seitdem sie in Merkur stand, so oft vorgelesen und repetiert, dass ich sie mir ganz zu eigen gemacht habe, und so wie es jetzt zusammensteht ist es eben so national als eigen reizend, und das deutsche Wesen nimmt sich darin zu seinem gréssten Vorteil aus.”’ But the Luise is not only a great poem in itself, but rendered a most important service to German literature by directly sug- gesting the idyllic epos Hermann und Dorothea? The wonder- ful and fertile mind of Goethe seized upon the ideas and under- lying principles in Voss’s poem, they grew and developed into Hermann und Dorothea the most perfect btirgerliche Epos ever written. No longer an idyl, this idyllic epic is yet the direct off- spring and most perfect fruit of idyllic literature. And Goethe himself was the first to acknowledge his indebtednesss to Voss.+* 1 In a note to his treatise: “Uber naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.”’ 2 July 6th, 1795, — See Goethe Jahrbuch V, 41. Goethe’s famous and sympathetic review of Voss’s works (1802) was published in Jenaische Allg. Lit. Zeit in April, 1804. 3A. W. Schlegel in his review of Hermann und Dorothea says: “Bei der Nachwelt wird es Luisen empfehlen kénnen, dass sie Dorotheen zu Taufe gehalten hat.’ See Koberstein IV. 460. 4 Goethe writes to Schiller, February 28, 1798: “Ich bin mir noch recht gut des reinen Enthusiasmus bewusst, mit dem ich den Pfarrer von Griinau aufnahm, als er sich zuerst im Merkur sehen liess, wie oft ich ihn vorlas, so dass ich einen grossen Theil davon noch auswendig weiss, und ich habe mich sehr gut dabei gefunden, denn diese Freude ist am [nde doch produktiy bei mir geworden, sie hat mich in diese Gattung gelockt, den Hermann erzeugt, und wer weiss, was noch daraus entstehen kann.” 72 THE REALISTIC IDYL. When Hermann and Dorothea was about to appear, he wrote in a letter to Voss: ‘Ich werde nicht verschweigen, wie ich bei dieser Arbeit unserm Volke und Ihnen schuldig bin, Sie haben mir den Weg gezeigt und es mir Mut gemacht.”’ And the public acknow- ledgement did notfailto appear. Itoccurs in the beautiful Elegie, the prologue to Goethe’s epos: “Uns begleiche des Dichters Geist, der seine Luise Rasch dem wiirdigen Freund unz zu entzticken verband.”’ With the discussion of the idyls of Voss, and their development into the idyllic epos, we have arrived at the end of our study. From now on idyllic literature in Germany as elsewhere seeks a wider channel in which to flow, namely the Dorfgeschichte or peasant novel, of which Gosse, in discussing a work of this nature by Bjérnson, says that it “is a recrudescence ofthe idyl in its most primitive form, a recapture of the early charm of bucolic poetry.” TABLE NO. 1. NUMBER OF WORKS PUBLISHED IN GERMANY DURING THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES CONTAINIG PASTORAL AND IDYLLIC ELEMENTS. DIDPID|AIAIDRialalanianilalaealalaloe ie Jala A] OO | H]19 [co | 1 OIG 1O la | aA) | HH jis | | | oO] Ss Py Ey WW af) SISICISOlol/SoIlololelolololoeleloleiolo AlalMlolSIHlalaAlSlatal»Al/H|O ISIE |aIa SISISIS/SIOI(SIO(E JEL IEE le leljelele mininin iA eid iA in in JiR iA [Aint iA lA es | mc Romances |1|5 6 2! Hat | | Drama l2lij4|4i2/4l/3 it |] i 28/8 |4{5/4 Pastorals | | | (many difficult 9/16/16) 9] 4)2) 4 5 | 4/10/15/14}11] 4 |} 2 to classify) | Praise of ae! | Natate 2) 1/2/41 | [> 2) 7 | 9 \12) 6 | 1 Idyls & | ’ alll se Eclogues | 3) 1 1 2})2 | 7 |10}/22)10} 5 Critical | | | al | 1|/5|2|4| | 2 See page page 15. The flood af pastoral iiterature may be represented by two waves, the latter very much larger than the former. Date of firat TABLE NO. 2. Works of pastoral and idyllic nature published in Germany from Hessus to Voss. (1500—1795) . (Also including works which greatly influenced idyllic literature.) Title of Work. appearance. 1509 Das Bucolicon (12 idyls) 1528 Das Bucolicon (17 idyls) 1530 Theokritus transl. into Latin verse 1567 Virgilii Bucolica (Transl.) 1576 Der Weingiirtner (a play) 1579 Lob des Landlustes (Beatus ille) 1580 Virgilii Bucolica et Georgica para- phrasi. Introduction De yita rustica 1595 Bergeries de Juliette (Montreux) 1600 (about) Contarinis Schiifergedicht (transl.) 1605 Longos (soon after transl. by Joh. Brieger) 1619 Guarinis Pastor Fido (transi.) 1619 D/’Urfe’s Astree (transl.) 1625 Lob des Feldt-lebens (based on Fischarts 1579) 1627, 4 Dafne (first opera in Germany) 1629 Sidney’s Arcadia, (transl.) 1630, 4 Schifferey von der Nimfen Hercinie 1630 Lentz oder Friihling 1630, 8 Theatrum Amoris, III part von der Liebe Endymionis des Schiif- fers in Caria (Roman) 1631 Friihlings-Hochzeit Gedicnte 1632, 8 Schiifferey oder keusche Liebes- beschreibung der verliebten nim- fen Amoena u. d. lobw. Schiiffer 1632 Amandus (Roman) Schiiferin Dieromene 1636, 8 Wintertags Schiifferey nen Coelinden u. ders. ergeb. Schiit dorf fer Corimbo (Roman) The Ilylin G2rmin Literature, d. Reu und Leid uber die Liebe der Sch6- Author. Place of publication and date of later editions. Eobanus Hessus Erfurt Hessus Hagenau Hessus Hagenau Stephan Riccius Nicodemus Frischlin Johann Fischardt Strassburg 1580, 1600 Prischlin Francofurt 1602, 8 durch F.C. V. B. Miimpelgart Elizabeth of Hessen Jungermann Hilgerum Mannlich, Miihlhausen Je BBs Verb: Miimpelgart Martin Opitz Opitz (Torgau) Breslau Opitz Frankfurt a. M 1638, 1642, 1643, 1659 Opitz Brieg Andres Findischen Paul Fleming i St 5 1D), 1D); Zacharias Lund Friedr. VY, Drachs- 1573, 1580 Gera Franckfurt Leipzig Leipzig, 1635 1641, 1642 1645, 1652 1659, 1661 (Autograph in Kopenhagen Leipzig ) a 1640 1641 1642 1642 1642,8 1643 1644 1644 1644 1645 TABLE NO. 2. Title. (Drama) Daphnisu. Chrysilla neben einem anmutigen Auftrage yom Schafe-Dieb. Lamentatio Germaniae expirantis. der nunmehr hinsterbende Nym- phen Germaniae elendeste To- desklage Hirt Filamon u, Schifernymfe Bel- liflora. Schifer-roman Pegnesisches Shifergedicht (von Strefon u. Clajus) Idyl (first) Ein Hirten-geriithe eines (hrist- lichen Hirten, der seine Schafe in der Fremde weidet Des Daphnis aus Cimbrien Galathee Poetischer Rosen-wiilder Vor- schmack oder G6tterund Nymfen IN o S595 yon einer Nymphen entworfen. Friiling 3 Die verwiistete u. verddete Schift- erey. Leoriander betrogen von d. Schiferin Perelina (Roman). (Two) Hirtenoden Tragico-Comoedia Von der ver- liebten Schafferin Dulcimunda Schiifferey (from the French of Montchrestien), one for each sea- son (Roman) Weihnachts-Lied (Ecloge) Des edeln Daphnis aus Cimbrien Besungene Florabella Fortsetzung der Pegnitz Schiifferey Author. Place. Herm. Heim. Schere Hamburg (das zwischen-spiel meist Platt deutsch) Just. Ge. Schotte- Braunschweig lius, F. G., P.1 Georg Neumark Hamburg 1648 Geo. Phillipp Hars- Niirnberg dorffer & Johann Kaj Georg Rudolf Weckherlin Joh, Brzetislaw Mislick (no date) Johann Rist, Hamburg 1646 125, 105 (Ge, 185 ©. Philipp Zesen, D.G. Hamburg Andreas Tscherning: Dresden Kaspar Hertranfft (no date) printed in Lappenberg’s Fleming Ernst Cristoph Jehna, 1645, 8 Homburg Aug. Augspurger Dresden Johann Klaj Wittenbergk (Birkens Redekunst page 297) Rist Hamburg von Birken u. Niirnberg Klaj, P. 1 F. G. means member of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft; P. member of the Nurnberg Pegnit2— sehdafer; E. O. member of Elbschwanen-orden. TABLE NO. z Date. Title. 1646 Montemayors Diana (transl.) 1646, 8 Roselieb d.i. Waldspielin Reimloser Rede. Fast nach Tassens Amintas 1647 Die vier Tage eines Newen und Lustigen Schiifferey von d. Sch6- nen Coelinden u. derselb. ergebe- nen Schiifer Corimbo 1647 Das Friede wtinschende Teutsch- land 1648, 4 Pegnesisches Schaeferdicht in den Nordgauer Gefilden 1648 Idyls (six) 1649 Vergils Bucolies (in Alexandrines) also ein absonderlich Hirten- gespriich eines Fiirstl. Person zu ehren gemachet. 1649 Hirtenliedchen zur Vermehrung d. Hochzeitl. Ehrenfreuden Herrn Joh. Fauljoch 1650 Der Elmen-Nymphen Immergrii- nendes Lust-Gebéu nach Art eines Schiifergedichtes. (In honor of the house of Brunswick) 1650 Die Nymphe Noris in zweyen Tag- zeiten (mit Gedichte, Rétseln, Sinn-u. Reimenbildern duch arti- gen Gebéuden.) 1650 Deutsche Poetische Gedichte (con- taining idyllic description) 1650 Teutschlands Kriegs Beschluss u. Friedenskuss vom Schiifer Flori- dan 1650.12 Die Geistl. Schiifferey Dem Hirten aller Hirten 1651L Margenis, das vergniigte, bekriegte und wieder befriedigte Teutsch- land 1651, 4 Hirtenambt d. Geistl. Schéfferey aller Hirten 1652 Des KGnigl. Printzens Erofilos Hir- tenliebe (after the Dutch author Cats) 1652 Hirtengesang (zur Hochzeit Schép- pings) i) Author, Harsdorffer Zesen Christian Brehme (says he describes his friends) Rist Klaj Weckherlin Oswald Beling Simon Dach Enoch Glaeser Joh. Helwig, P. Sibylla Schwarz yv. Birken v. Birken Joann Khuen Joh. Geo. Albini Julius Bruning Place, Niirnberg 1661—1663 Hambure: Dresden 1647, 1648 1649 Nurnberg Amsterdam Schleswig KG6nigsberg Woltffenbiittel Niirnberg Danzig Niirnberg Miinchen Niirnberg Miinchen Leipzig KGnigsberg 76 TABLE Date. Title. 1653 Der Getreue Hiirte. Arkadischer Hiirten-Auizug. (Am Namenstag einiger Prinzen) 1653 Das Friedejauchzende Teutschland 1653 Pastor Fido presented at Dresden 1653, 4 Der Grund aller Hochzeiten oder Beschreibung d. erst. Hochzeit zw. Adam u. Eva 1653 (Drama) Rosetta Schiétferey 55 Aengelens Der verstandige Giirtner iiber die 12 Monate d. Jahres (Transl.) 1655 Vortrab des Sommers 1655, 4 Ein Hirtenlied (zur Hochzeit d. cand. Fuchs) 1655,12 Schiéilferfreud .d. Geistl. Schéifferey. Dem Hirten aller Hirten Uber den Schiifferischen Namen abgesehene Ode 1656 Ecloge, Florelle oder Lob-und Trost-Schallendes Hirtengespriich beim Tode Eleonora Krausen, gest. 16 Sept., 1655 in Weimar 1656 1656 Wandlungslust welche in aller- hand Anbindungs- Hochzeit- Neu- Jahres- u. Liebes- Schiifereien besteht 1657 Musik- poet. Lustwald, also cont. zu keuscher Ehrenliebe dienende Schéferlieder 1658, 4 Schiifergedicht u. Schiitzengeschicht 1659 Virgil, Bucolica oder Hirtenlieder (transl.) 1659 Adeliche Rose welche den Getreuen Schiifer Siegreich u, d. wankelm. Adelmuht vorstellet 1660 Die Verfiihrete Schiéferin Cynthie durch listiges Nachstellen d. Flo- ridan 1660, 8 Verlibtes Gespenste, Die Geliebte Dorn-roose (Bauerstiicke in honor of wedding of Prince Geo. of Glogau) 1660,12 Schéffer- Hirten- Liebes- und Tu- gend Lieder NO. 2. Author. Ernst Geller Rist Georg Greflinger, i. O. Heinr. Elmenhorst Greflinger Tscherning Joh. Wedemeyer David Schirmer Neumark Jac. Schwieger Neumark Cristoph Frank, P. Chr, H. Liibeck Jacob Schwiger Schwiger Andreas Gryphius Joh. Geo. Schoch Place. Dresden Niirnberg 1653 Hamburg Leipzig Hamburg 10 ed. to 1692 Rostock Riga Miinchen Dresden Jena Hamburg Jehna Niirnberg Gliikstadt Gliikstadt Breslau Leipzig TABLE NO. 2. Date. Title. 1661 Dess Elbisechen Schwanen- Schii- fers Hyphantes Poetische Musen, liber die himmelsch6ne Rabelle, treuverliebte Warylisis, falsche : Florinde 1668 Monte- Mayors Diana (transl.) 1663 Neu-erfundene Philyrenische Kriegs und Friedens Schiitferey, das ist: Kurtze Chronologische Verfas- sung aller vornehmster Gesch d. Stadt Leipzig 1664 (In Ottobert the author speaks of his) Hirtenlieder 1665 Pegnesische Gespriichspiel- Gesell- schaft von Nymfen u. Hirten bey einem Hochgrafl. Beylager 1665 Altaniens werthester Hirtenknabe Filareto unter e. Schiif. spiel u. Sanglust 1667 Ergétzliche Friihlings-freude in einem Pastorell. 1667 Schiiferspiel der ehre des Ruhm- seligsten Spielenden durch die Pegnitz Hirten 1668 Schiéfergedicht: Ohne Gott. u.d. ges. Vernunft vorg. u, von vielen beg. Thorheit d. Verliebten (Roman) 1668, 8 Klarin, Klariminde u. Magdalis, oder Poetischer Myrthenwald 1669, 4 Weinachts-Schiifferey zu Ehren d. Geburt Jesu Christi 1669, 4 Die in der Flucht siegende Daphne 1669, 5 Jauchtzende Cupido. Schiifferspiel beim Namensfeste eines Prinzen 1670, 4 Der MHerculische Palmenbaum (Schiifergedichte) 1670 Kundegis, eine Teutsche Schiiferey 1670 Wahregilt, eine Teutsche Schiferey 1672, 8 Die K6nigl. Schiiferin Aspasia. Am Geburtstage Herrn Augusti 1673 Willbald, Teutsche Schiitferey 1673, 8 Der Bekehrte Schéifer (Roman) 1673, 9 Pegnesis: oder der Pegnitz Blumen- genoss Shiifere Feld Gedichte in 9 Tagzeiten Author. Geo, Heinrich Weber Gio 1, 18h, Schoch Wolfe. Helmhard, 19> Gis v. Birken Const, Chris. Dede- kind Martin Kempe v. Birken Henning Gross- court J. Hagen Seb. Seelman Wilh. Cronpusch S. Seelmann Heinrich Tolle Heinrich Tolle Tolle Maria Cath. Stockfleth mostly by v. Birken Place. Gliickstadt Niirnberg: Jena Erfurt Niirnberg Dresden KGnigsberg Niirnberg Helmstadt Baireuth Regensb. Gorlitz Regensburg Gottingen Gottingen Halle G6ttingen Niirnberg Niirnberg a | ~ 78 TABLED Date. Title. 1673,12 Des Blumengenossen Lilidans ge- kiisste Lysis 1674 ‘Trauer Hirtenspiel (iibere. verstorb. Markgraf) 1674 Die Betriibte und getréstete Ga- lathee (Schiiferlich mythologisch Sangspiel) 1675,4 Das verletzte, benetzte und wieder ergetzte Schiiflein, ein Feldgedicht 1677 Corydons auss Arcadien Viessir- liches und gar erbauliche Narren- bossen oder Spannene Grabschrif- ten (Satire) 1678 Adam und Eva, oder Singspiel v. d. gefallne u. wieder aufgerichtete Mensch, (Transl. fr. Ital. Opera) 1678.8 Guarinis Pastor Fido (Transl.) 1679 Teutsche Rede- bind u, Dichtkunst- mit einem Hirtengedichte 1679 Schiiferspiel 1680 Eine Geistliche Schiiferei in Rosen- Lilien- und Negelchen Thale an- diichtig betrachtet 1681, 8 Lob des Landlebens 1682 Der ungliickselige Hirt the French) (Roman) Mirantisches Flétlein: oder Geist- liche Schiifferey. In welcher Chri- stus under dem Namen Daphnis die in dem Siindenschlaff vertietite Seel Clorinda zu einem bessern Leben aufferwecket. Schiifferspiele (No. 1 Pastorell) (From 1682 1684 1684, 8 Die betriibte Pegnesis- von dem Wandel des sel. Floridans-mit Gesps. Ged... . durch einen Blu- menhirten (of vy. Birken) 1686, 6 Der unblegliickte Schiifer Corydon, welcher mit Zuhilfe der Cypris, in Annehmung der himml. Rosibei- len in einem Fortunato verkehrt worden, bey einer biirgerlichen NO 2. Author. Joh. Tepelius, P Michael Korgehl Christian Weise (the only one by him cont. past. el.) Joh. Lud. Faber, P Christian Richter Hofmann vy, Hoff- manswaldau vy. Birken Joh. Bapt, Renz K. H. Viebing Ernst Stockman 12, Wo Wile Laurentius v. Schnifis Joh. Christ. Hall- man Martin Limburger Jac. Reich Place. Giessen Céolln (Leipzig) Hamburg G6ttingen 1679, 1681. repr. 15 times till 1730 Niirnberg (G6ttingen) Helmstadt Jena Regensburg Constanz 1694, 95, 1711 1735, 39 1750 Augsburg Niirnberg K6nigsberg Date. TABLE NO. z Title. Hochzeit in einem Pastorellabge- bildet. 1689, 4 Cain u. Abel oder d. Brudermérder 1690 1692 1692 1699 1701 1714,10 1716 1718-20 (Opera) Von dem Hof, Stadt- und Land- leben Vorzug des Landlebens Mirantische Mayen-Pfeiff oder Mar- ianische Lobverfassung. In wel- cher Chorus, ein Hirt, der Mutter Gottes Schénheit besingt Die Wiederkehr der Giildenen Zeit (Opera) Etliche Schéffer-Gedichte (in vier Eklogen besingt er zwei Todes- falle, eme Geburt u. eine Ver- mihlung) Geistliche Hirtenlieder, der inihrem Jesum verliebten Der Tod d. Grossen Pans, oder Herrn Schotten (Opera) Der Getreue Treu-Bruch (Schiifer- spiel) Daphne (Opera) (Music by Hiindel) Die geheime Liebe d. Diana. In einem Pastoral auf d. Schauplatz L’inganno fedele, oder der getreue Betrug, ein heroischer Schiifer- Spiel (Opera) Feld und Landleben B. Neukirch’s grosse Anthologie. (Much of it Schéferliche Gelegen- heits-dichtung) Irdisches Vergniigen in Gott Isaac u. Rebecca oder die Kluge Vorsichtigkeit Hochzeit-fest (ein Pastorel) Schi- fergedicht. (In memory of his friends) Cupido auf seinem Thron Fontenelle’s Endymion (Trans) Ird. Verg. in Gott, II Theil (Spring and winter ) Gelegenheits Eklogen (In part VIL of Hoffmannswaldau’s works) by upper Saxon poets Author. Christn. Heinr. Postel Canitz Canitz Laurentius y. Schnifis F. C. Bressand Christian Wernicke Joh. Scheffler (call- ed Angelus Silesius) Christian Hein. Postel F.C. Bressand Heinrich Hinsch Joh. Ulr. y. Koenig Joh. Ulr. vy. Koenig Helmhard 1688 Collected by B. Neukireh Brockes Joh. Chr. Giinther 1723 Vocativo Gottsched Brockes by G. F. W. Juncker Place. Hamburg Publ. 1700 and later Dellingen Hamburg Hamburg 1704, 1749 Berlin Hamburg: Braunschweig: Hamburg: Hamburg: Hamburg Niirnberg Halle Hamburg: Frankfurt a. d. O. Frkf. u. Leipzig Friestadt Hamburg TABLE NO. Date. Title. 1729 Extract from Longus’s Daphnis & Chloe in Zeitschr. der Biedermann 1730 Schiifergedicht: Das Neubegliickte Sachsen (durch die Geburt eines Printsen, auf d. Schauplatz vor- gestellt) ° 1730, 8 Critische Dichtkunst (cont. 4 Idyls of Gottsched) 1732 Phillis, Schéifergedicht 1732 Vergils Eclogues transl. (theils in Hoch-, teils in Nieder-Séchsische Verse ) 1732 Die Alpen (written 1729) 1733 Daphnis, ein Hirtengedicht 1733 Sottises Champétres oder Schiifer- gedicht des Prof. Philippi 1738 Fabeln u. Erzihlungen 1738 Das Lob d. Zakenflusses u. s. Um- zirks auf. d. Schles. Riesengebirgen Hirtengedichte auf die Geburt Jesu Christi 1739,12 1740 Ode auf die Geburt Christi, nebst der Priorischen Ekloga Messias (Aus dem Eng!.) 1740 Critische Dichtkunst 1741 An Friedrich II im Namen d. Nymphe Hercynie 1741, 8 Atalanta oder die bezwungene Sprédigkeit (written 1740) 1742, 8 Amyntas, Hirtengedicht d. Uassi (Transl.) 1742 Four eclogues as models in Gott- sched’s Crit. Dichtk. 3rd ed. Schifergedancken bey einer Jagd seiner KGnig]. Maj. in Preussen 1742 Schiifererzihlungen (“‘gefiillig, aber auch liistern-sinnlich’’) (8 Erzabl.) 1742 Die gelernte Liebe, oder der ver-' steckte Hammel, Schifersp. (1 act) 1743? Hirtencantate (Belustigungen) 1743 Sieben Hirtengedichte von Schoch dem Jiingeren 1748 Corydon, der Briiutigam ohne Braut, Sylvia, die Braut ohne Bréiutigam D a. Author. Gottsched Joh. Ulr. y. Koenig: Joh. Cristoph Gottsched Fried vy. Hagedorn Caspar Abel Albrecht v. Haller Brockes Chr. Ludw. Lisecow Friedr. v. Hage- dorn Lindner Lindner Elias Kaspar Reichard Breitinger Kaspar Gottlieb Lindner Gottsched Joh. H. Kirchhoff Benj. Neukirch Benj, Neukirch Joh. Cristoph Rost Joh. Cristoph Rost J. E. Schlegel Naumann Kopenhagener Anonymus Place. Leipzig Dresden Leipzig 1737 1742, 51 ete. Gosslar Bern Hamburg Leipzig Hamburg Hirschberg Hirschberg Ziirich Hirschberg 1742 Leipzig 1745 Hannover Berlin 1744, 48, 51, 56, 60, 64, 67, 68, 78 Frkf. u. Lpz. 1746 TABLE NO. 2. SL Date. Title. Author. Place. 1748 Landleben in Ritzebiittel B. H. Brockes Hamburg: 1744 Oden und Schiifergedichte Joh. Fried. Grafe Leipzig 1744+ Das Band, ein Schiéiferspiel, 1 act Chr. Gellert Leipzig: 1744, 8 Das angenehme Huhn,. In versen Hinr. Jansen Bremen besungenes Landgut d. Herrn y. Stocken. 1744 Hlisie, Schéiferspiel Ad. Gottfr. Uhlich Leipzig 1749 1744, 8 Die gepriifte Treue. Schiiferspiel Karl Chr. Giirtner Bremen 1745, 8 Sylvia, ein Schiiferspiel Gellert Leipzig 1745 Der Inselberg besungen von einem Chr.Euseb.Suppius Gotha Meistersiinger 1745 Hinterbergens Winter u.Sommer- J. B. vy. Fischer Riga lust mit physik. u. moral. Betracht. 1745, 4 Der bléde Schiifer (ein Lustspiel) Joh. Wilh, Ludw. Berlin 1746 Gleim - 1752, 63,767 1745 Win Aufsatz uber die Schiiferpoesie Christlob Mylius 1745 Thomson’s Jahreszeiten (Trans, fr. Brockes Hamburg Engl.) (“breit umschreibend”’) 1745, 8 Die Martinsgans, Schiifersp. Chr. Nik. Naumann 1745 Der faule Bauer, ein Nachspiel A. G. Ublich Hamburg u. Leipzig: 1746 Idyls (in die oden Anakreonsin Joh. Nik. G6tz Frankfurt u. Reimlosen Versen) Leipzig 1746, 8 Die versGhnliche Liebe. Die zufrie- Joh. Dav. Herr- Leipzig dene Liebe * mann 1746 Die Kirms (Sperontes) Joh. Sig. Scholze Leipzig 1746 Kiéitzchen Joh. Sig. Scholze = Leipzig 1746 Der plauderhafte Schéifer (Lustsp.) Ad. Gottfr. Uhlich Danz.u. Leipzig 1746 Vom Natiirlichen in Schifergedich- Joh. Ad. Schlegel — Ztirich ten etc. (bes. gegen Gottsched) 1746 Die beste Wahl. (Schiifersp.) Erlangen 1746, 8 Critische Briefe Bodmer u. Breitin- Ziirich ger 1747 Ein Schéferspiel ohne Liebe J. W. Jelpken Braunschweig 1747 ~=Der Leichtsinnige (vonDrymantes) Fr, Wilh, Eichholtz Hamburg 1747 ‘Die Gliickliche Hifersucht. Schsp. Jena Metastasios KdG6nigl. Schiifer Wien (transl. fr. Ital.) 1748, 4 Die Spréde, ein Schiiferspiel J. F. Lowen Helmstaedt. 1748, 8 Der Herbst. Frhr. Bachoff vy. Echt 1748, 8 Die Landlust Frhr. Bachott y. Echt 1748, 8 Versuch in moralischen und Schii- Chr, Fr. Zernitz Hamburg u. fergedichten (resembles Haller) 1745 Leipzig (ed. by Uhlich) (‘Ganz werthlos” Kob.) The Idyl in German Literature. 6 $2 TABLE NO. 2. Date. Title. Author, Place. 1748, 8 Galathee u. Alcides, musik. Schi- Potsdam ferspiel 1748, 8 Der Kuss ganz neu musik. Schifer- Christlob Mylius Frkf. u. Leipzig spiel 1749 Der Friihling, ein Gedicht Ewald Chr. v. Berlin, 10 ed. Kleist to 1804 1749 Der grossmiithige Entschluss, 3 acts Frkf. u. Leipzig 1749 (Anarticle from) Guardian (cone. Frau Gottsched Leipzig Theocr. and pastoral poet., transl.) 1749 Die Schaferinsel. Lustp.in 3 Aufz. Christlob Mylius Wien 1749 Die unschuldige Diebe. Schaiferspiel Joh. Jac. Dusch Hannover 1749. 8 Neue Critische Briefe 1749 Die gliickliche Eifersucht 1750 Die Liebe oder Thyrsis u. Doris. (Ein Schéfergedicht in 3 Gesiin- gen) 1750 Empfindungen d. Friihlings 1750,8 Noah (Jacob u. Joseph 1751— Jacob u. Rachel 1752) 1750 Discours sur les Sciences et les Arts (attacks civilization) 1751 Hirten- Gespriache 1751 Der Betrug bei der Schiiferey (Scha- ferspiel) 1752. + Poetische Blicke ins Landleben (ed. by Bodmer) 1752 Doris oder die zartliche Schiferin. 1 act 1752 Der Winter, ein moral. Ged. 1752 Der Fryhling (transl into French 1770) 1752.8 Das Urtheil des Paris. music. Scha- ferspiel (Ital. u. Dent.) 1753 Hirtenlieder u. Gedichte (Follow- ing rules of Batteux and his transl.) 1753 Das Schiferfest oder die Herbst freude. Lustspiel in versen am Namenstage Maria Theresa aui- gefiihrt. 1753, 8 Die Nacht 1754 Damon und Damoetas, Ekloge, Bodmer u. Breitinger Ziirich 1763 *Keineswegseinge- Eisenach wohnliches Gelegen- 2nd ed. heits-dichtung”’. (Netoliezka.) Bodmer Ziirich Rousseau Suppius Gotha (Seleontes) Langensalza E.F.v.Gemmin- Ziirich gen Dresden 1759 Georg Joach. Rost u. Mark Wismar Cristoph M. Wie- 1752 land : Berlin Anonymous (“The Halle song Myrtill be- : longs to the best 4 of the time’’) Carolina Neuberin Wien, 1753, 4 Sal. Gessner Zurich Mich. Dietr.Blohm Altona TABLE NO. & Date. Title. 1754 Der Tausch 1754 Versuch Landlust 1754 Die Schéne Nacht 1754, 8 Daphnis an Silen 1754, 8 Der Stand der Unschuld und Fall des Menschen, Schiiferspiel von Dryden (transl.) 1754? Trilogie (after Prior’s Despairing Shepherd) (‘‘Sterbeblau — senti- mental’’) 1754, 8 Daphnis 1755, 4 Die Tageszeiten, ein Gedicht in 4 Biichern 1755 Der beste Vater. Schiifersp. 1755 Discours sur linegalité parmi les hommes 1755, 8 Doris oder die ziirtliche Schéaferin (Schiifsp. ) 1755. 8 Gartengedanken. Gedicht 1756, 8 Idyllen 1756, 8 Von der Ursprung der Ungleichheit unter d. Menschen (trans.) 1756, 58 Batteux. Hinl. in die sch6nen Wissenschaften (mit Zusitzen Ein reimfreis 1757 Der Tod Adams 1757 Die Idyllen Theokrits, Moschus u. Bion (transl.) 1757 Poet. Geméhlde u, Empf. aus d. heil. Gesch. (ecloga sacra) 1757, 8 Die dankbare Treue. Hin Schiifersp. 1757-60 Schilderungen aus dem Reiche der Natur u. d. Sittenlehre fiir alle Monate des Jahres 1758 Neue Gedichte (including Idyls) (one fisher--idyl) 1758, 4 Thomson’s Jahreszeiten (transl.) 758, 4 Der Mai, eine musik. Idylle. 758. 8 John Gay’s Fabeln (transl.) Author, J. J. Dusch eines Gedichtes iiber die Fried. Dan. Behn Joh. Cristoph Rost Anonymous Joh. Arnold Ebert S, Gessner Just Fr. Wilh. Zachariae Joh. Ad. Pantke Rousseau Joh. Cristoph Rost Ernst Gottl. Wol- tersdort Sal. Gessner Moses Mendelssohn C. W. Ramler Fr. Gottl. Klop- stock Chr. Gottl. Lieber- kiihn Jac. Fried. Schmidt Joachim Chr. Grot Joh. Jae. Dusch Ewald Chr, v. Kleist Joh. Franz v. Palthen Place. Liibeck Berlin 1763, 9 Halle Frankf. Braunschweig Zrch. 1760, 65 Rostock Frankf. u. Leipzig Breslau Zrch. 1760, 65 Berlin Leipzig., 1762, 69, 74, 85, 1802 Leipzig u. Kopenhagen Many ed. Berlin Hamburg Hamburg u. Leipzig Berlin Rostock Karl Wilh. Ramler Berlin 1764 Joh. Franz v. Palthen Hamburg Title. 8 Der Tod Abels 758, 8 Die Hirtengedichte des Virgilius 1758, 8 Die Hirten bei der Krippe zu Bethl. (musik. Ged.) 1759 Lyrische Muse an der Saale (Con- tains Hirtengedichte) (in one “wetteifert mit Rosts Schamlo- sigkeit’’) 1759 J. Gay’s Schiéfertrauerspiel Dione. Transl. from Engl. 1759 Das Ochsenfest 1759 Schiifergedichte (A. d. Engl. u. Ital. iibers.) 1760 Der Morgen, in Prosa 1760 Lied der Nymphe Persanteis 1760, 8 Das Dorf, ein Gedicht 1761, 8 Der Schatz. Bin Schéfersp. in 1 akt. (in Alexandrinern) 1761, 8 Idyllen 1762 Kkritik der Schlegelschen Abh. (an advance in idea of idyl) 1762 DieSchéferspiele: Evander u. Erast. Der erste Schiffer (his best work) 1762, + Hirtenliedern des Virgils u. Pope 1762,8 Die Schépfung der Natur. Ein Gedicht 1762,8 Damoet u. Phillis. Eine Schiiferey 1763 Bukolische Erzihlungen 3, £ Elmine und Ernst. Eine Idylle 763, 8 Menalk in der Schéferstunde 763, 8 Philemon u. Baucis, Schausp. in versen. 1 Akt. 8 Moses in Midian, ein poet. Gemiilde 1764 Lieder auf die vier Tagszeiten 1764 Der Sommertag in 4 poet. Be- trachtungen 1764, 8 Lob des Landlebens 1764, 8 Idyllen oder Klagen Fliichtige Zeit Der Brudermord des Kains. prosaiches Trauerspiel 1763, iiber die 1765 Ein TABLE NO 2. Author. Gessner Chr. Gottl. Lieber- kiihn Karl Wilh. Ramler Paul Aug. Schrader Joh. Geo. Phil. Muchler H. Ramler Joh. Jae. Dusch Gottl. Konr. Pfeffel Jac. Fr. Schmidt Mendelssohn S. Gessner Joh. Heinrich Smid Benj. Chr. Hein. Giesebrecht Joh. Sigm. Manso Geo. Aug. v. Breitenbauch Joh. Dan. Glum- mert C. E. Suppius G. K. Pfeffel Joh. Chr. Lossius Joh. Matth. Stoll (Graf) Alex. Christiani Gleim Karl Heim. Hoffer Lud. Fried Hude- mann Place. Ziirich 1760, 60, 65, 67, 73 Berlin Berlin Jena Berlin u. Leipzig Braunschweig: Berlin u. Leipzig: Kolberg Altona Frankfort Berlin Ziirich 1765, 67, 70, 75 Aurich Halle Bielsfeld Prkf. u. Leipzig Danzig Strassburg Erfurt Hildb. Wien Berlin Leipzig Wismar TABLE NO. Date. Title. 1765? (Allegorische Alexandriner) Ekloge 1765, 8 Jiidische Schiifergedichte 1765, 8 Abwechselungen wider die Lange- weile 1765, 8 Lob des Landlebens 1766 Laokoon 1766, £ Lucas od. der erhérteSchiifer, Eine Idylle 1766, + Die siisse Dienstbarkeit, ein landl. Singgedicht. 1766, 8 Thomson’s Jahreszeiten; also Ge- miilde von der Weinlese 1766, 8 Die Abendzeiten in 4 Meisterge- singen 1767,8 Die Ruhe auf dem Lande 1767 Bion u. Moschus: Idyllen (transl.) 1767 Der Wartberg bei Heilbronn. 12 Gesiinge 1767 Abbhandiung vom Schiifergedichte 1767 Theokrit u. Gessner (in Fragmen- ten tiber neu. deu. Lit.) 1767,8 Das Landleben (‘‘Kleinmalerei’’) 1768, 8 Idylle auf die Abreise Marien Char- lotten, Erzherz. in Oesterr. 1769 Sieben kleine Gedicnte der Venus gesungen. Also Idyls. 1769, + Paris auf Ida. [Ein heroisches Pa- storale 1769, 8 Der Winter (eine moralische Wo- chenschrift) 1770, £ Der gliickl. Friihling. Ein Ged. auf d. Ankunft d. Mad. la Dauphine (Compd) ? Elegieeines Schiifers (Imitation of 1770 § Kleists Amyntas) 1770, 8 W. Collins Orientalische Eklogen aus dem Enel. 1770 Einige Idyllen Gedichte) 1771, 8 Versuche in Idyllen (in Vermischte 1771, 8 Idyllen: Die Hiigel bei Ratenau u. Rosalia u. Amyntas. 1771 = Idyllen » Author, Joh. Elias Schlegel Breitenbauch lal, A I Lessing: Joh. Dan. Glum- mert Joh, Dan. Glum- mert Johannes Tobler Gottl. Cristopher Schmaling Fr. Grillo Cristoph L. Pfeiffer Jos. (Freyherr) v. Penkler Herder Chr. Cai. Lorenz Hirschfeld Joh. Cristoph Re- gelsperger Abraham Jac. Penzel Joh. Heinr. Weiss- mann C. C. L. Hirschfeld Joh. Rautenstrauch Holty S. Gessner Joh. Gotti. Chr, Nonne Hektor W. (Frei- herr) v, Gunderode Joachim Cris. Blum Karl Chr. Reckert Place. Leipzig: Leipzig: Berlin Danzig: Danzig Ziirich 1774 Quedlinburg 1773 Gotha Berlin Heilbronn Augsburg Leipzig 1768, 71, 76, 1828 Wien Berlin Rudrestadt Leipzig 1775 Strasburg Ziirich Jena Karlsruhe Berlin Miinster 86 Date. Title. 1771.8 Versuch eines poet. Gemildes yom Herbste 1771, 12 Theokritos Idyllen (Transl.) 2 David, ein Trauerspiel 2 Moral Erz. und Idyllen von Diderot 2 Brief iiber die Lanschaftsmalerei } Neue Idyllen J 2 Idylls of Theokritus, Bion u. Moschus (prose) S Hirtenlieder. u. d. verklagte Amor- Idyllen Cimon, Schaferspiel (written 1747) (After Bocce. Decamerone V1.) Idyllen Amor und der Dichter 5 Der Hiigel bei Kindleben 8 Amors reise nach Fockzana zum Fried-Congress ’ Idyllen Versuche von Schafergedichten Das Feuer in Walde Gemalde aus einer Welt unschuldi- ger Menschen . 8 Schaferspiele 8 Palimon, Schadfersp. mit Gesingen (2 acts) S Die Promenade in dem Grossen Garten Die Christnacht unter den Schafern (Dram. idylle) Idyllen Idyllen. Schnitteridylle u. d. Arme Wilh. 5 Orpheus, Ein Singspiel 5 Menalk u. Mopsus (after V eclogue of Vergil), Eclogen Der Faun. Eine Idylle Der erschlagene Abel. Eine Skizze An den Frihling Gemialde aus dem Sommer Der Satyr Mopsus Bacchidon u. Milon TABLE No. 2. Author. Karl Sam. Slevogt Fr. Grillo Klopstock Gessner Sal. Gessner Karl Aug. Kiitner Fr. Aug. Clem Werthes Joh. Heinr. Weiss- mann Bodmer Andreas Grader Joh. Sig. Manso Heinr. Aug. Otto- kar Reichard J. G. C. Nonne Blum Johannes Kraus Cristoph L. H. Hélty Theo. Joh. Briickner Moses Dobruska Joh. Wolfg. And. Sch6pfel Hein. Aug. O. Reichard Paul Georg Hagenbruch Brickner Holty Werthes Jak. Mich. Reinh. Lenz | Maler Miiller | J Place BHisenach Halberstadt Hamburg Ziirich Ziirich 1772. 74, 82 Leipzig Leipzig Leipzig Riga Bielefeldt Gotha Jena Berlin Maynz. Mus. Alm. Prag u. Leip Frki. u. Leip Gotha Langensalza Mus. Alm. Ziirich Frk. u. Leipz Mannheim to TABLE NO. + Date. Title. Anthor. Place. 1775 Die Schaafschur, eine Pfalzische Maler Miiller Mannheim Idylle : 1775, 8 Idyllen Joh. Heinr. Biicking Maynz 1775, 8 Einige Gedichte (Fikenscher) (coll. Joh. Geo. Em. Bayreuth by Krausemark) Rosner 1775, 8 Apollo unter den Hirten (Musik. Gottfried Uhlich Wien Schiifsp., 1 act) 1776, 8 Die Werbung fiir England. Liind- Joh. Christoph Bayreuth liches Lustspiel Krauseneck 1776, 8 Idyllen (9 versificierte, Gessner’s) Klamer E. Kk. Leipzig Schmidt 1776 Der Morgen Die Leibeigenschaft Die Pferdeknechte Der Aehrenkranz Selmas Geburtstag - Voss 1777 Die Bleicherin Der Bettler Die Elbfahrt De Winter Awend 1777 +=Liederchen u. Gedichte, Schiifer dra- Traugott Benj. Leipzig ma, ete. Berger 1777, 8 Idyllen u. Erzihlungen Karl Hein. Hoffer Leipzig 1777, 8 Eine laindlische Erzihlung P. E. Birkner Helmstadt 1777, 8 Die Fiirstenreise. Ein lindliches J.C. Krauseneck Bayreuth Lustsp. in 1 act. 1777 +=Ein Kinderpastorale, aufzufiih.am Heinr. Leopold Strassburg Geb. tage s. Vaters Wagner 1777, 8 Wintergemiihlde (2 Ausgaben) Karl Chr. Reckert Berlin 1778 Adams erstes Erwachen und erste Maler Miiller Mannheim Seelige Niichte 1779 1778, 8 Das Steingebiirge bei Adersach in Ernst Leberecht Bunzlau Boéhmen, ein Gedicht Semper 1778 Das Stiindchen Der Hagestolz | Der Abendschmaus Voss Der Riesenhiigel De Geldhapers 1779, 8 Es ist Friede. Ein liindlichesDrama Joh. Chr. Bock Leipzig in 1 act 1780, 8 Neue Idyllen eines Schweizers 1780, 8 Jacob beim Brunnen, eine Schiifer- Bodmer Ziirich spiel aus d. Ital. des Lemene 1781 Homer’s Odyssee Voss 1801, 02, 24 1781 Die Kirschenpfliickerin Der bezauberte Teufel (Die Schnitter, > Voas Theoe. 10) toh} TABLE No. 2. Date. Title. 1781 Der siebzigste Geburtstag Author. Voss 1782 Theokrit (9 Idyllen), Bionu. Mo- Chr. Graf zu schus (3). transl. 1782,8 Das Harz. ein Gedicht in 7 Gesiin- gen 1782 Das Adonis-fest (from Theocr. ) 1783 Des Briutigams Besuch (afterwards 2nd part of Luise) Stolberg Er. Chr. Hein. Dannenberg | ' Voss 1784 Luise (afterwards Istpart of Luise) 1784 Idyllen u. Lieder 1785 Gedichte, vol. I Idillen 1785 Hochzeitlied (afterwards in 3rd part of Luise) Die Heumad 1786 Philemon u. Baucis 1786. 8 Idyllen (in his Gedichten) 1787 Ardinghello u. d. gliickseeligen Inseln. (Ital. 16 cent.) 1787.8 Alexis oder von dem goldnen Weltalter (trans!. of Hemsterhuis) 1787, 8 Fischergedichte u. Erzahlungen (introd. by Gessner) 787, 8 Dam6t u. Phyllis. Eine Idylle TS7,8 Salomon Gessners auserlesene Idyllen in Verse gebracht S8S__ Die Insel Gessners ep Schiafergd. Der erste Schiffer in verse gebracht 1790, 8 Idylle, die gliickl. Wiedergenesung des von Flotow 1790 ‘wo idyls of Theocritus (Polyfem) 1791 Sonntagsfreuden d. Landmanns 1791.8 Daphnis u. Chloe. Idylle mit Ge- sang 1791.8 Die landliche Feier d. Fiirstenta- ges, ein Dorfgemalde in 1 Handl. 1792 Das Morsergericht (transl.) 1793 Homer’s Werke (Ilias neu-. Odys- seus umarb.) 1794 Neue Fischergedichte 1795 Der erste Frihling 1795 Gesangd. Leibeignen beim Ernte- kranz (later in Die Erleichterten) | J Traugott Christiana Dor. Léberin ( Voss Jae. Fr. Schmidt Joh. Jae. Wilh. Heinso Fr. Hein. Jacobi Franz Xaver Bronner Karl Chr. Reckert Ramler Fr. Leop. Stolberg Ramler J.C. Krauseneck Voss Fredrike Jul. (Grii- fin) vy. Revertlow Karl Chr. Reckert C Krauseneck Voss Voss Bronner Fr. Leop. Stolberg Vos V7] Place. Hamburg G6ttingen Dresden Berlin Berlin Leipzig Berlin Bayreuth Kiel Berlin Bayreuth Zirich TABLE NO. 2. 89 Date. Title. Author. Place. 1795 Luise Voss KG6nigsberg 1795, 6 Uber naive u. sent. Dichtung Schiller 1796 Gedichte (incl. Mérsergerichtete.)) yo, 1797 Vergils Eclogues (transl) 5 1797 Alexis u. Dora. Eine Idylle Goethe 1797 Hermann u. Dorothea Goethe The Idyl in German Literature. 90 TABLE NO. 3. WABI EwN Os: Idyls proper published in Germany during the 17th and 18th centuries. Date. Title. Author. Place. 1641 Idyl (First) Geo. Rud. Weckherlin 1648 Idyls (Six) Geo. Rud. Amsterdam Weckherlin 1656 Ecloge. Florelie oder Lob und Georg Neumark Jena Trost Schallendes Hirtengespriich (beim Tode Eleonoren Krausen gest. 16 Sept. in Weimar) 1701 Etliche Schiiffer-gedichte (infouree- Chr. Wernicke Hamburg logues he celebrates two deaths, 1704, 1749 one birth and one betrothal) 1718-20 B. Neukirch’s grosse Anthologie Coll. by B. Halle (much of it pastoral Gelegen- Neukirch heits-dichtung ) 1732 Die Alp n Albr. v. Haller Bern 1742 Schafererzihlungen Joh. Christoph Rost Berlin 1746 Idyllen (in Oden Anakreonsinreim- Joh. Nik. G6tz Frkft. u. losen Versen) Leipzig 1748, 8 Versuch in Moralischen und Schi- Chr. Fr. Zernitz Hamb. u. fergedichten (inclined toward 1745 Leipzig Haller) Ed. by A. G. Ublich 1750 Die Liebe oder Thyrsis und Doris 1753, 8 Die Nacht S. Gessner Ziirich 1753, 8 Hirtenlieder u. Gedichte (after Anonymus Halle Batteux) 1754, 8 Daphnis an Silen Halie 1654, 8 Daphnis S. Gessner Ziirich 1760, 60, 65 1754 Damon und Damoetas. Ekloge Mich. Dietr. Blohm Altona 1756, 8 Idyllen Sal. Gessner Ziirich 1760, 60, 65 1758, 4 Der Mai, eine musik. [dylle Karl Wilh. Ramler Berlin 1764 1758 Neue Gedichte (including idyls) Ewald Chr. v. Berlin Kleist 1758, 8 Der Tod Abels (transl. into French 8. Gessner Ziiurich 1760, 1759) 65, 67, 73 1760 Der Morgen in Pros. Screibart H. 1761, 8 Idyllen Jac. Fr, Schmidt 1762 Der erste Schiffer S. Gessner Ziirich 1763 Bukolische Esziihlugen Ge. Aug. v. Frit. u. Breitenbauch Leipzig 1763, 4 Elmire und Ernst, Eine Idylle Joh. Dan. Danzig Glummert TABLE NO. 3. Date. Title. 1764,8 Idyllen oder Klagen iiber die fliich- tige Zeit. 1765, 8 Jiidische Schiifergedichte 1766, 4 Lycas od. der erhérte Schiifer, eine Idylle 1766, 8 Thomson’s Jahreszeiten (including Gemihlde von der Weinlese) 1768, 8 Idylle auf die Abreise Marien Charl. Erzherz. in Oesterr. (He wrote many similar) 1769 Sieben Kleine Gedichte der Venus gesungen, also Idyls 1770, 8 W. Collin’s orientalische Eklogen ete. aus. d. Engl. 1770 Hinige Idyllen in Vermischte Ge- dichte 1771 += Imdyllen 1771, 8 Versuche in Idyllen 1771, 8 Idyllen. die Hiigel bei Ratenau, Ro- salie und Amyntas 1771, 12 Theocritus: Idyllen (transl.) 1772 Moralische Erzéhl. u. Idyllen v. Diderot 1772, 8 Neue Idyllen 1772, 8 Hirtenlieder u. d. verklagte Amor 1772, 73 Idyllen 1773, 8 Idyllen 1773 = Idyllen 1773, 8 Versuche von Schifergedichten 1775 Menalk u. Mopsus (after Y. Ec. of Vergil), Eclogues Der Faun. Hine Idylle ) Der Erschlagene Abel. Eine Skizze | Der Satyr Mopsus | Bacchidon u. Milon f Die Schaafschur, eine Pfalzische Idylle J 1775, 8 Idyllen 1775 1776, 8 (Anhang von) Idyllen (9 versificier- te Gessner’s) 1777, 8 Idyllen u. Erzihlungen Author. Karl Hein. Hoffer Ge. Aug. v. Breitenbauch Johannes Tobler Joh. Cristoph Regelsperger Abraham Jak. Penzel S. Gessner Joh. Gottf. Chr. Nonne Karl Chr. Reckert Hektor Wilh. (Freyherr) v. Gtinderode Joachim Cristoph Blum Fr. Grillo S. Gessner Sal. Gessner Fr. Aug. Clem Werthes Joh, Hein. Weissman Blum Andreas Grader Johannes Kraus Lenz Maler Miiller Joh. Heinr. Biicking Klamer E. K. Schmidt Karl Heinr, Hoffer 91 Place. Leipzig Leipzig Danzig Ziirich 1774 Wien Berlin Ziirich Jena Miinster Karlsruhe BerJin Halberstadt Ziirich Ziirich Leipzig Leipzig Berlin Riga Maynz Pkft. u. Leipzig Mannheim Frankfurt Leipzig Leipzig 1795 wm we TABLE No. 3. Title. Die Leibeigenschaft Die Pierdeknechie Der Aehrenkranz Selmas Geburtstag Die Bleicherm Die Betiler Die Elbiahri De Winterawend Das Standchen. Hine Junker Idylle De Geldhapers Der Riesenhigel Der Abendschmaus Der Hagesiolz Die Kirschenpiliickerin Der bezauberte Teufel Der siebzigsie Geburtstag Homer's Odyssee) Des Brautigams Besuch (later 2nd part oi Luise) Luise (later Ist part of Luise) Idyllen w_ Lieder ee Gedichte. vol. 1 Idyilen Hochzeiilied (later in 2nd pari of) Luise) Die Heumad { Philemon u. Baucis Dam6i a. Phyllis. Hime Idyile Gessner’s Auserlesene Idyllen in Verse gebracht 5 Gessners Schaierged. Der ersie Schiffer in Verse gebracht . 8 Idylle: die gliickliche Wiedergene- sung des Cammerpres. von Flotow , 8 Daphnis a. Kloe. Idyile mit Gesang Homer’s Werke (Ilias neu-. Odyssee umarbeitet) Frahlings Gesang (later in Ist paré of Luise) Gesang d. Leibeignen beim Erntekranz (later in die Erleich- terten) } Gedichie (contains Morsergericht | ete.) | Luise ein landl. Ged. in drey| Idyllen. | Author. Place Voss Voss Traugott Christi- ana Dor. Léberin Voss 1801, 2, 1824 Dresden Voss Karl Ch. Reckert [Berlin Ramler Berlin Ramler Berlin J.C. Krauseneck Bayreuth Karl Chr. Reckert Berlin Voss Voss 93 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS READ AND CONSULTED. Allgemine Deutsche Biographie. Anakreontiker und Preussisch-patriotische Lyriker. (Hagedorn, Gleim, Uz, Kleist, Ramler), in Deut. Nat. Lit. ed. by Franz Muncker, Stuttgart, 1895. Barthold, F. W. Geschichte der Fruchtbringenden Gesellschaft. Berlin, 1848. Baumgart, Hermann. Haudbuch der Poetik. Stuttgart, 188T. Besser, Johann you—Des Herra von Besser Schrifften, beydes in gebundener und ungebundener Rede, ausgefertiget yon J. U. Kénig, Leipzig, 1732. Bezold, Dr. Friedrich yon—Geschichte der deutschen Reformation Berlin, 1890. Biedermann, Dr. Karl—Deutsche Volks- and Kulturgeschichte fiir Schule und Haus. Wiesbaden, 1891. Birken, Siegmund, von—Teutsche Redebind- und Dichtkunst samt dem Schau- spiel Psyche und einem Hirtengedichte. Niirnberg, 1679. Blum—Joachim Christian Blnms simmtliche Gedichte, Carlsruhe, 1781. Bodmer. J. J—Critische Briefe. TZiirich, 1746. Brockes, B. H.—Irdisches Vergniigen in Gott, bestehend in Physicalisch—und Moralischen Gedichten, in 9 yol. Hamburg, 1737—48. Brockes, B. H—In Geguer der zweiten schlesischen Schule. Deut. Nat. Lit. Bronner, STE Xaver—Fischergedichte und Erzihlungen wit einem Vorwort you S. Gessner. Ziirich, 1787. Bronner, Franz Xaver Bronuners Schriften in two vol. Sndndhnren ere Fischer- gedichte und Erzihlungen. TZiirich, 1794. Budik, P. A—Leben und Wirken der vorziiglichsten lateinischen Dichter des XV.—X VII. Jahrhunderts. Wien, 1827. Burckhardt, Jacob—Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien. Basel, 1860. Burckhardt, C. A. H—dus dem Briefwechsel Sigmund von Birkens und Georg Neumarks 1656—59, in Euphorion 1897, Heft 3. Canitz, F. R. L. yon—In Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule. Deut. Nat. Lit. Diimmler, Ernestus—Poetae Latini aevi Carolinied. by E. Diimmler. Berlin, 1881. Ebert, Adolf—Naso, Angilbert und der Conflictus veris et hiemis in Zeitschrift fiir deutsches Altertum und deutsche Litteratur vol. 22. Berlin, 1878 Fallersleben, Hoffman von—Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder des 16 u. 17 Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, 1844. Fischart, Johann—Dichtungen von Johann Fischart genannt Menzer, hrg. yon Karl Goedeke. Leipzig, 880. Fleming, Paul—Gedichte von Julius Tittman. Leipzig, 1870. Fontenelle, Bernhard de—Of Pustorals by Monsieur de Fontenelle englished by M. Mottenx, London, 1719. Froning, Dr. R—Das Drama der Reformations-Zeit in Deut. Nat. Lit. Stutt- gart. Fulda, Ludwig.—Geguer der zweiten schlesischen Schule in Deut. Nat. Lit. hrg. von Ludwig Fulda, Berlin: 94 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS READ AND CONSULTED. Gervinus, G. G.—Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtuag, 5 vol. hrg. yon Karl Bartsch. Leipzig, 18714. Gessner—Solomon Gessner yon Johann Jacob Hottinger, Ziirich, 1796. Gessner—Solomon Gessners Werke—Aus wall von Prof. Dr. Frey in Deut. Nat. Lit. Berlin. Gleim—/Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleims Leben aus seinen Briefen und Schrif- ten von Wilhelm KGrte. Halberstadt, 1811. Gleim, J. W. L.—See Anakreontiker. Goedeke, Karl—Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung aus den Quellen yon Karl Goedeke, 2nd ed., 3 vol. Dresden, 1884. Goethe, J. W.—Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe in den Jahren 1794 —1805. Stuttgart, 1856, Goethe, Johann Wolfgang—Werke. Goodrich, Frank—A Social Reformer of the X Vth Century in Yale Review, Aug. 1896. Gosche, Dr, Richard—Idyll und Dorfgeschichte im Altertum und Mittelalter in Archiy fiir Litteraturgeschichte. Leipzig, 1870. Gottsched, Joh. Cristoph—Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst durchgehend mit den Exempeln unserer besten Dichter erlautert, 4th ed. Leipzig, 1751. Gottsched.—Hernn Johan Cristoph Gottscheds Gedichte. 2 vol. Vorrede by Joh. Joachim Schwabe. Leipzig, 1751. Gryphius, Andreas—Dramatische Dichtungen, hrg. von Julius Tittman. Leip- zig, 1870. Guarini, Giovanni Battista—The faithful Shepherd, a dramatic pastoral trans- lated into English from the Pastor Fido by William Grove. London, 1783. Giinther, Johann Christian—Gedichte, hrg. yon Julius Tittman. Leipzig, 1874. Hagedorn,—Freidrich von Hagedorn, Poetische Werke. 2 vol. Hamburg, 1800. Hagedorn, F. yon—see Anakreontiker. Haller—Albrecht von Hallers Gedichte hrg. und eingeleitet von Dr, Ludwig Hirzel. Fraueufeld, 1882. Haller—Albrecht von Haller, Auswahl in Deut. Nat. Lit. hrg. von A. Frey, Berlin. Herder—Werke. Hessus, Helius Eobanus—Noriberga illustrata und andere Stidtegedichte. hrg. yon Joseph Neff. Berlin, 1896. Holty, L. H. C—Gedichte neu besorgt und vermehrt von J. H. Voss. Upsala, 1816. Hoélty—Ludewig Heinrich Cristoph Hélty, hrg. von August Sauer in Der G6ttinger Dichterbund of Deut. Nat. Lit., Stuttgart. Homer.—Homeri Ilias et Odyssea edidit G. Dindorf—5th edition ed. by C. Hentze. Leipzig, 1893—4. Homer—The Odyssey of Homer, done into English prose by 8. H. Butcher and A. Lang, 3rd ed. London, 1881. Homer—The minor poems of Homer, with introduction by Henry Nelson Coleridge, New York, 1872. Kleist, E. C. von—See Anakreontiker. ieee! BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS READ AND CONSULTED. 95 Koberstein—August Kobersteins Geschichte der Deutschen Nationallitera- tur, 5 vol. 6Gte umgearb. Aufl. yon Karl Bartsch. Leipzig, 1884. Konig, Joh. Ulr. von—Des Herrn von KOGnigs Gedichte aus seinen yon ihm selbst verbesserten Manuschriften, gesammlet und herausgegeben. yon G. C, Waltherrn. Dresden, 1745, Kudrun—Kudrun hrg. und erklart von Ernst Martin. Halle, 1872. Lessing—Gotthold Eprahim Lessings simmtliche Schriften hrg. yon Karl Lachmann, Berlin, 1839. Lohenstein—Dauiel Kaspers von Lohenstein Teutsche Gedichte. Breslau, 1689. Longos—Erotici Scriptores, Graece et Latine, edited by G. A. Hirschig. Paris, 1856. Longos—Longos Hirtengeschichten von Daphnis und Chloe, Uebersetzt von Friedrich Jacobs. Stuttgart, 1832, McLaughlin, E. T.—Sfudies in Mediaeval Life and Literature. New York, 1894. Marmontel, Jean Francois—Des Herrn Marmontels Dichtkunst. Aus dem Franz. tibersetzt. Bremen, 1766. Miller—Johan Martin Miller, brg. yon Angust Sauer in der G6ttinger Dichter- bund of Deut. Nat. Litt. Stuttgart. Miller, Friedrich—Maler Miiller, hrg. von A. Sauer in Sturmer und Dranger of Deut. Nat. Lit., Berlin. Miiller, Friedrich—Dichtungen von Maler Miiller, brg. yon Herman Hettner. Leipzig, 1868. Neidhart—Neidhart von Reuenthal, hrg. von Moriz Haupt. Leipzig, 1858. Netoliczka, Oscar—Schiéferdichtung und Poetik im 1Sten Jahrhundert in Viertel-Jahrschrift fiir Litt. Gesch. II. 2, 1889. : Neukirch, Benj.—_In Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule. Deut. Nat. Lit. Opitz, Martin—Ausgewéhlte Dichtungen, brg. von Julius Tittman. Opitz, Martin— Weltliche und geistliche Dichtung, hrg. von Dr. El. Oesterley in Deut. Nat. Lit., Berlin. Opitz—Martin Opitz—eine Monographie von Freidrich Strehlke, Leipzig, 1856. Opitz, Martin—Von der deutschen Poeterey. Breslau, 1624. Opitz—Opitz Als Benutzer Fischarts in Zeitschrift fiir deutsche Philologie, August, 1877. Poliziano, A. A.—Le stanze L’Orfeo e le Rime di Poliziano, edited by G. Carducci. Firenze, 1863, Ramler, Karl Wilhelm—See Anakreontiker. Rost. Joh. Cristoph—Versuch von Schifergedichten und andern poetischen Ausarbeitungen. 1760. Rousseau, Jean Jacques—Discours sur les sciences et les arts. 1750, Rousseau—Discours sur l'inegalité parmiles hommes, 1755. Rousseau— Eloisa, a series of original letters. Transl. from the French. 3 vol. London, 1810, Rousseau—The Social Contract or Principles of Political Right. Transl. by H. J. Tozer. London, 1895. Riihle, Freidrich—Das deutsche Schiiferspiel des 18. Jahrhunderts. Halle, 1885. Sannazaro, J—Areadia. Edited by M. Scherillo. Torino, 1888. Scherer, Wilhelm—Poetik. Berlin, 1888. Schiller—Werke 96 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS READ AND CONSULTED. Schlegel, Joh. Ad—Vom Natiirlichen in Schifergedichten. (Besorgt yon J. Bodmer) Ziirich, 1746. Schmidt, Julian—Geschichte der deutschen Litteratur von Leibniz bis auf unsere Zeit. Berlin, 1890. Smith, Homer—Pastoral influence in the English Drama, in Publications of the modern Language Association of America, Vol. XII. No. 3——New series. Vol. V..No.3. Baltimore, 1897. Tennyson, Alired—Victorian Poets by E. C. Stedman. Boston, 1876. Tennyson—Idyls of the King and Arthurian stories, Ed. by M. W. Maccallum. New York, 1894. Tennyson—The works of Alfred Tennyson, London, 1873. Teufel, W. S—Geschichte der rdmischen Literatur, 4te Aufi. bearbeitet von Ludwig Schwabe. Leipzig, 1882. Theocritus—Theocrits Gedichte erklart yon Hermann Fritsche. 3te Aufiage be- sorgt von E. Hiller. Leipzig, 1881. ; Theocritus—Bion and Moschos rendered into English prose by A. Lang (Ox- ford). London, 1880. Theocritus—Die griechischen Bukoliker Theokritos, Bion und Moschos, iibersetzt und erklart von Dr. Friedrich Zimmermann. Stuttgart, 1856. Thomson, James—The Seasons, with notes by Percival Stockdale. London, 1793. Usteri, Johann Martin—Dichtungen in Versen und Prosa, nebst einer Lebens- bescreibung des Verfassers, hrg. yon David Hess, 3 yol., Berlin, 1831. Uz, Johann Peter—See Anakreoutiker. Vergil—Les Oeuvres de Virgile, les Bucoliques et les Georgiques par E. Benoist. Paris, 1867. ; Vergil—Vergil als bukolisc her Dichter. Vergilstudien yon M. Sonntag. Leip- zig, 1891. Vergil—Virgilius lindliche Gedichte, iibersetzt und erklart von J. H. Voss. Altona, 1830. Vergil—Die Gedichte des Virgilius in Versmass der Urschriit, iibersetzt yon W. Hertzberg. Stuttgart, 1856. Vergil— Virgil im Mittelalter yon Domenico Comparetti. Aus dem Italienischen iibersetzt von Hans Dutschke. Leipzig, 1875. Voss—Johann Heinrich Voss, hrg. yon August Sauer, in der G6ttinger Dichter- bund, Deut, Nat. Lit. Berlin. Voss—Johann Heinrich Voss, von Wilhelm Herbst, 3 yol. Leipzig 1872—6. Voss, Johan Heinrich—Sdmtliche Gedichte. Vol. I. Luise. Vol. IU. Idyllen. KGningsberg, 1802. Waldberg, Max Freiherrn yvon—Die Deitsche Renaissance-Lyrik. Berlin, 1888. Wattenbach, W.—Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, 5ed. Berlin, 1885. Weckherlin—Georg Rudolf Weckherlins Gedichte, brg. yon Hermann Fischer. 2 vol. Tiibingen, 1894. Weckherlin, Georg Rudoli—Gedichte, hrg. yon Karl Goedeke. Leipzig. 1873. Weise. Christian—In Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule. Deut. Nat. Lit. Wernike, N.—In Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule. Wernike—N. Wernikens Poetische Versuche in Ueberschriften, wie auch im Helden und Schdfergedichten. Neue Aufi. Ziirich, 1749. pis - PUBLIC ATIONS any hose ee & AUGUSTANA . LIBRARY . PUBLICATIONS NUMBER 4. On the Cyclonic Distribution of Rainfall JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK ISLAND, ILL. ROCK ISLAND, ILL. AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1905 DEDICATORY. However inappropriate the occasion, the author of the follow- ing short paper cannot forego the pleasure of expressing a @reet- ing of remembrance and affection to all of those earnest young men and women who have, with a truly scientific and unselfish interest, during several years in the past given time and thought to the work which was necessary for the extraction from the original documents of the data presented on the following few pages. : Ars longa, vita brevis. Especially does lite and its associations seem short to the man in the lecture room. It is his privilge to continually make new and most-pleasant acquaintances with open and unbiased young minds and hearts, but it is also his fate to be compelled to part with them, as he feels, altogether too soon, often never to meet them again. To each and every member of my former classes in Meteor- ology, and especially to the members of the Weather Club, I ex- tend my thanks, and desire to present a copy of this paper. J. A. UDDEN. Augustana College, March 30, 1905. . ON THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. Some years ago I had the pleasure of hearing a lecture on weather, given by one of the observers of the United States Weather Bureau. The lecturer discussed the distribution of weather in the extra tropical cyclones in America. He described the conditions which characterize the four quadrants of an area of low pressure. He especially emphasized the statement we often find in text-books, that the greatest precipitation occurs in the re- gion which lies some distance to the southeast of the center of an area of low pressure. ; A short time after hearing this lecture I had occasion to dis- cuss weather prognostics with a gentleman whose occupation had led him for many years to closely watch the government's fore- casts issued: at Davenport, Iowa. This gentleman said he had found that storms would usually arrive from six to twenty hour's behind the time they were due according to the local forecasts. Otherwise he regarded the predictions as quite reliable and valu able. ‘‘When a storm is announced”’, he said, ‘it will almost al- ways come, but it is apt to be a little behind time.” This state- ment corroborated an impression which I had myself received. It is the writer’s belief that if a careful comparison were made of the forecasts referred to, and of the actual conditions of the weather at Davenport previous to 1896—since which time I have given less attention to the matter—it would be found that the forecasts more frequently missed by announcing storms too early, than too late. It occurred to me that this delay of the expected storms might be due to some regional or local variation in the features of the passing cyclones, and that it would be desirable to determine, by some statistical method, the actual relation of weather conditions to different parts of the cyclone for this locality.. For the purpose 6 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. of doing this, I made use of a simple devise, which I have since had the satisfaction of seeing employed by others. By marking off eight radii in four concentric circles I plotted twenty-five areas in a figure, which could be used to represent definite separate tracts in acircular storm. The lengths of the radii of the successive cir- cles had the ratios 1:4: 7: 10 and were taken to represent the same number of hundreds of miles in a composite cyclone two thousand miles in diameter. The construction will be readily un- derstood from the accompanying figures. The radii were drawn at angles of 45°, but were not extented into the inner circle. The figure was so oriented that the four points of the compass would bisect four alternate octants. There were thus three tracts marked off in each octant outside the smallest circle. With this represent- ing the central region of a cyclone, the figure was used to delimit twenty-five fixed areas inside its extent. Tract “1” thus covers a central circle two hundred miles in diameter im the center of a cy- clone. Tract ‘‘2” covers an area extending from one hundred to four hundred miles away from the center to the north, and lying between radii diverging 22%° on either side. Tract “10” covers the area between the same two radii at a distance from four hun- dred to seven hundred miles from the centre. Tract “18” lies at a distance from seven hundred to one thousand miles from the centre, and so on, in the other octants. My method was then simply to take a sufficient number of observations on the weather at Davenport, when this station lay in any one oi the twenty-five corresponding tracts of an actual cyclone, and to average these for each tract separately and thus obtain for each separate percentages expressing frequency of cer- tain weather conditions, such as precipitation and cloudiness, re- sultant wind directions, etc. I averaged these elements of the weather. as observed at SA M., during a period of about five years, taking the data from the daily weather maps. There were nearly a thousand observations in all. These were distributed among the twenty-five tracts somewhat unequally, but it is be- lieved that the number of observations in each tract was large THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 7 enough to secure a fairly representative average, In other words: the number of times precipitation occurred or cloudiness prevailed was noted when Davenport was located in any one of the desig- nated tracts with reference to the centre of a low area, and also the total number of times the opposite conditions prevailed. From these two figures percentages were obtained showing the comparative frequency of precipitation and cloudiness in each tract. It will be seen that this is only a very simple method of averaging weather conditions for different parts of an area of low pressure. The results can be plotted on a chart. It was found that precipitation is most frequent at Davenport when the station lies in the tract numbered eight, which is on the west side of the central low. It was also found that precipitation is infrequent in the region to the southeast of the centre, decreas- ing very rapidly in that direction from the tract numbered eight. From this distribution of precipitation it is evident that if fore- casts were made on the supposition that precipitation is greatest on the southeast side of the central low, a large percentage of the predictions would announce the stormy weather ahead of time. For it would often happen that the centre of the low would have to move east some two or three hundred miles before it would bring up that tract, where rains and snow are actually most fre- quent. With the aid of some student friends the cyclonic conditions were averaged in a like manner for some more stations, represent- ing four other climatic regions in the United States. It was found expedient to make use of data slightly different from those used in the Davenport cyclone. Thus we combined the observations taken at Amarillo, Dodge City, Wichita, and Oklahoma during the years 1894—1898, obtaining a chart which presumably is charac- teristic for the cyclonic conditions on the southwest plains. Other charts combined into like averages the observations at Helena, Miles City, Leander, and Boise City for 1899; those taken at nine stations in the Upper Missiouri Valley in 1899; and those taken at Detroit and at Buffalo'during the years 1900—1903. io) THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. The precentages of precipitation for the several cyclonic tracts in each of the five locations averaged, are given in Table no. 1, below, and in the same way the precentages of cloudiness are shown in Table no. 2 for the same locations, exepting Davenport. Cloudiness was averaged for this station also, but the figures are not now accessible. The same data are plotted in the accompany ing figures. TABLE NO. 1. Showing percentages of precipitation in five composite cyclones in different parts of the y United States. | Sai " Oe/E22) al zs . 2| |e\8l 3] @ Ss nee e| gles/eel |: 3 a| &e|o3) 2 3) Z| Aalaeleoal =} a 1|26{ 3) 0] 20 | 44 2 | 21 | 14] 17 | 21 |/40 3 | 15 | 20 | 10 | 11 | 40 25 ON aC N | SEIEZO 5|/ 38| 5] 0} 5 | 26 Gi ea ss Pesan 7 Ta OS Ss ea LS 8 | 35 | 5 | 13 | 11 | 26 9 | 17 | 21 | 16 | 15 | 33 10 | 21 | 18 | 20 | 25 11 | 8/19 6 | 20} 18 12| 8/18] 14| 6 | 17 ig OT 2 Oe 2 Te 1s |g eo S| ONS eS Zo) So 16|10| 6| 5] 5 | 34 Ta O Ee 20 | 6 | 25 Ty || Ie? aes ale 19/19 | 6/12! 9] 8 in i Eo ee ee me Gls] 2le Tm ea Gl ae = 230 ea a ea ao Me Ole ie. Zen 2 25|.0| 6|16| 31-0 we ee THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 9 TABLE NO. 2. Showing precentages of cloudiness in four composite cyclones in different parts of the United States. ceo) 2 Se | SE | el ee | Og | 3 | & ° o a Sa ou = i) AG | es| 2 | 2 Sg ey Bes is E28 oS-| 2 @ <5 [sep = Qa 49 48 60 93 57 60 17 93 69 46 66 93 (ve) co (ot) =] is Ne) ite) (oa) 48 tl (ee) Q is 1s) i) for) eal oO is a ~] On wo for) iS J] aS AS 4 bo D Qj On rs D> for) (Ne) XS) ©©| 00! I] G2] or] | ol BO] | Number of tract. for) ive} in On B ite) (JG) pan o oO iw) On B — bo =] te) a = for) (oe) (Je) for) fer) fer) = oO a bo On rms On for) is Ne) J for) He (Ju) (J) (=) (ve) PS (J) SS ao On ay is bo (e.<) (J) for) co ie) on (oe) ft or (oy) oy (oy) a (Ju) (oy) (oe) ee an (or) ip bo i on (Je) for) for) Ye) = =i for) So D> (Je) is ye “] = an co D> rss bo iss) on to} (ore) bw = ite) Oo Ne} is imal oO eB 4 4 to (=) (Jt) lo<) is = (et) ree on (Jt) i) = bo ie) bo a (Wy) w fer) ot wo is) oo Hn on) oO 09 on | bo (eo) (oy) aD rs an (0) for) ie) (=) iw) rs iw) w oo fox) oo Ss on lor) 25 38 49° | 27 50 Although the data used for these different averages are not exactly of the same kind, it is believed that these tables and charts are quite comparable, and that they roughly indicate the cyclonic features which are characteristic for each region. They show clearly that the area of the greatest rain- and snowfall is not in the same position with regard to the centres of low areas in differ- ent climatic regions. In every case it is eccentric and lies to the 10 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. west, northwest, north or northeast, in the cases studied, but in no instance to the southeast. Several features shown in these charts suggest further in- quiries. In the two charts for the semi-arid regions in the south- west and the west, precipitation is most frequent in a crescentic tract on the north side of the central low pressure. To what ex- tent is this characteristic of the cyclones in the west? » In the two charts representing conditions in the region of the northern part of the central plains, the area of the greatest pre- cipitation has a sigmoid shape. Is this a constant feature for the region, and, if so, what is its cause? In the Davenport charts precipitation as well as cloudiness is unexpectedly high in the southernmost tract. Rain and snow are almost as frequent when a iow centres three hundred miles north of Lake Superior, as when it lies at Davenport. A study of the conditions which bring about this unexpected precipitation may throw some new light on cyclonic conditions in the interior. The purpose of this paper is merely to call attention to the method of averaging. It is a truly statistical method which promises a more accurate knowledge of cyclonic conditions than we have had before. Its application will involve a great deal of work. The averages given here pertain orly to the conditions for the morning hour. Ifsimilar averages could be made for an af- ternoon or for an evening hour, for the same places and periods, it is not unlikely that differences would appear. Again, it is to be expected that summer and winter cyclones are unlike, and it is be- lieved that there are differences among the cyclones coming along different paths. If this is true, it ought to be shown in such aver- ages as those presented in the above tables. A study of all regional, seasonal, and other differences by some such accurate method of averaging can hardly fail to add some important items to our knowledge of cyelonic disturbances. It may be used for any of the elements of the weather. Thus, in the charts which follow, the prevailing wind directions are indicated 1 sai THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFTLL. II by arrows, and the relative persistence of the @iven direction is indicated by the relative length of these arrows. Note: In the’ figures numbered 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, the shading represents different percentages of precipitation as follows: Solid black, 40°|,, and above. Crossed parallel lines, 30—39°|, Parallel lines, _20—29°|, Interrupted parallel lines, 10—19°|, No shading, less than 10°|, and in the figures numbered 7, 8, 9 and 10 percentages of cloudiness are indi- cated thus: Parallel lines, 75°|,, and above. Interrupted parallel lines, 50—74°|, No shading, less than 50°|., 12 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUATION OF RAINFALL. Fig. 1. Showing the location of each of the twenty-five tracts as averaged in each cyclonic area. The numbers are those given under the columns “number of tracis” in the preceeding tables. THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 13 Fig. 2. Showing the distribution of precipitation and wind directions in a composite cyclone, based on the 8 A. M. observations taken at Davenport during the years 1893—1897. {4 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. Ss Fig. 3. Showing the distribution of precipitation and wind directions in a composité cyclone, based upon the 8 A. M. observations taken at Amarillo, Dodge City, Wichita and Oklahoma during the years 1894—1898. THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 15 Fig. 4. Showing the distribution of precipitation and wind directions in a composite cyclone, based upon the 8 A. M. observations taken at Helena, Miles City, Leander and Boise City in 1899. 16 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. Pig. 5. Showing the distribution of precipitation and wind direction in a composite cyclone, based upon the 8 A. M. observations taken at all the sta- tions in the Upper Missouri Valley during 1899. THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 17 S Fig. 6. Showing the distribution of precipitation and wind directions in a composite cyclone, based on the 8 A.M. observations taken at Detroit and Buffalo during the years 1900—1903. 18 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. = ‘ Fig. 7. Showing the distribution of cloudiness in a composite cyclone. based on the 8 A. M. observations taken at Amarillo, Dodge City, Wichita and Oklahoma during the years 1894—i89$8. THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 19 Fig. 8. Showing the distribution of cloudiness in a composite cyclone, based on the 8 A. M. observations taken at Helena, Miles City, Leander and Boise City in 1899. 2 20 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. ; « Ie Fig. 9. Showing the distribution of cloudiness in a composite cyclone, based on the 8 A. M. observations taken at all the stations in the Upper Missouri Valley during 1899. THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 21 Fig. 10. Showing the distribution of cloudiness in a composite cyclone, based on the 8 A. M. observations taken at Detroit and Buffalo during the years 1900—1903. Stay Pa od Me eae tare ed ‘na HO Ss myc LNA Ue . 1 a SP RMERBOAI. KUeCUMY ena Meine “AUGUSTANA LIBRARY PUBLICATIONS . NUMBER FIVE . os A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS IN ILLINOIS AND IOWA BY NETTA C. ANDERSON ON THE IN ILLINOIS AND IOWA BY JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK ISLAND, ILL. -ROCK ISLAND, ILL. - PROBOSGIDEAN FOSSILS OP THE PLEISTOCENE, DEPOSITS Bas AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1905 | a ; rete. CT AR BS: ae r aiken td ¢ : aA 5 ; SO MIRE AEA WTA et PVAG RANE ANU EAH e pap ~* AUGUSTANA LIBRARY PUBLICATIONS NUMBER FIVE A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS IN ILLINOIS AND IOWA BY NETTA C. ANDERSON OS Welk, PROBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS IN ILLINOIS AND IOWA BY JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK-ISLAND, ILL. : ROCK ISLAND, ILL. | AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1905. A eR PEIMINARY EIST OF Fossil Mastodon and Mammoth Remains ILLINOIS AND IOWA BY NETTA C. ANDERSON INTRODUCTORY. In submitting the subjoined Preliminary List of Fossil Elephant and Mastodon Remains in Illinois and Iowa, which is believed to be the first of its kind in these states, the compiler does not intend to imply that the list is nearly complete; she is impelled to pub- lish the result of her research, thus far, in the hope that such a list may be of assistance in securing further data along this line. The difficulty in securing reliable information can. be easily appreciated, for compara- tively seldom does the working Geologist see such re- mains in situ, and the museums, their ultimate reposi- tories, appear to keep scant record of the circumstan- ces connected with such finds, their geographieal and geological position, date of their discovery, etc. In presenting this list the compiler would therefore make her humble plea for more complete and more caretully kept data from which the specialist must pro- ceed in determining more nearly the true horizon of these huge Proboscidians. She also wishes to express her gratitude to the State Geologists and Assistants, to Librarians, Curators of different museums, and to numerous private individuals, all of whom have so cheerfully assisted her, and in particular to Dr. J. A. Udden, of Augustana College, does she feel indebted for invaluable assistance and encouragement. Rock Island, Illinois, May, 1905 7 en My: a “Ve ~_~ Y - S) je) ore ; oy ny oe ~ ale at 4 CALHOUN COUNTY. - From the clay (drift clay) in the side of a ravine in Calhoun county, Illinois, we recovered the jaw of an elephant beside which Jumbo would seem small. One of the teeth from this jaw weighs nearly eighteen pounds. - (McAdams, Transactions, St. Louis Academy of Science, Vol. IV, No. 3, Dp. le«iz.) CHRISTIAN COUNTY. Sangamon River.—A tooth of a mammoth was found by Da- vid Miller in a sand drift near the South Fork of the Sangamon river, and was presented to the State Cabinet. This specimen is of a chalky white color and does not appear to have been impreg- nated with any mineral substance since it was imbedded in the earth. (Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. I, p. 38.) COOK COUNTY. Evanston.—The tooth of a mammoth was taken from a gravel pit near Evanston. It was placed in the Museum of North- western University. (Reported by Prof. U. 8S. Grant, Northwestern University.) Glencoe.—A fragment of a mastodon tooth four and three- fourths inches lone was dug up by Mr. James Robertson while ditching in glacial drift at Glencoe. The fragment, which is from the proximal end, is now in the possession of Mr. Walter O'Neill of Lake Forest. (Reported by Prof. James G. Needham, Lake Forest College.) 10 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. DU PAGE COUNTY. About 1875 some mastodon remains were found in a bog about eight miles southwest from Naperville. They were donated to the Museum of Jennings Seminary, Aurora. (Reported by L. M. Umbach, Northwestern College.) Wheaton.—About 1890 the remains of a mammoth were found while ditching on the Jewell farm near Wheaton. The re- mains consisted of about a dozen ribs, as many vertebrae, one femur, and other parts of the legs. (Reported by Pres. Charles A. Blanchard, Wheaton College.) EDGAR COUNTY. The bottoms of the prairie sloughs along the western edge oi Edgar county generally contain more or less light brown marly clay containing fresh water shells. From one of these slough bot- toms a nearly perfect skeleton of a mastodon was obtained some years since, which, after having been exhibited through all this part of the United States, is said to have been sold to a Philadel- phia museum. Fragments of this animal are not rare hereabouts. (Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. IV, p. 216.) FULTON COUNTY. The Museum of Knox College contains the tooth of an ele- phant which was found in Fulton county. This specimen, which is much decayed, was found near the surface of the ground. (Reported by Albert Hurd, Curator of Museum, Knox College.) GALLATIN COUNTY. Equality.—“Hali Moon”’—Many mammoth and mastodon bones and enamel plates of teeth, the less enduring parts of the latter mouldered into dust, have been found here. Half Moon is | See aminabedisoluisal CStONC sere tetera sees ee eee ne Reece eee eee ne eee 1% 14) ‘Coalyishales cei ee ee RSS REN ne eet cae 1% Se Samdiyafinerclaiysesceeste- and fine sands of yellow color. These gravels and sands are prob- ably not very extensive, but they are clearly the cause of the springs, which result from a slow seepage of water retained and stored in the porous sand. Material unlike this, but of nearly the same age, forms a verti- cal bluff on the east side of a creek known as Agua de Fuera at a point a mile and a half northeast of Spofford. It rests on clay and stony ledges of the Austin chalk. Below it consist of a con- IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 85 glomerate of rounded limestone pebbles. Above this there are several heavy ledges of a white laminated and hard calcareous tufa, from ten to twenty feet thick. This tufa must underlie the land for more than a mile to the south, for it is exposed in the sides of the cut along the Southern Pacific railroad from a half to one mile east of Spofford. Itisarather pure carbonate of lime and with the Cretaceous clay that underlies, it could be used in the manufacture of good Portland cement. A suitable site for a mill could be found next the road and no carting would be needed. Both the limestone and the clay would be right at hand. This same stony tufa was also seen in the south bank of a creek near the north line of survey 27 in block 9, south of the Anacacho mountains. ALLUVIUM AND SOIL. Excepting the land where the Cretaceous limestones form the bed-rock, and in a few other places, as in the Anacacho mountains, where the weathering rocks are resistant, all streams have wide valleys with well developed flood plains. These are built up from a loamy alluvium, which has developed deep and rich black soil. In many places these valleys may be said to be in a measure sub- irrigated, for as the surface is desiccated under the summer sun, capillary moisture ascends from the more humid alluvium below. The supply is sufficient for a luxuriant vegetation of mesquite, pear, grass and various shrubbery. It seems to me that much, if not all of these alluvial lands, will in time have a greater value as cultivated land, than as pasture land. With a rainfall averaging twenty inches a year and with thorough cultivation, the soil ought to be very productive. The quality of the soil is such that it might even in time warrant the construction oftanks, or reservoirs, for purposes of irrigation. I believe that the time will come when this will be tried on some of these lands. It isclear that all of the Company’s lands east of Del Rio have been selected for the excellence of the soil for pasture vegetation. Thesurveysevery- where follow those tracts where clays and marls form bedrock and subsoil. Thisis most notably the case north and west of Fort Clark, where the surveys follow the outcrop of the Del Rio clay, from Del Rio to within a short distance of the Nueces river. One circumstance which increases the fertility of the soil south of the belt of the Austin chalk is the presence in the Cretaceous Library Publications, 6. 86 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS marls and sandstones of small grains of glauconite. This isa phosphatic mineral, which has been worked extensively for the market in beds of the same age on the Atlantic coast and used as a fertilizer. In the upper part of the Austin chalk formation, in the Upson clay, and in the San Miguel beds, this mineralis present in small grains as an original ingredient, which is continually yielded to the soil forming on the surface. IGNEOUS ROCKS. During the tertiary age, while the Upper Cretaceous strata extended uninterrupted far to the north and before the land had been elevated to its present level, some volcanic disturbances re- sulted in the injection of what must have been extensive sheets of basaltic rock, chiefly among the strata of the Eagle Ford beds. At least two or three thousand feet of sediments have since that time been removed by erosion from the country north of Eagle Pass, and the land has been cut down to a level mostly below the in- truded rock, in the country north of the main line of the Southern Pacific railroad. It seems probable that there was only one sheet originally injected. This may have extended as one continuous body from east of Turkey mountain to west of Pinto mountain. But the greater part of this sheet has been cut away with the formations in which it lay, and at the present time we find only a few small remnants of the original intrusive. These remnants are left on account of their effective resistance to weathering and erosion, and we find them capping the highest points in the region. They are the dark rocks found on seven peaks which rise as pro- minent landmarks on the uplands around Fort Clark: Turkey mountaiz, Elm mountain, Las Moras mountain, Pintomountain, Little Pinto mountain, Palmer hill, and another low hill two miles north of Las Moras mountain. The rock is alike in all of these places. It is a dark basalt, composed chiefly of plagioclase feldspar, olivine, augite, and magnetite. It usually has a somewhat porphyritic structure, but varies considerably as to coarsness of texture. In some cases the crystals are readily visible to the unaided eye, while at other points the rock appears compact and the crystals are microscopic. Everywhere the rock is fresh. It has undergone practically no change from its original condition. This makes IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 87 it certain that no mineral deposits of any consequence will be found associated with it in these localities. It is probable that the intrusives come from the Uvalde country on the east. In that region similar rocks have a much greater development and the fissures through which the molten masses rose, are no doubt to be. found in that direction. This hypothesis would also account for a westward thinning which is evident in the remnants of the flow found in Kinney county. The measurements taken are given in the following table. TABLE SHOWING APPROXIMATE THICKNESS OF THE IGNEOUS Rocks IN KINNEY CouNTY. Thickness in feet. SMunkeyein O UML Dies cae ccoseer sae ve mees cee et ee eat vows eae eetec aces uswesese weer 200 Elm mountain MastMorasim OUNtAII- rrecccstes coco scce se oct re nonce cecuek eeteee nce Seas enecne wees 90 Ect wiommilesmonrnthvotluaseMOrasteccsceesesescesectasesce cesses senectetees 70 MittlewPin Comm Ownbaln ser-sccsesassssesce soe ctec cose coseoeteaceeccamecencsencnees 15 Pin FOeM OUN GAIN bese asececces eerste ose aicees eee ane arene scuae ee aaae ts 30 Jerr Voss O41) heats oe esos poceeeSadociodaccaccne aaa coe cRochoaedder eta mt pcoenn 30? In all probability other exposures of this intrusive are found at some points to the south and west of Palmer hill, for small boulders of it are present in the land drift between Fort Clark and Spofford. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE. In its great features the structure of this whole region is quite simple, as will be apparent from the facts already presented. There is a general slow descent of the formations to the southeast. In the distance of a hundred miles, from Del Rio down the Rio Grande, 3872 feet of stratified rocks go under the river. The descent of the river itself in this distance amounts to nearly 200 feet, and thus the dip averages some forty feet to the mile. The whole region must be regarded as a single structural unit, a wide and low monocline tilted to the southeast. This mo- nocline is however itself affected by minor flexures and by some small faults. Thus we find a rather abrupt reversal of the gener- al southward dip in Devils river about one mile north of the bridge of the Southern Pacific railroad. At this place there is a small anticlinal fold with its axis extending from east to west for several miles. To the north of this axis the ledges of the Devil’s 8s 4 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS river limestone dip northward for a few hundred yards. descend- ing as much as fifty feet, before again resuming their slow climb in that direction. Another fold of about the same size and direction was noted two miles north of Del Rio. This latter fold extends several miles to the east,so that the dip at several points east of Del Rio is to the north even as far out as near therailroad bridge over,Sycamore creek. Between Pinto creek and Las Moras creek the ledges of the Austin chalk are at several points ina horizontal position and in a few cases they dip north. On Tequesquite creek, irom one to three miles above its mouth, there are several abrupt small folds and some small faults. One of these faults crosses the creek about a hundred and fifty yards above the main wagon road following the river. The downthrow oi this fault is to the north and amounts to about seventy feet. The trend of the fault is some five degrees north of east. About the same distance below the road there is a small, short, and abrupt monoclinal fold with dip to southwest and a down- throw of only ten feet. In following up Las Moras creek from the same road a reversal of the south dip was noted for a half mile on the Samuel Blair survey. Several irregularities of this kind were also noted on the lands north of the Anacacho mountain. THE LAMPASITAS ARCH. Ii we project a straight line from the centre of Survey 97 in the Lampasitas pasture in block 6, due north, or a little west of north, we find that this traverses a region where dips are very gentle and more often to the south than to the southeast. In the east part of the Paula pasture, in the Lampasitas, and in the Sauz pastures, dip is either absent, the ledges lying horizont- al or with a slight tilting to the south, or there is a noticeable dip to the west or southwest. Only at a few points is the dip normal to the general structure, to the southeast. Thus the horizontal position was noted in the following places: 1. S%, survey 251, block 7. EX, survey 20. block 6. Survey 18, block 6. Survey 19. block 6. Sw survey 22, block 6. Sw survey 23, block 6. EX, survey 24, block 6. ww bo D ot IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 89 7. NY, survey BS & F survey 65. 8. S%, Miles Bonnet 74 survey. 9. South end Guadaloupe de los Santos survey. 10. W. Owen’s survey. 11. Centre, Survey 56, block 6. 12. Sw, survey 57, block 6. 13. Centre, survey 58, block 6. 14. Nw, survey 103, block 6. 15. W4, survey 119, block 6. 16. N%, survey 93, block 6. 17. S% survey 47, block 6. Dips to the west, northwest, or to the southwest were noted as follows: Nw, survey 225, block 7. Se, survey 18, block 6. Near S. line, survey 22, block 6. Near N. line. Serena Goodman suryey. W. line, Thomas Weeks survey (on Rio Grande). E. %, survey 12, W. of Anton Handauer survey. ao or oo to It is clear that from the north end of this area of variable dip there is a general descent of the beds to the south, probably equal to some 30 feet to the mile. But there are minor folds which frequently reverse this dip. The frequency of the horizontal atti- tude on the west side of the stated line and no less the occasional tilting to the west, clearly show that the strata are affected by a flexure, which has the form of an arch whose crest extends in a north and south direction. But owing to the general inclination of the terranes to the southeast, the west limb of this arch is slightly more raised in its position, as compared to the east limb (see plate 3), : The presence of the arch is clearly shown at its northern extension in the southward detours made by lines indicating the north limits to the three members of the Eagle Pass formation. It also appears from these curves that the arch is more narrow and pinched at its north end and wider and perhaps not as high or as well defined at its south end. South of Mula creek, in the Sauz pasture, it is lost in a general dip to the southeast which again becomes the ruling structure. The highest dips referable to this arch were seen on its east side as far north as the Salado tank in the Salado pasture. Near the old Salado tank there is an eastward dip of some five or six degrees and at a point south- 90 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS east of Chilpotin tank a dip to the east-northeast measures seven degrees. MINOR FOLDS. There is a minor class of structures which are frequent in the country covered by the Eagle Pass formation. These consist of abrupt and small folds where the more indurated members, such as the sandstones, limestones: and shell breccias assume a high inclination for a short distance and appear with their edges on the surface of the ground as low and straight hog-backs. The indurated member is sometimes unbroken and the fold is seen asa well marked crest, with the rock changing its dip along the crest. But at other times only one side of the fold is seen. In the latter case these folds probably are to be regarded as small overthrusts. These folds are due to lateral pressure. The more plastic clays have yielded to this pressure by shortening in the direction the pressure has been applied, while the indurated and rigid ledges imbedded in the clays have been fractured and folded. The direc- tion of the force was northwest and southeast, for the prevailing trend of the folds are from southwest to northeast. A list of the more important places where these structures were noted is as below: 1. NE, survey 20, block 6. Trend N. 25° EH. 2. Near centre, survey 22, block 6. Trend N. 45° E. 3. SEY, survey 18, block 6. Trend E NE. 4. South of centre, survey 98, block 6, Trend N—S. 5. 4% mi. WNW of SE corner, survey 100, block 6. Trend N 68° E. "6. NW of centre of survey 98, block 6. Trend NE—SW. 7. Near centre survey 116, block 6. Trend N. 48° EB. ECONOMIC FEATURES. ARTESIAN WATER. Water in the Cretaceous Rocks. In describing the Devils river limestone reference was made to the fact that there are two water-bearing horizons in this limestone, one about a hundred feet below its upper surface and the other some two hundred feet below this level. There is no doubt that the large springs north of the Southern Pacific rail- IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 91 road come from these water-bearing strata. The San Pedro springs at Del Rio have a head of some 930 feet above the sea and the head of the other springs ranges up to 1075 feet above the sea. Ii the waterbearing strata can be tapped at points where the level of the ground is below these heads, the water will flow. This is the simple principle of all Artesian basins. The question of such water supply in this case is a question of depth to the water-bearing stratum, a question of elevation of the land surface, and of probable height of the head. The head of these waters is not likely to be much lower than the head of their lowest known outlet at Del Rio. Farther to the east it must vary somewhat with the known heights of the natu- ral flows in that direction. For the lands south of the Southern Pacific railroad we must infer that the head of the obtainable flow will range between the two figures given. Comparing these eleva- tions with the elevation of the land, I find that nearly all of the land east of Canyon Grande west of Hagle Pass railroad and south of the Imperialist pasture, must be lower than 930 feet. The alluvial bottoms in the two Imperialist pasture must also fall below this elevation in their south halves. On these lands the water can be expected to flow. The question of depth is answered by the measurement already given of the several formations that have been described. If a well were made on the bottom along Canon Chiquito on survey 62, in block 4, the formations to be penetrated would be the following: Thickness in feet. WipS ODS Cl ayes ivives sce sseeecons cameras ov acc taseees so voscesc cen coesastecnresasevseees PSUS bin) Ch all Kees See tn aatsecten stevens cnsac-eeasreerse teres cddsinee oc snesbars Eagle Ford rock Buda limestone DelsRi) Gl aye sec. ciise ss vetscisassossucececsctviskacs/sescecetesceesesnesaveesssane ne 100—200 MevilisiRiverslimestOner secescsccasseescotsecceesce een tee rseec cee ccrectpeontece sucess 300 TO Gels a ates Sooke cance evancesesiesaven saedeucss sex ooous Wovens sentesondsuestedceboscss 1925 While absolute accuracy cannot be claimed for these figures the error is not believed to exceed 300 feet either way, and at most the main water-bearing rock cannot lie deeper than 2200 feet. For other points the same rock will be found to rise north- ward and to go down to the south at the rate of about 50 feet to the mile. 92 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS On the bottoms in the east part of Snow Tank pasture the conditions for a flow is even more favorable, owing to the lesser elevation of theland, which isin some places below the 900 feet level, and also on account of the almost certain rise of the head in this direction, the head of the Brackett springs being 1075 feet. But the depth would probably be more than 1925 feet. It cannot be estimated with quite as great certainty as for the country to the west, owing to an absence of sufficient opportunity of noting the dips in this eastern region, outcrops being few. But the addi- tional depth of the drilling necessary to reach the water would not be likely to exceed 400 feet. To the east of the Chacon the depth would be still greater. {t remains to be added that there are fair chances for securing flows of this water in the lower bottoms of Cow creek and Pinto creek on the Company’s lands, if this should be desirable. On Pinto creek the depth to the water would be about 1200 feet and on Cow creek it would be about 1500 feet. Water from the Tertiary Rocks. The artesian water which flows in the basin of Camanche, Live Oak, and Turkey creek and in the valley of the Nueces river, comes from the sands in the tertiary system. The intake area of these water-bearing sands lies between Carizzo Springs and the Anacacho mountains. In this region the water. bearing strata come up to the surface and form a sandy rolling belt of land, as in the Chaparrosa pasture, in the west part of Palo Blanco past- ure and in the Turkey creek pasture. As in other Artesian basins it has been noted here also that the deepest lying sands have the highest head af flow. This is because their intake area lies farther north and higher up, than that of the upper sands. In the absence of definite data on the elevation of the lands in this basin, the extent of the available flow can be inferred only from the distribution of the wells now in existence. For this pur- pose a list was secured which gives the name of the owners of wells with some data on the depth of the wells, their flow, etc. The list does not give the location of all the wells, and it is defective in other respects, but it is given for what it is worth, asthe best that could be secured at the time. IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. List of ARTESIAN WELLS NEAR CARIZz0 SPRINGS. 93 Owner’s name. Location. No. of | Diameter Depth Flow in gallons wells. | in inches, (Average). per hour. A. Richardson, Survey 50, bl. 1, | G.N. R.R. 10 7 600 120,000 T. A. Coleman, 2 6 500 30,000 I. M. Shaw, 3 5 3/16 | 450 to 850 45,000 G. White, 1 5 3,19 400 18,000 Schimmelpfenning BROS ee ae etna hl Meestrneet esas coetee ees s 2 6 350 2,000 Dr Decker, RR Survey 55 1 8 537 40,000 C. J. Pollard, DIN ROMRMRA survey 3, bl. 3. 1 10 650 20,000 by. J. Arnold, Survey 55, Peron AS AN, 18 TR. 1 8 500 16,000 Wm. Knight, Survey 3, bl. #. We ke Ne Oa IRs 1, 2 8 625 32,000 Dr. Hughes, Survey 4, tT & N. O-: R. R. il 5 500 50,000 Patterson a el ieee eee Z 7 625 40,000 A. Eardly, J.T. Camble survey il 12 735 72,000 Shaw & Berry, 2 5% 650 40,000 J. W. Campbell, 1 596 680 40,000 J. C. Owen, 1 5 3/16 630 14,000 Burnet, 1 5% 525 16,000 Parmlee, 1 5% 450 16,000 Moehrig, 2 6 500 30,000 Foster, 2 5% 500 32,000 Smith, 1 5% 500 16,000 Rector. 1 5% 500 20,000 Skivington, 1 5 3.16 500 14,000 Thorpe, 3 5 3/16 400 | 30,000 Thorpe, (new well)... 1 8 411 20,000 Jefirey, 1 SSG 364 14,000 J. White, 1 5% 500 20,000 M. J. Denman, 4 5% 450 72,000 Kendall, 2 4 500 36,000 McCaleb, 2 5 600 40,000 Lavin, 1 4y 850 200 Cragg, 1 5 3/16 500 15,000 J.S. Taylor, 1 5 3/16 816 60,000 Shipp, il 5 3/16 400 | 18,000 Moore, 1 Sua 526 20,000 Pratt & Hayes, 1 8 .900 50,000 Asher Richardson,|in Moro valley, | [es eeeseeeeesec[esceeeesceeeeceece | 50,000 94 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS The head of the waters in this basin will no dobt be found to vary at different points to some extent. Such variations are not unknown in regions with a more regular geological structure than this basin. The deepest water can be expected to exhibit the least variations in this respect. A well which was recently made at a point about three miles west of the “Cross 8” ranch by Mr. Archi- bald gives us an approximate measure of the height of the head of this lowest water. Four measurements by the aneroid baro- meter inake the elevation of the curb of this well 54 feet above low water of the Nueces river at the ranch. The elevation of the Nueces low water at this point is estimated at 667 feet above the sea level. The curb of the well is therefore about 721 feet above the sea. The water is said to rise ten feet above the curb, and its head must be near 730 feet. At present the well istapped through a ditch fifteen feet below the curb. All the lowlands belonging to the Company in the northwest part of Webb county are below this level and there is good reason , for believing that flowing wells may be made by sinking wells into the lowest tertiary sands under these lands. An estimate of the thickness of the tertiary beds on the Rio Grande on these lands indicates not less than 1,000 feet and not more than 1,500. This thickness would have to be penetrated in order to make a fair test. Waste of Flowing Water. The unrestricted waste of water in the Carizzo Springs’ basin will soon be a matter of concern to land owners north and west of the wells as well as to owners of land irrigable by this water. As has been indicated already, the intake area of this water is on the sandy lands between Chacon creek and Turkey creek south of the Anacacho mountains, extending about as far south as to Wilderness lake. With such a limited intake area a too liberal draught on the supply will certainly reduce the head, and not only will the wells with the lowest pressure cease flowing, but the underground water level in the intake area will sink and with this must follow a general scarcity of water in shallow wells and in tanks dependent on surface supply in this region. For witha lowering oi the level of the ground moisture the water which supplies the vegetation, the tanks and natural water holes, will be less, and the general seepage downward will be more rapid. IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 95 A riliable well man, who has had the best opportunities to keep informed on the yield of the wells in the Carizzo Springs basin, gives the information that the head of most of the wells has been reduced, and he estimates that on an average the head has gone down twenty five feet since the flow was first tapped, Whether there is a perceptible increase of droughty conditions in the Cha- parrosa, Palo Blanco, and Gato Creek pastures is not known, but it is to be expected that a greater part of the rainfall on these lands will be lost to the surface and to the vegetation, and will more rapidly than before sink to replenish the lowered head of the ground water tapped by the Carizzo Springs wells. At the present time wells are permitted to flow to waste without restriction. Economic considerations suggest prompt ligislation to prevent this senseless waste. It will necessarily reduce the area of irrigable lands. It is clear that the loss will first affect those lands that lie toward the periphery of the basin. GAS AND OIL. The inquiry regarding the probable quantity of natural gas in the country southeast of Eagle Pass resolves itself to a ques- tion of geologic structure. The history of the well made some years ago shows that gas was present under high pressure, and the only doubt there can be as to the existence of commercial quantities is as to the size of the reservoir which was then tapped. To estimate this factor the structure of the formations was made out in as much detail as was possible. The results of this study have been given in the description oi the structure. Natural gas occurs in folds where clay or shale or other im- pervious strata form what we may call inverted troughs, or anti- clines that prevent the accumulated gas from escaping upward. A few instances have also been known where gas has accumulated _against a shoulder on an inclined stratum of impervious cover, a so called arrested monocline. In every case the gas is held in some porous rock. In the wells made on section 116 in block 6 the gas was found in a sandstone that measured 57 feet in thickness. The whole section of the well as given to me by Mr. W. L. Evans, is as below. SECTION OF THE GAS WELL ON Survey 116, Buock 6. Thickness - in feet. PX. MGI ONE AOE 7 caccseccbedeoctecas bade nsacda canon ca soteccen con eRUacedonbaaasas900 10 25 MENG TOT OC Rael wavect oso ce encodes a cataea nessa ae cet ad we robe eR a aca ees oeeeeeaee 4 96 : A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS 242 BBlune\ clay, andisoapstOne ras .cccrstecseecccee rete eeeses eee eee 166 23) i Coarse wihite; SADC mrs-nc- siocccseocae erste cacsscaaitennccs ns seseaeeee ear 10 DIS BB LUC CLAY ieesn cnt csccece see cescac ces ee-scncceons «stccnssaatceter oc ca tstseneanenase see 10 21. Common sand with some salt WateT...........-..ccc0..ccceceeeeeeseees 10 20. Blue clay 19)Brownbisan diy \Clajiy t-te cas ceasesoece ore ee eee ee 3 185 Wihitersandandiishell siscees- oo coe sce c ceo eee eee eee eee ee 6 17. Fine sand and white clay, the sand yielding some salt water, some gas and some oil TU Syoeia 1B I RGIS OTE an adoner coker dancecn saa sasanto ase scodcOsadn inccoaes 14. Brow sandy: clays ssc: coc seioo sie se ace seseccactcceteeitescestsettteceons oe 13. Fine hard sand 12. Blue sandy clay.............. fil Hard anocks ses. Geedeyeeee sae ae 10s Bluetclayzand shard Ockse-ess.ssssee ce cecccoessese iat eeaceen cate se cee nae 10 OP Blte relay cance sesceesserse= ae se ece ne ctesicton te watoneaieevest eres caaee ne ere see 296 beard noc kee seevccectent woe fence setiee so avasuvssoueaecesussasad teins 7. Coarse brown sand with pronounced odor of oil... 5 Gs) Blue | Clary nos 2.cec. secs s ee sscces) Gecusececececers ou ccuciectte ote dees ouesownonea eae 5. Brown coarse sand with some oil and heavy pressure of gas spouting 60—80 feet 57 4 (Bluetelaiyys---- a haa INDEX. ‘Nepal, | (EMM INGE se sgocaoadcodénangseo|D 21 Agardh, Jacob Georg oA) PAL, BS Mb Keo oabooaoadoooontoabHObHOObOS 85 Almquist, Ernst Bernhard, ........ covdosdo! 8 Anacacho limestone, ..-......seceeeeeecee 71 Anderson, Alexander Pierce, .............. 43 Andersons UNUS) OMAN ernie llelelersi= ene « sievelolels 25 AT CULCHMATNEDLCH tercncisielsiclcdeicicre baci 14, 22, 26, 46 AMID, obooddosdouounwaovoogudDobuORODO 41 ARIGTEM JONG og 5ocdad0o0s09000b0000b0000 92 /NAGBIN WAP ooganancpodsubo0e0dKd0 90, 102 Ameren Wels ooooncs0d0nncocnoocoKaacKR 93 FAS phalltieteitei-lsietsieiet 59, 71, 96, 103 Aven GAM Soogdodeganacanesoacdaasogsa 66 TAG bo pogo ac oncoodcoHpoubOoUGODSCaoE 79 BHI ooooadnooooocooorodagocgenNoooNne 86 Bhs GMA aoocogncopoocpneunoddoon 101, 103 pplameEM IRS oarooscgoqdobosouoGK0NDK 8 Benzon, Peder Eggert, .............+0005 23 IE, Chil Come oooogodudoo9005DbGCK00 34 rsa, SWE oosadbosocqoocsuacoodaNoN 27 Berlin, Johan August, .............:-..-. 3 IBA, soocaoouaeoeoonpuctegenKS 59, 65, 66 Bjorling, Johan Alfred, ................0. 46 Boldt, Johan Georg Robert,.............. 33 Borgesen, Frederik Christian Emil,........ 409 jks, Ika, soococdundcogDdOoDoDHODON 3 (Chile; co aooocoabcusgo po RDO ooODUOUALEDS 58 ORMAGE, susnocadosooognobonoonUes 10, 25, 38 (Chilton, ocooovooggon ns oboonOdDoOOUOS 41, 42 (Chinon emi, sooocandacoduadooneaan 20 Carizzo Springs, Caves, Ohi, sooovanoadcoooboDsooCoUcuoODODDOO Central America, (HMR, oegodoaocogodoogD OOo aOKdDODONNIND Christensen, Carl, Cleve, Per Teodor, Gb, obbiaoosncccbodobooDde™ Coal series Colorado Conspectus Flore Grenlandice............. 31 Cretaceous rocks ...... Cretaceous sediments Dahlstedt, Hugo Gustaf Adolf, IDA, GooccobagsogonoooponcodgDnaNEENDD 42 Deichmann—Branth, Jacob Severin,......... 3 Del Rio Clay, 60 Devail’s) river! limestone. circ i-lel-tete late elele eri 56 INEM, Scand codboUKnODHdoscooevOUSEUOOS 33 DHS GaocoondovndcooondourarococoobddDad 88 Distribution of coal series,................ 75 Distribution of the Del Rio clay,.......... 61 Distribution of the Devyil’s river limestone... 59 Distribution of the Upson clay............ 68 DYE, TtmIbe, GonodnndoaocucanocgoconnoaDG 44 Drejer, Salomon Thomas Nicolai,. coca Mi Die, WEY sosdéoccocas -.68, 72 IDEN, THIS copécccaccdococs th Hagle Word beds, ...........- . 64 Hagle Pass coal, ............ 5 0) Hagle Pass formation, ........ 5 2) Eberlin, PB. wee eee eee ee eee 29 WOME TEA Googonacecooadoodcoss 90 Economic featurés of the Buda limestone,.. 64 INShHOVHY INK, SocogdoopooeuoqoeodunadouuN 42 Wdwards limestone -. 0-6-2... eee , Tela; EIN “GhapeaoumosonecoucadoonuoUe 9 HEC, LPAI, Gooodcogeocbaboodcnoauouase 9 Eggers, Baron Henrik Frans Alexander...... 34 Tnsan, “EWE GME Sooooodobandanoce IDiken TOUTE, Gogocopgodomondduoesaagden IDikaeney, Chom, oooococogaccocucos0n0NG Hnelenianih eriod eery ati ttl tliat eisirsteihs nfyepoyerelixaloy, Tosh Gondodsaocaccasenocoade Euphrasen, Bengt Anders Exogyra arietina, ........- Bxogyra costata ...........-. IDPOP AMD, OMG, aceooagncneocnoconcuces IDPGolloM AMC, ThA WHAM oSoccnsoocaceeanccna Ino, SERN Sonoococascacanecccds Inti, copeoocdoonn Dao UDOoOSaaeansONENE Dioysberenl, diwilkies; Iahplbwe, soeabacoeacaoes 43 Flora Boreali-Americana, ................. 24 IMO, WERNER, oogcdoaneduacounbn 14, 19, 37, 43 Flora Indie Occidentalis, ................ 17 INOnE OF WAMPN M50 ocogndoccoougvecsteoEon g Hlorawok (North) Americas sjspcjercieles eles INGIGER Siosooodppooannpadceaoudodanba puss Intnl; they Cosobopocooubn oS bUCoOOaOs Tries, Elias Magnus, ...... Fries, Theodor Magnus, IMA CoM Goodaossocud Fylla Expedition, ......... CHM, coopoonotecaogones CAS; atueadonoce Gas well, Gelert, O., 106 Cem, kM soscog000Gcc000000700000 24 Genera Plantarum secundum ordines naturales GHAI, sooogoodaacon;abedaesan0Ca000 (Geodestmrerreliienieineriete Geological structure Georgetown limestone ..... Geschichte der Botanik, Glauconite, ........... Goes, Axel Theodor, Graah, Wilhelm August Greenland ere rtletiekerrrerers .-14, 22, 26, Grénlund, Carl Christian Howitz ........ 31 Gustavus Adolphus College,............... 40 GhAgsthn, Gacoodoos.AbcnodoBda0UDDDDRO9009 60 Hansen, Carl Olay Ernst, ................- 49 Hartz, Nikolaj Eg Kruse ................ 30 lee Ay FOE oooncsododeo0n Heller, A. A. Isigweinne Sdodcc00000 VOD OLIN Carlee etertieretercieteleteletstetelelsietefel-tel-lei= 14 Holm, Gustav Mrederick ..........-....-«- 29 Holm, Herman Theodor,...............- 40, 30 BOMkedbn IEMs, sooccondodc0dooaDsoECON 24 Hombecks Hans) BaltZeriyeyetlete -leloisioyel-foie slo ste 24 Hornemann, Jens Wilken .................. 8} IEhAN EMO saooonocosgaccdg000GG00HS 21 IGG) cooosodepoooDnDOODOGODOUOONO 40, 41, 42 TEMAS WOKS Gocoodsoovods000Ss004900000 86 ikGriy awl Ihe, SoosaodoooodKKdo00OKS 20 IWGkiGs MOM, soosacsconscg0c 900000008000 31 Jensen, Jens Arnold Diderich,.............. 29 Jussieuan Period, o dfs Ik@iln, THeR, Ges odooosagscdDUdUoOD040G000 10 Wandberg) Nols) Conrad) oeyey- =) -)-telelelet-)eeler= -t=t= 38 Kjellman, Frans Reinold, Knutson, N. Kornerup, Andreas Nikolaus, - 28 Krebs, Henrik Johannes,.................- 34 Kae, OMARnEM, osooadcgdac00a00n0G00000 46 Kumlien, Thure Ludvig Theodor,......... a} BY Lagerheim, Nils Gustaf,............-.--.+% 35 liphpASies) Ad, GobooddcesH50d0000000 88, 98 Lange, Johan Martin Christian,........... 30 Las Moras Mountain,........... Lassen, Holger Jérgen, Leiberg, John B., ........... Liebman, Frederik Michael, IEE, oocododadcocanucdG0G09000006 83, 102 Lindberg, Sextus Otto, ................... 26 IbiXeROd, Aen Ie odogdodcddodaunobD08 39 Linnean Period ...... 9 ite CHRO GoddodadoodsecseoonooDeS 13 itsts, Chill Who odccsancpoopa0seobos00000 16 MittlesePintommountain serie ritlietplettstlelteleter 87 WN As dS cgscoddodedoddocousdoagbanod 45 ithe INEGE hE Soabdoopoasodds000050n00 42 Lyngbye, Hans Christian, ................ 22 Mac Doug alle SMH, wietetetnteletalafatelslar-falayelclatsi= fete 40 NDI > Goo capggdocddooDD0OndmoOgbDOGS 60 Medican Period, INDEX. WIS, SooagDdsntda0o0cDdOs FADD wOKGS Minerals in Del Rio clay,......... Minerals in Devil’s river limestone. Min OG antiClinessrelsiateletelstelelstelelelel=[=talstelstaie lols Whyte, Goodosaondns00bbBoangas000o inh, Gwe coososcod0adnoobADoboDoOdODS Nathhorst, Alfred Gabriel, ...............+ MEIN, ASN, sososounsedosconeanosgosos Wao, LAS coscédooodsosco000d 3 NEGA, SocoabbcocsosobouDDDNsOmOO ERIN New York Botanical Garden............... Nodosaria texana, ........ pone orad Nordenskjéld expedition, ................. 3 Nordstedt, Carl Fredrik Otto, .......... 28, 35 Moydaein, Ohi, Coosopca5docaG0ODanODDUF 26 Mhpbmvlse, \Wailllkeyen, Soasocsssbocancacse0ns 35 Oder, Georg Christian, .................. if) Onl Goondoodd0oud0090 +.-»-66, 95, 98, 99, 102 Okixemn, @5 Ik, cocanbbosocsbo00g200825005 46 Olson-Seffer, Pehr Hialmar, 45, 49 Olmos creek coal, gopg2G0ans50 76 Orsted, Anders Sandée,............. By CHL Ostenfeld, Carl Emil Hansen,............ 47, 49 Ostreacontexsmeetmieiinieiisteietal-teisietseteserets 80, 81 Ostreagen dricnsisseeterieletetetcieetetstaiet ete eee 81 Ostreawil anvasieetelei eel eit teeter ere rats 65 Outcrops of “Austin chalk,.............. 5 ON Outcrops of Buda limestone,........... . 63 Outcrops of Eagle Ford beds,........... . 65 REO HOES, 5 55500Gd09nd 00000060 = 96; Palmer: sHaMe ee eielovs civeste reo aoe nie G. tals Paulsen, Ove Vilhelm,....-......-.-. 49 (Peterson; MC. ation = meine eels 29 InetroleumWa eee Meee ocr re 98 Phy sallis; PP etbretecd-y- cietertetotac sito ee Caer 42 Physical properties of the Upson clay,..... 68 Rintommounpainswe-eemeeieeneeiceicrmcr ence 87 Pleistocenemdeposits;uyaeieiesiisisieicieieisieicieeeee 84 Parsild, Morten Pederson,...............-- 46 Rotentilless Me eireinieteyieciccimci chee eee 43 uddlingyiclayne-rvctereieietiieeeieeeeiee 61,103 Piulliamestormation eee eee cee eee eee 81 QWeitiiD § GoodoboobooasDpoGoOGKadUN ODDO UDO 59 Rabentcountiye. -icrsrelrecieieceicieiionicte eee 22 Ravn, Peter, Rediiclary ss) jatsiecsverctaevetarcicteleisiotsioei tee eee Retzius, Anders Johan, Ruse, Albert Heinrich, Rink, Henrik Johannes, Rocky mountain Flora, Rohr, Julius Philip Benjamin vyon,. RosendahlyuCarl cOtto;wrey-kiere eee eee Rosenvinge, Janus Louritz Andreas Kolderup, 31 Rostrup, Fredrik George Emil,............ 31 RotthollaChristenwhiriishieerneerereeeeetee 15 ich Olu haa abocnosoproooondaaoouucacooS 18 Ry dberes Per Axelseeeeeeeeiee eerie 42 Invelse, (bl lkMingis Goacsasouacenuouseds 29 Saltpeter) waccjeice mosrcesfoveradcaess eter cie aie raletere 100, 103 INDEX. Sandbere, John H. ............+.-.-.-.-. 40 TE ANROa, INES Go oocecoonceocounbegnEDS 45 Sandmark, Carl Gustaf, 15 Moroiyaqniye IVE chooconocosogeracaqne 8 San Miguel beds, .......... 72 MINK eC ye OUNCES ele slala|elalcdelei=loke|«relelelefolel=lsie 87 San Pedro creek, ....... 56 Wralsery GL NS, cocnobdanncdepicgouoenddUnS 5, 42 Scandinavian Americans, .....:....-.+---- 39 Whoieel MEE, Soo dodsucodouongu0KN6 10, 25, 38 Selanexelia; Wie; Wi} ode noshwosdouvbvcKuooKUNDD 26 United States Dept, of Agriculture....... 40, 42 Samoans OF Gor; sassaksoubaoonndaqods THs Ate Wrochiby (folly Cocecubnedoucccdcn ~ 42 Simmons, Herman Georg, ..........+++++: 47 yoo, CEN, Godcuonsodsacce - 68 Rill, covoconascsnuocudodD REIN, sagaocoseocancdoo00 42 Solander, Daniel Carl, Vahl, Jens Lorenz Mustue,..........-++.++- 22 Sphenodiscus pleurisepta, Wan, ibid, copsdavonneocoocecandtoneane 19 Sia, Codoudtcoosdougbandeaoodcuanoded Wael, 1 Wig eadstsooccododcascopeaes 73 Steenstrup, Knud Johan Vogelius,.......... 28 WOGERMe ROU; socosenoudonconno0n0 Ar SWHGRRA, obocdoouddododcucubosconongoodE 87 Warming, Johannes Eugenius Beulon,....29, 48 Sienna, OM soocagwoogsoahopadh bono amano 16 Tne, cacooocoocdbeucocubouocou0nG 41 Sycamore creek, -..----2..--+-.-- ees eee GP) \ibkiwar sippy “ooocsocooosnoccbocgtenne 62, 94 Sylow, Ni, ....- esses cece e eee ee eee aes 2) AWG. cococcasedescoacooendovabgsposaeue 93 Shimoosis Inne, GogdodooodouovascenoueD 17 Wise) JEehnihacdppooumasooosnooorcrGuoooe 19 iegrloe TRL, cosonoocaasenodvdoddpobooauCG 69 \WiGae Umass, condosedocgancee 15, 18, 23, 33, 48 Ico) GRAMS, GoocaccabagcdanoudGnouS 68 Wikstrém, John Emanuel, ................ 24 Ene? GOAKE. cobdccaoodusonbonubooGnO0" 92 Wille, Johan Nordal Fischer,.............. 39 Mertiany) ‘sediments; <2). we se le ele ele eels ea el 82 Vrioklor, iw coosaqconesooanuounnogcEn 6 Theorie elementaire de la Botanique........ 20 Wittrock, Veit Brecher, ..............- 26, 35 Thickness of Austin chalk,................ 68 Wormskjéla, Captain Morten, ...........-.-- 22 Thickness of the coal series,............... 75 Whom, odocacococovoncoopecacubocdson 42 Thickness of the Upson clay,............... 69 WhrOwidys WhihGsinn) ooobonoboncedooo0duS 41 PLATE I. Rio Gq rande 5000 Section : : : Section East of ertiary (Eocene) Clays, sands, lignite—1000 Ft. oak Chacon Creek L000 ee Escondido Beds—800 Tt. A == Coal Serices—372 Ft. Pulliam d £ ~S a g > fo) & ie) == — nD Gs) AY = ap icv} i San Miguel Rel: 10 FESS Formation—500 Ft, {Upper Cretaceous —— 7S Anacacho Upson Clay—500 Ft. Limestone—500 Ft. Upson Clay Austin Chalk (Limestone) -+-750 FL Austin Chalk Nagle Ford (Limestone)—250 Ft. Eagle Ford Buda _ Del Rio Clay 100—150 Ft. Del Rio Hs ESN i nee eee Tower Crefaceous | Devils River . wils River Limestone—500 Ft. | Edwards pes ne SECTION SHOWING THE GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN THE UPPER PART OF THE RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT, TEXAS. "1IVOD SSVd WIDVa GME TO SNOT i Pes | GXaADa'L SSUq 9 WK Wlod ‘NOT 997 foamy 4rq todd g 99T orang 4rq roMory SOU], Jo v[LIg ‘HOUV SVLISVINVT GH FO NOMLOAS OLLVNWVeEDVId Spog Op!PUoosT] aj} JO ouojspuny todd Q—- -y spog op!puoasy oy} Jo 9uojspurg oPPUY—e spog Opt puodssy ay} jo oulojspure TOMO] - Tl GLVW Id PLATE IY. POSITION OF THE MULA ARCH. THE LINE A—B SHOWS THE POSITION OF THE SECTION IN PLATE VI. LEGEND Igneous Austin Chalk RA VT WAAAY SAI RK AANA AEANAMEASAE 4 GERI WALLEY | — — et © LA Pinto Mountain Tountain Las Moras Mountain Ss Se ee AUST SST UN Elm Mountain aE QQ WANA, ~ asa SS = — Sr Sie Turkey Mountain a CS A ee OR ie Palmer Hill aa RELATION OF THE IGNEOUS ROCKS TO THE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. SECTIONS RUNNING FROM NORTH TO SOUTH. PLATE VI. PLATE VII. LEGEND Devils River Limestone aaa Parven cave accumulations Talus of calcined boulders, ete. g Ancient dwelling eee 4 Spring [aN = SECTION OF THE SALTPETER “CAVE,” 54 MI. NORTH OF THE MOUTH OF INDIAN CREEK, ON DEVIL’S RIVER. Reoomet ;